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55TH CONGRESS, } HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. { DOCUMENT
3d Session. § U No. 181.

i ee © BE

UPON THE

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS

OF THE

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

1877-1898.

By B. E. FERNOW,

A
FORMERLY CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE.

[PREPARED IN ACCORDANCE WITH A PROVISION IN THE ACT MAKING
APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1899.)

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1899.

D’01

MESSAGE.

To the Senate and House of Representatives:

In accordance with a provision in the act making appropriations for the Department ot
Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30,1899, I transmit herewith a report of the Secretary
of Agriculture “upon the forestry investigations and work of the Department of Agriculture.”

WILLIAM McKINLEY.
EXECUTIVE MANSION, January 27, 1899.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY,
Washington, D. C., January 24, 1899.

Mr. PRESIDENT: In the act making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1899, under the heading “ Forestry investigations,” the following
provision occurs:

Provided, That the Secretary of Agriculture shall make a special and detailed report at the beginning of the
next session of Congress upon the forestry investigations and work of the Department of Agriculture, showing
the results obtained and the practical utility of the investigations.

In accordance with the above provision, which is mandatory in its character, I herewith
submit for transmission to the Congress of the United States “a special and detailed report”
“upon the forestry investigations and work of the Department of Agriculture, showing the results
obtained and the practical utility of the investigations.”

The extremely wide scope to be covered by the report, as indicated by the language of the
provision, has necessitated a voluminous report, and this fact, together with the change in
the Chief of the Forestry Division, which took place July 1, 1898, will explain why the report
was not presented at the beginning of the present session of Congress.

The report was necessarily prepared by the former chief, Dr. B. E. Fernow, now of the
New York State College of Forestry, and I desire, in submitting it as covering the past work
of the Division of Forestry of this Department, to call special attention to the fact that since
the appointment of Mr. Gifford Pinchot, the present Chief, the work of the Division has been
directed in distinctly different channels, which may be briefly indicated by the following summary
taken from Mr. Pinchot’s annual report for 1898:

(1) To introduce in practice better methods of handling forest lands of private owners, including both wood
lots and large areas chiefly held for lumber, and afterwards to spread a knowledge of what has been accomplished ;
(2) to assist the Western farmer to plant better trees in better ways; (3) to reduce the loss from forest fires, the
reported amount of which reaches a yearly average of not less than $20,000,000; (4) and, if future appropriations
will permit the necessary investigations, to inform our citizens regarding the extent and value of new opportunities
for forest enterprises in Alaska, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. These'objects can be pursued only so far as appropriations
will permit. The present resources of the division are utterly inadequate to meet the pressing and steadily growing
demands already made upon it.

These plans meet with my full approval.

I have the honor to be, Mr. President, very respectfully,
JAMES WILSON,

Secretary of Agriculture.
3

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS AND WORK OF THE DEPARTMENT
OF AGRICULTURE.

REPORT BY DR. B. E. FERNOW.

New YorRK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY,
CORNELL UNIVERSITY,
Tthaca, N. Y., December 1, 1898.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.

Sir: It is with great satisfaction that the writer embraces the opportunity kindly afforded by
you to prepare, in answer to the inquiry of Congress, a report on the work of the Division of
Forestry in the United States Department of Agriculture in the past, which is to show the results
and the practical utility of the investigations of the same.

Having directed the work of the Division of Forestry for more than twelve years consecu-
tively, the writer may claim to possess intimate knowledge not only of its work, but of the aims and
objects, the policy and the reasons for it, which have actuated its administration during the larger
part of its existence.

If the appreciation of the public, expressed by letter and by print, can be considered as an
indication of the value and utility of its work and satisfaction in the existence of the Division, it
would only be necessary to inspect the files of the Division or the public prints, especially the
extracts from the journals which represent the interests of forest exploitation and of the lumber
trade, and are, therefore, most prominently interested in the subject for which the Division stands.
While twelve years ago these publications had only ridicule and opprobrium for those who advo-
cated the application of forestry methods in the use of our forest resources, giving them the title
of ‘‘denudatics,” under which the Division of Forestry was included, to-day there is no utterance
of the Division which does not receive respectful hearing and full appreciation and praise in their
columns, the shorter and even:some of the longer publications of the Division being frequently
reprinted in full.

It will, however, be more useful, as the provision of Congress calling for this report requires,
to explain the work of the Division more fully. I propose, therefore, in the followimg pages to
treat the subject in three parts: (1) Giving a brief historical sketch of the administrative features
of the Division, together with the reasons for its establishment; (2) discussing the character of
the work done, with the reasons for undertaking the precise kind of work which was done; (3)
giving a résumé of the status of the forestry movement in the United States and the relation
which the Division has had to it; placing in appendixes the more detailed facts and information of
importance which the Division has collected or secured.

From this account, then, it is hoped that the value of the work of the Division, the propriety
of its existence, and not only of its continuance but also of the extension of its work and functions —
in the future may appear. Certain it is that so far the Division has not been properly considered
and endowed, and its usefulness has been impaired by insufficient appropriations and consequently
limited functions.

The time has come when it should not only more vigorously pursue technical investigations,
but when it should have charge of the public timber lands, and especially the public forest reser-
vations, which will never answer their purpose until controlled by systematic management, such
as all other civilized nations apply to their forest property.

a

6 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

HISTORICAL.

The establishment of the Division of Forestry can be traced to the action of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, which at its annual meeting at Portland in August,
1873, appointed a committee ““to memorialize Congress and the several State legislatures upon
the importance of promoting the cultivation of timber and the preservation of forests and to
recommend proper legislation for securing these objects.”

A subcommittee of this committee, consisting of Mr. George B. Emerson, a well-known
educator and naturalist, and Dr. F. B. Hough, prepared the memorial! and furthered its consider-
ation by the Forty-third Congress, the memorial having been transmitted to the Congress with a
special message by President Grant and referred to the Committee on Public Lands in both House
and Senate. Although as a result a bill was favorably reported ” by the Committee of the House
providing for the appointment of a Commissioner of Forestry, similar to the Commissioner of
Fisheries, no action was taken by the Forty-third Congress, nor did the Forty-fourth Congress act
on a Similar bill introduced by Hon. Mark H. Dunnell, M.C. Instead an amendment was adopted
to the act making appropriations for the legislative, executive, and judicial expenses of the
Government for the year ending June 30, 1877, which was approved August 15, 1876, and required
that the Commissioner of Agriculture “appoint a man of approved attainments and practically
well acquainted with the methods of statistical inquiry, * * * with the view of ascertaining
the annual amount of consumption, importation, and exportation of timber and other forest
products; the probable supply for future wants, the means best adapted to the preservation
and renewal of forests, the influence of forests on climate, and the measures that have been
successfully applied in foreign countries or that may be deemed applicable in this country for the
preservation and restoration or planting of forests, and to report upon the same to the Commis-
sioner of Agriculture, to be by him in a separate report transmitted to Congress.”

Curiously and significantly enough this clause and the appropriation of $2,000 for the purpose
appears as a part of the provisions for the distribution of seeds.

In obedience to this law the then Commissioner of Agriculture, the Hon. Frederick Watts,
appointed, on August 30, 1876, Dr. Franklin B. Hough, of Lowville, Lewis County, N. Y., as an
agent to prepare such report, Dr. Hough not only having been most instrumental in bringing about
the legislation leading to his appointment, but also being well known as a writer of local histories
and gatherer of statistical material.

This appointment was continued from year to year without further special appropriation by
Congress; since 1881, however, under a special appropriation as chief of an established administra-
tive division in the Department of Agriculture.’ Dr. Hough produced three voluminous reports,
transmitted to and published by Congress in separate volumes in 1877, 1880, and 1882, and compris-
ing in all 1,586 pages of information on a wide range of subjects.

The appropriations being extremely limited, special original research was excluded, and Dr.
Hough being acquainted with the subject as an interested layman only and not as a professional
forester, these reports, while valuable compilations of existing facts from various sources, natu-
rally did not contain any original matter, except such suggestions as Dr. Hough could make with
regard to the duties of the Government with reference to the forestry interests of the country
and especially of the public domain.

In 1883 Dr. Hough was displaced as chief of the administrative division, although retained as
an agent under the new chief, Mr. N. H. Eggleston, from Stockbridge, Mass. During Mr. Eggle-
ston’s incumbency one report was issued in 1884—the first published directly from the Department
of Agriculture—comprising 462 pages. It concerned itself largely with tree-planting interests in
the prairies and plains; it reported also on the decrease of woodlands in the State of Ohio and the
forest conditions in some other States; it adduced statistics on the kinds and quantity of railroad
ties used in the country and discussed the production of maple sugar. In a briefer report (24 pp.)
embodied in the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1885 various other questions were
also touched upon.

‘See Appendix (copy from Sen. Ex. Doc. 23, first session Forty-third Congress).
2 Report No. 259, H. R., first session Forty third Congress.
3 See ‘Readings of appropriations” further on.

HISTORICAL. 7

On March 15, 1886, the writer assumed the position of chief of the Division of Forestry, which
on July 1, by the act of Congress making provision for the expenditures of the Department for the
year ending June 30, 1887, approved August 15, 1886, became a permanent statutory part of the
organization of the Department.

The writer may be justified in stating here that he is a forester by profession, having received
his technical education at a professional school and having been employed in the Prussian State
Forestry Department. He was able, therefore, to direct the work of the Division with a profes-
sional knowledge of the requirements of the subject and from the standpoint of the forester.

His appointment having been preceded by a residence of nearly ten years ip this country,
he had also enjoyed ample opportunity during varied occupation in city and country, and espe-
cially as secretary of the American Forestry Association since 1883, to become acquainted with
American conditions, institutions, and requirements, and to fully appreciate climatic, floral, social,
and economic differences.

With gradually increased appropriations during the following years, not only was the propa-
ganda for more rational treatment of our forest resources continued, but in addition, technical and
original investigations were instituted.

With the growing interest in the subject, the correspondence with those seeking technical
advice grew. As a result, besides the printed publications of the Division there are recorded
in letter-press books nearly 20,000 pages of matter, largely containing specific advice given to
correspondents during the twelve years of the writer’s administration.

While during the years from 1876 to 1886 the aggregate of appropriations for the investiga-
tions in forestry amounted to somewhat less than $60,000, the aggregate of expenditures during
the twelve years following has been, in round numbers, $230,000, excluding an appropriation of
$17,000 for the artificial production of rain, which being not germane to the work of the Division
and not expended under its direction, is not properly chargeable to it.

The printed intormation issued during this time, besides some unpublished manuscripts, com-
prises about 6,000 pages. It is published in four different forms, namely: annual reports contained
in the reports of the Secretary of Agriculture and in the Yearbook of the Department of Agricul-
ture: bulletins, in which more exhaustive and more or less complete investigations of any one
subject are recorded; circulars of information, in which information that could be treated| more
briefly or preliminary announcements of results in some one line of investigation are communi-
cated; reports to Congress, in response to calls for special information. A list of the publications
of the Division is appended.

It can be claimed that at least one-half of the amount of the printed matter is original, i. e.,
recording results of investigations, being of an independent character and containing new truths,
while for the other half originality of form or presentation of statement can at least be claimed,
being compilations of facts which can not be found elsewhere in the same shape.

This means that if the money value of the manuscript pages of advice be added to that of the
printed pages at a fair ratio, the information has been secured during the last period at an average
price of less than $24 per page, which is hardly a fair charge for expert writing; while during the
preceding period of nonprofessional writing the cost was about $30 per page. And if only the
truly original information covering new additions to our knowledge is included, it has cost less
than $75 per page. As to its money value to the people, which is hardly capable of expression in
dollars and cents, some calculations will be found in later pages of this report when discussing the
character of the work. From these it will appear that enough new information has been secured
through the Division of a kind which can be translated into money through savings in useful forest
materials amounting to millions of dollars and paying fifty fold for the expenditures.

The indirect value, however, in awakening an interest and proper conception of the subject,
which can not be expressed in money, is infinitely greater and more important.

8 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Appropriations, Division of Forestry, 1877 to 1897.

Salaries, Investigation| Total appro-| Unexpended

Year. statutory. funds. priation. balances.

TA loin aeseonsan neo apa nonnougoooscoD oN Srgdoc De NSsOURCOsOcRSoccaoesISOOs oACodenasnascSeod|lesoasosaSece|scemamnsocsons a$2, 000. 00

10, 000. 00 163.17

oud Seley 60, 000. 00 | 2, 683. 60
$8, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 46.50
8,000 00 10, 000. 00 3.90

8, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 -97

8, 000. 00 10, 000. 00 04

610, 000. 00 617, 820. 00 214. 01
e135, 056. 85 C22) SURES |msacocsesesose
12, 000. 00 19. 820. 00 66. 61

c 20, 000. 00 € 27, 820. 00 4,04
20, U00. 00 28,320. 00 91.77

25, 000. 00 33, 520. 00 6, 601. 88

20, 000. 00 28, 520. 00 487.12

20, 000. 0 28, 520. 00 275. 67
Total second period (12 years)-..--.----------.-------------- SeOSSOSOaSOREOOIOODO 73, 160. 00 174, 056. 85 PA PAGER |losocmocaessss5

a Not especially appropriated, but disbursed from other funds for forestry investigations.
b Increase for experiments in the production of rainfall.
ce Increase for investigations in timber physics, although not specially so expressed in appropriation clause until following years.
These appropriations represent not much over 1 per cent of the appropriations for the entire
Department of Agriculture during the same years, a ridiculously small and disproportionate
amount when the relative magnitude of the agricultural and the forestry interests are considered.

REASONS FOR CREATING A DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

The reason for establishing a Government agency where one of the largest interests in the
country, the forestry interest, should find consideration and at least partial representation seems
obvious if we acknowledge merely the educational function of government. This we have
practically acknowledged as legitimate in the maintenance of the Department of Agriculture
itself and of schools of various descriptions, experimental stations, etc. There would seem to be
no need for other reasons than the fact that the absence of the art of forestry, which is practiced
by other civilized nations, calls for the exercise of this educational function. But this interest
has more need for governmental consideration than many others for reasons which may need
fuller discussion.

They are (1) the magnitude of the manufacturing interests which rely upon the exploitation
and on the continuance of the forest resources; (2) the widespread influence which forest areas,
their presence or absence, and their condition have upon water flow, upon soil and climate, hence
influencing navigation, damage by floods, and changes in agricultural conditions, thereby impart-
ing to the forest cover a particular communal interest; (3) the peculiar technical and economic
aspects of the art of forestry which, dealing with long time periods, does not readily recommend
itself to private enterprise and needs the fostering care of the government to guard the communal
interest in the forest cover.

The magnitude of the mere industrial and commercial interests which are subserved by forest
growth is best expressed by a comparison with other industries, as is done in the subjoined table,
from which it appears that the aggregate value of products of the industries relying for their
existence on wood as raw material amounts to at least two billion dollars, second only in value to
that of agricultural products. In capital and labor employed and in wages paid and value of
product the forest industries and wood-manufacturing establishments outrank by far any other
group of industries which may rationally be considered together. Even if the entire group of
industries relying upon mineral products is considered together, it falls in value of product at
least 25 per cent below that of the wood products of the country.

REASONS FOR CREATING A DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 9

Leading industries compared.

{Data from Census 1890, in round numbers.]

4 Sea
Capua Employees. Wages. ’ Tay ma; Products.
| |
Millions. | Thousands. Millions. Millions. Millions.
Agriculture ...-..... DO BOROODDOMDOROnaOnO Son cooSS0eneo005 15, 982 8, 286 |---- 2.460
Forest products, total..---------... 1,044
Forest industries, enumerated . 446
Forest products, not enumerated (estimated) 598
Manufactures using wood (see table below) - 907
Forest products and wood manufactures, total -- 1,951
Mineral products, total..........-.... gs
Cae ~-25--css0osentcese Seance sssssscosnetosesc¢ 16u
Gold and silver. oediesdoosss2se2s9se0990059 99
IGYON OGLE! osesscocedseo cto scbessossenoos eae 479
Manufactures of iron and steel. -.--.-.-.---.------ 131
Teather -------------------. Boascdooaoeessasssocesceses 178
Deather manufactures---..-----.-2.-22-- 2-22... -.-- 289
Woolen manufactures..--.--.--.---.-----------.---- 338
(Cottonkmanntac nines pense: aeeer oe eee ae sete eee eraser nei 268
|

In the following table the industries using wood in part have been classified according to an
estimated per cent of wood values entering into the finished product. and a proportionate allowance
has been made in capital, number, wages of employees, and raw material. Since probably more
labor is employed in shaping wood than metals, the figures relating to that portion are probably
under the truth.

Forest industries and manufactures using wood.

Articles. Capital. EKnnployees. Wages. | J, as ; of eae
| |
Forest industries enumerated : Thousands. | Hundreds. | Thousands. | Thousands. | Thousands.
Ibe ere Hin MONI FORO CHTCAIS ccoscesceesscecaee cnsaceTeDeceoscsoacass $496, 340 2, 862 | $87, 784 | $231, 556 $403, 668
Timber products not manufactured at mill. ..- 61, 541 461 11, 354 11, 007 34, 290
WENO RDS oc so scosmeconsnote oocec co ccosonemcoonadaosescsecas00a7 4, 063 153 2, 933 3, 506 8, 077
WN cmccgonaenc cceeoc nol sodSesecestbos enescobeHoconoscetoosse 561, 943 3, 477 102, 071 245, 169 446, 034
Manufactures practically all wood:
Citariboxesieee eee eee neeees aaa nencnce 3, 3874 55 | 2,134 3, 567 7, 092
Packing boxes .--..----. -- 13, 018 140 | 6,477 14, 245 25, 513
Carriage and wagon stock . 13, 028 109 | 5, 208 1, 188 16, 262
Carpentering- 81, 543 1,409 | 94, 524 137, 847 | 281, 195
Cooperage--------.-.-...--... 17, 817 247 | 11, 665 2, 637 38, 618
Furniture factory products 66, 394 639 34,471 38, 796 94, 871
Kindling wood ..-....--.-.- 1, 300 18 772 1, 187 2, 402
IWEISIG) Seasescoceesiace=eanene 907 | 8 | 572 331 1,239
Planing-mill products--.---- 120, 271 869 48, 970 104, 927 183, 682
WWE 5A ocegsossoeeeanoce 1, 941 | 18 | 344 935 2,194
Wood, turned and carved... 7, 826 | 84 4, 267 3, 947 10, 940
Wooden ware 2, 712 81 1, 237 1, 499 | 3, 598
Wood pulp..--- | 7, 455 28 1, 229 2, 005 4, 628
Wood carpet.........- SSS Reet coe de see Seine ae ve SeeS eee ee gees 333 | 3 | 155 | 214 | 512
= | geo ee
NE conc condos os caccoS DSO eSTeOL OT TONDORNE TSC CO NBDE SOS OISRSISS 337, 908 3, GOU 212, 027 331, 523 | 672, 750
Manufactures in which wood represents about 50 per cent of the raw | |
materials: a | |
169, 983 | 1,356 | 714,460 | 114, 383 229, 408
89, 991 | 678 35, 730 57, 192 | 114, 704
Manufactures in which wood represents about 334 per cent: b | | | |
ERG Caterers ate meee ee oe siete erecta claw lic cos omen | 321, 059 2,143 | 123, 588 148, 578 318, 218
MV@UGL ORECTNINED Sodenesa scone cecnee noc OEE eoOoE OHO DU ELOKCH eS OSOaanS | 107, 619 | 714 41, 196 49, 526 106, 072
Manufactures in which wood represents about i0 per cent: ¢ | | |
Total | 76, 841 | 915 | 46, 854 49, 291 131, 820
Wood percentage ........--. 2-2-2 .-.ee een ones poectscosspeon essocce> 7, 684 | 92 4, 685 4,929 | 13, 182
Manufactures of wood: | | | |
TYG oe ca cog Tonsdtecoonearos as sone poets oceebbosccoemectede sand) 543, 402 5, 1384 293, 638 | 443,170 906, 708
i}

a Includes carriages and wagon factory product, children’s carriages and sleds, steam and street cars, coffins and burial caskets, chairs,
wheelbarrows, sewing-machine cases, artificial limbs, and refrigerators, and shipbuilding.

b Includes agricultural implements, billiard tables, railroad and street car repairs, furniture repairs, washing machines and wringers,
organs and pianos.

¢ lucludes blacksmithing and wheelwrighting, bridges, brooms and brushes, gunpowder, artist’s materials, windmills, toys and games,
sporting goods, lead pencils, pipes and pumps.

While these values are produced by the mere exploitation of the natural resource and their
conversion into useful articles, it has been believed, predicted, and feared that, under the treatment
which this resource receives at present, the natural supplies would sooner or later give out, and
without attention to regrowth this large line of industries would find it difficult to secure the
raw material and would thus be crippled, and hence the work of the Division was called for, in the

first place, to investigate the truth of this assertion.

10 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

While by the methods and on the basis of the census it is possible to arrive at an approximate
statement of the consumption, it is much more difficult to arrive at a statement of the quantity
growing in the virgin forest, especially since with the reduction of supplies the method of use
changes, and what was not marketable before becomes available.

The really valuable portion of the natural forest growth forms only a fraction of the whole
wood growth, and the amounts of such valuable material per acre vary within exceedingly wide
limits, from nothing at all to the 200,000 feet B. M. or more per acre occasionally to be found in the
Pacific coast forests.

The acreage, therefore, under forest cover gives no idea of the available supplies; the condition
of this cover is the important factor.

There was never at any time sufficient money appropriated to the Division to venture even on
a partial investigation of this condition, except in one case, when circumstances made it possible
to ascertain with tolerable precision the forest conditions of Wisconsin. Nothing less than a
thoroughly organized canvass, which might cost $250,000 to $300,000, would promise any reliable,
practically exhaustive information.

In the absence of such a canvass a very rough and probably very liberal estimate of the amount
of the timber standing in the various regions of the country ready for the ax would give the
following figures:

FEET B. M.
SoutherniS tateshee cisco cays ae eee ere eee te eee ee ee ae ae eee eee 700, 000, 000, 000
NorthernsS tates:eo = 7 ese see sets dee lerstars Genes rets uid Seeeor ini ceu ae mena cele eee 500, 000, 000, 000
Pacific coastias Sa houceeee an ae oe ene een ac ome ase seer nee eaatthascaes Seen 1, 000, 000, 000, 000
Rocky Mountains oe sot pated so tesa eee per cae eee Se Ee Len Say at Care ae ee 100, 000, 000, 000
MO balls sehe)s Swiesues ese se elec aines ce ames Seyi Wom ae a elm atee Sie 2, 300, 000, 000, 000 -

In comparison with the supply on hand we must place the total annual cut of material requir-
ing bolt or log size, which is estimated at about 40,000,000,000 teet B. M., more or less. That is to
Say, there is at best not sixty years’ supply in sight, a shorter time than it takes to grow a tree
suitable for milling purposes.

In this cut the various regions participate in about the following proportions:

FEET B. M.
New, Wuclandvand) North Atlanticistatess=-eess- sleeee esse e ne eee eee eeeon ones 6, 080, 000, 000
CentraltStateses saseoe ic seciee eras Sees = wie eit Sree Soe ee eee Sete mete roneete 5, 000, 000, 000
Wake COTO) 2 tse ese ee tions eeletepeela aie ene clare a= amie aie Om crete yo epaele aan a wel berarali ea 13, 000, 000, 000
Southern States 24- Skee e bse cen Sane os SEA Ne eh re lage ne Me a ae ee Se 10, 000, 000, 000
PaAGLiie 3S Lait OST asset at Hah ops is ele Sie wi see RS ORS etna ape Ee OE Fete ee ra 4, 000, 000, 000
Miscellaneous! 2 222c: ssn etteeec <een eesinas Sale aeicl Sas ee elel SoU Se Pe ee eben eee 2, 000, 000, 000
Segregating the cut by kinds, we may make the following divisions:
FEET B. M.

White spin e 2a ce sowie se He ale el SAN wre teers htt ieee re Rip caves lene oeclurarere erate mapas 12, 000, 000, 000
SIONS ETN been Skene sabe mEse Sao came Hoe Roo Nees ad =Adsas nocus pees bRecsens aaseuses 5, 000, 000, 000
Hemlock a: wyse se shoes ee eae yes Sas span cumeee See eet ease Rete ee eer eereeee reas 4, 000, 000, 000
Whowgleaf pine: sis sh ee a ee ee acre ce aye aetan alarm ee ie sane eee esters 4, 000, 000, 000
Shortleaftandsloblollyspinests -essseeeee eres eno eee nee eee ee eee eee ea 3, 000, 000, 000
CyPressynsecsta<see ies sos eae eis nc ee eras eae oe See Se en aoe EE een cee eee 500, 000, 000
Red woodiise ct es mein Sas Sea bey asec se See Rie ee SS IRE SES eee et ee eee 500, 000, 000
Alls othersconifersis 20.2 se ae = se ate ee pe posi aol ee One ae eee ee eee 1, 000, 000, 000

Notalicomiilfers: cess wos sade ceeees een See nn Ae oe ee eee eee oee 30, 000, 000, 000
Oaks |= s2saeeeemescreceseree cess aude wate cee ee bale ae eee ca eee acres 3, 000, 000, 000
Allvother hard wootlse2. cee. sss ee eke deen oe Se ete Ree cays Sa ai eee ee eet eee 7, 000, 000, 000

Wotal oe Sk eg Sh ene Soh eee Se hins aaek Sabon eon ee ae ee ees eee 40, 000, 000, 000

From this statement it appears that three-fourths of our consumption is of coniferous
material. It is, therefore, of interest to know more precisely how the supply of this most
important portion of our requirements stands.

In reply to a resolution of the Senate dated April 14, 1897, the writer canvassed the
probabilities in this direction, at least for the Eastern States. The results are still less assuring
than the above statement of total supply and consumption; for this canvass brings the available

REASONS FOR CREATING A DIVISION OF FORESTRY. 11

coniferous supply in the States east of the Rocky Mountains to 400,000,000,000 feet, B. M., with
which to satisfy a yearly demand of about 30,000,000,000 feet, B. M.!

While these figures, referring to log material, represent that portion of the forest growth
which is the most valuable and has taken the longest time to grow, there is, besides the
consumption for fuel, an immense amount wasted by fire, improper use, necessary and unnecessary
waste.

The consumption of fuel to the extent of yeObabie 180,000,060 cords, of fence material, etc.,
the waste in the woods and at the mills and loss by fire, inane the total sane wood consumption
ot the United States easily to 25,000,000,000 cubic feet, or since the area under wood has been
ascertained to be about 500,000,000 acres, the consumption is at the rate of 50 cubic feet per acre,
a figure nearly corresponding to the yield per acre realized as annual growth in the well kept
forests of Prussia, where the reproduction is secured by skillful management.

The consumption, now 350 cubic feet per capita, increases from decade to decade in greater
proportion than the population; and new industries, like the wood pulp industry, add constantly

to the demand.
Estimates of value of forest products used in 1860, 1870, and 1880.

[Including all raw, partially manufactured, wholly manufactured wood products, fuel, and naval stores; estimated upon the basis of census
figures, and ounae sources of information. |

Articles. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890.

$155, 060, 000 $340, 000, 000 $400, 000, 000 | $438, 000, 000
45, 000, 000 52, 000, 000 55, 000, 000 50, 000, 000
50, 000, 000 100, 000, 000 110, 000, 000 150, 000, 000

Mill products, rough, and partly finished . -
Cut on farms for home use. .-.--..---------
In manutactures using wood-...

Fa IROACND Ul din p TOM sateen ama TR EMER E Loa) Ae 6, 000, 000 14, 000, 000 30, 000, 000 40, 000, 000
sre eee ES ANUP iRRGA NIST: Maree Nua R NES oty ba, geen ce asad cous 135,000,000 | 210, 000,000 | — 328, vou, 000 | 350, 00, ovo
GREAT IAS aa rs CN Sale I Ee aS ME OR baa oe Re @391, 000,000 | 716,000,000 | 923, 000, 000 | 1, 028, 000, 600

a Probably 25 per cent underestimate.

This would show an increase of over 30 per cent in our consumption from decade to decade.

Other statistics bearing on this phase of the subject and a fuller discussion are to be found in
the Appendix.

From these statements, the compilation of which has become possible through the existence
of the Division of Forestry, even if they were overdrawn toa considerable extent, it would appear
that the first reason for the existence of a Government agency to look after the forestry interests
is well founded.

Some ignorant people—ignorant both as to the requirements of the wood industries and as to
the condition and character of our forest resources—have claimed that the natural growth of
young trees, without any attention, following the operations of the lumbermen, would suffice to
replace that which is removed and would continue to furnish the required material.

The observant student, not to speak of the professional forester, can readily see that culling
the valuable kinds and leaving the inferior tree weeds in possession of the soil prevents in many
ceases any reproduction of the valuable species.

In other cases where the production of valuable kinds does take place, as, for instance, with
the Southern pines, where the young growth is not killed by fires, the development is so unsatis-
factory that where with proper attention a new crop might be available for the saw in seventy
to one hundred years, twice the time will be required to make clear lumber of good quality. In
most cases recurring fires retard this natural regrowth still further or prevent it altogether.

There is at least one State, the State of Wisconsin, for which it became practicable for the
Division of Forestry to secure more accurate data as to the conditions of the forest resources and
as to the results of the rough exploitation to which it is subjected in the absence of forestry
methods.

This survey is published in Bulletin No. 16 of the Division. The conditions are typical of a
large part of our lumbering regions, and a [Deg résumé will accentuate the need of attention on
the part of the Government:

The State of Wisconsin, with a population of abont 2,000,000, a taxable property of about $600,000,000, has a
home consumption of over 600,000,000 feet B. M. of lumber, besides enormous quantities of other wood material,

1See Senate Doc. No. 40, first session Fifty-fifth Congress, and fuller discussion in Appendix.

12 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

which, if imported, would cost the State over $25,000,000. Of its northern half, a land surface of over 18,000,000
acres, only 7 per cent is cultivated, the rest forming one continuous body of forest and waste land. From this area
there have been cut during the last sixty years more than 85,000,000,000 feet B. M. of pine lumber alone, and the
annual cut during the past ten years exceeded on the average 3,000,000,000 feet per year.

The lumber industries exploiting this resource represented in 1890 one-sixth of the total taxable property in
the State, paid to over 55,000 men the sum of over $15,000,000 in wages, and the value of their products was equal
to more than one-third the entire output of agriculture in the State. Of the original stand of about 130,000,000,000
feet of pine about 17,000,000,000 feet are left, besides about 12,000,000,000 feet of hemlock and 16,000,000,000 feet of
hard woods. The annual growth, which at present amounts to about 900,000,000 feet and of which only 250,000,000
feet is marketable pine and over 500,000,000 feet hard woods, is largel7 balanced by natural decay of the old, over-
ripe timber. In almost every town of this region logging has been carried on and over 8,000,000 of the 17,000,000
acres are “cut-oyer” lands, largely burned oyer and waste. It would not be overstating it to say that 4,000,000
acres of these cut-over lands are for the present and must be for a long time in the future a desert, useiess for any
purpose. The wooded area proper is steadily being reduced by logging and to a smaller extent by clearing.

At present nothing is done cither to protect or restock the denuded cut-over lands, of which fully 80 per cent
are now unproductive waste iand, and probably will remain so for along time. This policy causes a continuous and
ever-growing loss to the Commonwealth, amounting at present to about 800,000,000 feet per year of useful and much-
needed material, besides gradualiy but surely driving from the State the industries which have been most conspicu-
ous in its development, depriving a cold country of a valuable factor in its climatic conditions, and affecting
detrimentally the character of the main drainage channels of the State.

The second reason for the estabiishment of the Division of Forestry is based on a considera-
tion of the broad interest which attaches to the forest cover on account of its influence on water-
flow, soil and climatic conditions, and is of even more moment than the question of material
supplies.

In spite of the facts, which have become clear to most other civilized nations, namely, that a
forest cover on the slopes of mountains prevents erosion and equalizes waterflow, reduces danger
from floods, and decreases extremes in high and low water stages, in spite of these well known
observations, the Government of the United States has persisted in allowing its vast public timber
domain on the western mountain ranges to be destroyed by fire and otherwise, and spends millions
of dollars annually in river and harbor bills to dig out the eroded farms, which have been swept
into the river for lack of the protection of the soil at head waters and along shores.

Untold misery and poverty is inflicted upon the settlers in the lower vaileys by this matten-
tion. Instead of curing the evil by rational forest management, recourse is had to river improve-
ments which can only be temporary, and are excessively expensive. Even the ceiebrated
inaugurator of the jetty system, Captain Mads, came finally to the conclusion that the cure of the
Mississippi floods was to be appiied to the head waters and upper river shores rather than at the
mouth of the river.

The Division has not failed to bring together all the available information, both of experience
and experiment, which goes to confirm the reiatiou of forest cover to waterflow, soil, and climate,
presenting it in various reports, a final and fuil discussion of the subject being contained in
Builetin No. 7, Division of Forestry.

Since this relation, the influence of forests on surrounding conditions, is rightly claimed to
impose upon the Government the duty to protect and preserve the forest cover on mountain
slopes, a résumé of the present status of this question of forest influences is appended to this
report.

The knowledge of the amelioration of climatic conditions which it is possible to secure by tree
growth has induced the Federal Government to encourage the growing of groves on the forestless
plains and prairies under the so-called timber culture act. If that act had been framed with more
knowledge of the requirements of tree growth, in other words, if the Division of Forestry, with
expert advice, had been in existence and had been called upon to frame the regulations, the law
would haye proved less of a failure than it has; less waste of energy and less disappointment
would have been the share of tne deluded settlers who were trying to satisfy the requirements of
the law. It is well known that the law was abolished owing to the unsatisfactory results.

Nevertheless, tree planting in the forestless regions for the sake of ameliorating climatic condi-
tions is and will be one of the occupations of the settlers of those regions. To assist these efforts
has also been one of the objects for which the Division was established.

The third reason fer the establishment of a Government agency to study and report on
forestry was that this art was until that time entirely unknown in this country; even the very

CHARACTER OF THE WORK OF THE DIVISION. 13

word was absent from our dictionaries. While the necessity for its application for the reasons
stated was believed to exist, its methods were absolutely unknown. Not only was it not practiced
anywhere in this country, but where such an art was known to exist, its requirements being
misunderstood, forest owners were unwilling to apply it, believing it unnecessary and unprofitable.

To enlighten these skeptics as to the methods of rational forest management and as to its
desirability was to be the office of the Division of Forestry. The Division, then, was to be a bureau
of information and investigation to report on all questions pertaining to the subject with a view
of enlightening the people and inducing them to apply the teachings of forestry.

It was by statute limited in its functions, which were to be educational, not administrative or
executive. Moreover, for most of the time, the appropriations were too scanty to permit of any
very comprehensive inquiries or experiments.

The character of its functions is perhaps best learned from the wording of the acts, changing
from time to time, in which Congress made appropriations for the Division.

READING OF APPROPRIATION CLAUSES FOR REPORTS ON FORESTRY AND DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

1877.—F or purchase and distribution of new and valuable seeds and plants, sixty thousand dollars: Provided,
That two thousand dollars of the above amount shall be expended by the Commissioner of Agriculture as com-
pensation to some man of approved attainments, who is practically well acquainted with methods of statistical
inquiry and who has evinced an intimate acquaintance with questions relating to the national wants in regard to
timber, to prosecute investigations and inquiries with the view of ascertaining the annual amount of consumption,
importation, and exportation of timber and other forest products, the probable supply for future wants, the means
best adapted to their preservation and renewal, the influence of forests upon climate, and the measures that have
been successfully applied in foreign countries or that may be deemed applicable in this country for the preservation
and restoration or planting of forests; and to report upon the same to the Commissioner of Agriculture, to be by
him in a separate report transmitted to Congress. For expense of putting up the same, for labor, bagging paper,
twine, gum, and other necessary materials, five thousand dollars; in all, sixty-five thousand dollars.—(From legisla-
tive, executive, and judicial appropriation bill for fiscal year ending June 30, 1877, approved August 15, 1876. Third
paragraph of section making appropriation for Department of Agriculture. First session, Forty-fourth Congress. )

1887.—For compensation of chief of Forestry Division, two thousand dollars; for the purpose of enabling the
Commissioner of Agriculture to experiment and to continue an investigation and report upon the subject of omssiny,
and the collection and distribution of valuable economic forest-tree seeds and plants, eight thousand dollars; in all,
ten thousand dollars.—(Act making appropriation for Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30,
1887, and for other purposes, approved June 30, 1886.)

1890. Division of Forestry.—F or the purpose of enabling the Secretary of Wericulture to experiment and continue
an investigation and report upon the subject of forestry, and for traveling and other necessary expenses in the
investigation and the collection and distribution of valuable economic forest-tree seeds and plants.

1891. Report on Forestry.—Division of Forestry: For the purpose of enabling the Secretary of Agriculture to
experiment and continue an investigation and report upon the subject of forestry and for experiments in the pro-
duction of rainfall, and for traveling and other necessary expenses in the investigation and the collection and dis-
tribution of valuable economic forest-tree seeds and plants.

1893. Division of Forestry.—For the purpose of enabling the Secretary of Agriculture to experiment and continue
an investigation and report upon the subject of forestry, and for traveling and other necessary expenses in the
investigation and the collection of valuable economic forest-tree seeds and plants.

1895. Division of Forestry.—For the purpose of enabling the Secretary of Agriculture to experiment and continue
an investigation and report upon the subject of forestry and timbers, and for traveling and other necessary expenses
in the investigation and the collection and distribution of valuable economic forest-tree seeds and plants. ,

1898. Division of Forestry.—For the purpose of enabling the Secretary of Agriculture to experiment and continue
an investigation and report upon the subject of forestry and timbers, and for traveling and other necessary expenses
in the investigation and collection and distribution of valuable economic forest-tree seeds and plants: Provided,
That the Secretary of Agriculture shall make a special and detailed report at the beginning of the next session of
Congress upon the forestry investigations and work of the Division of Forestry, showing the results and the
practical utility of the investigations.

CHARACTER OF THE WORK OF THE DIVISION.

Having come to the conclusion that a Division of Forestry without forests, i. e., without con-
trol of forest property, even for experimental purposes, can act simply as a bureau of information
and advice, the following considerations naturally occur: The object of establishing such a bureau
was undoubtedly to influence a reform movement in the treatment of our forest resources, and
hence the information furnished should be of such a nature as to induce the owner of timber lands
and the consumer of forest products to change their ways. Undoubtedly the Government also

14 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

desired information upon which to be able to direct its action with regard to its own timber lands
as well as to the forestry interests in general.

In proposing to furnish information toward these ends, three questions then occur:

(1) Who wants the information, and for what purpose?

(2) What is the nature of the information wanted ?

(8) How is the information to be obtained?

In the case of inquiry by correspondents answer to these questions is at once supplied. It is
only when the inauguration of original investigation is contemplated that these considerations
are submitted to the discretion and judgment of the investigator. Nevertheless the thousands of
letters asking for information, to which the 20,000 pages of letterpress mentioned before corre-
spond, naturally indicate the character of the information most wanted, and admit of a classifica-
tion both of inquirers and inquiries.

From the many letters of inquiry on file in the Division of Forestry it will at once appear
that there are three classes seeking information:

(1) The consumers of forest products who need information which will aid them in an econom-
ical and advantageous use of the same.

(2) The producers of forest products, who, if owners of natural wood lands, need information
in regard to the best methods of utilizing them most advantageously and securing reproduction,
or if forest planters, in regard to the best methods of starting and cultivating a timber crop.

(3) The general public, the economist, the legislator, the Government, all desire the informa-
tion which will allow them to appreciate the true position of forests and forestry in the economic
life of the nation, and which is to serve also as a basis for Government action with reference to
this subject and the problems connected with it.

This last class of inquirers was at first the largest, but soon, when if became known that
specific and trustworthy information could be obtained, the first class, namely, the consumers of
forest products, lumbermen, engineers, architects, builders, railway companies, became the more
frequent, while the third class, the forest producers, remained in the minority, the tree-planting
interests alone being prominent.

This was natural. The incentive to apply the art of forestry to wood lands by private indi-
viduals can only (or with rare exceptions) come from a desire to “make it pay.” Whether the
application of skill can be made to pay, or whether rough exploitation of the natural resource
pays better, depends upon economic conditions, over which neither the owner nor the Government,
nor its poor agency, the Division of Forestry, has any control. Only one condition could make the
application of forestry pay, namely, the entire or partial reduction of virgin supplies. As long as
the competition of virgin supplies, on the production of which no skill, no time, no money has been
expended, must be feared, it remained questionable whether the application of skill, of time, and
money could secure desirable financial results.

The writer, therefore, at the time when he commenced his labors, soon perceived that there
was not much hope for a change of methods in the cutting of our forest areas, which would, for
natural reasons, go on in the same manner until necessity forced a change.

On the other hand, it was much more likely that a more rational and economical use of the
material, which the logger would continue to cut wastefully, could be brought about among wood
consumers, hence instruction as to the properties and working qualities of our woods and their
most satisfactory application, a knowledge of which was extremely deficient and the cause of much
wastefulness, appeared to offer the most practical field of work, and the best means of securing
the husbanding of our forest supplies while preparing for the application of forestry.

ECONOMY IN THE USE OF FOREST PRODUCTS.

This position, namely, that economy in the use of wood materials could be more readily secured
than change in the methods of exploiting the natural supplies, gains additional support when we
realize that the per capita consumption of wood in the United States, about 350 cubic feet annu-
ally, is from ten to twenty times larger than that of Germany and Great Britain. The margin,
therefore, within which economy could be practiced is enormous.

The first and foremost effort of the division was therefore directed toward getting into com-
munication with the large wood consumers.

ECONOMY IN THE USE OF FOREST PRODUCTS. 15

One of the first circulars directed to railroad managers called attention to the fact that the
chestnut oak, the bark of which is peeled for tanning purposes, the logs being formerly left to rot
in the woods in many places, is as good for railroad ties as the white oak. There is evidence on
file that this information was promptly utilized by various companies who had hitherto rejected
this wood from misconception as to its value. ‘

The first bulletin, issued within less than a year from the writer’s assuming direction, pre-
sented a comprehensive discussion of the relation of railroads to forest supplies, showing the
enormous consumption, exposing some mistaken notions which have led to wasteful uses, and
describing in detail methods of lengthening the life of railroad ties. This bulletin undoubtedly
stimulated the use of preservative processes, which are now much more generally applied by rail-
road companies in the construction of their roadbeds and renewal of ties.

These first relations with railroad managers as intelligent and influential wood consumers
were continued by the publication of three later bulletins, in 1889, 1890, and 1894, in which,
besides further economies in the use of wood for railroad ties, the question of substituting metal
for such ties was fully discussed.

It may be asserted that there is no other publication in the world which discusses this impor-
tant question so exhaustively and with so much technical detail.

The canvass to ascertain the extent to which metal railroad ties were used revealed the sur-
prising fact that, instead of being a mere experiment, over 30,000 miles of metal railroad track was
actually in operation in various parts of the world.

The reports of the managers of these tracks showed beyond question that with the proper
pattern the metal tie was not only safer and more efficient and satisfactory in every respect, but
also much more economical than the wooden tie, being not only longer lived, but also requiring
less labor to keep the track in order. If this showing has not produced a corresponding response
in our country toward changing to metal, it is due to the fact that wood can still be had too
cheaply, and that our railroad properties are still managed in most cases as speculative properties
rather than as permanent investments, hence economy in first cost of construction is more con-
sidered than permanency.

Soon, however, with the increase in price of wood as we emerge from the pioneering stage
to one of a more settled policy, the information contained in these bulletins will become invalu-
able to railroad managers, as it will save them from unnecessary experimenting. Even now the
economies suggested in the use of wood ties are beginning to be practiced more extensively. This
Subject is deemed to be of such importance that a brief résumé of its present status, prepared by
the original investigator, Mr. EH. H. Russell Tratman, C. E., is subjoined to this report.

To an even larger extent than in railroad construction wood is used in civil engineering and
architecture. Wood to the value of $280,000,000, in round numbers, representing more than one-
half of all the log size material used, enters into various structures.

In the use of wood for these purposes there was found to exist even greater ignorance, and
consequently greater waste, than in the use for wood manufactures. Hence, as soon as
appropriations could be secured from Congress, a thoroughly comprehensive investigation of our
American timbers, their characteristics and properties, their strength and usefulness for various
purposes, was instituted.

It was found that even our knowledge of the properties of wood in general was so deficient
that an investigation into the general laws of its behavior, physically and mechanically, became
necessary.

This comprehensive investigation into what has come to be known by the name of timber
physics has proved to be the most important original work which the Division has undertaken.

So well does this investigation seem to have been planned, and so important does it appear to
be, not only to the wood consumer, but to the forester, that a German reviewer, the well-known
author in forestry literature, Dr. Schwappach, himself a recognized authority in forestry matters,
and specially engaged in similar investigations, used the following language regarding it, as quoted
in the report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1893, page 32:

This plan of work is as remarkable for its scope as for its consistent pursuit of an eminently practical result.

Although Germany has accomplished a great deal in some directions in this field of investigation, especially as regards
the laws of growth and wood structure, we are yet far from haying such a comprehensive and indispensable knowl-

16 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

edge even of our most important timbers as is needful. We must admit, with a certain sense of humiliation, that
the Americans show us what we really ought to know and that they have already by far surpassed us in the elaborate
organization for these investigations.

And the Secretary himself adds: “If in less than a decade Americans have in a forestry
specialty surpassed Germany, why can not we a generation hence rejoice in the most efficient
forestry system of the world ?”

If any words of interest and appreciation of this work from home sources are wanted, they can
be found in the technical journals of the lumber trade, of engineering, of architecture, of carriage
building, and of all branches of wood working, as well as in the Jarge number of letters on file in
the Division, the gist of a few of which are printed in Bulletin 6, and, furthermore, in a series of
resolutions passed by various societies of engineers and architects and other bodies, addressed to
the Secretary of Agriculture and to Congress, asking for a continuance of and better support for
this work. Nevertheless, in 1896, in spite of the protestations of the writer, this line of work was
ordered discontinued as ‘“‘not germane to the subject of the Division.”

It should not be overlooked that the increase in the appropriations for the Division, which
dates from the year 1892, was made specifically for this investigation, and was continued impliedly
for the same purpose. ;

While the full value of such extended investigation is only apparent after being long contin-
ued, and when the bearing of all data and facts collected can be fully recognized, the following
tangible results, immediately applicable in actual practice, can be pointed out as testifying to the
value of the work for which it was instituted, namely, the more economical use of our forest
Lesources.

The publication of the results of the first investigation brought about the removal of the long-
standing prejudice against the value of timber of Longleaf pine, which had been bled or tapped
for turpentine. Hitherto specifications by architects and engineers were usually made so as to
exclude bled timber, and although in general such specifications were ignored by those who fur-
nished the material, some of the largest consumers, such as the railway companies of the South,
effectively discriminated against such material, and much litigation and disappointment was the
result.

By bringing out the truth in the matter not only was the industry of turpentine production
exonerated from the charge of bad economy, but a value, which has been variously figured at
from $2,000,000 to $4,000,000 annually, was added to the Southern pineries by the assurance that
the bled material could be safely used.

The Division of Forestry was the first to establish reliable values as to the strength of our
most important lumber trees for the use of engineers, who hitherto had to rely upon very doubtful
values derived from unsatisfactory tests made on European species, or else on a few ‘insufficient
tests of our own species.

So great was the confidence in the methods pursued by the Division that nis results were
immediately embodied into the standard manuals of engineering, as, for instance, in Trautwine’s
Engineering Pocketbook, the companion and reference book of every American engineer.

The fact that Longleaf pine is from 20 to 25 per cent stronger than heretofore believed,
renders it possible, to effect a saving of fully $6,000,000 worth of this wood per annum if applied
to all of this material used. A similar factor of economy might have been established for other
woods which have been investigated. The fact established by the Division, that seasoned
material is stronger by 50 to 75 per cent than fresh timber, added a very considerable opportunity
for saving in the design and specifications of structures under cover.

“The capital invested in timber structures is greatly in excess, probably more than two or
three times as much as that invested in structures of iron and steel. Every piece in these latter
structures is thoroughly inspected, both chemically and physically, and is carefully designed to
carry the imposed load. Timber structures, on the other hand, have been designed according to
the general principle that the Lord takes care of His own, as the great number of fatalities result-
ing from failure of these structures will attest.” By furnishing reliable test data, based on a large
series of tests, not only economy in the use of our forest resources, but a saving of life and prop-
erty, could be effected. By furnishing the necessary data, now largely absent, upon which to base
the inspection and specifications for wood material, the factor of safety could be placed on a proper
basis. These objects have been in view in this series of investigations.

SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ECONOMY. 17

Finally the important discovery of the relation between the strength in compression and in
cross breaking, the crowning result of this short-lived investigation, is of vast importance, and
will not only put the designing of beams upon a surer footing, but save much useless wood testing
in the future. Whether this work be considered germane to a division of forestry or not, its
results will be held by future engineers and wood consumers, as well as foresters, as sufficient
testimony of the usefulness of the division.

Since these investigations are now probably brought to an end as far as Government agency
is concerned, it has been thought desirable to give a fuller résumé of their results in the appendix,
which has been prepared by Prof. Filibert Roth, who was finally in special charge of the
investigations.

I may only add that Bulletin No. 10, Timber, a Discussion of the Characteristics and Proper-
ties of Wood, prepared by Mr. Roth, which has been translated into French, is the only publication
containing this kind of information, with special reference to our American woods.

Besides these more general consideratious of the requirements of wood consumption, other
more special classes also received attention, as the wood pulp, the naval store, the mining industry,
and the charcoal iron industry. Two reports, still in manuscript, designed to assist operators in
these last two lines, are to be published soon.

While then the information furnished to the wood consumer to induce a more economical use
of material was most decidedly of a very useful order, the needs of the forest producer were by
no means neglected.

SILVICULTURE AND FOREST ECONOMY.

Forestry, the art of wood production, may be divided into two parts, which can be treated
more or less independently, namely, silviculture, which comprises all the detailed instructions that
are necessary to create and grow the wood crop to perfection, and to reproduce it; and forest

- economy, which comprises the business methods that must be employed to manage the crop so as
to yield regular annual returns; the one branch being concerned with the production of the
material, the other with the production of a revenue.

Again in both cases we may distinguish between general principles and specific application.
The first, fortunately for us, are already for the most part developed through the experiences of
the Germans and other nations, and it is only necessary to present these general principles, when
a study of local conditions, the soil, the climate, the market conditions, the species we have to
deal with, ete., will enable the student of nature and the business man to form a judgment as to
their applicability in his particular case.

These general principles underlying silviculture and forest economy have been again and
again discussed in reports, bulletins, circulars, and public addresses by the writer. The first
brief presentation of the same is to be found in the annual report of the division for 1886. A
bulletin (No. 5) entitled, What is Forestry, published in an issue of 40,000 copies, was devoted to
an elucidation of the same subject.

In order to bring this discussion closer to the conditions of one class of forest owners, our
farmers, these silvicultural principles and methods were more fully discussed with reference to
their possible application in a Farmers’ Bulletin (No. 67) entitled Forestry for Farmers, while special
phases of silviculture, as, for instance, the Growing of Seedlings in Nurseries, Planting of Waste
Places on the Farm, Tree Planting in the Plains, Osier Culture, The Introduction of Certain
Foreign Trees, etc., were discussed in separate circulars and special articles or bulletins. <A dis-
cussion of the general aspects of silviculture will be found in the appendix.

The principles of forest economy were also elucidated in the various annual reports, and
especially in the report for 1893, in which a statement of the methods of administration and forest
regulation of the German forest departments is given in full. In addition, more complete state-
ments of the financial results of these German forest administrations prepared in the Division
were published in public prints, to show the elements of profitable forest management as exhibited
by these examples.

Since these statements are scattered through various publications and are not now readily
accessible, it has been deemed expedient to present the same as an appendix to this report, and
thereby aid in elucidating the means which the Division has employed to make the practical appli-

H. Doe. No. 181——2

» TUS) FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

cation of such forest management acceptable. A discussion of the principles of forest economy
in general is also appended.

To have established the conception that forestry, silviculture, and forest preservation is not
the planting of trees, but cutting them in such a manner that planting becomes unnecessary, is
one of the most potent results of the efforts of the Division of Forestry. Timber-land owners
have begun to realize that forestry begins when the first tree is cut. Planting is expensive and
should be practiced only where the chances for a natural reproduction by intelligent use of the
ax have been frustrated by man’s carelessness or where they did not exist, as in the forestless
regions of the West.

Forest preservation, it must by this time have become clear, does not consist -in leaving the
forest unused, but in securing its reproduction, just as the human race is preserved by the
removal of the old and the fostering of the young.

APPLICATION OF FORESTRY PRINCIPLES.

To apply forestry principles, be it in forest economy or be it in silviculture, we must study
local conditions in the field. ;

In this direction the Division has had, at first, poor opportunities. Not only did it not have
at its command any land or forest area for experimental or demonstration purposes, but the men
to carry on such field work were as yet not educated for the special work to be undertaken.

Again, while the basis for an application of forestry principles may be gained by studies in
the field, the final application can be secured only by trained men, just as any other technical
business requires technical knowledge and skill.

It might have been possible to make some practical demonstration of the methods of forest
regulation and of silviculture by inducing private timber-land owners to permit their properties to
be placed at the disposal of the Division for such demonstration, but the writer was at ouce met
with the objection that such a course would not be a proper policy for the Governmeut, as the
use of public money for the benefit of private individuals would not be justified, even though a
valuable object lesson might be gained thereby. Attempts were made to secure permission
to use public timber lands or military reservations for such demonstration purposes, but without
success. Practical experiments in the field were therefore excluded, with the exception of the
experimental planting which became possible later through the cooperation of the agricultural
State experiment stations.

The Division was on the whole reduced to such studies and investigations as could be
carried on without the control of any demonstration areas. The vast extent of our empire, with
such diversity of soils, climate, and economical conditions, made the task of selecting even these
problems of local application an appalling one, especially under the limitations imposed by small
appropriations and the absence of trained men. The large number of valuable species of trees of
which the United States can boast adds to the difficulties in securing the necessary information
for the application of their management in the regulated forest.

While the European forester can concentrate his attention upon a half dozen or so of the 20
or 30 species indigenous to his world, we are called upon to select from 500 species the 100 or
more which we recognize as valuable for the forest. Not even their names are sufficiently
established to allow a sure distinction by name among those who speak of them or handle their
lumber, or are called upon to supply seeds or plants.

It was therefore a proper piece of foundation work, performed by the competent dendrologist
of the Division, Mr. George B. Sudworth, to establish a nomenclature of our arborescent flora,
both of vernacular and botanical names, which might form the basis of uniform usage. This
excellent, painstaking, and laborious work, analyzing the propriety and identity of over 6,000
names applied to our 500. species, has been published as Bulletin 14 of the Division, followed by
a more condensed list for general use as Bulletin 18.

In addition, a select list of those species which we may for the present consider of immediate
economic value, with notes of their distribution, their uses, and their general silvicultural require-
ments, was also prepared and is reproduced in the appendix, giving an idea of the vast field open
for the student of forest biology.

/

FOREST MENSURATION. 19

FOREST BIOLOGY.

In order to apply silviculture, to manage a forest crop intelligently, we must first be acquainted
with the biology, the life history, and development of the different species which compose our forest
or which we desire to plant. We must know what conditions of soil, of moisture, of light they
require for their best development; how their growth progresses from the seed to maturity, espe-
cially their relative height growth and their light requirement or shade endurance.

The Division engaged, therefore, in 1886, a number of botanists to study and report on the
life history of our most important forest trees. But it was soon found that such kind of field
study from the forester’s point of view was foreign to these men, and although a number of inter-
esting notes were the result of this first venture into field work, their publication had to be
deferred until deficiencies in the information could be supplied. In this way the life history of the
white pine, of the four important Southern pines, of the two yellow pines of the Northeastern
States, of the spruce and the hemlock, of the juniper, of the bald cypress, and of the white cedar
were studied.

But so far only the monographs on the Southern pines and that on the white pine have been
perfected far enough to be adjudged satisfactory for publication. The magnificent work on the
Southern pines, by Dr. Charles Mohr, published as Bulletin 13, furnished a worthy beginning in
this line of investigation. It was the first attempt in the United States of a monographic study
trom a forestry point of view of the economic, technical, and silvicultural conditions and require-
ments of four species of forest trees.

The monograph on the white pine, being prepared for the press as Bulletin 22 while this report
is being written, will in no way be inferior in contents to its predecessor, and several of the other
monographs were in a fair way of completion when the writer withdrew from the direction of the
Division.

It is upon the basis of such knowledge as these life-histories bring that the forester is enabled
to apply silvicultural principles in the management of his crop.

In order to apply principles of.forest economy he needs more; he must know the capacity of
the species for production and the rate of growth in volume. Another line of work, therefore, is
necessary to establish this capacity of production by measurements.

FOREST MENSURATION.

The forest crop differs from all other crops, and forestry differs from all other industries of
production in two ways. There is, first, no definite period when the crop can be said to be mature,
as in the case of agricultural products; it consists of annual accumulations, which are allowed
to continue until the individual trees attain either a useful or a profitable size; and, secondly, to
attain such size a long time, and with different species and conditions, a variable time is needed.
Thus, for firewood production a growth of fifteen to twenty-five years might suffice, while for good
lumber production not less than seventy-five to one hundred years and more are needed. This
indefiniteness of the time of maturity and the unusually long period of production during which
the crop has to grow predicate peculiar business arrangements, entirely different from those
prevailing in other industries if forest growing is to be carried on as a financial business, and so
necessitate to a greater extent than with any other a full knowledge of the progress of the crop.

Tree measurements, especially measurements of the rate of growth of single trees and of whole
stands of trees, furnish the basis for determining the question when under given conditions the
useful or the profitable sizes may be expected to be attained, and aiso the question of quantitative
production.

The Division has therefore for some time, as opportunity, men, and money were at its disposal,
carried on measurements of the rate of growth of certain species, especially of the important
conifers.

In the forthcoming monograph on the white pine a comprehensive statement of the growth
of this most important timber tree, based on the analysis of nearly 700 trees from many localities
will be found, which will show that this species is capable of producing, under proper management,
larger amounts of valuable material in a shorter time than any of the European species.

To establish the amounts which a species can produce in different lengths of time is a much

20 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

more complicated matter than most people would suspect, especially since our measurements can
only be made on trees and stands of trees which have grown in nature’s unattended forests, while
with the application of knowledge and skill in the management of the crop quite different results
may be secured. A bulletin of the Division, No. 20, has been published describing the methods of
measurement of standing trees and forests and of the rate of growth of trees and forests.

There have been many misconceptions abroad as to the rapidity of tree growth and the amounts
that may be harvested from an acre in a given time. If wood alone were to be produced the mat-
ter would be much more simple. We could, from the experience which has been gathered in other
countries and in our Own, soon arrive at a statement as to the amount of wood which an acre of a
full-grown dense forest crop could produce, just as we know the productive capacity of an acre of
wheat or barley.

In an average of a hundred years the yearly growth, according to species, soil, and climatic
conditions, would vary between 30 and 180 cubic feet of wood per acre each year. But, unless fire-
wood is the object of forest cropping, it is not quantity of wood merely, but wood of given size
and of given quality, wood fit for the arts, that is to be grown. It will only pay to raise wood of
this kind. Hence, it is necessary not only to know what sizes can be grown in given periods of
the life of the crop and what sizes can be profitably handled at the mill or in the market, but also
what qualities are desired and under what conditions they can be produced. Trees develop very
differently at different periods of their life. Thus, while a white-pine tree may in the first fifty
years have grown on an average one-third of a cubic foot of wood per year, if we had waited till
the hundredth year the average rate per year would appear as more than 1 cubic foot, and the
total volume four to five times what it was at fifty years, although the diameter has only about
doubled. Again, while at fifty years hardly more than 15 per cent of the total wood volume would
have furnished saw timber, perhaps making 50 feet B. M., at one hundred years the proportion of
the more valuable milling material would have risen to 40 per cent and more of the whole tree,
and the output of timber would have reached 500 feet B. M. On the other hand, an acre of pine
fully stocked which at one hundred years may have produced at the rate of 140 cubic feet per
year could under the same conditions have produced for the first fifty years at the rate of 180~
cubic feet per year, or nearly one-third more. Yet the value of the wood on that same acre at one
hundred years is very considerably more than the fifty-year old wood, on account of the increased
proportion of highly useful material that can be got from it. Similarly, we find that not more than
1 to 2 per cent of the wood produced in the coppice sprouts of twenty to twenty-five years’ growth,
in which New England abounds, is serviceable in the arts, while 50 to 75 per cent and more may be
thus profitably utilized from the same acre if grown from seed and allowed to grow one hundred
years.

It will be readily seen from these few glimpses into the subject that this knowledge of the
rate of development and yield of our timber trees is indispensable for the discussion of the profits
of forest cropping, and also furnishes hints for rational methods of silviculture. This same white-
pine tree, for instance, could have made much more wood if it had been allowed to grow without
interfering neighbors, but it would not only have assumed a less useful conical shape, but would
have put much of its energy into branches, which not only do not furnish serviceable wood, but
produce knotty lumber, an inferior or unsalable article. Moreover, the wood of most or many of
our trees changes in quality with age, so that with size, form, and freedom from knots not only
the technical value, but the money value also, grows disproportionately.

It will then appear at once that these measurements must precede the discussion of the ques-
tion most momeutous to him who is to be induced to engage in the business of forest cropping,
the first and last question asked:

IS FORESTRY PROFITABLE?

It is claimed that if this question were answered in the affirmative, forestry practice would at
once be established in this country. Unfortunately it is a question that nobody can answer in
general terms. No business is profitable per se; one railroad fails, another pays; for profitable-
ness depends upon a complexity of conditions which are local, and hence without given conditions
it is useless to attempt to answer such a question. It has. been shown that under the economic
and populational conditions of Germany (see Appendix) forestry is—not everywhere, by any

IS FORESTRY PROFITABLE? 21

means, but on the whole—a profitable business. There are large forest areas in eastern Prussia
which even now do not earn their mere cost of administration, let alone the yielding of a net
income on the capital represented. There are considerable areas in the mountains of Bavaria
which are so disadvantageously located that they can not compete with the more favorably situated
ones, and only because managed by the same owner, the Government, does the management
appear profitable. This profitableness is expressed avowedly by a 3 or 4 per cent return on the
capital involved which is tied up in the soil and the growing stock of wood that must be main-
tained, and a smaller return is in many cases considered acceptable, while a larger return is
probably rare.

If, then, in a country with dense population, where in many places every twig can be marketed,
with settled conditions of market, with no virgin woods which could be cheaply exploited and
come into advantageous competition with the costlier material produced on managed properties,
with cost of labor low and prices for wood comparatively high—if under such conditions the
returns for the expenditure of money, skill, intellect in the production of wood crops is not more
promising, it would seem hopeless to develop the argument of profitableness in a country where
all these conditions are the reverse, and a business man considers a 6 per cent investment no
sufficient inducement.

Another point on which we must agree before discussing the question of profitableness is as to
what we shall consider “profitable.” The conception as to profits to be expected from investment of
capital varies with time and with different economic conditions. In our country, the rapid develop-
ment of our vast resources has introduced speculative aspects into almost every investment, even
in bona fide business transactions, and the investor in business expects still a very much larger
return than the low interest rates obtainable for money loans. Only when we are reaching a
more settled, permanent civilization will the small but sure returns from such a business as the
forestry business recommend themselves especially to the large capitalist who seeks a permanent
investment.

From the standpoint of national economy, to be sure, the use of our poor soils, which are
capable of producing nothing but wood crops, is profitable, though the money returns may not
recommend themselves to the private investor.

Again, if the question were asked, Is it profitable for a farmer to apply silvicultural prin-
ciples in the cutting of his wood lot so as to reproduce a good second crop? the answer will be
without doubt affirmative, provided the soil of the wood lot is not better adapted to agricultural
production. So would the answer be to mine operators or furnace managers who own forest
property for the purpose of supplying themselves with mine timber or charcoal as an adjunct to
their business.

The pulp manufacturer, too, who expects to run his mill continuously and has a definite object
and permanent supply of raw material from his forest property to his own business in view, is in
the same position; he will find it at least indirectly profitable to apply both silviculture and forest
economy from considerations which are conditioned on his own main business. But he who con-
templates entering upon the independent business of forest growing to supply the great timber
and wood market is in an entirely different position.

The greater part of the forest property in this country is held either by speculators, who are
waiting for the opportunity to dispose of the whole, or of the wood on it, who do not hold it asa
permanent investment or as a basis for a business, or else by lumbermen, who from necessity or
by education are also inclined, and by the momentum of their business methods are forced, not
to look at their forest property as a permanent investment or upon their logs as a crop, but to
treat it as a mine, a basis, to be sure, but only a speculative basis of their mill business. Only
when these realize that there are no more speculative forest areas to be had, that the remaining
virgin forest crop is either used up or out of the market, will they feel induced to alter their
methods and enyage in the production instead of the mere harvesting of wood crops, becoming
breeders as well as butchers.

There are other classes of capitalists, now in small numbers, who may, as in older countries,
be induced to own and manage large forest properties with a view of practicing forestry, when
they have found out that one of the safest investments, although promising only a small interest
rate, is in forest properties.

ay) FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Forestry to be carried on profitably requires the bringing of large areas under one manage-
ment, as the German governments do; it requires large amounts of capital permanently invested ;
it can not be carried on as a speculative business. To prove that this is so we need only inspect
the comparatively poor results of private forestry in Germany, as given in the Appendix.

Such investments will by and by attract our large capitalists and trusts, when forestry will
be carried on as profitably as in the older countries. But this is a matter which necessarily comes
slowly and can not be brought about by any argument or action except that of economic changes.

The writer, having had business experience himself, soon became convinced that before a
general argument of the profitableness of forestry could be advanced many changes in economic
conditions must take place, among which must be especially a further reduction in virgin sup-
plies and the establishment of the fact of a threatened scarcity of the same; in other words, an
absolute necessity for the application of the art of forestry and also a change in the attitude
toward investments in general from a speculative to a permanent character.

He, therefore, was impressed the more with the necessity of Government action to counteract
the destructive tendencies and to provide for the future, and also with the need of knowledge as
to our actual supplies on hand.

This knowledge can be had with satisfactory precision only by the expenditure of sufficient
funds, as intimated before. These, in spite of the urgent presentations of the matter could never be
secured; the Census of 1880 had attempted the task with insufficient funds, at least with reference
to certain classes of supplies, and the results, rightly or wrongly, were promptly discredited.

The census authorities of 1890, being requested to fill this important gap in our knowledge of
the country’s condition, did not consider the matter as a proper one to be included in its investi-
gations—the greatest source of wealth next to agriculture being thus neglected—although many
inferior industries were thoroughly canvassed. The Division of Forestry was, therefore, in this
particular reduced to taking information second-hand and to attempt the various estimates, which
have been discussed in the earlier part of this report, and some of which are rehearsed in the
appendix.

Whatever argument could be brought to induce the Government to at least take care of its
own holdings was employed in reports, bulletins, and statements before Senate and House com-
mittees. Notably in Bulletin 2, which describes in detail the conditions of the Rocky Mountain
forests, mainly the property of the Federal Government, the duty of the State with reference to the
property has been fully discussed, and finally through these efforts, assisted by other agencies,
the Government was committed to the policy of forest reservations, happily inaugurated in 1891.

For the Government, to be sure, other than financial considerations are paramount, and it can
well afford, for cultural and economic reasons, to maintain forest reservations, even if they do not
pay, or if they do not pay the rate of interest which the private business man expects from his
venture.

TREE PLANTING IN THE PLAINS.

While we may, then, leave the development of this part of forest economy—the demonstration
of its financial profitableness—to the next generation, there is the indirect profit which comes to
the farmer or owner of land in stocking the poor parts of his property with a crop which will
produce, if not an interest, yet an effect on the rest of his property. The settler in the forestless
plains, especially, will pursue tree planting for the purpose of ameliorating his surroundings. Con-
siderable attention has, therefore, been paid to developing silvicultural methods under the condi-
tions prevailing in the plains.

This tree planting has in view protection from cold and hot winds, shade and shelter, rather
than wood supplies, and we may as well recognize at once the fact that, while undoubtedly this
beneficial influence of timber belts may be secured in most parts of the arid and subarid belts,
and incidentally the supplying of firewood and other timber of small dimensions for domestic use,
it is entirely out of the question to expect that these plantings will ever furnish supplies for our
great lumber market. These supplies will always, the writer believes, be grown in the regions in
which forests now grow and which are by nature best adapted to wood crops.

In these arid and subarid regions, where nature has denied tree growth, the climatic condi-
tions are so different from those of the humid parts that not only different methods of cultivation

TREE PLANTING IN THE PLAINS. 23

are necessary, but the plant material must be imported and selected with a view to a rigorous
climate, characterized by extreme ranges of temperarure. A range of 40° below zero to 120° I’.
above must be endured by the trees, their moisture requirements must be of the smallest, and they
must be capable of responding to the enormous demands of evaporation. At first, whatever trees
will grow successfully from the start under such untoward conditions would have to be chosen, no
matter what their usefulness otherwise might be. '

The first settlers have ascertained by trials some of the species that will succeed under such
conditions, but unfortunately most of these are of but small economic value and some of them are
only short-lived under the conditions in which they have to grow. The methods of planting were
naturally suggested by the experience of orchardists and nurserymen, since forest planting had
never been practiced in this country; but unquestionably many failures can be avoided by applica-
tion of forestry principles in these plantings. Whether more useful kinds can be found that may
be grown to advantage, and whether methods of planting can be devised by which a greater effi-
ciency of the plantation may be gained, are problems which the Division has taken up within the
last few years. Such problems can, of course, only be solved by actual field work, experiment,
or trial, and hence tle cooperation of the State agricultural experiment stations was secured to
carry on such experiments. The station authorities have placed some land at the disposal of the
Department, and the professors of horticulture or some other officer of the station superintends,
free of charge, the labor of planting, cultivating, etc., while the Division of Forestry furnishes the
plans, plant material, and all expenses.

So far, the stations of Montana, Utah, Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, South
Dakota, and Minnesota are engaged in this cooperative work. In addition, there are two planting
stations located in the forested regions, namely, one in Minnesota and one in Pennsylvania, to
experiment on practical methods of reforesting cut-over waste brush lands.

Some few years ago the writer came to the conclusion that the conifers, especially the pines,
would furnish more useful and otherwise serviceable plant material for the arid regions. Not only
are they of. greater economic value than most of the deciduous trees that have been planted, but,
requiring less moisture for their existence, they would, if once established, persist more readily
through droughty seasons and be longer lived; besides, their persistent foliage would give more
shelter all the year around.

A small trial plantation on the sand hills of Nebraska, described in the annual reports of the
Division for 1890 and 1891, lent countenance to this theory. To be sure, the difficulty of estab-
lishing the young plants in the first place is infinitely greater than would be experienced with
most deciduous trees. A large amount of attention was, therefore, devoted to finding practicable
methods of growing the seedlings cheaply for extensive use and of protecting them for the first
few years in the plantations; for the transplanting of conifers is attended with considerable diffi-
culties, especially in a dry climate, and they require protection from the sun and winds during the
first few years. They must, therefore, be planted in mixture with ‘“‘nurse” trees which furnish not
too much and yet enough shade. It can not be said that the success in using these species has so
far been very encouraging; nevertheless, the failures may be charged rather to our lack of knowl-
edge and to causes which can be overcome than to any inherent incapacity of the species. The
experimentations should, therefore, be persistently continued.

Mixed planting and close planting are undoutbedly the proper methods of quickly establishing
forest conditions, when without further attention the plantation will take care of itself. But it is
essential to know what species should be planted together and how closely in order to secure the
best results, aud this knowledge can only come from experience and actual trial, since the behavior
of trees in regions in which they are not indigenous can not be predicted by anyone.

The results of these trial plantings have been discussed at great length, in Bulletin 18 of the
Division, by Mr. Charles A. Keffer, who has been in charge of this particular work. Other minor
investigations and experiments calculated to increase our silvicultural knowledge for the benefit
of the forest producer were also carried on, and the introduction of special strains of basket osiers,
of tan-bark wattle trees, of cork oak, and Eucalyptus seed, as well as the distribution of seeds and
seedlings to would-be planters—to be sure only in small amounts as justified by the small appro-
priation—belong to this work of silvicultural advancement.

24 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT MATERIAL.

There is no doubt that to the settler on the treeless plain the supply of plant material could
be made an effective incentive to forest planting, but it would have to be done on a different scale
from that which has been practicable under the appropriations for the Division. Distribution of
plant material for agricultural use and for forest planting differs in principle as well as in object.
While seed distribution in the first case may be desirable for the purpose of introducing new kinds
and improving the character of agricultural crops, this can only exceptionally be the purpose in
the distribution of forest-plant material. The native trees are almost invariably the best to plant.
The object of the distribution would be to induce the planting of a crop which without such special
inducement would not be planted at all. Moreover, the handling of tree seeds is connected with
greater difficulties than of agricultural seeds, and planting of seedlings rather than of seed is the
proper procedure.

Since forest planting means planting on large areas, if there is to be any result, and requires
a large number of plants to the acre—not less than 2,000—it is at once apparent that the Division
could not supply the plant material for many acres or to many applicants. After useless and dis-
couraging attempts to comply with the law, the effort was abandoned and the provision remained
a dead letter, except when there could be secured seeds or plants of certain kinds, the adapta-
bility of which to certain climatic conditions was desired‘to be tested.

TREES FOR THE ARID REGIONS.

In 1897, at the request of the Secretary of Agriculture to devise means of finding the trees
best adapted for planting in arid regions, including in this term probably all parts of the dry
- country west of the 100th meridian, which is practically treeless, the writer submitted a plan,
which would at least insure a comprehensive and systematic basis for the accomplishment of the
final object. It contemplated the establishment of a series of arboreta in various parts of that
dry region, where the arborescent flora of the arid regions of the world might be assembled and
tested, after thorough study of the climates cf the regions where this plant material was to be
collected by competent men. A competent gentleman was secured to carry out this plan, the
methods and objects of which are more fully set forth in Bulletin 21 of the Division of Forestry.
This plan, devised for a specific line of introduction of exotics, recommended itself so well for gen-
eral application in the work of plant introduction that it has been developed as a special branch
of the Seed Division, where now, with special appropriations, the whole question of plant importa-
tion is placed on a systematic basis.

PROPAGANDA WORK.

A large amount of attention, time, and energy has been spent by the Division and its chief to
secure recognition of its field and to elucidate its meaning, its importance, and its methods before
legislators, before associations, before the public, and in the technical and daily press.

Its exhibits at the various expositions at New Orleans, at Cincinnati, at Paris, at Chicago, at
Atlanta, at Nashville, at Omaha, have perhaps had as much effect in bringing the subject home
to the people as its printed utterances.

While the many addresses and lectures delivered before associations and other public meet-
ings, the many articles furnished to magazines and journals, the many arguments and statements
presented before legislative committees, may perhaps hardly be considered as work of an official
nature, nevertheless they did their share in advancing correct ideas among the people quite as
much as if they had been uttered officially. The reiteration of the same truths in different garb
is necessary if we desire to secure a reform, and every means must be seized upon if we desire to
educate a large public. The Division, therefore, identified itself with every movement which was
started in the same direction, in which its official functions directed it. It became the acknowl-
edged assistant of all such movements.

In thus molding public opinion it became instrumental in committing legislatures and gov-
ernments to take an interest in forestry matters and to consider legislation in their behalf.

While eventually many other influences became active in forwarding the forestry movement,
it will not be denied that the first and the most active factor in advancing forestry reform has
been the Division of Forestry.

FORESTRY LEGISLATION. 25

INFLUENCE OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY ON THE FORESTRY MOVEMENT.

In 1876, when the first agency to report on forestry was established in the Department, the
very word “forestry” was absent from the dictionaries, and the word “forester” was defined as
‘an officer appointed to watch a forest or chase and to preserve the game (Hnglish).”

The idea of an art by that name and of its objects and methods did not exist among our peo-
ple, except with a few who had traveled abroad.

To-day there is hardly a week when not one or more of the daily journals discuss with consid-
erable familiarity some phase of interest pertaining to forestry, and it has become a matter of
daily conversation, a topic of public lectures and magazine articles. :

That the Division has been the most potent influence in bringing about this change can be
readily shown by the constant references to it when the subject is discussed, by the voluminous
quotations from its publications, and by the uncredited, nevertheless often almost verbatim,
restatements of its utterances by writers for the public press.

There are in existence now one national (since 1882) and a number of State and local forestry
associations engaged in promoting the subject in their various spheres of action. The Division,
or at least its chief, has been either an active member or officer of some of these organized bodies,
or else has been instrumental or helpful in bringing them into existence or assisting with advice or
contributions to their programme.

Many other associations organized for the promotion of allied purposes discuss the subject of
forestry at their meetings, and their proceedings show not only the stimulating influence of the
work of the Division, but contain a large number of contributions to their publications from the
same source.

Some twenty agricultural colleges have incorporated into their courses lectures on forestry,
and “professors of forestry,” usually the botanist or horticulturist, at these institutions impart
their knowledge of the subject in either elective or required courses. The publications of the
Division, being the most available technical literature in the country, serve largely as the basis of
these lectures or even as text-books.

The State of New York has gone a step further and has this year established a fully organized
professional school, the State College of Forestry at New York University, inviting the then chief
of the Forestry Division to assume its directorship. The course prescribed for students who
desire the degree of bachelor in the science of forestry is as full as any in other similar branches
and as complete as those given at the best forestry schools of Germany. (See Appendix.)

With the establishment of this first professional school of forestry we may say that the art of
forestry, not merely as a matter for discussion, is engrafted upon our system and a new era in the
movement for rational forestry methods is begun.

The most important feature of this novel educational venture is an experimental area of
30,000 acres specially set aside to demonstrate the methods of silviculture and forest economy,
so as to serve as a model eventually for the rest of the State property.

FORESTRY LEGISLATION.

Forest fires have been the bane of American forests. It is estimated that more wood has
been burned up in the yearly conflagrations than has been utilized. There could be no expecta-
tion of applying rational forestry methods until forest property is protected against immediate
loss and destruction by fire. There were laws against incendiaries on the statute books of nearly
every State, but they were inoperative and inefficient. The first effective law against forest fires in
active operation was drafted by the writer in 1885 for the State of New York, and was inaugurated
the same year. It provided for a well organized system to suppress fires. Substantially the same
law, with minor modifications, has been adopted by the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Wis-
consin, and Minnesota, the Forestry Division being at least the means of making the methods
known through its reports and correspondence.!

Nine States have special forestry commissions or other agencies charged with taking care of
the forestry interests of their States or else to investigate and report on desirable legislation, and
three or four other States have charged some existing commission with similar duties. In many

‘For this legislation and other specific information regarding conditions in the United States seo Appendix.

26 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

if not most cases the legislation leading to these commissions has been either formulated or
suggested by the writer, or at least supported by arguments and facts drawn from the Division.

The State of New York has set aside a forest reserve of over 1,000,000 acres, and is adding
yearly to it by purchase, intending to increase it ultimately to 3,000,000 acres.

The legislation establishing the first commission to take charge of the forest property of the
State was formulated by the writer in 1885 at the request of State Senator Low, who secured its
passage, while several other bills drawn for the same purpose were tabled.

The State of Pennsylvania has last year followed the example and launched into a similar
policy. It has purchased, or is about to purchase, a number of forest reservations, which are
placed under the management of the active forest commissioner.

The Federal Government finally has reserved 38,000,000 acres of the public timber lands as
forest reservations. While to commit our Government to such a policy, which would twenty
years ago have appeared entirely foreign to our ideas of government functions, could hardly have
been accomplished by any one agency, nevertheless the result has been undoubtedly an effect of
the educational campaign carried on mainly by the Division.

Dr. Hough, in his third report, suggested the withdrawal of all public timber lands and
discussed principles for their management. In 1856 the present writer formulated further
methods of management (see page 164, Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1886), and
in 1887 framed a comprehensive bill which was presented to Congress and advocated through the
American Forestry Association. This bill, afterwards known as the Paddock bill! later modified
into the so-called McRae bill,? contains the features upon which all subsequent legislation regard-
ing forest reserves has been based.

The section of the law of March 3, 1891, which establishes the policy of forest reservations
was formulated by the then Secretary of the Interior who publicly and in print® acknowledged
his indebtedness for the idea to the educational influence referred to.

In securing the first reservations to the extent of nearly 20,000,000 acres, the American Forestry
Association and the chief of the Division, at the same time the chairman of the executive com-
mittee of the Association, were most active, as may be learned from the files in the General Land
Office.

Several bills providing for the administration of these forest reserves were also formulated and
supported by argument before the Public Lands Committee of both House and Senate, and the
passage of one of these in both Houses was secured in 1895, failing to become a law only from
lack of time to secure a conference report.

While the influence of other agencies in bringing about these various advances toward a
forestry system in the United States is not denied or undervalued, the writer, as a fair historian,
has found it necessary to assume the position of seeming self-glorification. It was impossible to
dissociate the personal efforts of the chief from the work of the Division, and it was also impossible
to offer a justification for the existence of the Division, as was evidently required by the clause in
the act of 1897 calling for this report, without tracing in definite directions the tangible results
which its work has secured, directly or indirectly.

In addition to the unquestionable advancement in educational and legislative direction, the
Division has also produced as described an amount of valuable technical information, which in
itself is believed to furnish ample justification for its past existence. ;

Finally, it should be stated that a small number of timber-land owners have ventured to place
their woodlands under management. While in most of these cases the Division had no direct
relation to the undertaking, its long-continued educational campaign, which made it apparent
that decreasing supplies can only be met by intelligent recuperative methods, must have had its
effect in inducing such beginnings. ;

In conelusion, I may be permitted upon my retirement from the direction of its work to charac-
terize the past period of twenty years of the existence of the Division as the period of propaganda
and primary education. We have during this period made the beginnings for a new departure,

1S. 2367, Fifty-first Congress.
2See page 15 of the Report of the Division of Forestry for 1887.
® See Proceedings American Forestry Association, vol. 10.

FORESTRY LEGISLATION. 27

for an economic reform. We have laid the foundations upon which it will be possible to build a
superstructure.

Many things which were not possible, or would not have been timely to attempt before, can
now be done because circumstances have changed, people have become educated, their minds have
become receptive. Educated foresters, who were not at the command of the Division during the
past period, can now be found in sufficient numbers to carry on technical work, which was imprac-
ticable, nay impossible, before.

While at first the Division of Forestry was the only educational element in the forestry move-
ment, it may now, perhaps, be left to other agencies to carry on a general propaganda and cam-
paign of enlightenment, and the Division can concentrate itself more upon the development of the
technical side of forestry.

Finally, however, a Division of Foresty in a Government which has reserved millions of acres
of forest property must logically become the manager of that forest property, leaving the develop-
ment of technical detail to a minor branch or to other institutions.

B. KE. FERnNow, LL. D.,
Director and Dean, New York State College of Forestry, and formerly
Chief of Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

BPE dIN IDO

TO

Micon ON TORE SIMRY ENVESTIG ATTONS:

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

CONTENTS.

A. Memorial of a committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in behalf of forest
preservation, leading to the establishment of the Division of Forestry. -.----...------------------------
B. List of publications relating to forestry issued from the Department of Agriculture since 1877.-......----
C@. Forests and forestry in the United! States. ~~~ — ~~ --. oe en oe ee ee
1. Original condition of forest areas—
Presenticondition——Horest botanical descriptiones---o--ssee ee see eeeiece see te eee eee ee
2. Trees of the United States important in forestry—
Biological Studies: Southern lumber pines-----.----------------.-----------------. ------------
Bo Am~EMCRIN WOOCUS.ses6s cs40 ssssc6 stsasessscen cnoses CoceSS poocas socase oHoSeSes BaSeSea Feud so onSas9 acccsS
List of the more important woods of the United States—Comparative statements of properties of
Ainerican woods—How to distinguish the different kinds of wood—-Key to the more important
woods of North America—-Structure of the wood of the five Southern pines.

APEELCOMOUIC HAS CCUSIO bast OLES tiie S OUI C OS mete telat te el ele
Forest conditions of Wisconsin—The naval store industry.
ky, IDEVElopmaciny Git A OMI OME ysoecco coos cb06 Hobs Gece secu soso cosedd Senses CoEdEee eSSeor oncHeS cose ceco

Historical—Associated propaganda—Forestry commissions—Forest-fire legislation—Forestry edu-
cation—Federal forest policy. :

D. Forest policies of European nations.._...-.---------.-.----..---.------ Supa S phos eR eet faycdte Se Latha Sees
E. Forest conditions and methods of forest management in Germany, with a brief account of forest manage
MAGMG TD BreMiMe A MACE 55555 topes pnecsac seSeoe SeoSoo Seco os SSeS 005uSd Ococes CaaHes ber eDs cosSsacesssu ene

Forest area, extent and ownership—State control—Character of forest growth—Exploitation—Price
of wood in the forest—Price of manufactured lumber—Yield per acre—Consumption of wood
materials—Financial results of forest management.—Forest administration.

Forest management of leading states: Prussia—Saxony—Bavaria—Wurttemberg—Baden—Alsace and
ILOMPEMMNG - -3ces5 sessse sce ses see ssocse Cossoe socebe codsnd seccoSossnos sbes soba cdaS aoseac oscDed ae

Methiodstofi German forest mama cement =~ ien sen se am alee eel = ine a= = sie ee een lee

POnOSh TM Amery fin IBN INCH. 6-5 ones See cdse cneo cers soeccs Seoses soue ose coo cooSem sSeedooaosSe

19), TPtavenMlas @iP STONE) — = Sse 52 soe os oe6 ces oes cesSno acoe SERCO SEU DARDS pIReBe eboacomoLouNoacoetesasae

How trees grow—llow to plant a forest—How to treat the wood lot—The relation of forests to farms.

G. Principles of forest economy
Jal, Tomesiy HMlilieMN@OS 5 asco Sa cba ssse moss Sys Red Dobe Ss noUSea bobcSd Smens S654 co555H do50be beseso baud enee sesebe
I. The work in timber physics in the Division of Forestry. By Filibert Roth, late assistant in Division of

IORESUAY wooo Sore cosaoeds sascbaases Cobb S550 ned SCS Se DSU econ Sper Ee CES eo Co loCeop re SEseresend sseecemc

Historical—Southern and Northern oak—Southern, bled and unbled pine—Distribution of resin in
pine—Mechanical and physical properties of Southern pine—Strength of large beams and columns—
Summary of mechanical tests on 32 species—Tests of maximum uniformity—Relation of com-
pression—Endwise strength to breaking load of beam—Development of the science of timber
physics and methods employed.

J. Metal ties for railways and economies in the use of wooden ties. By H.E. Russell Tratman, C. E..---.----

396

PLATE

ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

I. Map showing distribution of forests and lumber regions in the United States.............----.----
II. Map showing distribution of forest land, brush land, and open country west of the 97th meridian,
AGL MELO MEN TORING RISA VAHIOMS sesqcos agence 6 0oSo0s eSeoso OSC 500006 DodDK0 DS5b5055 5 SG0550 cCSDSe

III. Map showing distribution of forest types in North America.................-.-------.------------
IV. Fig. 1. Longleaf-pine forest in Louisiana flats, virgin, scorched by fire,as usual. Fig. 2. Longleaf-

VI. Map showing distribution of longleaf-pine forests ....-....-..-..----.---------

pine forest after removal of merchantable timber ..--.....-.....--...---..-.--.-----------------
Ve Cuban-pineltlatwioodsvoterl oni dageessetmeette mee ee eet alana essere elec ale

Valea Map ishowan ordi stributionyofas ort) carts im Cems mteme tela eteee tae eiteeelat ete epee eae te ei
VIII. Map showing distribution of loblolly pime ..........-..-.---...---.-.--..------ «-----------------

IX. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), typical trees

X. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), seedlings and young plant -.---..-....----..----.--.-------------

XI. Loneleaf pine (Pinus palustris), bud development ------.----.-.---..-.--. ---------- ----

XII. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), male and female flowers
XIII. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), open cone, natural size
XIV. Cuban pine (Pinus heterophylla), development of cone

XV. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), forest-grown specimens in Missouri-...--.-----. -------+---------

XVI. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), development of cone, seed, and leaves

XVII. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), seedling, male and female flower and leaf sections. .-..--.-.--.--.-
SOWANUL, Ibolnkonhky yori) (Anne WRU) UN MORN, WAS) So6 550 coco peoSas SobRes Cdoo Bde 566 focces Sone sosoesES Soo5
XIX. Loblolly pine (Pinus teda), female flowers, cone and seed_-..-.....--......--..----.-.---.---..----

XX. Typical cross sections of Pinus taeda, heterophylla, and glabra

XXI. Typical cross sections of Pinus palustris and echinata, and radial sections of Pinus palustris and

QUOD = cowemc saeces oogeed 00008 Soden CHesSs SoSces SadSo0 SooSed ctTssE soosoN SSODeE HoSSSDeSSaSeOcCD

XXII. Radial sections of Pinws echinata and heterophylla ..--..--.------..------------ - 25 2-2-2 oo ne ee
XXIII. Radial sections of Pinus twda and tangential sections of Pinus palustris and echinata...----.-.-----
XXIV. Tangential sections of Pinus twda, heterophylla, and glabra ..----------.---- oS a uecieas se Seas

XXV. Tangential sections of Pinus echinata, heterophylla, and glabra ....--.----------------+-------------
SOV ILy TAM VERSO ROM GITCHES cong acasoco code e566 Seno ES00 6605 6200 GODS asoN cEbS cabs u8cD ODDS copa DSCSDE SE
XXMVIL Map showing forest conditions of Wisconsin -.---..-+..---..------------ ~~. 6-2 nnn =

XXVIII. Fig. 1. Chipping the longleaf pine. Fig. 2. Dipping the crude resin -..-....-.-..----------------

XXIX. Fig. 1. American practice of boxing and chipping. Fig. 2. Tools used in American practice of tur-

DOMUTING® OPOMAMEMAS 5 soos osSeeo ec sosecn edoos cHSshs sosoes SHOE oF Sson cSaSse co9ees SaeSos gosus0E

XXX. Fig. 1. Turpentine orcharding in France. Fig. 2. Tools used in French practice of turpentine

OHEMARINMG 20 s5a5 casa cseooa seeoes seSnce soseos Hneotocesede cosKs coodEd coED soeers SeesoRSoeSSsacsse

XXXI. Fig. 1. Turpentine gathering (Hugues system), till and pot. Vigs. 2, 3, and 4: Cross sections

Wao |ONEdl WATS ssooo5 ascese oss cosens SadSoe osobe0 Sone Ss00S5 coobSs bosSco Ss CoseSoDanSEo9 sanDad.

MOOK Map) for direction of forest managers) -- 2). ---- coms ence ve cece eee eee een ean
TEXT FIGURES.

Fic. 1. Diagram showing comparative progress of height growth in average trees -..--..-----------.--------

2. Diagram showing comparative progress of diameter in average trees --.---.-.-----------------------

3. Diagram showing comparative progress of volume growth in average trees ---..-----.---------------

dL, INODDOLOUS WOOUS sos codec does scobes Obes obo S00 Sess OoEsoH ensse0 cuSU Rea uane HsaDeEeS decnas wdeone BS

Bi, IRM TOROMES) WOO - ceocc0 coda one Code a640 00n0 o50n ceegcbES coos esoDEs cHee sabneSSadend Ses6baESSoscSE=

@, ID mee ORONS WOOEE ccoceqsaeses see sasese Foose co2059 5000 5200 SogHe9 SHOE sen Bacenogs 6600 aSeae0 S505

Th WOOGl OF GORD) TREO scccde Soon Sobaus Sono Saq9 osbac6 boGotS ONeKHA de sonN DUDSEO EHEs SoocoU scHooDSESs aSaeQS

& Wi@OGlOF MEIN, scacseicens ascoaas cuce Naso Sage. dans so5doe Sane S465 ccna does oddone Sdo0us doanes segs neneSs see

@), WVCoGl @F ned MAIR ¢ccebs sbocoo5 coacso Soeaos sesab8 Hoaean oden Gascon Sonde6 NN85ns HOSEOES BODE cuEa coos Gens

TO, Wool OF GNESWMTS - .o4560 sce Godo'sbens doused seceooesss SonEbo cede coud Seo4 obs HodbaG cone OcogSoogeD Hess

Tl, Weaal ORIN KO os a soneoe Bobo caeee Gabbe do Socaus CE aio 64 HERI OAOA CaRe ERE OSs SEE Ee HE nes a abc Ra Eceore

H. Doc. No. 181——3 33

99
102
103
103
103
104

34

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

anes 1, \Wrowil OF NSEC, S\yCHMNONG), OUR, Seeod need snncce cooscs eacesy coSGHe cosa weSH cond oped soSeca teoese ose

13, \WYCOd! OP MMM Bsc 2ct2c6 Sassen s20e soooos sasans JsseSs cosSco sossee Coos ssSess does DSeoes esceseesa0 Teseee=
TEE Niel Gi Nhe Seog ssoceee Heeee a saeees ce S556 5405 coro Soceco caeSSso00de0 Iaseee SSeeag ease canes Sona seSoec
Ty, Wool iF jyAlllmMity. eoscse sosdss cae sac o2Ss coes cscs ss 2se2 cass odSSs° sees seas osaS00 SESS Sees esoSosoSoSE=
5; WowGl GE ONGRAY 2cosc0 oSec00 oosc00 coebes ss ar0 sa 2es0 SHceES OseSe0 350555 Tasco DOSaSIOSeces co2eSo coNas>
ily, \Wanrlani@m @iF Summ WOO! 6 sesosa costs secoso sods assed SoS Ses SoS205 95oSce OSE BES senses Sere OsarcoEsEs
Th, Ween non Oe SpaeOUHO (ENA oa oqo5 os soog aS coe ozeeUaDooS DeNSbo OotdoS SoDOSG Op Oned OSS DSS KBSeoRnObe Se
HOM Vanrationtot Summ enw OC specs COM tp esate ee ee eter eee etal ate fate tele te eee
. Schematic representation of coniferous wood structure.....-......-.|...-..----.--------------..----.
2 (Chall! @aaliingys in Pent). so565 oses soos ce oSecue cossee esones Foes beco code sos oeo cos ceS Sonses oes Sesscoctesce
. Cross section of normal and stunted growth in longleaf pine -..-.......-.-.-.----.-----.------------
; Diagram showing arrangement of age classes-------. -------- 3. 8 ne en we wee
. Diagram showing comparative progress of yields of spruce, fir, pine, and beech .----_..--....._-_.--
. Iron dibble used in setting out small pine seedlings. .----....--.-...------.------------- ..----------
. Tree classes: Classification according to crown development -...-..-...---.--------------------.-----
. Physiological importance of different parts of the tree; pathways of water and food materials. ...---
5 eel clexy@lloyaneinG OF WEBCO poco sco chaos cs00 e509 oSc0005955 S259 DOES 50 2aeSE5 DODGED casos CHOe boas cosdeS
BHI Ost Wavy DIS 26 ces bseen6 5 aboot oho sone sc50 o205 0006 coo Rou aueD Sead.coun cou sEb dopSceobes Séon otacoaeR

bt bw bd bw bw wb

bo tb

“IO OF Hm So Nt Re OS

bo bw
cS CO

= 30s Dormant budrontall 2-year oldsbranchtotibeechvee=es == seer == eee === lease eee

(Sv)
=

. Section through a 12-year-old stem of beech, showing manner of bud and limb formation. .-...-.--..
. Section through a partly decayed knot in oak wood. ---...-__.....---..--.---- ---------- ------------
a Developmentrnyandvouib, Of Ne OReS Gere sete teratee eee setae aia ele aa lel eae eee
5 AMREGS tin, Ain! Oli OLE WING) MORES. soso sooss6 dada.0500 Saee 5050 5900 500005 soBSns SasSeo sea Saos DSSS ooSH OSes
. Sections of logs showing the relative development of knots. ....---.---.---.------ ---.--------------
mocheme oul mstrateyueranniialyor ow hese eer elser aerate -ciseeelenemiceeniceei scence eee eee
3 ORME THRE) GARONA TN WAG) ODE 6350 os06 S505 sde6 cndoao ouES ab dd 655500 CoN 4056 HONS Goad HbO5 Kdas Sees scod ocue
j Maple treevorowmintthertorestic 5) oemicpacos oan se sleeiseio merce om ins ccc e nisin on io cs alos aae Some nee eee
. Showing plan of group system in regenerating a forest crop --...-----.--------------+--------------
A0SPAip pearance OtsreseneraulOny Divs ec OU pene L100 weet sat ete ate ttata Patent aaa ele
- Method of Jayerins to produce new, stocks in coppice wood -------- 222 = 22.2 2 a ene eee ee eee

Sy)
i)

eo G> Go SG OD & OO
OO oO AIS OT Re Ww

i
Ss

42. Differences of mean annual temperatures of soil (W—O) ..--..--..-------- ---- ---2 ---- --2-- --0- ==
43, Difference of temperature (W—O) at the depth of 4 feet ............---.-.-.---.---------------- +e
44, Differences of soil temperature (woods and open fields). Comparison of deciduous and evergreen trees

(QW O)) ch edes sescodse esas ean BOR bGde SES uated HOSE Ed Hab OSd Be SCSH MESES BaOSoseebS Secondo aadesoosess
45. Difference of soil temperature (W—O), all stations—German observatories...-.....--.-.----.--------
46. Differences of soil temperature (woods and open fields). Comparison of elevations above sea level

(QWE= OWN eee eto tre is Seiteieine aces Se elon aren wk Meese wletoeie Inia ae aiatera ota Slaainte ssa eie SSeS eee ee eee
47. Differences of temperature for young trees, Lintzel Station, woods and open fields (W—O) ..--.-----

48. Effects of litter on soil temperature (littered surface—bare). (W—O) ..-------.---.---..--.--------
49. Difference of soil temperature, under sod and bare surface (sod—bare). Becquerel’s observations. ---
50, 51, and 52. Forest air temperature, difference of woods and open fields (W—O), deciduous trees,

everprecnytrees randpyounestoresh (uintzel) pee seerehaee en eeee eee eee errr ees cee se eee eee eee eee
53. Worest air temperature differences, W—O. German stations ............--..----.----2--------2 5, ---
54, 55, 56, 57, and 58. Forest air temperature differences, woods and open fields (W—O), at Friedrichsrode,

Hagenau, Sonnenberg, Eberswalde, Schoo, Marienthal, Hadersleben, and average ....-.-.---.----
59, 60, 61, 62, and 63. Forest air temperature differences, woods and open fields (W—O) at Marienthal,

Hadersleden, elevated stations, near sea level—average....-.....--.---.--------------------------
64. Forest air temperature differences for the year at height of the tree top (W—O)
65. Average differences of tree-top temperature, sixteen German stations (W—O)..---..--..---.---.---.
66, 67, 68, 69, and 70. Tree-top temperature, differences (W—O) at Friedrichsrode, Eberswalde, St. Johann,

Chis nome, GmnGl ONO 5 ssc6 2 cose e555 S550 anon boSSSs SscHOs Soeos6 Stso Seno come UNS SSeS SessmeScessece
71, 72, 73, 74, and 75. Tree-top temperature differences, German stations (W—O), Sonnenberg, Kurwien,

Hagenan and Neumath—Gecidiousitrees. aes rsa ee eee eee laee eee eee ee eee iseaze
76. Tree-top temperature differences, German stations, evergreen trees---.--..-.-.-.-----.--------------
77. Vertical temperature, gradient in woods, degrees Fahrenheit, for a hundred feet
78. Vertical temperature gradients from observations above trees. .-...--.---..----- --------------------
79. Forest temperature differences above trees, from Fautrat’s observations
COME WVaporacioniandsprecipibablONwe ss eteae me a= 2) esas) niece ares eee Renee eee RES eee eee eee
81. Monthly evaporation in the fields (upper curve) and woods (lower curve), in inches
82. Percentage of evaporation in the woods as compared with that in open fields
83. Ratio of evaporation from water surface in fields and forest to precipitation
84. Percentage of evaporation in woods to that in the open air..--.--...-..--
Soe Methodiotchemicalranallysision oun penvinle sees eee een esses eee eee eer Eee ee nee eee eee eee
86a Methodionidishllationiofs turpentine ss esesseeeseeeriessee a aaa en ee eee eet eee eee eee Rea
SieDistributLonopeurpentinen ny ~prees esses eee ee sae see eee eee en eee ee eee

323

Fia. 88.

89.

90.

91.

92°

93.

94.
95.
96.
97.

98.

99.

100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Relationship of different parts of same BRAS oc susu sdse pace 2090 6o00 cong oa09 509.9995 REGS aPRo pS ps Sah
Yield of volatile oil from constant quantity of turpentine... ---- =.= ---- 22-2203 noe a

Diagram of detail analyses, representing radial dimensions of test pieces in each GHSI coos does cosesks
SToneCyitora. Oe CHANG TKN INGUIN OE THE) o> o aecieces MogQ.SCOn aRoS SSeS ROGET Sas SCS eo
Schematic section through stem of longleaf pine, showing variation of weight with height, diameter,

FTG OGD Jaupoceie cena ceed BAU agee CSBP een LGC? EEM Aen O* Gplabivegi: caer | agosianns econ ede eneos
Variation of compression strength SATA TAOSUIIND conc ooaee 2255 oos0 2050 Soon snes HOSS 8N5R ROAD SOR] O9COTH
Loss of water in kiln drying and reabsorption in air, shrinking and swelling .----------------------"
Relation of strength in compression endwise to weight of material---.---------------++2--77 0007077
Relation of weight to bending SPAREN WE G15 HONOUR 2 or oe sooo n29903 696059 SRS 898 963508 BER FISD SSA
Strength of contiguous blocks, showing maximum uniformity of select quarter-sawed material in com-

RGERIOR On hyd @eons cone o3u5 ode saan soce RoR sess aa CHOS OCS Hae aa pT | nisdeconsadads
Relation of fiber stresses and ANRIO RHO 5256 odes coca ocana5osds oSe09 BaSCEsCORG panans pods QUae SASF SoRG

Distribution of internal stresses in a beam ath TAU MUN sno So oos0 ss eSeo so cond cea 5509 sen ERA Ea To BTe2075
Position of neutral axis and internal stresses at rupture of beam.------------------------2-77-
Fiber distortion in unit length of beam at GIRS HI Iii aca deoo cade aosdooe 3 o2e5 Coad sore men” Sa0R0cFI5
Toor OYE MOMMA joLENAG G15 TAUNAIIEE): coo coco cece 80 82H Bees C095 S280 AEIS SSS ISS SATIS series?
NEV ARGULG? CERTAIN HOS 1OPBico6 cade saad cond anes seddacn eheosnnco Sess GecuSs os oe se eee ss ee eos |
Apparatus for Aloierarotiniiaye RROCING GRANTGY ss 2500 028s saps Bade aces ae Se5s HS0S ESOS SSS SINS SIS SIS
Result of physical examination (GEmmTIAII) soso Seo Saaded 2905 cbs o2e5 2863 22822080 82 2289809 Sass OAT OSS

A. MEMORIAL TO CONGRESS.

MEMORIAL OF A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF
SCIENCE ON BEHALF OF FOREST PRESERVATION, LEADING TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

[From Senate Ex. Doe. 28, first Session Forty-third Congress, or Report No. 259, H. R., first Session Forty-third Congress. |

At the meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Science held at Portland, Me., on
the 22d day of August, 1873, the following resolution was passed:

Resolved, That a committee be appointed by this association to memorialize Congress and the several State legis-
latures on the importance of promoting the cultivation of timber and the preservation of forests, and to recommend
such legislation as may be deemed proper for securing these objects. Also, that this committee be instructed to
cooperate with national associations for a similar object.

The committee appointed consisted of Franklin B. Hough, Lowville, N. Y.; George B.
Emerson, Boston, Mass.; Prof. Asa Gray, Cambridge, Mass.; Prof. J. D. Whitney, San Francisco,
Cal.; Prof. J.S. Newberry, New York City; Hon. Lewis H. Morgan, Rochester, N. Y.; Col. Charles
Whittlesey, Cleveland, Ohio; Prof. William H. Brewer, New Haven, Conn., and Prof. H.W.
Hilgard, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Under this appointment consultation has been had among members of this committee, who
have requested the undersigned, on their behalf, to represent as follows:

That the preservation and growth of timber is a subject of great practical importance to the
people of the United States, and is becoming every year of more and more consequence, from the
increasing demand for its use; and that while this rapid exhaustion is taking place, there is no
effectual provision against waste or the renewal of supply.

We apprehend that the time is not distant when great public injury must result from this
cause, and we deem it to be our duty to urge upon the Government the importance of taking timely
action in providing against the evils that must otherwise follow.

Besides the economical value of timber for construction, fuel, and the arts, which is obvious
without suggestion, and must increase with the growth of the nation, there are questions of
climate that appear to have a close relation to the presence or absence of woodland shade. The
drying up of rivulets, which feed our mill streams and navigable rivers and supply our canals, the
failure of the sources which supply our cities with pure water, and the growing tendency to floods
and drought resulting from the unequal distribution of the rainfalls since the cutting off of our
forests are subjects of common observation.

In European countries, especially in Italy, Germany, Austria, and France, where the injuries
resulting from the cutting off of timber have long since been realized, the attention of govern-
ments has been turned to this subject by the necessities of the case, and conservative measures
have in many instances been successfully applied, so that a supply of timber has been obtained
by cultivation, and other benefits resulting from this measure have been realized.

Special schools of forestry have been established under the auspices of government, and the
practical applications of science in the selection of soil and conditions favorable for particular
species, and in the planting, care, and removal of timber, are taught and applied, with the view
of realizing the greatest benefits at the least expense.

37

38 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

There is great danger that, if not provided against, the fearful changes may happen to our
largest rivers which have taken place on the Po and other large rivers of Italy, France, and
Spain, caused by the destruction of the forests from which came their tributaries. These forests
had retained. the water from the snows and rains of winter and spring, and supplied it gradually
during the summer. Since their destruction the rain falling in the rainy season comes down
almost at once, bringing with it earth and stones, deluging the banks of the larger streams, but
leaving a very insufficient provision for evaporation and against the consequent drought
of summer.

Thus, when the forests about the sources of our great rivers shall be cut away, the water from
the melting snows and early rains will be liable to come down in vast floods, overflowing the
banks and carrying ruin and destruction in their course, while the affluent streams in summer
will diminish or disappear, to the great injury of the country through which they flow.

We deem it highly important that the true condition and wants of the country in this regard,
and the injuries that may result from the destruction of the forests and the exhaustion of our
supplies of timber, should be known in time to provide a remedy before the evils are severely felt.
There are facts of the greatest importance in relation to the past and present destruction of forests,
the pressing want of timber trees in States without natural forests, and the changes that have
taken place, or are taking place, in consequence of the destruction of the forests, that should be
carefully collected and be widely and familiarly known.

A knowledge of these facts would be everywhere of great value. They should be gathered,
arranged, and so widely published as to reach the intelligent inhabitants of all the States. There
is not a State or Territory without a direct interest in the subject. We should know the experi-
ence of other countries and be able to apply whatever may be found therein suited to our soil and
climate and consistent with the plan of our government and the theory of our laws.

Individual or associated effort, unless organized and directed by authority, could not be
expected to conduct these inquiries or make known the results with that fullness which the
investigation would require. We therefore recommend them as worthy of the attention of Con-
gress, as the immediate guardian of the Territories and the proper source of power in whatever
concerns the interest of the whole country.

We would therefore respectfully request the passage of a law creating a commission of
forestry, to be appointed by the President and Senate, and that it should be required to ascertain,
from the most effectual and reliable means within its power, and to report to Congress upon the
following subjects:

First. Upon the amount and distribution of woodlands in the United States, the rate of con-
sumption and waste, and the measures that should be adopted to provide against the future
wants of the country in the preservation and planting of timber. With this there should be an
inquiry concerning the importation and exportation of lumber and other forest property.

Second. The influence of forests upon the climate, and especially as to what extent their
presence or absence tends to affect the gemperature, rainfall, and other atmospheric conditions
upon which agricultural success depends.

Third. A full statement of the methods practiced in Europe in relation to the planting and
management of forests, and an account of the special schools of forestry that have been estab-
lished in foreign countries.

Respectfully submitted. “ FRANKLIN B. Hoven,

GzEo. B. EMERSON,
On Behalf of the Committee of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
WASHINGTON, D. C., February 6, 1874.

JOINT RESOLUTION FOR APPOINTMENT OF COMMISSION. 39

JOINT RESOLUTION for the appointment of a commission for inquiry into the destruction of forests and into the measures necessary
for the preservation of timber.

Whereas it is asserted that the supply of timber within the United States is rapidly diminishing, and that great
public injury must result from its continued waste, without adequate means being taken for its preservation and
production: Therefore,

Be it resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That
the President be, and he is hereby, authorized and required to appoint, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, aman of approved scientific and practical acquaintance with statistical inquiries, to be commissioner of
forestry.

Suc. 2. And be it further resolved, That it shall be the duty of said commissioner to prosecute investigations and
inquiries on the subject with the view of ascertaining the annual amount of consumption, importation, and exporta-
tion of timber and other forest products; the probable supply for future wants; the means best adapted to its pres-
ervation and@ renewal; the influence of forests upon climate, and the measures that have been successfully applied
in foreign countries for the preservation and restoration of forests; and to report upon the same to Congress.

Sno. 3. And be it further resolved, That the heads of the Executive Departments be, and they are hereby, directed
to cause to be rendered all necessary and practicable aid to the said commissioner, by access to the public records
and otherwise, in the prosecution of the investigations and inquiries aforesaid.

B. LIST. OF PUBLICATIONS S REV ATING 10 FORESMRNGiS sup
FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE SINCE 187%.

BULLETINS.

No. 1. Report on the Relations of Railroads to Forest Supplies and Forestry, together with
appendices on the structure of some timber ties, the behavior and the cause of their decay in the
roadbed, on wood preservation, on metal ties, and on the use of spark arresters, by B. H. Fernow.
Pp. 149, pls. 7, figs. 7. 1887.

No. 2. Report on the Forest Conditions of the Rocky Mountains, with a map showing the loca-
tion of forest areas on the Rocky Mountain range, and other papers. Pp. 252, map, 1, diagr., 1.
1888.

Contents: Extracts from Reports of the Commissioners of the Land Office—The Government in its relation to
forests, by Prof. E. J. James—Report on the forest conditions of the Rocky Mountains, by Col. Edgar T. Ensign—
Map showing the location of forest areas and principal irrigation ditches in the Rocky Mountain region—Forest
flora of the Rocky Mountains. by George B. Sudworth—Report on the forests of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and
San Diego counties, Cal., by Abbott Kinney—Trees and shrubs of San Diego County, Cal.—The needs of the Yellow-
stone National Park, by Arnold Hague, geologist in charge—Summary of legislation for the preservation of timber
or forests on the public domain, by N. H. Egleston—The climate of Colorado and its effects upon trees, by George H.
Parsons—Snow slides or avalanches, their formation and prevention, by B. E. Fernow.

No. 3. Preliminary Report on the Use of Metal Track on Railways as a Substitute for Wooden
Ties, by H. E. Russell Tratman, C. E., to which is added a report of experiments in wood season-
ing by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Company, and other notes. Compiled by
B. HE. Fernow. Pp. 79, diagr.6. 1889.

No. 4. Report on the Substitution of Metal for Wood in Railroad Ties, by EH. E. Russell Trat-
man, C. E., together with a discussion on practicable economies in the use of wood for railway
purposes, by B. H. Fernow. Pp. 363, pls. 30. 1890.

No. 5. What is Forestry, by B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp.52. 1891.

No. 6. Timber Physics. Part I. Preliminary Report. Compiled by B. KE. Fernow, Chief of
Division of Forestry. Pp. 61, pls. 6, figs. 12. 1892. 4°.

1. Need of investigation. 2. Scope and historical development of the science of ‘‘timber physics.” 3. Organi-
zation and methods of the timber examinations in the Division of Forestry.

No. 7. Forest Influences. Pp. 197, figs. 63. 1893.

1. Introduction and summary of conclusions, by B. E. Fernow. 2. Review of forest meteorological observa-
tions, a study preliminary to the discussion of the relations of forest to climate, by M. W. Harrington. 3. Relation
of forest to water supplies, by B. IE. Fernow. 4. Notes on the sanitary siznificance of forests, by B. E. Fernow.
Appendices: 1. Determination of the true amount of precipitation and its bearing on theories of forest influences,
by Cleveland Abbe. 2. Analysis of rainfall with relation to surface conditions, by George H. Curtis.

No. 8. Timber Physics. Part 2. Pp. 92, pls. 12, figs. 22. 1893. Progress report: Results of
investigations on long-leaf pine.

Contents: Mechanical tests made at Washington University testing laboratory, St. Louis, by J. B. Johnson—
Field report on turpentine timber, by F. Roth—Resinous contents and their distribution in the long-leaf pine, by M.
Gomberg—Field records of test material, by C. Mohr.

No. 9. Report on the Use of Metal Railroad Ties and on Preservation Processes and Metal
Tie-plates for Wooden Ties. By H. HE. Russell Tratman, A. M., Am. Soc. C. H. (supplementary to
report on the Substitution of Metal for Wood in Railroad Ties, 1890). Prepared under the direc-
tion of B. EH. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 363, pls. 5. 1894.

40

LIST OF FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS. Al

No. 10. Timber: An Elementary Discussion of the Characteristics and Properties of Wood. By
Filibert Roth, special agent in charge of Timber Physics. Under the direction of B. K. Fernow,
Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 88, figs. 49. 1895.

No. 11. Some Foreign Trees for the Southern States. (Cork, Wattle Tree, Kucalyptus, Bamboo.)
Prepared under direction of B. H. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp.32, pls. 3. 1895.

No. 12. Economic Designing of Timber Trestle Bridges, by A. L. Johnson, ©. E. Pp. 57, figs.
7. 1896.

No. 13. The Timber Pines of the Southern United States, by Chas. Mohr, Ph. D. Together
with a Discussion of the Structure of their Wood, by Filibert Roth. Prepared under the direction
of B. EH. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 160, pls. 27, figs.18. 1896.

No. 14. Nomenclature of the Arborescent Flora of the United States, by George B. Sudworth,
dendrologist of the Division of Forestry. Prepared under the direction and with an Introduction
by B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 8, 419. 1897.

No. 15. Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon, by Frederick
V. Coville. Pp. 54. 1898.

No. 16. Forestry Conditions and Interests of Wisconsin, by Filibert Roth, special agent.
With a discussion of objects and methods of ascertaining forest statistics, ete., by B. KH. Fernow,
Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 76, map of forest distribution in Wisconsin. 1898.

No. 17. Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States, their Names and Ranges, by
George B. Sudworth, dendrologist of the Division of Forestry. Prepared under the direction of
B. K. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 144. 1898.

No. 18. Experimental Tree Planting in the Plains, by Charles A. Keffer, assistant chief of the
Division. Prepared under thesdirection of B. EK. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 94,
pls. 5, figs. 1. 1898.

No. 19. Osier Culture, by John M. Simpson. Prepared under the direction of B. EK. Fernow,
Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 27. 1898.

No. 20. Measuring the Forest Crop, by A. K. Mlodziansky. Prepared under the direction of
B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 70, figs. 16. 1898.

No. 21. Systematic Plant Introduction, by David A. Fairchild, special agent. Prepared under
the direction of B. E. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. Pp. 24. 1898.

No. 22. The White Pine, a monograph, by V. M. Spaulding. Revised and enlarged by B. EH.
Fernow, with contributions by Filibert Roth and F.A.Chittenden. (In press.)

No. 23. The Uses of Wood in Mining and in the Charcoal Ivon Industries, by John Birkinbine,
C. E. With a discussion of methods of forest management applicable to woodlands subserving
these industries by B. H. Fernow, Chief of Division of Forestry. (In press.)

CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION.

No. 1. Request to Educators for Cooperation.

No. 2. A Cireular to Educational Men.

No. 53. Increasing the Durability of Timber (information to wood consumers). Pp. 4. 8°.
No. 4. For Information of Railroad Managers (use of chestnut oak for railroad ties). Pp.3. 4°.

. Arbor Day Planting in Kastern States. Pp.4. 4°.
. Instructions for Growing Tree Seedlings. Pp.4. 4°.
The Government Timber Tests. Pp. 4. 8°.
No. 8. Strength of “Boxed” or “Turpentine” Timber. Pp. 4. 8°.
No. 9. Effect of Turpentine Gathering on the Timber of Longleaf Pine. P.1. 8°.
No. 10. Suggestions to the Lumbermen of the United States in Behalf of More Rational Forest
Management. Pp.8. 8°.
No. 11. Facts and Figures Regarding Our Forest Resources, Briefly Stated. Pp.8. 8°.
No. 12. Southern Pine: Mechanical and Physical Properties. Pp. 12. 4°. ;
No. 15. Forest Fire Legislation in the United States. Pp.8. 8°.
No. 14. Is Protection Against Forest Fires Practicable? Pp. 4. 8°.
No. 15. Summary of Mechanical Tests on Thirty-two Species of American Woods. Pp. 12. 49°
No. 16. Age of Trees and Time of Blazing Determined by Annual Rings. Pp.11. 8°.

1A,
QOS
mlm oH

42 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

No. 17. Recent Legislation on State Forestry Commissions and Forest Reserves. Pp.16. 8°.

No. 18. Progress in Timber Physics: Influence of Size on Test Results; Distribution and
Effect on Strength of Moisture; Maximum Uniformity of Wood; Relation of Compression End-
wise Strength to Breaking Load of Beam. Pp. 20, 4°.

No. 19. Progress in Timber Physics: Bald Cypress. Pp. 24. 4°.

No. 20. Increasing the Durability of Timber. Pp. 5. 8°.

| CHARTS.

The lessons of erosion due to forest destruction. Three colored charts, 304 by 484 inches,
showing: (1) How the farm is lost; (2) how the farm is regained; (3) how the farm is retained.
1896.

REPORTS ON FORESTRY.

Vol. I. Report upon Forestry, prepared under the direction of the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture, in pursuance of an act of Congress approved August 15, 1876. By Franklin B. Hough.
Pp. 650. Index. 1878.

Vol. IJ. Report upon Forestry, prepared under the direction of the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture, in pursuance of an act of Congress approved August 15, 1876. By Franklin B. Hough.
Pp. 618. Index. 1880.

Vol. III. Report upon Forestry, prepared under the direction of the Commissioner of A gri-
culture, in pursuance of an act of Congress approved August 15, 1876. By Franklin B. Hough.
Pp. 318. Index. 1882. :

Vol. LY. Report upon Forestry, prepared by N. H. Eggleston. Pp.421. Index. 1map. 1884.

ANNUAL REPORTS OF CHIEF OF DIVISION OF FORESTRY.

[For years 1884-1893, inclusive, in annual reports of the Secretary of Agriculture for those
years. For years 1894-1896, inclusive, in messages and documents for those years. Tor 1897, in
annual reports of Department of Agriculture for 1897.

Same, issued separately in pamphlet form for the years 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1891, 1892,
1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897.

From 1894 these reports refer only to administrative business; before that year they contain
technical matter.]

The following subjects are more fully treated in these reports:

Report for 1886—

Forestry problems of the United States.

General principles of forestry.

List of ninety most important timber trees of the United States.
Osier culture.

Report for 1887. (Special, not printed in report of Department of Agriculture)—
Trade notes and tariff on lumber—mill capacity of United States.
Systematic plan of forestry work.

Tree notes. ,

Condition of forestry interests in the States.
Report for 1888—

Forest influences.

Cultural and trade notes.
Report for 1889—

Seedling distribution.

Timber-culture acts.

Osier culture.

Influence of forests on water supplies.
Report for 1890—

Wood-pulp industry.

Tests of Northern and Southern oak.

Forestry education.

Artificial rainfall.

LIST OF FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS. 43

Report for 1891—
Forestry lectures.
Poisoning of street trees.
Bamboo as substitute for wood.
Forest-planting experiments in Nebraska.
Southern lumber pines.
Forest reservations and their management.
Report for 1892—
Forest conditions of the United States and the forestry movement.
Forest-fire legislation.
Report on Chickamauga National Park.
The naval-store industry.
Report for 1893—
Methods of forest measurement.
Consumption and supply of forest products in the United States.
German forest management.

ARTICLES REPRINTED FROM YEARBOOKS.

From Yearbook, 1894:
Forestry for farmers. By B. H. Fernow. Pp. 40, figs. 15.
From Yearbook, 1895:
The relation of forest to farms. By B. KE. Fernow. Pp. 8.
Tree planting on the Western plains. By Chas. A. Keffer. Pp. 20.
From Yearbook, 1896:
Tree planting in waste places on the farm. By Chas. A. Keffer. Pp. 18.
The uses of wood. By Filibert Roth. Pp. 30, figs. 7.
From Yearbook, 1897:
Division of forestry; relation of its work to the farmer. By B. E. Fernow, chief. Pp. 20.
Trees of the United States important in Forestry. By Geo. B. Sudworth. Pp. 26.

FARMERS’ BULLETIN.

No. 67. Forestry for farmers. Pp. 48, figs. 15.

MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS.

Catalogue of the Forest Trees of the United States which usually attain a height of 16 feet
or more, with notes and brief descriptions of the more important species. 1876. Pp. 38.

Preliminary Report on the Forestry of the Mississippi Valley and Tree Planting on the Plains.
By F. P. Baker and R. W. Furnas. Pp. 45. 1883.

Arbor Day, its History and Observance. By N. H. Egleston. Pp. 80, figs. 12. 1896.

Miscellaneous Special Report No. 5. The proper value and management of Government
timber lands and the distribution of North American forest trees, being papers read at the United
States Department of Agriculture May 7 and 8, 1884. Pp. 47. 1884.

Miscellaneous Report No. 10. A descriptive catalogue of manufactures from native woods,
as shown in the exhibit of the United States Department of Agriculture at the World’s Industrial
and Cotton Exposition at New Orleans, La. By Charles Richards Dodge. Pp. 81. 1886.

Trees of Washington, D.C. By B. E. Fernow and Geo. B. Sudworth. Unp.pl. 1891.

Forestry in the United States. By B. HE. Fernow. Report of United States commissioners
to the Universal Exposition of 1889 at Paris. Vol. V, pp. 747-777, pls. 6. 1891.

Timber physics.—Preliminary report: Need of investigation. By B. EH. Fernow. (Irom For-
estry Bul. No. 6.) Quarto, 16 pp. 1892.

Letter to the Secretary of Agriculture regarding Forest Growth and Timber Consumption.
By b. E.Fernow. Pp. 3. 1893.

Instructions for the Collection of Test Pieces of Pines for Timber Investigations. n.d. Pp. 4.

List of Publications relating to Forestry in the Department Library. Prepared under the
direction of the Librarian. Pp. 93. 1898.

44 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

STATEMENTS BEFORE CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEES AND IN ANSWER TO SENATE RESOLUTIONS.

Statement on the relation of irrigation problems to forest conditions by Bb. E. Fernow,
before Special Senate Committee on Irrigation and Reclamation of Arid Lands. Fifty-first
Congress, first session. Senate Report No. 928, vol. 4,1890. Pp. 112-124.

Statements in Report No. 1002, Fifty-second Congress, first session. (To accompany S. 3235)
“to provide for the establishment, protection, and administration of public forest reservation, and
for other purposes.” Pp.12. 1892.

Senate Document No. 172, Fifty-third Congress, second session. Letter from the Secretary
of Agriculture . . . transmitting information in relation to investigations and experiments in the
planting of native pine seed in the sand hills of the Northwest. Pp.14. 8° 1894.

Statements in House Report No. 1442, Fifty-third Congress, second session. Investigations
and Tests of American Timbers. Pp. 4. 1894.

Statements in House Report No. 897. Public Forest Reservations. Pp. 25. 1894.

Statement of B. HK. Fernow, Chief of Forestry Division, to the Committee on Agriculture,
House of Representatives, [in support of H. R. 8389, and H. R. 8390, providing for forestry schools]
February 16, 1895. Pp4.

Senate Document No. 40, Fifty-fifth Congress, first session: White-Pine Timber Supplies.
Statement prepared by the chief of the division. Letter of the Secretary of Agriculture. Pp.
21. 1897.

CRORES SAND AFORESPRY I THE UNITED ST AMS:

The following brief account of the forest conditions of the United States; of the trees of
economic value which compose its forests; of the materials in kind and quantity which they
furnish; and of the status of the movement for the introduction of forestry principles in their use,
is brought together mainly from scattered data published by the Division of Forestry and from
other sources.

ORIGINAL CONDITION OF FOREST AREAS.

The territorial distribution of forest areas in the United States, and indeed on the whole
continent, can be divided with more or less precision into three grand divisions:

(1) The Atlantic forest, covering mountains and valleys in the Hast, reaching westward to the
Mississippi River and beyond to the Indian Territory and south into Texas, an area of about
1,361,330 square miles, mostly of mixed growth, hard woods and conifers, with here and there
large areas of coniferous growth alone—a vast and continuous forest.

(2) The mountain forest of the West, or Pacific forest, covering the higher elevations below
timber line of the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada, and Coast Range, which may be estimated at
181,015 square miles, almost exclusively of coniferous growth, of enormous development on the
northern Pacific coast, more or less scattered in the interior and to the south.

(3) The prairies, plains, lower elevations, and valleys of the West, with a scattered tree
growth, on which, whether from climatic, geologic, or other causes, forest growth is confined
mostly to the river bottoms or other favorable situations, an area of about 1,427,055 square miles,
of which 276,965 square miles may be considered under forest cover of deciduous species east
of the Rockies and of coniferous and deciduous species in the west of this divide.

Until the present century, in fact until nearly the last half of it, the activity of man on this
continent has practically been confined to the eastern portion, which, as stated, was originally
covered with a dense or at least continuous forest. The substructure of the entire civilization of
the United States was hewn out of these primeval woodlands.

Out of the vast virgin forest area of the eastern half of the country there have been
cleared for farm use during this time 250,000,000 acres, or 400,000 square miles, leaving about
961,330 square miles covered actually or nominally with forest growth or waste.

Timber being a great obstacle to the settlement of the land, and the market for it until
recently being confined and limited, a large amount had to be wasted and disposed of in the log
pile, where the flames made quick work of the scrub as well as of the finest walnut trees.

The settlement of the western mountain country, although emigration to Oregon began in
1842, assumed proportions of practical importance only when the gold fever took many travelers
over the plains and mountains to California in 1819 and the following years. If only the legiti-
mate need of the population of this region for cleared land and for timber had made drafts upon
the forest resources, the change in forest conditions would have been insignificant, but the
recklessness which the carelessness of pioneer life and seemingly inexhaustible resources
engender has resulted in the absolute destruction by fire of many thousand square miles of forest
growth and the deterioration in quality and future promise of as many thousands more.

The third region, the so-called ‘treeless area,” has experienced, since the advent of the white
settlers and the driving out of the Indians, changes which are almost marvelous. The prairies
were reached by settlers in any considerable number only as late as the third and fourth decades

45

46 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of this century, but they and their successors have not only occupied a farm area of 80,000,000
productive acres, but they have also dotted the open country with groves, smaller or larger, either
by planting them or, by keeping out fire and cattle, aiding the natural reforestation.

PRESENT CONDITION.

The requirements of the settlement of agricultural lands, then, have necessitated the removal
of the forest from about 250,000,000 acres. But in additicn two other causes—fire and wood con-
sumption—have reduced the really forest-bearing area still further. While the larger amount of .
wood products is not secured by clearing lands, but inostly by culling the virgin forest of the
best kinds and the best individual trees, so that at least a woodgrowth more or less valuable
continues to occupy the ground, many of these areas are so severely culled that they are of no
economic value. Especially when, as is often the case, fires follow the operations of the lumber-
men, not only the old timber and the young growth, but the mold, the fertility of the soil, a
product of centuries of decaying vegetation, is also destroyed and the ground is occupied by weeds
and useless brush. If left to itself and no fires recurring, these wastes may again become valu-
able forests, but this recuperation will take generations if not centuries before an economic value
attaches to the area. Thus in Wisconsin, as we will see further on, at least 4,000,000 acres have
been turned into veritable desert by these processes.

It will be readily understood that if we consider forests from the economic point of view as wood-
lands either containing or promising for the future wood of useful kinds, not merely tree weeds and
brush, we must classify and distinguish with more precision than merely into farm and forest.

The farm areas are ascertained by the census. But of the balance of areas we have no precise
knowledge as to its condition, whether virgin and valuable forest growth or a useless and more
than useless brush growth occupies them, preventing reestablishment of desirable growth, or
whether it is waste, but open country.

Not only should we know the timber areas which contain supplies ready for the ax and for
present consumption, but in the so-called second growth we must distinguish the areas which
promise new supplies of value and those brush lands which are not only not growing a new timber
crop, but, on the contrary, prevent the growth of timber and will for generations to come be mere
waste lands.

The census authorities have never had a conception of these differences, hence we are without
precise knowledge of the condition of things. It is to be hoped that for the next census, in the
year 1900, provision will be made to arrive at this knowledge with some precision, under such a
plan as outlined in Bulletin 16 of the Division of Forestry, the results of which for the State of
Wisconsin appear at the end of this report.

Meanwhile, a canvass of the available information has enabled the Division of Forestry to
estimate the present conditions (1893), as represented by the following tabulation, giving the
approximated relation of improved land, forest, and waste land:

Improved and forest land in the United States.

Area. Per cent.
Brush,
Total land Tape oved Improved forest, Probably | Brush Open
surface. (eames Jand. and waste forest, Jand. | country.
STS: land. :
Acres. Acres.

LORS) SWAMIES 6 ssosassnecetes noodaposcomoseecss 1, 900, 800, 000 | 357, 616, 000 18 82 PAD) SeesboOS5el labsocassea
HIGMMNE) . «so scngsoohagegnoossasconte sesso eeresocsanos 19, 132, 000 3, 044, 000 15 j 85
New Hampshire. - 2 a 5 5, 783, 000 1, 727, 000 29 71
Vermont -......-.- ses soos 2 5, 846, 000 2, 655. 000 45 55
Massachusetts - 5, 155, 000 1, 657, 000 32 68
Rhode Island .- ace 694, 000 274, 000 39 60

GConnecticutsews-. ceoroe cee eee onan soe ee aneee ne 3,100, 000 1, 379, 000 44 5a |

New England States ------- ee 39, 710, 000 10, 736, 000 27 73 BP ees i ewer
New York... 30,876,000 | 16, 389, 000 54 46
Pennsylvania 28, 790, 000 13, 210, 000 45 65
New Jersey -- 4, 671, 000 1, 999, 000 42 58
Delaware... Q 1, 254, 000 762, 000 60 40
Maryland coos x 6, 310, 000 3, 412, 000 54 » 46

Middle Atlantic States.............-..--...--...- 71, 401, 000 | 35, 772, 000 50 50 23! |bossesosodeesceness

i oo Ee SS

PRESENT CONDITION OF FOREST AREAS.

Improved and forest land in the United States—Continued,

47

Nore.—The authority for the area of improved farm land is furnished by the census of 1890.

Area. Per cent.
Brush,
Total land TOE, Ned Improved forest, Probably Brush Open
surface. ti land. and waste forest. land. | country.
Eeah land.
Acres. Acres.
AWARE, cococau pongo secu poetence acscoanecbososedocace 25, 680, 000 9, 125, 000 385 65
North Carolina. 31, 089, 000 7, 828, 000 25 75
South Carolina - - 19, 308, 000 5, 255, 000 2 73
(EKCOWBE) coco6b cos2oe soemsdabsece uneosdSReeSrSEosaSsasE 38, 647, COO 9, 582, 000 24 76
Southern Atlantic States. .....-...--.--.--------- 114, 724, 000 31, 790, 000 27 73 ON Seocisenosd locosequeas
JNA) COASM Soosda osecdooassonocesdd wosospens 225, 835, 000 78, 298, 000 35 65 £8} |lncososcdse||socosaqsas
IND) cecseeqoonostocoendoedopeasscoboswocosscsnrse 34, 713, 000 1, 145, 000 3 OW.
Alabama .-. 32, 986, 000 7, 698, 000 23 77
Mississippi- 2 29, 658, 000 6, 849, 000 23 17
TEOU ERENT des aecbar nce Danner Eee ane enero aaa 29, 069, 000 3, 775, 000 13 87
(Giol? QUAMIOS scesaoacotmacdbosoeeacosos sosobn opened 126, 426, 000 19, 467, 000 16 84 | Bil) |scsa5o5ess esso090C59
TIERS an. ce cas OUD UEEEo aT ERE ERE C BREE See eeBErscetee 167, 808, 000 | 20, 746, 000 12 88 93) eae ee cena ea ica toe
IMIG hie antes er sae nc sd is Mae aa eee artes 36, 755, 000 9, 865, 000 26 74
Wisconsin. - 3 34, 848, 000 9, 793, 000 28 712
AVEIMIMGS O balers tsetse eee niet eles sisienele ele eines eisai 50, 691, 000 11, 128, 000 21 79
Northern lumbering States....-.------.---.----.- 122, 294, 000 30, 786, 000 25 75
(QMM= <x Soneademadoceso cantatas daasaososaacccabocessnns 26, 086, 000 18, 338, 000 71 29
Indiana 22, 982, 000 15, 107, 000 65 35
Illinois... 35, 840, 000 25, 669, 000 val 29 |
Northern agricultural States.------.-.----------- 84, 908, 000 59, 114, 000 69 31
FATE Y SAUTINS See uae oer yee halon tar Be 207, 202, 000 | 89, 900, 000 | 3 ~ Bi Bit saese Bom hap eeaer 2
Riestaviine ini neste aenaeee ell Ses RLS ciel “15,772,000 | 4,554,000 | 28 72
Kentucky -- 25,600,000 | 11, 819, 000 46 54
Tennessee. - 3 26, 720, 000 9, 362, 000 35 65
Arkansas 2 33, 949, 000 | 5, +75, 000 16 84
IMMUN Sono sboncoss ssenossccoosesene o 43, 990, 000 19, 792, 000 45 55
(Clemntnfall (SIBTIES pose. n5 cee chonecnoecanocooseesscosnos 146, 031, 000 51, 092, 000 35 65
UOWAl peace set seoosesoasesoss soroe ro oreseoosseenosnenS 35, 504, 000 25, 429, 000 71 29
North Dakota. 45, 308, 000 4, 658, 000 10 90
South Dakota - 49, 696, 000 6, 959, 000 14 86
Nebraska, -- 42,998,000 | 15, 247, 000 34 65
Kansas. -- 2 52, 288, 000 22, 303, 000 42 58
OI NONE) soaS copes eanoc en pecoocssasoncoesetconsoss 24, 960, 000 | 564, 000 2 98 ||
4 | é
TPG) SUBMIS) ~seaccqsneccegoapoorsccssosoqcesses 250, 754, 000 75, 160, 000 30 70 OU Re eomme eds losenascooe
TaRTBRNON, SWATHS coscoocsnnecsoce ase seaceosooeoes 396, 785, 000 | 126, 162, 000 32, | 68 D0) (REDE aaa nee
MONTANA neta Vk cane sea Nevaqaeeel 92, 998, 000 | 915, 040 1 99 18 20 61
Wyoming. - 62, 448, 000 476, 000 0-7 99 12 16 val
Colorado .-- 66, 332, 000 1, 823, 000 2:7 97 16 21 60
IWOW7 WUERTOO) —aoseeeosoe =e Ubborsbaccotecsssosesaces 78, 374, 000 263, 000 0°3 99 | 6 21 12
Eastern Rocky Mountain region...-....---.----. 300, 154, 000 3, 477, 000 1 99 13 20 66
Id AO Peer acon ee es oe deme ces ezawecccoeseees 53, 945, 000 606, 000 1 99 20 | 40 39
Nevada -. 70, 233, 000 723, 000 1 GR) esemonsccose 9 90
Utah....- 52, 601, 000 548, 000 1 99 16 27 56
© ANIMADTMaconsseaccnescantaeSa SoS socaonencosacaSsoncried 72, 268, 000 104, 000 0-1 99):9) 14 12 74
Western Rocky Mountain region ...-.....-..---- 249, 047, 000 1, 981, 000 0:7 99°3 8 22 69
ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION ........-.....-----.--- 549, 201, 000 5, 458, 000 1 99 10 21 6
Califormiateres sees 2 99, 827, 000 12, 222, 000 | 12 88 18 27 43
Oregon -.-- > 60, 518, 000 3, 516, 000 6 94 34 28 32
WESTON scoop sosonnSotossesososnEaTapDoTSaeDaS 42, 708, 000 1, 820, 000 4 96 55 21 20
TENG COAEH onan sa codes cenaccacmbsoacedasontedcss 2038, 048, 000 17, 558, 000 8 92 30 27 35

The areas of forest, brush, and waste

lands were ascertained by subtracting the area of cultivated land from the total land areas of the several States, and are placed as per cent
of the total areas in column 4. The part of these supposed to be forest is estimated on information obtained by various agencies. For the
western section of the country the further subdivision into forest, brush, and open country is based partly on statistics gathered by Colonel

Ensign and published in Bulletin 2 of the Division o

Forestry, and partly on the map republished from the report of the Division for 1892.

These figures would indicate that, in round numbers, less than 350,000,000 acres are turned
into farm Jands, more than two-thirds of which was hewn out of the forest; that the productive
area of forest growth, by no means all virgin, falls somewhat below 500,000,000 acres; that nearly
450,000,000 acres are open country, which is presumably incapable of producing any valuable
forest growth on account of climatic deficiencies, leaving a balance of over 600,000,000 acres as
waste and brush land, of which at least three-fourths have been made so by the combined efforts

of ax and fire.

48 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tt will appear astonishing to those who have not paid attention to the question of the settle-
ment of this country to learn from the above table that while of the total country only 18 per
cent is improved, and for every acre of farm land in the forested country we have destroyed
nearly three acres of forest growth, the better developed eastern part (east of Colorado) shows
only 29 per cent improved, and even the long-settled Atlantic coast, which we are apt to consider
fully occupied, still possesses 65 per cent of unimproved land, of which we estimate 43 per cent
as woodland, while the percentage of woodland for the whole country is 26. There would be wood-
land enough to satisfy our needs for many decades if attention were but paid to its rational use
and to the recuperation of the cut-over areas; but the condition of the wooded areas, which have
been culled, is well known to be so poor, as far as market supplies are concerned, that for genera-
tions to come they must be left out of consideration.

The accompanying map (PI. Ll) shows by various grades of color the approximate relative
proportion of forest to total area, and the character of the merchantable kinds of lumber that are
derived from the different regions is indicated.

A second map (PI. Il) shows more in detail the condition of that section of the country west
of the ninety-seventh degree of longitude, which, being largely situated in the dry region, requires
greatest attention to conservative forest use aud contains still large areas of public timber lands.
The information is derived from members of the United States Geological Survey and others
acquainted with the region. It must not be overlooked, however, that these are not accurate
surveys, but approximations, and that a large per cent, often from 25 to 50 per cent of the area
falling within the timber land or brush-land area, is prairie, open country, waste land, or in culti-
vation. The location and size of the national forest reservations, first made under the act of March
3, 1891, have also been outlined on this map, suggesting a desirable extension of this policy which
has since been had.

The figures and maps show the very uneven distribution of the forest areas, which is an
important fact from an economic point of view. Seven-tenths are found on the Atlantic side of
the continent, only one-tenth on the Pacific coast, another tenth on the Rocky Mountains, the
balance being scattered over the interior of the Western States.

Both the New England States and the Southern States have still 50 per cent of their area,
more or less, under forest cover, but in the former the merchantable timber has been largely
removed.

The prairie States, with an area in round numbers of 400,000 square miles, contain hardly 4
per cent of forest growth, and the 1,330,000 square miles—more than one-third of the whole
country—of arid or semiarid character in the interior contain practically no forest growth,
economically speaking.

The character of the forest growth also varies in the different regions, as we will presently see
more in detail. On the Pacific coast, hard woods are rare, the principal growth being coniferous
and of extraordinary development. Besides gigantic redwoods, the soft sugar pine and the hard
bull pine, various spruces and firs, cedars, hemlocks, and larch form the valuable supplies.

In the Rocky Mountains no hard woods of commercial value occur, the growth being mainly
of spruces, firs, and bull pine, with other pines and cedars of more or less value.

The Southern States contain in their more southern section large areas occupied almost
exclusively by pine forests, with the cypress in the bottom lands; the more northern portions are
covered with hard woods almost exclusively, and intervening is a region of mixed hard-wood and
coniferous growth. Spruces, firs, and hemlocks are found in small quantities confined to the
mountain regions.

The Northern States are mainly occupied by hard-wood growths, with conifers intermixed,
sometimes the latter becoming entirely dominant, as in the spruce forests of Maine, New Hamp-
shire, or the Adirondacks, and here and there in the pineries of Michigan, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota, or in the hemlock regions of Pennsylvania and New York.

ForEst BoTANICGAL DESCRIPTION.

As stated before, we may divide the North American forest according to its botanical features
into two great forest regions, namely, the Atlantic, which is in the main characterized by broad-
leaved trees, and the Pacific, which is made up almost wholly of coniferous species. (See Pl. III.)

In the Atlantic forest, going from the south to the north, we can again discern several floral

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DISTRIBUTION OF
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WEST OF LONGITUDE 97
7) NATIONAL FOREST RESERVATIONS
Pau the Division of Forestry
.S.Department of Asricuiture.

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H. Doe. 181.

PLATE lil.

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of me

NoRTH AMERICAN FORESTS

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pes, egg PRE ; rd FOREST.

a)

PRESENT CONDITION OF FOREST AREAS. 49

subdivisions, each of which shows special characteristics. The southernmost coast and keys of
Florida, although several degrees north of the geographical limit of the Tropics, present a truly
tropical forest, rich in the species of the West Indian flora, which here finds a most northern
extension. There is no good reason for calling this outpost semitropical, as is done on Professor
Sargent’s map in the work for the Tenth Census. With the mahogany, the mastic, the royal
palm, the inangrove, the sea grape and some sixty more West India species represented, it is
tropical in all but its geographical position. That the northern flora joins the tropic forest here,
and thus brings together on this insignificant spot some hundred species, nearly one-quarter of all
the species found in the Atlantic forest, does not detract from its tropical character.

On the other hand, we may speak with good reason of a subtropical forest north of this
region; for here, where the live oak and water oak, the magnolias, the bay tree, and holly, and many
other broad-leaved trees, mixed with the sabal and dwarf palmetto, retain their green foliage all
through winter, we are forcibly impressed with the semitropic character of this region, which, under
the influence of the Gulf stream, extends in a narrow belt of some 20 or 25 miles width along the
the coast as far north as North Carolina.

While this evergreen broad-leaved forest is more or less confined to the rich hammocks and
moister situations, the poor sand soils of this as well as of the more northern region are occupied
by pines; and as these, especially the long-leaf pine, are celebrated all over the world and give
the great mercantile significance to these forests, we may well speak of this region from an
economic point of view as the “‘great southern pine belt.” North of the “‘winter-green,” subtropic
forest stretches the vast deciduous-leaved forest of the Atlantic, nowhere equaled in the temperate
regions of the world in extent and perfection of form, and hardly in the number of species. This
designation applies to the entire area up to the northern forest belt, for again the region formerly
segregated on the census map as the northern pine belt is still in the main the dominion of the
deciduous-leaved forest, with the pines, and in some parts spruces, intermixed, or on certain soils,
especially on the gravelly drifts and drier sands, become gregarious, even to the exclusion of other
species, as on the pine barrens of northern Michigan and the pineries of Wisconsin and Minne-
sota, which are occupied by two or three species of pine exclusively (white pine, red pine, jack
pine). This deciduous-leaved forest may, however, be divided by a line ranning somewhere below
the fortieth degree of latitude, where, with the northern limits of the southern magnolias and other
species, we may locate in general the northern limit of the southern forest flora. Northward from
here, in what we may call the ‘Middle Atlantic forest,” the deciduous species become less
numerous and coniferous growth becomes soon more so, until we arrive at the broad belt of the
northern forest, which, crossing from the Atlantic to the Pacific, composed of only 8 hardy species,
takes its stand against the frigid breath and icy hands of Boreas.

Abounding in streams, lakes, and swampy areas, the low divides of this region are occupied by
an open stunted forest of black and white spruce, while the bottoms are held by balsam firs, larch
or tamarack, poplars, dwarf birches, and willows. The white spruce, paper or canoe birch, balsam,
poplar, and aspen find congenial conditions, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, over the whole
continent.

On the Pacific side the subdivisions of the coniferous forest are rather ranked from west to
east. The Pacific interior forest on the Rocky Mountains is wrestling with the drougthy atmos-
phere of the plains and Interior Basin.

Here on the driest parts, where the sage brush finds its home, the ponderous bull pine is the
foremost tree, and where even this hardy tree can not succeed in the Interior Basin an eastern
ally, the red cedar (now differentiated into different species), holds the fort in company -with the
nut pine, small and stunted, covering with an open growth the mesas and lower mountain slopes.
On the higher and therefore moister and cooler elevations, and especially northern and north-
western exposures, and in the narrow canyons where evaporation is diminished and the soil is
fresher, the somber Douglas, Engelmann, and blue spruces and the silver-foliaged white fir join
the pines or take their place.

With few exceptions the same species, only of better development, are found in the second
parallel which occupies the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada. Additional forces here strengthen
the ranks; the great sugar pine, two noble firs, a mighty larch, hemlocks and cedars, arborvites,
and the big sequoias. The third parallel, the forest of the Coast Range, the most wonderfully

H. Doe. 181 —4

50 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

developed although far from being the most varied of this continent, is characterized by the red-
wood, the tideland or Sitka spruce, hemlock, and giant arborvite.

Broad-leaved trees are not absent, but so little developed in comparison with the mighty conifers
that they play no conspicuous part except along the river bottoms, where maples, cottonwood, ash,
and alder thrive, and in the narrow interior valleys and slopes an open growth of oak is found.
Toward the south and on the lower levels the broad-leaved trees again become evergreen as on
the Atlantic side, and with a new tribe of pines, with large hooked cones added, form a subtropic
flora.

Finally to the south, analogously to the extension of the tropical West Indian flora in Florida,
we find a northern extension of the Mexican forest, mingled with which species from the Pacific
forest on the west and from the Atlantic on the east. The mesquite and some acacias, the tree
yuccas, and the giant or tree cactus are perhaps the most characteristic and remarkable species
of the deserts of this region, while the high mountains support dense forests of firs and pines.

This distribution of forest types is exhibited on the accompanying map. Besides the botanical
and geographical interest it has an eminently practical interest to the forester, because it shows
him the limits within which he may expect to produce satisfactory results with the species of trees
composing the forest in each section.

While a vast territory on the Atlantic side and a narrower belt on the Pacific coast, connected
by a broad belt through the northern latitudes, bears the forest growth thus differentiated, with
the crest and slopes of the Rocky Mountains forming an intermediate extension from the Northern
belt, there is a vast empire in the interior without forest growth, although not entirely without
tree growth, the prairies and plains.

Of parts of this territory we feel reasonably certain from strong evidences that the forest once
occupied them, but has been driven off by aboriginal man, the firebrand taking sides with the
grasses, and the buffalo probably being a potent element in preventing reestablishment. In other
parts it is questionable whether the lines along the river courses, the straggling trees on the pla-
teaus and slopes, are remnants of a vanquished army or outposts of an advancing one. In some
parts, like the dry mesas, plateaus, and arroyos of the interior basin, and the desert-like valleys
toward the southern frontiers, it may reasonably be doubted whether arborescent flora has more
than begun its slow advance from the outskirts of the established territory.

Certain it is that climatic conditions in these forestless regions are most unfavorable to tree
growth, and it may well be questioned whether in some parts the odds are not entirely against the
progress of the forest. .

Temperature and moisture conditions of air and soil determine ultimately the character of
vegetation, and these are dependent not only on latitude, but largely on configuration of the land,
and especially on the direction of moisture-bearing winds with reference to the trend of mountains.

The winds from the Pacific Ocean striking against the Coast Range are forced by the compres-
sion and subsequent cooling to give up much of their moisture on the windward side; a second
impact and further condensation of the moisture takes place on the Cascade Range and Sierra
Nevada. On descending, with consequent expansion, the wind becomes warmer and drier, so that
the interior basin, without additional sources of moisture and no additional cause for condensation,
is left without much rainfall and with a very low relative humidity, namely, below 50 per cent.
The Rocky Mountains finally squeeze out whatever moisture remains in the air currents, which
arrive proportionally drier on the eastern slope. This dry condition extends over the plains until
the moist currents from the Gulf of Mexico modify it. Somewhat corresponding, yet not quite, to
this distribution of moisture, the western slopes are found to be better wooded than the eastern,
and the greater difficulty of establishing a forest cover here must be admitted; yet since the forest
has the capacity of creating its own conditions of existence by increasing the most important

factor of its life, the relative humidity, the extension of the Same may only be a question of time. - -

Temperature extremes, to be sure, also set a limit to tree growth, and hence the so-called tim-
ber line of high mountains, which changes in altitude according to the latitude.

If, now, we turn our attention from the phyto-geographic consideration of the forest cover to
the botanical features, we may claim that the North American forest, with 450 or more arborescent
species, belonging to 158 genera, many of which are truly endemic, surpasses in variety of useful
species and magnificent development any other forest of the temperate zone, Japan hardly excepted,

TREES OF THE UNITED STATES IMPORTANT IN FORESTRY. 51

In addition there are probably nowhere to be seen such extensive fields of distribution of single
species.

These two facts are probably explained by the north-and-south direction of the mountain
ranges, which permitted a reestablishment after the Ice age of many species farther northward,
while in Europe and the main part of Asia the east-west direction of the mountains offered an
effectual barrier to such reestablishment, and reduced the number of species and their field of
distribution; nor are the climatic differences of different latitudes in North America as great as in
Burope, which again predicates greater extent in the fields of distribution north and south. On
the other hand, the differences east and west in floral composition of the American forest are
greater than if an ocean had separated the two parts instead of the prairie and plains. This fact
would militate against our theory that the intermediate forestless region was or would be eventu-
ally forested with species from both the established forest regions, if we did not find some species
represented in both regions and a junction of the two floras in the very region of the forestless
areas. In the sand hills which traverse Nebraska from east to west there are now found in eastern
counties the sand-drowned trunks of the western bull pine, and the same pine belonging to the
Pacific flora is found associated with the black walnut of the eastern region along the Niobrara
River.

Of the many species which in each of the forest regions compose the forest, only a limited
number can be classed as economically valuable, although the question as to what is valuable is
not one readily answered, since many trees which appeared valueless at first have proved their
usefulness when better known or when the more serviceable timbers became scarcer. The trade
papers quote at best only 35 to 40 kinds, of which only 10 to 12 are regular staples. In addition,
some species possess value to the forester in his silvicultural operations, as nurses, soil cover, etc.,
which tothe wood consumer appear only as tree-weeds. Finally, some species, like the lodgepole
pine of the Northern Rocky Mountains, are most valuable from the national economic point of
view, because covering large areas of mountain slopes, thereby not only furnishing wood supplies,
albeit of an inferior character, to the resident population, but covering the watersheds and favorably
influencing soil and water conditions.

The selection of species to be considered economically valuable, therefore, must be, to some
extent, arbitrary, and be guided by a variety of considerations in which those of the present may
vary from those of the future. The relative value of those selected may also change from time to
time and from locality to locality.

Thus for the present we can dismiss from consideration the 60 to 70 species of tropical origin,
importations from the West Indies, found along the coast and keys of Florida in small quantities,
as economically of little consequence on account of the small area which they do and can occupy.

Another similar exclusion may be made of some species which overlap from the Mexican flora,
some 26 or 27, with but a confined distribution in the United States. There remain then about 360
species which call for a discriminating classification, and if we exclude all species which, as a rule,
do not exceed 1 foot in diameter, we decrease this number again to, say, 235 species, which, possibly,
may enter into the consideration of forest management and are of economic value.

A full checklist of the eutire arborescent flora is to be found (besides the magnificent work,
the Silva, by Prof. C. 8S. Sargent, which describes this flora fully by word and picture) in Bulletin
14 of the Division of Forestry, and a more condensed statement in Bulletin 18. For the present
report, which is to consider economic questions mainly, the list given in the next few pages, being
reproduced from the Annual Report of the Division for 1886, somewhat revised, may suffice.

TREES OF THE UNITED STATES IMPORTANT IN FORESTRY.

[Lhe relative value of the different species here enumerated is indicated in three classés by difference in type, as follows: First grade,
WHITE PINE; second grade, JEFFREY PINE; third grade, PITCH PINE.
The size stated refers to averages of mature trees; the + sign denoting that larger dimensions are not uncommon. |

A. CONIFERS.
(Evergreen and needle-leafed trees, with a few exceptions. )

The most valuable forest trees, as well on account of their usefulness as for their effects in forestry, due to the
evergreen foliage of most of them persistent through several years; most capable of covering extensive areas exclu-
sively, and with deciduous trees most excellent aids in forestry on account of their habit of growth and their soil-

52

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

improving qualities; practically not capable of reproduction by sprouting from the stocks or cuttings; mostly
periodical seeders; persistent growers. t
Pines.—The most useful conifers and most important forest trees, mostly of the plain; reaching desirable
development in comparatively dry, even barren, situations.
on light sandy soils with clay subsoil.
Characteristics.—Leaves arranged in twos, threes, or fives in one sheath; cones with thickened scales: seeds
almond-shaped, nut-like, of mottled appearance, with their wings only lightly attached; maturing the second year,

and preserving their germinating power well.

United States.

Mostly needing light; tolerably rapid growers; best

Sixty to seventy species, of which thirty-five are indigenous to the

Wood.—Very variable, very light and soft in “soft” pine, such as white pine; of medium weight to heavy and

quite hard in ‘‘hard” pine, of which Longleaf or Georgia pine is the extreme form.
of even texture, and more or less resinous.

The sapwood is yellowish-white; the heartwood, orange-brown.

Usually it is stiff, quite strong,
Pine

shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly and without much injury; it works easily; is never too hard to nail (unlike oak
or hickory); it is mostly quite durable, and if well seasoned is not subject to the attacks of boring insects. The

heavier the wood, the darker, stronger, and harder it is, and the more it shrinks and checks.
It is the principal wood in common carpentry, as well as in all heavy
It is also used in almost every other wood industry, for spars, masts, planks,

extensively than any other kind of wood.
construction, bridges, trestles, etc.

Pine is used more

and timbers in shipbuilding, in car and wagon construction, in cooperage, for crates and boxes, in furniture work,
for toys and patterns, railway ties, water pipes, excelsior, ete.
straight, cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the greatest part of the tree; they occur in vast forests, a fact
which greatly facilitates their utilization.

Pines are usually large trees with few branches, the

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character and uses of their wood.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

1. WHITE PINE

(Pinus strobus Linn.)

Height, 120 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.

2. RED PINE

(NORWAY PINE.)
(Pinus resinosa Ait.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diametir
2 feet +.

Bh TIN CVE 2M ID) = sacacccasesosncedses
(Pinus rigida Miller.)

Height, 50 feet+; diameter,
14 feet +.

Gh, ALAM OIE TRIED) ence socnacaaeseerecess
(SCRUB PINE. PRINCE'S PINE.)
(Pinus divaricata (Ait.) Gord.)

Height, 60 feet + ; diameter,
1 foot +.

5. SCRUB PINE
(Pinus virginiana Mill.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,

2 teet +.

6. LONGLEAF PINE

(SOUTHERN PINE, YELLOW
Pine. GEORGIA PINE. HaArpD
PINE.)

(Pinus palustris Miller.)

Height, 100 feet+: diam-
eter, 24 feet +.
7. SHORTLEAEF PINE......-.

(BuLL PINE. YELLOW PINE.
SPRUCE PINE.)

(Pinus echinata Miller.)

Height, 90 feet +-; diameter,
2 feet +.

Northern; wide range, forming
forests to Southern mountaius.

Best development in region of the
Great Lakes.

Northern; associated mostly with
White Pine.

Greatest development from Michi-
gan to Minnesota.

Northeastern and Middle Atlantic
States.

Northern (in United States), form-
ing forests far north.

Greatest development north of
Lake Superior. ~

Middle Atlantic region ....-...-..-

South Atlantic and Gulf States...

Middle Atlantic and Southern
States; associated mostly with
hardwood trees.

Best development in western Lou-
isiana, southern Arkansas, and
eastern Texas.

Best on light, sandy, fresh, deep soil, but successful on a large
range of svils from dry to moist. Rapid grower; endures
some shade; hardy, but little tolerant of drought.

The most important conifer of the United States; good quality,
however, only in centenarians. Is best mixed with deciduous
trees; of rather slow, but high percentage of germination;
plant one or two-year-old transplanted seedlings, or sow.

Soils like those of White Pine; adapted to many soils, but best
quality of timber produced in well-drained sands, Extremely
hardy; vigorous and rapid grower.

Should be favored in northern and northeastern planting with
White Pine and deciduous trees. So far, seed very expensive
and difficult to obtain.

Best on fresh to moist sand, but will succeed on dry, barren,
sandy, or rocky soils, and even on wet, cold, swampy ground,
or seacoasts liable to floods.

A rapid grower, and when young hardy and indifferent® to
drought; light-needing; an early seeder; sprouts from the
stump; not easily transplanted; best and easily propagated
from seed; mainly for seacoast planting.

Common on sandy, barren soil.

Valuable only as first cover for northern pine-barrens. Rapid
grower in its youth and easily handled; very hardy, enduring
heat and cold well; successful on the plains.

Common on poor, dry, sandy, gravelly, and clayey soils; less
frequent in rich soils. Moderately rapid grower, quickly
taking possession of old, worn-out fields and washed lauds.

Well-drained, loose, deep sandy loam.or grayel.

The slow growth of first five years (quasi-endogenous) makes
its forestry problematic; development dependent on atmos-
pheric moisture; least shade-enduring of pines.

Rare, but plentiful seeder; germinates freely; can therefore be
propagated by sowing seed in permanent place.

Most valuable pine of the South, but for best quality requires
long period of growth (two hundred years’). :

More common on light sandy soil than on low borders of
swamps.

A rather slow grower; will succeed on the poorest soil.

Easily
reproduced; good seeder; light-needing.

LIST OF ONE HUNDRED TREES MOST VALUABLE FOR TIMBER.

53

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution ,
cultural requirements, and the character and uses of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

8.

10.

11.

13.

14.

15.

. LOBLOLLY PINE

. BRISTLE-CONE PINE

CUBAN PINE

(SPLASH PINE.
BASTARD PINE.)

(Pinus heterophylla
Sudw.)

(E11.)

Height, 90 feet + ; diameter,
2 feet+.

(OLD-FIELD PINE.)
(Pinus teda Linn.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
2% feet +.
SPRUCE PINE

(OLD-FIELD PINE OF FLORIDA.
CEDAR PINE. WHITE PINE.)

(Pinus glabra Walter.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +.
BULL PINE

(YELLOW PINE. HEAVY-WOODED
PINE.)

(Pinus ponderosa Douglas.)

Height, 200 feet+ ; diameter,
12 feet +.

Pinus aristata Engelm.)
s

Height, 100 feet; diameter,
4 feet.

SUGAR PINE...............--

(Pinus lambertiana Doug.)

Height, 150 feet + ; diameter,
4 feet +.

SILVER PINE

(MOUNTAIN PINK.
GAR PINE.)

LITTLE Su-

(Pinus monticola.)

Height, 100 feet+ ; diameter,
4 feet+.

MONTEREY PINE............--.

(Pinus radiata Don.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +.

Swamp PINE. |

| Greatest development in Virginia

Southern and southeastern coast;
local in swamps and near water
courses.

Best development in eastern Flor-
ida.

Southeastern

and North Carolina.

Southeastern States .....--...-....
Best development in Alabama and
Mississippi.

Rocky Mountains to the Pacific,
up to high elevations; forming
forests.

Best developed on western slope of
Sierras of northern and central
California.

Local-—Rocky Mountains and
southeastern California; above
7,500 feet.

Western Pacific slope.-----.--..--.

Best development in Sierras of
central and northern California
above 4,000 feet; lower in Ore-
gon.

Northern Rocky Mountains and
Western Pacific slope.

Best development numerically in
northern Idaho.

Local—California coast, south of
San Francisco.

Light sandy soil; somewhat indifferent to drainage.

Rapid grower,; easily reproduced ; matures seed yearly ; compet-
ing with the Longleaf Pine on wet sags; light-needing.

Low, moist, or dry sandy soils and abandoned fields.
Adapted to a wide range of sites.

Rapid grower; light-needing ; seeds persistently and plentifully.
A useful concomitant of Southern forestry.

Grows on better and moister soils than Pinus teda, especially on
hummocks and rich bottom lands; rare; usually isolated or in
groups.

A rapid grower; shade-enduring.

Dry rocky ridges and prairies, sometimes in swamps; but best
in deep loamy sand.

Vigorons, rapid grower; very hardy, except when quite young.

Well adapted to dry, windy, exposed places; succeeds on West-
ern prairies.

The pine for reforesting southern exposures of the Western
mountain regions.

Dry, gravelly ridges.

The White Pine for cover of high elevations in southern Rocky
Mountains.

Very rapid grower.
Quite hardy in the East.

Best Pine for reforestation in its native habitat.

Similar to Sugar Pine, which it accompanies on the Pacific slope.

Light, well-drained soils, and on drifting sands.

Easily propagated; seed of very high percentage of germina-
tion; very rapid grower. Useful for reforesting Western
barrens.

abundantly; crown pyramidal; about twelve species, of which five are indigenous.

II. Spruces.—Next in importance to the pines, though the wood is less resinous, weaker, and not so durable.
Of northern or mountain habitat, in cool situations and moist soils; endures shade, and grows mostly with rapidity
and persistency. The Norway Spruce of Europe appears, so far, superior for forestry to the native species.

Characteristics.—Leaves single, rigid, sharp-pointed, four-cornered, bristling mostly all around the twigs; cones
oblong, hanging, with thin, persistent scales; seeds resembling those of the pines, but usually smaller, more uniform
in color, and angular; mature the first year, and preserve power of germination well; mostly periodical, but seeds

Spruce wood resembles soft

pine, is light, soft, stiff, moderately strong, less resinous than pine; has no distinct heartwood, and is of whitish
color; used like soft pine, but also employed as resonance wood, and preferred for paper pulp. Spruces, like pines,

form extensive forests.
more humid climate.

rin ged forms of the Black Spruce (Picea mariana).

They are more frugal, thrive on thinner soils, and bear more shade, but usually require a
“Black” and ‘“‘white” spruce, as applied by lumbermen, usually refer to narrow and wide

5

4

‘FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character and uses of their wood—Continued.

16. BLACK SPRUCE!

17.

18

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

(Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S. P.)--
Height, 80 feet; diameter,
1h feet +.
. WHITE SPRUCE
(Picea canadensis (Mill.) B.S. P.)

Height, 100 feet;
13 feet +.

. ENGELMANN SPRUCE.......-.-

(WHITE SPRUCE.)

diameter,

(Picea engelmanni Engelm.)

Height, 100 feet+ ; diameter,
3 feet +.

1), SPGIEKON SUED CI 9) Sonos saeseensne

(TIDE-LAND SPRUCE.)
(Picea sitchensis Carriére.)

Height, 150 feet + ; diameter,
6 teet +.

Mainly
forests.

northeastern; forming

Best development north of lati-
tude 50°.

Mainly northeastern and extend-
ing into Rocky Mountains;
forming forests.

Western mountain regions and
northward; high elevation.

Best developmentin central Rocky
Mountain region, between 9,000
and 10,000 feet.

Alaska and Northwestern coast;
low elevations.

Light, dry, stony soils; much smaller in cold, wet swamps.

Rapid grower.

Like Black Spruce, but probably better adapted to western
planting, being hardier.

Dry, gravelly slopes, 5,000 to 11,500 feet.

A tree for reforestation of mountain slopes along water courses.

Moist soil and climate, at least a moist subsoil, shady situ-
ations. Itapid grower.

Probably hardy in Northeastern and Middle States, in shaded
positions.

‘Includes also the Red Spruce (Picea rubra), this being the principal timber spruce of the region.

III. Firs.—Important to forestry mainly on account of their great endurance of shade. Ofnorthern and moun-
tain distribution; still more dependent on moisture of climate and cool or at least evenly tempered situations than
the spruces, and in their youth mostly less hardy; usually grow slowly, but persistently. Some exotics seem to be
of more value than the native species (Abies nordmanniana).

Characteristics.—Leaves single, flat, rather blunt, arranged somewhat comb-like on the twigs.

Cones cylindrical,

standing erect on the branches; scales thin, and falling away when mature; seeds triangular, partly inclesed by a

more or less persistent wing; mature first year, but do not preserve their power of germination well.

abundant seeders. About eighteen species, of which eight are indigenous.

especially in English markets, to pine.

Crown conical.

Frequent and

The name is frequently applied to wood and to trees which are not fir; most commonly to spruce, but also,

The wood resembles spruce in color, quality, and uses, but is easily distin-

guished from it, as well as from pine and larch, by the absence of resin ducts.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

20

21

23

. WHITE FIR
(BALSAM Fir. BLAcK BALSAM.)
(Abies concolor (Gord.) Parry.)

Height, 100 fect + ; diameter,
4 feet +.

SUB AN SAUER en eee ene sean a
(BALM OF GILEAD Fir.)
(Abies balsamea Miller.)

Height, 70 feet +; diameter,
1s feet +.

. GREAT SILVER FIR.......--.--
(WHITE FIR.)
(Abies grandis Lindl.)

Height, 200 feet; diameter,
5 feet +.

. NOBLE FIR
(Abies nobilis Lindl.)

Height, 200 feet + ; diameter,
5 feet -+.

Southwestern mountains and Pa-
cific slope; high elevations.

Best development in Sierras of
California.

Northeastern States and north-
ward.

Northwestern coast..----.--------.

Best development in western
Washington and Oregon, along
river bottoms.

Northwestern coast; wide range;
always near mountain tops and
high elevations; found often in
groves dispersed through exten-
Sive forrests.

Best development in Sierra Nevada,
from Columbia River to northern
California.

Moist slopes and canyons, between 3,000 and 9,000 feet; cool and
shady situations.

Cold, damp woods and swamps.

Rapid grower. Valuable only as undergrowth or as nurse,
and in imperfectly drained situations.

Bottom lands; rich, moist soil.

Very hardy and rapid grower; affected Jess by late frosts and
occasional droughts than most firs.

Probably hardy east of the Rocky Mountains, with proper
protection. :

Requiring moist atmosphere for best development.

LIST OF ONE HUNDRED TREES MOST VALUABLE FOR TIMBER.

55

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character aud uses of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

24. AMABILIS FIR
(Abies amabilis (Loud.) Forbes.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
4 feet +.

According to others, 250 feet
high and5 feet in diameter.

Northwestern coast, mostly asso-
ciated with the preceding
species.

Best development on mountains
south of the Columbia River;
3,000 to 4,000 feet.

Gravelly soils.

Will probably prove hardy in Eastern States.

IV. BasTarD SpRUCES.—Under this name may be grouped the Hemlocks and Douglas Spruce, formerly classed

with the spruces and firs proper.
situations; enduring considerable shade.

Mostly of northern distribution, and therefore best adapted to cool, moist
Some of the species grow very rapidly.

Characteristics.—Leaves single, flat, linear, with distinct stalks (petioles) somewhat comb-like in their arrange-

ment on the twigs.

Cones usually small, with thin scales, hanging from the ends of the branches.

Seeds partly

inclosed in a persistent wing; resemble those of the firs, but of smaller size; mature the first year; donot keep well;
Branches pendant; crown spindle-like in form. Two genera, comprising seven
species, five of which are indigenous.

The wood of the Douglas Spruce resembles the common ‘‘hard pine” (Red, Loblolly, etc.) in texture and erain,
resembles the larch in color, and is used for all purposes for which pine is employed, the excellent dimensions

low percentage of germination.

naturally leading to its preferen

ce for many purposes.

The wood of the Eastern Hemlock is used chiefly for dimension stuff, also for boards, and recently for pulp; but
it has been well demonstrated that the wood is well suited even for finishing lumber, and that the prevailing

prejudice against it is as unwarranted in the case of the Eastern as in that of the Western Hemlock.

appearance of the wood in oil finish is very satisfactory.

The

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

25, DOUGLAS SPRUCE

(Rep Fir., YELLOW Fir. ORE-

GON PINE.)

(Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Poir.)
Britt.)

Height, 300 feet +; diame-
ter, 10 feet +.

26) HEMLOCK ~~... -.---

(Tsuga canadensis (Linn.) Carr.)

Height, 80 feet +; diame-
ter, 3 feet +.

27. WESTERN HEMLOCK

(Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.)
Carr.)
Height, 180 feet +; diame-
ter, 6 feet +.

Rocky Mountain region to Pacific;
wide range; forming forests.

Best development in Western Ore-
gon and Washington.

Northern and Eastern States, form-
ing forests.

Best development probably in

Canada.

| Northwestern States, between
1,000 and 4,000 feet.

Best development in western Ore-
gon and Washington.

Accommodates itself to many soils, but prefers a deep and moist
cool and well-drained one; succeeds well on a dry, slaty soil,
aud on sand dunes and exposed situations.

Surpasses almost all of the conifers in the rapidity of its growth,
and endures drought better than most of them; shade-endwr-
img.

One of the largest and most important forest trees of the West.
For Eastern planting seed should be procured trom Colorado
or Montana. Repairs damage very readily.

Light, alluvial loam, well-drained, but cool and moist situa-
tions.

Grows slowly when young, but tolerably rapidly after four or
five years; endures shade.

Excellent nurse tree for White Pine, with which it is usually
associated.

A substitute for the above species on the Pacific coast.
| An exceedingly rapid grower, even on poor soils.

Very shade-enduring, forming large part of the undergrowth in
its habitat.

VY. Drecrpuous Contrers.—Thongh botanically not classed together, yet in forestry they may be considered
allied, as the yearly fall of leaves improves the soil, while the absence of foliage during the winter and early spring

distinguishes them from the evergreens, and their extreme need of light requires similar forest management.

The

Larches are of Northern or mountain habitat and the Bald Cypress of local southern distribution; but are all adapted

to various situations.

thin scales.
abundantly.

The European Larch probably surpasses the Northeastern Tamarack in every respect.
Characteristics.—Larches: Leaves in clusters, slender, and soft.
Seeds small, triangular, nut-like in shape; mature the first year.
Seeds keep well, but are of low percentage of germination.

Cones small, egg-shaped, or elongated, with
Produces seed frequently and

Bald Cypress: Leaves single, sharp-pointed, very small and scanty, comb-like in the arrangement on the young

twigs.

Cones ball-like, with thick, woody scales, falling apart when mature.

Seeds irregularly triangular-shaped,

with hard, thick, wood-like shell; mature yearly abundantly, and keep well.

56 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character and use of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size. Regions of abundant growth. Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.
6
23. BALD CYPRESS...........) South Atlantic and Gulf States, | Indifferent to imperfect drainage and flooding, but capable of
forming forests in swamps and rapid growth on well-drained, moist, sandy soils, and hardy
(Laxodium distichwm Rich.) pine-barren ponds. as far north as latitude 39° and 40°, and even on Western
prairies. Positively light-needing. To be recommended for
Height, 150 feet; diameter, extensive planting im favorable situations, where even, supe-
8 feet. rior lumber may be expected.

29) UTVAUVCANIVA OUKG. 22 = atees = ante sae Northeastern (in United States)---| North of United States boundary, found on moist uplands;
south in United States, in cold, wet swamps; but probably of
(BLACK LARCH. HacKMATACK.) | Best development probably north more value when grown on deep, moist, well-drained soils, in

of the United States boundary. cool situations.

(Laria laricina (Du Roi) Koch.)
Rapid and persistent grower; light-needing. Deserves attention

Height, 80 feet; diameter, in Northern forestry, but only in mixed growths.
1 foot +.
30. WESTERN LARCHI........ Northwestern; elevations between | An important tree as a Western representative of the foregoing
2,500 and 5,000 feet. species, occupying dry slopes in dry climate.

(TAMARACK,)
Best development in valley of Flat-
(Laria occidentalis Nutt.) head River, Montana.

Height, 100 feet +; diame-
ter, 4 feet +.

VI. Cypress Famity.—Under this head may well be grouped the junipers and so-called cedars, to which can
be added the California redwoods. Characterized mostly by the shingle-like arrangement of their small, scaly
leaves, the small, roundish fruit (a cone, or berry-like), and by the usually upright habit of the branches and scanty
fall of leaves.

Their great endurance of shade makes them valuable adjuncts to forestry; otherwise of only secondary impor-
tance. Of the many species contained in seven genera, but fourteen are found in the United States.

Wood light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture; sap and heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the latter a
dull, grayish brown, or red. The wood seasons rapidly, shrinks and cheeks but little, and is very durable. Used
like soft pine, but owing to its great durability preferred for shingles, ete. Small sizes used for posts, ties, etc.
Cedars usually occur scattered, but they form in certain localities forests of considerable extent.

2

Name of species and limit of size. Regions of abundant growth. Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.
31. RED JUNIPER...........--- | Eastern United States. Prefers a mild climate; deep swamps, borders of streams,
ridges, hills; will thrive on a rather dry, loose soil. Easily
(SAVIN.) propagated from seed and cuttings. Perhaps the most im-
Best development in valley of Red portant conifer for Southwestern praiie planting, enduring

(Juniperus virginiana Linn.) River, Texas. drought and partial shade. Tolerably rapid grower.

Height, 50 feet + ; diameter,
14 feet +.

32. WHITE CEDAR

Atlantic and Gulf States to cen- | Always in low, marshy, or wet ground, where it thrives well

tral Mississippi. and grows rapidly. Endures moist, upland soils, but with
(Chamecyparis thyoides (Linn.), slow growth. Very shade-enduring; easy to propagate from
B.S. P.) Most abundant and best developed seed or cuttings.
Height, 70 feet + ; diameter, in Virginia and North Carolina.
14 feet. +.

33. PORT ORFORD CEDAR....--.--- | Smallrange; in Oregon along west- | Commonly in low, moist, rich soil. Apparently hardy in the
ern coast from Coos Bay, Oregon, Northeastern States and succeeds on deep, rich, upland soils

(Chamcecyparis lawsoniana to Crescent City, Cal. and maintains itself in clay loam.

(Maurr.) Parl.)

Height, 150 feet + ; diameter,

8 feet +.
34. VWELLOW CEDAR .........| Northwest coast region, from Mt..| Like Arbor Vitex.
Jetterson northward. Most com-
(Chamecyparis nootkatensis | mon on the seacoast north of
(Lamb.) Spach.) United States boundary.
Height, 150 feet + ; diameter, |
5 feet +.
Shs UPTO VWAUUL oom sp Rosoaesseer Northeastern States and north- | Will grow well in any soil not too stiff; often forming dense,
ward. pure growths in wet, boggy swamps. Rapid grower; easily
(WHITE CEDAR.) propagated; desirable for undergrowth and to fill out places
where other trees fail to come.
(Thuja occidentalis Linn.)
Height, 50 feet +; diameter,
1} feet. o
|
36. GIANT ARBOR VIT@ ..---...-.. | Northwestern coastand from Hum- | Like the above species, on Pacific coast.

| boldt, Cal., to British Columbia.
| Best development north of
Seattle.

(RED CEDAR. YELLOW CEDAR.)
(Thuja plicata Don.)

Height, 150 feet + ; diameter,
9 teet +.

LIST OF ONE HUNDRED TREES MOST VALUABLE FOR TIMBER.

57

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character and use of their wood—Continued.

Name of species anid limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

. INCENSE CEDAR

(BASTARD CEDAR. Post CEDAR.

| In interior valley between Coast

Range and Sierra from middle
Oregon to California (between

| Slopes and valleys, in well-drained and dry soils. Rapid grower:
of excellent :ppearance. In the East probably adapted only
to Southern States; succeeds excellently at Washington, D.C.

INCENSE CEDAR.) 3,000 and 8,500).

(Libocedrus decurrens Torr.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
6 feet +.

38. REDWOOD

California coast from Oregon

L “ Low, moist, well-drained situations and damp climate; not on
southward; forest-forming.

dry hillsides.
(Sequoia sempervirens Endl.)
| Vigorous and persistent grower; shade-enduring; sprouts from
the stump. Highly important for California forestry; per-
haps also for that of Southern States.

Height, 300 feet + ; diameter,
20 feet +.

SY), JBIKCRIO ON enema oncocSoeeaGoeneoo California; very localandisolated. | Moist situations, between 4,000 and 6,000 feet.

(Sequoia washingtoniana | Probably only of historical interest.
(Winsl.) Sudw.)
Height, 350 feet +; diameter, \
35 feet +.

B. BROAD-LEAFED TREES.

(With few exceptions these trees are deciduous.) Neither a strictly botanical nor a strictly practical classifi-
cation in large groups has been attempted, but a sequence within botanical relations, and an arrangement according
to the nature of the seed has been more or less observed, placing first the acorn and nut-bearing trees, next those
with hard, wingless seeds, and lastly, those with soft and winged seeds.

Tue OaKks.—Wood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, very strong and tough, porous. and of coarse
texture; the sapwood whitish, the heart ‘‘oak” brown to reddish brown. It shrinks and checks badly, giving
trouble in seasoning, but stands well, is durable, and little subject to attacks of insects. Oak is used for many
purposes: In shipbuilding, for heavy construction, in common carpentry, in furniture, car, and wagon work, cooperage,
turnery, and even in wood carving; also in the manufacture of all kinds of farm implements, wooden mill machinery,
for piles and wharves, railway ties, etc. ‘The oaks are medium to large-sized trees, forming the predominant part of
a large portion of our broad-leafed forests, so that these are generally “oak forests,” though they always contain a
considerable proportion of other kinds of trees. Three well-marked kinds—white, red, and live oak—are dis-
tinguished and kept separate in the market. Of the two principal kinds white oak is the stronger, tougher, less
porous, and more durable. Red oak is usually of coarser texture, more porous, often brittle, less durable, and even
more troublesome in seasoning than white oak. In carpentry and furniture work, red oak brings about the same
price at present as white oak. The red oaks everywhere accompany the white oaks, and, like the latter, are usually
represented by several species in any given locality. Live oak, once largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all
the good qualities (except that of size) of white oak, even to a greater degree. It isone of the heaviest, hardest,
and most durable building timbers of this country; in structure it resembles the red oaks, but is much less porous.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

40. WHITE OAK

(Quercus alba Linn.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.
41. COW OAK

(Swame CHESTNUT OAK, BASKET
OAK.)

(Quercus michauxti Nutt.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.
42. CHINQUAPIN OAK

(Quercus acuminata (Michx.)
ouba.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
3 feet +.

43. LIVE OAK
(Quercus virginiana Miller.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
3 feet +.

North Central, Central and East-
ern States.

Best development ‘on western
slopes of Allegheny Mountains
and valley of Ohio River.

Southeastern

Best development on the rich bot-
tom lands of southeastern Ar-
kansas and Louisiana.

Central and Middle Atlantic re-
gion.

Largest growth in lower Ohio Val-
ley-

Southern States

Greatest development in southern
Atlantic States.

Grows well ona great variety of soils, but best on deep, mod-
erately moist, well-drained, loamy sand, and in warm situa-
tions. Slow but persistent grower; light-needing; capable
of enduring shade, but not with advantage. Most valuable
of the American oaks.

-| Moist, rich soil; will endure flooding.

The most valuable of the White Oaks for the Gulf States.

Best in deep, rich, moist, well-drained bottom lands, but grows
well and is not uncommon on dry, fertile, limestone soils; it
also succeeds on clayey and sandy soils of uplands.

-| Warm, loamy soil, retentive of moisture, and free from over

flow.

One of the most rapid growers of all the oaks; most shade-
enduring; evergreen foliage. Especially desirable for South-
ern forestry.

58

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character and uses of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

OANON LIVE OAK...--.--------

(MAUL OAK. VALPARAISO OAK.)
(Quercus chrysolepis Liebm.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
5 feet +.

TAN-BARK OAK

(PEACH OAK.)

(Quercus densiflora Hook. &
Arnott.)

Height, 60 feet-++ ; diameter,
2 teet+.
CHESTNUT OAK .-...-._-...---.

(Rock CHESTNUT OAK.)

(Quercus prinus Linn.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter, |

3 feet +.
BUR OAK

(Mossy-cup OAK. OVERCUP

OAK.)
(Quercus macrocarpa Michx.)

Height, 100 feet+ ; diameter,
3} feet+.

POST OAK .........-.--.-.---:
(TRON OAK.)
(Quercus minor (Marsh.) Sarg.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
24 feet +.

@OWASIRCWIP OAK case nsesas Sass
(Quercus lyrata Walt.)

Height, 80 feet + ; diameter,
2 feet +.
SWAMP WHITE OAK

(Quercus platanoides (Lam.)
Sudw.)

Height, 90 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +.

RED OAK ...........-..--.---.
(Quercus rubra Linn.)

Height, 100feet +; diameter,
34 feet +.
BLACK OAK

(YELLOW-BARK OAK. YELLOW
OAK. QUERCITRON OAK.)

(Quercus velutina Lam.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
3 feet +.

SPANISH OAK) 2..--.2-222-2----
(RED OAK.)

(Quercus (Marsh.)

Sudw.)

digitata

Height, 80 feet+; diameter,
3 feet +.

WATER OAK

(Duck OAK. PossuM OAK.

SPowreD OAK.)
(Quercus nigra Linn.)

Height, 75 feet +; diameter,
3 feet +.

Pacific States, 3,000 to 8,000 feet
elevation.

Pacific coast. --.-...-..-...--...---

Best development in redwood belt
on California coast.

Northeastern

Best development in southern Al-
legheny Mountains.

Mainly Northeastern United
States; extends farthest west
and northwest of any of the
Eastern oaks.

East of the Rocky Mountains

Southeastern United States

Best developed in Arkansas and
adjacent Texas.

Northeastern United States

Best development in region south
of the Great Lakes.

East of Rocky Mountains

Most northerly of Atlantic oaks...

Best development in Massachu-
setts.

East of longitude 96°, United
States.

Best development in North At-
lantic States.

Central, Southeastern, and South-
ern States.

Best development in South At-
lantic and Gult States.

Central, Southern, and Southeast
ern States.

Greatest development in eastern
Gulf region.

Warm, dry, sunny exposures.
Foliage evergreen.

Well drained, rich soils.
Shade-enduring.

Foliage evergreen.

For planting on rocky banks and hillsides; never in any but
well-drained situations.

Requires better soil than White Oak—deep, rich loam; more
shade-enduring.

A Western substitute for White Oak, and especially recom-
mended for prairie planting.

well-drained gravelly uplands, clay barrens, and poor sandy
oams.
Recommended for Western planting.

Chiefly in wet or submerged swamps, but grows well in well-
drained bottom lands and on rich, gravelly, or sandy loam
uplands.

In deep moist or inundated swamps and low banks of water
courses. Succeeds in all loose, rich, fairly moist upland soils.

Thrives in all soils, except an undrained one,

The most rapid in growth of all the oaks. Sprouts vigorously
trom stump; of importance for tan-bark coppices.”

Gravelly uplands; poorer soils than White Oak requires.

Next to the Red Oak in rapidity of growth.

Dry, barren soils; rapid grower.

Heavy undrained soil; exceedingly rapid grower.

A useful concomitant in Southern planting.

LIST OF ONE HUNDRED TREES MOST

VALUABLE FOR TIMBER. yg)

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
‘ cultural requirements, and the character and uses of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth

(Fagus atyopunicea (Marsh.)
Sucw.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.

56. CHESTNUT...........---.--------

(Oastanea dentata (Marsh.)

Borkh.)
Height, 90 feet +; diameter,
14 feet +.

67. BLACK WALNUT... .....-.

(Juglans nigra Linn.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
4 feet +.

DB re OIUIE Fe NO Metatatata alatatetaineetl=tstetsia p08
(WHITE WALNUT.)
(Juglans cinerea Linn.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +.

East of Mississippi and Missouri
rivers.

Best development probably on
“bluff” formations of Lower
Mississippi basin.

Northeastern and Middle Atlantic
States.

Best development on western
slopes of Allegheny Mountains.

Northeastern, Central, and South-
eastern States.

Best development on southern
slopes of Allegheny Mountains
and in bottom lands of south-
western Arkansas and Indian
‘Territory.

Northeastern States -...........-..

Best development in basin of Ohio
River. ,

Fresh, rich, but not necessarily a deep soil; limestone soils.

For rocky, exposed situations. Rapid grower and enduring
shade exceedingly well, a fact which renders it one of the
most valuable aids in forestry.

Well drained gravelly soils; succeeds on rocky hillsides with
soil of sufficient looseress and depth; on northern and eastern
exposures; will thrive on rather poor sand; slow and uncer-
tain in stiff, clayey soil; on limestone only when well fissured.

Exceedingly rapid grower; moderately shade-enduring; sprouts
most vigorously and persistently from the stump; large yield
per acre.

Deep, loose, fresh to moist, warm, and sandy loam; will grow
in a dry and compact soil, but not in a wet one.

Hardy and rapid grower, especially in height; only centena-
rians produce first-class quality of lumber, but useful timber
may be produced in 40 to 60 years. Sprouts freely from the
stump: Not recommended for arid or subarid regions nor for
uplands.

Prefers a deep, rich, cool loam; suited to cooler sites and colder
climate than the foregoing species. Rapid grower when
young.

THE HICKORIES, AND OTHER HARD-SEEDED VARIETIES.—The Hickories.—Wood very heavy, hard, and strong,

tough, of rather coarse texture, smooth, and of straight grain.

brown.

The broad sapwood white, the heart reddish nut

It dries slowly, shrinks and checks considerably; is not durable in the ground, or if exposed, and, especially
the sapwood, is always subject to the inroads of boring insects.

Hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock, but is

also extensively used in the manufacture of implements and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, for harness
work, and cooperage. The hickories are tall trees with slender stems, never form forests, occasionally small groves,

but usually occur scattered among other broad-leafed trees in suitable localities.

ute more or less to the hickory of the markets:

The following species all contrib-

. Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

59. SHAGBARK HICKORY.

(SHELLBARK HICKORY.)
(Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britt.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
2 feet +.

(Hf), BME WD oc caaasoomacecinesseo
(PianuT. Swamp HIckory.,
(Hicoria minima (Marsh.) Britt.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +.

61. MOCKERNUT

(BuLtnuT. Kinenut. BLack
Hickory. Briespup Hickory.
WHITEHEART HICKORY.)

(Hicoria alba (Linn.) Britt.)

Height, 90 feet +; diameter,
3 feet+.

62. SHELLBARK HICKORY ........

(Borrom SHELLBARK.)

(Hicoria laciniosa (Michx. f.)
Sarg.)

Height, 70 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.

Eastern United States; wide range.

Best development west of the A lle-

gheny Mountains.

Eastern United States; widerange.

Eastern United States; wide range-

Most abundant and generally dis-
tributed in the Southern States.

Central United States; local

Deep, fresh soil; a compact soil not objectionable; not on poor,
dry, or wet soils.

| At first slow, but afterwards rapid grower; sprouts well from

the stump. Moderately shade enduring. Somewhat liable to
injury by frost.

To replace Shagbark Hickory on low, moist, or wet ground.
Sprouts well from the stump.

Less liable to frost than Shagbark Hickory, but more subject to
the ravages of insects.

To replace Shagbark Hickory on poorer and drier soils; will
succeed even on barrens.

Sprouts well from the stump, but slow grower; liable toattacks
of insects.

Rich, deep soil; especially adapted to well-drained bottom lands,
but succeeds with slower growth on drier uplands.

Climatically confined.
v

60

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character and uses of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size.

63. PECAN ...

(ILuinois Nut.)

(Hicoria pecan (Marsh.) Britt.)
!
Height, 75 feet +4
2 feet +-.

; diameter,

64. BLACK CHERRY

(Rum CHERRY.)
(Prunus serotina Whrhart.)
Height, 90 feet + ; diameter,

2 teet -++.

65. SWEET GUM

RED GUM.
BILSTED.)

(LIQUIDAMBER.
STAR-LEAVED GUM-

(Liquidambar styraciflua Linn.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
3 fect +.

(Hi, IOLOIOISHY .2 ee ssc concn accsesmesosos
(Locust. YELLOW Locust.)
(Robinia pseudacacia Linn.)

Height, 80 teet +; diameter,
1h feet +.

67. HONEY LOCUST

(Sweet Locust. HONEY SHUCKS.
THREE-THORNED ACACIA.
BuLAck Locwusr.)

(Gledilsia triacanthos Linn.)

Height, 90 feet +-; diameter,
2 feet +.

68. HACKBERRY.......-------------
(NETTLE-TREE.)
(Celtis occidentalis Linn.)

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
3 feet +.

69. RED MULBERRY.....--.---.--.
(Morus rubra Linn.)

Height, 60 feet + ; diameter,
2 feet +.
70. MAGNOLIA

(SOUTHERN EVERGREEN.
LAUREL. Buu Bay.)

(Magnolia fetida (Linn) Sarg.)

Height, 70 feet +; diameter,
2 feet.

71. CUCUMBER TREE...----.-...--.
(Magnolia acuminata Linn.)

Height, 90 feet +; diameter,
3 feet +.

72. TULEIP-TREE

(WHITE Woop.) YELLOW Pop-

LAR.)
(Liriodendron tulipifera Linn.)

Height, 120 feet +; diameter,
4 feet +.

Legions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

Southwestern, but widely culti-
vated in Southern States.

Best development in Arkansas and
Indian Territory.

Eastern United States;
range.

wide

Sontheastern States. .--------------

Greatest development in basin of
Mississippi River.

Southern Allegheny region

Allegheny Mountains; local; but
by cultivation widely distributed
east of Rocky Mountains.

CentraliStates) 22 =---e22==-r =e a=

Best development in bottom land
of lower Ohio River basin. Wide-
ly cultivated for hedges and or-
nament.

Northern and mainly east of the
Rocky Mountains.

Best development in basin of Ohio
River.

East of longitude 98°

Best development in basins of

lower Ohio and Mississippi
rivers.
Southern and Gulf States..-..-.-.-

Best development along Missis-
sippi in Gulf region.

Mainly Middle Atlantic region.
Best development in the
southern Allegheny Mountain
region.

Hastern States.-----..----.-.-.....

Greatest development in valley of
lower Wabash River, and on
western slope of Allegheny
Mountains in Tennessee, North
Carolina, and the Virginias.

Deep, rich bottom land, but succeeds fairly on upland soils of
moderate richness.

Rapid grower; for Southwestern planting.

More valuable perhaps for production of fruit than for timber
purposes.

Adapted to almost any soil and sitnation; best in deep, well-
drained soil; will succeed also on dry soil. Very rapid grower,
very soon reaching a useful size for cabinet wood. Endures
considerable shade when young.

The wide range of sites to which it is adapted, its rapid growth
and endurance of shade place it among the most valuable
forest trees of the United States, especially for Western
planting. Not infected by caterpillars in forest plantations.

Succeeds on a great variety of soils; a tree of the swamp as
well as of dry soils; best on light, dry, sandy, and soils re-
tentive of moisture. Rapid grower.

Insect proof and generally healthy.

Poor, loose sands give best quality of timber; not succeeding
well in compact soils, bit will thrive on athin one, and grows
quickest on a rich, sandy loam.

Very rapid grower while young; needs light very much;
sprouts persistently and vigorousty from theroots. To be only
sparingly dispersed among shady companions, which will
afford protection against the attacks of borers.

Easily propagated from seed, also by cuttings, suckers, and
stakes. Wor short rotations and coppice management.

Low, rich bottom land; rarely on high, dry, sterile hills; but
often common on rich uplands, where it grows rapidly.

Very rapid grower; needs light.
Easily grown from seed, but not from cuttings. Less liable to

insect ravages; otherwise to be treated like Black Locust,
which it is recommended to replace in Southern localities.

Will grow tolerably well on the most barren and poorest soils,
but best in a fertile one, cool and moist, where it is of rapid
growth.

In Western planting recommended only as an adjunct.

Peon. rch loam, but grows well on yoorer dry soil; endures
shade.

For Southwestern planting.

Cool, moist hammocks, with rich, deep, loose soil.

Not hardy in Northern States; for strictly Southern climate.

In cool, moist, deep, rich soils of mountain slopes, valleys. and
“coves.” Succeeds also in fresh sandy or gravelly soils of
moderate richness.

Deep, light, loamy, sandy, or clayey soils, in cool, moist situa-
tions.

Tolerably rapid and persistent grower. Needs light very much;
hardy.

Poor seeder, and low percentage of germination; seed to ‘‘lie
over.’’ Sprouts fairly from stump. One of the largest and

most valuable of the deciduous soft woods.

LIST OF ONE HUNDRED TREES MOST VALUABLE FOR TIMBER.

61

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution.
cultural requirements, and the character and uses of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

73

74. COMMON CATALPA...-

. HARDY CATALPA....-.--...--.

(Catalpa speciosa Warder.)

Height, 80 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.

(Catalpa catalpa (Tinn.) Karst.)

Height, 40 teet +; diameter,

14 feet -F.

South Central States; rare, but
widely cultivated for ornament.

Best development in valley of
lower Wabash River.

Gulf States, but widely cultivated
for ornament.

Adapted toa great variety of soils; best on Jow, rich bottom
lands.

Very rapid grower; sprouts vigorously from the stump; shade
enduring. Good seeder and keeper. Readily propagated from
seed, cuttings, and layers.

Desirable treefor Western planting. Foliage subject to ravages
of insects.

Like the preceding, to be used in Southwestern planting, to
which it is best adapted.

in contact with soil, straight grained, rough on the split surface, and coarse in texture.
ately, seasons with little injury, “stands” well, and takes a good polish.

Tus AsuEs, MAPLES, ELMS, ETC.—The wood of the ashes is heavy, hard, strong, stiff, quite tough, not durable

The wood shrinks moder-
In carpentry ash is used for finishing lumber,

stairways, panels, etc.; it is used in shipbuilding, in the construction of cars, wagons, carriages, etc., in the manu-
facture of farm implements, machinery, and especially of furniture of all kinds,and also for harness work; for

barrels, baskets, oars, tool handles, hoops, clothespins, and toys.

The trees of the several species of ash are rapid

growers, of small to medium height, with stont trunks; they form no forests, but occur scattered in almost all our
broad-leaved fcrests.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

Name of species and limit of size.

75. WHEETE ASH.........--..---
(Praxinus anericana Linn.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.

76. BLACK ASEE..........---.... |
(Hoop AsH. GROUND ASH.) |
(Fraxinus nigra Marsh.)

Height, 90 feet +; diameter,
24 feet +. |

Tila (CHEN DVOINS INSEE Soe o see seosppssccoss5 |

(Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh.) |
Height, 50 feet +; diameter, |
14 feet +. |

Thy BAOOD) JASE {os s5ecsorosseacss5es

(Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx.).
Height, 70 feet +; diameter, |
2 feet +. |

79. OREGON ASH.....---...--....-.- |
(Fraxinus oregona Nutt.)

Height, 60 feet +; diameter, |
14 feet 4-.

80. SUGAR WAPLE...........--. |
(HARD MAPLE. SUGAR-TREE.) |
(Acer saccharwm Marsh.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.
81. SILVER MAPLE.................

(WHITE Mapie. Sorr MapLe.)

(Acer saccharinum Linn.)

Height, 90 feet +; diameter,
3 feet +. e

Eastern; wide range .----.---.-.-- Depth. looseness, and moisture of soil of most importance.

Best development in lower Obio |

basin.

Northern and Northeastern States -

The most northerly of the ashes.

Western States east of Rocky
Mountains and South; most com-
mon and best developed in the
Mississippi Valley.

Central States

Bestdevelopment in basin of lower |

Wabash River.
Northwestern coust region ---..--.

Best development in bottom lands
ot southwestern Oregon.

Eastern United States and north-
ward.

Best development in region of the
Great Lakes.

Eastern United States

Best development in basin of lower
Ohio River.

Best
in moist atmosphere of northern and eastern exposures. Will
succeed in wet and compact soilif well drained, but maintains
itself with slow growth in a light and dry one.

; light needing, thinning out rapidly, and therefore
ly, slower-growing companions. Sprouts vigor-
stently from the stump. Often a poor seeder;
y kept, tending to ‘‘lie over.” Liable 10 attacks
of borer and to frost when young.

Rapid grower

Soils like those for F. americana, but indifferent to drainage, and
more dependent on moisture; therefore well adapted to un-
drained situations in cool climate; otherwise hike americana.

Less dependent on humidity of soil than the White Asb, but
prefers a deep, cool, moist soil, and will succeed even on inun-
dated lands.

Rapid but not persistent grower. Seed germinates readily.

| The ash for Western planting.

Less dependent on moisture than other ashes; prefers a rich,
deep, moist soil, and grows well on dry limestone soils.

Recommended for Western planting.

| Moist soils and climate.

Best on moderately deep, loose, well-drained, strong, loamy, and
caleareous soil, in moist, cool position; will grow also on stiff
clay, if not too wet, and on stony hillsides, if not too dry.

Tolerably rapid and persistent grower; moderately shade endur-
ing; does not sprout well from the stump.

Not well adapted to dry regions.

Adapted to a variety of soils and climates, but best on rich,
moist soil.

Very rapid but not persistent grower; light needing; sprouts
vigorous!y from the stump; liable to injury from winds; com-
paratively free from insects.

Especially recommended as a nurse in Western planting.

6

5)

a

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on ther range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character and uses of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

89.

90.

91.

92.

. SLIPPERY ELM

RED MAPLE..........-.---------

(Sorr Mapie, WATER MAPLE.
Swamp MAPLE.)

(Acer rubrum Linn.)

Height, 90 feet +; diameter,
3 feet +.

OREGON MAPLE.......--..-----

(CALIFORNIA MAPLE. BROAD-

LEAFED MAPLE.)
(Acer macrophyllum Pursh.)

Height, 90 feet +; diameter,
4 feet +.

TH OD.€ JHITDIO 20 co 35020200000
(ASH-LEAVED MAPLE.)
(Acer negundo Linn.)

Height, 50 feet + ; diameter,
2 feet +.

WHITE ELMWIL.......-..-..-.--
(AmERIcAN ELM. WATER ELM.)
(Ulmus americana Linn.)

Height, 100 feet +; diameter,
3k.

CORK ELMI.........--.--.---.

(Hickory ELM. WHuiItE ELM.

Curr ELM.)
(Ulmus racemosa Thomas.)

Height, 90 feet + ; diameter,
2 feet +. 4

WING ELM............-...-------
(Ulmus alata Michx.) -

Height, 80 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +.

(RED ELM. Moose EuM.)
- (Ulmus pubescens Thomas.)

Height, 60 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +.

YELLOW BIRCH

(GRAY BIRcB.)

(Betula lutea Michx. f.)

Height, 80 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.

SWEET BIRCH

(CHERRY BIRCH.
BIRCH.)
(Betula lenta Linn.)
Height, 60 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet +.

RIVER BIRCH

MAHOGANY

(Betula nigra Linn.)

Height, 80 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet.

OANOE BIRCH. ....---------.-0-

(WHITE BircH. PAPER BIRCH.)
(Betula papyrifera Marshall.)

Height, 60 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +,

Eastern United States and north-
ward; wide range.

Greatest development in valleys of
lower Wabash and Yazoo rivers.

Pacific slope.------..--------------

Best development on rich bottom
lands of southern Oregon.

East of Rocky Mountains, rather
Southern and Western.

Best development in valleys of
Wabash and Cumberland rivers.

East of the Rocky Mountains-....

Probably attains its best develop-
. ments near its northern limits.

Northeastern United States

Best development in southern On-
tario and Michigan.

Southeastern United States........

Best development west of the
Mississippi River.

Northern Atlantic and Gulf States -

Best development in Western

States.

Northeastern United States and
northward.

Best development north of the
Great Lakes. 5

Same range as Yellow Birch......-.

Eastern States..-.-...-.---.------.

Best development in the South
Atlantic and Lower Mississippi
Valley regions.

Northwestern, Northern, and
Northeastern in United States.

Reaches a higher latitude than any
other American deciduous tree.

Best on low, wet soils, but will thrive in moderately dry
situations.

Rapid, but moderately persistent grower; endures more shade
than A. saccharinum L.; sprouts vigorously from the stump.

Usefulness in dry climates questionable.

Rich bottom lands.
Rapid grower in moist climate.

Important on the Pacific slope.

Best on low, rich ground, but will succeed on upland.

Rapid but not persistent grower; sprouts well from the stump;
hardy. Hasily propagated.

For forestry purposes, imported only as nurse and soil cover,
especially in Western planting.

Adapted to a great variety of soils, but best on a rich, loose,
moist one; requires less moisture than the ashes; bears
occasional flooding.

Hapid-and persistent grower; sprouts well; endures moderate
shade.

Important in forestry mainly as a nurse and for soil cover.
Recommended for Western planting.
Rich, moist, heavy, loamy soils.

Probably to take the place of the White Elm in forestry.

Most commonly on dry, gravelly uplands, but frequently in
moist bottoms and along water courses. Very adaptive, and
Ho be used in Southwestern planting in place of the White

m.

Rich, moist, well-drained soil; much like that of the White
Elm, but will bear drier and more elevated situations.

Rapid but not persistent grower. Easily propagated.

Cool, moist atmosphere preferable. Capable of thriving on poor,
but best on a moderately deep, loose, moist sand; hardy and
very adaptive as to soils.

Rapid and tolerably persistent grower; sprouting qualities
vreatly dependent on site. Vigorously in moist soils. Light
needing. Easily propagated.

Same as above species, but apparently not as rapid nor as per
sistent a grower.

Almost exclusively on moist or inundated bottoms, along
streams, and near ponds. Succeeds very well on moist, rich,
porvus, upland soils. Important as a substitute for Northern
birches in Southwestern planting.

Mostly on sandy soils in northern climates.

Not on clay lands where the Yellow Birch thrives.

LIST OF ONE HUNDRED TREES MOST VALUABLE FOR TIMBER.

63

List of one hundred species of trees of the United States most valuable for timber, with notes on their range of distribution,
cultural requirements, and the character and. uses of their wood—Continued.

Name of species and limit of size.

Regions of abundant growth.

Soil and climate, and characteristics of growth.

938. WHITE BIRCH......------.-----

(OLD-FIELD BIRCH. GRAY

BIRCH.)
(Betula populifolia Marsh.)

Height 30 feet + ; diameter,
1 foot +.
94. BASSWOOD

(AMERICAN LINDEN. BEE-TREE.
LIME-TREE.)

(Tilia americana Linn.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet+.

95. WHITE BASSWOOD
(Lilia heterophylla Vent.)

Height, 60 feet + ; diameter,
3 feet+.

96. SYCAMORE

(BUTTONWOOD. BUTTONBALL-
TREE. WATER BEECH.)
(Platanus occidentalis Linn.)
Height, 120 feet + ; diameter,
6 feet +.

97. COTTONWOOD....-.....-...-----

(CAROLINA PopPLAR. Bia Cor-
TONWOOD. NECKLACE POP-
LAR.)

(Populus deltoides Marsh.)

Height, 100 feet + ; diameter,
4 feet +.

98. LARGE-TOOTH ASPEN......-..

(WHITE POPLAR.)
(Populus grandidentata Michx.)
Height, 60 feet +; diameter,
2 feet +.
99. BALM OF GILEAD.........-.--

(BALSAM POPLAR. TACAMAHAC.)
(Populus balsamifera Linn.)

Height, 70 feet + ; diameter,

3 feet +.
10M), AUSZIONN. ooecSsbsasondocenoecedesss

(AMERICAN ASPEN.)
~ (Populus tremuloides Michx.)

Height, 50 feet -+ ; diameter,
14 feet +.

Northeastern coast region...-..---.

East of the Mississippi and Mis-
souri rivers; wide range.

Greatest development in valley of
Lower Wabash River.

Middle and South Atlantic re-
gion. :

Best development in southern Al-
leghenies.

East of the Mississippi and Mis-
souri rivers.

Best development in bottom lands
of the Ohio and Mississippi
rivers.

East of the Rocky Mountains

Northern and Northeastern States -

Northern United States

Northern and Southwestern
(in United States) ; in Pacific re-
gion, from 6,000 to 19,000 feet ele-
vation.

Adapted to drier and poorer soils than other birches.
Short-lived; rapid grower; sprouts readily from the stump.

Probably least important of the birches.

Deep, moderately loose, and somewhat moist soil; can endure a
wet soil, but will not thrive on a dry one.

Rapid and persistent grower; sprouts vigorously from the
stump; endures moderate shade.

Not very hardy, but in cool situations a desirable adjunct in
forestry.

Deep, rich, moist, well-drained soils of mountain coves, lower
slopes, and on the banks of streams; frequent also on rich
limestone soils of the plain, and succeeds on dry, gravelly,
clayey, and sandy soils of moderate richness; important for
Southern planting in place of the Northern basswood.

Rich, moist soil, low ground, thriving in swamps subject to
overflow; grows well on moist upland.

Wide climatic range, but liable to frost when young; light
needing; secondary in forestry.

Adapted to a variety of soils, but best in a moist, strong, loamy
one.

Exceedingly rapid grower; sprouts vigorously from the stump;
light needing; thinning out rapidly; short-lived and exhaust-
ive to the soil; most readily propagated.

Has been recommended for planting on Western prairies,
chiefly on account of its rapidity of growth, ease of procuring
plant material, and of propagation. In forestry should be
used only as a nurse with better and shady kinds.

Northern States, in moist situations; grows well in all fresh
upland soils.

A substitute for cottonwood in the most northern localities.

Thrives in moist, rich, well-drained soils.

Of value mainly as a tree naturally covering denuded mountain
sides and as a quick-growing nurse for better kinds.

Note 1.—Trees which may be looked to as capable of enduring more or less unfavorable sites:
Dry to barren soils: Nos. 2, 3, 4,5, 11, 15, 30, 31, 47, 48, 53, 64, 66, 68, 82, 87, 93.

Insufiiciently drained soils: Nos. 3, 9, 21, 28, 31, 32, 41, 50, 54, 65, 76, 82, 85, 86, 91, 96.

Stiff soils: Nos. 31, 32, 53, 54, 67, 73, 74, 77, 84, 85.
Prairie planting: Tried, Nos. 1, 4, 17, 25, 30, 31, 47, 51, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 70, 73, 75, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 85,

87,89. Worthy of trial, Nos. 2, 7,

11, 31, 40, 48, 69.

Note 2.—Of exotics which have been successfully introduced for forest culture, the following may be cited as

deserving more or less attention:

Conifers: Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris, L.), Austrian Pine (Pinus austriaca, Hoss.), Corsican Pine (Pinus laricio,
Poir.), Norway Spruce (Picea excelsa, D. C.), Nordmann’s Fir (Abies Nordmanniana, Link.), European Larch (Larix

Europea, D. C.).

Broad-leafed trees: English Oak (Quercus robur, L.), Cork Oak (Quercus suber, Linn.), Black Alder (Alnus gluti-
nosa, Gaertn.), Ailanthus (dilanthus glandulosus, Desf.), Black Mulberry (Morus nigra, L.). Australian Gum Trees:
Eucalyptus globulus, Labil., E. rostrata, Cay. Australian Wattle Trees: Acacia decurrens, Willd., 4. pycnantha, Benth,
Gray Poplar (Populus canescens, Smith), ;

64 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

BIOLOGICAL STUDIES.

As we shall see further on in this report the most important part of our forest resource is in
the coniferous supplies, and among these especially in the pines, the white pine of the North and
the yellow pine of the South. These latter covering vast areas, not less than 100,000,000 acres,
furnish now, and will still more in the near future, the most important staples of our lumber
industry, as the white pine supplies are giving out. There is still a possibility of treating the
uncut balance of these pineries in such a manner as to secure their continued productiveness.
The Division of Forestry, therefore, devoted much time and attention to the study of the economic,
botanical, silvicultural, and technological features of these pines. The results have been embodied
in a magnificent monograph (Bulletin 13), prepared by Dr. Charles A. Mohr, of Mobile, Ala.

To give an idea of the character of this work and at the same time a conception of the nature
and development of these pines the following extracts and condensed statements are presented:

SOUTHERN LUMBER PINES.

The Southern States abound in those sandy soils which are the home of the pine tribes, and
were once covered with seemingly boundless forests of the same. There are still large areas
untouched, yet the greater portion of the primeval forest has not only been culled of its best
timber, but the repeated conflagrations which follow the lumbering and, still more disastrously,
the turpentine gatherers’ operations have destroyed not only the remainder of the original growth,
but the vegetable mold and the young aftergrowth, leaving thousands of square miles as blackened
wastes, devoid of usefulness, and reducing by so much the potential wealth of the South.

There are, in general, four belts of pine forest of different types recognizable, their boundaries
running in general direction somewhat parallel to the coast line: (1) The coast plain, or pine-barren
flats, within the tidewater region, 10 to 30 miles wide, once occupied mainly by the most valuable
of Southern timbers, the longleaf pine, now being replaced by Cuban and loblolly pines; (2) the
rolling pine hills, or pine barrens proper, with a width of 50 to 120 miles, the true home of the
longleaf pine, which occupies it almost by itself; (3) the belt of mixed growth of 20 to 60 miles in
width, in which the longleaf pine loses its predominance, the shortleaf, the loblolly, and the hard
woods associating and disputing territory with it; and (4) the shortleaf pine belt, where this
species predominates on the sandy soils, the longleaf being entirely absent and the loblolly only a
feeble competitor, hard woods being interspersed or occupying the better sites. Within the terri-
tory the species that occur occupy different situations. Thus the Cuban, which accompanies the
longleaf, usually occupies the less well-drained situations, together with the loblolly, which,
although it can accommodate itself to all soils, reaches its best development in the rich lowlands
and is specially well developed in the flat woods which border the coast marshes of eastern Texas;
where it associates with the shortleaf pine it also seeks the moister situation.

The longleaf and shortleaf pines are, in quantity and quality combined, the most important,
while the loblolly or oldfield pine, as yet not fully appreciated, comes next, occupying large areas.
The Cuban pine, usually known as slash pine—always cut and sold without distinction with the
longleaf pine—a tree of as fine quality and of more rapid growth than the longleaf pine, is associ-
ated with the latter in the coast pine belt, scattered in single individuals or groups, but appears to
increase in greater proportion in the young growth, being by its manner of development in early
life better fitted to escape the dangers to which the aftergrowth is exposed.

Besides these four most important pines there are a number of others of less significance.
The white pine (Pinus strobus) of the North extends its reign along the higher mountain regions
of North Carolina into Georgia, forming a valuable timber tree, but of small extent. The spruce
pine (P. glabra) develops into timber size, but is found only in small quantities and mostly scat- .
tered, and has therefore as yet not received attention in lumber markets; but its qualities, and
especially its forestal value, being a pine which endures shade, will probably be appreciated in the
future. The other four species of pine found in the South, namely, the black pine (P. rigida), the
Jersey or scrub pine (P. virginiana), the spruce pine (P. clausa), the pond pine (P. serotina), do
not or only rarely develop into timber trees of value, excepting that the scrub pine, occupying
large areas of abandoned fields in Virginia, furnishes a considerable amount of firewood.

The greatest confusion exists in the names that are applied to these four lumber pines
promiscuously.

PLATE IV

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LONGLEAF PINE FOREST AFTER REMOVAL OF MERCHANTABLE TIMBER.

—LONGLEAF PINE FOREST IN
FG. 2

Fig. 1

H. Doe. 181.

SOUTHERN LUMBER PINES. 65
MARKET NAMES.

The various names under which Southern pine lumber appears in the market are either
general or specific; the former being more or Jess general in application to lumber manufactured
in the South, without reference to special localities, the latter referring to special localities from
which the lumber is actually or presumably derived. In regard to the latter class of names it is
to be regretted, perhaps, that they have been found necessary, the more because through their use
not a few misconceptions and difficulties have arisen between consumers, manufacturers, and
wholesale dealers, owing to the difficulty in defining what tree species furnish lumber included by
such name or names.

The uninitiated may not understand that the various kinds of pine lumber manufactured in
different States, although called by a specific name, may, after all, be of the same species and the
saine in all respects. ‘Florida long-leaved yellow pine” or “Florida pine” is in no way different
from that cut and manufactured in Georgia under the distinctive name of ‘Georgia long-leaved
yellow pine” or ‘‘Georgia pine.” The question as to any difference of quality dependent upon
locality of growth is as yet undecided.

The market names given to the various pines, uncertain as to their precise application in the
minds of those that use them, or at least at variance with the conception of other authorities, are
the following:

General—Yellow pine, Southern yellow pine, Southern pine, long-leaved yellow pine, long-
leaved pine, hard pine, pitch-pine.

Specific—Virginia yellow pine, Virginia pine, North Carolina yellow pine, North Carolina pine,
Georgia yellow pine, Georgia pitch: pine, Georgia pine, Georgia longleaf yellow, Georgia long-leaved
pine, Florida yellow pine, Florida pine, Florida long-leaved pine, Texas yellow pine, Texas long-
leaved pine.

The names ‘yellow pine,” “Southern pine,” seem first of all to be used as generic names,
without distinction as to species. In the quotations from Western markets only “yellow pine”
and “long-leaved yellow pine” or “long-leaved pine” are distinguished; the first name seemingly
being now always used when “‘shortleaf” is meant, although it is also applied by advertisers from
the longleaf-pine region to their product. In a market report of a leading lumber journal we find
that ‘in the yellow pine line, longleaf, shortleaf, and curly pine can be bought,” which would show
that the attempt to distinguish the two kinds by their proper names is made. Curly pine, how-
ever, is in most cases longleaf pine with a wavy or curly grain, a sport, which is also found in the
shortleaf species. Loblolly seems not to be quoted in the Western markets.

Formerly, while the longleaf pine was the only pine reaching the markets, it was commonly
known under the name of ‘yellow pine,” but now the supply under this name may be made up of
all the species indiscriminately. In Texas and Louisiana ‘‘yellow pine” designates the longleaf
species, in Arkansas and Missouri the shortleaf, while there the name “longleaf” is applied to
the “loblolly,” which is rarely cut.

In Florida, the Carolinas, and Georgia the name “yellow pine” is also used with less distinctive
application. In Florida, besides the Cuban pine, which is never distinguished on the market,
loblolly may also appear in the lumber pile. In Georgia and the Carolinas, although locally the »
name ‘yellow pine” is most frequently applied to the shortleaf, in the market a mixture of long-
leaf, shortleaf, loblolly, and Cuban pine satisfies the name.

In England, where probably nothing but longleaf pine is handled, the current name is “ pitch-
pine,” and this name is also most commonly used in Georgia and North and South Carolina, strictly
applying to longleaf pine. In Boston only Southern and hard pine is mentioned without dis-
tinction. It is in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other Atlantic markets that the greatest
variety of names is used, with an attempt to distinguish two kinds, the longleaf and shortleaf, by
using the name of the State from which the lumber is supposed to come, but neither the name nor
the lumber pile agree always with the species that was to be represented.

“North Carolina pine,” which is supposed to apply specifically to shortleaf, will be found to
include in the pile also better qualities of loblolly, sometimes to the amount of 50 per cent. Long-
leaf forms only very occasionally a part of the supplies from this section.

“Georgia pine” is meant to designate the longleaf species, and, like “Florida pine,” does
mostly conform to this designation except as noted before under the name of yellow pine.

H. Doc. 181—_5

66 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

“Virginia pine” or ‘Virginia yellow pine” are names hardly known elsewhere than in the
markets of Baltimore and Washington, where the bulk of the common building timber consists of
it. It applies in the main to the loblolly, with a very small percentage of shortleaf making its
way into the pile. While this is mostly coarse-grained inferior material, selected stuff, when well
seasoned, furnishes good finishing and flooring material.

FIELD NAMES.

Field names are those applied to the four Southern pine lumber species in the tree and logs.
Such names are usually more or less known to dealers and manufacturers, but, aside from the
market names already discussed, have only lately been applied to lumber in the market.

Of the three pines, longleaf, shortleaf, and loblolly, the first alone is perfectly known by
lumbermen and woodmen as a distinct ‘‘ variety” (species). The remaining species, presenting to
the lumberman’s eye various forms according to the site producing the timber, are commonly
supposed ‘‘varieties” or ‘‘crosses” more or less related to the longleaf pine. Specific differences
in the lumber, both in appearance and quality, form, however, a sufficient basis of distinction as
far as lumber is concerned, although this distinction is not necessarily carried out in putting
lumber on the market.

A few of the names in common use are frequently applied by Jumbermen to entirely different
species from those usually known to botanists by thesame name. The perplexity thus arising, upon
the supposition that the common names of our botanical text-books are applied to the species by
lumbermen, is not inconsiderable, and can doubtless be avoided only by a more careful attention
on the wets of the people to real specific distinctions.

The confusion in names is such that it is almost impossible to analyze sareayaauly the use of these
names in the various regions. In the tabulated account of names on the next page, a geographical
distribution has been given, as far as possible. Here only a few of the names are to be discussed.

‘‘ Pitch-pine” is the name most commonly applied to the longleaf in the Atlantic regions, and
where it occurs associated with the shortleaf and loblolly the former is called “yellow pine” and
the latter is called “‘shortleaf.” The name “longleaf or long-leaved pine” is rarely heard in the
field, “‘longstraw” being substituted.

The greatest difference of names and consequent confusion exists in the case of the loblolly,
due no doubt to the great variety of localities which it occupies and consequent variety of habit of
growth and quality. “Swamp” and “sap-pine” refer to comparatively young growth of the
loblolly, coarse-grained, recognized by the rather deep longitudinal ridges of the bark, growing on
low ground. “Slash-pine”in Virginia and North Carolina is applied to old well-developed trees of
both lobloily and shortleaf; in Florida it is exclusively applied to the Cuban pine. When applied
to the loblolly it designates a tree of fine grain, one half to two-thirds sap, recognized by the bark
being broken into large, broad, smooth plates. This same form is also called “shortleaf pine” in
North Carolina.

“ Rosemary-pine” is a name peculiar to a growth of loblolly in the swamp region of the Gana: ;
linas, representing fully grown trees, fine grained, large amount of heart, and excellent quality,
now nearly exhausted.

“t Loblolly” or “‘old-field pine,” as applied to Pinus teda, is a name given to the second growth
springing up on old fields in the North and South Carolinas, while in Alabama and Mississippi,
ete., the ‘‘old-field” pine is applied to Pinus echinata.

The confusion arises mainly from an indiscriminate use of local names and from ignorance as
to the differences in characteristics of their lumber, as well as the difficulty in describing these.
Besides the names used in designating different species, there are names used by lumbermen to
desiguate differences of quality in the same species and, in addition, names used in the markets
without good distinction, until it becomes almost impossible to unravel the multiplicity of desig-
nations and define their meaning. Architects are apt to specify “Southern pine,” not knowing
that the greatest range of qualities can be supplied under that name; or refuse to accept “Texas”
or ‘“‘ North Carolina pine” for “‘Georgia pine,” although the same pine and quality can be furnished
from either State. Dealers handle ‘“‘longleaf pine” from Arkansas, where the timber that is
understood by that name never grew. Millmen fill their orders for this pine, either overlooking
differences or without knowing them.

VGI¥O14 JO SGOOMLV14 ANIG NvanO

H. Doe. 181.

PLATE V.

FIELD NAMES

OF PINES.

67

The following table of common names, which have been found applied to the four species
furnishing Southern pine lumber, will most readily exhibit the difficulty arising from misappre-

hension of names.
home of the trees.

brackets by the side of the name.

Names of Southern lumber pin

These names are used in the various markets and in various localities in the
Where possible the locality in which the name is used has been placed in

res in USE.

Botanical names.

Pinus palustris Miller.
Syn. P. australis Michx.

Pinus echinata Miller.
Syn. Pinus mitis Michx.
Pinus virginiana var. echinata Du Roi.
P. Teda var. variabilis Aiton.
P. variabilus Lamb.
P. rigida Porcher.

Best common names.

Local, market, and lumbermen’s

names.

LONGLEAF PINE:

Southern yellow pine.

Southern hard pine.

Southern heart-pine.

Southern pitch-pine.

Hard pine (Miss., La.).

Heart pine (N.C. and So. Atlantic).
| Pitch-pine (Atlantic).
Long-leaved yellow pine (Atlantic).
Long-leaved pine (Atlantic).
Long-leaved pitch-pine (Atlantic).
Long-straw pine (Atlantic).
North Carolina pitch-pine.
Georgia yellow pine.

Georgia pine.

Georgia heart-pine.
Georgia long-leaved pine.
Georgia piteh-pine.
Florida yellow pine.
Florida pine.

Florida long-leaved pine.
Texas yellow pine.
Texas long-leaved pine.

SHORTLEAF PINE:
Yellow pine (N.C., Va.).
Short-leaved yellow pine.
Short-leaved pine.
Virginia yellow pine (in part).
North Carolina yellow pine (in part).
North Carolina pine (in part).
Slash-pine (N.C., Va.), in part.
Old-field pine (Ala., Miss.).
Bull-pine (?).
Spruce-pine.

Botanical names.

Pinus teda Linn.
Syn. Pinus Teda var. tenuifolia Aiton.

Best common names.

Local, market, and lumbermen's

names.

Pinus cubensis Griesebach.
Syn. Pinus Veda vav. heterophylla Ell.
P. elliotii Engelm.
P. cubensis var. terthrocarpa Wright.

LOBLOLLY-PINE :

Slash-pine (Va., N. C.), in part.
| Loblolly-pine (Gulf Region).
Old-field pme (Gulf Region).
Rousemary-pine (N. C., Va.).
Short-leaved pine (Va. N. €., S. C.).
Bull-pine (Texas and Gulf Region).
Virginia pine.
Sap-pine (Va., N. C.).
Meadow pine (Fla.).
Cornstalk pine (Va.).
Black pine (Va.).
Fox-tail pine (Va., Md.).
Indian pine (Va., N. C.).
Spruce-pine (Va.), in part.
Bastard pine (Va., N. C.).
Yellow pine (No Ala., N.C.).
Swamp pine (Va. N.C.).
Long-straw pine (Va., N.C.), in part.

CUBAN PINE :
Slash-pine (Ga., Fla.).
Swamp pine (Fla. and Ala.), in part.
Bastard pine (Fla., Ala.).
Meadow pine (Fla., E. Miss.), in part.
She pitch-pine (Ga.).

The botanical distinctions can be briefly tabulated as follows:

Botanical diagnosis.

Species. Pinus palustris Miller. Pinus cubensis Griseb.
eaves ee seeeaaos aa i 3 in a bundle, 9 to 12 (exceptionally 14 to 15) inches long..| 2 and 3 in a bundle; 7 to 12 (usually 9 to 10) inches long.
Cones (open)..-.------ 6 to 9 inches long, 4% to 5 inches in diameter..-..---.----- 4 to 64 (usually 4 to 5) inches long; 3 to 43 inches in
diameter.
SHHIGS asocnscssstes0ce % to 1 inch broad; tips much wrinkled. light chestnut | }} to % inch broad; tips, wrinkled; deep russet brown;
brown, gray with age. shiny.
IBrickles\e=seer(ess--—e Wery/short, delicate, incurved --.------------.-2-------=--- Very short; straight; declined,
IBTOE) gsocoscede 2os0ee5 { inch long, $ inch in diameter; silver white.--.----.--.-. About 4 inch long; 4 inch in diameter; brownish.
Species. Pinus echinata Miller. Pinus teda Linn.
Theaves-.-----..--.-... 2 and 3 in abundle; 13 to 4 inches long; commonly 23 to | 3in a bundle; 5 to 8 inches long.

Cones (open) - es
Scales

4 inches.
1} to 2 inches long; 14 to 13 inches in diameter-----.-.--.-
yg to § (exceptionally about 4) inch broad; tips light

yellow-brown.

Exceedingly short (;5 inch) delicate; straight, declined -.
§ to dinch long; about } inch in diameter; ‘brownish

24 to 44 inches long; 13 to 3 inches in diameter.
% to {inch broad; tips smooth; dull yellow-brown.

Short; stont at base.

4 to $ inch long; 4 inch in diameter; brownish.

68 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In aspect and habit the longleaf and Cuban pine somewhat resemble each other. The large
silvery white buds of the longleaf pine, which constitutes its most striking character, and the
candelabra-like naked branches with brush-like tufts of foliage at the end readily distinguish it
from the Cuban pine, which bears a fuller and denser crown. The dark-green, glossy, and heavy
foliage of the latter readily distinguishes this again from the loblolly, where these may appear
associated, the latter having sea-green and thinner foliage.

As arule, the Cuban pine grows taller (up to 110 or 115 feet, with a diameter of 24 to 3 feet)
than the longleaf, which rarely exceeds 105 feet and 20 to 36 inches in diameter. The Cuban pine
forms massive horizontally spreading limbs, and at maturity a crown with rounded outlines. The
longleaf pine forms a more flattened crown with massive but twisted gnarled limbs, which are
sparingly branched.

The thin bark of the longleaf (only one-quarter to one-half inch thick), of uniform reddish
brown color throughout, exfoliates in thin, almost transparent, rhombic flakes; the thick bark of
the Cuban pine of the same color exfoliates in very thin, broad, purplish flakes.

The shortleaf pine is readily distinguished by the comparatively shorter and more scant
appearance of its foliage. Moreover, this species is at once recognized by its characteristically
small cones, Its habit is spreading, if compared with the more ascending, compact habit of the
loblolly. At maturity the shortleaf has a much shorter bole (85 to 95 feet, diameter 14 to 2 feet)
than the loblolly (125 to 150 feet, diameter 4 to 5 feet), with which it is often associated, and a
. more pyramid-shaped crown.

The reddish bark of the shortleaf in mature trees is broken into long plates, while the loblolly
bark appears of grayish color and breaks into broader, larger, and more deeply fissured plates.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT.

The geographical distribution of the areas within which these four pines occur and their
commercial development in them are shown in the accompanying maps, prepared by Dr. Charles
Mohr for the monograph referred to.

It is to be understood that not all the land within the boundaries indicated in the maps has
been or is now covered by pine growth, but simply that within the lines the pines are found growing
naturally. Nor is it to be understood that the areas which are indicated as producing a certain
cut per acre do not contain places on which much more or much less lumber could be cut than the
average figures given. These represent only a very general average for the region, based on
conservative estimates, made for the purpose of showing more clearly the distribution in masses
through the entire field of botanical distribution.

These approximations do not pretend to serve as guides to the purchaser of timber lands
further than to indicate in what regions he is likely to find the pine sought for in greatest abun-
dance and best development. A lumber dealer may also learn at one glance that he can not
possibly be supplied with longleaf pine from a mill in Arkansas, nor with shortleaf pine from a
mill on the Gulf coast, unless it be supplied with logs from inland.

Within the boundaries of geographical distribution each species is found to occupy certain
soils and sites, which form its habitat. The habitat of the pines in general is found on sandy and
mostly well-drained soils. In regard to moisture conditions of the soil, the different species adjust
themselves differently. The longleaf pine is found (only exceptionally otherwise) on the best-
drained, deep, sandy, siliceous alluvium, while the Cuban pine is confined to the moister flats ‘or -
pine meadows of the coast, and will grow closely down to the sandy swamps, not objecting to
clayey admixtures in the soil, but shunning the dry, sandy pine hills. The shortleaf pine prefers
a well-drained, light, sandy or gravelly clay soil or warm light loam, while the loblolly, often
struggling with the shortleaf for the possession of the soil, can adapt itself to wetter situations.

EXTENT OF MERCHANTABLE PINE.

The entire region within which these pines occur in merchantable condition comprises about
230,000 square miles or, in round numbers, 147,000,000 acres; for land in farms, etc., 10,000,000
acres must be deducted, and allowing as much as two-thirds of the remainder as representing pine
lands (the other to hard woods), we would have abou t 90,000,000 acres on which pine may occur.
An average growth of 3,000 feet per acre—an extravagant figure when referred to such an area—

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CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS. 69

would make the possible stand 270,000,000,000 feet, provided it was in virgin condition and not
mostly culled or cut.

The probability is that the amount of standing timber of such sizes as are at present market-
able will fall far below 200,000,000, although by a reduction of the standard of marketable logs,
which is now 8 to 10 inch as lowest diameters, it may be increased to 300,000,000 feet B. M., of
which one-third may be accredited to the most valuable—the longleaf pine. The annual cut of
these pines exceeds at present 7,000,000,000 feet B. M.

Those who rely upon the spontaneous natural reproduction of these pines to fill the gaps made
in the virgin timber will do well to read the chapters on natural reproduction in Dr. Mohr’s mono-
graph on these pines, and the incidental remarks regarding the conditions for renewal and the
appearance of the-aftergrowth. If, in addition, they study the chapters on conditions of develop-
ment, they will realize that the longleaf pine is bound to disappear largely even in the regions where
it reigned supreme; that the Cuban pine, no despicable substitute, will take its place in the lower
pine belt if allowed to propagate at all; but on large burnt areas the growth of scrubby oaks and
brush will forever exclude this species, which eminently needs light. Loblolly and shortleaf, better
fitted for warfare with other species, will do much in their respective habitats to recuperate, except
in the mixed forest, where they are culled and the hard woods are left to shade out the after-
growth, or where the continuous conflagrations have destroyed the mold and aftergrowth and
given over the soil to scrubby brush growth, which for ages will either prevent the gradual return
of the pines or impede their renewal and growth. Considering that the timber on which we now
rely and on which we base our standards comes from trees usually from one hundred and fifty to
two hundred years or more old, and that none of these pines makes respectable timber in less than
from sixty to one hundred and twenty-five years, the necessity of timely atteution to their renewal
is further emphasized.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS.
LONGLEAF PINE.

This pine occurs in all the South Atlantic and Gulf States at some distance from the coast,
covering a belt of about 125 miles in width, interrupted only by the alluvial plains of the Missis-
sippi and Red rivers in Louisiana and Texas. In addition, there is found in western Georgia and
Alabama an extension in islands or patches northward to latitude 34.5°.

Within this range, going from the shore inland, the following divisions can be made: First,
the coast plain, from 10 to 30 miles from seashore, contains only scattered growth on the grassy
flats—the higher leveis on which this pine prevailed are now mostly occupied by loblolly and
Cuban pine; second, the rolling pine lands or pine barrens proper, covered with alluvial sands,
are occupied almost entirely by this tree in perfection; third, the region of mixed growth, where
this pine occupies in the main only the drift-covered ridges and is associated with the loblolly and
shortleaf pines. Here it attains a larger size, with more full-sized trees per acre.

In Virginia this pine is almost extinct and replaced by loblolly. In North Carolina, through
the agricultural district, this pine is mixed with loblolly and shortleaf and is of little importance
down to the Neuse River. The forests exclusively of longleaf pine begin below Bogue Inlet, with
a width of 95 to 125 miles inland, reaching down to the State line, covering about 6,500,000 acres;
very largely tapped for turpentine.

In South Carolina the pine belt is about 150 miles wide; is mainly occupied by this pine, but
on the hill lands is intermixed with the shortleaf. The southwestern plateau, with a porous sand
soil, furnishes timber of excellent quality, much of which is still untouched.

In Georgia the flat woods of the shore are mostly stripped of this pine; the vast interior plain
of about 17,000 square miles is almost exclusively covered with this tree.

In Florida the belt of longleaf pine of the Atlantic coast may be traced as far south as St.
Augustine, being thence southward largely replaced by the Cuban pine. On the Gulf side more
important longleaf growth is found farther southward, until the savannas and everglades are
reached, where again the Cuban pine replaces it. In western Florida large areas are pretty well
exhausted. The Gulf coast pine belt, covering some 40,000 square miles to the Mississippi River
basin, shows no difference from the Atlautic forest. :

70 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The upper division of the pine belt or region of mixed growth in Alabama ona broken sur-
face covers about 23,000 square miles, while the belt of drift deposit which crosses the State
contains about 1,000 square miles, covered with longleaf pine of excellent quality and large yield
per acre. The drift deposits along the Coosa River, covering about 300,000 acres, and a detached
portion of drift in Walker County of 60,000 acres, are covered with pine of fine quality hardly
yet touched.

Toward the west, in Louisiana, the coast-pine belt gradually passes into a mixed growth of
shortleaf pine, oaks, and hickories on the uplands bordering the Mississippi. The slightly undu-
lating flat woods of Louisiana support a better timber growth than is generally found in the
upland pine barrens; but this forest has been largely invaded, while the pine-hill region of
Louisiana has remained almost untouched. The pine region west of the Mississippi River, limited.
to the sands and gravels of the region, follows on their eastern boundary the valley of the
Ouachita River for 150 miles.

In the center of the region above the Red River pine ridges alternate with tracts of oak and
hickory. Toward the Red River the forests covering the undulating pine lands remain practically
unbroken to the Sabine River. On the eastern side of the Red River the area is estimated at
1,625,000 acres, extending northward an average distance of 55 miles, cutting from 4,000 to 6,000
feet per acre, with no change in character to the Trinity River in Texas. In that State the forests
of longleaf pine cover about 5,000 square miles, merging toward the north into the region of
shortleaf, toward the south into vast forests of loblolly pine.

The fact that but little tapping for turpentine has been practiced in this region may be of
importance from a market point of view.

CUBAN PINE.

This tree, which occurs mainly in the West Indies and South America, is confined within
narrow limits in the United States, occupying the low coast plain of the Gulf States west of the
Mississippi to a short distance beyond Pearl River, and of the Atlantic coast as far north as lower
South Carolina, near Charleston. It is rarely found more than 40 or 50 miles inland, on the
so-called pine flats or pine meadows. Only in southern Florida does it cross from Gulf to Ocean
on the low ridges through the everglades. It occurs either scattered through other forest growth
of the swamps or in groves along the borders of sandy swamps above perpetual overflow, mixed
with longleaf or, more rarely, loblolly pine, excepting south of Cape Canaveral and Biscayne Bay,
where it forms open forests by itself. Being able to thrive on pure sand as well as on the clay
soils with poorer drainage, it is apt to crowd out the young growth of longleaf pine when the old
trees of the latter have been cut. It is indiscriminately cut and made into lumber together with
the longleaf pine without distinction. Its field of distribution is indicated on the map of the
longleaf pine by patched area.

SHORTLEAF PINE.

This tree is more widely distributed than any of the other pines, namely, from the southern
shores of Connecticut, where it occurs only scattered, to the treeless plains of Kansas and south-
ward in the main to the northern line of the main body of the longleaf forests. It is mostly
associated with ‘deciduous-leaved trees, becoming the predominant forest growth in parts of
northern Alabama, Mississippi, and western Louisiana. In northeastern Texas and southern
Arkansas it covers large areas, to the exclusion of almost every other tree. While in the early
history of this country this pine seems to have beeen a staple along the Atlantic coast up to New
York, it oceurs now only scattered and in commercially unimportant quantities north of Virginia.
From here southward it covers large areas, occupying the higher inland parts of the maritime
pine belt, mixed with other coniferous and deciduous growth, and throughout the interior of the
Southern States into the mountainous region.

In North Carolina it is found from the coast to the mountains, and once formed about 25 per
cent of the forest growth, now largely reduced. In South Carolina and Georgia it is similarly
mixed in the upland forests of oak and hickory.

In Florida it is confined along the northern border of the State to a narrow strip of uplands,
with a mixed growth of longleaf and hard-wood timber; in western Florida, where it is more rare,
approaching the Gulf within 25 miles.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WOOD? 71

In Alabama and Mississippi it forms the larger part of the interior upland forest, in some
sections becoming the prevailing tree, especially in the Warrior coal fields and in the northern
part of the central drift belt to northeastern Mississippi, while it is more sparsely scattered through
the growth of the upper coast pine belt.

But its best development evidently lies west of the Mississippi, oceurring in greatest abundance
and perfection in northeastern Texas, northwestern Louisiana, and southern Arkansas. In Texas,
east of the Trinity River, it forms dense forests almost entirely by itself.

North of the Arkansas River it is found in smaller or larger areas, scattered through the
upland regions to central Missouri. It is the pine of the Indian Territory, where large bodies
oceur, and of southwestern Missouri, and occurs also in Kansas as far north as the Osage River.

It is less frequent in Kentucky and Tennessee, being more confined to the eastern portions
of those States. Only a single station is reported from southern Illinois, and its occurrence in
the other parts of the field of distribution is mainly of botanical interest.

Since this tree occurs mainly in mixtures of different degree with other timbers, it is impos-
sible to state yield per acre in general. In its western range. where it predominates, a cut of
3,500 to 4,000 feet B. M. per acre may be assumed. On the Atlantic coast supplies are largely
reduced.

A rough guess places the possible standing timber of this species at 160,000,000,000 feet B. M.

LOBLOLLY PINE.

This pine is found in all the Southern States excepting Kentucky and Missouri, with its
northernmost limit on the banks of the Rappahannock, below Washington, D. 0. On the Atlantic
slope it occupies the flat lands of the tide-water districts, either mixed with other species or
forming compact bodies of timber. In Virginia it forms about 75 per cent of the timber standing
east of the Richmond-Petersburg line, rapidly taking possession of abandoned fields. In North
Carolina it associates with the longleaf pine, and is especially well developed in the low rich soil
of the swamp borders, but here largely exhausted. Farther south in the pine barrens the longleaf
pine prevails, and the loblolly is found only on the low borders of swamps and streams. In the
Carolinas and Georgia it is also found inland to the foot of the mountains. In Florida it is rare,
except in the northern part, being replaced southward by the Florida old-field pine (P. elausa).

About one-half of the pine timber on the flat, badly drained table-lands of the Warrior coal
field in north Alabama consists of this pine, forming compact bodies of heavy timber or associated
with hard woods. It abounds in Louisiana and southern Texas, in the flat woods bordering the
coast marshes, and in the latter State an area of fully 6,800 square miles, south of the shortleaf
pine uplands and west of the longleaf area, is covered by an almost continuous forest of the
loblolly, of excellent growth, yielding from 4,500 to 5,000 feet per acre on the average.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE Woop.

No more difficult task could be set than to describe on paper the wood of these pines, or to
give the distinctive features so that the kinds can be distinguished and recognized by the
uninitiated. Only the combined simultaneous impressions upon all the senses permit the expert to
make sure of distinguishing these woods without being able to analyze in detail the characters by
which he so distinguishes them. While in many cases there would be no hesitation in referring a
given stick to one or the other species, others may be found in which the resemblance to more
than one species is so close as to make them hardly distinguishable. The following attempt to
diagnose these woods must, therefore, be taken only as an imperfect general guide. So far, even
microscopic examination has not furnished unfailing signs. Color is so variable that it can hardly
Serve as a distinguishing feature. The direction of the cut, roughness of surface, exudation
of resin, condition of health, width of grain, moisture condition, even the mode of drying,
exposure, etc., all have their share in giving color to the wood. Bearing in mind this great
complication of color effects, it will be granted that descriptions of the same, disturbed by
peculiarities of each separate observer, will aid but little in identifying the woods.

The sapwood of all the pines looks very nearly alike, and so does the heartwood. The color
of the spring wood in the sap is a light yellowish with a shade of brown; the summer wood
contains more brown, variable with the density of the cells and appearing darker when the bands

( FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

are more abruptly separated from the spring wood. The heartwood shows a markedly darker
color with a reddish flesh-color tinge added.

Itis perhaps easiest to distinguish the wood of the longleaf and Cuban pines from that of
the shortleaf and loblolly. It is also possible to keep apart the longleaf from the Cuban; but
while, in general, the shortleaf and loblolly can be more or less easily distinguished by color or
grain, some forms of the latter (rosemary pine) so nearly resemble the former that no distinguishing
teature is apparent.

The most ready means for distinguishing the four seems to be the specific gravity or weight
in connection with the grain. The proportion of sap and heartwood will also be an aid in
recognizing a log or log-run lumber in the pile. These distinctive features are tabulated as follows,
the figures representing average conditions of merchantable timber and mature trees:

Diagnostic features of the wood.

Namo F Longleaf pine. Cuban pine.

ame of species. (Pinus palustris Miller.) (Pinus heterophylia (Eli) Sudw.).

Specifie gravity of f Possible range .---.------ - 50 to .90 - 50 to . 90

kiln-dried wood. | Most frequent range - --- .55 to . 65 .55 to .70

Weight, pounds per cubic foot, kiln-dried 36 37

wood, average. 4 ; ie E 4
Character of grain seen in cross section ------ Fine and even; annual rings quite uniformly | Variable and coarse; rings mostly wide,
| narrow on large logs, averaging generally averaging on larger logs 10 to 20 rings to the
|) _ 20 to 25 rings to the inch. inch.

Color, general appearance ---.-------.-------- | Even dark reddish-yellow to reddish-brown --| Dark straw color, with tinge of flesh color.

Sapwood, proportion .| Litile; rarely over 2 to 3 inches of radius----- Broad, 3 to 6 inches.

PREQIMN ae sec eee soon ce eee ce eee neater sae Very abundant; parts often turning into | Abundant, sometimes yielding more pitch
‘light wood;”’ pitchy throughout. than Longleaf; ‘‘bleeds” treely, yielding

little scrape.
- Bee Shortleaf pine. Loblolly pine.
Name of species. (Pinus echinata Miller.) (Pinus teda Linn.).

Specific gravity of f Possible range ---..----- - 40 to .80 - 40 to. 80

kiln-dried wood. | Most frequent range ---- -45 to .55 -45 to.55

Weight, pounds per cubic foot, kiln-dried 30 31

wood, average.

Character of grain seen in cross-section ..---- Very variable; medium coarse; rings wide | Variable, mostly very coarse; 3 to 12 rings to
near heart, followed by zone of narrow the inch, generally wider than in shortleaf.
rings; not less than 4 (mostly about 10 to
15) rings to the inch, but often very fine-

Tained.

Color, general appearance .-..-..------------- Whitish to reddish-brown. Yellowish to reddish and orange brown.

Sapwood, proportion Commonly 2 to 4 inches of radius -.----..----- Very variable, 3 to 6 inches of the radius.

ISGEFIN - | .0 Sones oe cagsosbanssSeennoosseaasosedas Moderately abundant, least pitchy; only near | Abundant; more than Shortleaf, less than
stumps, knots, and limbs. Longleaf and Cuban, but does not ‘‘ bleed”’

if tapped.

QUALITY AND ADAPTATION OF WOODS.

The exhaustive research described in another part of this report has given a full answer to
this part of the inquiry.

The longleaf pine is superior wherever strength and durability are required. In tensile
strength it approaches, and may surpass, cast iron. In cross-breaking strength it rivals the oaks,
requiring 10,000 pounds per square inch on the average to break it, while in stiffness it is superior ,
to the oak by from 50 to 100 per cent. It is best adapted for principal members of heavy con-
struction, for naval architecture, for bridges, trestles, viaducts, and house building. The finer-
grained, and especially the curly, timber is much sought for finishing wood. Its hardness fits it for
planks and flooring, but unless quarter-sawed it is apt to “peel out.” Being very resinous, it is
sometimes difficult to handle in dry kilns, nor does it take paint readily; its hardness also makes
it difficult to work, wearing out tools and muscles. The curly grained lumber, which is found
quite frequently, makes an elegant finishing and furniture wood. It is an excellent fuel, and its
resinous products supply the world with pitch, resin, and turpentine. Contrary to common belief,
the tapping for turpentine was found, by a large number of tests lately made under direction of
this division, not to weaken but to strengthen the timber in cross-breaking and compression and
to inerease its stiffness. (See full discussion in report on timber physics.)

The Cuban pine, mostly known locally as slash pine, is generally cut and sold without distine-
tion from the longleaf, and its wood, if not superior in some respects, is probably not inferior in
any to the latter, except as far as its coarser grain and larger amount of sapwood may influence

USE OF WOOD. 13

its usefulness. The tests of the Tenth Census would make its mechanical properties even superior
to those of the longleaf.

The shortleaf pine, comparatively free from resinous matter, softer, capable of good finish,
and more easily worked, furnishes a lumber better adapted to the use of the joiner, cabinetmaker,
and carpenter than the other two. There being more sapwood in the log-run lumber and greater
variation in its growth, more need for grading exists.

Until within two decades or so this lumber did not find ready market outside of its home, because
the sapwood was apt to “blue;” but with the dry kiln these objections have been overcome, and it
now finds wide application for lighter framework, weatherboarding (taking paint more readily
than the longleaf pine), for flooring, ceiling, wainscoting, window casings, and sash and doors, and
for shingles. It is also adapted for building of railroad cars and manufacture of furniture. In
cross-breaking strength it is‘at least 25 per cent weaker than the longleaf, although occasional
sticks are found as strong. In stiffness the difference is not so great on the average, but the best
stick so far tested falls 20 per cent below the best longleaf. In shearing strength, however, it
seems to equal the latter, showing that, although weaker, its cell elements are as firmly knit
together.

The loblolly pine varies still more greatly in quality than the shortleaf pine, growing as it
does under the most varied conditions. Hence opinions as to its value vary widely, and its use-
fulness is but imperfectly understood, except perhaps in some parts of its home, like lower
Virginia, where most of the houses were built of this pine. Grown slowly on the poorer or wetter
soils, at higher elevations and in a more northern climate, it produces more heartwood and better
quality, while the rank growth on better soils presents a sappy, light, coarse-grained wood, soft,
and quick to decay. In North Carolina, where it occupies the swamp borders, the variety, or
rather the “quality,” known as “rosemary” or “slash” pine, now nearly exhausted, furnishes a
timber from long and large old trees in no way inferior to the shortleaf, which it closely resembles,
and approaching even the longleaf.

Strength and durability it does not possess in great measure, but, properly seasoned, it fur-
nishes a timber suitable for many purposes. Yet the timber tested from north Alabama seems to
equal, if not surpass, in strength and stiffness the shortleaf from the same region. It is perfectly
suited for rough work, joists and scantling, studding, and common boards, and about 75 per cent
of the material for this purpose used in the markets of Baltimore and Washington comes from this
pine, and the bulk is sawed in Caroline County, Va. Much is also used in Philadelphia. The
best grades are selected for flooring, siding, and inside finish, although its liability to shrink,
unless thoroughly seasoned, makes the propriety of this use doubtful. As cord wood it reaches
also more northern markets (New York), and where a brisk flame with quick heat is desired, as
in bakeries, brickyards, and potteries, it is very good. The name under which this lumber goes
is Virginia pine, although I have found builders calling it “yellow pine” and “ North Carolina”
pine. Since this pine is of rapid growth, quickly occupying old abandoned fields and making
saw logs in fifty years, it promises to become one of the prominent staples of our lumber market.

In North Carolina only the better quality is cut and sold indiscriminately with the shortleaf
as “ North Carolina” pine, while in the Gulf States east of the Mississippi but little is eut, and
that only on special orders for inferior work (except in north Alabama). In Texas, however,
where this pine abounds in perfection, 25 and more per cent of the lumber handled is loblolly,
although at Beaumont, the principal point of lumber production, but little of this material was
found at the mills. In Arkansas it is called “longleaf pine,” and some Northern lumber yards
which must have longleaf pine from Arkansas seem to supply themselves with this material. It is
tapped for turpentine wherever found in the turpentine orchard, yielding a more fluid resin than
the longleaf pine.

A fuller statement of the quality of the wood of these pines will be found in another part of
this report.

Use or Woop.

In its use the wood of all four species is applied much alike. The coarse-grained, heavy,
resinous forms are especially suited for timbers and dimension stuff; while the fine-grained wood,
whatever species it may come from, is used for a great variety of finishing purposes.

74 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Formerly these pines, except for local and house use, were mostly cut or hewn into timbers,
but now especially since the introduction of dry kilns, Southern pine is cut into every form and
grade of lumber. Nevertheless a large proportion of the total cut, especially of the longleaf pine,
is still sawed to order in sizes above 6 by 6 inches and lengths above 20 feet for timbers, for which
the longleaf and Cuban pine furnish the ideal materials.

The resinous conditions of these two pines make them also most desirable for railway ties of
lasting quality.

Since the custom of painting and graining woodwork has given way to natural grain with oil
finish, the wood of these hard pines is becoming very popular for inside finish.

Kiln-drying is successfully practiced with all four species, but especially with the Shortleaf
and Loblolly pines which, if not artificially seasoned, are liable to ‘‘blue.” The wood can be dried
without great injury at high temperatures.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

LONGLEAF PINE.

In a fruitful year, before the close of the season, with the advent of spring, a dry and sunny
state of the atmosphere favoring the fall of the seed, the seedlings are found to come up abun-
dantly in every opening of the forest where the rays of the sun strike the dry ground. The lower
(hypocotyledonary) part of the axis of the plantlet is close to the ground, with eight to ten erect
cotyledons from 1 to 14 inches in length, their tips inclosed in the shell of the seed, with the long
wing persistent and borne banuer-like at the top of the plantlet. (See Pl. X, a.) The elongation
of the ascending axis proceeds slowly, growth in length being retarded until a certain thickness
has been attained, resembling in this respect the growth of the stem of endogenous trees.

Upon examination of a seedling in the latter part of April the cotyledons had disappeared
and the ecaulicle was found to be from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch long, its length not
exceeding its diameter, hidden by a dense tuft of the needle-shaped primary leaves, which closely
invest the terminal bud. At this stage a few fascicles of secondary leaves are already showing
themselves, still inclosed in their sheaths.

During the first three or four years its energy of growth is mainly expended upon the
development of its powerful root system. (See Pl. X, ce.) Before the first spring season has
passed, the stout spindle-shaped taproot of the seedling is found to be over 3 inches in length
and provided with several fine lateral rootlets, sometimes nearly as long as the main root.

With the opening of June the primary leaves covering the axis are nearly all withered, only
a few remaining to the end of the season. With the development of the suppressed secondary
axes from which the foliage leaves proceed, the primary leaves are reduced to chaffy fimbriate
bracts. Only afew of these primary leaves retain the needle-shaped form and green color, namely,
those from which no leaf-bearing branchlets were developed. During the first season many of the
fascicles of the foliage leaves contain only two leaves, and sheaths inclosing only one leaf are
frequently observed.

By the end of the first year the stem of the plantlet is rarely over three-fourths of an inch in
length, the main root having attained a length of from 8 to 10 inches.

Having reached the end of the second year the taproot is found from 2 to 3 feet in length, the
stem scarcely 14 inches long, with an increase of diameter hardly perceptible. ‘The conical ter-
mination of the spring shoot is now densely covered with the delicately fringed bracts inclosing
the buds of the foliage leaves, which impart to it the appearance of a silvery white tuft, by which
this species is recognized at first sight.

During the following two years the growth proceeds but slowly, the length by the end of the
fourth year averaging not more than 5 inches with a thickness of three-fourths to seven-eighths
of aninch. During the same time the taproot is found to gain constantly both in thickness and
length. (See Pl. X,e.) A few single branches now make their appearance on the main axis.
The increase of growth from one season to another up to the seventh or eighth year is difficult to
follow, since the difference in the appearance of the spring and summer wood cells in the spongy
wood of young trees is hardly perceptible, and the rings of annual growth, even as seen in cross
sections prepared for microscopical examination, are mostly too indistinct to afford a safe criterion _

PLATE IX.

181.

H. Doe.

BEN"

~ aa

et

LONGLEAF PINE (PINUS PALUSTRIS) TYPICAL TREE.

PLATE X.

H. Doe. 181.

D.0Cageurske, ff

PINUS PALUSTRIS: SEEDLINGS AND YOUNG PLANT.

e, young tree, 3 to 4 years old;

a, germinating seed; b, young seedling just unfolded; c, seedling unfolding primary leaves; d, foliage leaves at end of season;

one-third natural size.

Rg
an

‘ or, ni ae

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. 15

of their age. As far as could be observe the growth proceeds equally slowly during the fifth and
sixth years, the plant at the end of that period being from 5 to 7 or 74 inches in length.

Stage of rapid growth.—With its seventh year the tree may be said to enter on its most
vigorous growth. Henceforth the stem (primary axis) increases rapidly in length, and the
development of branches (lateral axes) proceeds at an equal rate in regular whorls, to which the
symmetry of the tree in that stage of its development isdue. During the seventh year, geverally,
the tree doubles its length, and during a number of successive years the rate of growth in that
direction varies between 10 and 20 inches annually, as is clearly shown by the length of the
internodes separating the whorls. As the branches increase in length they produce, in the same
order mostly, two opposite secondary branches. With the rapid expansion of the leaf surface,
the formation of wood keeps pace. The rate of growth in diameter, as well as in height, during
this period is, of course, variable according to differences in the physical condition of the soil, as
well as in the available amount of plant food and moisture it contains, and no less upon differences
in temperature and of exposure to light and air.

When the tree has reached its second decade it begins to produce flowers and fruit. Having
during the course of the following fifteen years reached a length of from 40 to 45 feet, with the
main stem clear of limbs, the growth of branches does not proceed with the same regularity;
consequently they are no longer arranged in regular whorls, but appear irregularly, and thus the
symmetry of the tree is lost.

Stage of slow growth.—Rapid as is the increase in length of the primary axis or trunk, amount-
ing during the first half century, in the average, to 14 or 15 inches annually. the rate is subse-
quently greatly diminished, averaging from the fiftieth to about the one hundred and fifteenth
year but from 4 to 5 inches, and from this time to the age of two hundred and fifty years only 14
inches—that is, at a relative rate of 10, 3, and i in the three successive periods. The decrease in
the accretion of wood corresponds with the reduction in the growth of the branches and conse-
quent. reduction of foliage. From what has been said, it is seen that the longleaf pine attains
maturity of growth, with the best qualities of its timber, at an age of from one hundred and eighty
to two hundred years. After having passed the second century the trees are found frequently to
be wind shaken and otherwise defective. The deterioration of the weather-beaten crown lessens
the vitality of the tree, and the soil, under prevailing conditions, becomes less and less favorable.
In consequence, the trees become liable to disease aid mostly fall prey to the attacks of parasitic
fungi (red heart). Instances of trees which have reached the maximum age of two hundred and
seventy-five or three hundred years are exceptional.

In order to ascertain the age required to furnish merchantable timber of first quality, meas-
urements were made of a number of logs in a log camp in the rolling pine uplands of the lower
division of the coastal pine belt near Lumberton, Washington County, Ala. [From the results
obtained it appears that in this section of the eastern Gulf region, at the lowest figure, two
hundred years are requisite to produce logs of the dimensions at present cut at the sawmills.

Demands upon soil and climate.—In its demands upon the soil this pine is to be counted among
the most frugal, as far as mineral constituents, which are considered as plant food, are concerned,
if only the mechanical conditions which influence favorable soil moisture are not wanting. It
thrives best on a light siliceous soil, loamy sand or pebbles or light sandy loam, with a slightly
clayey subsoil sufficiently porous to insure at least a partial underdrainage and to permit unim-
peded development of the long taproot. Whenever the tree meets an obstacle to the development
of this root it remains more or less stunted.

The luxuriance of the growth and increase in size of the timber, however, is greatly influ-
enced by the quantity of clay present, particularly in the deep subsoil, which improves mechanical
and moisture conditions. This is strikingly exhibited in the timber of the level pine flats west of
the Mississippi River, although the surface drainage is almost wanting and the underdrainage
through the loamy strata slow, so that the surface of the soil remains damp or water-soaked for
the greater part of the year; the stand of timber of first-class dimensions exceeds considerably
that of the rolling pine uplands on the Atlantic slope and the lower part of the pine belt in the
eastern Gulf region, which are poorer in clay. Evidently, although the underdrainage is less
perfect, the moisture conditions during the dry season of the year, the time of most active growth,
must be most favorable. The same fact is apparent in the upper part of the coast pine belt in

WO. FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Alabama and Mississippi, where, upon the same area, with a smaller number of trees, the crop of
timber may be considered almost twice as heavy as that found on the pine barrens proper farther
south. On the soil of fine, closely compacted sand, entirely deficient in drainage as found in the
so-called pine meadows along the coast of western Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi, as well as
on the siliceous rocky ridges of central and northern Alabama, the tree is so stunted as to be of
little or no value for its timber.

“Tt is neither temperature alone, nor rainfall and moisture conditions of the atmosphere alone,

‘that influence tree growth, but the relation of these two climatic factors, which determines the
amount of transpiration to be performed by the foliage, and again with most species we must place
this transpiration movement into relation with available soil moisture, in order to determine what
the requirements and the most suitable habitat of the species are” (B. E. Fernow). Hence we find
that east of the Mississippi River the longleaf pine occurs in greatest frequency along the isotherm
of 60° F. ranging to 34° north latitude, while west of the Mississippi it follows a line between
the isotherms of 63° and 64° F. and is scarcely found north of the thirty-second parallel of north
latitude. Within this area of its distribution it is exposed to wide variation of temperature and
moisture conditions.

Under the influence of the vapor-laden breezes from the Mexican Gulf and an evenly dis-
tributed rainfall ranging from 42 to 63 inches during the year, the longleaf pine appears of the
same thrift and vigor of growth in the interior of Alabama under 34° to 35° north latitude,
with the thermometer falling as low as 4° F. (16° C.) and a range of temperature of 93° (at Tusca-
loosa), as it is found in the subtropical belt of the coast with a maximum temperature of 105° F.
(40° C.) and a range of temperature of 94° west of the Mississippi River, although the temperature
reaches rarely a minimum of 15° and 12°, respectively, at the northern limit of the tree in these
States, the diminished humidity of the atmosphere and lesser rainfall, particularly during the
warmer season, account for its absence. There can be no doubt that the greater exposure to the
violence of the sudden gusts of dry and cold wind known in Texas as “dry northers” exercises
also no small influence in limiting the longleaf pine.

Associated species.—The longleaf pine is eminently a gregarious tree, covering areas of wide
extent, to the almost complete exclusion of any other species. In the flat woods of the coastal plain,
particularly near its northern limit on the Atlantic slope, it is not infrequently associated with the
loblolly pine; farther south and along the Gulf coast to the Mississippi River, more or less fre-
quently with this tree and the Cuban pine. In the upper part of the maritime pine belt it not
rarely occurs together with the shortleaf pine and the loblolly pine intermixed with the deciduous
trees of the uplands, viz, the black oak, Spanish oak, black-jack, bitternut, mockernut hickories,
and black gum.

It will be apparent, from what has been said regarding the demands for light, that the asso-
ciated species must be either slower growers or later comers, if the longleaf pine is to survive in
the mixture. As has been pointed out elsewhere, with the culling of the longleaf pine from the
mixed growths it must soon cease to play a part in them, since its renewal under the shade of the
remaining associates is impossible.

Enemies.—The greatest danger threatening the existence of the forests of longleaf pine must
be ascribed to the agency of man, since their destruction is caused chiefly by the reckless manner
in which they are depleted without heed to recuperation. The right of ownership has been gen-
erally acquired on such low terms that since no value has been attached to the land without the
timber, despoliation has been carried on with no other object than the quickest return of
pecuniary profits.

Exploitation.—Such management could not but entail tremendous waste, a large percentage
of the body of the trees felled being left on the ground to rot or to serve as fuel for the conflagrations
which scour these woods almost every year. Infinitely greater than the injuries inflicted upon the
forest by the logger and by getting out cross-ties and hewn square timber, which consist chiefly
in the. accumulation of combustible waste, are those caused by the production of naval stores.
When the fact is considered that the production of the 40,000 barrels of spirits of turpentine,
which on an average during the latter half of this decade annually reached the market of Mobile
alone, implies the devastation of about 70,000 acres of virgin forest, the destruction caused by this
industry appears in its full enormity. Under the management of the turpentine orchards

H. Doe. 181. Plate XI.

D OLSZEWSKI] dog.

Q. HEIDEMANH,SC

LONGLEAF PINE (PINUS PALUSTRIS Mill.): BUD AND LEarF.

a, branch with terminal bud; &, leaf bundle: e, d, primary leaf bracts (magnified); e, cross section through base of leaf bundle (magnified); f, g, cross
sections (magnified) of leaves; h, longitudinal section through leaf.

H. Doe. 181. PLATE XII.

Pe.
2} oe
Ae
ee ae,
OM LYS

LONGLEAF PINE (PINUS PALUSTRIS): MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS.

a, fruiting branch with female aments at tip, and one and two seasons’ cones; b, maleaments; c, female ament; d, seed-bearing scales; e, f, male aments;

g, detached anthers; h, 2, detached female flowers.

ao

he

Ties
Nis

H. Doc. 181. PLaTe XIII.

a

LONGLEAF PINE (PINUS PALUSTRIS Mill.): FRUIT.

a, open cone, natural size; b, c, detached scales, dorsal and ventral; d, e, f, g, seeds with wings.

men
bearabin e +

ath
a

CUBAN PINE. hal

prevailing at present, trees of such small size are tapped that they are unable to resist the force
of the winds, and in a few years are inevitably prostrated, while the larger trees, weakened by the
severe gashes on almost every side, become largely wind-shaken and the timber after a few years
almost worthless.

While a judicious tapping is not only justified, but demanded, by an economic system of
exploitation, the prevailing methods of orcharding are unnecessarily destructive.

The tapping of sapling timber not yet ripe for the saw, and the destructive fires started in
connection with this industry, annihilating all young growth, prevent any renewal of the forest,
while the working of large bodies of timber years before milling facilities are available leads often
to a loss of 20 per cent and more in both quality and quantity of the merchantable product.

Fires.—The greatest injury to which the pine forests are subject in consequence of turpentine
orcharding arises from the fires which are started every spring for the purpose of getting rid of
the combustible matter raked from around the tapped trees in order to protect them from accidental
conflagrations while they are worked. These forest fires, spreading far beyond their intended
limits, destroy entirelythe youngest progeny of the pines, stunt the growth of the more advanced
trees, and cause the ruin of a large number of older ones in the abandoned turpentine orchards.
Burning deeply into the gashes and other exposed surfaces of the tapped trees, these fires hasten
their prostration by the gales. Moreover, the fire causes cracks in the surfaces laid bare by the
ax and the puller occasions greater exposure to atmospheric action, thus inducing more or less
rapid decay. A test, made by sawing through twenty-two logs taken at random from a turpentine
orchard after it had been abandoned for a period of sixteen to eighteen years, showed that about
one-half of the timber was partially decayed and shaky.

Besides the production of naval stores as a cause of forest fires, there is another scarcely less
potent. This is the practice prevailing among the settlers of burning the woods upon the approach
of every spring in order to hasten the growth of grass for their famished stock. Fires are also
frequently started through the carelessness of loggers and hunters, in the preparation of the ground
for tillage, and by sparks from locomotives. These fires, occurring at least once during every
year, cause the total destruction of the young growth of the longleaf pine. The danger to this
species is much greater than to any other Southern wood, because of the greater length of time it
requires to reach a size at which it can offer some resistance to fire. In the open forest of longleaf
pine the fires are not so destructive to the larger timber as in the dense forests of coniferous
trees further north, trees of larger size being, with some exceptions, but slightly, if at all, directly
damaged.

Another serious damage, however, resulting from the frequent recurrence of fires is the
destruction of all vegetable matter in the soil. Deprived of the mulching needed for the retention
of moisture, the naturally porous and dry soil, now rendered absolutely arid and barren, is no longer
capable of supporting any larger tree growth or other useful vegetation.

Live stock.—Of no less danger to the existence of the forests of longleaf pine is the injury

‘caused by live stock. This agency, slow in its action, is sure to lead to their destruction unless
restricted to some extent. Beside the damage due to the trampling down and mutilation of the
young growth by herds of cattle roaming through the woods, the smaller domestic animals—goats
and sheep—eat the tufts of the tender foliage of the seedlings, while hogs are seen digging up and
chewing the spongy and tender roots of the young plants. As a further agency in the way of the
renewal of this species, the destruction of the mature cones might be mentioned, caused principally
by the squirrels, which peel off the scales clean to the core in search of the sweet, nutritious seed.

Storms.—F ull-grown trees are frequently uprooted by the hurricanes which from time to time
pass through the pine belt. Those having the taproot shortened by impenetrable layers of
indurated clay, interposed in the subsoil at varying depths, are invariably the first victims of the
high winds. In trees grown in such places the taproot is found with a tumid and round base as
smooth as if polished.

CUBAN PINE.

This is the earliest flowering of the Southern pines. The buds of the male flowers make their
appearance in the early part of December, and the flowers open during the last days of January
and during the first week of February. This species produces abundant crops of cones every year,

.

78 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

almost without failure; they ripen in the fall of the second year; the seeds are discharged through
the winter of the second year until spring. Germinating easily, their seedlings are found to come
up copiously from early in the spring to the beginning of the summer in old fields and on every
opening in the vicinity of the parent trees, wherever the rays of the sun reach the ground. The
plantlets bear six to seven seed-leaves (cotyledons). As soon as these have fairly expanded the
terminal bud develops rapidly, and the first internode of the stem, increasing quickly in length, is
densely covered with the soft, narrow, linear, pointed, primary leaves, which are fully an inch long.
Before the end of the second month, in the axils of some of the leaves, the undeveloped branchlets,
bearing the fascicle of the foliage leaves, make their appearance. With the further development
of the foliage leaves, increasing in number during the growing season, the primary leaves wither
away. By the close of the first season the plantlets are from 8 to 9 inches high, with a very
slender taproot and many lateral rootlets near its upper end. After the beginning of the second
season but few of the primary leaves are found to support the buds of the foliage leaves. The
tendency to the production of secondary axes becomes manifest by the appearance of a single
branchlet; on having reached the end of their second year the plants awe from 12 to 15 inches
high, with a taproot not more than 4 inches long; at the end of their third year they average little
less than 2 feet in height, with the taproot 6 inches long—the laterals being much longer. The
crown from this period develops in regular whorls for a long succession of years.

The Cuban pine, in its rate of growth and when fully grown, exceeds in its dimensions the
longleaf pine. The taproot, less powerful than in its allies, is assisted by mighty lateral roots
running near the surface of the ground to support the tall, sturdy trunk, rising to a height of 110
or 115 feet, with a diameter of 24, not unfrequently exceeding 3, feet, clear of limbs for a height of
from 60 to 70 feet above the ground. The heavy limbs are horizontally spreading, from 22 to 24
feet at their greatest length, somewhat irregularly disposed; they form in the trees of full growth
a rather dense crown of rounded outline. Trees of the dimensions mentioned, having passed the
fullness of their growth, are found to be from one hundred to one hundred and forty years old,
according to the surrounding conditions. The thick bark is of a clear, reddish color, laminated,
and exfoliating in thin, broad, purplish flakes.

Seedlings of the longleaf pine, which those of the Cuban pine somewhat resemble, can be
readily distinguished at this period by the disproportion of height and diameter and absence of
branch growth in the former. The rate of growth differs, of course, according to the conditions
of soil and exposure.

Saplings showing five rings of annual growth were found from 43 to nearly 6 feet in height,
with a diameter of from three-fourths to seveu-eighths of an inch; between the age of from ten
to twelve years the trees measure from 10 to 18 feet in height, with the stem clear for over half
its length—even when grown in the open—and from 2 up to 4 inches in diameter. From this
stage on the rate of growth proceeds most rapidly. At eighteen and twenty years heights of 40
to 50 feet and over, and diameters from 9 to 10 inches across the stump, cut close to the ground,
are attained.

Soil.—For its best development the Cuban pine requires a light, sandy, but constantly damp
soil, which is attained where the sandy surface is underlaid by a loamy subsoil retentive of
moisture but sufficiently Joose to give the roots unhindered access. Such conditions are found on
the lands rising above the perpetually wet swamps. On the flats, with a soil of fine, compact
sand, devoid of all drainage and underlaid by a hardpan, where nothing but the saw palmetto
appears to thrive, the tree remains of low, stunted growth, scarcely ever reaching medium size.
In the depth of the swamp, with the soil wet and slushy throughout the year, where the tree is
commonly met with, closely surrounded by white bay, red bay, black gum, titi, and white cedar
towering high above it, it is of slow growth and frequently affected by red heart or red rot, partic-
ularly near its northern limit. It is never found in alluvial bottoms, and eschews the dry, pine-
barren hills, requiring a moderate but sure and even supply of soil moisture.

Climate.—The range of its distribution coincides with the area of greatest rainfall in the
Southern States, which, evenly distributed through all seasons, amounts for the year, in the mean,
to 60 and 64 inches.

The Cuban pine demands a warm climate, free from excesses in the range of temperature, as
is afforded by the vicinity of the sea. It is found in greatest abundance and most perfect within

H. Doe. 18}.

PLATE XIV.

a
“ \ = aK

VONSHEWSRI sae,

Ra
O.HEIDEMAN, Sc
CUBAN PINE (PINUS HETEROPHYLLA (Ell.) Sudw.).

a, closed cone; b, open cone; c, apophyses; d, cone scales, dorsal and ventral view; e, f, g, seed and seed wings, dorsal and ventral view.

+, one alba cea in A aes Re

SHORTLEAF PINE. 19

the isothermal lines of 64° and 68° F., with a minimum of but a few degrees below the freezing
point. The tree, as observed at Mobile, has escaped uninjured the severe and unprecedented
long spell of ice and snow during the latter part of January and first week of February, 1895,
when the thermometer fell as low as 11° F., the flowers unfolding unimpaired by frost during the
succeeding first days of milder weather.

In its dependence on light it is less exacting than either the longleaf pine or the loblolly pine.
It appears to thrive, from the earliest stage of its development, as well when partially shaded as
in the open, in this respect resembling the Southern spruce pine. It is due to these facts, com-
bined with the rapid progress of its growth from the earliest stage, that the Cuban pine is gaining
the upper hand over the offspring of the light-requiring longleaf pine, which, on the damp soil of
the coast plain, is soon outstripped and finally almost completely suppressed by the seedlings
of this tree.

In the inherent capacity for natural reproduction, or in the advantages for the renewal of its
forests by man, the Cuban pine is not surpassed by any other of the species with which it is found
associated. This tree.commends itself strongly to the tree planter in the coast plain of the lower
South. Producing seeds in abundance regularly and with certainty, being less exacting in its
demands for direct sunlight, and hence successfully resisting the encroachment of competing
species, being less liable to succumb to the destructive agencies of fire on account of its more
rapid development in early life, it has greater promise of success than the others. If to this is
added the rapid rate of growth, the great value of its timber, being equal to the longleaf, if not
superior, and the abundant yield of its valuable resinous product, it becomes evident that in the
reforestation of the low pine lands of the Southern coast region the Cuban pine is to be preferred
to any other, not only within its original boundaries, but as far beyond its range of natural
distribution as the climatic requirements of the tree will permit.

SHORTLEAF PINE.

The seeds begin to swell and to germinate in the early days of spring. In Mobile County, on
the end of the first week of March, the plantlets had their cotyledons fully unfolded, which were
found to vary from six to seven in number, with the lower (hypocotyledonary) part of the axis from
1$ to 2 inches long, the rootlets being somewhat less in length (Pl. XVI, e, g). The development
of the upper part of the axis (caulicle) from the terminal budlet and of the primary acerose leaves
proceeds now rapidly. These primary leaves succeeding the cotyledons are stiff and spreading,
about three-fourths of an inch long and covering the stem densely (Pl. XVI, g), remain during the
first season, withering from below during the warmer part of the season. By the close of the first
season the caulicle or first shoot has attained a length of from 3 to 4 inches. On the shoot of
the second season (rarely before) the secondary leaves, which constitute the foliage, make their
appearance from the undeveloped branchlets in the axis of the primary leaves (Pl. XVI, g). At
the end of the second year the plants are 7 to 8 inches high, with a taproot 2 to 3 inches long.
During this season adventitious buds appear at the collar of the stem, which bring forth vigorous
sprouts, particularly if the stem has sustained the slightest injury. These shoots are covered
with primary leaves, which are retained for one season. They are apt to form strong branches
before the tree has reached its fourth or fifth year; such branches, which are produced profusely
from the stumps of larger trees, scarcely survive another season. It is rarely that branches are
produced in the second year, the first branches appearing generally in the third season in whorls
of three to four. In the third year foliage leaves alone are produced in the axils of scales with
their bases close to the stem. At the close of the third year the plants are from 12 to 18 inches
high. Now the development of the root system advances rapidly, the taproot being hy this time
about 8 or 10 inches long, with strong lateral roots often double that length. Both taproot and
lateral roots are finally vigorously developed, penetrating deep into the ground, so that trees of
this species are rarely blown down by winds. At the end of the fourth year the plants are from
2 to 3 feet high, with the stem at best from five-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch thick.

The branches of the whorls begin now in their turn to develop branchlets in whorls of secondary
order. The development of the primary axis and its branch system proceeds henceforth in the
regular acropetal order. As in all pines, the shoot of the main axis takes the lead in rapidity and

80 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

vigor of growth. By a number of measurements made at Cullman, north Alabama, of trees from
the openings in the forest, as well as from clearings, it was found that by the end of the fifth year
they had attained a height varying between 3 and 5 feet, rarely over, the stem being from five-eighths
to seven-eighths of an inch in thickness; by the end of the sixth year, from 6 to 9 feet high and
from one-half to 2 inches in diameter; and at the tenth year, from 10 to 16 feet high and trom 2
to 24 inches in diameter. At the age of fifteen to twenty years, with a total height of from 20 to 30
feet and a diameter, breast high, of 4 to 5 inches, the crown of the tree occupies from one-half to
five-eighths of its height. Henceforth throughout the period of quickest growth its rate is greatly
influenced by conditions of light and soil. At the age of fifty years the height of the trees varies
between 40 and 60 feet and the diameter, breast high, between 10 and 14 inches. About this age,
or perhaps a short time before, the height growth begins to decline and the branches become
somewhat reclining below and spreading toward the top, and consequently the head of the tree
becomes more rounded in outline. Between the ages of sixty and seventy years the trees are from
50 to 70 feet high and from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, with the trunk clear of limbs for 30 to
rarely over 40 feet. From this period on the growth proceeds at a slower rate. On reaching its
one hundredth year the tree has attained a height between 90 and 95 feet and a diameter of
from 16 to 19 inches at most. Having now passed its period of vigorous life, the growth is
henceforth insignificant. Between the ages of one hundred and twenty and one hundred and
thirty years trees were found 90 to 110 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter. The oldest
tree encountered in the measurements, with two hundred and eight rings of annual growth in
the stump, scarcely exceeded 109 feet in height and measured 24 inches in diameter. The largest
tree felled was 117 feet high and 25 inches in diameter, with one hundred and forty-three rings in
the stump. Occasionally trees are found of a diameter exceeding 3 feet, but such are exceptional.

Soil and climate-—The shortleaf pine prefers a well-drained, light sandy or gravelly clay soil
or warm loam, even if deficient in the elements of plant food. Soils of this character which are
found widely prevailing over the undulating or broken uplands, if only of sufficient depth, will
produce this tree in greatest perfection. It avoids the strongly calcareous and the rich alluvial
soils, as well as purely siliceous, being dependent on the presence of a certain amount of clay by
which the mechanical condition of the soil is improved, rendering it more compact and more
retentive of moisture. That a purely sandy and highly porous soil is not favorable to this tree
is shown by the stunted growth of the waifS sometimes found in the openings of the forests of
longleaf pine on the sandy, arid uplands in the lower part of the coast pine belt.

Distributed in its range over 10 degrees of latitude and exposed tov wide differences of
temperature, it shows almost the same thrift of growth near its northern limits under the isotherm
of 50° F. and in regions where the thermometer falls to near 20° below zero as in lower latitudes
with a mean annual temperature of 64° F. It can, therefore, endure a considerable range of
temperature.

The conditions of atmospheric moisture evidently exercise a much more decided influence
over its distribution, and, without doubt, upon its individual development. ‘The tree is found in
greatest abundance and of best growth where, within the limits of its distribution, the annual
rainfall varies between 48 to 52 inches, is less frequent in the districts where the precipitation
exceeds 56 inches, still scarcer where the annual rainfall averages below 44 inches, and entirely
wanting where this is less than 40 inches. Hence it is found best developed in the upper part of
the Gulf States and west of the Mississippi River in adjacent northern districts from the interior
of Georgia to northeastern Texas, where the most favorable conditions in regard to atmospheric
precipitation prevail. The tree seems to avoid the humid air of the coast along the Gulf, as well
as along the seashore of the Southern Atlantic States, nor does it ascend the mountains in these
States above an altitude of 2,500 feet.

Relation to light and associated species.—The shortleaf pine, like most pines, is a light-needing
species, being, however, less sensitive to a deficiency in this direction than the longleaf and Cuban
pines, which latter succumb in competition with the shortleaf pine. Originally the shortleaf pine
is found more or less associated with various oaks (Spanish oak, blackjack, scarlet oak, post oak,
and black oak), the mockernut and the pignut hickory, and more rarely with the chestnut, the
mountain oak, and the scrub pine. All of these species prefer the warm, lighter soils of the
uplands. These companions of the shortleaf pine are joined in the lower Southern States by

H. Doe. 181. PLATE XV.

fo: =]

SHORTLEAF PINE (PINUS ECHINATA), FOREST-GROWN SPECIMENS IN MISSOURI.

u
a} fet ean ores

H. Doe. 181.

PLATE XVI.

9). Olsxewelir del

SHORTLEAF PINE (PINUS ECHINATA Mill.).

Cone, seed, and leaves.

ree) annie

3 Cal
“TARE as
:

PLATE XVII.

H. Doe. 181.

SEL EZA
Fl

Sn

fE

= ASF

SSS
. Sea)
= =

OMEIDEMAN SE.

SHORTLEAF PINE (PINUS ECHINATA Mill.),

a, branch with male aments; b, branch with female aments at tip and one season’s cones at c; d, male flowers; e, f, g, development of seedling;
h, 7, sections through leaf bundle.

Vy fesaaan |

Posh ce he

Ti theese Rar

LOBLOLLY PINE. 81

the loblolly and longleaf pine. Wherever in these upland forests an opening is made the short-
leaf pine gains over its associates, finding its only successful rival in the loblolly pine. It is in
the Southern States proverbial that in the upland forests “‘ the pine is crowding out the hard-wood
timber,” a fact early observed. The displacement is effected either gradually in the course of time,
or instantly when the removal of the original timber growth has been sudden. In the upper part
of the maritime pine belt, where it is associated with the longleaf pine, the latter is sure to be
replaced by the shortleaf species, often joined in the course of such invasion by the loblolly pine.

LOBLOLLY PINE.

The crops of seed are produced quite abundantly every year and copiously dispersed over the
vicinity of the mother trees by the wind, the offspring quickly taking possession of old fields
and clearings in the forest.

The seeds germinate in the early spring. The ends of the cotyledons remain for a short time
after germination inclosed in the endosperm. The number of the germinal leaves (cotyledons) is
mostly six, rarely seven. At the time of the unfolding of the cotyledons the lower (hypocotyle-
donary) part of the axis of the plant is about 1 inch in length. The rootlets are half that length,
and are provided with several acropetal secondary rootlets. The caulicle grows rapidly, and is
soon covered with the stiff, needle-shaped, and strongly serrulated primary leaves. Before the
spring season has passed the bundles of secondary or foliage leaves make their appearance in
the axils of the former. At the close of the summer season the plantlet has attained a height of
from 6 to 8 inches, the upper part of the stem covered with foliage leaves, the acerose primary
. leaves of the lower part having completely withered. In examining a large number of young
plants never less than three leaves in a bundle have been found during this or any subsequent
stage of the growth. With the second year the primary leaves have all become reduced to the
ordinary form of the leaf bract—lanceolate, acuminate, with fimbriate white hyaline edges and tips.

In all the specimens examined it was found that the growth of the main axis proceeded less
rapidly during the second season, but produced a regular whorl of from three to four lateral axes.
At the close of the second year the main stem rarely exceeds 10 inches in height.

At the end of their third year the plants are from 18 to 20 inches high, the stem being from
one-fourth to five-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. The branches, forming regular whorls, are
erect and produce in their turn whorls of secondary order. The root system shows a correspond-
ing increase, the taproot being from 6 to 8 inches long, with numerous stout lateral roots.

With the fourth year the loblolly pine enters seemingly upon the period of quickest growth.
As ascertained by many measurements, the trees at the end of their fourth year average 3 feet in
height and from one-half to seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, and at the end of the fifth year
measure nearly 5 feet and from 1 to 1} inches in diameter. At the beginning of the seventh year
the tree attains a height of 10 feet, and with the close of the first decade trees are found 12 to 16
feet high and from 23 to 3 inches in diameter. Some trees begin to mature their first cones by the
tenth year.

The above measurements were made in 1890 in the vicinity of Cullman, Ala., on trees taken
indiscriminately from the midst and near the border of a dense pine thicket covering a field plowed
for the last time in 1882, and from an adjoining opening in the forest protected from fire and but
rarely used for pasture.

According to a number of measurements made of trees in the southern Atlantic States, the
Gulf region, and southern Arkansas, the loblolly pine reaches at the tenth year, on the average,
a height of 20 feet, doubling this height during the succeeding decade. During this period of
quickest growth the increase in height proceeds at the rate of 2 feet per annum, and trees twenty
years old average 44 inches in diameter breast high. At the age of fifty years the trees are from
65 to 75 feet in height (average about 70 feet) and 15 inches in diameter breast high. The annual
increase for this period of thirty years is about 1 foot in height and 0.35 inch in diameter. From
numerous observations it appears that the loblolly pine attains the fullness of its growth at the
age of one hundred years, with a height, on the average, of 110 feet and a diameter breast high
of 2 feet, the length of merchantable timber varying between 50 and 60 feet. The annual rate of
height growth during the second half century is about eight-tenths of a foot, and the diameter

H. Doe. 181——6 j

82 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

growth eighteen one-hundredths of an inch. Henceforth the growth in height remains almost
stationary. A dozen trees from one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old were found to
vary from 99 to 125 feet in height, with a length of trunk free from limbs of from 60 to 68 feet and
from 19 to 27 inches in diameter at breast height.

From tabulated records of growth it becomes evident that under similar conditions of soil
and exposure the rate of increase for the various stages of growth show but slight differences in
localities widely distant from each other.

Soil and climate-—The loblolly pine prefers a moist, cool, sandy, or light loamy soil, which if
not always moist, should have greater retentiveness for moisture than is required by most of the
other upland pines. It reaches its greatest perfection in the perpetually moist or fresh forest

lands with a soil of a sandy loam, rich in vegetable mold which border the swamps of the coast °

region. The tree is not found on the porous highly silicious soils of the more elevated uplands,
where the longleaf pine almost exclusively prevails. It also avoids heavy clay and calcareous
soils of the uplands and the alluvial lands.

The loblolly pine is a tree of austral regions confined to the humid belt of the austro-riparian
or Louisianian zone and the lower border of the Carolinian life zone, which on the Atlantic coast
follows quite closely the isothermal line of 56° F.; westward, in the direction of the Gulf coast,
the isothermal line of 60°. The mean temperature of the winter along the northern limit is about
45°, with the lowest temperature only occasionally falling below 10° F. This tree approaches the
Appalachian zone only under the influence of a peninsular clime between the Delaware and
Chesapeake bays.

The loblolly appears to be indifferent to the wide differences in the amount of atmospheric
precipitation existing within the vast range of its distribution. Hxtending from Florida (isotherm,
70°) to the thirty-ninth degree of north latitude on the Atlantic coast (isotherm, 56°), it is found
of equal thrift on the Gulf shore, with its damp air and annual rainfall exceeding 64 inches, and in
the flat woods of Texas, where the mean annual precipitation is only one-half that amount, with a
mean of 6 inches during the winter months. In fact, the loblolly pine is found most frequently
and is more widely distributed in the districts of lesser precipitation. It is certainly more
dependent on the supplies of soil moisture than upon atmospheric humidity.

Relation to light and associated species.—This species is less exacting in its demands for direct
sunlight than the kindred species within its range. To this relation may be ascribed the success
which it achieves in the struggle for the possession of the soil with the shortleaf pine. Observing
this contest as itis going on between the competing species in the forest, the conditions of the soil
being equally favorable, the loblolly pine, under the cover of shade, outstrips the shortleaf pine
under the same conditions; and, on the other hand, where the sunlight has had unhindered access,
it gives way to its competitor, being then subjected to the disadvantage resulting from a speedier
desiccation of the soil. Through such influences it is that, under conditions seemingly equally
fayorable to either one of these pines, now the one and now the other is found to predominate.

In the deep forests covering the rich swampy lands of the coast regions, the loblolly pine
forms comparatively a small part of the rich and varied growth consisting chiefly of deciduous
trees, black gum, sweet or red gum, water oak, and mockernut, to which in the lower South the
magnolia, sweet bay, red bay, and Cuban pine are to be added. Although requiring less sunlight
than most pines, in the gloomy impenetrable shade of these dense forests the progeny of the
loblolly pine has no future, especially as these lands once cleared are devoted to tillage, being of
great agricultural value.

On the lands of a poorer, more exposed soil in the maritime plain of the southern Atlantic
States, in Virginia and North Carolina, and in southwestern Texas, this pine forms more or less
compact forests. In these forests the tree is always succeeded by its own progeny, either in the
course of nature or after the artificial removal of the original forest growth. On the coast of
Georgia, in Florida, and in the coast plain of the eastern Gulf States, the loblolly pine is scattered
among the Cuban and the longleaf pine; there its second growth meets a formidable competitor
in the first named of these species. In the flat woods, deprived of drainage, the Cuban pine is
always found to vastly outnumber the loblolly among the young forest growth. In the upper part
of the great maritime pine belt the loblolly pine is frequently found among the mixed growth of
magnolia, Spanish, red, post, and blackjack oaks, mockernut and pignut hickory, shortleaf pine,

a

PLate XVIII.

H. Doe. 181.

TYPICAL TREES.

LOBLOLLY PINE (PINUS TADA),

PLATE XIX.

Il. Doe. 181

P. Olszewski del. a 4
QHEIDEMAN. 5c.

LOBLOLLY PINE (PINUS TADA L.).
a, aments of female flowers; lL, immature cone, one season’s growth; ec, mature cone; d, open cone; e, f, cone seales, outer and inner side;
g, seed and wing.

LOBLOLLY PINE. : 83

and southern spruce pine. Throughout this region the tree takes almost undisputed possession
of the old fields.

In the interior, on the uplands of oaks and shortleaf pine, the loblolly is sure to gain the
upper hand and to retain its hold among the young forest growth, giving way to its most aggressive
competitor, the shortleaf pine, only when under the disadvantage of a greater exposure and a
greater lack of moisture in the soil.

Hnemies.—Principally confined to low, damp localities, not easily liable to invasion by the
frequent conflagrations which scour the southern pine forests, the loblolly pine suffers less from
destruction by fire than any other species. In virtue of the inherent facilities for its natural
renewal resulting from its fecundity and from the rapidity of its development from the earliest
stages of growth, any damages inflicted by that agency are more easily repaired. The same causes
afford it also greater protection against incursions of live stock. As also observed in the short-
leaf pine, the rapidly growing seedlings form, after a few years, thickets of such density as to be
avoided by the larger quadrupeds, and by the time such thickets, in the course of natural thinning
out have become more open, the trees have reached dimensions which place them beyond the
danger of being tramped down or otherwise injured by live stock. The rapid spread and thrift
of the second growth, unprotected and uncared for, observed everywhere within the range of the
distribution of this pine, are witnesses to its greater immunity from such dangers.

Owing to the large amount of sapwood, the timber of the loblolly is more liable to the attacks
of fungi and to the ravages of insects. The mycelium (spawn) of large polyporous fungi is found
frequently infesting the woody tissue of the living tree, the hyphe (filaments) of the spawn
destroying the walls of the wood cells, causing the wood to assume a reddish color and rerdering
it brittle in the same way as is observed in the living longleaf-pine timber affected with the disease
called “red heart.” It seems that the destruction caused by this disease in the loblolly pine is
from the start more rapid in consequence of the larger proportions of sapwood, and perhaps also
on account of the broader bands of soft spring wood naturally accompanying wood of rapid growth.

In a piece of wood examined in north Alabama, the filaments of the spawn of one of these
fungi crossing each other in every direction were found to form a dense film interposed between
the spring and summer wood, causing its easy separation in the direction of the concentric rings.
and, as the destruction of the wood proceeds, forming finally a compact layer of the nature of
amadou, or tinder. In the longitudinal section the rays were found full of cayities, caused by the
breaking down of the cell walls, and these cavities were filled with the white film of these -
filaments, which similarly affected the adjoining tracheids of the resinous summer wood.

The felled timber left on the ground is soon infested by a host of fungi of the genera
Agaricus, Tramites, Lentinus, Polyporus, and others, the nearer identification of which has not
been undertaken.

From the very limited observations that have been made it clearly appears that this pine
suffers equally as much, if not more, than the other pines of Southern growth from insect enemies
of various kinds. The larvee of the same capricorn beetles (Cerambicid@) burrow in the body of
the timber. Those of the roundheaded borers (Coleophora) dig their channels in the sapwood,
as is indicated by the occurrence of several species of jumping beetles (Buprestidw) which are
found clinging to the leaves and branches of this tree. The most fatal injury it sustains is caused
by the bark borers (Tomicide), this pest particularly affecting the trees during the formation of
the last cambium layer in the later summer months. Trees felled in August are immediately
infested by multitudes of these destroyers. Favored by a high temperature and an abundance
of nourishment, several generations of them succeed each other before the close of the season,
the countless broods soon infesting every tree in the vicinity and carrying their work of destrue-
tion over the full expanse of the young forest growth. Under this affliction the forests often
present, by their drooping rusty-colored foliage, a sad picture of disease and decay. Weevils
(Curculionidea) deposit their eggs in the youngest tender shoots; the larvie which hatch from
them eat their way into these shoots, causing their decay, and thus destroy the symmetry of the
tree and impair the usefulness of the resulting timber. Other species of the same family puncture
the older branches, lay their eggs in the exuded resin, their larve injuring the tree in a similar
way. The larve of spittle insects injure the terminal buds, which are also found infested by the
larvee of pitch moths (Retiniw), causing them to wither. The foliage seems to be less frequently

84 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

attacked by sawflies (Lophyrus) than the tender young leaves of the longleaf pine, as by the
rapidity of their growth the young leaves sooner harden, and are therefore Jess relished by these
depredators. The evidences of the work of the pine leaf miners (caterpillar of Gelechia) have
been frequently observed in Alabama, and everywhere are seen the deformities caused by gallilies
and scale insects.

Natural reproduction.—If the shortleaf pine has been spoken of emphatically as the future
timber tree of the light-rolling uplands of the interior, the loblolly pine might be fitly designated
as the timber tree of greatest promise in a large part of the coast plain from the Middle Atlantic
States to the limits of compact forest growth beyond the Mississippi River. The promptness
with which it colonizes the old fields and other clearings, and the tenacity with which it retains
from one generation to another the ground once taken possession of, clearly point to the important
part this tree is to take when the ruthless stripping of timber lands practiced at present gives
place to the management of the forests under a system of fostering care, tending to their future
maintenance and to the disposal of their resources on the principle of true economy with an eye
to the future welfare of the country. No timber tree will be found better adapted for forest
planting in the southern part of the Atlantic forest division. It is only in the narrow belt of flat
woods along the shores of Florida, Georgia, and the eastern Gulf region that it is likely to find
its superior in the Cuban pine (Pinus heterophylla).

Besides the advantages of adaptability to varied soil and climate it excels in rapidity of
growth during the earliest stages, and the copious production of seeds which, almost without fail,
are plentifully distributed every year over the vicinity of the parent trees. As an evidence of the
facility with which the reproduction of a compact forest by this pine is effected, it is only necessary
to point out the spontaneous groves near the settlements, representing, as they do, every stage of
development.

In the coast region the second growth, if not interfered with under proper soil conditions,
yields in fifty to sixty years timber of dimensions rendering it fit to be sawn into lumber well
adapted for various uses, as already mentioned.

Conclusion.—In this attempt at a sketch of the life history of this tree, the object was constantly
kept in view of placing its value among the products of the Southern forests in the proper light.
From the consideration of the structure of the wood and its physical properties, it clearly appears
that although inferior to the wood of the longleaf and Cuban pines, the timber of this species
- fully equals that of shortleaf pine, and that the present practice of treating them as equivalent
seems therefore justified.

As an abundant and cheap source of timber of inferior grades, and especially when the
rapidity of its growth is considered, the loblolly pine is of no less economic importance than the
other timber trees of the same section. At present held in low esteem in the great lumbering
districts of the lower South, where the supplies of the superior timber of the longleaf pine still
abound and receive the preference, the value of the timber of the loblolly pine is quickly recog-
nized in other districts which, but a short while ago boasting of large resources, are now stripped
of them. Its physiological peculiarities make it an important factor in the future forestry of this
section. Its propagation is successful over a vast expanse in the southern section of the Atlantic
forest region, and by its productive capacity, mode of development, and behavior toward com-
peting species in the struggle for existence, the loblolly pine possesses great advantages for its
natural and artificial renewal, adapting it particularly for the restoration of the forests on the
lowlands of the maritime region.

COMPARATIVE RATE OF GROWTH.

The species naturally develop somewhat differently, according to the soil conditions in which
they occur. Without going into a detailed discussion, which may be found in the bulletin referred
to, a comparison of the rate of growth of the four species, based on a large number of measure-
ments, gave, for average trees and average conditions, the results shown in the accompanying
diagrams (figs. 1 to 3), which permit the determination of the rate of growth at different periods
of their life.

From these it appears that the Cuban pine is by far the most rapid grower, while the longleaf
pine, which usually grows associated with the former, is the slowest, loblolly and shortleaf
occupying a position between the two.

RATE OF GROWTH. 85

The longleaf shows for the first five to seven years hardly any development in height, and
begins then to grow rapidly and evenly to the fiftieth or seventieth year, and even after that
period, though the rate is somewhat diminished, progresses evenly and steadily, giving to the
height curve a smooth and persistent character.

The diameter growth shows the same even and persistent progress from the start, and the
volume growth also progresses evenly after the rapid height-growth rate is passed at seventy
years.

The Cuban pine ceases in its maximum rate of height growth at thirty years, starts with its
diameter growth at about the rate of the loblolly, but after the twenty-fifth year leaves the latter
behind for the next twenty-five to thirty years, then proceeds at about the same rate, but
persisting longer than the loblolly. At the age of fifty years the Cuban pine with 46 cubic feet
has made nearly twice the amount of the loblolly and more than four times that of the longleaf;

us _ =

gage
Se or
ee
tek

Fig. 1—Diagram showing comparative progress of height growth in average trees.

im
(=

fo) 14) Ui

but at one hundred years the difference is reduced, being then 115, 90, and 55 cubic feet, respec-
tively, for the three species.

Both loblolly and shortleaf pine reach their maximum growth sooner than the other two
species. While these still show a persistently ascending line at one hundred and twenty to one
hundred and forty years, the rate of growth in the loblolly shows a decline after the one-hundredth
year, and the shortleaf has done its best by the eightieth year. These facts give indications as to
the rotation under which these various species may be managed.

As stated before, the growth of trees, especially in the virgin forest, is quite variable even for
the same species and same soil conditions. An average, therefore, like the one presented in the
diagrams, however perfect, could apply only when large numbers are considered. Thus there are
fast-growing trees of longleaf and slow growing of Cuban or loblolly pine. Yet the diagrams will
fairly well represent the average growth, with the possible exception of the Cuban pine, for which
the number of measurements was too small to furnish reliable data.

86 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

AMERICAN WOODS.

The great variety of trees already enumerated furnishes almost as great a variety of charac-
teristic woods. There is, perhaps, no country in the world which can command such a wealth of
woods for strictly useful purposes, although the Tropics may yield a larger variety of ornamental
woods. The work of the Division of Forestry has concerned itself largely with the study of
American woods, the crop of American forests. It is, therefore, appropriate to include in this
report a brief résumé, giving a description of the various kinds of wood and their present
application in the arts, reproduced from Bulletin 10.

In the countries of Europe the kinds of wood used in construction and manufacture are so
few that there is but little difficulty in distinguishing them. In our own country the great variety
of woods, and of useful woods at that, often makes the mere distinction of the kind or species of

i)

Fic. 2—Diagram showing comparative progress of diameter growth in average trees.

tree most difficult. Thus there are at least eight pines (of the thirty-five native ones) in the mar
ket, some of which so closely resemble each other in their minute structure that they can hardly
be told apart; and yet they differ in quality and should be used separately, although they are
often mixed or confounded in the trade. Of the thirty-six oaks, of which probably not less than
six or eight are marketed, we can readily recognize by means of their minute anatomy at least
two tribes—the white and the black oaks. The distinction of the species is, however, as yet
uncertain. The same is true as to the eight kinds of hickory, the six kinds of ash, etc. Before
we shall be able to distinguish the wood of these species unfailingly more study will be neces.
sary. The key given in the present publication, therefore, is by necessity only provisional, requir-
ing further elaboration. It unfortunately had to be based largely on external appearances, which
are not always reliable. Sometimes, for general practical purposes, this mere appearance, with

AMERICAN WOODS. 87

some minor attributes, such as color, taste, etc., are together sufficient, especially when the locality
is known from which the species came, and in the log pile the determination may by these means
be rendered possible when a single detached piece will leave us doubtful as to the species. In the
market the distinctions are often most uncertain, and a promiscuous application of names adds to
the confusion. To be sure, there is not much virtue in knowing the correct name, except that it
assists us in describing the exact kind of material we desire to obtain. Nor is there always much
gained in being able to identify the species of wood, but that it predicates certain qualities which
are usually found in the species.

In selecting material, then, for special purposes we first determine what species to use as
having either one quality which is foremost in our requirements, or several qualities in combina-
tion, as shown by actual experience or by experiment.

Fig. 3—Diagram showing comparative progress of volume growth in average trees.

The uses of the various woods depend on a variety of conditions. The carpenter and builder,
using large quantities of material and bestowing a minimum amount of labor on the greater part
of the same, uses those kinds which are abundant, and hence cheap, to be had in large dimensions,
light to ship, soft to work and to nail, and fairly stiff and insect proof—a combination represented
in the conifers. They need not be handsome, hard, tough, or very strong, and may shrink even
after they are in place. When it comes to finishing-woods, more stress is laid on color and grain
and that the wood shall shrink as little as possible.

The furniture maker, who bestows a maximum amount of work on his material, needs a wood
that combines strength, and sometimes toughness, with beauty and hardness, that takes a good
polish, keeps joint, and does not easily indent. It must not warp or shrink when once in place,
but it need not be light or soft or insect proof or abundant in any one kind, and in large dimen sions,
nor yet particularly cheap.

88 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Toughness, strength, and hardness combined are sought by the wagon maker. The carriage
builder, cooper, and shingle maker look for straight-grained, easy-splitting woods, and for a
long fiber, the absence of disturbing resinous and coloring matter, knots, ete. Durability under
exposure to the weather, resistance to indentation, and the holding of spikes are required for a
good railroad tie; lasting qualities, elasticity, and proportionate dimensions of length and diameter
for telegraph poles. ;

Sometimes in practice it is immaterial whether the stick be of white oak or red oak, and many
wood yards ake no distinction, in fact do not know any, but the experienced cooper will quickly
distinguish, not by pame, perhaps, but by quality, the more porous red or black oak from the less
porous white species. On the other hand, the very same white oak—Quercus alba, usually a
superior article—may furnish so poor material for a handle or a plow beam that a stick of red oak
would be preferable. The inspection, then, must be made not only for the species but for the
quality, with reference to the purpose for which the stick is to be used.

LIST OF THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF THE UNITED STATES.
A. CONIFEROUS WOODS.

Woods of simple and uniform structure, generally light, soft but stiff; abundant in suitable dimensions and

forming by far the greatest part of all the lumber used.

Cedar.—Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture; sap and heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the latter a dull
grayish brown, or red. The wood seasons rapidly, shrinks and checks but little, and is very durable. Used like
soft pine, bnt owing to its great durability preferred for shingles, ete. Small sizes used for posts, ties, etc.!
Cedars usually occur scattered, but they form, in certain localities, forests of considerable extent.

a. White cedars.—Heartwood a light grayish brown.

1. White cedar (Lhuya occidentalis) (Arborvits): Scattered along streams and lakes, frequently covering exten-
sive Swamps; rarely large enough for lumber, but commonly used for posts, ties, etc. Maine to Minnesota
and northward.

. Canoe cedar (Thuya plicata) (red cedar of the West): In Oregon and Washington a very large tree, covering
extensive Swamps; in the mountains much smaller, skirting the water courses; an important lumber tree.
Washington to northern California and eastward to Montana.

3. White cedar (Chamecyparis thyoides): Medium-sized tree, wood very light and soft. Along the coast from

Maine to Mississippi.

4. White cedar (Chamecyparis lawsoniana) (Port Orford cedar, Oregon cedar, Lawson’s cypress, ginger pine): A
very large tree, extensively cut for lumber; heavier and stronger than the preceding. Along the coast line
of Oregon.

. White cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) (incense cedar): A large tree, abundantly scattered among pine and fir;
wood fine grained. Cascades and Sierra Nevada of Oregon and California.

b. Red cedars.—Heartwood red.

6. Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) (Savin juniper): Similar to white cedar, but of somewhat finer texture.
Used in cabinetwork in cooperage, for veneers, and especially for lead pencils, for which purpose alone
several million feet are cut each year. A small to medium sized tree scattered through the forests, or, in the
West, sparsely covering extensive areas (cedar brakes). The red cedar is the most widely distributed conifer
of the United States, occurring from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Florida to Minnesota, but attains
a suitable size for lumber only in the Southern, and more especially the Gulf, States.

7. Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens): Wood in its quality and uses like white cedar; the narrow sapwood whitish;
the heartwood light red, soon turning to brownish red when exposed. A very large tree, limited to the
coast ranges of California, and forming considerable forests, which are rapidly being converted into lumber.

Cypress.

8. Cypress (Taxodium distichum) (bald eypress; black, white, and red cypress): Wood in appearance, quality,
and uses similar to white cedar. ‘‘Black cypress” and ‘‘ white cypress” are heavy and light forms of the
same species. The cypress is a large deciduous tree, occupying much of the swamp and overflow land along
the coast and rivers of the Southern States.

Fir.—This name is frequently applied to wood and to trees which are not fir; most commonly to spruce, but also,
especially in English markets, to pine. It resembles spruce, but is easily distinguished from it, as well as from
pine and larch, by the absence of resin ducts. Quality, uses, and habits similar to spruce.

9. Balsam fir (Abies balsamea): A medium-sized tree scattered throughout the northern pineries; cut, in lumber
operations whenever of sufficient size, and sold with pine or spruce. Minnesota to Maine and northward.

10. White fir (Abies grandis and Abies concoior): Medium to very large sized trees, forming an important part of
most of the Western mountain forests, and furnishing much of the lumber of the respective regions. The
former occurs from Vancouver to central California and eastward to Montana; the latter from Oregon to
Arizona and eastward to Colorado and New Mexico.

bo

cr

1 Since almost all kinds of woods are used for fuel and charcoal, and in the construction of fences, sheds, barns, —
etc., the enumeration of these uses has been omitted in this list.

AMERICAN WOODS. 89

11. White fir (Abies amabilis): Good-sized tree, often forming extensive mountain forests. Cascade Mountains
of Washington and Oregon.

12. Red fir (Abies nobilis) (not to be confounded with Douglas fir; see No. 37): Large to very large tree, forming,

: with 4. amabilis, extensive forests on the slope of the ane between 3,000 and 4,000 feet elevation.
Cascade Mountains of Oregon.

13. Red fir (Abies magnifica): Very large tree, forming forests about the base of Mount Shasta. Sierra Nevada
of California, from Mount Shasta southward.

Hemlock.—Light to medium weight, soft, stiff but brittle, commonly crossgrained, rough and splintery; sapwood
and heartwood not well defined; the wood of a light, reddish-gray color, free from resin ducts, moderately
durable, shrinks and warps considerably, wears rough, retains nails firmly. Used principally for dimension
stuff and timbers. Hemlocks are medium to large sized trees, commonly scattered among broad-leaved trees
and conifers, but often forming forests of almost pure growth.

14. Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis): Medium-sized tree, furnishes almost all the hemlock of the Eastern market.
Maine to Wisconsin; also following the Alleghanies southward to Georgia and Alabama.

15. Hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana): Large-sized tree, wood claimed to be heavier and harder than the Eastern
form and of superior quality. Washington to California and eastward to Montana.

Larch or tamarack.—Wood like the best of hard pine, both in appearance, quality, and uses, and owing to its great
durability, somewhat preferred in shipbuilding, for telegraph poles, and railroad ties. In its structure it
resembles spruce. The larches are deciduous trees, occasionally covering considerable areas, but usually scat-
tered among other conifers.

16. Tamarack (Larix laricina) (Hackmatack): Medium-sized tree, often covering swamps, in which case it is
smaller and of poor quality. Maine to Minnesota and southward to Pennsylvania.

17. Tamarack (L. occidentalis): Large-sized trees, scattered, locally abundant. Washington and Oregon to
Montana.

Pine.—Very variable, very light and soft in “soft” pine, such as white pine; of medium weight to heav. y and quite
hard in “hard” pine, of which longleaf or Georgia pine is the extreme form. Usually it is stiff, quite strong, of
even texture, and more or less resinous. The sapwood is yellowish white; the heartwood orange-brown. Pine
shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly, and without much injury; it works easily; is never too hard to nail (unlike
oak or hickory); it is mostly quite durable, and if well seasoned is not subject to the attacks of boring insects.
The heavier the wood, the darker, stronger, and harder it is, and the more it shrinks and checks. Pine is used
more extensively than any other kind of wood. It is the principal wood in common carpentry, as well as in all
heavy construction, bridges, trestles, etc. It is also used in almost every other wood industry, for spars, masts,
planks, and timbers in shipbuilding, in car and wagon construction, in cooperage, for crates und boxes, in furni-
ture work, for toys and patterns, railway ties, water pipes, excelsior, etc. Pines are usually large trees with
few branches, the straight, cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the greatest part of the tree; they occur gre-
gariously, forming vast forests, a fact which greatly facilitates their exploitation. Of the many special terms
applied to pine as lumber, denoting sometimes differences in quality, the following deserve attention:

“White pine,” ‘pumpkin pine,” ‘‘soft pine,” in the Eastern markets, refer to the wood of the white pine
(Pinus strobus), and on the Pacific coast to that of the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana).

“Yellow pine” is applied in the trade to all the Southern lumber pines; in the Northeast it is also applied
to the pitch pine (P. rigida); in the West it refers mostly to bull pine (P. ponderosa).

“Yellow longleaf pine,” ‘‘Georgia pine,” chiefly used in advertisement, refers to longleaf pine (P. palustr 5)

“Ward pine” is a common term in carpentry, and applies to everything except white pine.

“Pitch pine” includes all Southern pines and also the true pitch pine (P. rigida), but is mostly applied,
especially in foreign markets, to the wood of the longleaf pine (P. palustris),

For the great variety of confusing local names applied to the Southern pines in their homes, part of which have
been adopted in the markets of the Atlantic seaboard, see report of Chief of Division of Forestry for 1891, page 212,
etc., and also the list below:

a. Soft pines.

18. White pine (Pinus strobus): Large to very large size tree; for the last fifty years the most important timber
tree of the Union, furnishing the best quality of soft pine. Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New England,
along the Alleghanies to Georgia.

19. Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana): A very large tree, together with Abies concolor, forming extensive forests;
important lumber tree. Oregon and California.

20. White pine (Pinus inonticola): A large tree, at home in Montana, Idaho, and the Pacific States; most common
and locally used in northern Idaho.

21. White pine (Pinus flewilis): A small tree, forming mountain forests of considerable extent and locally used;
eastern Rocky Mountain slopes; Montana to New Mexico.

b. Hard pines.

22. Longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris) (Georgia pine, yellow pine, long-straw pine, etc.): Large tree; forms exten-
sive forests, and furnishes the hardest and strongest pine lumber in the market. Coast region from North
Carolina to Texas.

23. Bull pine (Pinus ponderosa) (yellow pine): Medium to very large sized tree, forming extensive forests in
Pacific and Rocky Mountain regions; furnishes most of the hard pine of the West; sapwood wide; wood
very variable.

90) FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

24. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) (slash pine, old-field pine, rosemary pine, sap pine, short-straw pine, etc.): Large-
sized tree; forms extensive forests; wider-ringed, coarser, lighter, softer, with more sapwood than the long-
leaf pine, but the two often confounded. This is the common lumber pine from Virginia to South Carolina,
and is found extensively in Arkansas and Texas. Southern States; Virginia to Texas and Arkansas.

25. Norway pine (Pinus resinosa): Large-sized tree, never forming forests, usually scattered or in small groves,
together with white pine; largely sapwood and hence not durable. Minnesota to Michigan; also in New
England to Pennsylvania.

26. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) (slash pine, Carolina pine, yellow pine, old field pine, etc.): Resembles lob-
lolly pine; often approaches in its wood the Norway pine. The common lumber pine of Missouri and
Arkansas. North Carolina to Texas and Missouri.

27. Cuban pine (Pinns helerophylla) (slash pine, swamp pine, bastard pine, meadow pine): Resembles longleaf
pine, but commonly has wider sapwood and coarser grain; does not enter the markets to any great extent.
Along the coast from South Carolina to Louisiana.

28. Bull pine (Pinus jefreyi) (black pine): Large-sized tree, wood resembling bull pine (P. ponderosa); used
locally in California, replacing P. ponderosa at high altitudes.

The following are small to medium sized pines, not commonly offered as lumber in the market; used locally for

timber, ties, etc. :

29, Black pine (Pinus murrayana) (lodge-pole pine, tamarack): Rock Mountains and Pacific regions.

30. Pitch pine (Pinis rigida): Along the coast from New York to Georgia and along the senombcisainas to Kentucky.

31. Jersey pine (Pinus virginiana) (scrub pine): As before.

32. Gray pine (Pinus divaricata) (scrub pine): Maine, Vermont, and Michigan to Minnesota.

Redwood. (See Cedar.)

Spruce.—Resembles soft pine, is light, very soft, stiff, moderately strong, less resinous than pine; has no distinet
heartwood, and is of whitish color. Used like soft pine, but also employed as resonance wood and preferred for
paper pulp. Spruces, like pines, form extensive forests; they are more frugal, thrive on thinner soils, and
bear more shade, but usually require a more humid climate. ‘‘Black” and ‘‘white spruce,” as applied by
lumbermen, usually refer to narrow and wide ringed forms of the black spruce (Picea nigra.)

33. Black spruce (Picea mariana): Medium-sized tree, forms extensive forests in northeastern United States
and in British America; occurs scattered’ or in groves, especially in lowlands throughout the Northern
pineries. Important lumber tree in Eastern United States. Maine to Minnesota, British America, and on
the Alleghanies to North Carolina. ;

34. White spruce (Picea alba): Generally associated with the preceding; most abundant along streams and
lakes, grows largest in Montana, and forms the most important tree of the subarctic forest of British America.
northern United States, from Maine to Minnesota, also from Montana to Pacific, British America.

35. White spruce (Piceu engelmanni): Medium to large sized tree, forming extensive forests at elevations from
5,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level; resembles the preceding, but occupies a different station. A very
important timber tree in the central and southern parts of the Rocky Mountains. Rocky Mountains from
Mexico to Montana.

36. Tide-land spruce (Picea sitchensis): A large-sized tree, forming an extensive coast-belt forest. Along the
seacoast from Alaska to Central California.

Bastard Spruce.—Spruce, or fir in name, but resembling hard pine or larch in the appearance, quality, and uses of
its wood. :

37. Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) (yellow fir, red fir, Oregon pine): One of the most important trees
of the Western United States; grows very large in the Pacific States, to fair size in all parts of the moun-
tains, in Colorado up to about 10,000 feet above sea level; forms extensive forests, often of pure growth. Wood
very variable, usually coarse grained and heavy, with very pronounced summer wood, hard and strong
(‘‘red” fir), but often fine grained and light (‘‘yellow” fir). It replaces hard pine and is especially suited
to heavy construction. From the plains to the Pacific Ocean; from Mexico to British America.

Tamarack. (See Larch.)

Yew.—Wood heavy, hard, extremely stiff, and strong, of fine texture, with a pale yellow sapwood, and an orange-red.
heart; seasons well and is quite durable. Yew is extensively used for archery, bows, turner’s ware, ete. The
yews form no forests, but occur scattered with other conifers.

38. Yew (Zaxus brevifolia): A small to medium sized tree of the Pacific region.

B. BROAD-LEAVED WoOoDs (Hardwoods).

Woods of complex and very variable structure, and therefore differing widely in quality, behavior, and conse-
quently in applicability to the arts.

Ash.—Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, quite tough, not durable in contact with soil, straight-grained, ots on the
split surface, and coarse in texture. The wood shrinks moderately, seasons with little injury, stands well, and
takes a good polish. In carpentry ash is used for finishing lumber, stairways, panels, etc. It is used in ship-
building, in the construction of cars, wagons, carriages, etc., in the manufacture of farm implements, machinery,
and especially of furniture of all kinds, and also for harness work; for barrels, baskets, oars, tool handles, hoops,
clothespins, and toys. The trees of the several species of ash are rapid growers, of small to medium height,
with stout trunks; they form no forests, but occur scattered in almost all our broad-leaved forests.

39. White ash (raxinus americana): Medium, sometimes large-sized tree. Basin of the Ohio, but found from
Maine to Minnesota and Texas.
40. Red ash ( Fraxinus pennsylvanica): Small sized tree. North Atlantic States, but extends to the Mississippi.

AMERICAN WOODS. shit

41. Black ash (Fraxinus nigra) (hoop ash, ground ash): Medium-sized tree, very common. Maine to Minnesota
and southward to Virginia and Arkansas.

42. Blue ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata): Small to medium sized. Indiana and, Illinois; occurs from Michigan to
Minnesota and southward to Alabama,

43. Green ash (Lraxinus viridis): Small-sized tree. New York to the Rocky Mountains and southward to Florida
and Arizona.

44, Oregon ash (Fraxinus oregana): Medium-sized tree. Western Washington to California.

Aspen. (See Poplar.)

Basswood.

45. Basswood (Tilia americana) (lime tree, American linden, lin, bee tree): Wood light, soft, stiff but not strong,
of fine texture, and white to light brown color. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works and stands
well; it is used in carpentry, in the manufacture of furniture and wooden ware, both turned and carved, in
cooperage, for toys, also for paneling of car and carriage bodies. Medium to large sized tree, common in all
Northern broad-leaved forests; found throughout the Eastern United States.

46. White basswood ( Tilia heterophylla): A small-sized tree most abundant in the Allegheny region.

Beech.

47. Beech (Fagus latifolia): Wood heavy, hard, stiff, strong, of rather coarse texture, white to light brown, not
durable in the ground, and subject to the inroads of boring insects; it shrinks and checks considerably in dry-
ing, works and stands well and takes a good polish. Used for furniture, in turnery, for handles, lasts, ete.
Abroad it is very extensively employed by the carpenter, millwright, and wagon maker, in turnery as well as
wood carving. The beech is a medium-sized tree, common, sometimes forming forest; most abundant in the
Ohio and Mississippi basin, but found from Maine to Wisconsin and southward to Florida.

Birch.—Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture; sapwood whitish, heartwood in shades of brown with red and
yellow; very handsome, with satiny luster, equaling cherry. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works
and stands well and takes a good polish, but is not durable if exposed. Birch is used for finishing lumber in
building, in the manufacture of furniture, in wood turnery for spools, boxes, wooden shoes, etc., for shoe lasts
and pegs, for wagon hubs, ox yokes, etc., also in wood carving. The birches are medium-sized trees, form
extensive forests northward, and occur scattered in all broad-leaved forests of the Eastern United States.

48. Cherry birch (Betula lenta) (black birch, sweet birch, mahogany birch): Small to medium-sized tree; very
common. Maine to Michigan and to Tennessee. :

49. Yellow birch (Betula lutea) (gray birch): Medium-sized tree; common. Maine to Minnesota and southward
to Tennessee.

50. Red birch (Betula nigra) (river birch): Small to medium sized tree; very common; lighter and less valuable
than the preceding. New England to Texas and Missouri.

51. Canoe birch (Betula papyrifera) (white birch, paper birch): Generally a small tree; common, forming
forests; wood of good quality but lighter. All along the northern boundary of United States and north-
ward, from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Black walnut. (See Walnut.)

Blue beech.

52. Blue beech (Carpinus caroliniana) (hornbeam, water beech, ironwood): Wood very heavy, hard, strong, very
stiff, of rather fine texture and white color; not durable in the ground; shrinks and checks greatly, but
works and stands well. Used chiefly in turnery for tool handles, ete. Abroad, much used by mill and wheet
wrights. A small tree, largest in the Southwest, but found in nearly all parts of the Hastern United States.

Bois Ware. (See Osage orange.)

Buckeye—horse chestnut.—W ood light, soft, not strong, often quite tough, of fine and uniform texture and creamy
white color. It shrinks considerably, but works and stands well. Used for wooden ware, artificial limbs, paper
pulp, and locally also for building lumber. Small-sized trees, scattered.

53. Ohio buckeye ((sculus glabra) (fetid buckeye): Alleghenies, Pennsylvania to Indian Territory

54, Sweet buckeye (Wsculus octandra): Alleghenies, Pennsylvania to Texas.

Butternut.

55. Butternut (Juglans cinerea) (white walnut): Wood very similar to black walnut, but light, quite soft, not strong
and of light brown color. Used chiefly for finishing lumber, cabinetwork, and cooperage. Medium-sized
tree, largest and most common in the Ohio basin; Maine to Minnesota and southward to Georgia and Alabama,

Catalpa.

56. Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa): Wood light, soft, not strong, brittle, durable, of coarse texture and brown color;
used for ties and posts, but well suited for a great variety of uses. Medium-sized tree; lower basin of the
Ohio River, locally common. Extensively planted, and therefore promising to become of some importance.

Cherry.

57. Cherry (Prunus serotina): Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture; sapwood yellowish white, heartwood
reddish to brown. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works and stands well, takes a good polish,
and is much esteemed for its beauty. Cherry is chiefly used as a decorative finishing lumber for buildings,
cars, and boats, also for furniture and in turnery. It is becoming too costly for many purposes for which it
is naturally well suited. The lumber-furnishing cherry of this country, the wild black cherry (Primus
serotina), is a small to medium sized tree, scattered through many of the broad-leaved woods of the western
slope of the Alleghenies, but found from Michigan to Florida and west to Texas. Other species of this
genus, as well as the hawthorns (Oratwgus) and wild apple (Pyrus), are not commonly offered in the market.
Their wood is of the same character as cherry, often even finer, but in small dimensions.

92 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Chesinut.

58. Chestnut (Castanea dentata): Wood light, moderately soft, stiff, not strong, of coarse texture; the sapwood
light, the heartwood darker brown. It shrinks and checks consider, ably in drying, works easily, stands
well, and is very durable. Used in cabinetwork, cooperage, for railway ties, telegraph poles, and locally in
heavy construction. Medium-sized tree, very common in the Alleghenies, occurs from Maine to Michigan
and southward to Alabama. ;

59. Chinquapm (Castanea pumila): A small-sized tree, with wood slightly heavier but otherwise similar to the
preceding ; most common in Arkansas, but with nearly the same range as the chestnut.

60. Chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla): A medium-sized tree of the western ranges of California and Oregon.

Coffee tree.

61. Coffee tree (Gymnocladus canadensis) (coffee nut): Wood heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of coarse texture,
durable; the sapwood yellow, the heartwood reddish brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying;
works and stands well and takes a good polish. It is used to a limited extent in cabinetwork. A medium
to large sized tree; not common. Pennsylvania to Minnesota and Arkansas.

Cottonwood. (See Poplar.)

Cucumber tree. (See Tulip.) :

Elm.—Wood heavy, hard, strong, very tough; moderately durable in contact with the soil; commonly crossgrained,
difficult to split and shape, warps and checks considerably in drying, but stands well if properly handled. The
broad sapwood whitish, heart brown, both with shades of gray and red; on split surface rough; texture coarse
to fine; capable of high polish. Elm is used in the construction of cars, wagons, etc., in boat and ship building,
for agricultural implements and machinery; in rough cooperage, saddlery and harness work, but particularly in
the manufacture of all kinds of furniture, where the beautiful figures, especially those of the tangential or
bastard sections, are just beginning to be duly appreciated. ‘The elms are medium to large sized trees, of fairly
rapid growth, with stout trunk, form no forests of pure growth, but are found scattered in all the broad-leaved
woods of our country, sometimes forming a considerable portion of the arborescent growth.

62. White elm (Uimus americana) (American elm, water elm): Medium to large sized tree, common. Maine to
Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas.

63. Rock elm (Ulmus racemosa) (cork elm, hickory elm, white elm, cliff elm): Medium to large sized tree.
Michigan, Ohio, from Vermont to Iowa, southward to Kentucky.

64. Red elm (Ulmus pubescens) (slippery elm, moose elm): Small-sized tree, found chiefly along water courses.
New York to Minnesota, and southward to Florida and Texas. !

65. Cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia): Small-sized tree, quite common. Arkansas and Texas.

66. Winged elm (Ulmus alata) (Wahoo): Small-sized tree, locally quite common. Arkansas, Missouri, and
eastern Virginia. A ;

Gum.—This general term refers to two kinds of wood usually distinguished as sweet or red gum, and sour, black, or
tupelo gum, the former being a relative of the witch-hazel, the latter belonging to the dogwood family.

67. Tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) (sour gum, black gum): Maine to Michigan, and southward to Florida and Texas.
Wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, of fine texture, frequently crossgrained, of yellowish or grayish white
color, hard to split and work, troublesome in seasoning, warps and checks considerably, and is not durable
if exposed; used for wagon hubs, wooden ware, handles, wooden shoes, etc. Medium to large sized trees,
with straight, clear trunks; locally quite abundant, but never forming forests of pure growth.

68. Tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica) (cotton gum): Lower Mississippi basin, northward to Illinois and eastward to
Virginia, otherwise like preceding species.

69. Sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) (red gum, liquidambar, bilsted): Wood rather heavy, rather soft, quite
stiff and strong, tough, commonly crossgrained, of fine texture; the broad sapwood whitish, the heartwood
reddish brown; the wood shrinks and warps considerably, but does not check badly, stands well when fully
seasoned, and takes good polish. Sweet gum is used in carpentry, in the manuiacture of furniture, for cut
veneer, for wooden plates, plaques, baskets, etc.,'also for wagon hubs, hat blocks, ete. A large-sized tree,
very abundant, often the principal tree in the swampy parts of the bottoms of the Laman Mississippi Vanes
occurs from New York to Texas and from Indiana to Florida.

Hackberry.

70. Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) (sugar berry): The handsome wood, heavy, hard, strong, quite tough, of
moderately fine texture, and greenish or yellowish white color; shrinks moderately, works well, and takes
a good polish. So far but little used in the manufacture of furniture. Medium to large sized tree, locally
quite common, largest in the Lower Mississippi Valley; occurs in nearly all parts of the Eastern United
States.

Hickory.—Wood very heavy, hard, and strong, proverbially tough, of rather coarse texture, smooth and of straight
grain. The broad sapwood white, the heart reddishnut brown. It dries slowly, shrinks and checks considerably ;
is not durable in the ground, or if exposed, and, especially the sapwood, is always subject to the inroads of
boring insects. Hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock, but is also extensively used in the manufacture of
implements and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, for harness work, and cooperage. The hickorics are
tall trees with slender stems, never form forests, occasionally small groves, but usually occur scattered among
other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities. The following species all contribute more or less to the hickory
of the markets:

71. Shagbark hickory (Hicoria ovata and H. lacimosa). Shellbark hickory: Medium to large sized trees, quite
common; the favorite among hickories; best developed in the Ohio and Mississippi basins; from Lake
Ontario to Texas, Minnesota to Florida. Shellbark more local.

AMERICAN WOODS. 93

72. Mockernut hickory (Hicoria alba) (black hickory, bull and black nut, big bud, and white-heart hickory): A
medium to large-sized tree, with the same range as the foregoing; common, especially in the South.

73. Pignut hickory (Hicoria glabra) (brown hickory, black hickory, switch-bud hickory): Medium to large sized
tree, abundant; all eastern United States.

74. Bitternut hickory (Hicoria minima) (swamp hickory): A medium-sized tree, favoring wet localities, with the
same range as the preceding.

75. Pecan ( Hicoria pecan) (Illinois nut): A large tree, very common in the fertile bottoms of the Western streams;
Indiana to Nebraska and southward to Louisiana and Texas.

76. Holly (Ilex opaca): Wood of medium weight, hard, strong, tough, of fine texture and white color; works and
stands well; used for cabinetwork and turnery. Asmall tree, most abundant in the Lower Mississippi Valley
and Gulf States, but occurring eastward to Massachusetts and northward to Indiana.

Horse-chestnut. (See Buckeye.)

Ironwood. (See Blue beech.)

Locust.—This name applies to both of the following:

77. Black locust (Robinia pseudacacia) (black locust, yellow locust): Wood very heavy, hard, strong, and tough,
of coarse texture, very durable in contact with the soil, shrinks considerably and suffers in seasoning; the
very narrow sapwood yellowish, the heartwood brown, with shades of red and green. Used for wagon
hubs, tree nails or pins, but especially for ties, posts, ete. Abroad it is much used for furniture and farm
implements and also in turnery. Small to medium sized tree, at home in the Alleghenies; extensively
planted, especially in the West.

78. Honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) (black locust, sweet locust, three-thorned acacia): Wood heavy, hard,
strong, tough, of coarse texture, susceptible of a good polish, the narrow sapwood yellow, the heartwood
brownish red. So far, but little appreciated except for fencing and (uel; used to some extent for wagon
hubs and in rough construction. A medium-sized tree, found from Pennsylvania to Nebraska, and southward
to Florida and Texas; locally quite abundant.

Magnolia. (See Tulip.)

Maple.—Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, of fine texture, frequently wavy-grained, this giving rise to
“curly” and ‘‘blister” figures; not durable in the ground or otherwise exposed. Maple is creamy white, with
shades of light brown in the heart; shrinks moderately, seasons, works and stands well, wears smoothly, and
takes a fine polish. The wood is used for ceiling, flooring, paneling, stairway, and other finishing lumber in
house, ship, and car construction; it is used for the keels of bouts and ships, in the manufacture of implements
and machinery, but especially for furniture, where entire chamber sets of maple rival those of oak. Maple is
also used for shoe lasts and other form blocks, for shoe pegs, for piano actions, school apparatus, for wood type
in show-bill printing, tool handles, in wood carving, turnery, and scroll work. The maples are medium-sized
trees, of fairly rapid growth; sometimes form forests and frequently constitute a large proportion of the arbo-
rescent growth.

79. Sugar maple (Acer saccharwm) (hard maple, rock maple): Medium to large sized tree, very common, forms
considerable forests. Maine to Minnesota, abundant, with birch, in parts of the pineries; southward to
northern Ilorida; most abundant in the region of the Great Lakes.

80. Red maple (Acer rubrum) (swamp or water maple): Medium-sized tree. Like the preceding, but scattered
along water courses and other moist localities.

81. Silver maple (Acer saccharinum) (soft maple, silver maple): Medium-sized, common; wood lighter, softer,
inferior to hard maple, and usually offered in small quantities and held separate in the market. Valley of
the Ohio, but occurs from Maine to Dakota and southward to Florida.

82. Broad-leafed maple (Acer macrophyllum): Medium-sized tree, forms considerable forests, and, like the pre-
ceding, has a lighter, softer, and less valuable wood. Pacific Coast.

Mulberry.

83. Red mulberry (Morus rubra): Wood moderately heavy, hard, strong, rather tough, of coarse texture, durable;
sapwood whitish, heart yellow to orange brown; shrinks and checks considerably in drying; works and
stands well. Used in cooperage and locally in shipbuilding and in the manufacture of farm implements. A
small-sized tree, common in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, but widely distributed in the eastern United
States.

Oak.—W ood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, very strong and tough, porous, and of coarse texture; the
sapwood whitish, the heart “oak” brown to reddish brown. It shrinks and checks badly, giving trouble in
seasoning, but stands well, is durable, and little subject to attacks of insects. Oak is used for many purposes—
in shipbuilding, for heavy construction, in common carpentry, in furniture, car, and wagon work, cooperage,
turning, and even in wood carving; also in the manufacture of all kinds of farm implements, wooden mill
machinery, for piles and wharves, railway ties, ete. The oaks are medium to large sized trees, forming the
predominant part of a large portion of our broad-leayed forests, so that these are generally ‘oak forests”
though they always contain a considerable proportion of other kinds of trees. Three well-marked kinds, white,

red, and live oak, are distinguished and kept separate in the market. Of the two principal kinds white oak is
the stronger, tougher, less porous, and more durable. Red oak is usnally of coarser texture, more porous, often
brittle, less durable, and even more troublesome in seasoning than white oak. In carpentry and furniture worl
red oak brings about the same price at present as white oak. The red oaks everywhere accompany the white
oaks, and, like the latter, are usually represented by several species in any given locality. Live oak, once

94

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all the good qualities (except that of size) of white oak, even to a

greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, hardest, and most durable building timbers of this country; in struc-

ture it resembles the red oaks, but is much less porous.

84. White oak (Quercus alba): Medium to large sized tree, common in the Eastern States, Ohio and Mississippi
valleys; occurs throughout eastern United States.

85. Bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) (mossy-cup oak, over-cup oak): Large-sized tree, locally abundant, common.
Bottoms west of Mississippi; range farther west than preceding.

86. Swamp white oak (Quercus platanoides): Large-sized tree, common. Most abundant in the Lake States, but
with range as in white oak.

87. Chinquapin oak (Quercus acuminata) (chestnut oak): Medium-sized tree. Southern Alleghenies, eastward
to Massachusetts.

88. Basket oak (Quercus michawrii) (cow oak): Large-sized tree, locally abundant; Lower Mississippi and
eastward to Delaware.

89. Over-cup oak (Quercus lyrata) (swamp white oak, swamp post oak): Medium to large sized tree, rather
restricted; ranges as in the preceding.

90. Post oak (Quercus minor) (iron oak): Medium to large sized tree. Arkansas to Texas, eastward to New
England and northward to Michigan.

91. Chestnut oak (Quercus prinus): Medium to large sized tree. Throughout the Allegheny Mountains.

92. White oak (Quercus garryana): Medium to large sized tree. Washington to California.

93. White oak (Quercus lobata): Medium to large sized tree; largest oak on the Pacific coast; California.

94. Red oak (Quercus rubra) (black oak): Medium to large sized tree; common in all parts of its range. Maine
to Minnesota, and southward to the Gulf.

95. Black oak (Quercus velutina) (yellow oak): Medium to large sized tree; very common in the Southern States,
but occurring north as far as Minnesota, and eastward to Maine.

96. Spanish oak (Quercus digitata) (ved oak): Medium-sized tree, common in the South Atlantic and Gulf region,
but found from Texas to New York, and north to Missouri and Kentucky.

97. Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea): Medium to large sized tree; best developed in the lower basin of the Ohio,
but found from Maine to Missouri, and from Minnesota to Florida.

98. Pin oak (Quercus palustris) (swamp Spanish oak, water oak): Medium to large sized tree, common along
borders of streams and swamps. Arkansas to Wisconsin, and eastward to the Alleghenies.

99. Willow oak (Quercus phellos) (peach oak): Small to medium sized tree. New York to Texas, and northward
to Kentucky. is

100. Water oak (Quercus nigra) (duck oak, possum oak, punk oak): Medium to large sized tree, of extremely
rapid growth. Eastern Gulf States, eastward to Delaware and northward to Missouri and Kentucky.

101. Live oak (Quercus virginiana): Small-sized tree, scattered along the coast from Virginia to Texas.

102. Live oak (Quercus chrysolepis) (maul oak, Valparaiso oak): Medium-sized tree; California.

Osage orange.

103. Osage orange (Toxylon pomiferum)(Bois d’Are): Wood very heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, not tough, of
moderately coarse texture, and very durable; sapwood yellow, heart brown on the end, yellow on longitudi-
nal faces, soon turning grayish brown if exposed; it shrinks considerably in drying, but once dry it stands
unusually well. Formerly much used for wheel stock in the dry regions of Texas; otherwise employed for
posts, railway ties, ete. Seems too little appreciated; it is well suited for turned ware and especially for
wook carving. A small-sized tree of fairly rapid growth, scattered through the rich bottoms of Arkansas
and Texas.

Persimmon.

104. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana): Wood very heavy and hard, strong and tough; resembles hickory, but
is of finer texture; the broad sapwood cream color, the heart black; used in turnery for shuttles, plane
stocks, shoe lasts, ete. Small to medium sized tree, common and best developed in the lower Ohio Valley,
but occurs from New York to Texas and Missouri.

Poplar and cottonweod (see also Tulip wood).—Wood light, very soft, not strong, of fine texture and whitish, grayish

to yellowish color, usually with a satiny luster. The wook shrinks moderately (some crossgrained forms warp

excessively), but checks little; is easily worked, but is not durable. Used as building and furniture lumber, in

cooperage for sugar and flour barrels, for crates and boxes (especially cracker boxes), for wooden ware and
paper pulp.

105. Cottonwood (Populus deltoides): Large-sized tree; forms considerable forests along many of the Western
streams, and furnishes most of the cottonwood of the market. Mississippi Valley and west; New England
to the Rocky Mountains.

106. Balsam (Populus balsamifera) (balm of Gilead): Medium to large-sized tree; common all along the northern
boundary of the United States. :

107. Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa): The largest deciduous tree of Washington; very common. North-
ern Rocky Mountains and Pacific region.

108. Cottonwood (Populus fremontii var. wislizeni): Medium to large-sized tree; common. Texas to California.

109. Poplar (Populus grandidentata): Medium-sized tree, chiefly used for pulp. Maine to Minnesota and south-
ward along the Alleghenies.

110. Aspen (Populus tremuloides): Small to medium-sized tree, often forming extensive forests and covering
burned areas. Maine to Washington and northward; south in the Western mountains to California and
New Mexico.

AMERICAN WOODS. 95

Sour gum. (See Gum.)
Red gum. (See Gum.)
Sassafras.

111. Sassafras (Sassafras sassafras): Wood light, soft, not strong, brittle, of coarse texture, durable; sapwood
yellow, heart orange brown. Used in cooperage, for skiffs, fencing, etc. Medium-sized tree, largest in the
Lower Mississippi Valley. From New England to Texas and from Michigan to Florida.

Sweet gun. (See Gum.)
Sycamore.

112. Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) (buttonwood, buttonball tree, water beech): Wood moderately heavy, quite
hard, stiff, strong, tough, usually crossgrained, of coarse texture, and white to light brown color; the wood
is hard to split and work, shrinks moderately, warps, and checks considerably, but stands well. It is used
extensively for drawers, backs, bottoms, etc., in cabinetwork, for tobacco boxes, in cooperage, and also for
finishing lumber where it has too long been underrated. A large tree of rapid growth, common and largest
in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, at home in nearly all parts of the Eastern United States. The California
species— :

113. Platanus racemosa resembles in its wood the Eastern form.

Tulip wood.

114. Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) (yellow poplar, whitewood): Wood quite variable in weight, usually
light, soft, stiff but not strong, of fine texture, and yellowish color; the wood shrinks considerably, but
seasons without much injury; works and stands remarkably well. Used for siding, for paneling, and fin-
ishing lumber in house, car, and ship building, for sideboards and panels of wagons and carriages; also in
the manufacture of furniture, implements, and machinery, for pump logs, and almost every kind of common
wooden ware, boxes, shelving, drawers, ete. An ideal wood for the carver and toy man. A large tree, does
not form forests, but is quite common, especially in the Ohio basin; occurs from New England to Missouri
and southward to Florida.

115. Cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata): A medium-sized tree, most common in the southern Alleghenies, but
distributed from New York to Arkansas, southward to Alabama and northward to Illinois. Resembling
and probably confounded with tulip wood in the markets.

Tupelo. (See Gum.)
Walnut.

116. Black walnut (Juglans nigra): Wood heavy, hard, strong, of coarse texture; the narrow sapwood whitish,
the heartwood chocolate brown.* The wood shrinks moderately in drying, works and stands well, takes a
good polish, is quite handsome, and has been for a long time the favorite cabinet wood in this country.
Walnut, formerly used even for fencing, has become too costly for ordinary uses, and is to-day employed
largely as a veneer for inside finish and cabinetwork, also in turnery, for gunstocks, ete. Black walnut is a
large tree with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant throughout the Allegheny
region, occurring from New England to Texas, and from Michigan to Florida.

White walnut. (See Butternut.)
White wood. (See Tulip and also Basswood.)
Yellow poplar. (See Tulip.)

COMPARATIVE STATEMENTS OF PROPERTIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.

Weight of kiln-dried wood of different species.

Approximate.

Weight of—

Specific mo.
weight. Leubic |} ae feet
foot. Oh um
ber.
(a) Very heavy woods: Pounds. | Pounds.
Hickory, oak, persimmon, osage orange, black locust, hackberry, blue beech, best of elm, and ash.----- 0. 70-0. 80 42-48 3, 700

(b) Heavy woods:
Ash, elm, cherry, birch, maple, beech, walnut, sour gum, coffee tree, honey locust, best of Southern
pine, and tamarack: -----.. 0122.0. -- ee ee ee ne ne ee ne ee eee nee cece anaes . 60- .70 36-42 3, 200
(ec) Woods of medium weight: :
Southern pine, pitch pine, tamarack, Douglas spruce, western hemlock, sweet gum, soft maple, syca-
more, sassafras, mulberry, light grades of birch and cherry --.--.-----------------------+---+---------- .50— . 60 30-36 2, 700
(d) Light woods:
Norway and bull pine, red cedar, cypress, hemlock, the heavier spruce and fir, redwood. basswood,

hestnut, butternut, tulip, catalpa, buckeye, heavier grades of poplar ----.--.----..--------------+---- -40-— .50 24-30 2, 200
. (e) Very light woods: °
White pine, spruce, fir, white cedar, poplar-...... Gocanos sosdadoodacbscocoodoseoSpsdonsaeancmcomaspacedoe -30- . 40 18-24 1, 800

For scientific names see list above.

96 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Since the proportion of sap and heart wood varies with size, age, species, and individual, the
following figures must be regarded as mere approximations:

Pounds of water lost in drying 100 pounds of green wood in the kiln.

¥ Sapwood or) Heartwood
outer part. | or interior.

(1) Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs..----.--------------------- 22+ +222 nee enn een eee 45-65 16-25
(2) Cypress, extremely variable ---- 50-65 18-60
(3) Poplar, cottonwood, basswood..--.-...-----------------+----------+---------- < 50-65 40-60
(4) Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory, chestnut, walnut, and sycamore ...---.---.-----------+------------- 40-50 30-40

The lighter kinds haye the most water in the sapwood, thus sycamore has more than hickory.

Since the shrinkage of our woods has never been carefully studied, and since wood, even from
the same tree, varies within considerable limits, the figures given in the following table are to be
regarded as mere approximations. The shrinkage along the radius and that along the tangent
(parallel to the rings) are not stated separately in the, following table, and the figures represent
an average of the shrinkage in the two directions. Thus, if the shrinkage of soft pine is given at
3 inches per hundred, it means that the sum of radial and tangential shrinkage is about 6 inches,
of which about 4 inches fall to the tangent and 2 inches to the radius, the ratio between these
varying from 3 to 2, a ratio which practically prevails in most of our woods.

Since only an insignificant longitudinal shrinkage takes place (being commonly less than 0.1
inch per hundred), the change in volume during drying is about equal to the sum of the radial
and tangential shrinkage, or twice the amount of linear shrinkage indicated in the table.

Thus, if the linear average shrinkage of soft pine is 3 inches per hundred, the shrinkage in
volume is about 6 cubic inches for each 100 cubic inches of fresh wood.

Approximate shrinkage of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches wide, drying in the open air.

Shrink-
age.

(1) Alllight conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress). -----.----------------~---- == 202-2 enn ee eee ee cee eee enn ee
(2) Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew), honey locust, box elder, wood of old oaks -
(3) Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, syeamore, cherry, black locust...-----------

(4) Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse-chestnut, blue beech, young locust -
(5) Hickory, young oak, especially red oak .-.----------+------ 22-222 += 22 een ee eee ee en eee ene eee eee

Strength in compression of common American woods in well-seasoned selected pieces.

[Approximate weight per square inch of cross section requisite to crush a piece of wood endwise.]

(1) Black locust, yellow and cherry birch, hard maple, best hickory, longleaf and Cuban pines, an ee
UP RMEAR AKO) es ooo eseeeede cece Gees a5ee sone cae coucas goc0 sees Soe Jooondcsoo ssa esceus soeeo5 codes Saad oes 9, 000-4-
(2) Common hickory, oak, birch, soft maple, walnut, good elm, best ash, shortleaf and loblolly pines, western
lngyanllorelte, yavel WYNNE IOP oe Coo ese Seog ceesco bors cas osecor Sao Ssc osHS oss pec ssa esRonese meso nsocer 7, 000-++
(3) Ash, sycamore, beech, inferior oak, Pacifie white cedar, canoe cedar, Lawson’s cypress, common red
cedar, cypress, Norway and superior spruces, and fir ......-.---.------------------------------------ 6, 0004
(4) Tulip, basswood, butternut, chestnut, good poplar, white and other common soft pines, hemlock, spruce,
ape SokcooSoesaecsaan Sane pace P66 be soba Ses Gansu SuSe sasoouscaoSo pads ondacena aadocodsaoeere tose 5, COO-++
(5) Soft poplar, white cedar, and some Western soft pines, and firs ...-..---- .--..------------------------- 4, 000-++
Strength in cross-breaking of well-seasoned, select pieces.
Strength of Approximate weight
theextreme | which breaks a stick—
fiber
3Wl

SS55 1 by linch | 2 by 2 inches
a'ba* and 12inches| and 40 feet

e) are
P arch 4 long. long.
(1) Robinia (locust), hard maple, hickory, oak, birch, best ash and elm, longleaf, shortleaf, and Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Cuban pines, tamarack 18, 000 720 570

(2) Soft maple, cherry, ash, elm, walnut, inferior oak, and birch, best poplar, Norway, loblolly,
and pitch pines, black and white spruce, hemlock, and good cedar .........-----.------------ 10, 000 550 440
(3) Tulip, basswood, sycamore, butternut, poplars, white and other soft pines, firs, and cedars---- 6, 500 350 4 280

AMERICAN WOODS. Oe

From the following table of strength in tension and compression it will be seen that these
two are not always proportional, the stiffer conifers excelling in the latter, the tougher hardwoods
in the former:

Ratio of strength in tension and compression, showing the difference between rigid conifers and tough hard woods.

Ratio: A stick 1 square inch

Tensile in cross section.
strength. Weight required to —
comprehensive | Crush
strength. | Pull apart. endwise.
teh Ra emer

| Pounds. Pounds.
LUO ECR oasasccensc nao oos sanabo HoQdObESESSNeTSoa5 se obese dooonoToEHatloscODEQUpHAASHMEDEaATseOReOHsS 3.7 32, 000 8, 500
Elm .--.-- HScOwos ore cuDessibsongs ososso yoLboosoSsTedcooeodeoonde cod sobecsodensnccuaRecaeAsHaaS 3.8 | 29, 000 7, 500
TROD, coco acaen ansona sconce 5:2 I Sc URGU= REC sac anossomnS debsouascoes seuDES gesoeonecoase ‘eonnsssees 23) 19,400 8, 600
JOO TNEIGENE TOS Caan oce GOO CLUS DGOSOU HOE SEO BEE te baSH BO aan CBSE aSriod ReGosE DoE Esa esocEd saad ssnatacdcsal| 2.2) | 17, 300 7, 400

Table of stiffness (modulus of elasticity) of dry wood.—General averages.

~ =! as is
Modulus of | Approximate weight which
elasticity | deflects by 1 inch a piece—
i _ we
Sveti 2 TaMGGs || a py Wsman | Sige Osmo
per square |and12inches} and 10 feet
inch. long. ' long.
(1) Live oak, good tamarack, longleaf, Cuban, and shortleaf pine, good Douglas spruce, western Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
hemlock, yellow and cherry | birch, hard maple, beech, locust, and the best of oak and hickory - 1, 680, 000 3, 900 62
(2) Birch, common oak, hickory, white and black spruce, loblolly and red pine, cypress, best of ash,
elm, and poplar andlblackawaln ate emanate a Gh iy SMe el oan ee 82 eR Ee 1, 400, 000 3, 200 51
(3) Maples, cherry, ash, elm, sycamore, sweet gum, butt
‘bull pine, cedars, serub pine, hemlock, and fi firs cee 1, 100, 000 2,500 40
(4) Box elder, horse chestnut, a number of western soft pines, 1, 100, 000 12,500 40

1 Less than.

In general wet or green wood shears about one-third more easily than dry wood; a surface
parallel to the rings (tangent) shears more easily than one parallel to the medullary rays. The
lighter conifers and hard woods offer less resistance than the heavier kinds, but the best of pine
Shears one-third to one-half more readily than oak or hickory, indicating that great shearing
strength is characteristic of “tough” woods.

Resistance to shearing along the fiber.

Per
square
inch.
Pounds.
(1) Locust, oak, hickory, elm, maple, ash, birch ein Gee njato no ere er arele erclale aye oe ie are a ate nl stele ates cles Some ei farclats aerbieins States Seca oce 11, 000
(2) Sycamore, longleat, Cuban, and shortleaf Pine yANnditamarac kiss wee Meme aE ee ne eter See et tates te sleet ae aor 5 600
(3) Tulip, basswood, better class of poplar, Norway, loblolly, and white pine, spruce, red cedar------.-..---..---------- <| 400
(4) Soft poplar, hemlock, WHIiLG COUALtiTr et ssos ce sabe ses Mcafee 2 sek oc oeeiae tke ous Skee soerok cen cad ste iines a aenis eens een ee eke 2400
1 Over. 2Less than.

Nore.—Resistance to shearing, although a most important quality in wood, has not been satisfactorily studied. The values in the
above table, taken from various authors, lack a reliable experimental basis and can be considered as only a little better than guesswork.

The following indicates the hardness of our common woods:

1. Very hard woods requiring over 3,200 pounds per square inch to produce an indentation
of one-twentieth inch: Hickory, hard maple, osage orange, black locust, persimmon, and the best
of oak, elm, and hackberry.

2. Hard woods requiring over 2,400 pounds per square inch to produce an indentation of one-
twentieth inch: Oak, elm, ash, cherry, birch, black walnut, beech, blue beech, mulberry, soft maple,
holly, sour gum, honey locust, coffee tree, and sycamore.

3. Middling hard woods, requiring over 1,600 pounds per square inch to produce an indentation
of one-twentieth inch: The better qualities of Southern and Western hard pine, tamarack, and
Douglas spruce, sweet gum, and the lighter qualities of birch.

4, Soft woods requiring less than 1,600 pounds per square inch to produce an indentation of
one-twentieth inch: The greater mass of coniferous wood; pine, spruce, fir, hemlock, cedar, cypress,
and redwood; poplar, tulip, basswood, butternut, chestnut, buckeye, and catalpa.

H. Doe. No. 181——7

98 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Tange of durability in railroad ties.

Wears. | Years.
White oak and chestnut oak_.-.-_-------- 8) Redwood 2 eee cees eer see seer eee eee 12
@hestnite ese eee Sas ee eee eee 8 | Cypress'and red! cedar2=2- -- 22-54-5522 25. 10
Blackilocusteeee eases ce aceee ee eee eee LOR Ramianale eee cae coer ere eee eee 7to8
Cherry, black walnut, locust.-.....-.-.--- (el lion gleatpineeeeseee een ee ene eee eee 6
SB Ga) = tials cere: ee oie eer ore 6:t0 7; Hemlock sess saan eee cree meee cease cer 4to06
iRedvandtblacksoaks = sees —een— eee eee eee A COD SPLUCO een eee sai sears ese ana eere 5
Ash, beech maples esses. seeaseeeee- eens 4 |

HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD.

The carpenter or other artisan who handles different woods becomes familiar with those he
employs frequently, and learns to distinguish them through this familiarity, without usually being
able to state the points of distinction, If a wood comes before him with which he is not familiar,
he has, of course, no means of determining what it is, and it is possible to select pieces even of
those with which he is well acquainted, different in appearance from the general run, that will
make him doubtful as to their identification. Furthermore, he may distinguish between hard and
soft pines, between oak and ash, or between maple and birch, which are characteristically different;
but when it comes to distinguishing between the several species of pine or oak or ash or birch,
the absence of readily recognizable characters is such that but few practitioners can be relied upon
to do it. Hence, in the market we
find many species mixed and sold
indiscriminately.

To identify the different woods it
is necessary to have a knowledge of
the definite, invariable differences in
their structure, besides that of the
often variable differences in their ap-
pearance. These structural differ-
Fic. 4.—'‘Non-porous”’ woods. | A, fir; B, ‘‘hard” pine; 0, soft pine; ar, annual ences may either be readily visible to

a atc ae ace Seis inner edge of Ting; Ss. w., summer wood; the naked eye or with a magnifier,

or they may require a microscopical

examination. In some cases such an examination can not be dispensed with, if we would make

absolutely sure. There are instances, as in the pines, where even our knowledge of the minute
anatomical structure is not yet sufficient to make a sure identification.

In the following key an attempt has been made—the first, so far as we know, in English
literature—to give a synoptical view of the distinctive features of the commoner woods of the
United States which are found in the markets or are used in the arts. It will be observed that
the distinction has been carried in most instances no further than to genera or classes of woods,
since the distinction of species can hardly be accomplished without elaborate microscopic study,
and also that, as far as possible, reliance has been placed only on such characteristics as can be
distinguished with the naked eye or a simple magnifying glass, in order to make the key useful
to the largest number. Recourse has also been taken for the same reason to the less reliable and
more variable general external appearance, color, taste, smell, weight, etc.

The user of the key must, however, realize that external appearance, such, for example, as
color, is not only very variable but also very difficult to describe, individual observers differing
especially in seeing and describing shades of color. The same is true of statements of size, when
relative, and not accurately measured, while weight and hardness can perhaps be more readily
approximated. Whether any feature is distinctly or only indistinctly seen will also depend some-
what on individual eyesight, opinion, or practice. In some cases the resemblance of different
species is so close that only one other expedient will make distinction possible, namely, a knowl]-
edge of the region from which the wood has come. We know, for instance, that no longleaf pine
grows in Arkansas, and that no white pine can come from Alabama, and we can separate the
white cedar, giant arbor vite of the West and the arbor vite of the Northeast only by the
difference of the locality from which the specimen comes. With all these limitations properly

AMERICAN WOODS. 99

appreciated, the key will be found helpful toward greater familiarity with the woods which are
more commonly met with.

The features which have been utilized in the key and with which—their names as well as their
appearance—therefore, the reader must familiarize himself before attempting to use the key, are
mostly described as they appear in cross section. They are:

(1) Sapwood and heartwood, the former being the wood from thé outer and the latter from the
inner part of the tree. In some cases they differ only in shade, and in others in kind of color,
the heartwood exhibiting either a darker shade or a pronounced color. Since one can not always
have the two together, or be certain whether he has sapwood or heartwood, reliance upon this
feature is, to be sure, unsatisfactory, yet sometimes it is the only general characteristic that can
be relied upon. If further assurance is
desired, microscopic structure must be

examined; in such cases reference has i lo Isao) : lol]

been made to the presence or absence : y H A all

of tracheids in pith rays and the struce- rea

ture of their walls, especially projec- ? Bae

ions and spirals. iY.
(2) Annual rings. They are more H

or less distinctly marked, and by means

of such marking a classification of three Fic. 5.—“* Ring-porous”’ woods—white oak and hickory. a.r., annual ring; su.

great groups of wood is possible. w., Summer wood; sp. w., spring wood; v, vessels or pores; Go Ver “concentric”
(3) Spring wood and summer wood, lines; rt, darker tracts of hard fibers forming the firm part of oak wood; p7,

pith rays.

the former being the interior (first

formed wood of the year), the latter the exterior (last formed) part of the ring. The proportion of
each and the manner in which the one merges into the other ave sometimes used, but more
frequently the manner in which the pores appear distributed in either.

(4) Pores, which are vessels cut through, appearing as holes in cross section, in longitudinal
section as channels, scratches, or indentations. They appear only in the broad-leaved, so called,
hard woods; their relative size (large, medium, small, minute, and indistinct, when they cease to
be visible individually by the naked eye) and manner of distribution in the ring being of much
importance, and especially in the summer wood, where they appear singly, in groups, or short
broken lines, in continuous concentric, often wavy, lines, or in radial branching lines.

(5) Resin duets (see fig. 4),
which appear very much like
pores in cross section, namely,
as holes or lighter or darker
colored dots, but much more
scattered. They occur only in
coniferous woods, and _ their
presence or absence, size, num-
ber, and distribution are an
important distinction in these
FiG. 6.—‘‘ Diffuse-porous” woods. a, annual ring; pr, pith rays, which are ‘‘ broad” at a, woods. 4

“fine” at b, “indistinct” at d. (6) Pith rays (see fig. 6),

which in cross section appear

as radial lines, and in radial section as interrupted bands of varying breadth, impart a peculiar

luster to that section in some woods. They are most readily visible with the naked eye or with a

magnifier in the broad-leaved woods. In coniferous woods they are usually so fine and closely

packed that to the casual observer they do not appear. Their breadth and their greater or less

distinctness are used as distinguishing marks, being styled fine, broad, distinct, very distinct,
conspicuous, and indistinct when no longer visible by the naked (strong) eye.

(7) Concentric lines, appearing in the summer wood of certain species more or less distinct,
resembling distantly the lines of pores but much finer and not consisting of pores. (See fig. 5).

Of microscopic features, the following only have been referred to:

(8) Tracheids.

100 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(9) Pits, simple and bordered, especially the number of simple pits in the cells of the pith
rays, which lead into each of the adjoining tracheids.

For standards of weight, consult table on page 95; for standards of hardness, statement on
page 97.

Unless otherwise stated the color refers always to the fresh cross section of a piece of dry
wood; sometimes distinct kinds of color, sometimes only shades, and often only general color
effects appear.

HOW TO USE THE KEY.

Nobody need expect to be able to use successfully any key for the distinction of woods or of
any other class of natural objects without some practice. This is especially true with regard to
woods, which are apt to vary much, and when the key is based on such meager general data as
the present. The best course to adopt is to supply one’s self with a small sample collection of
woods accurately named. Small, polished tablets are of little use for this purpose. The pieces
should be large enough, if possible, to include pith and bark, and of sufficient width to permit
ready inspection of the cross section. By examining these with the aid of the key, beginning
with the better-known woods, one will soon learn to see the features described and to form an idea
of the relative standards which the maker of the key had in mind. To aid in this, the accom-
panying illustrations will be of advantage. When the reader becomes familiar with the key, the
work of identifying any given piece will be comparatively easy. The material to be examined
must; of course, be suitably prepared. It should be moistened; all cuts should be made with a
very sharp knife or razor and be clean and smooth, for a bruised surface reveals but little struc-
ture. The most useful cut may be made along one of the edges. Instructive, thin, small sections
may be made with a sharp penknife or razor, and when placed on a piece of thin glass, moistened
and covered with another piece of glass, they may be examined by holding them toward the light.

Finding, on examination with the magnifier, that it contains pores, we know it is not conifer-
ous or nonporous. Finding no pores collected in the spring-wood portion of the annual ring, but
all scattered (diffused) through the ring, we turn at once to the class of “ Diffuse-porous woods.”
We now note the size and manner in which the pores are distributed through the ring. Finding
them very small and neither conspicuously grouped, nor larger nor more abundant in the spring
wood, we turn to the third group of this class. We now note the pith rays, and finding them
neither broad nor conspicuous, but difficult to distinguish, even with the magnifier, we at once
exclude the wood from the first two sections of this group and place it in the third, which is repre-
sented by only one kind, cottonwood. Finding the wood very soft, white, and on the longitudinal
section with a silky luster, we are further assured that our determination is correct. We may
now turn to the list of woods and obtain further information regarding the occurrence, qualities,
and uses of the wood.

Sometimes our progress is not so easy; we may waver in what group or section to place the
wood before us. In such cases we may try each of the doubtful roads until we reach a point
where we find ourselves entirely wrong, and then return and take up another line; or we may
anticipate some of the later-mentioned features and finding them apply to our specimen, gain
additional assurance of the direction we ought to travel. Color will often help us to arrive at a
speedy decision. In many cases, especially with conifers, which are rather difficult to distinguish,
a knowledge of the locality from which the specimen comes is at once decisive. Thus, northern
white cedar, and bald cypress, and the cedar of the Pacific will be identified, even without the
somewhat indefinite criteria given in the key.

KEY TO THE MORE IMPORTANT WOODS OF NORTH AMERICA.

IT. Nonporous woods.—Pores not visible or conspicuous on cross section, even with magnifier. Annual rings
distinct by denser (dark-colored) bands of summer wood (fig. 37).

II. Ring-porous woods.—Pores numerous, usually visible on cross section without magnifier. Annual rings
distinct by a zone of large pores collected in the spring wood, alternating with the denser summer wood (fig. 5).

TIT. Diffuse-porous woods.—Pores numerous, usually not plainly visible on cross section withont magnifier.
Annual rings distinct by a fine line of denser sammer-wood cells, often*quite indistinct; pores scattered through
annual ring; no zone of collected pores in spring wood (fig. 6).

Notr.—The above-described three groups are exogenous, i. e., they grow by adding annually wood on their
circumference. A fourth group is formed by the endogenous woods, like yuceas and palms, which do not grow by
such additions.

AMERICAN WOODS. 101

I. Nonrorous Woops.
(Includes all coniferous woods.)
A. Resin ducts wanting.!
1. No distinct heartwood.
a. Color effect yellowish white; summer wood darker yellowish (under microscope pith ray without

bE ACHEIGS) pre resse ye eet are ae ee ero CP a etapa eo Se we ee steer oe a momen mee N Le Mage:
b. Color effect reddish (roseate) (under microscope pith ray with tracheids) ......-..-----.------ Hemlock.
2. Heartwood present, color decidedly different in kind from sapwood.
a. Heartwood light orange red; sapwood pale lemon; wood heavy and hard .......-...----.-------- Yew.
b. Heartwood purplish to brownish red; sapwood yellowish white; wood soft to medium hard light,
usuallyswithvaromaticiodorescset eer sss eee sees sie eee ee ee eee eee teres o eee ees Red cedar.
c. Heartwood maroon to terra cotta or deep brownish red; sapwood light orange to dark amber, very soft
and light, no odor; pith rays very distinct, specially pronounced on radial section...-..---. Redwood.
3. Heartwood present, color only different in shade from sapwood, dingy-yellowish brown.
Gz OGlomless pingl WAOIS ccocéas sass scocse soskee sens geHSne Sande oHde Sea nos Heep sHed sgaane ocd Bald cypress.
by Woodtwith mildiresinousodor buttastelesss-sss-—se- ee se see eee eeeeeee sees eee cee ieee White cedar.
c. Wood with strong resinous odor and peppery taste when freshly cut ...--..-.----2.------ Incense cedar.
B. Resin ducts present.
1. No distinct heartwood; color white; resin ducts very small, not numerous.-..-----..---.-----.------ Spruce.

2. Distinct heartwood present.
a. Resin ducts numerous, evenly scattered through the ring.
a’. Transition from spring wood to summer wood gradual; annual ring distinguished by a fine line of

dense summer-wood cells; color white to yellowish red; wood soft and light-.-..-.. Soft pines.?
b’. Transition from spring wood to summer wood more or less abrupt; broad bands of dark-colored
summer wood; color from light to deep orange; wood medium hard and heayvy.... - Hard pines.”

b. Resin ducts not numerous nor evenly distributed.
a’. Color of heartwood orange-reddish; sapwood yellowish (same as hard pine) ; resin ducts frequently
combined in groups of 8 to 30, forming lines on the cross section (tracheids with spirals),
Douglas spruce.
b’. Color of heartwood light russet brown; of sapwood yellowish brown; resin ducts very few, irregu-
larly scattered (tracheids without spirals) -.-.-./.--.----.--.--<..-----.---.-------- Tamarack.

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Spruce is hardly distinguishable from fir except by the existence of the resin ducts, and microscopically by the
presence of tracheids in the medullary rays. Spruce may also be confounded with soft pine, except for the heart-
wood color of the latter and the larger, more frequent, and more readily visible resin ducts.

In the lumber yard, hemlock is usually recognized by color and the slivery character of its surface. Western
hemlocks partake of this last character to a less degree.

Microscopically the white pine can be distinguished by having usually only one large pit, while spruce shows
three to five very small pits in the parenchyma cells of the pith ray communicating with the tracheid.

The distinction of the pines is possible only by microscopic examination. The following distinctive features
may assist in recognizing, when in the log or lumber pile, those usually found in the market:

The light straw color, combined with great lightness and softness, distinguishes the white pines (white pine
and sugar pine) from the hard pines (all others in the market), which may also be recognized by the gradual change
of spring wood into summer wood. This change in hard pines is abrupt, making the summer wood appear as a
sharply defined and more or less broad band.

The Norway pine, which may be confounded with the shortleaf pine, can be distinguished by being much
lighter and softer. It may also, but more rarely, be confounded with heavier white pine but for the sharper defini-
tion of the annual ring, weight, and hardness.

The longleaf pine is strikingly heavy, hard, and resinous, and usually very regular and narrow ringed, showing
little sapwood, and differing in this respect from the shortleaf pine and loblolly pine, which usually have wider
rings and more sapwood, the latter excelling in that respect.

The following convenient and useful classification of pines into four groups, proposed by Dr. H. Mayr, is based
on the appearance of the pith ray as seen in a radial section of the spring wood of any ring:

Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections.
a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 1.
Represented in this country only by P. resinosa.

b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells of the pithray. Group 2. P. taeda, palustris,

etc., including most of our ‘‘ hard” and ‘‘ yeliow” pines.

'To discover the resin ducts a very smooth surface is necessary, since resin ducts are frequently seen only with
difficulty, appearing on the cross section as fine whiter or darker spots, normally scattered singly, rarely in groups,
usually in the summer wood of the annual ring. They are often much more easily seen on radial, and still more so
on tangential sections, appearing there as fine lines or dots of open structure of different color or as indentations or
pin scratches in a longitudinal direction.

2Soft and hard pines are arbitrary distinctions and the two not distinguishable at the limit.

102 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections.

a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.
lambertiana, and other true white pines.

b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.—Group 4. P. parryana, and other nut
pines, including also P. balfouriana.

Group 3. P. strobus,

II. RiyG-porous Woops.
[Some of Group D and cedar elm imperfectly ring-porons.}
A. Pores in the summer wood minute, scattered singly or in groups, or in short broken lines, the course of which is
never radial.
1. Pith rays minute, scarcely distinct.
a. Wood heavy and hard; pores in the summer wood not in clusters.

aeaColomormad1altseenlOnen ObRieULO yee ete ee eee eee ee ee eee ee Ash.
b’. Color of radial section light yellow; by which, together with its hardness and weight, this species
iis CHIN MOC ORME. 35 - So SeSs oes soe. sssdssmcoo oases soto S256) > -.----- Osage orange.
b. Wood light and soft; pores in the summer wood in clusters of 10 to 30..---..-.---...---..----- Oatalpa.
2. Pith rays very fine, yet distinct; pores in summer wood usually single or in short lines; color of heartwood
reddish brown, of sapwood yellowish white; peculiar odor on fresh section ---..---...---.-.. -- Sassafras.
3. Pith rays fine, but distinct.

a. Very heavy and hard; heartwood yellowish brown -.-.----------------------------.----- - Black locust.

b, Heavy; medium hard to hard.
a. Pores in summer wood very minute, usually in small clusters of 3 to 8; heartwood light orange
TARO sege4 Docs sesd SaQHbeHG Baaciasce Hose Sone ceoo Sood can dagsacta Sacks esas sone -ouo/ MAN TUBS
Db’. Pores in summer wood small to minute, usually isolated; heartwood cherry red...-.-... Coffee tree.
4, Pith rays fine but very conspicuous, even without magnifier; color of heartwood red, of sapwood pale
lemon Honey locust.

B. Pores of summer wood minute or small, in concentric wavy and sometimes branching lines, appearing as finely
feathered hatchings on tangential section.
1. Pith rays fine, but very distinct; color greenish white; heartwood absent or imperfectly developed.
Hackberry.
2. Pith rays indistinct; color of heartwood reddish brown, sapwood grayish to reddish white
C. Pores of summer wood arranged in radial branching lines (when very crowded radial arrangement somewhat

obscured).
1. Pith rays very minute, hardly visible - Chestnut.
BD DML VE DYS) WEL WORKGl Bioudl OMS MIOMONIS |= 4-565 so Sood Sacces tS sSsa ns desa steeds HoSS00 Uscodesessecesse costes Oak.

D. Pores of summer wood mostly but little smaller than those of the spring wood, isolated and scattered; very
heavy and hard woods. ‘The poresof the spring wood sometimes form bhutan imperfect zone. (Some diffuse-
porous woods of groups A and B may seem to belong here.)

1. Fine concentric lines (not of pores) as distinct, or nearly so, as the very fine pith rays; outer summer wood

Witla tinceonm ned) heartwood ich med clishy mows = eee see a eee ernie ete Hickory.
2. Fine concentric lines, much finer than the pith rays; no reddish tinge in summer wood, sapwood white,
es eT np, Len 9 es 3 sn ese Persimmon.

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Sassafras and mulberry may be confounded but for the greater weight and hardness and the absence of odor in
the mulberry; the radial section of mulberry also shows the pith rays conspicuously.

Honey locust, coffee tree, and black locust are also very similar in appearance. The honey locust stands out by
the conspicuousness of the pith rays, especially on radial sections, on account of their height, while the black locust
is distinguished by the extremely great weight andhardness, together with its darker brown color,

AMERICAN WOODS. 103

The ashes, elms, hickories, and oaks may, on casual observation, appear to resemble one another on account of
the pronounced zone of porous spring wood. The sharply defined large pith rays of the oak exclude these at once;
the wavy lines of pores in the summer wood, appearing as conspicuous, finely feathered hatchings on tangential
section, distinguish the elms; while the ashes differ from the hickory by the very conspicuously defined zone of
spring-wood pores, which in hickory appear more or less interrupted. The reddish hue of the hickory and the more
or less brown hue of the ash may also aid in ready recognition. The smooth, radial surface of split hickory will
readily separate it from the rest.

tt
roar os Sook ar wa)

Fic. 10.—Wood of chestnut.

The different species of ash may be identified as follows:
1. Pores in the summer wood more or less united into lines. ;
a. The lines short and broken, occurring mostly near the limit of the ring-.-...--..-..---------- White ash.
b, The lines quite long and conspicuous in most parts of the summer wood.....-.-.--.-.--..-..-. (rreen ash,

104 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

2. Pores in the summer wood not united into lines, or rarely so.
a. Heartwood reddish brown and very firm. -..---..-.---.-------.--+--------------------.-------.- hed ash.
b. Heartwood grayish brown, and much more porous---.-...---..-------------------------------Black ash.

In the oaks, two groups can be readily distinguished by the manner in which the pores are distributed in the
summer wood. In the white oaks the pores are very fine and numerous and crowded in the outer part of the
summer wood, while in the black or red oaks the pores are larger, few in number, and mostly isolated. The live
oaks, as far as structure is concerned, belong to the black oaks, but are much less porous, and are exceedingly
heavy and hard.

Ill. DirrusEe-Pporous Woops.

[A few indistinetly ring-porous woods of Group II, D, and cedar elm may seem to belong here.]

A. Pores varying in size from large to minute; largest in spring wood, thereby giving sometimes the appearance of
a ring-porous arrangement.

1. Heavy and hard; color of heartwood (especially on longitudinal section) chocolate brown--.. Black walnut.

2. Light and soft; color of heartwood light reddish brown .----..-----..._...----...-------------- Butternut.

B. Pores all minute and indistinct; most numerous in spring wood, giving rise to a lighter colored zone or line

(especially on longitudinal section), thereby appearing sometimes ring porous; wood hard, heartwood vinous

reddish; pith rays very fine, but very distinct. (See also the sometimes indistinct ring-porous cedar elm, and

occasionally winged elm, which are readily distinguished by the concentric wavy lines of pores in the summer

WOE) soesepodnbossssoor saceRbcaS seo Sts aA SSsanSesoODgRCOD ons 568 SoDeSsondace00 nese sa cess ceoroanaHsaosesos Cherry.
a
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9 -[ 9)

Fic. 11.—Wood of hickory.

C. Pores-minute or indistinct, neither conspicuously larger nor more numerous in. the spring wood and evenly
distributed.
1. Broad pith rays present.
a. All or most pith rays broad, numerous, and crowded, especially on tangential Sections, medium heavy

andvhard\difti culitstorsp litt eyetaes se soso ee eon ae ee ees ee ee Spares yer cre emirate Sycamore.
b. Only part of the pith rays broad. ;
a. Broad pith rays well defined, quite numerous; wood reddish-white to reddish ........-..--- Beech.

b’. Broad pith rays not sharply defined, made up of many small rays, not numerous. Stem fur-
rowed, and therefore the periphery of section, and with it the annual rings, sinuons, bending in
and out, and the large pith rays generally limited to the furrows or concave portions. Wood white,
MOU: TEM GUS Wisse aS Re we peat ete ee ee ge Pape sta soc aero a erate tater Blue beech.

2. No broad pith rays present.
a, Pith rays small to very small, but quite distinct.
a’. Wood hard.
al! pie olor reddish white, with dark reddish tinge in outer summer wood...- ----------------Maple.
-.Color whites wiathoutmeddushi tinges sass ae ee eee ee eee eee OULT:
vb’. wie soft to very soft.
a’. Pores crowded, occupying nearly all the space between pith rays.

a", Color qari white, often with a greenish tinge in heartwood .--.-.--.--. Tulip poplar,
Cucumber tree.

b’. Color of sapwood grayish, of heartwood light to dark reddish brown... -- -- -- -- Sweet gum.

6’. Pores not crowded, oceupying not over one-third the space between pith rays; heartwood
brownish white to very light brown -...-..--.---.-----------------------=--- -------- Basswood.

b. Pith rays scarcely distinct, yet if viewed with ordinary magnifier, shes visible.
a’. Pores indistinct to the naked eye.

a’, Color uniform pale yellow; pith rays not conspicuous even on the radial section - .. .. Buckeye.
bo’. Sapwood yellowish gray, heartwood grayish brown; pith rays conspicuous on the radial sec-
LOM oi weet a Se spare e ee bE ele Ane ye eee ee et ae eee sie | Pra mey OO TAC ITI)

b'. Pores sean distinct, Bae mostly sive as grayish specks on the cross section; sapwood whit-
ish; heartwoodhmaddishy i: (reece cto ears slo Selec nla arene een ee ae eretniatein ne lee Un UICe

AMERICAN WOODS. 105

D. Pith rays not visible or else indistinct, even if viewed with magnifier.
1. Wood very soft, white, or in shades of brown, usually with a silky luster ---..-----. Cottonwood (poplar).

ADDITIONAL NOTES FOR DISTINCTIONS IN THE GROUP.

Cherry and birch are sometimes confounded. The high pith rays on the cherry on radial sections readily distin-
guish it; distinct pores on birch and spring-wood zone in cherry as well as the darker vinous-brown color of the
latter will prove helpful. :

Fia.14.—Wood of elm. ared elm; b white elm; ¢ winged elm.

Two groups of birches can be readily distinguished, though specific distinction is not always possible.
1. Pith rays fairly distinct, the pores rather few and not more abundant in the spring wood; wood heavy,
usually darker.-..-_--..---------------------- -------- ---5 202-257 -------- Cherry birch and yellow birch.
2, Pith rays barely distinct, pores more numerous and commonly forming a more porous spring-wood zone;
wood of medium weight......------.-----------. ------------ +----- -----+-----+---- Canoe or paper birch.
The species of maple may be distinguished as follows:
1. Most of the pith rays broader than the pores and yery conspicuous........---+--+---------------- Sugar maple,

106 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

2. Pith rays not or rarely broader than the pores, fine but conspicuous.
a. Wood heavy and hard, usually of darker reddish color and commonly spotted on cross section .. Red maple.
b. Wood of medium weight and hardness, usually light colored-------.--.--------------------- Silver maple.
Red maple is not always safely distinguished from soft maple. In box elder the pores are finer and more
numerous than in soft maple.
The various species of elm may be distinguished as follows:

1. Pores of spring wood form a broad band of several rows; easy splitting, dark brown heart..---.---. Red elm.
2. Pores of spring wood usually in a single row, or nearly so.
a. Pores of spring wood large, conspicuously so. -.-.-----------------------.--..-----------.---- White elm.

b. Pores of spring wood small to minute.
a’. Lines of pores in summer wood fine, not as wide as the intermediate spaces, giving rise to very

COMM NACI GREW. sosccse sso oases cheese Soes case Soo Sods eseg ONES Sose so3S CoSe rose Oboes OeEs o2e8 Rock elm.

b’. Lines of pores broad, commonly as wide as the intermediate spaces ....-...---..-.----.- Winged elm.

c. Pores in spring wood indistinct, and therefore hardly a ring-porous wood -._...-..-.----------- Cedar elm.
Pp 5 Vi A

Fic. 15.—Wood of walnut. p. 7., pith rays; Fic. 16.—Wood of cherry.
c. l., concentriclines; v, vessels or pores;
su. wW., Summer wood; sp. w., spring wood.

STRUCTURE OF THE WOOD OF THE FIVE SOUTHERN PINES.!

The wood of these pines is so much alike in appearance and even in minute structure that
it can be discussed largely without distinction of species. The distinctions, as far as there are
any, have been pointed out in the introduction. Here itis proposed to give in more detail the
characteristics of the wood structure.

SAP AND HEART WOOD. :

All five species have a distinct sap and heart wood, the sap being light yellow to whitish, the
heart yellowish to reddish or orange brown. The line of demarcation between the two is well
defined, without any visible transition stage. The location of this line does not as a rule coincide
with the line of any annual ring, so that the wood of the same year’s growth may be sap on one
side of the treeand heart on the other. The difference in this condition may amount to ten or
twenty rings, which on one side of the same section will be heart, on the other side sap. ’

There is considerable variation in the relative width of the two zones as well as the number
of rings involved in either and also in the age at which the transition from sap to heart-wood
begins. This age was rarely found to be below twenty years; as a rule the transformation begins
in young trees when the particular section of the tree is between twenty and twenty-five years
old, but the progress of heart formation does not keep pace with the annual growth, being more
and more retarded as the tree grows older, so that while ina section twenty-five years old twenty-
two rings may be sapwood, at thirty-five years the sapwood will comprise only thirty rings; at
forty-five years, forty rings; at eighty years, fifty rings; and in sections two hundred years old
the outer eighty to one hundred rings will still be sap. A young tree of longleaf pine (No. 22)
was, for instance, found to show the foliowing relations:

Height
| Section. from 2 pele mings of
| stump. ss ue

| | |
Feet. | Years. Number.
6 40

46
| 14 38 33
| 22, 30 27
30 24 23
42 18 : 17

! Reprinted from Bulletin 13,

WOOD OF SOUTHERN PINES. 107

The change from sap to heart wood begins earlier in young trees than in the younger portions
of older trees; in these latter, sections thirty-six and forty years old are quite commonly found
still entirely made up of sapwood, while in young trees, as stated above, the change begins before
the age of thirty years.

The progress of the transformation is somewhat influenced by the rate of growth; it is slower
in slow-growing trees and usually also on the slower-growing radius, i. e., there are more rings of
sapwood. The width of the sapwood, on the other hand, stands in relation to the rate of growth
in an opposite manner; it is wider in young and thrifty than in old and stunted trees, and widest
along the greatest radius of any section; similarly, it is wider in the faster-growing loblolly, Cuban,
and spruce pines than in the slow-growing longleaf.

Besides being of a lighter color the sapwood differs from the heartwood in several respects.
Its resin is limpid and oozes out of the pores or resin ducts of any fresh cut; that of the heartwood
does not flow, except in rare cases, from saturated pieces or “light wood.” The sapwood contains
much less rosin—both rosin and turpentine—than the heartwood. Thus in a section of longleaf
the sapwood contained only 0.2 per cent of turpentine and 1 per cent of rosin, while the heart
contained from 2 to 4 per cent of turpentine and 12 to 24 per cent of rosin, and though this is an
extreme case the heart generally has three to five times as much resinous matter as the sap. The
fresh sapwood contains three to five times as much free water as the heartwood and is, even when
seasoned, more hygroscopic and subject to relatively greater shrinkage than the heart. This
capacity for taking up water readily is probably one of the reasons why sapwood decays more
readily. In addition, the parenchyma cells of the medullary rays and resin ducts (see further on)
contain, at least in the outer parts of the sapwood, living protoplasm and reserve food materials
which are readily seized upon by fungi which cause “‘bluing” and decay. Such living tissue does
not exist in the heartwood. The heartwood in old logs generally is heavier than the sapwood.
This is not due to any later thickening or growth of its cell walls, after their original formation,
but is due chiefly to two causes:

1. The heartwood of old logs was formed when the tree was younger, and made, naturally,
heavier wood.

2. The accumulation of resin in the heart already referred to increases often very considerably
the weight of the heartwood.

In the same way the sapwood of old logs, such as supply the sawmills, is weaker than the
heartwood of the same logs, but this is not because the wood is in the sapwood condition, but
because it is lighter and its summerwood per cent smaller, being, as stated before, the product of
old age, when heavy and strong wood is no longer formed. Chemically the wood substance of
sapwood is practically like that of heartwood; the coloring substances which permeate the cell
walls in heartwood appear to be infiltrations, i. e., deposited in the walls from solutions; they are
insignificant in amount, and their true nature, especially the processes leading to their formation,
are not yet fully understood. The most modern views which consider these coloring bodies or
heartwood substances as products of oxidation of tannin still require confirmation.

ANNUAL RINGS.

The layers of growth, known and appearing on any cross section as annual rings, show very
distinctly in the wood of these pines. In a section 8 or 10 feet from the ground the rings are
widest at the center, of considerable width for the first thirty to fifty rings, the period of most
rapid growth in height; then they grow more and more narrow toward the periphery. In the last
sixty to one hundred rings of very old logs the decrease is very small, the rings remaining
practically of the same width. The same year’s growth is usually wider in the upper part of
the stem, both in young and old trees, but the average width of the rings is naturally greater
in the upper part ouly of young trees; in old and also in stunted trees it is smaller, since in
these the upper portions do not share in the more rapid growth of the early years.

Rings over half an inch wide are frequently seen in loblolly and occur in spruce pine; rings
one-fourth of an inch in width occur in very thrifty saplings of all five species, but the average
width of the rings for sapling timber is usually less than one-fourth of an inch, commonly one-eighth.
In trees over one hundred years old it drops to one-twelfth of an inch and even below. The average

108 ‘FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

width of the rings is normally smallest in longleaf pine, being one-twenty-fifth of an inch and less.
(See also tables and diagrams of rate of growth in the introduction, as well as in the several
monographs.)

The influence of orientation on the width of the rings is completely obscured by other, more
potent influences, so that sometimes the radius on the north side, other times that of some other
side, is the greatest; and it is a common observation to see this relation vary within wide limits,
even in the trunk of the same tree.

Stunted trees of longleaf pine over one hundred years old with an average width of ring
of one-fiftieth of an inch are frequently met with in old timber; of the other species no such
trees were observed. The decrease of the width of the rings from center to periphery is never
perfectly uniform. Not only do consecutive rings differ within considerable limits, but frequently
zones of narrower rings, including thirty or more years’ growth, disturb the general regularity.
Where these zones consist of very narrow rings, one-fiftieth of an inch or less, the wood is of
distinctly lighter color and weight. Since the value of this class of wood depends not only on its
strength and stiffness but also on the fineness of its rings (grain), in so far as the grain influences
both the appearance and the ease of shaping as well as other mechanical properties, the width of
the annual ring is of great importance, from a technical point of view, the finer-ringed (grained)
wood of the same weight always deserving and mostly receiving preference.

The rings of the limbs are narrower than the corresponding rings of the stem. Moreover,
they are usually of different widths on the upper and lower side of the same branch, those of the
latter excelling in width those of the former. Frequently the wider lower part of a ring of a branch
appears like a ‘‘lune” on the cross section, quite wide (one-eighth of an inch and more) in its lower
median part, and scarcely visible, often entirely fading out on the upper side. This difference is
commonly accentuated by the appearance of the wood itself. In the upper part the wood of the
wing is normal and light colored, owing to a very small summerwood per cent; on the lower wide
part, the “lune,” the wood is commonly of reddish color, either even ghaarethant the entire width
of the ring, or else in several varicolored bands, which give the appearance of two or more separate
ill-defined rings. Sometimes the earliest formed springwood is included in this unusual coloration,
at other times only the median portion of the ring. This “(red wood,” as it has been termed by
the French and German writers, is composed of very thick walled cells and increases markedly
the weight of the wood, so that the wood of the side containing it is usually much the heaviest.
It is of interest that the several “lunes” in any eross section occur rarely, if ever, exactly one
above the other, but commonly the radius passing through the middle of one “lune” makes an
angle of 20 to 40 degrees with the radius passing through the middle of another “lune.” Often
successive “lunes” show considerable deviation in position and commonly differ in width or degree
of development. Accepting the most recent explanation of this phenomenon as expressed by
Hartig and Cieslar,' it would appear that the formation of these broad “lunes” of especially
strong cells is due to pressure-stimulus on the growing cambium, caused by the weight of the limb
and its peculiar position, increased at all times by movements of the limb due to the wind. More-
over it seems that the formation of one well-developed “lune” relieves for a time the pressure,
and with it the necessity for a repetition of this formation. These “lunes” are most conspicuous
in the limbs of these pines near the trunk, and disappear at variable distances from the trunk and
with them disappears the eccentricity and the difference in appearance and weight of the wood
of the limbs. Immediately at the junction of limb and stem the pressure is constant, and the
result is the formation of almost uniformly thick-walled tissue in all parts of the ring, giving to
the “‘knot” its great weight and hardness.

Lunes similar to those of the limb are frequently observed in the stems of small trees;
wherever this has been noted it was found on the underside of a leaning or curved portion. 2
Occasionally such a ‘‘lune” extends for 12 and more feet up and down.

Quite distinct from this modification of the annual ring is another modification frequently seen,
especially in young trees, giving rise to so-called “‘false” rings. It consists in the appearance of

1A. Cieslar, ‘‘Rotholz al Fichte,” Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen 1896, p. 149, and Robert Hartig “Das Rothholz
der Fichte” in Forstlich-naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, 1896, p. 165.
*Cieslar produced them at will by bending young spruce saplings.

WOOD OF SOUTHERN PINES. 109

one or more, rarely two, dark-colored lines, which precede the true summerwood band of the ring.
These lines, resembling the summerwood in color and composed like it of think-walled cells, follow
the true springwood of the year and are separated from the summerwood and from each other
(if there are more than one) by a light-colored line resembling springwood. While occasionally
this is somewhat misleading in counting the rings, a moderate magnification usually suffices to
distinguish the real character of the tissues, as described later on. A more serious difficulty
arises in very old, slowly growing trees, where the ring sometimes is represented by only one to
three cells (see fig. 18) and occasionally disappears, i. e., is entirely wanting in some. parts of the
cross section. Generally these cases, due to various causes, are too rare to seriously interfere in
the establishment of the age of a tree.

SPRING AND SUMMER WOOD.

The difference between spring and summer wood is strongly marked in these pines, the
transition from the former to the latter being normally abrupt and giving: to the annual ring
the appearance of two sharply defined bands. (See figs. 17 and 22.) In wide rings the transition

\
k-LAST 50-%-2N0 50 RINGS. —- — — —- 380 50 RINGS.- — — — f — — = ail 50 RINGS: = = —P CENTRAL 28 RINGS
(RINGS OR 50! !
1YRS. GROWTH: t |
(SUMMER WOOD! SUMMER wooD. | SUMMER WOOD, SUMMER WOOD, SUMMER WOOD,
see 2.74 i 207 45%. 52%. 7.

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|
|
|
|

Fic. 17—Variation of summerwood per cent from pith to bark.

is sometimes gradual. The springwood is light colored, has a specific gravity of about 0.40, and
thus weighs somewhat less than half as much as the darker summerwood, with a specific gravity of
about 0.90 to 1.05, so that the weight and with it the strength of the wood is greater, the larger
the amount of summerwood. (See figs. 17 and 19.)

The absolute width of the summerwood varies generally with the width of the ring (see
diagram, fig. 19), i. e., the wider the ring the wider the summerwood band. It decreases in a cross
section of an old log from near the pith to the periphery, and in the same layer, from the stump
to the top of the tree. Where the growth of the stem is very eccentric, the wood along the greater
radius has the greatest proportion of summerwood; thus, in a disk of longleaf, for instance, there
is on the north side a radius of 152 mm. with 27 per cent summerwood; on the south side a radius
of 98:mm. and a summerwood per cent of only 20 per cent. In the stump section the great
irregularity in the contour of the rings is accompanied by a corresponding irregularity in the
outline of the summerwood.

The summerwood generally forms less than half of the total volume of the whole log (see fig.
17); it forms a greater part of the coarse-grained wood which was grown while the tree was young
than in the fine-ringed outer parts of the log, grown in the old age period. It also forms a greater

110 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

part in the volume of the butt than of the top log, and thus fully explains the well-known difference
in the weight, strength, and value of the various parts of the tree. The following table serves to
illustrate this point. The numbers in each line refer to the average values for the same ten annual
layers through three sections of the tree at varying height. The figures in italics below refer to
specific gravity for the same layer. The valués for specific gravity were calculated on the basis of
allowing a specific gravity of 0.40 for springwood and 0.90 for summerwood, the values for the
entire disks as actually observed being given below:

Summerwood per cent and specifie gravity in various parts of a tree of longleaf pine.

ee — a = —<——— =
| |

es l Sie ese
) a | an} 21 | 31 | 41 | 51 | 61 | 71 $1) 91 | 101} 111] 121) 181] 141) 151) 161} 171] 181] 191] 201| 211] 221 | 231 yer
Rings from periphery. | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to to | to! 10 | to | to | to | to | to | to | to] to | to | to | to | to | to for
iY ~ | 10 | 20) 80 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 90 100/110) 120130 | 140) 150) 160) 170 | 180) 190} 200) 210} 220| 230/236 | fou
} || | i i | al Soni seal ize eI a pes :
a = aa; mera keesa| | | | | |
Section I, 3 feet from ground. 39 | 44 | hy 42) 38) 35| 45) 32) 44 a 43) 43! 52| 56] 48| 46) 48) 43] 47) 47] 52] 45] 42 |a15 45
: 59) .62| 60 | 61) .59| 57) 62) 56) 62) .73| 61) .61| 66) 68} G4) 63) 64) 61) .63| 63) 66) 62) 61) .47| .625
Section IV, 35 feet from | | | | {Sal eal
sTround 26 25| 34] 28) 24! 2: 35| 49) 31} 33} 43) 34] 40) 31). 34] 33] 33] 31) 22] D6].-_-].... 29
a | 02 | 07 | .d4 | .52 52) .5Y| 64) .55| 56) .61| .57| 60) 55) .57| .56') .56) .55| 51) .49)....)..-.] 545
Section VII, 70 feet from | | |
PTOUN Geen eee ee 2 16} 17) 18} 18) 20, 18} 26) 21) 24) 19) 19) 22) 16) 18) ¢2)}.._.|.-- |... ital Weta aaa 18
z 51| 48 | 48 | .49 2 10 | 4S). 49 203 | 00) 52) 49) 49) 51 | 48)| 49) (47) =~ | oo sonalloceolloosl|> acl)
| | |
a@ Six rings next to pith. b Two rings. c One ring.

The observed values of specific gravity for the three sections are 0.700, 0.56), and 0.490, respectively.

Tt will be noticed that the greatest difference between the calculated and the actual value of
specific gravity occurs in the section at the stump. This is fully accounted for by the fact that
large amounts of resin, not considered in the values of summerwood per cent, always occur in
this portion, adding from 5 to 20 per cent to the weight of the wood.

iB

Slice
S 4
SS 8
x 8
ce
Py
fs
OS €
28
iS,

SSS
oe A
Ne)
>

8) iO i 7B IR GIB ie 3) BD
Decades of Rings from periphery 4

Fig. 18—Variation of specific gravity with summerwood per cent and age of section in longleaf pine, the solid lines referring to a section 3

feet from the ground, the dotted lines to one 14 feet from the ground. (Specific gravity as actually observed on pieces of 1 inch radia
extent.)

In stunted trees the summerwood forms nearly as great a per cent of the total volume for the
whole tree as in thrifty trees of the same age, but in the stunted growth, or extremely narrow
ringed portion of otherwise normal trees, the per cent of summerwood is markedly decreased, a
feature which becomes conspicuous in the lighter color of the wood of such portions. (See diagram,
fig. 22, A.) Where, on the other hand, the rate of growth in an old tree is suddenly increased by
the accessibility of more light, for instance, the summerwood per cent also is disproportionately
increased, but this disproportion appears to be more transient, i. e., a decrease in the summerwood
per cent sets in sooner than for the rate of growth or the width of the rings. (See fig. 19.) In
some of the rapidly grown loblolly and spruce pine the summerwood forms but a small part of the

WOOD OF SOUTHERN PINES. 111

first ten to twenty years’ growth, and in all cases the first few rings about the pith have but little
summerwood. In general, the summerwood per cent varies in the several species as well as in the
individual with the weight of the wood, which is least in the spruce pine, greatest in Cuban and
longleaf pine, and stands between these in loblolly and shortleaf. It furnishes a very useful
criterion to distinguish between these groups, and especially to select strong timber.

In the limb, the summerwood is most abundant in the knot (all wood practically partaking of
the character of summerwood, at least as far as the thickness of cell walls is concerned) and in the

I
150 ue

W.itl .

ay
100

71t »
a
Ss
Ss

\ 1
al
50 t

Summer-wood per. ce

Width of Rings and of Summer-wood in

1 2 3 4 5 6 Uf 8 Ha) Lk WG JB) TEE TB HG i} I) A) al

9
Decades of Rings from periphery :

Ww sewoue oe
Fig. 19.—Variation of summerwood per cent with rate of growth (width of ring) in tree No. 3, longleaf pine.

Nove.—Only the heavy line represents summerwood per cent; the others indicate the actual width of the rings (upper pair) and of the
band of summerwood (lower pair).

part next to the stem, decreasing with thé distance from the trunk. As might be expected, it also
forms a larger per cent of the wood of the underside of limbs and the concave portions of bent
trunks.

GRAIN OF THE WOOD.

Though usually quite straight grained, the wood of these species is by no means always So.
Spiral growth, leading to “‘ cross-grained” lumber, occurs frequently, is usually more pronounced
in the basal portions of the tree, and commonly varies from pith to bark in the same log. Wavy
grain resembling that of the maple (curly maple) has not been observed, but an irregular wavy
grain, due to the fact that the surface of the trunk for many years is covered with small, low
eminences, 1 to a few inches across, is frequently seen, especially in longleaf pine, and leads to
remarkably pretty patterns. Unfortunately the contrast of spring and summer wood being so
very pronounced, the figures are somewhat obtrusive and therefore not fully appreciated.

112 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

MINUTE ANATOMY.

The minute structure or histology of the wood of the five species under consideration is that
of a group whose position in a general classification of the wood of pines is indicated in the follow-
ing scheme, suggested by Dr. J. Schroeder, and more completely by Dr. H. Mayr,' in which they
appear as part of group 2 of Section I.

Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray, with dentate projections.
a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 1.
Represented in this country by P. resinosa.
b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid on the walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 2. P. teda, palustris,
etc., including most of our ‘‘hard” and “yellow” pines.
Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections.
a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.—Group 3. P. strobus
lambertiana, and other true white pines.
b. Three to six smell pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray. eiGroun 4. P. parryana, and other nut
pines, including also P. balfouriana.

The general features of structure of coniferous woods are represented in the accompanying
cut (fig. 20).

The structural elements, as in all pine, are few and simple, and consist of (a) tracheids, the
common wood fibers, forming over 90 per cent of the volume; (>) medullary or pith rays, minute

2

Alo

O op

P I] « VOC
We JO
le as

Fic. 20.—Schematic representation of coniferous wood struc.

* ture: wood of spruce—1, natural size; 2, small part of one
ring magnified 100 times. The vertical tubes are wood fibers,
in this case all ‘‘tracheids;” m, medullary or pith ray; n
transverse tracheids of pith ray; a, 6, and c, bordered pits
of the tracheids more enlarged.

Fia, 21.—Cell endings in pine.

cell aggregates composed of two kinds of cells, scarcely visible without magnifier and then only
on the radial section, yet forming about 7 to 8 per cent of the volume and weight of the wood in
these species; (¢) resin ducts, small passages of irregular length surrounded by resin-secreting
cells scattered through the wood, but forming two more or less connected systems, one running in
the direction of the fibers, the other at right angles to the first, the individual ducts of the latter
system always occupying the middle portion of medullary rays.

The tracheids, or common wood fibers, are alike in all five species, and resemble those of otlrer
pines: they are slender tubes, 4.5 to 6 mm. (about one-fourth inch) long, forty to one hundred
times as long as thick, usually hexagonal in cross section, with sharp or more or less rounded
outlines (see PJ. XX), flattened in tangential direction at both ends (see Pl. XX, Af), the diameter
in radial direction being 45 to 55 4 (about 0.002 inch) in the springwood, and about half that, or
21 to 25 ju, in the summerwood, and in pore ential direction loons 40 us, on the average in ihe

1Dr. J. Schroeder, Holz der Ganiknen, Draaden, 1872, p. 65; Dr. H. vie, Walteueenn yon Wm Wemtioroniie, Miin-
chen, 1890, p. 426.

WOOD OF SOUTHERN PINES. 113

middle. They are arranged in regular radial rows (see Pl. XX), which are continuous through an
indefinite number of rings, but the number of rows increasing every year to accommodate the
increasing circumference of the growing stem. (See Pl. XX,Cc.) The fibers of the same row
are practically conterminous, i. e., they all have about the same length, though at their ends they
aré often bent, slightly distorted, and usually separated (see Pl. XX, B ¢; also fig. 21), their
neighbors filling out the interspaces. There is no constant difference in the dimensions of these
fibers in the different species here considered. In every tree the fibers are shortest and smallest

1
J
SS

Fic. 22.—Cross section of normal and stunted growth in Longleaf Pine.

near the pith of any section, rapidly increasing in size from the pith outward, and reaching their
full size in about the tenth to twentieth ring from the pith. ‘To illustrate: In a section of longleaf
pine, 10 feet from the ground, the diameter of the tracheids in radial direction is in ~=0.001 mm.:

Number of

. Spring- | Summer-
Fines fron wood wood. |*verage.
Me MK
1 24 15 24
2 34 23 32
3 45 24 40
4 43 26 36
7 50 26 38
0 52 28 36
24-33 52 28 36
44-53 52 27 37

H. Doe. 181——8

114 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

As usual in conifers, the tracheids are largest in the roots and smallest in the limbs. In these,
pines, especially in longleaf pine, they are larger in well-grown wood than in that of extremely
stunted trees, though very narrow rings in otherwise normal trees do not share this diminutive size
of the tracheids. (See fig. 22, A and B, where afew very narrow rings are made up of elements of
normal size.) ,

The following average figures illustrate the difference between wood from very stunted trees
and that of normal trees in longleaf pine, of which we give an average from an extensive series

examined:

Radial diam-
ter of tra- >
Number of Average c saa 8 Character of
Age. . tian cheids in
tree. & width of ring. spring wood tree.
»=0.001 mm,
Millimeters.
4 86 0. 4-0.5 31-36 | Stunted.
5 60 4 30-36 Do.
6 70 A 33-38 Do.
7 68 2.0 52 | Normal.:

As soon as the average width of the annual rings gets above 0.5 mm. the dimensions of the
elements approach the normal. Thus, in trees Nos. 1 and 2, with average width of annual rings
0.5 to 0.6 mm., the average diameter of the tracheids in radial direction is 35 to 48 yu.

Normally, the diameter in radial direction is greatest in the first-formed or inner part of any
ring, and decreases even before the summerwood is reached. In narrow rings with an abrupt
beginning of the summerwood, so common in these Southern pines, the diameter is quite constant
throughout the springwood, but changes, together with the thickness of the wall, quite suddenly
with the beginning of the summerwood, thus adding to the sharpness of the outlines of the two
parts. (See Pl. XX; also fig. 22, B.) In nearly all sections there is an additional marked decrease
in radial diameter in the last 3 to 5 cells of each row, which helps to emphasize the limits of the
ring. In the so-called “false” rings, mentioned before, the cells of the false sammerwood part
resemble those of the normal summerwood. The recognition of the false ring as such rests upon
the difference in shape and dimensions of the last cell rows in comparison with those adjoining.
In the true summerwood the last cells are much flattened, with small lumen and somewhat reduced
walls making a sharp definition toward the springwood of the next ring, which is still further
accentuated by the wide lumen and thin wall of the cells of the latter. In the “false” summer-
wood, on the contrary, the end cells are not flattened, and the cells of the light-colored adjoining
zone of wood have but a moderately wide lumen and comparatively thick walls. The fact that
the outline is less regular and commonly incomplete—i. e., it does not extend around the entire
section—also aidsin recognizing the falserings. In the “lunes” of both limb and stem referred to
above the fibers are smaller, more rounded in cross section, and commonly exhibit conspicuous
intercellular spaces between them. The walls of these are often much thicker than those of the
summerwood of the same ring at this point. Since the radial diameter of the fibers of the summer-
wood is only about half as great as that of the springwood, it is clear that the number of fibers
of the summerwood forms a much greater per cent of the total number of fibers than is indicated
in the per cent of summerwood given above and based upon its relative width. Thus, in wood
having 50 per cent of summerwood there are, in number, twice as many tracheids in the summer-
wood as in the springwood. :

The walls of the cells are generally about 3 to 34 yw thick in the springwood, while in the
summerwood they are 6 to 7 « thick on the tangential side and 8 to 11 » thick on the radial side
of the fiber. Generally it may be said that the thickness varies inversely as the extent of the
wall, i. e., the greater any diameter the thinner the walls parallel to this diameter, which gives
the impression that each cell is furnished an equal quantum of material out of which to construct
its house and had the tendency of giving an equal amount to each of its four or six sides.

Generally the absolute width of the ring does not affect the thickness of the cell walls, the
fibers of wide rings having no thicker walls than those of narrow rings; but when the growth of
a tree is unusually suppressed, so that the rings are less than 0.5 mm. (0.02 inch) wide and each
row consists of only a few fibers, the walls of the fibers of the summerwood, like those of the last-

H. Doe. 181.

PLATE XX.

IC
L

Ch

ee
eee
ioe
‘oa
ia

©
@
Boo ‘0 anTRBONUE |
r Ol a i i : | a

Cl
I
Oa

=|

Pegsee or ess nl
Beoee eh SSS See! |
Bibecest SE SSeS! |
eieseaco age =\5co
sie e522q)05=
oye |
ehre!

Sana

G
Ley
ei
(oles
ifopoy
[el ola}
Lo fo le)
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GEoo
INOUOVEERE
at

(jefe)
yaggs
sla
nd

i

wn

Tele
.

©
S
ema

_ beni
So

ar
-

(IC

Typical Cross SECTIONS OF PINUS TAEDA, HETEROPHYLLA, AND GLABRA.
r. d., resin duets; s. ¢., secreting cells; m. 7., medullary rays; sp. w., spring wood; sw. w.,summer wood.
A, Pinus r=pA: a-b, transverse tracheids; c, simple pits; d-e, row of tracheids; f, flattened terminal of tracheid.

B, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA: a-b, row of tracheids; ¢, terminal of tracheid; d-e, bordered pits.
C. Pinus GLABRA: a-b, single row of tracheids; c-b, same row doubled.

H. Doe. 181. PLATE XXI.

i

ly
ni
iy
t

CH
a
hin
Velo}

INS)
@
©)

ae
IC]

cS
a)

s : Se :
—INo = OZ i —= c Ve i 7
Ok (Sy) 5 =
: Sez

LJ

‘s
ee
ae
=

=
==

Pee

()
@

ma
ss as

Tair
(

ee ee eee

(

(we
LA

[@
@

non
0
i

(old

om
[ofofojal
ch
ta

oS
Poe

lojo\s

ao Siossmecn
misesnunaa aden
Joe
s3

6

a

— —-Sp.We- —

Sno aSaS SaaS

TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND ECHINATA, AND RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND GLABRA.

A, Pinus ecuinaTa. Cross section of two rings; sp. w., Springwood, sw. w., summerwood.

B, Pincus pauusrris. Cross section of avery narrow ring. Of the two medullary rays one is cut through a row of parenchyma, the other through
a row of tracheids.

Gand D, Pryus Guapra. Radial sections; m. r., medullary rays; tr., tracheids of the medullary rays; p., parenchyma of the same; s. p., simple pits
leading from the parenchyma to the neighboring tracheids or common fibers c. tr.; b. p., bordered pit. The ray at Cis made up of tracheids

~ only.

E, Pinus pauustris. Radial section; lettering as in D.

Originals magnified: 4, ®9°, the rest °°: illustrations: A, '4°, the rest *4°.

ar if ae
i ae

PLATE XXII.

H. Doe. 181.
, ©)

ve : i
aoe a S58 GOR RON CBA |e
6 A SOS OO NN CB =
| Se ee |
Se
re ns eee

rays; s. p., simple pits; b p., bordered

RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS ECHINATA AND HETEROPHYLLA.

Aand B, PINUS ECHINATA. 10. 1., medullary rays; p.,parenchyina of same; tr., transverse tracheids of
pits; c. tr., common tracheids.
su. w., Summerwood; other letters as in 4.

C, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA.
Originals magnified °{°; illustrations, *{°.

H. Doe. 181. PLATE XXIII.

oo
S
ak
1

[

i
fH |
OW: 3)

RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS TADA AND TANGENTIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND ECHINATA.

Aand B, Pinus Tapa. Radial sections: nm. 7., medullary rays; tr., tracheids; p., parenchyma of the rays; s. p., simple pit: b. p., bordered pit; c. tr.,
common tracheids.

C-B, tangential sections.
C, Pinus pALusrris. Left-hand part in springwood, right-band portion in sammerweood.
D-E, Pinus Ecarnata. D, section in springwood; a-c, medullary rays; «@, a small ray composed of tracheids only: ¢, a “triple” ray; d, bordered pit
showing the membrane in place. £, section in summerwood; a, bordered pit, other letters as in 4 and B.
Magnification of originals, °$°; of illustrations: 4 and B, 7°; C-H, 39°.

PLATE XXIV.

H. Doe. 181.

e

Zise:--

W,
S

y

Stas
ea:

Ch

a

5

A© NS OS SS
| 00 | SS eo

PKS

tr--= we
: BOER Ie. ee zs
lolé lool

ctr

=

NS

as

=sow_ eos
C3

TANGENTIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS TADA, HETEROPHYLLA, AND GLABRA.

A, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA. Radial and tangential sections of a transverse resin duct; r. d., resin duct; m. 7. medullary ray; tr., tracheids of
the medullary ray; p., parenchyma cells of the same; ec. tr., common tracheids or wood fibers.

B-G, Pints GLABRA. 8B, tangential section of a transverse resin duct and parts of three fibers; b. p., bordered pit; other letters as above;
C-G, tangential sections of medullary rays, of which F is made up of tracheids only. while D is a “ triple” ray,
H, Pinus tapas. Tangential sections of medullary rays in spring and suramer wood.
io
$°,

Original magnified *2°, illustrations about *

Rh

al
'

eens

PLATE XXV.

H. Doe. 181.
a H eae 0 ee
A\ || 8 » | 4 i\\ fi
) BABES
: | HB 4
8)
ie]
A
8 9
; y y
;
ia Ie I |
te i f
a | | a Ae
7 ofl] B
A : on
BMA WN TY
Ae y rd.--
y fl 0 A A
\ " a Ie y
p 4 a\ \0 0
i (0) a
A 5 os ;
6 A y | Nes Wy fo
NM: i
; a |
fa A N A
(a) io) 12)
Oo 0
VIE i TT
A i i ,
‘ qi LL a Hines
I i 6 F
Q a 4
y 0 Pi |
|
0) (| H
{0}
D ; Q ; E

ES

GCS OO

<
Smo ase—
= —

2

<S——

SS
J Ce

P ie
S
ee

fp: ( 0
ee iN
| Bl

TANGENTIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS ECHINATA, HETEROPHYLLA, AND GLABRA, SHOWING NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF
PITH RAYS AND PROPORTION OF PITH-RAY CELLS.

—C and Ff, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA. D, Pinus EcHInaTa. LE, PINUS GLABRA.
A-C, Sections of medullary rays; f., tracheids; p., pareachyma; Cis a ‘‘double” ray.
In D-F, histological details are omitted; they are camera drawings showing number and distribution of medullary rays, and also

the proportion of the tracheids to parenchyma in each ray, the former being indieated by dots; r. d., transverse resin

ducts; m. r., medullary rays
Magnification of originals: A-C, £90; D-H, 8°; of illustrations: A-C, *42; D-P, *Y.

A

PLaTE XXVI.

WOOD OF SOUTHERN PINES. 115

formed 2 or 3 fibers of normal rings, are thinner, so that in these cases the wood is lighter in color
and weight not only because there is relatively less summerwood, but also because the fibers of
this summerwood have thinner walls. (See fig. 22, A and B.) In very stunted trees, where the
rings are all very narrow, the reduced thickness of the walls is counterbalanced by the smaller
size of the cells.

All tracheids communicate with each other by means of the characteristic “bordered” pits,
the structure of which is shown in fig. 20. These pits occur only on the radial walls of the fibers.
They are most abundant near the ends of each fiber, fewest in the middle, form broken rows,
single or occasionally double. (Pl. XXII, C.) As in other pines the pits of the summerwood differ
in appearance from those of the springwood. In the latter the pit appears in the cell lumen
(radial view) as a perforated saucer-like eminence; in the former as a mere cleft, elongated in the
direction of the longer axis of the fiber. (See Pl. XX,B,dande; Pl. XXIII, D,d and H,a.) In
both the essential part of the pit is similar, a circular or oval cavity resembling a double convex
lens, with a thin membrane dividing it into two equal plano-convex parts. (‘This membrane is
shown only in the drawings, Pl. XXIII, D,and E.) In keeping with the small radial diameter of
the fibers of the summerwoaod, these pits are much smaller in the summerwood than springwood,
and usually are very much fewer in number.

The simple pits are in sets and occur only at the points where the fiber touches the cells of a
medullary ray. (See fig. 21, also Pl. X XIII, H, sp., and other figures of this plate and Pl. XXIV.)
Above and below these simple pits occur very small bordered pits, communicating with those of
the short tranverse fibers or tracheids which form part of all medullary rays. (See Pl. XXI,
D, b. p.)

As in all pines, the medullary or pith rays are of two kinds, the one small, 1 cell wide, and 1
to 10—in large averages 5 to 7— cells high; the other large, and each containing in the middle part
a transverse resin duct. (See Pls. XXI, XXIII, XXIV, and XXVI.) Of the former there occur
about 21 to 27 on each square millimeter (about 15,000 per square inch) of tangential section. The
second class are much less abundant and scattered very irregularly, so that sometimes areas of
several square millimeters are found without any of these rays. Generally about one of these
rays occurs to every 1.5 or 2 square millimeters, or about 300 to 400 per square inch of tangential
section. In all rays the cell rows forming the upper and lower edge (see Pl. X XI) are composed
of short fibers or tracheids (transverse tracheids), while the inner rows contain only parenchyma
cells. Occasionally small rays occur which are composed of tracheids only. (See Pl. X XI, C.)
Frequently the rows of parenchyma are separated by one, rarely by two, series of tracheids (see
Pl. XXIII, D, and Pl. XXIV, D), giving rise to ‘“‘double” or “triple” rays.

The number of cell rows in each medullary or pith ray varies from 2 to 10, on an average from
5 to 7, and of these the rows of tracheids or fibers form more than half. (See Pl. XXV, where
the outer cells or tracheids are marked with dots.)

The tracheids of the rays have thick walls covered with point-and-bar-like projections, the
boldest of which are on the upper and lower walls and surround the bordered pits. (See Pls.
XXI and XXII.) These short tracheids communicate with the common wood fibers, with each
other, as well as with the parenchyma cells, by means of small bordered pits, which in this last
case are bordered on one side (side of the tracheid) and simple on the other (half-bordered pits).
The parenchyma cells occupying the inner rows of each ray communicate in the springwood part
of the ring with each neighboring tracheid by 3 to-€, commonly 4 to 5, simple elliptical pits, in
the summerwood by a single narrow, elongated slit-like pit (see Pls. XXI and XXII), and with
each other by small, irregular, scattered simple pits.

The walls of these cells are generally smooth, but local thickenings, especially on the upper
and lower walls, and surrounding the pits, eccur quite frequently, though not regularly.

The parenchyma cells of the rays are usually somewhat broader and higher than the fibers,
the average height for both being about 21 to 27 , the average width about 20 ,, while the length
of each cell and fiber, greater in springwood and least in the summerwood, is from two to ten times
as great as the height. Assuming 25 y and 20 y to represent the average height and width, and
allowing 25 rays of 6 cell rows each to each square millimeter of tangential section, then the rays
form about 7.5 per cent of the total volume and weight of the wood of these species. An attempt

116 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to utilize for purposes of identification the difference in the number, size, and distribution of these
rays, or the proportion between the number of rows of tracheids and those of parenchyma cells,
as was done by Dr. J. Schroeder,! has not been successful, and appears of little promise.

The large rays with transverse resin ducts resemble the smaller rays described. On Pl. XXIV
at A such a ray is seen both in radial and tangential section. Series of transverse tracheids
occupy the upper and lower edge, but the interior, unlike that of common rays, is several
cells wide, and contains an open duct in its widest portion. (See Pl. XXIV,7.d.) This duct is
commonly more or less filled with resin (see Pl. XXIV, I); itis surrounded by thin-walled secreting
cells, and, in the heart wood, often divided or filled up by thylosis, i. e., by very thin walled,
much puffed out cells, growing out of the surrounding secreting cells before the latter perish.

The walls of the secreting cells are quite thin, those of the remainder of the parenchyma
vary to some extent in the different species. In the longleaf and loblolly pines the walls of the
parenchyma composing the principal part of the ray are generally quite thick (see Pl. XXIV, A-E),
thicker than those of the cells of ordinary rays, and especially thickened near the simple pits by
which these cells communicate with each other. In Cuban and shortleaf this thickening is much
less conspicuous, and absent entirely in many cases (see Pl. XXIV, A), while in the spruce pine it
seems wanting altogether.

These ducts exist even in the very first ring (next to the pith), are smaller and more numerous
near center, but have essentially the same structure in the wood of the fifth and later years.

The tracheids of the pith rays are wanting next to the pith, but occur in all rays in the outer
part of even the first ring. The rays in this ring are generally lower, composed of fewer cell rows,
but the cells are larger than the rest of the wood.

Both shape and size of these medullary rays are very variable; an average of about 0.4 mm.
for the height of the ray and 60 y for the width at the resin duct was observed. An attempt to
utilize the shape, especially the appearance of the two edges, as a means of separating the wood
of these species has so far failed entirely.

The large resin ducts running lengthwise in the wood or parallel to the common wood fibers
are much larger than the transverse ducts, measuring, inclusive of the secretive cells, on an
average about 0.2 mm. (0.008 inch) on their smaller radial diameter and about 0.3 mm. on the
tangential. (See Pl. XX, A,r. d.) They are usually situated in the summerwood of each ring,
often in narrow rings, causing an irregular outline. They are smaller and more numerous near
the pith, here usually forming several series in one annual ring, more numerous in wide rings
than in narrow ones, but their number per square inch of cross section as well as their dimensions
appear to be independent of the width of the rings. In their structure they resemble those of
other pines. They are surrounded by thin-walled resin-secreting parenchyma, part of which often
appears as if not directly connected with the duct. (See Pl. XX, A.) In many eases all the
tissue between two neighboring ducts is of this parenchyma. Longitudinal and transverse ducts
frequently meet and thus form a continuous network of ducts throughout the wood.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF FOREST RESOURCES.

One thousand million dollars is the value of the raw products which are annually derived
from the forests of the United States. ‘

There is no other resource, there is no other business or trade which approaches in magnitude
or importance, in production of values or in the intimate relation to all pursuits of life that which
is based upon the exploitation of our forest resources, excepting alone agriculture and its adjuncts.

Professor James, in Bulletin 2 of the Division of Forestry, figured upon the basis of the
census for 1880 as follows:

If to the value of the total output of all our veins of gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, and coal, were added
the value derived from the petroleum wells and stone quarries, and this sum were increased by the estimated value
of all the steamboats, sailing vessels, canal boats, flatboats, and barges, plying in American waters and belonging
to citizens of the United States, it would still be less than the value of the forest crop by a sum sufficient to

purchase at cost of construction all the canals, buy at par all the stock of the telegraph companies, pay their
bonded debts, and construct and equip all telephone lines in the United States.

1 Dr. Julius Schroeder, das Holz der Coniferen, Dresden, 1872.

ECONOMIC ASPECTS. 117

Even if, instead of the value of the wood article, ready for marketing, we refer only to the
stumpage, i. e., the royalty which the wood consumer pays to the land owner for the privilege of
taking the valuable material from the land, we will find it ten times as large as the royalties paid
for coal, and twenty-five times as large as those paid for iron ore. Nay, even compared with farm
rents, the stumpage value of an acre of forest exceeds its farm value.

We can then assert that next to the soil and climate itself, the basis for agricultural produc-
tion, our forest resources are the most important at the present time as producers of the most
needful materials of our civilization. Nay, if we realize that in addition the forest cover as a mere
surface condition of the earth affects our local climate, and, still more, acts favorably upon the
distribution of our water supplies—the most essential factor in agricultural production—we can not
easily overrate its value, either as a factor of production or as an element of protection; its prod-
uct and its protection are as much necessaries of life as air and water.

It has furthermore this advantage over all other resources, that by the mere manner of exploi-
tation, without much human labor, it can be reproduced; it is a restorable resource which can be
utilized without deteriorating or exhausting it, provided the exploitation be carried on rationally
and with due regard to the laws of tree growth.

The truth of the assertion that the forest, next to agricultural resources, furnishes a larger
product than any other resource, and that the industries relying on wood supplies employ more
capital and labor and produce more values in their product than any one other industry or group
of like industries, will appear from the following statement:

Leading industries compared.

[Data from Census 1890, in round numbers.]

7 |

Capital Raw mate-

Articles. aneoleade Employees. Wages. aL Products.

E Millions. Thousands. | Millions. Millions. Millions.
Agriculture..... an on $15, 982 fi PAID |ncesescesodses $2, 460
Horest products, totals oss e ce ce ae = nee ain ene ee ee einle wae nme wee ae imams elm = mine me nlm Je--2e eee n eee | 1, 044

Forest industries, e a 3660508 348 $10: 446
Forest products, not enumerated + 598
Manufactures using wood 513 294 907
Total wood and wood manuta DUNS, a ARE Ae | sere Peele eae Sa vane ciate | aoe eleclarelcle els 1,951
Mineralliprodiets) total yee eee cae cimieie wien mem ale atm ee alee einem [ae w= mind mmm =m min minlninlm nlalmmin 5 Soe 610
(OHI --nbdceacoaes 300 109 904 160
Gold and silver ... 57 40 99
Pig-iron industry -..---.-- 34 16 146
Tron and steel manufactures - on 176 96 d 479
MGMT? oesecic caonsecicciosacsassco one 48 25 1 178
Leather manufactures 186 88 289
Woolen manufactures -- a 219 77 338
Cotton manufactures ~~ 2.1 - oo en ee een enn en =~ 222 268

From this table it appears that agriculture, standing first in capital, persons employed, and
value of products, the industries relying upon forest products stand easily second, exceeding in the
value of products the mining industries by more than 50 per cent. The industries relying directly
or indirectly on forest products employ readily more than one million workers (enumeration being
imperfect), producing nearly two billion dollars of value. The manufactures relying on wood
wholly or in part more than double the value of the lumber or wood used, giving employment to
more than half a million men and about equaling the combined manufactures of all woolen, cotton,
and leather goods in persons employed, wages paid, and values produced.

Census statistics of the employment of capital, persons employed, and wages paid in the
minor forest industries are absent. The fact that many people are only temporarily or incidentally
and for a part of the year engaged in the exploitation of the forest would make such enumeration
well-nigh impossible. Besides the lumber industry and such kinds of exploitation as can be, at
least, approximately enumerated—always remaining below the truth—a large number of industries
and manufactures rely upon wood as the principal material, others employing it to a greater or
less extent. An attempt has been made to classify these according to the estimated percentage of
wood entering into their products and assuming that capital, labor, and value of products add the
same proportion to the total as the raw materials used, and these figures have been employed in
the preceding table. As a matter of fact, there is probably more labor employed in shaping wood
than this percentage would indicate.

118 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Forest industries and manufactures using wood.

Articles. Capital. Employees. Wages. ay mate vee
Forest industries enumerated : Thousands. | Hundreds. | Thousands. | Thousands. | Thousands.
Lumber and mill products-.---.------.---------------------------- $496, 340 2, 862 $87, 784 $231, 556 $403, 668
Timber products not manufactured at mill- 4 61, 541 461 11, 354 11, 007 34, 290
Naval stores 4, 063 153 2, 933 3, 506 8, 077
Motal. =< 92-2 ee ee ee ane ae ne ae ene ee ee 561, 943 3,477 102, 071 245, 169 446, 034
Manufactures practically all wood: =
CHER OSOR) = shoe ne oe so ossesone scan ansosesssosesseesseecacsess 38, 3874 55 2,134 3, 567 7, 092
Packing boxes --------- c ~13, 018 140 6, 477 14, 245 25, 513
Carriage and wagon sto! 13, 028 109 5, 208 i, 388 16, 262
Carpentering---:.---.-- 81, 543 | 1, 409 94, 524 137, 847 281, 195
Cooperage - S 17, 817 247 11, 655 2, 637 38, 618
Furniture-factory products = 66, 394 639 34,471 38, 796 94, 871
Kindling wood ---..--.- = 1, 300 18 772 1, 187 2, 402
JERS ance Soo soscaads 908 8 572 331 1, 239
Planing-mill products 120, 271 869 48, 970 104, 927 183, 682
MaitiCheseenssee een 1, 941 18 344 935 2,194
Wood, turned and carved- 7, 826 84 4, 267 3, 947 10, 940
Wooden ware ------ 2, 712 31 1, 237 1, 499 3, 598
Wood pulp -. 7, 455 28 1, 229 2, 005 4, 628
Wood carpet 333 3 155 214 512)
A ee pene neadnstc ee semecees ec ack se seonctotcng insosetonocbes 337, 908 3, 650 212, 027 331, 523 672, 750
Manufactures in which wood represents about 50 per cent of the raw
materials: a /
MU HN ines S cS Gadeac ba ance season meme anche SedosconcseSsccnebss 169, 983 14356 714, 460 114, 383 | 229, 408
W ood percentage- 892991 687 35, 730 57, 192 114, 704
Manufactures in which wood represents about 33} per cent of the raw j ia
materials :b
321, 059 2, 143 123, 588 148, 578 | 318, 218
107, 619 714 41, 196 49, 526 106, 072
Manufactures in which wood represents about 10 per cent of the raw | -
materials: ¢
Total .----- oe 76, 841 915 46, 854 49, 291 131, 820
Wood percentage. 7, 684 92 4, 685 4,929 13, 182
Totalimanufactures!OfswoO0d eso -- ease a an a ee oe eee 543, 402 5, 134 292, 638 443,170 906, 708

a Includes carriages and wagon- factory product, children’s carriages and sleds, steam and street cars, coffins an burial caskets, chairs,
wheelbarrows, sewing-machine Gases, artificial limbs, refrigerators, and shipbuilding.

b Includes agricultural implements, billiard tables, railroad and street car repairs, furniture repairs, washing machines and wringers,
and organs and pianos.

c Includes blacksmithing and wheelwrighting, bridges, brooms and brushes, gunpowder, artists’ materials, windmills, toys and games,
sporting goods, lead pencils, pipes, and pumps.

The most valuable part of the forest growth, that which it took the longest time to grow, is,
of course, that which is cut into umber. The lnmaiben and sawmill business of the United States
has no equal in the world in extent or in efficiency. From being hardly developed fifty years ago
beyond local importance, this business, through the development of the means of transportation
as well as of the country to the west, has rapidly advanced to enormous proportions. ;

The extent and distribution of the sawmill business through the States is, perhaps, best illus-
trated by the following statement of the number of the various classes of mills and their daily
capacity as computed from the Directory of the Northwestern Lumberman:

Number of mills, logging railroads, and daily capacity of mills.

[Computed from data published in Northwestern Lumberman, 1892.]

zy 2 Daily shingle-mill
Sawmills. Ss g : 3 Daily sawmill capacity. a Scns
Z ol a
United States. B 4 BE A
5 a (2) iS) 2
oS oS 2 2-5 0 Lowest. Highest. Lowest. Highest.
= we . i)
a S 8
a 5 a a |
% Feet B. M. Feet B. M. Number. Number.
Maine see ete e eee renee eee eee neces 355 6 292 61 3 4, 686, 000 8, 730, 000 3, 208, 000 6, 275, 000
New Hampshire 5 270 7 158 EN) |lnzcseess 2, 530, 900 4, 720. 000 972, 000 1, 860, 000
Massachusetts 282 20 78 16 il 1, 452, 000 3, 095, 000 390, 000 775, 000
Rhode Island. = 10 2 @ loads sellaceicnose 48, 000 100, 000 42, 000 75, 000
Connecticut - aps 56 7 22, Sacer 342, 000 710, 000 114, 000 215, 000
WErmMOnt enone eee enter eeeeecomeeeee 349 20 129 10 zt 2, 851, 000 5, 525, 000 716, 000 1, 515, 000
New England States ..-..------.---------. 1, 322 62 685 128 5 12, 909, 000 22, 880, 000 5, 442,000 | 10,715, 000
INO Wr WOrkes seen eee eee re see ee neato 738 42 | 200 44 10 6, 670, 000 12, 680, 000 2, 266, 200 4, 535, 000
Pennsy lyania - 887 96 266 39 92) 14, 597, 000 27, 190, 000 2, 814, 000 5, 415, 000
New Jersey - 73 3 11 eas 174, 000 540, 000 36, 000 90, 000
Delaware... 46 4 2 252, 000 GEG MUD I ocsece esse 5, 000
Maryland 39 6 5 470, 000 900, 000 12, 000 40, 000
Middle Atlantic States.....---.----------- 1,785 | 151} 539 s9| 104| 22,163,000] 41,845,000| 5,128,000 | 10, 085, 000

a Shingles may be averaged 5,000 to the 1,000 feet B. M.

SAW MILLS. 119

Number of mills, logging railroads, and daily capacity of mills—Continued.

' n |
i] Sj é d ‘
: =| =| c cami ee Daily shingle-mill
Sawmills. S 8 t 3 Daily sawmill capacity. capacity.
United States. g 6 A a Bi mp
= 2 nt Zura oe fe 9
& 3 eoie| é A Sp Lowest. Highest. Lowest. Highest.
e 5 a S 2
ral Ay DR nD H
Feet B. M. Feet B. M. Number. Number.
VHB, eSesccsocbbe0 100 58 31 8 29 1, 602, 000 3, 260, 000 168, 000 330, 000
North Carolina.-.--: 140 21 26 2 34 1, 932, 000 3, 605, 000 162, 000 355, 000
South Carolina --- a 70 16 9 2 21 | 840, 000 1, 580, 000 369, 000) 475, 000
(GME seeoseoRemuabe se Becocaesbocec cease 144 17 5T 17 44 3, 086, 000 5, 495, 000 816,000 | 1, 470, 000
Southern Atlantic States.....-..---------- 454 112 123 29 128 7, 460, 000 118}, 940, 000 1, 515, 000 2, 630, 000
JX emie, COW snasecocssacsbacHeocesenocos¢ 3, 561 325 | 1,347 246 237 42, 532, 000 78, 665, 000 12, 085,000 | 23, 430, 000
Fl oni d aMRe arene hs Sau ok ache anes 123 13 48 4 20 2, 036, 000 3,665,000 | 890,000} 1,575, 000
Alabama - 141 13 20 6 36 2,514, 000 4,505, 000 812,000 | 1, 655, 000
Mississippi Hh Te 13 18 2 34 2,740, 000 5, 015, 000 282, 000 505, 000
THUG, Seco coopedoeonulbocodaadoneceaocne] 106 3 29 1 15 1, 926, 000 3, 405, 000 1, 536, 000 2, 945, 000
Cail? GieleS <scsscecooscae sSeaamodeesaSeace 522 55 115 13 105 9, 216, 000 16, 590, 000 38, 520, 000 6, 680, 000
Teac a chee e lee ae 150 2 50) tees: 61 | 3,602,000 | 6, 370, 000 300,000 | 1,525,000
NICH an ae oense eae oS ond eaten ee gay | 52), 39L| 108 79 | 21,630,000 | 42,045,000 | 12,356,000 | 25, 680, 000
WAGER o i] an 32 265 26 20| 14,724,000 | 27, 585, 000 8,706,000 | 15, 865, 000
Minnesota --- SEG ean ee 103 2 67 2 2 4,182, 000 8, 965, 000 2,700,000 | 4, 740, 000
Northern lumbering States -..-.---------- 1, 427 86 723 | 129 101 | 40,536,000 | 78,595,000] 23, 762, 000 46, 285, 000
Grete mee ee ee ee ete I ee on ene 516 78 i) P 9 | 3,856,000) 7,820, 000 162, 000 310, 000
Indiana ‘| 549 68 32 Bll ee is 4, 192, 000 8, 130, 000 300, 000 540, 000
THUIRAON 6 sgemao ccs oboadsesiosesecosem=ecauude 109 41 9 9 1 1, 158, 000 2,770, 000 264, 000 445, 000
Northern agricultural States ------------- 1, 234 187 71 142 10 9, 206, 000 18, 720, 000 726, 000 1, 295, 000
Take Stateseessee eee cee eee eee 2, 661 ‘ 273 794 271 11 49, 472, 00U 94, 315, 000 24,488, 000 | 47,580, 000
= as = | —— |
Wies tavareinia ts-etatee ete oaes sot ee seesese 136 93 14 32 40 1, 425, 000 2,595, 000 770,000 | 1, 490, 000
Kentucky.------ | Bue 117 34 37 10 3, 146, 000 5, 970, 000 306, 000 590, 000
Tennessee - 332 V1 29 32 20 4, 018, 000 7, 695, 000 180, 000 360, 000
Arkansas -- || oR 33 56 27 45 5, 030, 000 9, 615, 000 1,074,000 | 1, 920, 000
RVG SST eee ee eee eee ete ee 184 41 15 Del) 10 2, 016, 000 3, 820, 000 214, 000 355, 000
ContralStates= terse ee ease eetseacee: 1, 154 395 148 138 | 125| 15,635,000 | 29, 695, 000 2,544,000 | 4, 715, 000
TOW at ees : : 42 6 19 yaar 1,400,000 | 3,655, 000 900, 000 | - 1, 785, 000
North Dakota. WT beerbeceleeooesed|eooncbSa|lsncec=ac|oobsns ssanano|eanosnoSeqs526
South Dakota - we 186, 000 360, 000
Nebraska ..--- i 12, 000 25, 000
TRAIN EATS toc cence bae ERO BOaEL So AaRSEOnEee| epsesad Pmcodisod pcedehod OOCos occ bRSO55r | Por re oencie FESS oe2 sree
IPYAITIOS CALES ase tions Se tee a Soe aines 65 2) Seas -| 1,598,000 | +4, 040, 000 1,086,000 | 2, 150, 000
Tinflentin? AERCGS saoncnochde seusbossoscestas: 1210| 402| isi| 140] 15| 17,233,000 | 33,735, duo | 3,630,000 | * 6, 865, 000
MIME nocooasancdcone ark 24 3 Ti See 1 | 438, 000 1, 000, 000 162, 000 310, 000
Wyoming - i aI) Seseaeod & 60, 000 110, 000 96, 000 170, 000
Colorado ...- 34 17 420, 000 820), 000 318, 000 620, 000
New Mexico --- 15 1 222, 000 405, 000 108, 000 210, 006
Indian Territory Afi Access oe 180, 000 350, 000 12, 000 25, 000
Eastern Rocky Mountian region..---..--- 100 20 RG loscsaace 4 1, 320, 000 2, 685, 000 696, 000 1, 335, 000
Idaho .-- 37 9 306, 000 580, 000 150, 000 315, 000
Nevada - (iH (aus es 212, 000 380, 000 24, 000 50, 000
Utah -.-- 31 5 182, 000 285, 000 48, 000 95, 000
TAR ZOTA fen eee eee eee eae ae anaes 10 1 146, 000 310, 000 24, 000 50, 00
84 15 766, 000 1, 555, 000 246, 000 | 510, 000
184 35 ery eee 6 2, 086, 000 4, 240, 000 942,000 | 1, 885, 000
159 3 | 64 2 33 3, 446, 000 6, 105, 000 2,202,000 | 4, 010, 000
184 q OF leemaacey: 11 2, 722, 000 5, 225, 000 380, 000 715, (00
178 16 cy eeReeee 28 2, 850, 000 5, 500, 000 2,114,000} 3, 645, 000
Pacihic COANt ee ee eee ee wass ae Beeches Sis 521 26 172 2 72 9,018,000 | 16, 830, 060 4,696,000 | 8,370, 000
MO tel ee eam Sa Nise See awe eet 8.818 | 1,118 | 2,728 672 717 | 133,159,000 | 250,745,000} 40,251,000 | 96, 295, 000

aShingles may be averaged 5,000 to the 1,000 feet B. M.

This sawmill capacity, of between 140,000,000 and 270,000,000 feet B. M. daily, which for our
purposes can be considered practically the same to-day, would indicate at the very lowest an
annual product of about 35,000,000,000 feet B. M., requiring in round numbers 5,000,000,000 at least
cubic feet of forest-grown material.

120 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Besides these mills, such other establishments of woodworking industries as use wood
directly from the forest in log or bolt size, like the wood-pulp industry, the cooperage industry,
ete., and the requirements of our railroads for ties, bring the total cut surely to 9,500,000,000
cubic feet of wood of superior quality, to furnish which continuously at least 350,000,000 acres
must be kept under efficient forest management, as may be figured by inspecting the record of
experience in Germany in another part of this report.

This total annual cut, including all material requiring bolt or log size, is estimated at
40,000,000,000 feet B. M. It is made up of the following kinds:

FEET B. M.

WUE [DWT sco sens Coes cose cos coes sess sees SESS send OnNS Dons aosS SENS SSeS SsesesooOsES *12, 000, 000, 000
SJOANCO BiG) 10P — 5 ane cose coos eT ee Sons Sess So56 Snes oso EES OOSSOS SoSsSS SSacesesseeUs= 5, 000, 000, 000
Hemlock ts. be sakes ee seek ee chem cle re ene aie ee ae ae ee oe tele Se le eS 4, 000, 000, 000
IDOE AIP TOWNE) nos wsetes soca bone soecas orcas seases OSS DoaSES soe scons eseess cose 4, 000, 000, 000
Shortleafiandoblolly2220-eses es ca cust ene ee ee eee nee ieee ee eer 3, 000, 000, 000
GAVDIEES 2 sone cosh cecose cone cscs ros oses dose Hoes sens SseO SEES Os Sess Sesto comes EaoEss 590, 000, 000
INGihy Wl asessacesaedaadassas con ess cena KocebooU cosa coeds seca sade cocess Rega ooeEao bees 500, 000, 000
JN OWASP COMMISH ne cdas acesos Hobos choos oso cease beens Gessda Seeoed oceEEo Dede coe 1, 000, 000, 000

Total comilfers: es a tree chee erat ee apse aoe te eee atat ee eee eee seers 30, 000, 000, 000
OdIe eae eh ae teh et Gate RS ET Age een None ht 2 pv ices No ety re 3, 000, 000, 000
JNU) @ulavere Ine HAC WAOOUS cossasGeedeo =5 dates Shoe ceoced copses o5Sse0c 554 ns ossosatesosase 7, 000, 000, 000

UNC UE Bae eadncoeobasseaed oleros eneoadasdoo coesoomncad adacadsoe chad dcspselcices 40, 000, 000, 000

In this cut the various regions participate in the following proportions:
EET B. M.

New England and North Atlantic States -..--......---.---------------------------- 6, 000, 000, 000
Cami! SIRIUS cnadisescad saacor Hodens So5ncs SeEHo0 ooSoso coSsEH CUgaSESadane Boose SSeS 5, 000, 000, 000
IDES) IRERAOIY coaaqtoscok SAB uch Saaeis OA Suos SoU Ba SSAC aSb CaSas AeaasocecmeEnebad Sade *13, 000, 000, 000
Som neran SHES o ccco cone cada boos Sond ecan econ sseaeooeso SoSSbS OsSsse saRces dasahe Sees 13, 000, 000, 000
TPAC IG Se ooedsosaceasesooce dead sose bend Sond SHbh Sone apes osoe cSca CESS boDE ses0 5500 4, 000, 000, 000
INTE CREO ooo6 coor coco cane cone Hero tote Sheocinee cond Sees bod soos BooN sco anes cage oe 2, 000, 000, 000

If we add other materials furnished by the forest supplementing by estimates the data
furnished by the census of 1890, we come to the following statement of our total annual wood
consumption :

Amount and value of forest products used during the census year 1590.

Estimated enbic
Classes of products. Quantity. contents of forest- Value.
grown material.
I. Mill products: b Cubic feet.
Agricultural implement stock ......-.---..-----.----- 2-2-2 -0----------- =e feet, B. M 30, 000, 000 $582, 000
Bob binlan dis pools toc keeem ee eee ee ees sete eee ei eee eee ieee eet do.. 49, 000, 000 |. 688, 000
Carriage and wagon stock Eedo==e 66, 000, 000 }.-- 1, 306, 000
Furniture stock -.--.-.--.---.- eedosees 94, 000, 000 }.- 1, 435, 000
FAIlGthersaywedllumperseeeeeeeceeeeere teen eee eee eee eee ec eeeiemiceals do..-.| 27, 630, 000, 000 310, 818. 000
Atay ial SER! TTA NEP Sacto ccoso Sees ene secooc noes ae ooeoTetonsconnogsNossSenoSse do 27, 869, 000, 000 4, 000, 000, 000 r 314, 829, 000
i 25300, 0008000) |Peaeeeee ae teers 3, 709, 924
di TOE WWE OW |e asc esectecnase 730, 000
9, 276, 000, 000 200, 000, 000 17, 000, 000
1, 178, 000, 000 300, 600, 000 7, 762, 000
183, 000, 000 175, 000, 000 4, 934, 000
Total lumber and cognate products, directly from logs 4, 675, 000, 000 348, 984, 924
If. Railroad construction: i ;
Ties c 400, 000, 000
Round and hewn ti 80, 000, 000 |...

Telegraph poles - 5, 000, 000

Total 485, 000, 000 40, 000, 000

a Estimated by the Division of Forestry.
b These data have been compiled by Mr.

Priest from the reports of 21,011 establishments (representing probably 70 per cent in number

and 95 per cent in value of product), of which 18,064 manufactured sawed lumber as principal product, 702 manutactured shingles exclu-
sively, 438 manufactured staves and headings exclusively, and 1,807 used logs or bolts in the manufacture of the various classes of products
plated under the head of ‘‘ Miscellaneous,” and corrected by the inclusion of the quantities used for customs sawing not given in the census
gures.
© ¢ Canvass of Division of Forestry.

* This figure is by this time (1899) greatly reduced on account of the waning supply of White Pine, the deficiency being made up by
increase in other materials, especially Southern pine.

WOOD CONSUMPTION.

Amount and value of forest products used during the census year 1890—Continued.

121

Estimated cubic

Classes of products. Quantity. contents of forest- Value.

grownmaterial.a

III. Exported timber not included in Subdivision I: } Cubie feet.
Hewn timber, 6,900,000 cubic teet 9, 000, 000 $1, 230, 000
Logs and round timber. .-.---------------- See FE 2, 500, 000 2, 000, 000
Rived staves, stave and bolts 500, 000 1, 500, 000
FRA, cececoeincctaboacannccosds toss scousencnonoesercsaencaacoosSeeeSssadesoS saoccecae 4, 730, 000

peososcessescsscec 12, 000, 000

IV. Wood pulp: @
300,000 tons ground paper pulp
80,000 tons soda pulp-.-----..---
60,000 tons sulphite pulp fiber g
50,000 tons pulp for other purposes oe
V. Miscellaneous mill products other than lumber manutactured directly from logs o |

75, 000, 000

3, 550, 000

TOME Os scone noseosessttcoscococcotoos osvoosese ssesacssScaSostons csSseSsonspecQTsassoad||-essbomsasac0cnscca 80, 000, 000 20, 765, 000
Notall materials requiring bolt or log size ------------------ ~~ nen wenn = = 5, 327, 000, 000 418, 029, 924
This last figure of ‘‘ miscellaneous products ” is a very considerable underestimate, based
upon census returns, and we are entirely safe in rounding off the total of sizable
timber used and its value to.---- 2 = ee Ba\loe 5, 500, 000, 000 450, 000, 000
Vi. Fuel in theshape of woodd......--..-..--------------- 18, 000, 000, 000 450, 000, 000
In the shape of charcoal.--.--...--...---------.--------=----- 250. 000, 000 7, 000, 000
VII. Wood used for dyeing extracts and charcoal for gunpowder c 16, 200, 000 437, 000
Total amount and value of wood consumption ..-....-..-----------------------------|----0---+-00----- ; — 23, 766, 000, 000 907, 437, 000
Value. Total value.
VIII. Naval stores: ¢
Turpentine... = ee nn nw wn nnn ee barrels. - 346, 544 $5, 459, 115
TRON saeco oeaeesmqnoae ee Sea GOSCe th ascc donde spatons S=sSSscacs ro aomceeeabe Speer oe do. --. 1, 429, 154 2, 413, 757
= $7, 872, 872
Wake Wriood alcohol-- = =a <5 oa wr wn a nan gallons. . 2, 000, 000 1, 750, 000
AGRO DOIG Tl SCENE) OPAC) — =~ as oa se cosessses Sees oo cosets ccose ceo oab soobaessoncs|psSsSsccesceomeans 360, 000
——. 2,110, 000
X. Tanning materials: c
Teno tels [bee 5m mo coognoshapod necoonc Hades os noasecoooSooeaSaseosscseesaccosanad cords... 1, 056, 000 6, 925, 000
OM AS. sssacsseasoaanesocceco doponnco Coco SasonSscoSonelocEc aan soccscqqossnosd Os == 322, 150 2, 783, 500
Hemlock and bark for extract -.----.----------------------------------------.-.. doseee 64, 200 307, 500
Sumac leaves for tanning .---.-...-..-------------------------------------------- tons.- 3, 300 198, 000
Sumac leaves for extract -- sociMsase 3, 750 112, 000
Various, not accounted for....-..--- 2-22-22 ne ee eee nn nen en nen 74, 000
- 10, 400, 000
XI. Maple sugar ....-..----.-------------------=- +--+ +20 eee ee eee ee pounds e.. 32) 952) 92/7 3, 300, 000
Maple sirup. .-- Rae n ne Den aeC Nee DOtanSES no sons De nopAooSSSaSesSSesassocss gallons e-- 2, 258, 376 2, 200, 000
5, 500, 000
Total value of forest by-products ...---.------------------+ += 2--- +--+ = <= een eee nef ee eee ee eee 25, 882, 872
Total value of, all! forest products ------ + ---< cram on ———n n = 983, 319, 872

Add 10 per cent for omissions and underestimates a

- Total value of wood and forest products at original place of production, estimated

to have been used during census year 1890....-.-.----------- ------ +--+ 2-20 222 oe nee enn ee eee |e ene

93, 331, 987

--| 1,026, 650, 859

a Estimated by the Division of Forestry.

b From returns of Bureau of Statistics, U.S. Treasury Department.

c Based on figures of the Eleventh Census.

dBased on figures of the Tenth Census and canvass of Division of Forestry.

Making allowance for the increase in business and values and rounding off the values given

for 1890, we may estimate the present conditions about as follows:

Mill products, lumber, shingles, implement and furniture stock, etc....-.-----...---. $450, 000, 000
TREMOR! COMMTCNOM sos taeoes coeds Denen cSg5an aSeeSabenaSs Sescad s6cnss baas0b s0c5 45, 000, 000
Export timber..-...-.---..----------------- -+---- 2-2-5 222-22 en en eee 5, 000, 000
VWV@OGl TWD 5 sees coneno sees emeoso ceseos sosace Senses J] seep OobcES eemaos bse sos eonoeas6 5, 000, 000
Miscellaneous bolt sizes 50, 000, 000

Total materials requiring log and bolt sizes ----.------.----- ReSU BEA ACEA Seen Src 555, 000, 000
Fuel and fencing: . -.-.------------ 22-22 += -- == one nn nn eee 450, 000, 000
GIDARCOR 6 concnono cocoee bose codecs souaEs Qnobse Deseo RESIsa Gasase0Sse450 7, 000, 000
Dyewood and gunpowder. .-...------------------.--.-- 500, 000
Naval stores -....--....- po bobo ualUSiGae dasone Hebenupadccs donoue booactesegouDous cooeme 8, 500, 000
Wood alcohol and acetic acid. .-.--.------------------ -----+ +++ +++ +++-++ 2----+------ 2, 500, 000
Tanning material. .--..----------- ------ === = 2+ 0- = 2 = nn ne rn nee 15, 000, 000
Maple sirup and sugar ....-.-----. ------ ------ --------- +++ ------ 2222 errr errr 5, 500, 000

GimimG lath! eon onda guneebae sens cotece becbes pocans odaseciddenud opebomudeomeer 1, 044, 000, 000

It should, of course, be understood that all such figures are mere approximations to the truth
based upon careful consideration of the partial information obtainable for the single items.
In comparison with these enormous amounts and values expressing home consumption and

home production, the amounts of imports and exports become quite insignificant.

The imports of wood and other forest materials amount to between twenty and thirty million

122 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

dollars annually, about 25 per cent of which consists of materials which do not grow on this
continent. The balance comes mainly from Canada.

The exports of forest products and partly manufactured wood materials varied until two
years ago between twenty-five and thirty million dollars, with twelve to fifteen million more of
manufactures in which wood plays an important part.

To be sure, there are constant increases in exports as well as imports, but the amounts as stated
are small in comparison, with home production and consumption remaining generally below the
thirty-million-dollar mark, and a little above or below 3 per cent of all exports, as appears from
the following table, which shows the value of exports of forest products, crude, or only slightly
enhanced in value by manufacture:

Value of exports of forest products, 1860-1897.

Total ex- Total ex- Total ex-
= o ports of || ports of P 3 ports of
Year. Value. domestic Wei Walle: domestic Near, Waller domestic
products. || products. products.
Per cent. || Per cent. Per cent.
$10, 299, 959 3. 26 $25, 580, 264 3. 50 $28, 715, 713 3. 29
14, 897, 963 3. 27 28, 636, 199 3.56 27, 957, 423 2,75
19, 165, 907 3.43 26, 222, 959 3. 62 28, 127, 113 3. 38
18, 076, 668 _ 3.04 |) 22, 014, 839 3.08 28, 000, 629 3. 22
19, 943, 290 3.14 || 20, 961, 708 3.15 28, 576, 235 3. 61
17, 750, 396 2.55 21, 126, 273 3.01 33, 718, 204 3. 91
16, 336, 943 2.34 23, 991, 092 3.51 40, 489, 321 3.92
17, 321, 268 2.11 26, 997, 127 3.70
19, 486, 051 2, 20 29, 473, 084 3.49

To get an idea of the character of the materials exported, whether raw or manufactured, and
the approximate territorial distribution of the same, the following table is reproduced from the
report of the Division of Forestry for 1892. It shows that the Southern States furnish the largest
amount of raw material exports in value, while the Northern States furnish the bulk of the manu-
factured articles. ‘To be sure, for this tabulation only the freights at ports could be utilized which
do not allow a very close territorial distribution of the place of production.

Exports of wood and cerlain wood products during the year ending June 30, 1892, by districts of country whence exported.

Districts.a
Products.
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Total.
Raw materials: Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars. Dollars.

Boards Oeals pp lanka tC reset ete eee eta ete eee 3, 089, 115 2, 220, 327 2, 962, 732 1, 400, 319 9, 672, 493
Joists and scantling.. - ye ee eae eee eee ere Secale 5 16, 953 157, 186 43, 739 10, 685 228, 513
Tel arey ns) Haas MD WOES) 25 sob ose sass ssesseosoesse cdescesescaS 6 74, 626 16}, HOS Jlonancceseseces 131 88, 222
IWEWDE) 522-5525 sscccesess5o2 esesesostesseceaseseesssssse ses 2 2, 337 715 620 14, 685 17, 717
Lepibinny as) Gime | OMORGNSS 4252 ope setoe sa esot soresocngeosnoessess5 > 76 1,183 293 4, 707 6, 259
STVANES 2, so osecaecoecoonso SouronessacscaccossanenoNeosED 5, 841 39, 671 13, 171 29, 309 87, 992
Shooks saa 691, 867 46, 052 1, 899 41,719 781, 537
Stayves..--------- 946, 210 709, 952 551, 578 3, 976 2; 211, 716
All other lumber 4 657, 304 29, 651 250, 687 118, 755 1, 051, 397
Timber (sawed) -.- paceeneocaocoossoasccontios 37, 235 259, 653 1, 844, 333 531, 933 2, 673, 154
“bibraleiere (Nh) Sagem ecicnemercosomoreocasccosecosso seocous 3 242, 770 57, 986 (ERPS lloansbecccos+e4 983, 574
Logs and other round timber ---...---.---..---.----------- 2 875, 371 740, 502 268, 985 38, 746 1, 923, 604
Rien 7OOE! ooonss cnosososaRths soonsmonIoTaDNSSRSeSenSSoRESS C 1 QW ones ao zsonsso0||>seccee ses 2e=|sonesszeosorec 1, 604
INGEN = os onsoogeMOUSsSnOcOCcosSapOceoucs oc omoneenosEDeS 3 652, 777 2,755, 811 8, 123 1, 748 3, 418, 459
GIRS 8A Tn ce Ah ON te a RN Rr BURL A CAE DN Se ak (ONL g 38, 534 12, 078 226 1, 679 52, 417
Muarpentine ands pibC he este eas ee eae eee ee = 15, 965 2; 217 38 116 18, 336
Somalis) OP (wb Ney ENS) | S65 Secs pepo oseoesoennos ossosceeas a 445, 249 4, 050, 533 429 4,510 4, 500, 721
Bark and bark extract..--...-..----- : 84, 268 555440 meme artemis ese ese 239, 708

Aton) | ney CARICA soe canssocammeSnoeon eo etemonondooncesosoocased 7, 878, 102 11, 251, 732 6, 621, 671 2, 198, 018 27, 957, 423

Manufactures:

Wericultunalimplements | =.= een mane me el 3, 682, 784 _ 19,042 65, 753 27, 404 3, 794, 983
Carriages and horse cars .------.--..-----------.-------+-- a 1, 799, 844 550 73, 954 70, 322 1, 944, 170
Cars, passenger and freight. --.-...-.--.....-..------.-.--- 1, 145, 473 95, 419 56, 565 22,808 |} 1,320, 265
WIENKONO a ssa mosacds case oes Socepsnacs “ 5 48, 657 76 8, 395 21, 537 73, 666
Onpanseeee seer a 748, 938 19, 970 1,573 2, 101 772, 582
Doors, sash, and blinds -- 191, 045 633 12, 124 92, 116 295, 918
Moldings, trimmings, etc ---.--.-...-.......--.....---......- 3 169, 623 14, 592 1, 423 16, 951 202,589 |
Hogsheads and barrels, empty. SEiabe sus fds ceed aoe 5 281, 533 326 5, 162 3, 092 290,113
Household nin LO Ose e ee enema anaes eee irae 3 2, 7ol, 111 48,114 112, 261 178, 660 3, 090, 146
WYGOGE WEG nsomceaa5 bo epssonedaouticosoasazemonecdeancaosshS 2 326, 991 27, 197 2, 289 76 356, 553
All other wood manutactones sane seas tee= =n wi = ie eine 1, 551, 013 134, 626 54, 647 87, 182 1, 827, 470

Ato we ATE KE UES, 6 ocodons caesar seco CoonnooNeSnoo0sce0D00R00n9 12, 696, 514 360, 545 389, 146 522, 249 13, 968, 455

MUsy GM OREM e =o = cocc sono rae SEs Seossasessctonssosese ctapesaarscss 20, 569, 217 11, 612, 277 7, 010, 817 2,720, 267 | 41, 925, 878

a District No. 1 ineludes all of the United States north of Baltimore and east of the Rocky Mountains. District No. 2 includes the terri-
tory haying its outlet by the South Atlantic ports. District No.3 includes the territory adjacent to the Gulf ports. District No.4 embraces
that portion of the United States bordering on the Pacific Ocean.

WOOD EXPORTS. 23

The following diagram shows graphically the changes in export during the last thirty-two years:

Range of exports of forest products for twenty-five years from 1865 to 1889, and 1897.
I. All forest products, crude and manufactured.
II. Lumber, timber, and partly manufactured wood products.

| Million
Dollars.

Hoop bbb! 4

sciit

Baga

Bees

II. Naval stores.

IV. Wood manufactures, wholly of wood.

Y. Manufactures partly of wood.

Norr.—The above summary of exports, in addition to the materials given in the summary of the Bureau of
Statistics as ‘Wood and its manufactures,” properly includes the following prodycts, being entirely or in their

124 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

material largely derived from the forest: Naval stores, bark and tanning extracts, ashes, ginseng, sumac, together
with matches, agricultural implements, carriages, cars, and musical instruments.

During the last two years a notable increase in exports has taken place, which brings the
figures for wood products and wood manufactures, with nearly $60,000,000, to more than double the
amount of ten years ago, and 40 per cent more than five years ago, when the exports amounted to
nearly $43,000,000. This increase unfortunately is mostly in raw materials, logs, and lumber, and
is probably due to a very active export trade, especially in oak, with Germany. The naval store

industry has also considerably increased in exports.

To show how the various articles of export compare the following table will serve, in which
the exports of 1890 and 1897 are recorded:

Dxports of wood and wood products from the United States for the years ending June 30, 1890 and 1897.

1890. 1897.
Products.
Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value.
Agricultural implements:
LEIQUR(2 MOVES) sco 5 = ceoe oo cososo OSHS SSoDsTEo pee nee Soe TsOSSEHanccecOsseEseseSsensocosss GSAT AN Pee ace Some = ween eee ee
IMowersandireap ers eases saat aan setae see eee ae een Seine ee eee eee PEP CRY) ee Sseeescssuse $3, 127, 415
Plows ands Cultivatorseecccn soe acs ceisce sees esate cee ee rates else cle oiteiast a sreia ne eer ST SRS Tae | Meee seers 590, 779
JNU One, aml PRIMI OH oosescosssescces sr ccoras cor onsessesd ssssssosssca900 lescosece B84 288) | eee asses 1, 522, 492
Bark, and extract of, for tanning noveooserssc25Seo55¢ PAB Tavs seek BE Rohe 241, 979
(CERES Mal NOSE CHWs oooc ao sos ooessooos Sosec oa Ses se oseesasHoaeoseeEoONSoasoDSSSoose Wats. CEM |iccoccssoecdone 1, 955, 760
Cars for steam railroads. - --number.. Bh (|| 25 Gs GINS ese cosescecons 990, 950
Ginseng. ------.------- --pounds. . 223,113 605, 233 179, 573 840, 686
Organs. ESo06 -humber-. 11, 490 750, 583 13, 725 799, 132
WIENCNES + snocasomososs sae sonessasog08 cose are osssOo oS opSassonsceSsossosboncoscosonsseseag|eosesezocozas (HY, A! ||scoteseesce see 70, 988
ROS eee ee --barrels 1,601,377 | 2, 762, 373 2, 429, 116 4, 688, 163
WUE n oe ecco osm ad cc oneanbooaomeD Doon O ATS EaaDHDScOSeaseED Edouee 28, 806 96, 105 17, 640 34, 878
Turpentine and pitch ----...-...--....----..---- do... 18, 327 35, 037 18, 920 44, 366
Spirits of turpentine. --........-.-.--.-----.---.- -gallons-. 11, 248,920 | 4,590, 931 17, 302, 823 4, 447, 551
Wirewood2-- eee s--- =a == -cords 7, 648 WEG Necassonecossee a)
Boards, deals, and planks...-..--.-.-.--..------.--------------- M feet 612,814 | 9, 974, 888 876,689 | 13, 076, 247
Joists and scantling.--.- =O.25 26, 684 381, 610 36, 253 423, 875
LAK ayo SS DING! I(AYay) TP ESsccadctosseasosohasens ossoeoHScoaceose seoeeSco Se coseSroseesec Reto PeSeSsoSScacos 59, 978 (a)
athaster siete beeen et oas ..M.. 10, 491 24, 951 (a)
Palings, pickets, and bed slats-.-----.- sooltle. 2, 981 30, 653 (a)
FSV AST yas teh a us 9 ee are eo ae Re eA OTH yes a Ree re RE M.. 36, 527 111, 926 103, 231
Shooks:
TBO see ere ate ew er seca orslminre Sib sree ee ake ee eesrcie a aia atalela stetetstorate atepasinte sina te mage e slatate steneeie/eteyall erate erereatctanets WING, FE |cconcaseconese 529, 492
(QING BeOS CB BESO ESCO ESB EL ne SCO oo caHi Ge eb OnE eBEe COS SencoaAS seam asaSsnces number. 534, 190 766, 607 698, 858 597, 606
SHONGIS GaG! INGAChINGS .—cosccnbe nas onoscse SuOoSoOs SoondS One conn OooSasSooceSse Sestenocetasa|Scossscecce nse NAG SD | eee 3, 922, 931
All OW NOw in erp aaocc boone ndedecsasaesoabees ce acon seus s6cscdsesdo soos eooseasoe pacbopEd lboscoasesouass Up ehiayWwal ees esocoscedce 3, 162, 470
ROE CORR GUOSE ORE AAC AG SAS URES ae DOSEN OBC Sohe anCROS SEECGSaCSbebEacomnecscd M feet. 270,984 | 3, 384, 847 391, 291 4, 036, 214
-cubic feet... 8, 732, 761 | 1, 381, 747 6, 406, 824 1, 236. 112
oye) Erna] DN NGe wo AGL HANNO Saeco ce ssacses sade asco cas se Sasso sss sonsesSnosesasedoso0cs) 1, G30, 82 eagssseoeesods 3, 945, 106
Doors, sash, and blinds .--..-.-.---_.--.--. 320, 840 |- 857, 401
Moldings, trimmings, and other house finishings.---.......-..---------------------.---- 116, 25 197, 934
Hogsheads and barrels, empty----.-------- 425,278 |__ 267, 345
Household furniture....---.--.-- 3, 088, 902 |. -| 3,785, 143
Wooden ware.-.-..--------------- 360,515 3 531, 480
All other wood manufactures......-...--- BOeeBe DOH SisaSa US bob on POS na nEacenESosseseconDoulscose Pra ACE emo sacccsoacs |} 3,253) 110,
ARON Sx SoSgeageanodO ceOOC BOOS OSS COOSEadS SHEE HOSE Coca ao DMD OO CDS SoSHeSbenSCESbaSBoT God bosaSacooseSeo AD OW, TEM |oonccodaconess 59, 329, 936

a Not specified.

While undoubtedly increase in prices influences somewhat these figures, the following diagram,
showing the range of prices for export materials, would indicate that this influence has not been
appreciable, the prices remaining remarkably even, with the exception of the period after the war,
and lately showing even a sinking tendency, although probably only temporarily.

Annual average export prices of wood and certain wood products for each of the ten years ending June 30 from 1882 to 1891,
and 1897.
Articles. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1897.
Wood, and manufactures of:
Boards, deals, and plauks.-----...--- $16.90 | $16.78 | $17.06 | $15.93 | $15.20 | $15.38 | $16.39 | $16.99 | $16.28 | $16.17 | $14.90
Joists and Scantling eer es eeeee ees (esa) paosoooad eaaacces 15.44 | 14.06] 18.97] 14.67] 15.16] 13.37] 14.30) 13.70 11. 70
Laths, palings, pickets, bed slats, etc ...--M_.|.-...-.-)2-----.- 2. 43 2.13 2.71 2.39 2. 57 2.44 2.38 Zo Hib |Keacosen
SUMNER) co see Ssososscocmenososessoce = 3. 07 3. OL 2.96 2.90 2.45 2. 63 3. 07 2.89 3.06 2.75 1.76
Firewood ...... SePECOLa 3. 99 3. 60 3.58 3.20 8.15 3.10 3. 32 2.72 2.27 a eee oaces
Timber, sawed. - ceo cE TERMG 5|ooocoes||-soacecs 11.17 10. 50 10. 82 11.79 12.41 | 12.38 | 12.49 11. 88 10. 30
Tuimberhewi ecvesseces a= eeene GH NOs Cerio borssecel borasend . 16 15 .16 -16 17 .18 .15 18 -19
Naval stores:
(Rosin Pace cece eee rae cece 1. 83 1.73 1.74 1. 69 1.53 1,49 1.72 1.94 1.96
DEES Sas oma cannes -soGedao 2.10 ali 1.90 1. 94 1. 96 il, Gl) 1.95 2.26 1.98
Turpentine and pitch 2.23 1.85 2.48 2. 08 1.74 1. 81 il, Gil 2.01 2.35
Spirits of turpentine -....-..-....--gallons.. 47 44 34 - 30 34 34 34 39 pea -38 25

We find also by inspection of trade journals that, although many of the great staples have in
some regions been entirely exhausted and in others approach exhaustion, prices of lumber have not

PRICES OF WOOD. 125

advanced in proportion for various reasons. Competition, stimulated by active railroad building,
opening up of virgin fields of supply, improved machinery, systematized methods of logging and
of handling and marketing material have tended to keep the price down.

Meanwhile stumpage has increased rapidly for such kinds as show rapid decrease in supply.
Thus white pine stumpage more than doubled in ten years, while walnut, tulip poplar, and ash
stumpage has increased manyfold as the supply has grown scarcer.

In the markets, while the average price for lumber has advanced but little, the better grades
have appreciated disproportionately. From the carefully collected census statistics for ship-

Export price of lumber from 1855 to 1595.

[The prices given represent market value at time of exportation in the ports whence the lumber was exported, averaged for all ports.]

1855 7860 1865 1870 1875 1880 1885 1890

—— Boards, jo/sts and scantlings, M ft. —~~——Timber, 100 cubic ft -=-------— Shingles, M.
building, which requires all first-class material, the average price per 1,000 feet, B. M., for the
country at large for the following kinds appears:

Kind. Average. Lowest. Highest.
WAN@ ONE cc caccesocenssneressossecsce $30.70 | $19.00 (Imdiana).-.---..-----------------------+-+---+0---->- $125. 00 (California).
Othe nod hSeee= ==. eee 34.90 | 20.00 (Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia) ..| 102.00 (California).
Hard pine -.-..------------------------ 24.40 | 12.00 (Alabama) --.---------------------------------- ..-| 42.00 (Lowa).
WY) ING) 55 - ae secoosoessosebEesss 34.70 | 20.00 (Minnesota) -----.-----------------+-----+------- .--| 100.00 (Georgia).
IMO -ooeaoseesecos 21.00 | 15.00 (Washington) ------.---------------------------- ...| 80.00 (Massachusetts).
SDNUC Onmeeenee eee E 20.00 | 12.00 (Delaware) ..--------------------+-2------------2----- 50. 00 (Washington).
Cod anenereceereaee 40.00 | 17.00 (Missouri).-------------------------------+----------+ 55.00 (Connecticut).
Cypress---.-.---.-- ee 31.60 | 18,00 (Mississippi) -.-.------------------2+- +220 rene ee eee: 50. 00 (Delaware).
Average of alll. ----- === = 2 =~ nnn. 30. 00

Firewood, even in the densely settled parts, remains stationary in price, on account of aban-
doned farms and culled woodlands producing it in abundance; in fact, in many sections its value
has decreased, competition of coal aiding in its reduction.

Prices for lumber and stumpage of white pine.
[Compiled from report of Saginaw Board of Trade.]

Lumber, per 1,000 |Stumpage, per 1,000 Lumber, per 1,000 | Stumpage, per 1,000
MOE fect B. M. seal: GER feet B. M. feet

UTS a coneocecsorideeseciecccas $11.50 to $12.00 $1.00 to $1.25 $9.25 to $9.75 $2.25 to $2.75

25 oS 12. 00 12, 50 1.25 1.50 9.50 10. 00 2.25 2.795

12. 00 12. 50 1.50 1.75 10. 50 11. 00 2.50 2.75

12.50 13. 00 2.00 2. 50 11.50 12. 00 2.75 3.00

12. 00 12.50 2.00 2.50 12.50 13. 00 3. 00 4.00

12.50 13. 00 2.00 2.50 14. 00 14. 50 3. 50 4.50

13. 00 12.00 2.00 2.50 13. 50 14. 00 4.00 5. 00

11.50 11. 00 2.00 2.50 12. 50 13. 00 4.90 5. 00

10. 50 10. 00 2.00 2.50 12. 50 13. 00 4.50 6. 50

9. 50 10. 00 25,25 2.75 12.50 13. 00 4,50 6.50

9. 00 9.50 2.25 2.75 12. 50 13. 00 4.50 6. 50

126 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

To show what position we occupy as exporters of forest products the following tabulations
reproduced from the report of the Division of Forestry for 1887 will be of interest, placing the
United States fourth among the seven or eight great exporters, the general position having
hardly changed to date. Austria-Hungary should have been included in this comparison; it
would not, however, materially change the relations.

Review of the timber export trade of the principal exporting countries. (a) FS

_ Countries. 1885. 1886. 1887.
: Cubie feet. Cubic feet. Cubic feet.
SOO oc ain sLiceicie octeeig haU SE RRSELSS seas mie Sis alate dae aie ae See eo noes eR eels nels pomama 119, 588, 040 113, 805, 285, 121, 966, 020
INOL WAY ogee een nee cee ee eee ee a ee eee leprae enim terete eee ee ee 67, 600, 500 64, 812, 000 65, 455, 500

inland ise. 2ncns- ce see eee shale sane eee eae ees cee onan sees ee tues Ses pene abeean heer ne nenameee 46, 246, 860 39, 480, 725 42, (095, 625
Russia (imperfect) -------.----- - <== =n a ne a ne 148, 691, 400 146, 352, 340 149, G09, 955
Germany (official). ----.----------.-------- +--+ - == 2-22 2 en nn = ne ee 62, 927, 700 54, 287, 000 63, 153, 100
Italy (oak staves) -.--------------------- = 25 222 ne en ene ee en ng ene ne enn . 507, 390 357, 400 717, 850
OPMeGE) (OitGEN) -cocese noscosccesesosensendocesenSocononenaoconeso csoUsseedannocoscoossésoa: 159, 658, 880 172, 910, 890 168, 028, 850
LOapireral SERIES) (OHO) — soos osccnacosaon copD Sap Ond SS Oso TOSS ONES cao doomESrncooHODSOOGOr=S 127, 372, 930 122, 178, 650 114, 074, 370

otal... cic. 232s ee dese ee ee See Son rete oon stan s ote eaapan eee eepetraneeaeeoed 732, 593, 700 714, 179, 280 744, 901, 270

Amount and prices of hewn and sawn wood (exclusive of staves and furniture wood) imported into Great Britain, and
proportion furnished by various countries. (a)

: Approximate percentages.
wa A t dies bic
ear. mount. cubic J .
2 = Norway, a8 = United Other
feet. aiaratsea Russia. Canada. | Germany. States. Games.
|
Cubic feet. |
276, 757, 300 $2. 72 36 20 23 4 7 9
309, 758, 350 2, 54 36 24 2 5 6 8
322, 811, 900 2.42 36 20 26 5 6 7
299, 863, 750 2.26 37 22, 20 5 7 9
308, 248, 950 2. 2 37 23 20 5 6 9
268, 059, 960 2.11 38 23 21 3 1 8
275, 451, 000 (?) 38. 7 23.7 19 3.6 7 8
294, 421, 600 2.38 3618 22.3 21.5 | Bal Ra a3

" a These two tables have been compiled partly from reports given by the Timber Trade Journal, of London, England, and partly from
other sources.

As to imports, the changes from year to year are also comparatively trifling, though, of course,
in the direction of increase, remaining also for the last ten years below $30,000,000 and ranging
within $10,000,000 to $14,000,000.

In these imports about one-fifth represents materials which we do not or can not produce in
our country—such as certain cabinet woods, mahogany, ebony, etc., cork, and certain dye and
tanning materials. The other four-fifths is material which comes into competition with our own
products, and the bulk of this comes from Canada. Yet, balancing our imports with exports from
and to that country, we do not get more than about $10,000,000 worth from our neighbor, an
insignificant percentage of the one-billion dollar annual home product. ‘This will appear from the
following tables:

Value of imports of wood and wood manufactures from Canada to the United States.

[United States Bureau of Statistics.]

From— 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896.

Nova Scotia and New Brunswick:
MMW) cemnoossscsseasercsss $413, 536 $340, 680 $334, 267 $1,972,885 | $2, 762, 630
Dutiable --- 742, 875 888, 789 68, 806 179, 489 85, 056

Quebec and Ontario:

1, 640, 804 2, 642, 094 3, 415, 403 9, 240,665 | 11, 700, 851
9, 012, 215 9, 974, 274 7, 735, 856 950, 778 19, 969
pacoosbostonod|socess2s-2s500\|-onassonssese9 fi 108, 179 133, 148

WEN pSceconmeaeqorsocsvanoscoodooe: ceases sanedaasoELeosconss cu 11, 809, 430 13, 845, 837 12, 144, 332 12,451,996 | 14, 701, 694

WOOD IMPORTS.

127

Value of exports of wood and wood manufactures from the United States to Canada.

[United States Bureau of Statistics ]

To— 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. | 1896.
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick..--....--..-.,.--.---.----.-----.-..--- $115, 110 $92, 208 $208, 737 $190, 196 $216, 977
Quebee and Ontario 1, 746, 867 1, 990, 831 2, 740, 868 2, 416, 728 2, 723, 459
British Columbia-.......- 100, 743 100, 012 111, 914 146, 423 152, 079
ARIE Ee gompnemocoticcasacosSqaE casa de betinOC CHORD DE SA ERC COBOEEBOONEE 1, 962, 720 2,188, 051 8, 061, 519

2, 753, 347 | 3, 092, 515

The character and relative proportion of the imports will appear from the following tabulation,

in which the segregation of articles free of duty
1892 and 1893; while in 1897 the bulk of lumber
woods and their extracts, sumac and other tannin

and dutiable refers to conditions prevailing in
and timber was on the free list. Adding dye-
g materials, and such smaller wood products as

form an inconspicuous part in manufactures, the amount of imports would be increased by about

$1,500,000.

Imports of wood and wood products for home consumption during the years ending June 80, 1892, 1893, and 1897.

Articles.

Free of duty.

Firewood
Logs and round timber
Railroad ties
Shingle and stave bolts -
Handle and head bolts - -
Ship timber
Ship planking. -
Hop poles
Wood for pulp making. -
Charcoal
Cabinet woods—cedar, ebony, mahogany, etc -
Cork bark
Hemlock bark
Bamboos, rattans, canes, Cidsaeen eee
Briar root or briar wood, and the like, par wally, manufactured ---
Ashes.-.------- =

Fence posts
Tar and pitch of wi

a - barrels...

‘Turpentine, spirits of -gallons..
Turpentine, Venice - - pounds. .
IEEON, IBOME WONG, soonce =e so pceood soc od maeeoonreaodon oUsebasaGS0o" do..-.

ANGEL Fee) pee in a sSooSodie SomooesrHae KonSEe COCO RSO REO SSSHETCOSEISS

Dutiable.

Wood unmanufactured not specially provided for
‘Timber:
Used for spars, wharves, ete
Hewn and sawed
Squared or sided not specially provided for
Lumber:
Boards, planks, deals, and other sawed lumber
Sawed lumber, not otherwise specified
Sawed boards, ‘planks, deals—cedar, ebony, etc
Clapboards
Hubs, posts, laths, and other rough bloc
Laths
Pickets and palings
Cedar poles, posts, , and railroad ties-
Shingles
Shooks --
Staves
Manufactures, all others:
Barrels or boxes containing) oranges, lemons, etc., apart from con-
USNS sessesceuocadeo
Casks and barrels, emp
Chair cane or reeds manufactured.....
Cabinetware and household furniture
Osier or willow, prepared for manufacture.
Osier or willow, manufactures of.
Wood pulp
Veneers of wood .-
Bark extract, for tanning
Sumac
Corks and cork ba f 2
INTENONGR asesbe5 cousesoHeEsEOaeCoeS
Frames and sticks for umbrellas- .
All other manufactures of wood or of which wood is the component
Or GiiGyt Vem) eedooeeeccaccooce socom doosessersobastseoness aocenss>

Total dutiable

Total imports

1892. 1893. 1897.
Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Value.
198, 850 $411, 482 199, 187 $403, 601 $252, 352
Saceosessso000 1, 188, 797 2,164, 273 2, 616, 397
748, 520 131, 295 97, 857 244, 817
ose 44, 387 53, 505 (a)
59, 573 53, 129 39, 924
31, 721 29, 865 (a)
79, 622 8,404 342, 320
18, 412 38, 968 (a)
230,959 |. 332, 244 651, 897
48, 395 |. 51, 634 (a)
2, 234, 003 |. 2, 662, 658 1, 273, 101
1, 868, 244 1, 641, 294 1, 323, 409
256, 346 241, 244 133, 051
1, 198, 813 922, 529 806, 703
2 39, 185 |. 40, 470 54, 342
54, 855 76, 306 (a)
oe5e 31, 351 31, 051 (a)
768 3, 352 6, 376 262, 928
9, 3837 3,470 4, 077 1, 936
36, 642 3, 992 2, 365 3, 013
281, 430 4, 386 3, 958 3, 248
sensosedecseos 744256400 Reese sence eee 8, 365, 408 7, 309, 438
pemstoacadeoeal| 321000) See eeee eee 25, 952 (a)
12, 295 2, 301 9, 432 943 (a)
2 445, 804 54, 570 1, 419, 484 62, 868 251, 624
14, 036 1, 392 65, 139 492 (a)
482, 339 5, 588, 948 529, 263 §, 283, 805 9, 075, 981
150, 184 1, 416, 331 162, 955 1, 5338, 274 (a)
222 5, 117 366 24, 205 (a)
6, 259 99, 187 7, 072 113, 988 (a)
occsanosspstos PEEP casas miscogsed 28, 227 4, 721, 000
259, 157 327, 309 827, 442 462, 140 469, 563
3, 157 22, 679 5, 183 36, 700 27, 024
2, 115, 986 259, 583 1, 815, 949 271, 236 172, 812
362, 551 731, 299 470, 001 916, 759 1, 296, 502
Dea eae eae 625108 ty Beeson 45, 746 (a)
eee ee eeeeee EW GBM | seosooesced 646, 613 632, 584
467, 514 535, 987 609, 700
919 |. 531 (a)
181, 337 |. 1738, 967 205, 242,
411, 712 |. 382, 199 272, 166
82, 633 |. 64, 427 13, 047
123, 820 125, 916 100, 672
41,141 1, 831, 231 63, 633 2, 909, 097 800, 886
peransoRos5qc6 852049 | Perens 759 (a)
12, 973 408 672 71 (a)
12, 724, 703 294, 744 7, 244, 132 398, 400 (a)
671, 064 321, 480 703, 063 351, 731 461, 413
PATTI Genesee aa 133, 152 207, 671
WO EO eccasboncices 55 0117, 258 (a)
Sristee BeESed WPA Ge ee seconesconEs 1, 397, 155 1, 769, 624
secaeoacasecan NAR OOS LOOM eee ete eal 17, 163,589 | 21, 087, 311
s2os5 qagneacos 21, 806, 740 |-----...--.... 26, 028,997 | 28, 396, 749

a Not specified, included in other items.

b Including other materials.

128 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In former years the imports were more closely differentiated in the reports of the Statistical
Bureau, especially as to the kinds of cabinet woods. To show this differentiation, and also to
enable us to form an idea of the amount of wood represented in the importations of materials
which we could produce, and in our exports, an estimate of their cubic contents was made in the
report of the Division of Forestry for 1887. A portion of the tables, which covered the period
from 1880 to 1887, is here reproduced. It appears from these that our imports represent in the
neighborhood of 100,000,000 cubic feet of wood, while our exports, worth nearly $60,000,000, must
at present amount to probably 200,000,000 cubic feet. From these tabulations we also see that we
pay for imports at the rate of 15 to 16 cents per cubie foot, while our exports are figured at
between 11 and 12 cents.

Exports of wood and wood products, 1883-1887.

1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. 1887.
Articles.
Cubic feet.| Value. | Cubic feet.|, Value. | Cubic feet.| Value. | Cubic feet.) Value. | Cubic feet.| Value.

Hirewood --------------- 432, 600) $15, 552 254, 016 $9, 464 209, 376 $6, 985 261, 408 $8, 568 160, 600: $4, 975
Boards, deals, and 9 = 5 5 = s

ey ¥ 4 7 |f 34, 438, 360) 7,079,701) 34,231,192) 6,570,576) 36,155,464) 6,620,911) 35, 396, 666) 6, 531, 144
aia. ee ; 41, 617,166) 8;377, 908), “1’q48, 456| 195)043| 1,081, 324| 183, 166 898,143) 151, 119 717,250) | 126,284

E Boas

Hoops and hooppoles,

etc... 1, 737, 300 138,983) 4, 455, 900 256,470) 4, 332, 450) 346,598) 2, 804, 850 224,385) 2,673,150} 218, 852
Laths --- 153, 000 22, 295) 158, 617 20, 277 295, 855 48, 377 221, 008 32, 940
Palings, pickets, an i} a 301, 100 45, 168

bedslatsweese esos 114, 540) 15, 615 174, 881 28, 515 150, 645 10, 544 109, 680 13, 853
Slinples eee ee sen ne 938, 826 203, 779 857, 141 183, 521 637, 042 132, 976 581, 996) 103, 049 541,016) 101, 282
Shooks, box.--..-------- 397, 332 89, 333 653, 985 186, 853 720, 426 205, 836) 604, 498; 174, 723 547,016) 136,754
Shooks, other ..-..----- \Vq.48, 674, 010| 4, 867, 401// 4,579,311) 1,526,437) 4,396,395) 1,465,465) 3,295,041) 1,198,444) 2, 815,515) 938, 505
Staves and headings---f yeeces eee \ 40, 297, 200) 2,686,473) 29,261,100} 1,950,794) 30,451,500) 2,030,097) 30, 089, 325) 2, 005, 955
All other lumber .------ 13, 063, 660) 1,567,631) 8, 135, 000 976,191) 9,841,200} 1,182,142) 9,792,500) 1,175,099) 10, 036, 600) 1, 204, 392
Timber, sawed. ...----- \} 49. 913, 220] 3, 102, 2a2!/ 16 704, 331| 2, 247,328) 12,770, 667| 1,609,485} 16.112,000 2, 092,557| 13, 967, 410) 1, 976, 750
Timber, hewed -------- J tela, y*)\ 10, 615, 065) 1, 735, 382) 8, 411, 066) 1,289,281) 5, 037, 612 829,019) 4,260,639) 697,915

D)

Logs and other timber--| 31,757, 962) 1,540,637) 21, 307, 900) 1, 704,635) 21,147, 200) 1,691,780) 15,732,100) 1, 258,575) 13, 015, 975} 1, 041, 278

Total unmanufac-

tured ceeeeneaees 158, 793, 116) 20, 948, 624 148, 614, 205) 18, 925, 408) 127, 372, 936) 16, 683, 878] 122, 173, 652) 15, 934, 467) 114, 551, 850/15, 065, 879
Manufactures of—
Doors, sash, and blinds}.----.------|----------- 393, 256) 294, 942 378, 688) 284, 016 356, 007 267, 005 364,437, 273, 328
Moldings, trimmings,
Q@2aS02 soc ceases esos) |asooegeesoe||ecescacscas 231, 548 173, 661 175, 204 131, 403 189, 913 104, 935 152,080) 114, 061
Hogsheads and bar- |
rels, empty --------- 401, 645 301, 234 426, 912) $20, 184 432, 275) 324, 206 663, 277 497, 458 609, 333) 456, 992
Household furniture. - 3, 489, 158] 2,579,369) 3,239,775) 2,429, 831 2, 838, 256) 2,128,692) 2,829,083) 2,121,812) 2, 638, 327) 1,978, 745
Woodenware -..-.---- 689, 072 516,770 541, 685: 406, 264 428, 619 321, 464 441, 647 331, 235 434, 648) 325, 986
All other manufac-
IPRS) soc oosescossee= 3, 263, 615) 2,447,711) 2, 290, 784) 1, 724, 838) 2,120,952) 1,590,714 1, 848, 531! 1,386,398) 1,973, 257| 1, 479, 943

Total manufactures - 7, 793, 445) 5,845,084) 7,132, 960) 5, 349, 720 6, 378, 994) 4, 780, 495) 6, 278, 458) 4, 708, 843 6, 172, 082) 4, 629, 055
= - SiS |

Naval stores:

INO scocensobeanoss 2, 909, O74 PG AY ee sonenoco 1, 963, 091 2, 301, 636
AUG. SEseaaooosbeeS 4 ponossecesoc 3, 242, 818). ---- ==. 91, 248. 66, 449)..----...-.. 36, 208) 39, 772
Turpentine and pitel 118, 842). ONS sal eee ater 32, 999) 29, 270
Spirits of turpentiue--|.----------- 4,366; 229). _--- 72 == 3, 885, 500: Pa OE PBS a ee esse 2, 811, 777) 3, 489, 985
Total naval stores =i
and spirits of tur-

OMG) oo-cotteces|sceseareosce 7 GOD 04 | heme (rere O04 5 7.00) Bese nee 4, 984, 794)..-..-..._.- 4, 844, 075).------.---- 5, 860, 663

Bark and tanning ex- rae
UES onacce ssesscns aellosoeosesose= GVijbRt|--ssocessese 20248 ill ae eeeeeeee 346, 218)..---.--.--- CEB VED -sosen osso8e 239, 700
IMERTONGS) sc escacassone 41, 499 124, 499 35, 603 106, 809 23, 280) 69, 840 27, 401 82, 204 25, 793 77,379
Agriculturalimplements'.--.-..---.- 38835919 eee ee eee 3, 442, Gy eae a eee 28D OL GD2| pee eeeee 2367, 208) oo tae a= 2, 138. 398
Sewing machines --.---- 122, 466) 3, 061, 639) 142,112) 3, 552, 814 115, 944) 2, 898, 698 LOS OSS] ey oO ted | entail eitet er
Musical instruments..-.!.-..-.-..--- D208 5610 | Sees ens see i One) i) pacseemoaces OGRA | eee eee 871, 446 831, 837
EE =} ——— 2 ee ——<<—<_—— _———
Miscellaneous --..-.. 163,965) 3, 361, 197 177, 715) 8, 474, 359 129, 224) 6, 817, 702 130, 789} 6; 188, 724 25, 793) 3, 287, 314
Motalissn.teencasees 166, 750, 526) 42, 763, 952) 150, 924, 880] 39, 754, 187] 133, 886, 154) 33, 266, 869) 128, 582, 899| 31, 676, 109) 120, 749, 725/28, 842, 881

a The estimates of cubic feet marked (a) are based upon the values given and not upon official reports of quantity, and are therefore to-
be taken as only approximately correct.

CONIFEROUS SUPPLIES. 129

Imports of wood and wood products, 1885-1887.

1883. 1884. 1885. | 1886. 1887.
Articles. ji = |
Cubic feet.| Value. | Cubic feet.| Value. | Cubicfeet.| Value. | Cubic feet. Value. | Cubic feet.| Value.
Free of duty. | | |
| |
Wood, unmanufactured, |
an elsewhere speci- |
fied:
Wirewood -..-..----.-.. 16, 260, 864 | $397,391 | 16,249,824 | $373,912 |15,597, 216 | $338, 806 | 16,910,400 | $349,134 | 16,464,288 | $327, 349
Logs androundtimber.| 7, 673, 100 613, 847 5, 617, 300 449, 382 | 4,811, 800 384,948 | 5,748, 000 459, 843 7, 338, 400 587, 073
Railroad ties----------- 10,377,617 622, 657 6, 764, 359 382,719 | 3, 850, 301 187,168 | 7, 265, 685 377, 443 | 8, 424, 833 484, 945
Shingle and stave bolts.) 7, 456, 080 186, 402 9, 933, 680 248, 342 | 4, 847, 080 121,177 | 5, 374, 280 134, 357 5, 254, 800 131, 370
Ship timber. ---.------- 202, 468 50, 617 190, 016 47, 504 | 58, 652 14, 663 | 156, 076 39, 019 181, 988 45, 497
Ship planking. 86, 436 28, 812 125, 829 41, 943 | 63, 369 22, 123 | 56, 571 18, 857 98, 094 32, 698
Hop poles. .- callososoocaxee 323, 200 40, 399 150, 200 18, 780 | 100, 000 12,511 26, 224 3, 278
Wood pulp. - 19, 132 |. 6, 941 |. 9, 637 | 0 5, 897 |. 7, 381
Charcoal .-.---. allososessscealle - 56, 765 47, 334 |. 36, 849 |. 47, 353
Hemlock bark .--...-..|.-----..---. 343, 559 364, 410 | 288, 979 |. 236, 198 272, 956
: |
Dutiable. | | |-
Wood, unmanufactured, | |
not elsewhere specified-| 2, 593, 616 324, 202 647, 688 80,961 | 311, 680 38, 960 206, 616 25, 827 142, 896 17, 862
Sim DOL yee ate a selele =o 156, 556 13, 990 71, 812 8, 512 73, 290 | 11,712 | 20, 231 2, 221 9, 967 1, 025
Lumber: | | |
Boards, planks, deals, |
GMiG-sscaotesSepcessc|es 43, 754, 061 | 7, 009, 644 | 44,725,966 | 6, 987, 694 41, 854, 165 | 6, 189, 781 | 39,933, 981 | 5,639,813 | 40,297, 865 | 5, 825, 320
Clapboards ..- 918, 933 30, 224 841, 253 28,785 | 998,807 | 41,827 | 1,303,413 59,389 | 1,397,450 | 58,953
Hubs, posts, last | | | | :
rough blocks ---.---- 370, 111 66, 620 337, 167 60, 690 327, 993 | 59, 029 337, 161 60, 615 | 260, 867 46, 956
IPRA Ne soceesecwas --| 2,779, 648 205, 513 2, 982, 784 257, 529 | 2,477, 008 199,819 | 2,457, 216 198,756 | 3,051,728 | 241,077
Pickets and palings. 510, 400 60, 494 375, 920 57,596 | 375, 920 51, 027 406, 080 61, 318 388, 800 32, 907
SIN ANES ~455o+ss5co8c~ 1, 469, 650 281, 831 1, 206, 282 215, 454 976, 556 | 158,043 | 1,107, 414 171,523 | 1, 254,176 185, 611
Shooks and packing | | |
boxes _ 149, 784 37, 446 336, 264 84,066 | 280, 060 | 70, 015 | 421, 796 105, 449 463, 996 115, 999
SANGE sosonsonpaneosess 109, 538 27,410 | 1,040, 546 280,150 | 942,318 253,703 | 1,002,716 269, 961 1, 129; 258 304, 031
Bark extracts, chiefly | |
ING YES = Sacco ssodecea||lbseosesosese WE GD | se sccoceces SIN GSOn peat =rs= | 19, 656 |. 9, 273 51
Sumac CBSE TEL) ||s2cosc5esene 668; 440) }- === - 22 | 504,289 564, 276 466, 378
Cork and cork bark, |
manufactured b () Benes ceocossce 163.251 ep se=ecceo WEY RSBPA a Seesessoos WT} GD llssc0656se066 209, 532
Walking sticks.....-.-..|.-----------|-----------|----------- 14, 560 E Til, GRAN |leemoegas2co5 9, 079 | 8, 101
Mat Che sean -2 =e sete telat 4, 064 12, 192 116, 018 348, 055 | 35, 465 106, 395 | 11, 396 34, 187 8, 486 25, 458
Manufactures: @
Casks and barrels. --- -- 2,576 ( 1, 896 1,494 1,224 | 1,780
Cabinet ware and fur- | |
TMNUPNTS) Seas sa scoscs 283, 291 295, 064 268, 810 308, 191 387, 234
Osiers and willows, | |
peeled and dried... -. 1, 957, 208 54,424 |) 1,591, 322 51,691 }1,411, 916 98,665 |) 1,367,690 |, 15, 164 |} 1, 602, 744 18, 516
Osier and willow bas- | H
TRGUE! sessoencotostece! 268, 055 || 237, 834 202, 663 238, 380 | 312, 179
All other manufac- |
(MOE) cosdesccosecaces 865, 559 \ 607, 007 | 597, 305 462, 809 | || 482, 349
\
Free of duty.
Cabinet woods: b | | |
Ife ccc escesssecnossed loesnssecaocs) 38, 953 83,921 |------- a 223, 015 72, 403 35, 202
Cedar + 424, 058 |- 568, 866 | -- 520, 605 2 520, 184 263, 825
Ebony - 3 47, 824 |-= 63, 614 |-- 26, 311 |. z 69, 043 51, 211
Granadilla --- 3 814 |. 365 |-- 432 |. 6 2, 807 1, 685
Lancewood .--- e 12, 336 | -- We Voile e= UsaHlyy tle o 16, 910 |.- 23,975
Lignum-vit® 101, 305 |. 45, 206 | z 8, 698 |- é 42, 362 |. 66, 513
Mahogany - a 466, 809 |. 772,710 |. 592,771 |- 479, 861 |. 653, 473
Rose sez seen soos saeeel ee -| 313,348 | z 157, 266 }.- 52,306 |. Zi 46, 957 |-- 62, 308
Sandal - Sods 4,009 |. 654 |. - 6 2,598 1, 339
Satin EB cosséod 2 Bye! |eosacesceso 12, 641 9, 528
All other cabinet
TNO eats oogocdlrecesenntosd AGB EEL | a nocooseees | BIB BY | sos sescsese PG WA9 ln esoet tetas OHI) GE leconcacesenn 252, 084
Cork wood or bark, un- |
Ianutactured -...-.---|------.----- GBY CO ||. emcinincdecs CER EYAL eee oct ee sed Oh 74 Sy poe sedeaco GON BER) esse ccomsace 1, 239, 247.
Motalbens-\-j-s eI 96, 830, 134 |15, 299, 481 | 93, 477, 230 |15, 447,292 79, 446, 796 |12, 893, 405 | 84, 186,712 |12, 461,985 | 87, 796, 860 13, 341, 609

a Estimated from valnes reported, actual measurements not being given. The principal object in the compilation of these tables has been
to show the quantity of forest material involved in our exports and imports. All estimates of quantity are made on the basis of the cubic
foot as acommon standard. Where the reports from which these tables are c ympiled do not give quantities, but only values, the quantities
have been estimated from the values. In the case of manufactures, such as barrels, cabinet ware, etc., articles are estimated to have one-
third of their value in material, and this is reckoned as worth 25 cents per cubic foot. Round timber is reckoned at 8 cents per cubic foot, ship
timber at 25. Shingles are estimated at 14 enbie feet per 1,000, and lath at 16 feet per 1,000. : ;

} It will be seen by a comparison of figures that only about one-fifth in value of all importations of wood and wood products consists of
articles not producible in this country.

From the preceding tabulation of the annual cut of timber it appears that about three-
fourths of our consumption comes from coniferous growth—pines, spruces, firs, hemlock, red-
woods, cedar, ete.

This particular portion of our resource is, therefore, the most important, and again the white
pine has so far formed the bulk of these supplies. It will, therefore, appear appropriate to
reproduce such portions of Senate Document No. 40, furnished by the Division of Forestry, as will
elucidate the economic condition of this particular part of our resource.

H. Doe. 181——_9

130 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CONSUMPTION AND SUPPLIES OF CONIFEROUS WOODS.

Ever since the publication of the statistics of the Tenth Census regarding the white pine
timber standing—nearly fifteen years—there has been a contention as to their correctness. Time
has proven their extreme inaccuracy, for, while then only eight years’ supply was supposed to be
standing when the annual cut was 10,000,000,000 feet, we have, with an increased cut, lumbered ”
white pine for sixteen years and still there is a considerable quantity left.

Yet at last the end is visible, and even the most sanguine can not longer hide the truth that
within the next decade we shall witness the practical exhaustion of this greatest staple of our
lumber market.

As stated before, even now there are really no statistics upon which to base a correct prog-
nostication as to the date of this exhaustion. Estimates only are available, and estimates of
standing timber are proverbially unreliable, mostly underestimates, and always to be taken with
caution. Furthermore, if an estimate of the duration of supplies of a special kind is to be made,
it is necessary not only to know the supplies and the present cut, but also to foresee the changes
in the cut, the replacement in the market by other kinds, and the economies that may be prac-
ticed in the methods of logging; as, for instance, by the reduction in the size acceptable for saw
logs, by cutting smaller trees, by the use of band saws, and by closer utilization generally, whereby
the duration of supplies can be lengthened.

Thus, while the estimates of the Tenth Census were based on a minimum log of, say, 10 or
even 12 inches diameter, in the present practice 8-inch and even 5-inch logs are used; while in
1880 hemlock went begging and whitewood had not yet been found to answer as a good substitute
for white pine, and Southern pine had not yet begun to compete, the interchangeableness of all
these species in the market now renders the forecast still more complicated.

Nevertheless, it has become apparent that while white pine will be cut in the United States
for many decades, as owners of the stumpage control their holdings, the enormous amounts which
have hitherto been cut annually can not be had beyond the next five or six years, even with
Canada to help in eking out our deficiencies.

CONSUMPTION.

From the statistics of the cut since 1873, compiled by the Northwestern Lumberman, it
appears that since that year the stupendous amount of 154,000,000,000 feet, B. M., and 83,000,000,000
shingles, or altogether in round numbers 165,000,000,000 feet of white pine has been cut in the
States of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota; and this total may be readily increased, by
allowing for cuts in other parts of the country, to over 200,000,000,000 feet, B. M., which this
single species has yielded to build up our civilization in the last twenty-three years, or in the
last ten years at the rate of eight to nine billion feet, an amount to produce which continuously
at least 30,000,000 acres of well-stocked and well-kept pine forest would be required.

Divided for convenience and comparison into six-year periods, the cut in the Northwest
appears to have been as follows, according to the source cited:

White pine sawed by mills of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.

{In billion feet, B. M., round numbers.]

| 1873-1878. | 1879-1884. 1885-1890. | 1891-1896. |

Mumbertsyno2 <2 a2 ste te ee eee 23 40 48 44
Shingles (1,000=100 feet, B.M.) .---......-...---- 2 3
| —— ee ee eS
| 25 43 | 51 a

A total of 165,000,000 feet, B. M.

From 1873, when the cut was about 4,000,000,000 feet, the draft on this resource was con-
stantly increased until 1892, when it reached its maximum, nearly 9,000,000,000 feet, B. M., and
4,500,000,000 shingles. Then a gradual decline began to 7,600,000,000 feet in 1893, 6,750,000,000
feet in 1894, rising once more to over 7,000,000,000 in 1895, and reaching the lowest output in 1896,
with 5,500,000,000 feet; shingle production declining similarly to 1,500,000,000, which, translated

CONIFEROUS SUPPLIES. 131

into board measure, raises the requirements for that year to little less than 7,500,000,000 feet.
This decline does not necessarily indicate any giving out of the supply, but might have been due,
and probably was due, to business depression generally and to the competition of other kinds of
lumber and shingles.

The total output of white pine in 1890, before the maximum was reached and when the cut of
the Northwest was recorded for lumber and shingles as a little over 9,000,000,000 feet, was placed
by the competent agent of the Hleventh Census, in charge of the statistics of lumber manufacture,
at 11,300,000,000 feet of white pine and Norway pine, or about 25 per cent as coming from other
regions, while hemlock, spruce, and fir were estimated as furnishing 7,900,000,000 feet, so that
our requirements of these classes of timber may for ordinary years be placed in round numbers at
20,009,000,000 feet.

In discussing the question of duration of supplies it can, as stated before, be reasonably done
only by considering at the same time all supplies of a similar nature—namely, of the white pine,
Norway pine, spruce, and hemlock at least—which can be and are used more or less inter-
changeably, and will be still more so in the future, to meet our immense requirements for this
class of material. That these requirements are not to remain stationary, but have a tendency to
increase, may be seen from the development of the wood-pulp industry.

While in 1881 the daily capacity of wood-pulp mills was less than 750,000 pounds, it had more
than doubled in 1887, and then increased steadily, doubling almost every three or four years, as
follows:

Pounds. Pounds.
LISTSH pas eee eee eat eee Te eka 8 cle TGS TROOO MT ROS! ens aeaa sien tarts en me 5, 136, 300
IGS reer as oaks Reet Oke ee 215 341500)|| eT SOS et ee LE 6, 495, 400
TSS ONpHeaN eabyrey ase 3 SAC g FE ls 1 SLE THe ee SAAT AUT OO pA SOM es. etal WUT a hed ONNes koe Ska 7, 231, 900
1SO0 pea Renae eat | eae ke sea AMID RO OO SOB mass” eek aa aecnae este mea 9, 027, 000
POON saa aeteessmes Sass swesiees osetesss 4,497, 200 |

This last figure may be conservatively estimated to correspond to an annual consumption of
probably 800,000,000 feet, B. M., of material.
There was imported from 1891 to 1896 wood pulp tothe value of $10,337,659, as follows:

1S osgdls co Ae ere ROS ROO SCOTS GAM ES Se SIS at ee Nat a te ny eS Ara es eae $1, 902, 689
GOH e ceadbodecanekou chop eetesacceDed Baa GemB ene SE eed Oae nere UR eaayieeeeeaGmmaedicr Saeacelecae 1, 820, 143
OE Bie code oatisoc GSEbe5 BASE AS Case Gene duc SE Sac beAUeee SBEEoeE 3 RAR SISA HORE Haao Seebre SHakicc 2, 908, 884
1S eee 5 Sema Scene eo a Sena BO BEES PES e NEB oS eer ee CE eS Fe Re Eo sre Her eererae saccec et 1, 664, 547
MCB e peocaoppeaes THOS CHOSE CHP Oo SREP ab oUB CREE Pot BemESeC Eee Soca see ESE ee secede Bene 984, 692
IRR ee posed ese nho Same BOCES Banche DEE OS er CEE See orn ae Sea SUES Eee BeBe ere eB enaT 1, 056, 704

INOUE Gp popdouecienosgeasoo: QEcsetn st Gne Seo See aE Ct hc areeemnen Garon en ents 10, 337, 659

SUPPLIES.

While the above figure of 20,000,000,000 feet, B. M., gives a fair idea as to average consump-
tion, which may vary perhaps by 10 per cent one way or the other, we are much less certain as to
supplies standing.

For Minnesota the chief fire warden of the State has attempted a canvass, the result of which
would indicate nearly 18,000,000,000 feet as standing in the State, including Norway pine, the
estimate having been made for 1895. This has been criticised by competent judges as much too
high; nevertheless, adding the estimates of all other kinds of coniferous wood, some of which as
yet remains unused, it is thought that a statement in round numbers of 20,000,000,000 feet of
coniferous wood in Minnesota fit for lumbering, though large, would be reasonably enough near
the truth for our purposes in forecasting the probabilities.

For Wisconsin we have a very close estimate, made by the Division of Forestry in 1897 and
fully described in Bulletin No. 16 of that Division. According to this canvass the amount of
white pine standing is still 15,000,000,000 feet, B. M., and of all coniferous wood 29,000,000,000
feet, while the writer in the Senate document had estimated it at 30,000,000,000 feet.

For Michigan a canvass from township to township has been made by the commissioner of
labor of the State for 1896, which develops an area of 2,250,000 acres in pine and hemlock.

If the average stand per acre, which the census of 1890 showed as 6,000 feet for white pine, is
_ applied to the whole area, the amount of timber standing would be 15,000,000,000 feet, which, for

132 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

safety, we may increase by 20 per cent, or say 18,000,000,000 feet, of which 6,000,000,000 would be
white pine.

For Pennsylvania the partial returns of the commissioner of forestry would make an estimate
of 10,000,000,000 feet pine and hemlock appear highly extravagant. In a private communication
he estimates the standing timber of white pine at 500,000,000, of spruce at 70,000,000, and of hem-
lock at 5,000,000,000 feet, B. M.

For New York, without much basis, 5,000,000,000 may be allowed as an extravagant figure,
with a cut of not less than 500,000,000 feet; another 3,000,000,000 for New Hampshire; and, with
a closer estimate, based on figures given by the forest commissioner of Maine, that State may be
given at best not to exceed 10,000,000,000 feet of spruce, pine, and hemlock.

It is well known that in the “Pine Tree” State the white pine is long since reduced to a
small proportion of the coniferous wood standing. The spruce country is confined to the ele-
vated northern half of the State, north of a line from the White Mountains to Mars Hill, with a
spruce-bearing area of probably less than 6,000 square miles. The stand on the two main
spruce-producing drainage basins, the Kennebec and Androscoggin, has been estimated at round
5,000,000,000 feet, B. M., with a present cut of round 350,000,000 feet. Partial statistics of the
cut would indicate a total cut of coniferous woods in Maine of not far from 500,000,000 feet in 1895
and preceding years.

In all these estimates of standing timber the writer has leaned toward extravagance rather
than understatement, and thus the total is found to add up 100,000,000,000 feet of coniferous
growth in the Northern States, of which less than half is pine, to satisfy a cut of at least
18,000,000,000 to 20,000,000,000 feet per annum.

The writer does not say that in less than six years every stick of pine, spruce, and hemlock
will be cut, for such figures as these do not admit of mathematical deductions, but the gravity of
the question of supply is certainly apparent. Hven doubling the estimates, it is found that, with
the present rate and method of cutting, ten years would exhaust our virgin timber of these classes.
We should add that much more intimate knowledge exists now regarding these supplies than was
possible in 1880, when much of the country was still unopened and unknown.

OTHER CONIFEROUS SUPPLIES.

The Southern pines, to be sure, will enter more largely into competition, as also the cypress
and other coniferous woods of the South.

The entire region within which pines occur in the South in merchantable condition comprises
about 230,000 square miles, or, in round numbers, 147,000,000 acres; for land in farms, 10,000,000
acres must be deducted, and allowing as much as two-thirds of the remainder as representing pine
lands (the other to hard woods), we would have about 90,000,000 acres on which pine may occur.
An average growth of 3,000 feet per acre—an extravagant figure when referred to such an area—
would make the possible stand 270,000,000,000 feet, provided it was in virgin condition and not
largely cut out or culled. Altogether, the writer has reached the conclusion that, adding all other
coniferous wood in the South, an estimate of 300,000,000,000 feet would be extravagant, which,
added to the Northern supply of coniferous wood, gives a total supply of 400,000,000,000 feet to
draw from in the Hastern United States; and as the entire cut of these classes of wood appears
now to be not less than 25,000,000,000 feet a year, and probably is nearer 30,000,000,000, it may be
stated with some degree of certainty that not fifteen to twenty years’ supply of coniferous timber
can. be on hand in the Hastern States.

In 1886 the writer ventured a statement that there was 600,000,000,000 feet of coniferous
growth in the Hastern States; the cut was then estimated at 12,000,000,000 feet. If an average
cut of 20,000,000,000 for the last ten years be allowed, which is reasonable, the present estimate of
400,000,000,000 standing would lend color to the approximate correctness of these figures.

If the inquiry is extended to the coniferous growth of the Pacific coast, which, in spite of the
distance, must finally come to our aid, only partial comfort will be found. The writer’s estimate of
1,000,000,000,000 feet standing has been by competent judges declared extravagant. The annual
cut on the Pacific coast approaches certainly 4,000,000,000 feet; hence, adding these figures to
those obtained for the East, with 1,400,000,000,000 feet standing at best, and a cut of at least,
30,000,000,000 feet per annum, there would appear to be, under most favorable contingencies, not

CANADIAN SUPPLIES. 133

more than forty to fifty years of this most necessary part of our wood supply in sight if the same
lavishness in the use of it is continued.

To be sure, there is some new growth and reproduction going on. The probability as to the
former is that decay and destruction by fire offset the accretion on the old timber of coniferous
growth, and no one familiar with our forest conditions and present methods will indulge in a hope
that the reproduction and young growth can materially change the results. Long before any new
reproduction can have attained log size we will have got rid of the virgin supplies.

CANADIAN SUPPLIES.

As to importations, there is practically only one country from which such timber can be
obtained—Canada.

The statistician of the department of agriculture of the Dominion of Canada in 1895 estimated
the white pine standing at 37,300,000,000 feet, with an annual cut of nearly 2,000,000,000 feet,
including spars, masts, shingles, etc., which, as will readily be seen, can not materially change
the position stated before, namely, that the next decade may witness the practical exhaustion of

this greatest lumber staple. Even allowing 10,000,000,000 feet of merchantable spruce, which
may be found in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, such allowance can not appreciably retard
this exhaustion, since the total annual cut of Canadian coniferous wood exceeds 5,000,000,000 feet.
Fifty per cent may be readily added to the estimates of standing timber in eastern Canada, thus
assuming 75,900,000,000 feet as on hand, and still Canada’s cut alone will exhaust her resources in
fifteen years, and this country will assist her to get rid of it in less time.

So far the importations from Canada, although rapidly increasing, have been insignificant
when compared with our home consumption. The importations of all kinds of forest products and
wood manufactures have been hardly over 1 per cent of our own production, and, if we confine the
inquiry to coniferous material only, the proportion of the importation of this class of materials
rises to hardly 5 per cent of our home production of the same kinds.

To arrive at an idea of the extent to which we have so far drawn on our neighbors for conif-
erous supplies, an attempt has been made in the following table to segregate from the trade and
navigation reports of the Dominion of Canada those items which have reference to this discussion,
translating into board measure approximately the returns given in other measures. These figures
are probably somewhat below the truth, but are sufficiently accurate for the present purpose, and
are moreover the only ones available.

Exports of coniferous products from Canada to United States.

{In millions of feet, B. M., rounded off.]

Coniferous products. 1877-1882. | 1883-1888. | 1889-1894. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896.
Rel pe rs |
Logs: 6 years. 6 years. 6 years. |
Vem oc emery ese isatenae eee eee coe eee 6.5 | 9.5 20. 0 5.0 5.9 5.2 2.2 4.8
SPLucee--- 1-2. = 3 . 0 26. 6 86. 9 | 23.0 21.0 17.9 25.0 15.2
Les) s-emaceecace Br 4.6 504.5 74.0 127.0 277.9 212, 2 157.7
Total logs La 40.7 611 4 | 102.0 153.9 301.0 239.4 177.7
Lumber: 4 % |
WERE sonoandanoaccsdnos oscoadonsoosonensas cenonSoose 31.5 108. 7 204.5 | 53.0 51.0 42.5 44.2 48.8
hath Senet resect et iS 43.5 64.8 250. 7 | 38.7 89.4 42.8 44.0 52.3
Boards, scantling, ete 965.8 1, 132.9 3, 098. 1 | 651. 4 7D9Ay |) 01883, 549.5 720.5
Masts, spars, and other S 1.4 -8 otf | 67a edo ose eel MSOs Seen EE SeCEeRae opcSoneee
Shinglesmepe eee eeesee eters s ad 14.9 21.8 132.2 | 33.4 40.3 36.5 65.8 45.7
Mimbers\-es2- ee Bae 5 3.9 1.6 UGG |scastcaccdfoosssic onsdlscsoeuscodloscassansafeoscobanne
‘Pulp woodsblockstscas: cers sete eco re eee te oeeeer (a) (a) | (a) | 30. 0 62. 0 61.5 76.3 100.0
Total manufactured wood ....-.------.-.---.----- 1, 061.0 1, 330. 6 3,851.7 | 806.7 | 1,001.8 1, 201.6 779.8 967.3
Total coniferous products.........---------------- 10777 | 373 | 4,463.1] 908.7) 1,155.7] 1,502.6] 1,019.2) 1,145.0
|

It will be seen that each six years’ period shows an increase, and that the exports of the last
three years were only 25 per cent lower than those of the six preceding years. The largest imports
were recorded for 1894, when nearly 1,250,000,000 feet partly manufactured coniferous wood and
300,000,000 feet of logs of conifers were imported. This latter importation increased steadily up

134 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

to that time, furnishing raw material mainly to our Michigan mills, whose home supply is largely
gone.

Regarding the importations of logs, it is interesting to observe that they increased in quantity,
without reference to the existence or absence of the export duty which the Canadian Government
imposed in 1886 and abolished in 1891, and the price per M feet also seems uninfluenced. The
necessity for these supplies to our mills, especially the mills of the Saginaw (Michigan) district,
began to assert itself in 1886, the very year the export duty was imposed to prevent, if possible,
these exports of raw material, and has grown constantly, the decline in 1895 and 1896 simply
marking the general business depression.

Logs imported from Canada.

Pine logs. Spruce logs. | Hemlock logs.
Year. ee | Price a ene Price Pi Price
Quantity ‘| Value. | per M euanEaEY | Value. | per M Quantity | Walue. | per M
feet teet feet.
} —
|
974 | $8,012 | $8.23 6, 820 $31,793 | $4. 66 4, 818 $19, 168 $3. 98
380 2, 300 6. 05 11, 165 49, 449 4.43 3, 629 14, 752 4.07
2, 869 24, 452 8. 52 17, 541 81, 874 4. 67 6, 881 28, 076 4.08
6, 350 49, 242 7.75 17, 526 88, 773 5. 65 4, 206 17, 447 4.15
468 3, 875 8. 28 20, 714 ai 4. 80 4,512 18, 383 4.07
10, 839 94, 287 8.70 20, 360 137, 298 6.74 6, 420 24, 261 3.78
32, 144 261, 626 8.14 ! 26, 073 156, 898 6. 02 2, 952 12, 288 4.17
36, 699 318, 281 8. 54 28, 494 158, 334 5. 56 2, 210 9, 802 4.44
738, 963 651, 540 8. 81 23, 404 141,168} 6.02 5, 057 21, 426 4.24
127, 084 1, 056, 355 8.32 21, 103 123, 254 5, 84 5, 880 26, 036 4,43
277, 947 2, 359, 951 8.49 17, 926 107.250 | 6.00 5, 217 19, 713 3.77
212, 231 1, 860, 319 8.77 25, 095 90, 990 3. 64 2, 217 9, 017 4. 06
157,400 | 1,423, 489 9.06 | 15, 182 86, 075 5, 67 4,761 18, 607 3. 90

Tt will be evident from these statements that our virgin coniferous supplies must share the
fate which the butfalo has experienced, unless a practical application of rational forestry methods
and a more economic use of supplies is presently inaugurated. Since coniferous wood represents
two-thirds to three-fourths of our entire lumber-wood consumption, and its reproduction requires
more care and lofiger time than that of hard woods, the urgency of changing methods in its use
and treatment will be apparent.

No more striking statement of the decline in white-pine supplies could be made than to cite
the number of feet in logs which passed the nine leading booms in the lower peninsula in Michigan
in 1887, namely 2,217,104,985 as against 505,134,656 feet in 1893, a decrease of nearly 80 per cent,
chargeable no doubt in part to other modes of transportation, but nevertheless foreshadowing
unmistakably the practical exhaustion of supplies.

Another indication of the waning of supplies may be found in the increase of prices paid for
stumpage. While, owing to improvement in means of transportion machinery and mill practice
and to the close. competition of mills, the increase in the price of lumber has been comparatively
small except for the best grades, which are becoming scarcer with the reduction in the size of the
average log than the poorer grades, the prices paid for the trees in the woods, the stumpage has
more than doubled for each decade from 1866 to 1886, as appears from the table given above. At
present it would probably be difficult to find any stumpage desirably located at the highest price
prevailing in 1887, and this year (1898) stumpage even of the southern pine has gone up to $4.00
and $6.00 per M feet.

Returning now to a consideration of the consumption of wood materials in general we can
summarize with the statement that our consumption at present of all kinds, sizes, and description,
including the enormous firewood supplies of a round 180,000,000 cords, can not fall short of
25,000,000,000 cubic feet of forest-grown material, counting in the waste in the woods and the
mills and loss by fire. That means a consumption of 50 cubic feet per acre of forest, or 350 cubic
feet per capita.*

Considering that in the well-kept forests of Germany, where reproduction is secured by

*The largest part of this consumption is for firewood. According to the census of 1880 the consumption of
firewood must then have been 280 cubic feet per capita (figuring 100 cubic feet solid to the cord), and this amount
has probably not been reduced during the last decade. This firewood is not, as in older countries, made up of
inferior material—brush and small fagots—but is, to a large extent, split hody wood of the best class of trees.

FOREST FIRES. 135

skillful management, the total growth per acre, brush and branch wood included, averages only 55
cubie feet, it needs no argument to prove that we are cutting yearly far more than can be
reproduced, especially when we consider that while in Germany all inferior material is utilized,
we use even for firewood purposes good-sized material, body wood, hardly inferior to saw timber,
so that the comparison should be rather with the production of what the Germans call “‘derbholz,”
including all material over 3 inches, which averages hardly 38 cubic feet per acre and year.

The inadequacy of our supplies for continuous use at the present rate, it must appear, is
unquestionable, unless we apply more rational methods of treating our forest areas.

That for a time at least decrease of consumption is not likely to occur we may learn from a
comparison of figures of consumption from decade to decade, which indicate an increase of 30 per
cent or more.

Estimates of value of forest products used in 1860, 1870, 1880, and 1890.

{Including all raw, partially manufactured, wholly manufactured wood products, fuel, and naval stores; estimated upon the basis of census
figures, and other sources of information. ]

Articles. 1860. 1876. 1880. 1890.
|
Mill products, rough and partly finished --.-.--.-- ooodeobogedoocoesaseTSaad | $155, 000, 000 | $340, 000, 000 | $400, 000, 000 $438, 000, 000
Cut on farms for home use .--.---------- --| 45,000, 000 52, 000, 000 55, 000, 000 50, 000, 000
In manufactures using wood..--..- ae 50, 000, 000 100, 000. 000 110, 000, 000 150, 000, 000
Ibe DO abe cog nces ane se ancocaGoQ seo donSbS aadiae Cie sean encode asosRse nts =el| 6, 000. 000 14, 000, 000 | 30, 000, 000 40, 000; 000
OWE wcemoo beesBooenobTcceSoncanoSbOTmeT HoEO CO SoaC TO ScOOKoOCadEDcecoodoseennESerenad | 135,000, 000 | 210,000,000 | 328, 000, 0c0 350, 000, 000
St

MeN = ccc onboonecnanbanc coacaesscne cost sonconsocosessCnasobiasHoogescseoned @391, 000,000 | 716, 000, 000 | 923, 000,000 | 1, 028, 000, 000

a Probably 25 per cent underestimate.

Considering the consumption in relation to the population, we find by comparison with other
nations of equally civilized conditions that, if our figures are approximately correct, our per
capita consumption is from eight to twenty times more than the per capita consumption of
Germany, France, or England. For while we figure 350 cubic feet of all kinds for our people,
Germany uses 44, France 32, and England 15 cubic feet per capita. And if we exclude the more
uncertain firewood consumption and estimates of waste, and compare only the most important
part of the consumption, we find the relation not less striking; for while we consume nearly
80 cubic feet of log timber, equal to 50 cubic feet of sawed goods, or between 500 and 600 feet
B. M., per capita annually, Germany requires only 15 cubic feet of sawed material, or about 150
feet B. M.; France 8.3 cubic feet, and England, importing nearly all her wood materials, can get
along with one-quarter of our consumption. We see, then, that there is a wide margin for saving
in wood supplies by substituting iron and stone in our structures; by using preservative processes
with our railroad ties and other timbers; by using our wood materials with more discretion and
knowledge.

Our enormous annual loss by fires, largely due to the many wooden structures, and giving rise
to a destruction of property estimated at $100,000,000, constitutes a drain on our forest supplies
which can be largely avoided.

FOREST FIRES.

Another cause of useless and wasteful decimation of forest supplies is occasioned by the
yearly conflagrations, which destroy not acres but square miles of standing timber and the young
growth, and even the soil, the fertility, an accumulation of centuries of decaying leaf mold.

Regarding the loss by fire no adequate conception can be formed. Fires are of such general
occurrence that only the larger conflagrations are noticed, and it is difficult to obtain reports as to
their extent and destructiveness.

In the South the foolish custom of annually burning off the old grass in order to gain a fort-
night’s earlier pasturage still prevails and gives rise to widespread destruction, which is increased
by the coniferous composition of the larger part of these areas and the additional danger occasioned
by turpentine orchards. In the West carelessness of campers seems to be the principal cause of
fires, which, owing to the dryness of the climate and absence of population interested in stopping
the conflagrations, assume frightful dimensions and often not only destroy square miles of timber,
but endanger the lives and property of settlers.

136 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

From locomotives without spark arresters or carelessly handled at the ash pit comes the
greatest danger in the Hast. To estimate even the direct loss or damage from this source is well-
nigh impossible, much less the indirect loss, which consists in the destruction of the forest floor,
the handing over of the ground to worthless brush, brambles, and inferior tree growth, or, as
happens in some regions, the burning of the soil down to the rock, leaving an irredeemable waste.
Thus the accumulation of centuries—it takes from three to five centuries to make a humus soil 1
foot in depth—is destroyed in one brief season by carelessness.

In the census of 1880 an attempt was made to ascertain the extent of the fires and the conse-
quent loss in money value. Upon unsatisfactory and partial returns a total of over 10,000,000
acres was reported burned, with a loss of over $25,000,000 in value.

A canvass made by the Division of Forestry some years ago, which was highly unsatisfac-
tory in its returns, these being vague and reporting only very partially, shows that in the districts
reporting more than 12,000,000 acres of woodland were burned over during 1891. The report
showed log timber killed 473,387,000 feet B. M. and damage from forest fires to other than forest
property to the extent of $503,590, besides injury to valuable forest growth difficult to estimate.
What proportion of the actual destruction these reports represent it is impossible to tell. They
show, however, that in spite of the growing sentiment against such useless waste the nuisance
has hardly abated in the last ten years. The loss from prairie fires to crops, tree growth, build-
ings, and other property was reported by the same correspondents at $1,633,525.

In some years these losses by fire are, to be sure, much greater than in others, especially for »
given localities. Thus the fire which raged around Green Bay, in Wisconsin, during the Jatter
part of September and beginning of October, 1871, is reported to have utterly devastated 400
square miles of territory, several villages being wiped out, at least 1,000 people perishing, and
3,000 being left destitute; the damage being estimated at $3,000,000, not including that of the
thriving village of Peshtigo, with 2,000 inhabitants.

Another fire in Wisconsin (around Phillips) and in neighboring Minnesota, still in our memory,
occurred during the drought of July and August, 1894, the latter known as the great Hinckley
fire, when the estimate of loss of life exceeded 1,000, although it is only known that 437 were
surely lost, while over 2,000 were made homeless, the material loss, not including the timber,
being estimated at $750,000.

Another most destructive fire occurred in 1881 in Michigan, when the fire ran over forty-eight
townships in the peninsula between Lake Huron and Saginaw Bay, and a belt of timber country,
partly settled, 60 miles in length and 10 to 30 miles in width, comprising a round million acres,
was absolutely destroyed. The number of people killed was 138 and the value of property
destroyed $2,000,000, not taking into account the timber and the loss to the future, for this region
remains still to a large extent a mere brush waste.

In comparison with our figures of bona fide consumption the direct loss in material is but a
small matter, perhaps 2 to 3 per cent of the total value of forest products, but the indirect loss
can hardly be overestimated. This lies not only in the destruction of the fertility of the soil, but
in discouraging more conservative forest management on the part of forest owners, while the
constant risk from fire is an incentive to turn into cash as quickly as possible what is valuable in
the forest growth, leaving the balance to its fate.

There is a crying need in the United States for economic reform in this matter of playing
with fire. If the fire nuisance could be reduced to the unavoidable proportion, half the forestry
problem would be solved.

FOREST SUPPLIES.

Having traced our consumption of forest supplies, it remains to consider the condition of the
resource from which this consumption is to be drawn. We have to distinguish here between
‘virgin supplies now ready for the ax—the standing timber—and new growth to supply future wants.

Again we have, unfortunately, no statistics which would permit us to speak with assurance
on this question. As regards the coniferous supplies of standing timber we have already made
computations, showing that 100,000,000,000 feet for the North, 300,000,000,000 feet for the South,
and less than 1,000,000,000,000 for the West, or altogether about 1,400,000,000,000 feet B. M.,
would have to be considered an extravagant estimate to meet the estimated cut of this class of
materials of 30,000,000,000 feet per annum.

FORESTS OF WISCONSIN, ‘ 137

An estimate based on reported average cut per acre—which, to be sure, is extremely variable,
not only from acre to acre but also from time to time as the standard of marketable logs
changes—would bring the total of the timber standing ready for the ax to about the following
figures as very rough and probably very liberal approximations:

Feet B. M.
Ramiihern KHAHGS scosco cosoce esuodoqseeon San peoeoq on ecaa cesESFOTeOs SSO N SHS SORGSs 700, 000, 000, 000
Toman RMMIES ceocces ocosooceone9 goesod sda ens Soqcot neass BSGESs BOGSS= SSO E25 OFS 500, 000, 000, 000
TEAGHAG C@DTinn danas ecoo0S cososs oosesd cen eogticerrn Ser bre GecGro bel eoeseore 255535 1, 000, 000, 000, 000
Rociey, Mountains eee eac ese m acc ococen coat ays eo ane emai 100, 000, 000, 000
Gini acac sooo eceo Sado se 3ace 3500 3as0 HUbU SERS endo. 26bb be SHES Saeo race sao Socs 2, 300, 000, 000, 000

To arrive at these figures we have assumed that the amount of timber to be found on the total
forest area reported, as given in the preceding table, may be set, as an average for every acre, at
4,000 feet B. M. for the Southern States, 6,000 feet for the Northern States, somewhat less than
20,000 feet for the Pacific coast States, and 2,000 feet for the Rocky Mountains.

We admit that these are only guesses based upon personal observation, conversation with
lumbermen, and such incomplete records as could be inspected. It is believed that the figures
are leaning toward overstatement rather than the other way. For the purpose of estimating
thé likelihood of continued supplies these figures will suffice to show that the resource is easily
exhaustible. When it is considered that the bulk of the most important supplies (the coniferous
trees) is to be found in the far West, thousands of miles away from our centers of civilization, the
aspect of the economic conditions is not assuring.

As to replacement, by young growth, of supplies cut, the possibility of estimate even is pre-
cluded, and we can only state in general that by culling the valuable kinds and leaving the tree
weeds to occupy and shade the ground, as is done through all the hard-wood region, the reproduc-
tion of valuable species is almost prevented; that the reproduction from the stump in the coppice,
which occupies the largest share of the forest area of New England and the Eastern Atlantic
States, does not furnish saw material, but only firewood and small-dimension stuff; that much of
the young growth of valuable kinds, especially the pines in the South, which, if left undisturbed,
would readily and rapidly fill the gaps, is burnt again and again by recurring fires, the same cause
sweeping out of existence not only the young growth but the standing timber on the Pacific slope
and the Rocky Mountains.

For a more complete description of a specific area, the State of Wisconsin, its past and present
forest conditions and future promises, we refer to the following extracts from Bulletin No. 16 of
the Division of Forestry, giving in detail the results of a survey of the forestry conditions and
interests of that State by Prof. Filibert Roth, made in 1898. It is a typical picture, which will
serve in its general aspects for the entire great lumbering section of the Northwest.

FOREST CONDITIONS OF WISCONSIN.
PHYSIOGRAPHY.

The part of the State lying north of a line from Green Bay to St. Croix, with the counties of
Portage, Wood, and Jackson as southern outposts, contains practically the entire stand of lumber-
size timber of both pine and hardwoods in Wisconsin. Nine-tenths of the area presents a broad
slope rising from southeast, south, and southwest to a flat divide which runs east and west close
to Lake Superior, and one-tenth is occupied by a steeper slope from this divide to the lake. About
43 per cent of this area is formed by an upland plain with low flats, not over 5 per cent is hilly,
and the rest is ordinary rolling country with considerable areas of low but steep rolling, ‘< choppy,”
<¢ pot hole,” or “ kettle ”Jand. The drainage is mostly excellent in spite of the fact that this area
contains over a thousand lakes and is nearly 12 per cent swamp land. Over a large part of the
territory it is impossible to get 5 miles away from a driving stream, and nearly all creeks have
ample fall. Over 25 per cent of the area is drained by the Chippewa and its tributaries, about 21
per cent by the Wisconsin, and 14 per cent by the St. Croix.

The soil and subsoil of about 56 per cent of this territory is a deep gray loam, more or less
mixed with gravel; a deep fertile red clay skirts Lake Superior and sandy lands fringe its southern
and southwestern edge, while three large islands of sandy land, one on the upper St. Croix,
another on the head waters of the Wisconsin, and the third stretching from the Menominee to

138 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Lake Shawano, interrupt the loam land area. Classed from the farmer’s standpoint, about 22 per
cent of the land must be called good farm land, about 40 per cent medium, while fully 37 per cent
should never be cleared of woods. The climate is cold, winters long, spring nearly wanting,
summer short but warm, and fall long and cool. As indication of the climate it may be said that
hickories practically do not occur; that white oaks are restricted to the southern and drier western
parts; ordinary corn does not usually ripen in the greater portion of the territory, and apple
trees have so far largely failed even in the more southern counties.

OWNERSHIP.

Of the 18,500,000 acres of territory under consideration less than 7 per cent is cultivated,
about 24 per cent held by actual settlers, little more than 1.5 per cent belongs to the State, nearly
5 per cent to the United States (2 per cent to Indians), little over 5 per cent to railway companies,
and hardly 1 per cent is held by the counties, who are all anxious to rid themselves even of this
small bit of communal property. Of the remaining 63 per cent lumbermen own about 80 per cent,
i. e., 50 per cent of the entire area, or about 25 per cent of the area of the entire State belongs to
them.

THE FOREST AS IT WAS.

Formerly nearly all of the 27 counties were covered with one uninterrupted forest, and only
along the southern and southwestern limits did this forest give way to oak and jack pine openings
and brush prairies. On the gray loam lands was a mixed forest of hardwoods and white pine; on
all sandy lands and also on most of the red clays of Lake Superior it was pinery proper, i. e., a
forest of pines, principally white pine, some Norway, and small amount of jack pine, without
hardwoods of lumber size. In the eastern half, which is more humid, the hemlock grew among
the hardwoods on most of the gravelly clay and loam lands, but, like white pine under these same
conditions, it was found chiefly as mature timber, often nothing bué old large trees scattered among
the hardwoods, or here and there in compact bodies or groves, without any young growth to
indicate active reproduction. Evidently both were here losers in the general struggle for posses-
sion of the ground. Besides these three main conifers the balsam and spruce occurred thinly
scattered, the latter chiefly in swamps. Most swamps were then timbered, the cedar prevailing
in those of the Green Bay region; both cedar and tamarack together, one or the other alone, but
more commonly mixed, occupied the majority of swamps, while the tamarack, commonly as a pure
but small growth, occupied all those of the southern and southwestern part, and even stocked the
openings.

The hardwood forest, heavier, denser, and composed of larger trees in the southern part, and
on better soils, while quite thin and scrubby northward and on the lighter gravel lands, was made
up of a small number of kinds. Its character varies on the two sides of nearly the same line
which limits the hemlock. On the south and west of this line it was an oak forest in which both
white and red oak were abundant, oak was predominant, and the birch scarce or wanting; on the
north and east of the line birch was the principal hardwood; the white oak was almost wanting,
the red oak scattering, and often for many miles the forest was without an oak of any kind or size.
Of the other hardwoods, basswood and maple were generally and rather evenly distributed; elm
in very variable proportions occurred in most hardwood forests, while ash, generally black ash,
was mostly confined to the low flats and swamps.

THE FOREST AS IT IS.

At present the pine is largely cut both from the mixed forests and in the pinery; entire uncut
or virgin townships scarcely exist, and in every county large and small] ‘pine slashings” or
“‘stump prairies” are met. In the hardwoods, the oak and basswood, and to some extent the elm,
have been culled over large tracts, and entire counties, like Wood and Barron, have been logged
over (not logged clean). Besides this the hardwood and still more the hemlock, about most pine
slashings, but especially on all lighter soils where the pine predominated, have suttered from fire,
and over large areas they are entirely fire killed. Many if not most of the swamps have been
burned over, and present all stages from the dense green swamp forest to a bewildering tangle ot
charred masses of dead and down timber. It is estimated that about 8,500,000 acres, or 45 per
cent of the total area, is cut-over land, most of which is also burned over and largely waste,

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FORESTS OF WISCONSIN. 139
PRESENT SUPPLIES.

Considering present supplies of pine, over 80 per cent of which are owned by Jumbermen, it
must be borne in mind that in spite of many years of logging but few townships of the better
stocked regions, outside of settlements, are logged clean, and counties like Chippewa, Clark,
Wood, and Marathon still continue to furnish large quantities of pine logs of all sizes, for it is not
so much a lack of good logs as the fact that of late everything is cut clean which has reduced the
average size of log to nearly half what it was twenty years ago. It is especially the fragmentary
condition of the forest which makes general or wholesale estimates difficult, and causes the
opinions on pine supplies to vary within such wide limits. ‘Most men know little about what
their neighbors have,” and ‘‘the man whose pine supply is nearly at an end, and who finds it hard
to buy more stumpage, thinks that everybody shares his trouble.” These two statements, vari-
ously expressed, may be heard in many places, and fully indicate the difficulty.

The following figures of merchantable supplies still standing, secured by the methods above
indicated, are probably quite near the truth, though the total appears still somewhat conservative:

Standing pine, hemlock, and hardwood saw timber in the State of Wisconsin in 1898.

| 7
Million feet B. M. | | Million feet B. M.
County = | County. |
Pine. Hemlock. | Hardwood. Pine. | Hemlock. | Hardwood.
|

JAS MEME no cooscacosoaonccocesssce 300 300 600 || Marinette.......-.....-....-.... 1, 500 240 240
IVAN. anon macesseboccesooc sesece 1G) Ee cemandcoss 260 || Oconto --.---- ee 100 320 280
LPI ~ comenatesocoscencocodsss 000 Oneida. .-.-.- - 1, 000 10 24
IOMNti=cconacocecQSoabocoeoaan[s Polke eeea= PW) \oodosbeeeae 300
Chippewaene eee eee Portage. .-.- 50 50 50 100
Olena - -cesdonasesteaacbancooEdens Price-....- 200 500 500
DOWER) sgecacosnascosccoscsssce5 Sawyer -- 1, 500 480 960
WH scoSésocosacseeseoaceroosaccs Shawano 300 550 550
Eau Claire a - Taylor. 200 950 950
Florence -.- Wailasinasen 1, 500 120 350
Forest Washburn Ba) loscoddadéoas 220
Tron ..- Wood..-- 100 40 300
Jackson - Pierce and St. Croixa........---|------------ |------------ 300

Langlade — 7
Lincoln Total seesssoe ee eae 16, 665 | 7, 640 18, 889

Marathon

a Eau Claire is only considered for its pine and St. Croix and Pierce only for hardwoods—the three counties being really outside of the
scope of this work.

The detailed estimates given by woodsmen of hemlock and still more of hard woods, vary
much more than those of pine. Lack of experience in hard wood, custom of estimating only certain
kinds, and discriminating selections in the hardwood markets, which consider only the better
sizes or qualities, have led to great differences in figures on yield. The general results above
given are very conservative for both hemlock and hard woods in spite of the fact that they represent
rather the higher than the average estimates. A more correct view of present supplies may be
obtained from a study of the following figures, in which all the woed supplies are arranged in
three classes, a portion of the hemlock which, at present rating, is not real saw timber being thrown
together with the cedar and part of tamarack and jack pine as a second class. Of these figures
it may be said that of the 92,000,000 cords of hardwood fully one-third, or 30,000,000 cords, an
equivalent of 15,000,000,000 feet B. M., might still be placed with saw timber.

Wood supplies classified.

Secondary | Secongary
q, P timber. PRE ante imber.
Character of wood. Soy uit Bolt sizes, | Cord wood Character of wood. Sen Bolt sizes, | Cord wood.
ib post, poles, | g post, poles,
ties, etc. | | ties, etc.
enews | ~ as = | = — =
Million Million | Million Million
CONMEBOL fect BOM. | feeteBeM. || Mattions. | feet B.M. | feet B. M. | Millions.
White pine -...--.-.- | 14, 500 1) Oakes tectioe se seacisaesets a there 0 '
2, 200 Basswood me 5
seseeee| Birch
IDEN Sooo 92, 000
PAS Dee
|, Maple ---
Sprnee J Soastesnna Otherseeeeeeee eee ear eee eri
1 BESO dob CB EE coco CRCEaas| HEC aDE EE Eee —_|-—_
ate —_—. Motalieeass sete saeco ae 14, 000 }.----.------ 92, 000
WUE ~ sec snoecbaoceescaenss 24, 500 = =
| Grand total.--.-.----..--- 38, 500 6, 900 104, 000

140 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The above estimates of jack pine, spruce, balsam, tamarack, and cedar must be regarded as
rough approximations, since the areas stocked with these timbers are very difficult to ascertain.

What these supplies of pine have been in the past may be inferred from the following caleu-
lations, the basis for which have been verified for large areas on the Chippewa, Black, Wisconsin,
and Wolf rivers, and may be supposed to understate the truth by at least 10 to 15 per cent.

Probable original stand and present stand of merchantable pine in the State of Wisconsin.

Number |yielaper| Vieldon | river im | Prosent
= P eld per ie! ver -
liver basin. of tomas hea are. per cent | stand. temarks.
SURE, of total.
|
| Million feet. Millionft.
THEO Reagonoeceningcasodioorasesnccesancoseacgsose2 40 225 8), 6.9 270
St. Cro 100 125 12, 500 10.7 3,560 | Contains much jack-pine barrens.
Red Ceda: Stes 40 200 8, 000 6.1 475
Chippewa . SSsoqseneceoconanaat oon desocosecs 175 200 35, 000 26.7 3, 000
WAGE 6 occas sssceascsesosesdpsossseracse2er5 172 175 30, 100 22.9 2,575 | Includes heavy hardwood forest.
A /Oeesean Ses U psoas seodenaeesoaSe chocdacesosue 60 125 7, 500 by, Uf 470 | Much hardwood forest.
OW cacaseceosa ceases stoosose once eoSscsoNTs 28 125 3, 500 2.3 150 Do.
Peshtigo Bodsacsotsnon ae 27 150 4, 050 3 500
Menominee -.--.---- 9 47 150 7, 050 5.4 1,500 | Only Wisconsin side.
Rivers to Lake Sup a 76 150 11, 400 8.7 4, 200
Rivers to Green Bay 7 200 1, 400 La Barer
DUH. ceo socennnocetosnacos Sodesssesbecse4 WZ ||sssencoacs 1295 5000 See ea 16, 700

Of these 129,500,000,000 feet there is approximately—
Billion feet.

Standing at present....-...----.------------------------------------------------+----------- 16.7

(Clritn lose INE) ere WER io cas cease conanoeneeseecosen seccosecseth cseseotesosb sousca cesens 66

ee ein THO iy UE 2. coe sbs be casseneseoensesd oSsn SosSne osceds cobece sceoosoaESse oSoess 20
“ual rou uOGl IRD Hag oe sesmoboadodacse Son SRS saoSsoGhosoo asaacs seasSn Senses NSESododse 102.7

Leaving a balance of nearly 27,000,000,000 feet wasted, to which must be added several
billions as growth since 1840. Of this enormous waste certainly more than 60 per cent, or
about 20,000,000,000 feet, is due to fire, the rest falling to storms, old age, and waste in cutting.
This is white pine only.

Besides this injury to pine, fire has killed more than 5,000,000,000 feet of hemlock, at least
1,000,000,000 feet of cedar, and several billions of hard woods, besides large quantities of tama-
rack, and in addition has killed stands of young sapling pine (under 8 inches diameter) covering
many thousand acres which to-day would furnish 5,000,000,000 feet and more of merchantable
material.

PRESENT GROWTH.

The amount of timber which at the present time is growing each year on the stocked portion
of this area may very safely be placed at about 925,000,000 feet Bb. M., and is distributed among

the several kinds of timber as follows:
Million feet.

Wihite;and Norwarys pines sss sae = ee sees ee ee ee eee erie eae fae eee a aie ole ete eee eee 250
VEO Win ps ABE ae RRS eee Bee ane Sones Ao sa Beas nabs Hep peniconSae dansbecbopse s4ypeso ooeHESeeise 30
15 Kai) (oe) gaa ee ey hn ia are hea Shs eer ien Soo tetio Sane HOSS 75
Mama arae eee 25 wars oe Seis, 5 Se tec Ree Sea ers ten I oS ee a 30
Cedar eae <siiecis clink aedhe mete oe § RE eee re a eS Se A Re a as Sec et ere 20
Sprucetandshalsamt.¢ 22642. csepaete ee oles ek Seale tee ee ate eo eee IIA ere ete ore ee eee Seer 20
FRAT OG WOOGS A Yet as sehesatice saan Sasees Se Saisisis octane See Beane Sea ee Ce eee en eee eee eee eee 500

Mota eisne goes Seles wciceg sshd Saree ea eS Oe See ate ee ec eae pee ore 925

Of this growth the greater part is balanced by decay or natural waste, which in all wildwoods
necessarily equals growth when large areas and long periods are considered. For white pine,
Norway, and jack pine, also for tamarack and cedar in Wisconsin, nearly half the present growth
takes place in forests of young, immature timber, since this largely prevails. With the old pine
mixed in the hard-wood forest, and especially with hemlock, decay proceeds faster than growth;
for spruce and balsam an increase can hardly be assumed, and even in the hardwoods the growth
and decay is practically in a state of equilibrium.

FORESTS OF WISCONSIN. 141

PRESENT EXPLOITATION AND MARKET,

At the present time logging of pine is going on in nearly every part of this territory. The
average annual cut for the last ten years has been about 3,000,000,000 feet; and pine land, pine
stumpage, and logs find a ready market everywhere.

Hemlock is peeled to quite an extent, the bark being mostly used by local tanneries; sinall
quantities are cut to lumber, chiefly dimension stuff, and considerable quantities are converted
into railway ties, mining timber, etc., and also into pulp, but on the whole this material is still
very much underrated.

The hardwoods are logged and sawn mostly on a small scale. Several hundred small mills
are cutting hardwoods, mostly into lumber, much into special sizes and shapes, and large quantities
are used for cooperage and wagon stock. Exact figures of the total annual cut in hardwoods are
wanting, but 500,000,000 feet is a safe estimate. Spruce and to a less extent balsam are bought
for pulp; cedar finds ready market and is extensively cut everywhere for posts, poles, ties, and
shingle timber, but tamarack still remains tabooed, and even sappy Norway poles for piling are
preferred to this much superior material so that but little tamarack is cut.

From tables just published by the Northwestern Lumberman the following approximation of
consumption of lumber is derived. This does not take into account all the scatterred domestic
consumption and remains as all such statistics necessarily do, somewhat below the truth:

White pine, Norway pine, and hemlock lumber cut in Wisconsin in 1897.

| {
Locality. Lumber. | Shingles. Lath. Locality. Lumber. | Shingles. Lath.
|
M. feet. | Thousand.| Thousand. | M. feet. Thousand. | Thousand.
Black River --------- , 167, 455 65, 943 25,003 || Ashland district..... an 265, 350 30, 764 15, 068
Wisconsin Centra 134, 132 35, 967 14,478 || East central Wiscon 36, 670 47, 343 3, 670
Chicago, St. Paul, | \| Mills below Minneapolis a 228, 800 70, 000 50, 000
and! Omaha ..-------- It 185, 203 45, 744 33,931 || West Superior district - < 96, 000 11, 000 7, 000
Minneapolis, St. Paul, and S$ WestiCroixmValleyOn eso ose oa. 100, 000 25, 000 20, 000
Ste. Marie (Soo) -------- a 5, 217 10, 000 §, 300 || Green Bay shore at Menomineec 167, 000 65, 000 30, 000
Wisconsin Valley ---- “ 398, 744 85, 920 51, 634 || Mills below Menominee ......-. 129, 000 41, 000 18, 000
Chippewa Valley ...-.-..-.------ 274, 879 138, 382 55, 250 - - |
Ashland Branch, Chicago and \| Motalees ara secn sce nesses 2, 359, 968 750, 724 345, 548
Northwestern ----------------- | 126, 518 78, 661 | 15, 214 || |
a One-third of total cut reported credited to Wisconsin. vb One-half of total cut reported credited to Wisconsin.

e Proportion of cut credited to Wisconsin.

Nore.—Of the above total cut, 125,000,000 feet was hemlock. Besides this there is more than one-quarter billion feet of hardwoods
recorded from mills, which can safely be increased to half a billion for unrecorded cuts at small country mills in the woods.

FUTURE OF PINE MILLING.

How long the present supply of pine will last is impossible to foretell. As the price of
stumpage increases and the number of owners (and with this the opportunity to buy pine)
decreases, one mill after another drops out. With the concentration of ownership a reduction in
output will be the consequence which will continue to the last (if a “last” there be), so that even
the present stand is likely not to be cut out in eight to ten years, as might be inferred from a
comparison of present supply and cut, but may easily last twenty and more years.

FOREST AND COMMONWEALTH.

The importance of the forest for the State of Wisconsin is very great, and the statement that
“the forest industries have built every foot of railway and wagon road, nearly every town, school,
and church, and cleared half of the improved land in north Wisconsin,” is by no means an
extravagant exaggeration.

In 1890, according to the census, the forest products at first hand, including lumber and all
sawn timber; ties, hewn and round timber (not saw logs), poles, piling, posts, etc.; cooperage,
furniture and wagon stock in the rough, and not including tan bark, pulp wood, and the immense
quantities of timber used for firewood, fencing, and farm use and construction, represented the
enormous sum of $40,400,000.

If to this is added only $10,000,000 as representing the value of the wood for home use, fuel,
fencing, farm construction, etc., the products of the forest at first hand equal in value one-third
of the products of agriculture. And to these alone they are really comparable, since in most

142 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

manufactures large quantities of material appear repeatedly, often with slight or no modifications,
as output of the same manufacture, as when a piece of costly sheet metal is first credited to the
rolling mill, then to the tank or boiler maker, who merely cuts and rivets it into shape, and finally,
without any modification at all, reappears as part of a distilling outfit or steam machinery, and
thus the same highly manufactured article appears three separate times as items of the iron
industry.

The sawmilling industry of the State alone represents a capital of about $84,000,000, or equal
to more than one-eighth of the total valuation of taxable property of the State. The same
industry pays a tax of $681,000, a sum equal to half the entire State taxes. It pays $3,000,000
for running expenses aside from wages, more than $15,000,000 for wages and contracts for bring-
ing the raw material to the mill, besides expending nearly $1,000,000 for the maintenance of teams.

Besides these establishments, active in the mere exploitation of the woods, there are planing
and pulp mills, furniture, cooperage, carriage, and car shops, the value of whose finished products
in wooden materials amount to over $25,000,000 per year. The greater part of these is directly
dependent for continuance on the forest supplies of the State.

FORESTS AND WATER FLOW.

The value of the forests in tempering the rigors of a northern continental climate and in
maintaining a more uniform water flow by regulating drainage conditions can not here be consid-
ered; suffice it to say that the Fox River is failing, that the ‘June freshets,” formerly a regular
phenomenon of all the driving streams of this area, no longer occur, that hundreds of small
swamps have become fields and meadows without a foot of ditching, and that miles of corduroy
roads and roadways paved with poles and logs remain as unused relics, reminders of a moister
state of things.

FUTURE OF SUPPLIES AND MILLING.

What the future will do for these important forests is difficult to say. That the pine forests
are fast disappearing, that the hardwoods are being cut and their productive area reduced, is
evident to everyone.

A closer examination shows that the hemlock growth can not be depended upon to continue
itself by unaided natural reproduction. It has failed to reproduce for along time. It also appears
that the hardwoods, though perfectly able under normal conditions to hold their own and continue
as forests, have not done so; that, especially on all lighter soils, the burned over lands are covered
with runty, unpromising remnants, unable to keep out weeds and grass from the soil, injured by
fire, and scarcely able to maintain the semblance of a woodland.

That pine, especially white pine, is perfectly capable not only to continue as forest, but also
to reclothe old burned-over slashings on all kinds of soil, is amply proven by the numerous extensive
young groves which may be seen, especially about Shawano, Grand Rapids, Black River Falls, and
along the Wisconsin and Chippewa, and which occur in every county of north Wisconsin, probably
aggregating not less than 200,000 acres. But it is equally certain that the great mass of pine
slashings have remained and will continue to remain barren wastes, and that of the 8,000,000 acres
of cut-over lands in north Wisconsin not one-tenth is stocked with growing timber. And even the
swamp woods have no future, for it is here, among the tall marsh grass and masses of dead poles,
that most of the fires start.

WHAT IS LOST TO THE STATE.

In this way an area now measuring about 8,000,000 acres and rapidly increasing in extent
remains unproductive. Counting only 20 cubic feet, or 100 feet B. M., as the annual growth per
acre on lands entirely without any care save protection against fire, the State of Wisconsin loses
annually by this condition of things 800,000,000 feet B. M. of marketable saw timber; nor is this
all, for even with primitive management this amount could largely be increased.

RESUME OF CONDITIONS.

We have, then, briefly, the following state of affairs: Of the 18,500,000 acres under considera-

rn

tion not more than 7 per cent are under cultivation; the balance is forest, brush, swamps, or

FORESTS OF WISCONSIN. 143

waste. About 8,000,000 acres are cut over and practically exhausted for the present. Of available
timber supplies a round 30,000,000,000 feet B. M. of coniferous material and some 14-,000,000,000
feet of hardwoods, besides 100,000,000 cords of cordwood, are to be found on the 9,000,000 acres
remaining.

The present consumption of saw timber alone may be set down as over 3,000,000,000 feet, not
including railroad ties, pulp wood, posts, poles, and other bolt-size material, while the cut of
coniferous material alone for the year 1897 may be placed at 2,500,000,000 feet B. M. The wood
consumption altogether equals in value one-third the products of agriculture in the State. The
lumber and wood-working industries relying upon this crop represent a capital of over $100,000,000,
the lumber mills alone paying half the State taxes, and in wages and running expenses over
$25,000,000. Not less than 20,000,000,000 feet of pine timber have been wasted by fires since
lumbering began, about sixty years ago. The detrimental influence of forest destruction on
waterflow of rivers is unmistakable.

As to the condition of the forest and cut-over lands, it may be stated that there are no entire
townships which remain unculled and in virgin condition. Of the 8,000,000 acres of cut-over land
not one-tenth is stocked with growing timber, and this whole acreage has become unproductive.
About 500,000 acres comprise the really promising young pine growths in parcels of any extent.
While pine reproduces wherever fire does not prevent, the great mass of pine slashings have
remained and will continue to remain barren wastes under the present policies.

WASTE LAND AND AGRICULTURE.

The injunction that this land is needed for agriculture, that it soon will all be settled, and
that even the sandy soils produce potatoes and are profitably farmed by improved methods may
well be answered by a concrete case: The old settled counties of Waushara, Adams, and
Marinette have an aggregate area of 1,144,000 acres, their improved land amounts to 340,000
acres, leaving fully 70 per cent, or 804,000 acres, in brush and waste lands. In 1895 these counties
supported wood industries whose products amounted to the pitiful sum of $13,000, and probably
the material for these was imported, instead of having 80,000,000 feet of pine to sell, which, under
simple methods of care, might have been derived from these brush and waste lands.

How soon the 17,000,000 acres of wild land in northern Wisconsin will be settled and improved
no one can tell. The likelihood is that at least 10,000,000 acres, and among these much of the
best lands, will remain unproductive brush land for fifty years to come.

Remedies.—What advantage it is to the county and State to have unproductive sand lands
settled by poor and ignorant people and support farms “without barns” can not here be discussed.
In the same way it is not here contemplated to enter into the question of communal property, i. e.,
whether it might not be well for a county, which can get land for the mere taking, to hold a few
townships as county forest, and have these county forests at least defray the county expenses,
giving at the same time work to many people.

What can be done to save the enormous loss to the State is clear—the land must be restocked
and young timber must be given a chance to grow. What the fire has done to the pine supply is
apparent from the conservative figures of original stand of pine.

This same work of destruction continues during this very fall (1897); many hundreds of acres
of young sapling pine were ruined by fire, and it will require many years before the opening up
of settlements and roads suffices to suppress the fire fend. From this it is clear, and the fact is
fully conceded by all persons conversant with the conditions of these woods, that the first and
most important step in the right direction consists in the proper organization of an efficient fire
police.

That a diversity of opinion as to the methods and even the possibility of suppressing the fires
should exist is but natural. To most people the entire subject is foreign, the problem too large;
to many even well-informed and experienced men the forest fire is an enormous affair, a calamity
which man is entirely unable to combat. Nevertheless, the best informed men, nearly all woods-
men (“eruisers” and loggers), whose opinions were sought in this connection expressed themselves
in favor of such a policy and certain of good results. The beginning of a forest-fire protection by
the State is laid, but it requires further organization to be successful.

144 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Without enlarging on this important subject, it may be of interest to point out a few funda-
mental facts which may help to shape a policy:

(1) All fires have a small beginning. The Peshtigo fire, by far the most terrific ever experi-
enced in Wisconsin, was known to be burning and gathering headway for fully two weeks before it
broke out in the final and then perfectly unmanageable form. The Phillips fire was heard and the
smoke seen and felt in the town for days before it reached the village and converted it into ruins.

(2) All fires stop of their own accord after they have run for but a moderate distance,
evidently finding obstacles which gradually reduce their power. The Peshtigo fire did not involve
the fourth part of Marinette, the Phillips fire not a fourth of Price County, and a most intense
fire in northern Chippewa, which when at its best sent firebrands across a lake over half a mile
wide, did not keep on running, but stopped without going much, if at all, beyond the county line.

(3) The majority of fires are small fires. _When the ‘whole country is on fire,” it is not one
fire, but hundreds of separate fires, all or nearly all of which have had their origin in carelessness.

(4) It is carelessness and not malice, and it is more carelessness of letting fires go than of
starting them, which has resulted in the enormous losses mentioned before.

(5) Forest fires are both prevented and fought successfully in the wild forests of India, as
well as in all parts of Europe, in localities where hundreds of acres of the young sapling pine with
their fine and largely dead and dried-up branches (along the lower part of the stem) stand so thick
that it is almost impossible to pass through, and where, in addition, poverty and chagrin among a
dense population living close to the confines of the woods furnish willful and malicious incendiaries.
To the greater part of opponents of a determined effort to cope with the problem, it may also be
pointed out that for this country experience is as yet almost entirely wanting; that in New York
State and in Maine the fire police has done well; that it is impossible for anyone to say at present
just how successful the fire police of north Wisconsin could be. The success depends, of course,
upon methods and organization, measures and men.

Reforestation.—W hat may be done to restock the land will vary from place to place, according
as the land is well under way to reclothe itself, or is a bare waste, or is a tangle of débris or covered,
with worthless thickets of fire-damaged woods. This work may be done at once or by piecemeal,
it may be done thorcughly or roughly, it may assist nature to a small or large degree, and any
detailed directions are beyond the scope of this report.

To those who are frightened at the mere idea of planting forests, and who scorn Huropean
methods as impracticable in this country, it may be of interest to know that in the government
forests of Saxony,which from 400,000 acres yield an annual net revenue of $1,900,000 continuously,
and where forests are largely planted with nursery stock, the sylvicultural work of planting, sow-
ing, etc., all told, amounts on an average for the entire woods to 10 cents per acre, and involves
only 6 per cent of the total expenses, all logging operations included.

Whether similar efforts will pay here as long as the land is held by private owners whose
fortunes are only of to-day, and whose heirs will prefer to parcel the land out to inexperienced
settlers, can not here be considered. The experience abroad and also in this country indicates that —
the State must at least undertake the most difficult and unprofitable parts, and that the greatest
good to the greatest number lies in State ownership of forests. New York waited a long time to see
private owners manage its woods rationally, but has found itself compelled at last to buy the land
and to establish a forest organization to keep its mountains from being converted into desert
brush lands and its streams from being alternately dry branches and mud torrents.

THE NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY.!

The most important industry in the United States concerned in the utilization of by-products
from the forest is the tanbark industry, which was at great length canvassed and discussed in
volume 3, Reports on Forestry. Next to it in importance stands the turpentine or naval store
industry, which is practically confined to the pineries of the Southern States within a belt of about
100 miles in width along the Atlantic and Guif coasts from North Carolina to Louisiana.

The importance of this latter industry is found not only in the value of its products, namely,
nearly $10,000,000 worth per year, furnishing the bulk of the naval stores used in all the world,

1 Reprinted mostly from Report of the Chief of Division of Forestry for 1892.

PLATE XXVIII.

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NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY. 145

but also in the indirect influence which this industry exerts on the condition and future of one of
our richest forest resources.

Owing to the wasteful and careless manner in which this industry is carried on and the
disastrous conflagrations that follow in its train, which destroy thousands of acres of the most
valuable timber every year, while the margin of profit to the turpentine gatherer is comparatively
small, this industry may be considered the most unprofitable to the nation at large in spite of the
large aggregate value of its products. This is not so by necessity, but due to faulty methods.
The object of this discussion is to create a more general interest in the industry, give information
regarding its methods, show its defects, and pave the way toward improvement and more rational
procedure.

One of the most important results of the investigations of the Division of Forestry was the
establishment of the fact that the bleeding of the Southern pines for the purpose of gathering
naval stores does not, as has been generally maintained, affect the quality of their timber. Even
the claim that tapped or bled trees lose their durability does not find any support in the chemical
analyses made, which seem to prove that there is no change in the condition or chemical constitu-
tion of the heartwood due to bleeding; that the turpentine collected must come from the sap,
where alone it is found in a condition permitting it to flow. Nor is there any physiological reason
for assuming any change.

~ But while there is no deterioration of the timber due to the process of bleeding, it can be said
with truth that there is no more destructive agency at work in the longleaf pineries of the South
than the turpentine industry, and that without necessity. The damage and destruction do not
result directly, although by the boxing of immature trees a considerable loss to the future is
involved, and by the crude boxing much of the most valuable part of the tree is needlessly wasted ;
but often indirectly from fires, which annually sweep the turpentine orchards and destroy millions
of feet of valuable timber, the resin collected on the scars of the trees rendering them highly
inflammable. The trees which are not killed by the fire are soon destroyed by bark beetles and
pine borers, which find a breeding place in the trees which, after the injury by fire, are blown down
by the wind. “Hence,” says Dr. Mohr, ‘‘the forests invaded by the turpentine industry present
in five or six years after they are abandoned a picture of ruin and desolation painful to behold,
and in view of the destruction of the seedlings and younger growth season after season all hope
for the restoration of the forest is excluded.”

It appears from the report of Dr. Mohr, agent of this division, that in 1890 over 2,000,000
acres of pine forest which were in orchard must have been exposed to this danger, and that every
year adds between 600,000 and 800,000 acres of new orchard.

PRODUCTS OF THE TURPENTINE INDUSTRY.

Naval stores.—Under the name of naval stores are comprised all the resinous products and
their derivatives that are gathered from coniferous trees. The name comes probably from the fact
that the bulk of these products is or was used in the economy of ship construction and ship
management, although now, with iron as a substitute for wood in shipbuilding, other industries
may consume perhaps a larger portion. These products are:

(1) Resin or crude turpentine.—This is the crude material obtained by ‘‘ tapping” or ‘‘bleeding” the trees, a
mixture of resinous material and oil of turpentine, in which the resins are partly dissolved, partly suspended.
According to the species from which it is obtained, the consistency of the resin varies, depending upon the relative
proportion of hard resin particles and oil; the more oil, the more liquid is the resin.

The ‘‘fine” turpentine or resin, which comes from larch and fir or balsam trees, is semiliquid, more or less
transparent and clear, and remains clear on exposure to the air. The “common” turpentine, which is furnished by
the other trees tapped for it, is usually not at all transparent or clear, but is semiliquid or hard, the fluidity being
lost by evaporation of the oil on exposure.

Most resins are yellow or brown in color, darkening on exposure; most of them possess a characteristic odor
and taste; they have a specific weight of nearly 1, and when hard melt readily at low temperatures. They are not
soluble in water, but readily so in alcohol, ether, or oil of turpentine; they are free from nitrogen, poor in oxygen,
and rich in carbon, and of somewhat acid reaction. With alkalies the so-called resin soap is formed.

The best grades of turpentine are usually obtained (not necessarily so) in the product of the first year, known
as ‘virgin dip” or ‘‘soft white gum;” in the following years it becomes “‘ yellow dip,” being darker colored and less
liquid every year, while “scrape” or ‘‘hard turpentine” is the product hardened on the tree and scraped off. By
distillation of the crude resin are obtained the important resinous products of trade.

(2) Spirits of turpentine or oil of turpentine.—This is the liquid distillate from the crude resin. When pure, it is

H. Doe. 181 10

146 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

a mixture of hydrocarbons of the formula C\oHis; but the impure product from the still contains also other hydro-
carbons and acids. To rectify it, it is mixed with limewater and again distilled; yet, according to the source from
which derived, the oil of turpentine possesses different qualities. Freshly prepared oil of turpentine, especially
that from virgin trees worked for the first time, is colorless, tasteless, a thin fluid, of peculiar smell, of low specific
weight (0.855-0.875), and its boiling point at 300-340° F. Most of the oils of turpentine of the trade polarize light
to the left, but the American oil polarizes it to the right, and may thereby be recognized.

The oil evaporates very readily in ordinary temperature, and by oxidation thickens until hard, becomes yellow,
and shows sour reaction. It burns with a strongly sooty flame; it is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol. It
is a good solvent for many resins, wax, fats, caoutchouc, sulphur, and phosphorus. In the arts it is used mainly for
the preparation of varnishes, in paints, and in the rubber industry. It is also used for illuminating purposes as pine
oil, or mixed with alcohol as camphene, and under other names. It has a wide use in medicine internally and
externally. It is often used in the adulteration or imitation of various essential oils.

(3) Rosin or colophony.—This is the residue remaining from the distillation of the crude turpentine or resin.
According to the nature of the crude turpentine, which depends on the number of seasons the tree has been worked
it shows different properties. It is either perfectly transparent, translucent, or almost opaque; in color, from pale
yellow, golden or reddish yellow, through all shades to deep dark brown, almost black; and of different degrees of
hardness; some soft enough to take the impression of a finger nail, and some so hard that only iron will make an
impression. ‘

The hard colophony or rosin is almost without smell or taste, of glassy gloss, very brittle, easily powdered. It
becomes soft at about 176° F. and melts between 194° and 212° F. It is soluble in the same solvents as the crude
resin; its specific weight is 1.07. Rosin is used in the manufacture of varnish, sealing wax, putty, soap, paper, etc.

In the American market the following grades are distinguished: WG—window glass; WW—water white, the
lightest colored grade, obtained from virgin dippings and under special care at the distillery; N—extra pale; M—
pale; K—low pale; I—good No. 1; H—No. 1; F—good No. 2; E—No. 2; D—good strain; C—strain; B—common
strain; A—black.

By dry distillation of the rosin are obtained the following three products:

(a) Light rosin oil, which is used in the fabrication of varnishes.

(b) Heavy rosin oil, which is used in the manufacture cf printers’ ink, machine oil, axle grease, etc.

These oils, known in commerce as pale oil, pine oil, ink oil, ete., are of a light reddish or brown color, more or

less fluorescent, with a specific gravity of 0.98 to 1; of slight odor but characteristic taste. The distillation is
‘earried on at a dull, red heat, yielding about 85 per cent of rosin oil. They are composed of a mixture of several
hydrocarbons of indefinite nature (colophene, heptin, etc.), and contain from 0 to over 15 per cent of resinous acids.
They are insoluble in water, slightly so in alcohol, can not be saponified, but form unstable compounds with slaked
lime and other bases. The rosin grease made by stirring slaked lime finely suspended in water is an excellent Inbri-
cant, adapted especially for metal bearings in machinery and wagons. Mixed with sweet oil, rape oil, or the denser
mineral oils, it is used for the preparation of lubricating oils. ‘These oils are also used in the manufacture of varnish,
in the preparation of cheap paints used to cover metal, roofs, etc.

(c) Common pitch.—This is the residue from the dry distillation of rosin; a glossy, black, brittle body, which
is used in the manufacture of the common ship-chandlers’ pitch, used for calking of vessels, shoemakers’ pitch, and
black pigments. Pitch is also obtained by boiling tar down until it has lost about one-third or more of its weight.
The navy-pitch of commerce has more or less rosin of lowest grades added to it. It commands a price of about
$1.50 per barrel.

(4) Brewers’ pitch.—This is used for pitching beer kegs and barrels, and is obtained when the distillation of the
crude turpentine is stopped, before all the oil has been distilled. It therefore contains a certain quantity of oil of
turpentine; if too much, the pitch foams when melted and imparts a disagreeable, sharp taste to the beer, while
with too little oil the pitch becomes brittle and does not adhere to the barrel. The best quality of this product is
obtained from the larch, and is produced mostly in Tyrol, but there is quite an amount of brewers’ pitch made in
the Southern pineries.

(5) Tar.—This is not exactly a by-product of the turpentine orchard, but is mostly a produet of destructive
distillation of the wood itself. Most of the tar in the United States is made in North Carolina, where the industry
has been largely carried on from earliest colonial times. In other parts of the Southern coast pine belt it is only
produced for home consumption. Perfectly dry wood of the longleaf pine—dead limbs and trunks perfectly seasoned
on the stump, from which the sapwood has rotted—are cut into suitable billets, piled into a conical stack in a
circular pit lined with clay, the center communicating by a depressed channel with a receptacle—a hole in the
ground—at a distance of 3 or 4 feet from the pile. The pile is covered with sod and earth, and otherwise treated
and managed like a charcoal pit, being fired from apertures at the base, giving only enough draft to maintain slow
smoldering combustion. After the ninth or tenth day the flow of tar begins, and continues for several weeks. It is
dipped from the pit into barrels of 320 pounds net, standard weight, mostly made by the tar burner himself from the
same pine. From one-cord of dry ‘fat’ wood or ‘‘lightwood” from 40 to 50 gallons of tar are obtained.

There is but little profit in the business, except that it employs labor in remote districts at a season (winter)
when there is but little else to do. The price of tar, at present quoted as low as $1.05 per barrel at Wilmington,
N. C., has been depressed, especially since considerable quantities of tar are produced incidentally in the destructive
distillation of wood in iron retorts for charcoal purposes.

(6) Oil of tar.—This is obtained by distillation of the tar. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with some
wood alcohol and a small quantity of creosote, often more or less covered by empyreumatic substances, with adensity
of 0.841 to 0.877. Itis used as an insecticide and for various external applications in domestic and veterinary practice.

NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY. 147

SOURCES OF SUPPLY.

Naval stores are being produced on a commercial scale mainly in Austria, France, on the
island of Corsica, in Spain, Portugal, Galicia, Russia, and the United States. The largest amount
of European turpentine comes from the black pine (Pinus laricio) and the maritime pine (Pinus
maritima). The first of the two, which yields the largest amount, is tapped especially in Lower
Austria, France, and Corsica. The latter, which does not furnish much resin, is tapped especially
in France, between Bayonne and Bordeaux, where about one and a half million acres are covered
with it; also in Spain, Portugal, and on the North African coast. In Germany, especially in the
Black Forest, the Norway spruce is tapped, but not to any great extent. In Southern Italy and
the Italian Alps the larch furnishes resin of excellent quality, although small quantities per tree
and year, which is known in trade as Venetian turpentine. Occasionally, and especially in Galicia,
Russia, the Scotch pine and fir are tapped; the turpentine from the latter species which is bled in
Alsace is known as “Strasburg” turpentine. The Hungarian turpentine, so called, comes from
the Carpathian Mountains and is derived from the pine known as Pinus pumilio.

In the United States a considerable amount of naval stores used to be collected in colonial
times from the pitch pine of the North Atlantic States (Pinus rigida); but this species has been so
far exhausted and forest conditions so changed that this industry is now practically extinct in the
North and the business of turpentine gathering is confined entirely to the South. There are three
pines in the South which yield resinous products abundantly, the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris),
the loblolly (Pinus teda), and the Cuban pine (Pinus heterophylla). The botanical features, their
distribution, value as timber trees, etc., may be found in an earlier part of this report.

The loblolly and Cuban pine yield a more fluid resin, rich in yolatile oil, which when distilled
leaves a smaller proportion of the solid rosin. The resin of these trees runs so rapidly that it is
exhausted during the first season, and hence it is not considered profitable to work them, although
they are always tapped where they are found intermixed with the longleaf pine. It is, however,
possible, nay probable, that with more careful methods, differing from those now employed, these
two species may be made more productive and that the compact forests of the loblolly in Arkansas,
Louisiana, and Texas may still become valuable sources of naval stores as well as the Cuban pine
forests of Florida.

At present the longleaf pine furnishes the bulk of naval stores, not only for the United
States, but for the whole world, the production of France and Austria, the only other producers
of naval stores, furnishing hardly one-tenth of the total production.

HISTORICAL NOTES AND STATISTICS.

The first production of naval stores from longleaf pine took place in North Carolina. The
tapping of the trees for their resin and the production of pitch and tar was resorted to by the
earliest settlers as a source of income, and during the later colonial times it had risen to a profit-
able industry, which furnished the largest part of the exports of the colony. In the three years—
1768 to 1770—88,111 barrels of crude turpentine, 20,646 barrels of pitch, and 88,366 barrels of tar
were on the average annually exported to the mother country, representing a value of $215,000 in
our present currency. Inits infancy the manufacture of naval stores was confined to the dsm
between Tar and Cape Fear rivers, with Wilmington and Newbern for shipping ports. Most of
the turpentine or crude resin was shipped to England. Later the distillation of spirits of turpen-
tine was carried on to a small extent in Northern cities as well as in North Carolina. Up to the
year 1844 fully one-half of the crude product was subjected to distillation in the latter State,
the process being effected in clumsy iron retorts. The introduction of the copper still in 1834 led
to a largely increased yield of volatile oil, and this industry received a strong impetus. The
number of stills at the ports was increased, and the production grew yet further shortly after-
wards, caused by the new demand for spirits of turpentine in the manufacture of india-rubber
goods, and turpentine orcharding was rapidly extended to the south and west of its original
limit. As early as 1832 rectified spirits of turpentine was nsed for an illuminator, and for that
purpose came into general use in 1842, either alone in the rectified state or mixed with a certain
quantity of strong alcohol, under the names of camphene and burning fluid, furnishing the
cheapest light until replaced by the products of petroleum. The large aomemnnisian of spirits of
turpentine in this way caused such an increase in its production that the residuary product, rosin,

148 PORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

was largely in excess of the demand, leading to a great depreciation of this article. The conse-
quent reduction of the profits of the business caused the transfer of the still from the place of
shipment to the source of the raw material—the forest. From that time (1844) dates the great
progress made in the expansion of this industry to the virgin forests farther south, and the
turpentine stiils inereased rapidly in number in South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and the eastern
Gulf States.

During the war of secession, when the production in the South was stopped, the turpentine
industry of France received an impetus, and that country supplied‘as best she could the deficiency.
Prices went up to five or six times their former range, namely, $25 to $30 per 100 pounds for spirits,
and $9 to $10 for pale yellow grades of rosin, $4 to $5 for inferior grades. These prices instigated
improvement of methods, such as the Hugues system, described further on, and more careful
treatment of the crop.

With the close of the war the industry revived in the United States, though the demand for
turpentine was not as great as formerly, petroleum products of various kinds having been found
to take the place of the product of the pine for many purposes. With the general extension of
arts and manufactures, however, both in this country and abroad, and new application of the
products, there has been an increasing demand both for spirits of turpentine and resin, the
exports of these alone in the year 1891 being $8,135,339 in value.

The following table of exports of naval stores has been compiled with great care by Charles
Mohr from the reports of the boards of trade, the press reports published in the several ports of
export, and partly from private information. The amounts given are not claimed to comprise the
total annual production, but will fairly represent the bulk of production in each year for the ten
or twelve years included.

Table of exports of naval stores from the markets of principal centers of production during the period 1880 to 1890.

North Carolina South Carolina Georgia 5
(Wilmington). (Charleston). (Savannah). Alabama (Mobile).
— ——— — =|}. —
Mean: Spirits | | Spirits | Shnits Spirits
turpen- | Resin. | turpen- | Resin. | turpen- Resin. | turpen- | Resin.
tine. | tine. tine. tine.
| |
Casks. | Barrels.| Casks. | Barrels.| Oasks. | Barrels.| Oasks. Barrels.
1879-80 125, 585 | 663, 967 60,000 | 259, 940 46,321 | 221, 421 25, 209 158, 482
1880-81 90,000 | 450, 000 51,386 | 231, 417 54,703 | 282, 386 25, 224 170, 616
1881-82 88,376 | 425, 925 69,027 | 258, 446 77,059 | 309, 834 30, 937 172, 438
IRSPASB) .- 255s os snosoceers tess eccorsetsosseecaessee5e¢ 87,050 | 483, 482 65,914 | 285,446 | 116,127 | 430,548 43, 870 200, 125
UGB RAUL. + so sascnicct ese dneassossemssocssaatSosessosen 78,978 | 434, 367 | 64,207 | 264, 049 129, 835 | 559, 625 41, 804 210, 512
IRBULSH oc sce sess on tone secossdoos conn oosesecsnsse 71,145 | 310, 808 44,126 | 218,979 | 121,028} 401,998 41,713 200, 688
IRBH HD. oocogscsossoansorsacesesqaosonssscosesnccnese 63,550 | 324,942 40,375 | 170,066 | 106,925 | 424, 490 38, 733 175, 817
UGB AW nono sco coc acomnesetoemeonsco esc onassos ee sesS 71,912 | 381,335 52,549 | 171,145 | 146,925 | 566, 932 40, 149 182, 955
IESE. so coso2 no ascent don sossSsossosgesessosesEcos 63,473 | 246,516 40, 253 181, 886 | 168,834 | 654, 286 28, 725 132, 055
GREER) -0.< seonones ppensSsooasasesososassosecesestenses 61,628 | 351, 827 43,127 149, 348 | 159,931 | 577,990 23, 927 106, 129
TREES ID. sc osogecossoscsnes sono ssosoosS sos ooosesogseseose- 70,289 | 385,523 49,232 | 217,865} 181,542 | 716, 658 21, 029 93, 906
Exports of tar and crude turpentine from Wilmington, N. C.
Crude | Crude
Year. Tar. turpen- |) Year. Tar. turpen-
| tine. tine.
Barrels. | Barrels. | Barrels. | Barrels.
1881-82 | 2, 323 \| TREY 5-5 scondond athenstot sean ooucoSoseesctscsc 68, 143 24, 662
1882-83 - 3,188 | 1887-88 63, 163 21, 572
1883-84 - | 31,966 || 1888-89 68, 856 18,171
1884-85 - 45, 966 |) 1889-90 71, 949 | 19, 082
1885-86 | 35, 290 | |
|

Adding to the above records the production reported from Mississippi and Louisiana, which
is said to have averaged, for the last two years, 75,000 barrels of resin and 15,000 casks of spirits,
being marketed in New Orleans, we may estimate the total production at present (1892) as round:

340,000 casks spirits of turpentine, or 17,000,000 gallons, at 35 cents ---.---.---------------------------- $6, 000, 000
1,490,000 barrels (240 pounds net)! resin of grades W W to C, or 357,600,000 pounds, at $1.80 average price

(per barrellorsper/S0spOUNds|oTOSS eee asf se) b ess sae eee een ee een eee eee eee een OS7 000

8, 682, 000

1 Lately the weight per barrel has been greatly increased, so that it now varies from 350 to 450 pounds net.

NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY. 149

From the same reports we quote the following data regarding the development of the industry
in the different States (no regular returns from any district are obtainable regarding the annual
production of naval stores derived from the longleaf pine previous to 1870):

GROWTH OF THE TURPENTINE INDUSTRY IN THE STATES.

North Carolina.—This State, the oldest site of production, took the lead in this industry up to the census year
1880. In the census of 1850 the value of these products of that year is stated at $2,476,225, and in the census of
1860 at $996,902. The production in 1870 of 75,990 casks of spirits of turpentine (equal to 37,995,000 gallons) and
456,131,388 barrels of resin valued at $2,337,300, increased in the business year ending 1880 to 125,585 casks of spirits
of turpentine and 663,967 barrels of resin of a value of $3,146,388, showing an increaso of 65 per cent in spirits of
turpentine and of 45 per cent in resin. From that year to the present a gradual decline has taken place, which, in
the year 1888-89, amounted to 50 per cent in spirits and 48 per cent in the resin. The exports in that year reached a
value of only $1,170,932. This decline is clearly due to the exhaustion of the natural resources. During the period
of ten years, from 1879-80, 1889-90, $2,114,483 worth of spirits of turpentine and resin, on the average, were each
year exported. From the returns available it appears that nearly all the tar and crude turpentine shipped to
domestic and foreign ports is produced in North Carolina. The export of these stores from Wilmington in 1889-90
amounted to 71,949 barrels of tar and 19,082 of crude turpentine, at a value of not less than $253,000.

South Carolina.—By the census of 1850, the naval stores produced in that year were valued at $235,836, and in
the census of 1860 their value is stated at $205,249.! According to the returns made to the census in 1870, 31,647
casks of spirits of turpentine and 115,945 barrels of resin were produced at a value of $779,077, rising in 1880 to
60,000 casks of spirits and 259,940 barrels of resin, at a value of $1,491,853—an increase of nearly 100 per cent in
spirits of turpentine and 124 per cent in resin. After a slight check in the succeeding year, the production shows
for the next four years an increase of 10 per cent on the average annually over the production in 1880. With the
year 1885 a decline took place; the production between that year and the end of 1890 varied between 39,651 casks of
spirits of turpentine and 218,962 barrels of resin and 49,430 casks and 217,865 barrels. The value of the products in
1888-89 amounted to $968,761. The average price of resin reached in that year the lowest figure of $1 a barrel. The
production of the same year shows a decline of 28 per cent in spirits of turpentine and 40 per cent in resin compared
with the production of 1880.

Georgia —In 1850 the naval stores produced reached a value of $55,086, and by the statements of the census of
_ 1870, 3,208 casks of spirits of turpentine and 13,840 barrels of resin, valued at $95,970, had been produced in Georgia
during that year. In the course of the following ten years the naval store industry made great progress, resulting
in 1880 in the export from Sayannah of 46,321 casks spirits of turpentine and 221,421 barrels resin, at a value of
$1,202,555, followed by a steady increase which, in 1884, exceeded the production of North Carolina during its
palmiest days, and has been constantly progressing to the present day. In the year closing 1889, the exports from
Savannah reached 159,931 casks spirits of turpentine and 577,990 barrels of resin, valued at $3,616,680—an increase
of 227 per cent in spirits turpentine and 161 per cent in resin over the production of 1880. To-day this port is the
greatest market for these stores in the world.

Alabama.—According to the statements in the census of 1850, the naval stores produced in Alabama represented
a value of $17,890, which in 1860 declined to $13,575, and in 1870, by the production of 8,200 casks spirits of turpentine
and 53,175 barrels resin, reached a value of $280,203. In 1873 the receipts in the market of Mobile had increased fully
50 per cent over those of the previous year, amounting to from 15,000 to 20,000 casks spirits turpentine and from
75,000 to 100,000 barrels resin, besides 1,000 barrels tar and pitch, of a value estimated at $750,000. In 1875 the receipts
reached a value of $1,200,000, which in the year 1879-80 was reduced to $739,000. In the year 1883 the production
had increased again to 43,870 casks spirits ttiirpentine and 200,125 barrels resin, with but slight fluctuations to the
end of 1887, indicating an increase of 59 per cent in spirits turpentine and 21 per cent in resin over the production
in 1880.

With the beginning of 1888 a decline set in. During that year the receipts at Mobile were reduced to 28,725
casks and 182,055 barrels, valued at $635,643, and still further, in 1888-89, to 23,927 casks and 106,129 barrels, of a
value of $556,399. The receipts of spirits turpentine fell that year 47 per cent, and of resin nearly 49 per cent, below
those of 1883, the year of greatest production, and the returns of the following years show still greater reductions.
This decline is to be ascribed to the exhaustion of the forests along the lines of communication by water and by rail,
and the consequent reduction in profits caused by the increased expense of transportation of the products from the
still to the shipping points, ports, or inland markets. The receipts at Mobile include all of these stores produced in
eastern Mississippi.

Other States.—In Mississippi and Louisiana this industry has not as yet reached large dimensions, while it is not
known that turpentine orcharding is carried on in the magnificent pineries of Texas. The production along the
New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad is reported to have averaged for the last two years 15,000 casks of spirits of
turpentine and 75,000 barrels of resin.

PHYSIOLOGY OF RESINS.

All coniferous trees, with the exception of those of the genus Taxus, contain in their woody
structure passages or pockets, filled with resin, known as resin ducts or resin vesicles. How and

150 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

under what conditions exactly these ducts and vesicles arise, and how and why the resin forms,
are matters still imperfectly understood. Resin passages begin to develop in the young seedling,
and even during germination; resin forms in the growing bud, however, only during normal
respiration and growth. It is, then, a product of the living plant, formed by and during its life
fanctions in the living parts of the plant; yet, as far as we know, it is a product of decomposition,
which, while perhaps not useless in the economy of the plant, seems to find no further use in the
nutrition or growth of its organs.

Resin passages arise from the shrinking away from each other of the walls of neighboring
rows of cells; an intercellular space is thus formed and gradually filled up with products of
decomposition and secretion, which we call resin. The source of these secretions is also still more
or less unexplained. In the first place it comes, no doubt, from a decomposition of the cellulose
of the surrounding cell wall; then the starchy contents of the cells themselves may change into
resin, and by oxidation of terpenes, essential oils, the surrounding cells with their contents are
liquefied and resorbed, and in this way the resin duct becomes filled and enlarged from a mere
intercellular passage to an irregular smaller or larger pocket or canal. The number, size, and
arrangement of the resin ducts and vesicles differ with different species.

The Cupressus genus all have isolated cells containing resin; some have also ducts, the
contents of which give the wood its peculiar odor, but these do not contain sufficient quantities
to permit extraction except by distillation of the wood itself. One of the Thuya tribe (Callitris
quadrivalvis), of Algiers, furnishes the white resin, known as sandarac; and the fruit of the
juniper, rich in essential oil, is used in the preparation of gin, the flavor of which is due to the oil.

The wood of the firs (Abies) does not contain any resin ducts, only isolated resin cells and
vesicles, which are found most amply in the bark, containing an oleoresin very rich in volatile oil,
and hence very liquid. The wood of the spruces (Picea) contains few, rather narrow, longitudinal
ducts, and wider lateral ducts strongly developed. The larch (Larix) contains resin ducts of very
large diameter. The largest development of resin passages, however, occurs in the pines (Pinus),
admitting extraction on a large commercial scale.

In these we find longitudinal resin ducts in greater or less abundance, according to the
species, in all parts of the annual rings, more frequently, however, in the summer wood than in
the spring wood; hence, in part, the darker coloration of the former. Those of the ducts which pass
near a medullary ray form lateral extensions along the cells of the rays, by means of which the
longitudinal ducts are more or less frequently connected. These lateral ducts extend into the
bark, where sometimes considerable pockets of resin are formed; the longitudinal ducts are,
however, the most important source of resin supply in the pine.

As we have seen, the production of resin takes place under the life functions of the tree in
the living parts. Whether, and if so how, the resin wanders in the tree is not well known. Small
amounts, no doubt, remain at the place where they were formed. Larger masses may change their
place, following the law of gravity, although the observation that leaning trees are richest in resin
on the under side does not necessarily predicate a wandering. The collection of resin in the
hollows of trees (frost pits) of the larch may not be due to a wandering of the resin, but an
emptying of broken ducts into the open spaces, in which the counterpressures otherwise existing
are relieved.

The special investigations undertaken in the Division of Forestry, and recorded in Bulletin 8,
and reproduced in a later part of this report, have shown that the quantitative distribution of
resin throughout the tree, from top to bottom, follows no law, the larger amounts being as often
found in the top or middle portions as in the butt-logs.

If the claim that the roots and base parts are richest in resin be a fact, this need not be
due to a wandering of the resin, but to more abundant production in those parts. The belief
that in trees bled for turpentine a change takes place in the distribution of resin was not sus-
tained in the investigations. It was, however, found that the heartwood of old trees contains
invariably more oleoresin than the sapwood, the largest amount relatively being found at the line
where heart and sapwood join. This would indicate an infiltration of the heartwood with resin
from the sapwood. Before, however, accepting such a conclusion, in which we would find it hard
to explain mechanical difficulties in the wandering of the resin, it would be desirable to examine
trees of different age and note the progress of resinification, and also to make further analyses on

NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY. 151

absolutely fresh wood in which the sapwood is guarded against loss of resinous contents by evap-
oration and otherwise.

Of practical importance is the demonstration, furnished in these investigations, that the resin
of the heartwood has lost its fluidity. being probably infiltrated into the cell wall, and therefore
the tapping for turpentine does not involve the resin of the heartwood or produce any change in
the same.

Concerning the conditions which encourage abundant resin production we are also in the
dark. ‘Trees standing side by side, and apparently under the same conditions, show widely differ-
ent amounts of resin. In general it may be said that light and warmth are prime requisites for
abundant resinification, hence this proceeds more rapidly in open groves than close plantations;
abundant nourishment and energetic activity of life seem also advantageous to resin production,
hence a strong, fresh, warm soil furnishes more resin than a thin and cold soil, trees with full
crown and branches more than thin-foliaged and densely crowded trees with small crowns; warm
and dry summers produce a richer flow than wet and cold ones.

METHODS OF WORKING TREES.

The methods of working trees for turpentine differ with the different species, as also in differ-
ent countries. According as the resinous contents are found mainly in the bark or in the sapwood
or in the heartwood, we may discern various methods. :

(1) Chipping; this method consists in making a scar or chip on the tree, which is annually
enlarged, and gathering the liquid turpentine at the lower end of the chip or scar in recess (box)
cut into the tree; or else, as in France, in vessels; or else by allowing the resin to dry and be
scraped, as is done with the Norway spruce.

(2) Bore-holes are applied in the tapping of larch, where the turpentine is formed or collected
in the heart.

(3) Opening the resin vesicles of the bark and gathering by hand is applied in the case of
the balsam.

The yield of resin and turpentine depends upon various circumstances besides the species from
which it is gathered, namely: (1) The dimensions of the tree; the larger the tree, of course, ceteris
paribus, the larger the yield; the yield of trees of small diameter, 7 to 10 inches, may be from one-
half to one-third of those of larger diameter. (2) The conditions of site; all elements which further
large development of the crown, mainly open and sunny position, south or east exposure, will
increase the yield. (3) The weather, and especially the temperature, during the time of gathering;
the most favorable weather is changing temperature and humidity; long-continued heat and long-
continued cold rains depress the yield, especially a cold spring predicts a poor crop; the flow of
turpentine increases from spring to fall. (4) The duration of the bleeding process; in the first two
or three years the yield is or ought to be smajler than in the following years. With the Austrian
(black) pine the maximum yield seems to be reached in the trees of smaller diameter between the
fourth and sixth years; in the trees with larger diameter, over 10 inches, between the seventh and
ninth. Trees of these species on proper sites can be utilized for thirty years, but working becomes
less profitable after six or eight years for the smaller and ten or twelve years for the larger sizes;
the expense of working growing too costly, the foliage becoming thinner, and the yield smaller.
(5) The aptitude and care of the workmen, which tells in the manner of making and enlarging the
chips and of dipping and scraping.

PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN TURPENTINE ORCHARDS.

The principles which should be observed in the chipping process, the one practiced on the
largest scale, especially on pines, are as follows:

Size or age of trees to be tapped.—There is not sufficient experimental knowledge at hand to
determine the most advantageous size of trees for tapping, either as far as greatest annual pro-
duction of turpentine or safety to the life of the tree is concerned. The experiments on Austrian
pine, recited further on, seem to show that trees above 10 inches in diameter yield much more
than smaller trees, almost double the amount of -resin, with a higher percentage of spirits of
turpentine. It also stands to reason that the safety of the tree, where this is of moment, is better

152 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

assured in the larger tree. Generally speaking, the best time for plentiful production is neither
near the beginning nor near the end of the life of the tree, but when it is in its most vigorous
growth, and probably after it has attained its maximum annual height growth, for then its activity
is concentrated upon the development of its interior and diameter development.

If the analyses referred to before exhibit the true amounts of resin formed in the part of the
tree from which they are taken, and if our proposition be true that ordinarily resins do not wander
in the tree but remain where they are formed, then we could, by analyses of cross sections, dividing
them into periods and ascertaining the resin contents of each division, approximately determine
the period of greatest production. In view of the great variation in resin contents, a very large
number of analyses would be required to allow generalization. From those at hand it would
appear that the time of greatest production falls for the longleaf pine between the seventieth and
pinetieth years. Since, however, resin production appears to be a result of vigorous life functions,
and since wood production depends upon the same conditions, we should rather seek a criterion
for resin production in the relation of diameter to age"; that is to say, whenever the largest
amount of wood is formed in a given time—whenever * reaches its greatest value—then the largest
amount of resin is presumably also formed. Investigations in this direction are still wanting.

Another consideration is that of the value of the tree after it has been bled. Since the wood
which is formed after the bleeding either on or between the scars is of little value for sawmilling,
no trees should be bled—unless they are otherwise unfit for lumber—that will not make good
saw logs from the heartwood; that is to say, they should be at least 14 inches in diameter, so as
to furnish a log of at least 8 inches at the small end. If the diameter were allowed to increase to
at least 18 or 20 inches, probably the largest value both in resin and lumber might be attained.

In practice, various rules have found acceptance. In France 14 inches, which may be attained
in thirty years, is considered a necessary diameter in order to endure continued tapping without
injury to life; the lumber value of the maritime pine, being small, enters hardly into consideration.
In Austria the tapping is begun with trees as low as § inches in diameter, but a diameter of at
least 10 inches is preferred. With the spruce, 12 inches is considered a minimum size. In the
United States, where no regard to consequences for the tree or lumber is had, the diameter at
which a tree might be tapped is gauged by the amount of resin obtained in proportion to the labor
expended. Until lately small diameters were avoided, but now any tree capable of carrying a
bore is tapped and the ruin of the future of the industry prepared by this malpractice.

Size and number of scars and progress of chips.—Regard to the life of the tree and the length
of time for which it is expected to produce, on one hand, and the rapidity with which the largest
amount of resin can be extracted in the shortest time, on the other hand, determine the size
and number of scars inflicted simultaneously. Although the resin itself is or seems to be of no
particular use to the tree in its vital functions, by laying bare a part of the cambium and young
wood a diminution of the flow of water to the crown, and of nutritive material downward, must
be induced. As a result the foliage must suffer in proportion, and with it not only the life of the
tree, but also the production of additional resin, which is produced in quantity only in vigorously
growing trees with a luxuriant foliage. Hence both the life of the tree and the total yield of resin
may be curtailed by too many and too large scarifications.

Since there is a relation between the amount of active foliage on each side of the tree and the
activity in the cambium on the same side (one-sided crowns produce one-sided annulation), it
stands to reason that a larger product can be obtained for a longer time by inflicting a number of
smaller scars than by making a large scar on one side of the tree, which is bound to reduce the
activity of the foliage on that side, and thereby the production of additional resin; not that the
dripping itself increases the production of new resin, as has been sometimes thought, but new resin
is formed every year in proportion to the activity of the foliage, and hence by impairing this activity
the amount of new resin in the new wood is reduced.

As we have shown, the resin which the orchardist takes from the tree, in the longleaf pine,
at least, comes alone from the sapwood, the heartwood being impregnated with nenfluid oleoresin
and not contributing toward the flow. The resin tapped is not only that which was deposited in
the sapwood in former years, but also that which is formed during the years of tapping by the
growth of the tree; hence sufficient amount of active cambium and young wood should be left
untouched to permit a plentiful supply of water from the ground and vigorous function of the

NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY. 153

foliage, and the size of the oue scar, or the sum total of all the scars, if several, should stand in
a certain relation to the circumference or diameter of the tree.

For the size of the scar three dimensions are to be determined—breadth, depth, and height.
Breadth and depth should be determined by the considerations just stated. As far as product is
concerned there is nothing gained—at least in our pine—by cutting deeper than the sapwood, since
the heart is inoperative. The breadth may be larger or smaller according to whether the tree is
expected to yield resin for a long time or is to be depleted as fast as possible. In the former case
the sear should not be wider than can conveniently callous over in a few years’ rest, so as to permit
new scars to be opened after the rest without any diminution, so to say, of conducting cell tissue.
In the latter case, i. e., when the largest amount of resin is to be obtained in the quickest time,
without reference to the life of the tree, only enough cambium need be spared to sustain the tree
alive during the period which it takes to carry the chip advantageously to the greatest practical
height. In this case, to be sure, only the resin already formed in the sapwood is being drained,
no new additions coming from the growth during the years of tapping. The greater the breadth
of the chip the greater, no doubt, the momentary discharge. The height of the chip, in the pines
at least, should be determined by the following considerations: The resin drains from the longi-
tudinal resin ducts which are cut through, by the law of gravity, until by the volatilization of the
solvent oil of turpentine the hardened resin stops the flow; hence regard to plentiful production
dictates as low a chip to begin with as is possible to collect from. A high chip at first and rapid
chipping afterwards is a useless waste of good material, without any benefit, since the flow depends
only upou the number of resin ducts cut through radially.

In practice the French have come nearest a rational size of the scar, not allowing it to be
more than 4 to 5 inches wide and scarcely one-half an inch deep, beginning with a height of not
more than 4 inches and progressing afterwards with the greatest care very gradually. With such
chips it is possible to bleed the trees without detriment for their whole natural life. In Austria
the size is extravagant, namely, widening to two-thirds of the circumference, although the height
is at first started with only 2 inches. In the United States a waste of 10 inches is at once incurred
by cornering” the box, and the chip is made 12 to 14 inches wide without much reference to the
life or size of the tree, and several chips are opened on larger trees.

Method of collecting the resin.—The pocket interest of the orchardist makes it desirable to
have the largest amount of “‘dip”—that is, liquid resin—and the smallest amount of “scrape,” or
hardened resin scraped from the surface of the scar, for the former contains larger amounts of the
more valuable oil which has been evaporated from the latter by exposure to the air, as the resin,
in a thin layer, runs to the receptacle. It is therefore advantageous to reduce as much as
possible the distance between the place at which the resin exudes and the receptacle and also to
concentrate as much as possible into one channel the flow of resin.

The American practice, it will be seen, is entirely faulty in this respect, and the Austrian not
much better, the French alone being rational.

Frequent collection from receptacles at the trees also reduces loss from evaporation. Clean-
liness—keeping impurities, sand, chips of bark, and wood out of the receptacles—is reflected in
the better grades of the product. Scraping should be done as rarely as possible, since it injures
the tree, and after the resin is once hardened the loss of oil by exposure is only insignificant.

TURPENTINE ORCHARDING IN AMERICA.

The American practice of boxing and chipping is thus described by Dr. Charles Mohr, agent
of the Division of Forestry:

In the establishment of a turpentine orchard and still two points must be considered, namely, (1) proper facili-
ties of transportation to shipping points for the product, and (2) a sufficient supply of water for the condenser con-
nected with the still. The copper stills generally in use have a capacity of about 800 gallons, or to carry a charge
of 20 to 25 barrels of crude turpentine. For such a still to be charged twice in twenty-four hours during the work-
ing season not less than 4,000 acres of pine land, with a good average stand of timber, are required. This area is
divided into twenty parcels, each of 10,000 ‘‘ boxes,” as the cavities are called, which are cut into the tree to serve
as a receptacle of the exuding resin. Such a parcel is termed a “crop,” constituting the allotment to one laborer
for the task of chipping. The work in the turpentine orchard, as such a complex is called, is started in the earlier
part of the winter, with the cutting of the boxes, Until some years past no trees were boxed of a diameter of less
than 12 inches; of late, however, saplings scarcely over 8 inches in diameter are boxed. Trees of full growth

154 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

according to their circumference, receive from two to four boxes; so that the 10,000 boxes can be said to be
distributed among 4,000 to 5,000 trees on an area of 200 acres.

The boxes are ent (see Pl. XXIX) from 8 to 12 inches above the base of the tree, 7 inches deep (b-f) and slanting
from the outside to the interior with an angle of about 35°; they are 14 inches in greatest diameter (d-e) and 4 inches
in greatest width (b-c) at the top, of a capacity of about 3 pints; the cut above this reservoir forms a gash of the
same depth and 6 to 7 inches of greatest height (a-b). In the meantime the ground is laid bare around the tree for
a distance of 24 or 3 feet, and all combustible material loose on the ground is raked in heaps to be burned in order
to protect the boxes against the danger of catching fire during the conflagrations which are so frequently started in
the pine forests by design or carelessness. ‘This work of raking around the trees is also done to give the chipper in
the performance of his task a firmer foothold on the ground than could be obtained when covered with the slippery

_pine straw. The employment of fire for the protection of the turpentine orchard against the same destructive
agency necessarily involves the total destruction of the smaller tree growth, and, left to spread without control
beyond the proper limits, carries ruin to the adjoining forests, in many instances over areas many miles in extent.
The tools used are illustrated on Pl. XXIX, and are described as follows: Fig. 1, chipper; fig. 2, pusher; fig. 3, open
hacker; fig. 4, closed hacker; fig. 5, scraper; fig. 6, puller.

With the first days of approaching spring the turpentine begins to flow and ‘‘chipping” is begun, as the work
of the scarification of the tree is termed, by which its surface above the box is laid hare just beyond the youngest
layers of the wood, scarcely to a depth of an inch from the outside of the bark. To effect this first a strip 2 inches
wide is removed, extending vertically from the corner of the box to the height of about 10 inches (‘‘ cornering”),
and then the surface between these strips is laid open. The removal of the bark and outermost layers of the wood,
the ‘‘chipping” or ‘‘hacking,” is done with a peculiar tool, the ‘“‘hacker” (Pl. 11, figs.3 and 4), a strong knife
with a curved edge, fastened to the end of an iron handle bearing on its lower end an iron ball about 4 pounds in
weight, in order to give increased momentum to the force of the stroke inflicted upon the tree, and thus to lighten
the labor of chipping. Assoon as the scarified surface (‘‘chip”) ceases to discharge turpentine freely, fresh incisions
are made with the hacker. The hacking or chipping is repeated every week from March to October or middle of
November, extending generally over thirty-two weeks, and the height of the chip is increased about 14 to 2 inches
every month. The resin accumulated in the boxes is removed to a barrel for transfer to the still by a flat, trowel-
shaped dipper (‘‘dipping”’). In the first season, on the average, seven dippings are made (from six to eight). The
10,000 boxes yield at each dip about 40 barrels of dip or soft turpentine, or ‘‘soft gum,” as it is called in Alabama,
of 240 pounds net or 280 pounds gross weight. The flow is most copious during the hottest part of the season,
July and August, diminishes with the advent of cooler weather, and ceases in October or November. As soon as
the exudation is arrested and the crude resin begins to harden, it is carefully scraped from the chip and the boxes
with a narrow, keen-edged scrape attached to a wooden handle (‘‘scraping”). The product so obtained, called
“‘serape,” or hard turpentine, or hard gum, is of a dingy white color, more or Jess mixed with woody particles and
dust, and contains only half of the quantity of volatile oil obtained from the dip or soft turpentine.

In the first season the average yield of the dip amounts to 280 barrels and of the scrape to 70 barrels. The first
yields 64 gallons of spirits of turpentine to the barrel of 240 pounds net, and the latter 3 gallons to the barrel,
resulting in the production of 2,000 to 2,100 gallons spirits of turpentine and 260 barrels of resin of higher and
highest grades. The dippings of the first season are called ‘‘virgin dip” when almost without color, and white
virgin dip, from which the finest and most highly priced quality of resin is obtained perfectly white, transparent,
showing but the faintest tint of straw color, which enters the market under the grades of ‘‘ water white” WW, and
“window glass” WG. The next grades of resin obtained by the distillation of the turpentine dipped during the
latter part of the same season, the “second virgin dip,” are of a decided straw color and designated by the letters
N. M. Kk. (See Distillation.)

In the second year from five to six dippings are made, the crop averaging 225 barrels of soft turpentine; the
scrape is increased to 120 barrels, making altogether about 2,000 gallons of spirits. The rosin, of which about 200
barrels are produced, is of a lighter or deeper amber color, and perfectly transparent, of medium quality, including
grades “1,” “H,” “G.” Inthe third and fourth year the number of dippings is reduced to three. With the slow
flow over a more extended surface, the turpentine thickens under prolonged exposure to the air and loses some of its
volatile oil, partly by evaporation and partly by oxidation. To the same influence, no doubt, the deeper color of the
crude turpentine is to be ascribed. In the third season the dip amounts to 120 barrels, the scrape to about 100 bar-
rels, yielding about 1,100 gallons of spirits of turpentine and 100 barrels of rosin of a more or less dark-brown color,
less transparent, and graded as “PF,” “Hi,” “D.”

In the fourth and last year three dippings of somewhat smaller quantity of dip than that obtained the season
before and 100 barrels of scrape or hard turpentine are obtained, with a yield scarcely reaching 800 gallons of spirits
and 100 barrels of rosin of lowest quality from a deep-brown to almost black color, opaque, and heavier in weight,
classed as “C,” “‘B,” “A.” After the fourth year the turpentine is generally abandoned.

Owing to the reduction in the quantity and quality of the raw product, resulting in a smaller yield of spirits
and of lowest grades of rosin, it is not considered profitable by the larger operators to work the trees for a longer
time. In North Carolina the smaller landowners work their trees for eight to ten successive seasons and more,
protect the trees against fire, and, after giving them rest for aseries of years, apply new boxes on spaces left between
the old chips (“‘reboxing”) with good results.

Distillation.—The process of distillation requires experience and care in order to prevent loss in spirits of
turpentine, to obtain the largest quantities of rosin of higher grades, and to guard against overheating. After
heating the still somewhat beyond the melting point of crude turpentine, a minute stream of tepid water from the
top of the condensing tub is conducted into the still and allowed to run until the end of the process; this end is

“ONIddIHQ GNV ONIXOG 4O 3dILOVYd NVOINAWY—'} ‘dI4

‘ONIGHVHOYO SNILNAdHN_L JO AOILOVYd NVOINSWY NI G3SsN S1001—'s “SI

Pp sl

‘¢“S1T

9 ‘SIA

H. Doe. 181. PLATE XXIX.

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COST OF TURPENTINE ORCHARDING. 1155

indicated by a peculiar noise of the boiling contents of the still and the diminished quantity of volatile oil in the
distillate. On reaching this point the heating of the still and the influx of water has to be carefully regulated.
After all the spirits of turpentine has distilled over, the fire is removed, and the contents of the still are drawn off
by a tap at the bottom. This residuum, the molten rosin, is first allowed to run through a wire eloth and is
immediately strained again through coarse cotton cloth, or cotton batting made for the purpose, into a large trough,
from which it is ladled into barrels. The legal standard weight of the commercial package is 280 pounds gross, no
tare being allowed.

The finest grades of rosin are largely used in the manufacture of paper, for sizing, of soaps, and of fine varnishes 5
the medium qualities are mostly consumed in the manufacture of yellow soap, sealing wax, in pharmacy, and for
other minor purposes, and the lower and lowest qualities are used for pitch in ship and boat building, brewer’s
pitch, and for the distillation of rosin oil, which largely enters into the manufacture of lubricating agents.

A turpentine distillery, on the pasis of twenty crops, can be said to produce, during the four seasons the boxes
are worked, about 2,400 casks, or 120,000 gallons, of spirits of turpentine and from 11,500 to 12,000 barrels of resin, or
2,800,000 pounds (the lowest grade BA excluded), at a value of about $60,000 at average prices. The prices of spirits
of turpentine vary from 28 cents to 40 cents a gallon, even during the same season, according to supply and demand
in the market. The quotations on December 31, 1892, at Wilmington, were 28 cents for spirits and $1.91 for resin in
the average down to grade C. The prices for different grades were per barrel: WG, $3.65; N, $3.10; M, $2.85; K,
$2.15; I, $1.45; H, $1.15; G, $0.92; I, $0.85; BE. D. C, $0.82.

Cost of establishment of plant and of working the crop.—Lands with the privilege of boxing the timber for the
term of four years are rented at the rate of $50 per crop of 10,000 boxes (about 200 acres with 4,000 to 5,000 trees).
The establisment of plant for the working of twenty crops requires an investment of about $5,000, including the
still, houses, sheds, tools, wagons, and working animals, mostly mules.

The following statement, made by an operator of many years’ experience, exhibits the actual expenses incurred
for the working of one crop during four years; the work is for the greatest part done by the job:

Ginayrpling 10,000) IhOs@S 2. -o coor nsoosd seocop socces snanededoses 9696 98am ed a2s9 6388 SSS 8G0C00 COCORE SSS OS0507 $125. 00
Inspecting and tallying the same - -----. ------ --- = --- 222 22-222 2 nn nn nn ns ass aa 15. 00
Glorsncriine 0 (00M (Oks. =. 22 coscoc aeons Hozess Bee ese020 3289 S560 cane Ron eR Sess 505999 905990 S222 9 S255 12.00
Raking around the trees, at $10 per season ---. ---- ---~------ ------ 2-202 ooo noon ron ros roses seca as anne 40: 00
Chipping boxes during 111 weeks, at $5 per week. .-.----------------- 2-22 20s00cr2 oor noo neon cons ness ss cnas 555. 00
Dipping crude resin, 650 barrels, and scraping 460 stands, at 30 cents .----..----- ---.------+----+---7-777- 333. 00
Hauling dippings and scrapings, at 30 cents per barrel ...----. .----------------- -----+ 222-22 eons ern 333. 00
Distilling at 20 cents per barrel. ------ ------~----- == 2-2 = <2 22 enn nn nn nn nn 222. 00
Spottt berms, WE), th GELS)... conse sascos ¢ao2oq o238 sen0 208e89 SeS5 945050 coes00 B2HEAE ses 509550 SaSrIESa se oSc 305. 00
Making and filling 795 barrels resin, at SYN) (NHS) ogacas enoes + cocoso suse cnecSoceos Do0aEs 2085 S96nc0 Soa E95005 238. 50
Superintendence of the crop ...-------------------+2 02-225 seen ee ero ce even trent ence oes cc can aes 80. 00
Total working expense of crop .-----------------=-+---+--22 222220 cern n tert 2, 258. 50
Rant OP Temdl Ror CO @RD concn cass sco seg cecd coos dans Gaosee bocdse BeBcioSad SaesiOceS paoEromaa=es S8s500s800 50. 00
CWS OP OND GIO cece conn cece sano Sooo poocas abo ses ONaeSR 06 cea SS5a00 GaS5 595500 adancs SaaS seesacos 2, 308. 50
Total expense of operating a plant of 20 crops during four years:

Labor,! rent and materials ......----------- +--+ ------ --- 020 7222 oon 2 nnn ro eee $46, 170. 00

Interest on capital invested, $5,000, at 6 per cent... ----------------------22 27225700 00* 1, 200. 00

Loss by depreciation of plant, 10 per cent per year for four years.---.------------------- 2,000.00

Taxes and incidentals .-+- .----+s2cee6 occe con = eee men n= nem ew en ei 630. 00

Mylo eoes esa Soso ckeoeneonass cuso sus coos consbe bepbeoGe case nSbs SBS senocs5c05 50, 000. 00

Yield.—It appears that the yield of the crop of 200 acres distributes itself about as follows:
Total
Dip. Serape. pede ara Scrape. * Spirits. Rosin.
pentine. | 77°" |
|

Pounds. | Pounds.| Pounds. | Per cent.) Per cent.| Gallons. | Per cent. | Barrels.
Wirst:year ----.c---2-+-ceees ----5-onne- ener ennaeenneneanae 67,200 | 16,800} 84, 000 30.9 20. 0 2, 100 34.4 60
Second year .... mene 54,000 | 28,000} 82, 800 30.5 34.8 2, 000 32.8 200
Third year -.--. ote .-| 28,800 | 24,000) 52, 800 19.5 45.5 1, 100 18.0 100
Ta TRH AGED? seconde pone ab bbe ecobeDocUboSecedpsecsoosebgoo=oc 28,000 | 24,000 | 52, 000 19.1 46.1 900 | 14.8 100

178, 000 98,600 | 271, 600 100. 0 29.0 | 6,100 | 100.0 669

If we assume that 4,500 trees produce these amounts in four years, the yield per tree in crude turpentine is
about 60 pounds. ‘The result at the still would indicate that each tree furnishes between 1} and 1} gallons of spirits
and one-eighth of a barrel, or 30 pounds, of rosin of better grade, or at best 75 cents’ worth of product during the
four years, which it has cost 55 cents to produce, leaving 5 cents net per tree per year, or from $1 to $1.25 per acre.

\Laborers are paid $1 to $1.25 per day; one man chips 10,000 to 12,500 boxes per week by the job. A saving is
made now in most localities in the matter of barrels and freight by using kerosene tanks on ears, holding 3,500
gallons, into which the spirits are filled d irectly from the still.

156 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUR®.

From the fact that 4,000 acres of timber land (20 erops of 200 acres each) during four years’ working produce
120,000 gallons of spirits of turpentine, or 74 gallons per acre and year, it follows that to produce the 17,000,000
gallons reported as the annual product, not less than 2,250,000 acres must be in orchard; and since the yield of the
first year represents 35 per cent of the total annual yield, at least 800,000 acres of virgin forest are newly invaded
annually to supply the turpentine stills in operation.

INSPECTION LAWS RELATING TO RESINOUS PRODUCTS.

In several of the Southern States laws have been passed regulating the inspection of turpen-
tine, etc., and defining its grades. The principal of these are as follows:

Virginia.—Barrels to be full of good, clean, sound, and merchantable tar, pitch, or turpentine, and to hold 31}
gallons.

North Carolina.—Soft turpentine barrels to weigh 280 pounds gross, and hard turpentine, 240 pounds; pitch, 32
gallons to the barrel. Turpentine, tar, or pitch to be free from fraudulent mixtures. Casks to be of good seasoned
staves, three fourths of an inch thick, and not over 5 inches wide; not less than 30 nor over 32 inches long. Heads
not less than 1 nor more than 1} inches thick. To have 12 hoops to a cask, except hard turpentine, which may have
10 hoops. Water is declared not a fraudulent mixture of tar. Tar and turpentine barrels not limited as to weight,
but the weight to be marked and certified. Turpentine to be branded “S” or “H” for soft or hard, and to show the
initials of the maker’s name. The inspector of naval stores at Wilmington is to gauge all spirits of turpentine.

South Carolina.—A barrel of crude turpentine to weigh 280 pounds gross.

Georgia.—Inspectors of turpentine, etc., may be appointed by cities, and their duties prescribed. Soft turpen-
tine to be put up in barrels, as in North Carolina, and to be branded “‘V” for virgin turpentine, ‘‘S” for yellow
dip, and ‘‘H” for hard.

Florida.—The governor may appoint inspectors of tar and turpentine. Makers required to brand their initials
on the barrels. Inspectors are to mark the products that come under their notice as follows: “‘V” for pure virgin
dip, ‘‘D” for pure yellow dip, ‘‘S” for pure scrape. If the first two of these be impure or mixed, the ““V” or ‘‘D”
to be inclosed in a circle. If the scrape is not passable, it is marked with an ‘“‘X” in a circle.

Allowances and deductions are to be made on turpentine with reference to the following particulars:

(1) When virgin dip is dipped from burnt boxes, or contains burnt cinders or sand.

(2) When virgin dip is mixed with chips, bark, or other impurities.

(3) When virgin dip is mixed with yellow dip, or scrape.

(4) When yellow dip is mixed, or contains chips, straw, bark, scrape, or sand, or other impurities.

(5) When scrape contains more chips than are absolutely necessary to get it off, or dirt, or other impurities.

(6) When yellow dip, virgin dip, scrape, or tar contains water, or there is an excess of wood in the barrels
containing it, or it is injured by long standing or leakage.

(7) When tar or turpentine of any class is contained in insufficient or unmerchantable barrels.

The size of barrels is fixed at 30 to 32 inches in length, and the weight 280 pounds gross for turpentine and 320
for tar. Allowance is to be made for deficiences, and records are to be kept, but inspection is not obligatory upon
the producers of tar and turpentine in this State.

Alabama.—Inspectors are to be appointed by the cities, and their duties prescribed by municipal law

TURPENTINE ORCHARDING IN EUROPE.

Austrian practice—In Austria it is the black pine (Pinus laricio, var. austriaca) which is
tapped for turpentine. The method is very similar to the American. In the spring, just before
the sap rises (usually in March), a box (quandel) is cut into the tree about 1 foot above the ground
(quandel). The box has about 3 inches depth and a breadth of from one-fourth to one-third of the
circumference of the tree. From the corners of this box two upward diverging channels are
notched, from the ends of which continues the scar or chip (Sache). This is made with a carved
hoe, 24 inches in width, by taking all the bark and the youngest two to four year old wood. The
chip is at first made only about 2 inches high and increased very gradually, reaching during the
first year 14 to 16 inches in height.

In the first year the chip is increased every week; in later years oftener, every four or five
days. If the chipping is delayed longer the yield is smaller, since the resin thickens and incrus-
tates the surface. The chipping is continued during eight to twelve seasons, and the chip
inereases every year at the rate of from 14 to 16 inches. The breadth remains even, and must
never be more than two-thirds of the circumference of the tree. The time of chipping is from
‘April to the beginning or the middle of October. In the first year most of the resin is liquid and
flows into the box. Later, when it has to run a longer distance, so much of the volatile oils evapo-
rates that the exudation thickens and must be scraped off the chip. So far this method does not
differ from the American method, except as to the rapidity with which the chip is increased and
the length of time the tree is worked. In order, however, to reduce the surface from which the

YIELD OF BLED TREES. 157

volatile oils may evaporate, a channel is formed near the place where the exudation occurs by
making two converging cuts and inserting two pieces of wood, which conduct the resin into a nar-
rower channel down to the box. Otherwise there seems to be no difference in the two methods.

Yield.—In experiments regarding the yield, the following results were obtained on sixteen
trees, from 90 to 110 years old, under various conditions. During nine years of chipping there
was obtained of resin (per tree and year) the amounts given in the statement following:

Minimum. [Meximum, Average. |

| = |
|
|
|
|

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
Small trees below 10 inches. --------------------------------- 2.9 6.18 4, 64
Large trees over 10 inches -.-..-------+++----+--+-+-+-+-+---- on) 9.8 8.4 |

The last figure gives 75 pounds per tree altogether, or 25 per cent more than the average
product in American practice. An 80-year-old growth, which was rented for twenty years, fur-
nished in the tenth year of orcharding still a net rent of $12 to $18 per acre.

The scrape contains less spirits of turpentine, is mixed with chips of wood, and therefore
obtains only two-thirds of the price paid for the dip. The amount of scrape depends, in the first
place, on the surface of the chip; also on the temperature during the fall, warm weather producing
more dips.

During the nine years of experimental chipping there were obtained for each 100 pounds of
dip the following amounts of scrape:

| Minimum. | Maximum.| Average. |

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.

Small trees below 10 inches.-....---------------------------- 40.2 | 72.4 57.7

| Large trees over 10 inches -.---.----------------+------------ 38.9 62.9 47.3 |

From the gathering to the distillation of the resin a loss averaging about 5 per cent was
experienced by the evaporation of the oil of turpentine. No other resin seems to be so rich in
turpentine as that of the black pine, 100 pounds of resin yielding 14 to 20 pounds of spirits and
60 pounds of rosin.

During the same experiment, in the course of nine years, the following percentages of loss in
the trees by death or windfalls occurred:

= 2 = = : ] as
| | Minimum. |Maximum.| Average. |

|
| =

Small trees below 10 inches..-....--------------------------- 4 42.
| Large trees over 10 inches -....--.--------------------------- | 1.3 2

Trees from 50 to 100 years old are tapped ten or twelve years before they are to be cut. The
business is carried on upon a rent system per tree and year, under contract prescribing the
dimensions and gradual extension of the chip and the time for chipping (usually till September
30) and scraping (not later than October 30), with heavy penalties in case of damage or excess of
conditions. The total production in 1880—which has probably not materially changed since—was
estimated at 13,288,000 pounds of resin, producing 9,260,000 pounds of rosin, 2,425,000 pounds of
spirits, with an aggregate money value of about $300,000.

French practice.—Turpentine orcharding in France is carried on with more care than in any
other country. The first difference between the methods in the United States and in France is
that in the latter it is largely practiced in young plantations specially planted and protected for
this particular business. The maritime pine (Pinus pinaster L. synon., P. maritima), which has
been used in the celebrated plantations on the sand dunes along the coast and in the Landes of
Gaseony for over 2,000 square miles, furnishes the bulk of naval stores produced in France. The
boxing or tapping is begun when the trees are 20 to 25 years old and is continued for a great
many years. Trees have been known to have been boxed for more than two hundred years.

158 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Two methods of boxing are practiced, which are known as gemmage a mort and gemmage & vie,
or “bleeding to death” and ‘bleeding alive.” The difference lies in the number of scars inflicted
simultaneously. The bleeding to death is applied to trees which are to be cut out in the thinnings
of a regular forest management and to those which are at the end of their usefulness. The illus-
tration (Pl. XXX), here reproduced from Prof. L. Boppe’s work on Forest Technology, represents a
pine 200 years old, with more than fifty scars or chips, without apparently any ill effects on the
life of the tree.

The “bleeding alive” is practiced on those trees which are to grow on, and hence must not
be injured too much. They receive, therefore, one chip at atime. When this, after five seasons’
workings, has attained a height of about 12 feet, the tree is allowed a rest of several years, and
then another chip is opened, 6 or 8 inches from the old one, or else on the opposite side of the tree.
In this way in time the whole circumference is chipped in alternating periods of bleeding and of
rest until the trees are to be cut for lumber, when 100 to 125 years old ormore. Sometimes excep-
tionally vigorous trees receive more than one chip at a time, but these are opened at different
heights.

This successfully continued bleeding can, however, be carried on only by corresponding care in
the manipulation. The important difference between French and American practice consists in
this, that the former is more careful in the chipping and proceeds more slowly in enlarging the
chip, which is made only 3 to 5 inches wide instead of 12 or 14. Further, in collecting the products
with more care, the deep box cut into the tree in American practice is dispensed with and a lip
and pot substituted.

The chipper begins his work in February or March by removing with a scraper from the whole
portion of the tree that is to be chipped during the season, about 2 feet in height by 4 inches wide,
the outer bark nearly to the wood. ‘This is done to obviate the falling of bark chips into the pot,
thus securing a cleaner product, and also to save the chipping tool. In the first week of March
the chip is opened at the foot of the tree by making a triangular incision 3 to 4 inches wide and
about 14 inches high, and not deeper than two-fifths of an inch. (Note the small size of the open-
ing.) This chip is made with a specially and curiously fashioned hatchet, having a curved blade
and a curved handle, difficult to make and use (Pl. XXX, fig. 1). The chip is enlarged (chipping
piquage) without increasing the width or even decreasing it. The art of the chipper consists in
taking off just as thin a peel of wood as possible, and at each chipping he freshens up the old scar
by removing another peel, taking care not to go deeper than two-fifths of an inch altogether.
This chipping is repeated forty to forty-five times during the season, and during following seasons
the chip is carried higher, until it reaches 12 to 13 feet in height, namely, 70 inches the first season,
30 inches each the following three seasons, and 38 inches the last season, when the tree is left to
rest, and the wound heals up by the formation of new layers of bark and wood.

The cross-sections of trees bled through several periods twenty-four to twenty-seven years,
and more (shown on Pl. XX XI) exhibit the manner in which the chips are distributed through the
various seasons around the tree, and the manner in which the scars heal over. To be sure, the
wood formed on the chips is irregular and therefore not serviceable for anything except fuel.

An experiment made in Austria on the black pine with the Hugues system (Pl. XX XI) produced
more dip and less scrape and that purer, and with less work, owing to the greater capacity of the
vessel and the smaller surface to be scraped being confined to the chip of the year. Besides,
quantity and quality of the spirits and rosin were superior, namely, 78.5 pounds distilled gave—

Common method. Pot gathered.

‘ Pounds. Perct. | Pownds. Per ct.
Spirits turpentine....-...................--.. 5 ate PRBS ASS OS ROO OOOO CORSOIEse 14.7 or 18.78 17.6 or 22.41

‘ROSIN ease eee eee ose obo bes Sok ban ote Se, See AEE ER eee eae 47.3 60. 22 52.9 67. 37
WP UG aesas2Ageses sees 10.6 13. 44 5.3 6.72
SClaps sesesneesceee cere seas LNCS ELS 2a SSL Ea eee Se em ne eee 105, WLW besacotess 6 cbecac
Loss by evaporation ..-...... Slelels|wlelvlvleims|nia «s/o mlelslelele o'eleisieieisiele/ aie sae ote)s <lateiatels = sit eiel=i=is(nis=ls (ee =i 4.4 5. 60 2.7 3.50
78.5 100 78.5 100

“ield.In a growth of 45 years of age, each tree produces from 6 to 10 pounds of resin each
season more than we obtain from old trees. The yield per acre varies, of course, according to the

PLATE XXX.

H. Doc. 181.

Vig. 2. |

Vig. 3.

VF ens
ae Ss

mvc yah a Px }
YE Sk
fa = <DEL ey

se <1 eg

tet SN

= nyo Nae —

Fig. 7.

ae Wes =a

Phra. Sesee g ~ ST ee
p> PADS Les ~~ ankh, (4 —~- “ssaadi cele, Llip~r~ ~~~,

Fic. 1.—TURPENTINE ORCHARDING IN FRANCE. Fic. 2.—TOOLS USED IN FRENCH PRACTICE OF TURPENTINE ORCHARDING.

PLATE XXXI.

H. Doe. 181.

Fic. 1.—TURPENTINE GATHERING (HUGUES SYSTEM), TILL AND Pot.

Fig. 2.-Cross SECTION THROUGH BLED TREE.

Fic. 4.—Cross SECTION THROUGH BLED TREE.

A

4)

FRENCH PRACTICE IN BLEEDING TREES. 159

age and the number of trees bled “to death” and bled ‘“‘alive,” as well as on the nature of the
soil—the sand soil of the dunes produces more than the gravel and limestone soil. The weather
and the care of the workman also influences the yield, so that the product per acre varies
between 200 pounds of resin in younger (30 to 35 years old) growths to 400 pounds in older growths.
The yield is said to be greatest in trees about 16 inches in diameter. If bled “to death,” 200 to
250 pines, 8 inches in diameter, will yield about 500 pounds each year for three years. M. Bagueris
mentions a pine about 50 inches in diameter which had 10 chips working simultaneously and
yielded 12 to 14 pounds of resin annually. The men are paid by the cask of 517 pounds from $6
to $7, which allows them to earn about 80 cents to $1 per day. The price of the crude turpentine
varies considerably from $8 per cask of 517 pounds. It reached the enormous figure of $58 during
the American civil war. Orcharding in France is usually carried on on half shares between
timber-land owner and orchardist.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PLATE XXX.—Tools used in French practice.

The tools employed in the French method of orcharding are: An ax (la cognee) for cutting trees and for remov-
ing the course for the chip and for opening the lower cuts. An ax with a concave blade and a curved handle
(Vabchot); this is the principal tool of the orchardist, and it serves exclusively for the opening of the chips. The
blade is razor-like in order to make a sharp and smooth cut through the resin ducts. ‘he irregular form of its
handle and of its sharp edge make it an instrument difficult to manufacture and particularly difficult to use, and it
is only after a long apprenticeship that it can be used with exactness and dexterity. (Fig. 1.)

A scoop (la pelle) is made of iron, with an edge of steel. It is fixed at the end of a wooden handle about 3
feet in length. This serves to clean the bottom part of the chip and particularly to draw out the resin from the
reservoirs. Fig. 2.)

The barker (la barrasquite) has a blade, steel-plated, narrow, and curved, and is furnished with a handle 5 feet
long. ‘This instrument is used for barking the trees at the highest point where it is impossible to use the ax, and
for gathering the resin from such places. (Fig. 4.)

Another kind of barker (le rasclet), much edged, having a handle 6 feet long, which is furnished with a step, is
used in certain regions to continue the chip above the height of aman. Often the orchardist holds on by the handle
of the ‘‘rasclet” and works with the hatchet. (Fig. 3.)

A third form of scraper (la pousse), having a handle 8 feet long, used for the same purpose, has the blade so
bent as to permit the worker to stand at a distance from the tree, thereby avoiding, while working, the falling bark
and dripping resin. (Fig. 5.)

A shorter scraper (le palot), with a handle only 3 feet long, replaces the scoop every where where the Hugues
system does away with the dirt. It is used for cleaning, and is also used like a dibble at planting time for planting
the acorns. (Fig. 6.) |

A ladder made by cutting steps into a pine sapling, each step being held by a nail to prevent breaking, is used
to reach the higher points.

The products are gathered from the chips or pots to a reservoir established in the forest, in a sort of basket
with a capacity of about 20 quarts. It is formed by a cylinder of rough cork surrounded with wood, the bottom
being a round slab, made fast with pegs. The handle is of willow.

A spatula (l’espatula) is used to remove the resin that adheres to the sides of the pots or transporting vessels.
(Fig. 7.)

PLATE XXXI.—Turpentine gathering—Hugues system.

Jn this plate fig. 1 exhibits the method of gathering turpentine by the Hugues system, and the use of the till
and pot. While formerly the resin was allowed to run into a hole in the sand at the foot of the tree, since 1860,
when the production was stimulated by the closing of the American sources of supply, an improvement on the
crude method of collecting came into use, It consists in fixing a bent zine collar or gutter cut from sheet zinc 8
inches long and 2 inches wide, with teeth (see figure) across the chip, which acts as a lip, and conducts the liquid
resin into a gluzed earthen pot or a zine vessel of conival shape suspended below the lip. ‘Vhe pots are 6 inches high,
4} inches at the opening, and 3 inches at the bottom, and hold about 1 quart. At first placed on-the ground they
are fastened each season above the old chip by means of a nail through a hole or otherwise (see figure). In this way,
by shortening the distance over which the resin has to flow, the evaporation of the oil is reduced, and there is less
liability of impurities to fall into the receiver. A cover over the pot is also sometimes used. The pots are emptied
every fifteen or twenty days with the aid of a spatula (see Pl. XXX, fig. 7). The scrape is collected only twice in
the season, in June and November.

Another improvement which reduces the amount of evaporation and assures cleaner resin consistsin covering
the chip with a board. This improvement (Hugues system) is said to yield more and purer resin; the yield is
claimed to be about one-third larger, and the difference in price, on account of purity, 80 to 90 cents a barrel, while
the cost per tree per year is figured at about 1 cent; besides, the proportion of scrape is considerabiy reduced. This
(called galipot) is collected by hand, except the hardest impure parts (called barras), of which there is hardly any

160 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

in this system of collection. Not more than 17.9 per cent of scrape is expected, as against 29 in the American

practice.
Figures 2, 3,4 show cross sections of trees bled through several periods of years; also the manner in which

chips are distributed, and healed scars.

MANAGEMENT OF TURPENTINE PINERIES.

When the yield of turpentine falls below a certain minimum, the time has arrived when the
growth must be regenerated. All trees are then bled “to death” and cut as they give out, and
the openings are seeded with pine seed and the reproduction is completed in four or five years.
The young forest grows up uniformly, densely, and quickly, and when 10 or 12 years old it becomes
necessary to thin out and to repeat the operation every five or six years, so that at the age of 20
the pines are nearly isolated. Then there are about 250 to 280 trees per acre, and bleeding “to
death” is commenced at the rate of, say, 80 or 85 trees, which are to be taken out during the next
four or five years. At the age of 25 another 80 are subjected to the operation, and at the age of
30 there may be left 100 to 125 trees per acre. At this age, when the trees are about 1 foot in
diameter, bleeding “alive” is commenced on all trees. At the age of 60 to 80 years this number
has dwindled down by casualties to 80 or even 65. If well managed these trees may last 120 to 130
years; otherwise, it bled too much, they will succumb in half the time. A rest of a year or more
every fifth year is necessary to recuperate the trees. When the circumference of the tree has
been all chipped, the old chips may be opened again.

In order to produce resin abundantly the trees must stand isolated, their crowns well exposed
to the sunlight; but it is only necessary that the crowns should just touch, when the trees are
sufficiently isolated.

The best producers are the short, stout trees, with well-developed crown and well set with
branches. ‘To endure tapping without injury, they should be at least 14 inches in diameter, with
a bole of 20 to 26 feet to the first limb on the dunes and 40 to 50 feet in the landes. There is no
definite relation between volume and resin production. In fact, there is but little known as to the
conditions and physiological processes which give rise to the formation of resin, except that full,
active foliage and heat seem to be essential factors.

GATHERING OF SPRUCE TURPENTINE.

The wood of the spruce contains few and rather narrow longitudinal resin ducts, but wider
lateral ducts, which are strongly developed in the liber or new wood fibers. It is these that farnish
the flow. Hence the methods of extraction used on the pines must be modified. In growths
80 to 100 years old the yield is about 127 pounds of scrape and 40 pounds of dip per acre. Here
the scrape is the purer material, and, therefore, more expensive, the dip being more or less impure.
The operation is harmful to the trees, as it is apt to induce red rot. The pitch known as Burgundy
pitch is derived from the resin of this species.

The resin of the spruce has also the property of hardening very quickly on exposure to the
air; therefore it does not flow readily enough from the chip to permit the methods used in the
pines. In May or June two chips are made at the same time, 3 to 33 feet in height and only half
an inch in breadth, on opposite sides of the tree. They are cut with a specially curved sharp
knife, and deep into the sapwood. In order to prevent stagnant water from collecting at the
bottom, this is made pointed. The sides of the chip soon form callous, which would prevent the
flow, and therefore the sides must be renewed every two or three years, or yearly, gradually
widening the chip, so that after a series of years only two small strips of bark remain between the
two chips. The renewing of the sides is done in summer, so that they may protect themselves
before winter sets in by forming new callous. In some localities alternate chips are made every
two years, instead of enlarging the original one. The bleeding is continued for ten to fifteen
years, and the yield per tree and year averages 1 pound scrape and 14 pounds of dip.

GATHERING OF LARCH TURPENTINE.

The larch contains resin ducts of very large diameter, and the resinous contents are found
mainly in the heartwood. The trees very often contain frost splits in the heart, in which the resin
collects. The trees are bored into about a foot above the ground in horizontal direction. The

EFFECT OF BLEEDING ON TIMBER. 161

bore-hole, being 1 inch in diameter and reaching into the center, is closed with a wooden stopper.
This hole fills up during the summer and the resin is taken out with a half-cylindrical iron and
then closed up. One tree will furnish per year one-fourth to three-eighths of a pound (120 to 180
grams) of resin. If the bore-holes were left open from spring to fall, the yield could be increased
to 1 pound, but the resin would be impure, would contain less spirits of turpentine, and the tree
would be damaged. One bore-hole suffices for the whole period of orcharding, which is usually
carried on for thirty years. With small amount of work and with a price two to three times that
of the black pine turpentine, and no injury to the trees, this industry is quite profitable in spite
of the small yield.
GATHERING FIR TURPENTINE.

The resin of the firs occurring mainly in isolated resin vesicles or cells and most abundantly
near the bark (blisters), this is gathered by means of an iron pot with sharp-pointed till, with
which the vesicles are pierced. From the European fir in this way the Strasburg turpentine used
to be gathered; now the practice is nearly abandoned. The Canada balsam is gathered similarly
from our own fir, Abies balsamea.

EFFECTS OF TURPENTINE ORCHARDING ON TIMBER, TREE, AND FOREST, AND SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT ON
AMERICAN PRACTICE.

The turpentine industry can be carried on, but usually is not, without detriment to the value
of the timber, to the life of the tree, and to the condition of the forest. The present practice, how-
ever, in the United States is not only wasteful but highly prejudicial to present and future
forestry interests.

Effect on the timber.—As far as the timber of bled trees is concerned, it has been shown by the
work of the Division of Forestry that the heartwood, the only part of the tree which is used for
lumber, is in no way affected directly by the process of tapping. Not only has its strength been
shown to be in no wise diminished, but since the resin of the heartwood does not participate in
the flow, being nonfluid, the durability of the timber, as far as it depends on the resinous contents,
can not be impaired by bleeding. Indirectly, however, by the boxes and large-sized chips, a con-
siderable loss of timber in the best part of the tree, the butt log, occurs, which is avoidable. The
parts surrounding the scar are furthermore rendered somewhat harder to work by an excess of
resin which accumulates on and near the wound, tending to “‘gum up” tools. Indirectly, also, a
considerable proportion of boxed timber becomes defective if not used at once or, if left on the
stocks exposed for a series of years to destructive agencies, such as fires, followed by fungus
growth and attack of beetles. The larvie of large capricorn beetles bore their way through the
soft wood formed in the shape of callous surrounding the borders of the chip and through and
beyond the sapwood. Through the innumerable fissures which are caused by repeated fires, air
and water charged with spores of fungi find entrance into the body of the tree, causing decay,
the damage increasing every year, so that from this cause alone the timber from a turpentine
orchard abandoned for ten or fifteen years was at the sawmill found damaged to the extent of
fully 20 per cent.

Another prospective loss in timber is occasioned by the tapping of undersized trees which are
not ready for the saw. Even if the tree survived all the changes of the years following the
bleeding and healed over the wound, the timber formed after the process, at least in the portion
of the tree which carried the chip, is inferior and not fit for sawmill purposes on account of
malformations and change of grain. The loss of timber by fire is also only an incidental effect of
careless managemert.

Effect on trees.—No doubt the normal life of the tree is interfered with by bleeding; not that
the resin is of any physiological significance to the life of the tree, but the wound inflicted in the
tapping, like any other wound, interferes with and reduces the area of water-conducting tissue.
This interference may be so slight as practically to have no effect, or so great as to kill the tree
sooner or later if other conditions are unfavorable. The experience in France shows that with
care (narrow chips and periods of rest, which permit callousing of the scar) trees may ve bled for
long periods and attain old age (see p. 158); it also shows how fast a tree may be bled to death, if
this is desired. (See Pl. XXX.)

H. Doe. 181—11

162 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

While the exudation of the resin covering the excoriated surface and the accumulation of
resin in the wood near the surface act as an efficient antiseptic and firm protection against
atmospheric influences, access of fungi and of insects to the interior of the tree—superior to any
callous—it also endangers the life of the tree if exposed to fire, since the resin is highly inflammable,
and the heat produced by its flame is capable of killing the trees outright. It is, therefore, again,
this indirect effect which exposes the trees of the turpentine orchard to extra risk, even though
the operation was carried on with due care and consideration for the vitality of the tree.

Effect upon the forest—What has been said regarding the effects upon timber and trees
applies naturally to the forest as a whole. With proper methods and proper care the turpentine
industry need not be detrimental to the full and profitable utilization or the successful regeneration
of the forest. In France the turpentine orchard is generally as well managed—with exceptions,
of course—as any other forest property. Unfortunately, the ignorance and carelessness of our
turpentine gatherers, as well as of the entire community regarding forestry matters, lead to most
disastrous results.

The coarse, irrational manner of cutting boxes into the tree for gathering the dip, while
reducing the yield of the valuable oil, weakens the foot of the tree, and those receiving more than
one box or being of small size are generally sooner or later blown down; the broad chips, out of
proportion to the size and vitality of the tree, cause many to die before they have yielded what
they could; the same charge of wastefulness may be made against the methods of chipping and
of collecting the resin, both of which reduce the yield considerably. But the greatest loss is that
occasioned by the fires, carelessly handled by the orchardist himself in trying to protect himself
against.it, and still more carelessly allowed by the community to rage over large areas one season
after another. In the orchard their destructiveness is increased by the broad resinous surfaces at
the butt of the trees by the blown-down trees and the débris of the dead trees standing or lying
on the ground. Dr. Mohr observes—

The trees which have not been killed outright by the fire, or have altogether escaped this danger, are doomed
to speedy destruction by bark beetles and pineborers, which find a breeding place in the living trees blown down
during the summer months, the broods of which rapidly infest the standing trees, which invariably succumb to the
pest in the same season. Hence, the forests invaded by the turpentine men present, in five or six years after they are

abandoned, a picture of ruin and desolation painful to behold; and in view of the destruction of the seedlings and
younger growth, and of the vegetable mold, season after season, all hope for the restoration of forest life is excluded.

‘SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT.

No radical improvement on existing practice can, of course, be expected until the turpentine
orchardists themselves can see that present conditions and methods are detrimental to their
business, and can persuade the community that it is to the mutual interest of both community
and orchardist to allay the fire nuisance.

Forestry—that is, rational use and management for perpetuity of our forest resources—will
never succeed in our country until our communities discountenance the habits of the savages in
the use of fire and learn that civilization consists in making nature do more than she voluntarily
gives; in fact, that it consists in management, not in destruction, of natural resources.

It is the duty as well as the self-interest of the community to do all in its power to make
rational management for continuity practicable, and the first step is to insure protection of indi-
vidual property against loss, be it by depredation or by other preventable causes. Hence, protec-
tion against fire is a conditio sine qua non, if we would have rational and systematic management
of our forest resources; for so long as forest property is made extra hazardous by lack of proper
protection against fire the inducement to rob it of its best parts in the shortest time and then
abandon it to its fate is too great. i

I would refer here to another part of this report, in which the general legislation for fire
protection has been outlined (pp. 183-188). In the States or portions of States in which turpentine
orcharding is practiced additional provisions would be necessary.

Regarding the practice in the technical operation of tapping, legislative regulations are prob-
ably out of the question, the spirit of our institutions being against interference in the use of
private property except where such use is directly injurious to other persons. Otherwise it
would be desirable, for the indirect benefit of the community, and especially its future, to pre-
scribe lowest size of trees to be tapped and broadest chip permissible.

IMPROVEMENT IN TURPENTINE ORCHARDS. 163

The orchardist’s own interest, if he owns the forest and proposes to make the most of it, or
the owner’s interest, if he leases it for turpentine orchard, would dictate the following considera-
tions, which I have formulated into a set of instructions:

(1) Attend to the firing of the brush, when preparing for orcharding, at a season and time
when a smoldering fire can be kept up which will not kill young growth and will not consume to
ashes the vegetable mold.

(2) Abandon the “boxing” system and substitute the movable pot with cover and lip.' (See
Pl. XXX, fig. 1.) By this the tree is less injured or liable to injury, and a larger amount of valuable
dip and a smaller proportion of scrape is insured. The cost of making and cornering boxes—a
wasteful operation—averages about 14 cents per box, while the cost of pots is very much higher
(heavy tin or zinc iron pots might be used more cheaply); but if the orchard is worked for longer
time, as proposed in the following, the cost per year will be reduced and amply repaid by better
yield.

(3) Tap only trees large enough to make a good saw log, not less than 12 inches at the butt.
Not only will such trees yield in better proportion to the labor expended, but the younger trees
when left, after the saw timber fit for the saw has been taken, will assist in the reforestation by
shedding their seed, and will in a few years have grown to proper size both for profitable tapping
and profitable lumberirg.

(4) Reduce the chip in breadth to not over 3 inches, and rather work more chips at a time on
the same tree, if good sized; not more, however, than one for each foot in circumference simul-
taneously, so that a tree 1 foot in diameter would carry, say, three of these narrow chips, evenly
distributed. Thus the tree will be kept in full activity and yield more turpentine for a longer
time.

(5) Before starting the chip remove the rough bark down to a thin (reddish) skin for the
breadth of 4 inches and, say, 2 feet in height, or a little wider than the chip is to be, and as high
as it is to be worked for the season; this is for the purpose of keeping your pots clean of bark
particles. Start the chip with as small an opening and as low down at the foot of the tree as is
practicable for attaching the pot, and cut it triangular at the base, so as to allow any water to
readily flow off, preventing its collection and consequent fungus growth.

(6) Do the chipping as gradually as possible, remembering that the flow depends mainly upon
the number of longitudinal ducts cut through transversely and kept open. A rapid increase in
height of the chip is a useless waste; the chipping is done simply to remove the clogged-up ends
of the ducts; the removal of one-fourth to one-third or at most one-half inch of new wood every
five to eight days, according to the weather, will accomplish this end. As to depth, it is useless
to cut deeper than the sapwood, since the heart does not yield any resin. Whether the I'rench
method of deepening the chip gradually and only to a depth of one-half inch at most or a cut
through the entire sapwood at once is, on the the whole, more profitable, comparing labor and
yield, remains to be ascertained by trial. Where trees are not to be managed for continuous
bleeding, but are to be exhausted prior to their cutting for saw logs, it would appear proper to
cut at once through the entire sapwood, using perhaps a sharp chisel for the work of chipping.
When we have arrived at a time when the orcharding is done in young plantations managed for
the purpose the more careful chipping of the French may be indicated.

(7) Do not collect the scrape more than once a year, in August or September, or early enough
to give the trees a chance to protect their scars before winter sets in; but reduce the amount of
serape by using pots and lips and keeping these as close as practicable to the top of the chip. In
this way the superior yield will pay for the greater care. /

(8) Remember that it is more profitable to prepare for operating a given area for ten to fifteen
years instead of three to four years, since many necessary expenditures remain the same whether
the operation is carried on for the shorter or longer period, and hence in the latter case are dis-
tributed through a longer term. With the above methods and proper care an orchard may be

1 Since the above was written (in 1892) the pot or cup system has been experimentally tried by J. C. Schuler of
West Lake, La., the patentee of a special pot, described in Bulletin 19, Division of Forestry. The patentee admits
the extra cost for a crop of 10,000 cups for two seasons as $460 against $190 under the old system, but the increased
yield of crude turpentine for the two years is claimed as 195 barrels at $3.50 per barrel or $410 in favor of the cup
system.

164 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

worked profitably four or five times as long as under present methods, and hence many precau-
tions, especially against fire, such as ditches, roads, ete., to arrest the fire, too expensive if the
orchard is soon to be abandoned, may be employed with advantage.

(9) If present methods must prevail and protection against fires can not be had, because the
community is still too uncivilized or blind to its interests, do not subject your valuable timber to
turpentine orcharding unless you can dispose of it to a sawmill immediately after the orchard is
abandoned. Otherwise the loss of timber by fire is apt to wipe out all profits made by the orchard.

IMPROVEMENTS IN THE DISTILLATION OF THE CRUDE TURPENTINE BY THE APPLICATION OF STEAM.

In the ordinary way, the distillation of the crude turpentine, yielding the largest quantity of
spirits of turpentine and finest quality of rosin, can not be carried to the total extraction of the
volatile oil without impairing the quality of the residuary product. The higher grades of rosin
are still retaining a considerable amount of spirits. To prevent such loss distillation by steam
has been resorted to. This innovation seems, however, not to have received the deserved attention.
From the latest information it appears that this method has proved completely successful at a
turpentine distillery in New Orleans; there, by its introduction, an increase of fully 30 per cent is
claimed over the yield of spirits of turpentine obtained by distillation with the open fire, the grade
of rosin remaining unaffected.

PRODUCTS OF THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF THE WOOD OF THE LONGLEAF PINE.

The air-dried wood of the longleaf pine in its normal condition has been found to contain from
2 to 22 per cent of volatile oil, taking the specific gravity of spirits of turpentine at 0.87 and the
weight of 1 cubic foot of the air-dried wood at 43 pounds. The spirits is obtained by subjecting
the wood to the action of superkeated steam in the same retorts in which its destructive distilla-
tion is carried on, a process with which its production direct from the wood is invariably connected,
and of which it forms the first step. The quantity of spirits of turpentine obtained varies largely.
As stated by one operator, it differs all the way from 5 to 18 per cent, according to the wood being
fresh cut or dry, and to the different parts of the tree from which it is taken. From the results of
numerous experiments made on a large scale in different parts of the longleaf-pine region, it can
be assumed that 1 cord of wood, green and of different degrees of dryness, yields, on the average,
about 15 gallons of an impure spirits of turpentine. Owing to the presence of empyreumatic
substances of yellow color it becomes darker on exposure to air and of an empyreumatic odor. It
is easily freed from its impurities by redistillation; thus rectified, the product is perfectly clear,
colorless, aud almost odorless, save a faint woody smell, answering all the purposes for which the
spirits of turpentine obtained from the rosin is used. In 1881 Mr. William Mepan, of Georgia,
secured a patent for the utilization of the wood wasted at the sawmills, of the refuse left on the
ground in the logging camp and in the turpentine orchard, for the production of spirits of turpen-
tine, pyroligneous acid, tar, and charcoal. By the operation of the apparatus of the patentee, on
exhibition at the Atlanta International Exposition (in 1882), 600 pounds of dry, highly resinous
wood, so-called lightwood, yielded—

Pounds

SOREL OP WUE) s2o2o6 sosocd Seccoe soe cee eHcisnS cdots Goss ccesed dees Cueess soccer eccees Stee 214
Pyrola Os MOL - 522cse secs cs0sos cosses Ss 4e9e Hees ObeSo0 sso S9OSoS Stes bag ace Sstece socer5c52= 95
Heavy oils and tar. ..---- BEES Pn bms SOE SC CoISB OBE BOONE Sun Cnetopconconsas soasceETe cat aanosssa ~ 150
Cleameouill sossos escnss oessee core cass sod seo cag seH Soames Soscasose ese cosas asso se cee eee SSSeen sess 127

Vania GHG! EIS) 2oscos Goose peccog pase ce peSOdE odd sooo See Comoe coe oSE osecee spboSe Cossse ssecce 206%
UD conse ssodes see sonsosces costo se sces onsen seas HoceSe Sbo0 SDSS SeOSSN sUSe eSeSEE cose 600

Amounting to a yield by the cord of 24 gallons of spirits of turpentine, 88 gallons of pyrolig-
neous acid, 120 gallons tarry and heavier oily products, and 56 bushels of charcoal.'

In several experiments made at the same place slabs taken from the sawmill yielded (to the
cord) from 12 to 14 gallons of spirits of turpentine, 200 to 250 gallons of weak pyroligneous acid,
from 64 to 108 gallons of tar and heavier oils, and from 50 to 60 bushels of charcoal. The opera-
tions subsequently carried on by the same parties in retorts of a capacity of about 6 cords of

1 Report of awards at the Atlanta International Exposition in 1882.

DISTILLING WOOD OF PINE. ; 165

wood showed similar results. In the attempt made at Mobile by Mr. Maas, about fifteen years
past, in connection with a sawmill—soon abandoned, however—the results were about the same.
From a cord of green slabs 12 gallons of turpentine were distilled and 150 gallons of tarry and oily
substances. The rectified spirits of turpentine was found not to differ sensibly from the product
of the rosin. At the works of the Yellow Pine Wood Distilling Company at New Orleans,
worked under the patent and superintendence of Mr. E. Koch, every kind of mill refuse, pine
knots, stumps, branches, ete., are used. The patentee has kindly furnished the following infor-
mation about the apparatus employed and the way it is being worked: The material is cut in short
pieces, loaded in iron cars, which are run into steel retorts, 20 feet long and 8 feet in diameter,
provided with rails, and holding 3 cords of wood; doors are closed tight, superheated steam is let
in, and at the same time a moderate fire is started in the furnace. The distillation proper of the
spirits begins in about six hours at a temperature of 300°, increasing during the next four hours
to 350°, until the distillate ceases to run; at this stage the steam is shut off and the destructive
distillation by the open fire is proceeded with; under the gradual increase of the temperature from
350 to 900 degrees the distillation is continued through the following fifteen hours, the whole
operation consuming about twenty-four hours. The residue in the retort is a charcoal of good
quality. The quantity of spirits of turpentine obtained from 1 cord varies from 5 to 18 gallons, of
heavier oils and tarry products known as dead oil or creosote from 60 to 100 gallons, and of
stronger acid (of a specific gravity 1.02) 60 gallons, or of weaker acids 120 gallons. The gas
produced is used for fuel. The capacity of this plant is 6 cords of wood in twenty-four hours. By
the increase in the value of dead oil that has taken place during the past five or six years the
destructive distillation of the wood of the longleaf pine is placed financially on a more promising
basis than ever before. Ifthe enormous amount of raw material be considered, which has hereto-
fore gone to waste at the sawmills and in the forest, but by this process may be turned to a profit-
able use, this industry is capable of the widest extension, and can not fail to add other resources
of income to those already derived from the forests of longleaf pine.

With the augmenting demand for the mixture of heavier hydrocarbons and chryselic (phenylic)
compounds known in the trade as dead oil, creosote, or pine oil for the impregnation of timber for
the purpose of preventing its decay and destruction by the teredo, the distillation of the wood of
the longleaf pine is at present carried on with the main object of securing the largest yield of dead
oil. According to the statements of Mr. Franklin Clark (see Columbia College Quarterly), made
in his paper on the subject, for this purpose the most resinous wood is preferred with which the
retorts are charged. ;

These retorts, cylindrical in shape, made of wrought-iron or steel plates, and about three times
as long as they are wide, are of a capacity to receive little over a cord of the perfectly air-dried
wood. The distillation is effected by the open fire and the condensation of the distillate by the
ordinary worm condenser. The light oils running over first at a temperature of from 350 to 500
degrees, of a specific gravity of 0.88 to 0.90, are of a dark-red color; as soon as their density has
increased to the latter figure they are caught separately. After twelve or fifteen hours, when the
temperature has reached 600 degrees and the density of the oil is 0.98, with the formation of the
chryselic compounds the aqueous distillate at this stage shows a higher percentage of acetic acid,
increasing with the rise of the specific gravity of the oil. The operation is generally finished at a
temperature not exceeding 900 degrees. The process is terminated at the end of twenty-four hours.

The charge of the retort, averaging 4,575 pounds of resinous, air-dried wood (little-more than
a cord), yields—

Ibrealinn Onl (ie Gyo) Spe ONS WO WE) coenebecee conc cane cdonos asacee Sac ssose5 asco eesone gallons.. 13

Heavy pine oil or dead oil (sp. gr. 0.95 to 1.04) ........-.------.------------------------ dotese (ax
ROI OWS AOI (Gas GION) sosodscoas ceaecolsceasuases pono sone seem oasecs FES ECOL eer @Ososq Mek)
Or a mean yield of— }
Pyroligneous acid (sp. gr. 1.02) ....-..----.------------ soisnaee 1,527 pounds, or 34.37 per cent.
Taal Of Cuby ROGWONS --costtenscoscqoos sesosc scuudaceac sassc0S - 729 pounds, or 15.94 per cent.
(CINARCOA sooccs e555 ose genese aa coos sdSees cooceS oseSeecansesee 1,511 pounds, or 33.04 per cent.
GR co ben Gantt OSS CSE EE COD EeE CER OROn ane sa seacuneeecosasers 761 pounds, or 16.64 per cent.

On settling, the pine oil—that is, the whole of the oily products of the wood—separates from
the acid as a black or red oil, with a specific gravity from 0.97 to 1.30. For the purpose of

166 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

creosoting it is subjected to a process of partial distillation, by which the separation of the
lighter oil is effected, and the percentage of the phenylic compounds and of the heavy hydro-
carbons to which the creosoting process owes its merits is increased.

The pyroligneous acid is of a yellowish or reddish color and contains 4 per cent of hydrated
acetic acid. In its crude state it serves for the manufacture of pyroligneate of iron, the so-called
black dye, and for the preparation of acetate of lime, acetate of lead, and pure acetic acid. The
light oil is used for dark paints, fit to cover metals and stone. It does not work well, however,
on wood.

DEVELOPMENT OF A FOREST POLICY.

HISTORICAL.

The recognition that attention to satisfactory forest conditions is as necessary as to other
economic conditions, has existed among a few wise heads since the beginning of the settlement of
the country. Thus William Penn, the founder and first legislator of Pennsylvania, as early as
1682, in his ordinances regarding the disposal of lands, stipulated that to every 5 acres cleared
of forest growth 1 acre of trees should be reserved for forest growths by those who took title
from him, a provision which was probably soon forgotten.

In 1640, only two years after its settlement, the inhabitants of Exeter, N. H., adopted a
general order for the regulation of the cutting of oak timber, a precaution een cae towns
followed. In 1708 the provincial assembly of New Hampshire forbade the cutting of mast trees
on ungranted lands, under a penalty of £100, and at that early time the province had a surveyor-
general of forests, appointed by royal authority, for the purpose of preventing depredations upon
timber.

A noteworthy effort to inculcate rational treatment of our forest resources, which took at
least its incentive in these earlier times, although it came to a result much later, is that made by
two noble Frenchmen, botanists, André Michaux and his son André Francois, who between the
years 1785 and 1805 explored and studied the forest flora of the United States, and, besides shorter
_ discussions on the subject, published a magnificent work on the same, the North American Sylva,
in three volumes.

The latter, André Francois Michaux, translated his love and zeal for this study into practical
action by leaving two legacies for the study of silviculture in the United States.

In his will, dated September 4, 1855, A. F. Michaux made the following provision :

Wishing to recognize the services and good reception which my father and myself, together and separately,
have received during our long and often perilous travels in all the extent of the United States, as a mark of my
lively gratitude, and also to contribute in that country to the extension and progress of agriculture, and more
especially of silviculture in the United States, I give and bequeath to the American Philosophical Society of
Philadelphia, of which T have the honor to be a member, the sum of $12,000; I give and bequeath to the Society of
Agriculture and Arts in the State of Massachusetts, of which I have the honor to be a member, the sum of $8,000;
these two sums making 180,000 franes, or, again, $20,000. I give and bequeath the sole ownership to these two
abovesaid societies, and the usufruct to my wife for her life.

This bequest did not become available until 1870. The American Philosophical Society at
Philadelphia, being the trustee of one of the Michaux legacies, has devoted part of its income
from this fund to aid in the beautification of Fairmount Park, especially by the propagation of
various species of oaks; another part is devoted to popular lectures on subjects relating to forest
botany and forestry.

The bequest to the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture is applied to aid
the botanical garden at Harvard and the Arnold Arboretum, and to the occasional publication of
pamphlets on forestry subjects. This society, founded in 1792, has also occasionally tried to
encourage forest culture by paying premiums for successful forest plantations (especially in 1876).
As early as 1804 such prizes were offered.

A similar society—the Society for Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures—in New
York, founded in 1791, also considered it among its functions to foster forest culture by publishing
in 1795 a report on the best mode of preserving and increasing growth of timber, an outcome of
an inquiry by circular letter issued in 1791.

FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED. STATES. 167

The Federal Government recognized the need of action as early as 1799—to be sure, only with
reference to a certain kind of supplies, namely, for naval construction—by an act approved
February 25, 1799, appropriating $200,000 for the purchase of growing or other timber, or of lands
on which timber is growing suitable for the Navy, and for its preservation for future use. Small
purchases were made on the Georgia coast, but nothing of importance beyond this was done
until 1817, when, on March 1, another act was passed renewing the act of 1799, directing a
reservation of such public lands, having a growth of live-oak or cedar timber suitable for the
Navy, as might be selected by the President.

Under this act a reservation of 19,000 acres was made on Commissioners, Cypress, and Six
islands, in Louisiana. Another appropriation of $10,000 was made in 1828, and some lands
were purchased on Santa Rosa Sound, where during a few years an attempt at cultivation—
clearing the ground of roots of other trees, sawing and transplanting and pruning—was made.
This was done under the more general act of March 3, 1827, by which the President was
authorized to take proper measures to preserve the live-oak timber growing on the lands of the
United States. Provision was furthermore made, by an act approved March 2, 1831, for the punish-
ment of persons cutting or destroying any live oak, red cedar, or other trees growing on any
lands of the United States, by a fine of not less than thrice the value of the timber cut and
imprisonment not exceeding twelve months.

Under these acts some 244,000 acres of forest land were reserved in Alabama, Florida,
Louisiana, and Mississippi. (See Report on Forestry, Vol. I.)

It will be noted that no general conception of the need of a forest policy underlay these
attempts at securing sufficient material for a special purpose; material of a kind which was not
plentiful and was then believed a continued necessity for the building of war ships.

We can now smile at the concern expressed so early by writers in public prints with regard
to the threatened exhaustion of forest supplies. The extent of our forest domain was then entirely
unknown, and in the absence of railroad communication the location of supplies near the centers
of civilization was of more moment. Logging then was carried on only along the coast and the
Eastern river courses. Small country mills sawed to order for home consumption or sent material
to the mouth of the river to be carried by vessel to home and foreign markets. The mills were
run in the manner of the country gristmills, often in connection with them. This petty method of
doing business lasted until the middle of this century, as is evidenced by the census of 1840, which
reports 31,560 lumber mills, with a total product valued at $12,943,507, or a little over $400 per
mill. By 1870 a change had already become apparent, when the product per mill was $6,500,
which in 1890 had become $19,000, or about three times the value for 1870, with only 21,011 mills
reported.

Besides the concentration of the lumber business into large establishments, which these
figures show, there are other interesting changes indicated in the census figures, which we may
briefly note here as having a bearing upon the question of the need of a forest policy and the
cause for its development. While in 1890 the efficiency of the mill establishments had increased
to three times what it was in 1870 and nearly fifty times that of 1840, the total product had also
increased in the twenty years from 1870 to 1890, nearly three times. The capital employed in the
lumber industry had increased four and one-third times, showing that, while capital became less
efficient with concentration, the unit product of labor also became less efficient, in spite of the
improvement in machinery. While every dollar of capital produced less result, by over 40 per
cent in 1890, in the value of the product, every dollar of wages also produced less result, by over
12 per cent, than it did in 1870; but the cost of raw material had increased over 16 per cent. All
these are signs of the deterioration and exhaustion of supplies.

It would be difficult to set a date or mark an event from which the change in the methods of
the lumber industry, which is now such a stupendous factor in forest decimation, might be reck-
oned. It came as gradually or as fast as the railway systems expanded and made accessible the
vast fields of supply in the Northwest, while the supplies of the Hast were being exhausted.

1 Hspecially after the war the settlements of the West grew as if by magic; the railroad mile-
age more than doubled in the decade from 1865 to 1875, and with it the lumber industry developed

1See “American lumber,” by B. E. Fernow, in One Hundred Years of American Commerce: D. O. Haynes Co., 1895.

168 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

by rapid strides into its modern methods and volume. In 1865 the State of New York still fur-
nished more lumber than any other State; now it supplies only insignificant amounts. -

In 1868 the golden age of lumbering had arrived in Michigan; in 1871 rafts filled the Wiscon-
sin; in 1875 Hau Claire had 30, Marathon 30, and Fond du Lac 20 sawmills, now all gone; and
mills at La Crosse, which were cutting millions of feet annually, are now closed. By 1882 the
Saginaw Valley had reached the climax of its production, and the lumber industry of the great
Northwest, with a cut of 8,000,000,000 feet of white pine alone, was in full blast. Southern devel-
opment began much later to assume large proportions, but by the present time the lumber product
of the Southern States has grown to proportions equal to those of the Northern States or the
Great Lakes States, each of the three sections furnishing about equal shares in the enormous
total cut.

No wonder that those observing this rapid decimation of our forest supplies and the incredible
wastefulness and additional destruction by fire, with no attention to the aftergrowth, began again
to sound the note of alarm. Besides the writings in the daily press and other non-official publica-
tions, we find the reports of the Department of Agriculture more and more frequently calling
attention to the subject.

In the report issued by the Patent Office as early as 1849, we find the following significant
language in a discussion on the influence of forests on water flow and their rapid destruction :

The waste of valuable timber in the United States, to say nothing of firewood, will hardly begin to be appre-

ciated until our population reaches 50,000,000. Then the folly and shortsightedness of this age will meet with a
degree of censure and reproach not pleasant to contemplate.

The report for 1860 contains a long article by J. G. Cooper on “The forests and trees of
northern America as connected with climate and agriculture.”

In 1865 the Rey. Frederic Starr discussed fully and forcibly the ‘“ American forests, their
destruction and preservation,” in which, with truly prophetic vision, he says:

It is feared it will be long, perhaps a full century, before the results at which we ought to aim as a nation will

be realized by our whole country, to wit, that we should raise an adequate supply of wood and timber for all our
wants. The evils. which are anticipated will probably increase upon us for thirty years to come with tenfold the rapidity with
which restoring or ameliorating measures shall be adopted.

And again:

Like a cloud no bigger than a man’s hand just rising from the sea, an awakening interest begins to come in
sight on this subject, which as a question of political economy will place the interests of cotton, wool, coal, iron,
meat, and even grain beneath its feet. Some of these, according to the demand, can be produced in a few days,
others in a few months or in a few years, but timber in not less than one generation, The nation has slept because
the gnawing of want has not awakened her. She has had plenty and to spare, but within thirty years she will be
conscious that not only individual want is present, but that it comes to each from permanent national famine of
wood.

The article is full of interesting detail, and may be said to be the starting basis for the cam-
paign for better methods which followed.

Another unquestionably most influential official report was that upon Forests and Forestry
of Germany, by Dr. John A. Warder, United States commissioner to the World’s Fair at Vienna
in 1873. Dr. Warder set forth clearly and correctly the methods employed abroad in the use
of forests, and became himself one of the most prominent propagandists for their adoption in
his own country. About the same time appeared the classical work of George P. Marsh, our
minister to Italy, “The Earth as Modified by Human Action,” in which the evil effects on cultural
conditions of forest destruction were ably and forcibly pointed out.

The census of 1870 also for the first time attempted a canvass of our forest resources under
Prof, F. W. Brewer, and the relatively small area of forest became known. All these publica-
tions had their influence in educating a larger number to a conception and consideration of the
importance of the subject, so that when, in 1873, the committee on forestry of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science was formed and presented its memorial to Congress,
there existed already an intelligent audience, and, although a considerable amount of lethargy
and lack of interest was exhibited, Congress could be persuaded, in 1876, to establish the agency

TIMBER CULTURE LAWS. 169

in the United States Department of Agriculture out of which grew the Division of Forestry, as
described in the body of the report, a bureau of information on forestry matters.

While these were the beginnings of an official recognition of the subject by the Federal
Government, private enterprise and the separate States started also about the same time to
forward the movement. In 1867 the agricultural and horticultural societies of Wisconsin
appointed a committee to report on the disastrous effects of forest destruction. In 1869 the
Maine Board of Agriculture appointed a committee to report on a forest policy for the State,
leading to the act of 1872 “for the encouragement of the growth of trees,” exempting from
taxation for twenty years lands planted to trees, which law, as far as we know, remained without
result. Abcut the same time a real wave of enthusiasm with regard to planting of timber
seems to have pervaded the country, and especially the Western prairie States. In addition to
laws regarding the planting of trees on highways, laws for the encouragement of timber planting,
either under bounty or exemption from taxation, were passed in Iowa, Kansas, and Wisconsin in
1868, in Nebraska and in New York in 1869, in Missouri in 1870, in Minnesota in 1871, in Iowa in
1872, in Illinois in 1874, in Nevada, Dakota, and Connecticut in 1872, and finally the Federal Gov-
ernment joined in this kind of legislation by the so-called timber-culture acts of 1873 and 1874,
amended in 1876 and 1877.

For the most part these laws remained a dead letter. The encouragement by release from
taxes, except in the case of the Federal Government, was not much of an inducement, nor does
the bounty provision seem to have had greater success, except in taking money out of the
treasuries. Finally these laws were in many cases repealed.

The timber-culture act was passed by Congress on March 3, 1873, by which the planting of
timber on 40 acres of land, or a proportionate area in the treeless territory, conferred the title to
160 acres or a proportionate amount of the public domain. This law had not been in existence ten
years when its repeal was demanded, and this was finally secured in 1891, the reason being that,
partly owing to the crude provisions of the law and partly to the lack of proper supervision, it
had been abused and had given rise to much fraud in obtaining title to lands under false pretenses.
It is difficut to say how much impetus the law gave to bona fide forest planting and how much
timber-growth has resulted from it. Unfavorable climate, lack of satisfactory plant material, and
lack of knowledge as to proper methods led to many failures. In 1889 the Division of Forestry
made an analysis of the figures furnished by the General Land Office, which shows that 38,080,506
acres were entered under the timber-culture act up to June 30, 1888. This should represent a
planted area of 2,380,030 acres if the law were.complied with and the entries not changed.
Allowing ten years for timber-claim planters to prove up their entries (the law places it at eight
years, allowing extensions on account of failures), the’ entries of the first six years, 1873 to 1878,
alone give us some points of comparison for the estimation of results. During that time 3,821,843
acres had been entered, representing a supposed area of less than 50,000 acres planted to timber.

But in 1888, ten years later, the acreage proved up was only 779,582 acres, or about 20 per
cent of the land entered, representing perhaps 175,000 acres planted, if the original plantations
persisted.

From this it would appear that the timber-culture act has been a failure so far as the creating
of forests is concerned.

It is asserted that a better percentage will be obtained from the entries of later years, because
more experience has been gained, and timber-claim planting was done under contract by persons
who make a business of it. Yet the consensus of unbiased testimony goes to show that timber-
claim planting, as a rule, did not produce the results sought after, and has mostly been used as
a means for speculation in Government lands, partly with that design from the beginning, partly
as a necessity after failure to obtain the land by timber planting.

There is also considerable planting of wind-breaks and groves done on homesteads, which is
said to be attended with better results. Altogether, however, the amount of tree planting is
infinitesimal, if compared with what is necessary for climatic amelioration; and it may be admitted,
now as well as later, that the reforestation of the plains must be a matter of cooperative if not of
national enterprise.

170 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE.

Original and final entries under timber-culture acts until 1888.

State or Territory. Original entries. Final entries.
No. Acres. No. Acres.

JME Blnncoasccennannasecsseaaeaacooag7ecsesase0ncas0qD B60 puininoelnaaclalesnianise a nenaensasannennann-- 856 122, 570 4
Arkansa --- E 39 NU oe memameal becaccdeanaes
(CA meh sass sao ae ecole ened odebno anos oooNseoosdetssacoes 6, 671 856, 076 7 889
COMED ~ 555-2 5cc eset o tse e sess seer ect sore ss sssess ss seosesesssssseesesascssses02 23, 650 3, 498, 351 18 2,278
JOBING) le ecco se soneccons seoe sos sss oe Saecastene scence sesso sncecsaneasascoceos=ca 63, 647 | 11, 500, 026 1, 306 185, 064
UENO seeneccossse sed s3s2 race Ss2 seocccowedssoneesonoseesserssnesessoscsszesons=5 3, 257 27, 017 15 1, 711
TO Wa Oraracs gs cc nd on tee 2 See ae ee ne eee eee oie eee 931 75, 514 124 11, 505
IRAN SAB ES =o. ores mae oes Sepik EE as a IRL NOI 58,183 | 8, 738, 944 1, 544 206, 146
TL OTHE 3 pec aoe meocissace tec OIS eco Come oS SSHSRe moos poososeos Senos eHiosonootosse sescosostesesesese 672 965 342% | SaSsea ae | Seen
Minnesota -- 14,377 | 1,882, 030 781 104, 758
Montana --. 2, 555 39, 998 4
Nebraska - 48,589 | 7, 780, 825 1, 753 237, 657
Nevada--.- 42 D810) See eccaes passe
New Mexico 1, 059 146, 928 3 826
Oregon..-- 6, 128 908, 248 AT 6, 796
Utah .... 1, 048 128, 188 6 660
Washington. 7,673 | 1,114, 761 194 20, 673
Watt S = = sco sce aac osesssscootinoss cane ne Sanson sso sessed one teesarescesssescosssceotonesooosrons 2, 401 HOWE SEBS | oceceocosd|=-ecesssc5r0

UD) EM ee cece oes scna Seo Scoaso nose tes secdios Se iceneotinccoanascoso sascanenootessenseese ses 241,778 | 38, 080, 506 5, 806 779, 582

Private interest of homesteaders and settlers without these aids has probably been as effective.
In this direction the establishment of arbor days throughout the States has been a stimulating

influence.

From its inception by Governor J. Sterling Morton and first inauguration by the State

board of agriculture of Nebraska in 1872, it has become a day of observance in nearly every State,

until its adoption as a national holiday may be shortly expected.

While with the exception of the so-called treeless States, perhaps not much planting of eco-
nomic value is done, the observance of the day in schools as one set apart for the discussion of
the importance of trees, forests, and forestry, has been productive of an increased interest in the

subject.

To be sure, arbor days have had also a retarding influence upon the practical forestry move-

ment in leading people into the misconception that forestry consists

in tree planting,

in diverting

attention from the economic question of the proper use of existing forest areas, in bringing into
the discussion poetry and emotions, which have clouded the hardheaded practical issues and

delayed the earnest attention of practical business men.

The following table exhibits the condition of the Arbor-day movement at the present time:

Arbor-day observance in the United States.

First observed. When
States and Territories. legally Legal holiday. | Date of oun observ- By whom fixed.
Date. By whose appointment. shed :
INV INO, -Sasoqsecmasoes 1887 | Superintendent of education.......---..|-.--.---|----.--...------ Hebruary22)-----------
INVADE) Sse oneennee 1890-91 | Legislature -------.--.--.----------._-.. 1891 | Yes-------_-.- First Friday after Feb- | Legislature.
Tuary 1.
JARED nso sas 6case Sed soconeéellassesoteessooncsas2onhne sscossoenocanaades
California ---..-...--.- 1886
Colorado’ eeeeee eee 1885 -| Third Friday in ‘April. Do.
Connecticut ..--------- 1887 In spring .--.--- Governor.
ING SCE -essatcnescoccar 1886 Bo) Demy ts} 5a sem sosene 0,
Georgia.-----.------_-- 1891 .| First Friday in Decem- ! Legislature.
ber.
UGE) oseespas5sseq006 1887 ‘Last Monday in April. Do.
UMNO) --Seonsenccossss 1888 Governor.
Indiana -2-- 222252. - 22. 1884 Superintendent
of public in-
struction.
Inaba AeAtY scccns| Loscanes|ls- soem copaaqpooacaDAaesaoonoseSconasosos6 Ce adosnaonagnococsnons
VOWE) qonconcnesnoesesee Superintendent of public instruction. Variable Do.
Kansas se seep eee oe Mayor of Topeka Governor.
Kentucky -.------- Lb epaeI ENS) coos see ose sccosasosasacced| THAD |lossosnosagessseq|pssorasrecess veeseessetce Do.
Lonisiana....-.-.-- State superintendent of schools -
Maine = 21-2222 Merislature sss see een eee Do.
Wikia dbn Gl scenanscoceos) IGE) |leoscs dG eek ese ior Ree Do.
Massachusetts - - Village Improvement Society-- 2 -) Legislature,
Michigan ..-..-..-. Gowermore soe seen eee Governor.
Minnesota ----_-- State Forestry Association -.....-.-...-|-------- Do. :
Mississippi Statemboard Of educatiomece ee ce cme cee | LO el eee ee ee ees ene reer ee State board of
education.
WEEEO DA cae coosessoobe 1886 | Superintendent of schools .....ceceve=-=- 1889 | For schools..-| First Friday after | Legislature.
First Tuesday in
April.
Montana ees =)siel=l UB || MGS EMT soaearacososeponosacecanceacs 1887 Third Tuesday in April Do.
Nebraska -. 1872 | Board of agriculture. 1885 ---| April 22 Do.
Nevada ---2-2=- -| 1887 i 1887 | For schools---|--22--------- Governor.
New Hampshire - --| 1886 NETS Betas secianeccioa| |pmeasonoscoscecaoseceere] Do.
New dlersey-- 2+ see ee 1884 UGEEL Wes escnacausaocss ANelll - conoscegsosane 22 Do.

FORESTRY MOVEMENT IN UNITED STATES.

Arbor-day observance in the United States—Continued.

Seen ee ee EE

First observed. When
States and Territories. legally Legal holiday. Date of annual observ- By whom fixed.
Date By whose appointment. ehed. eo
ished.
New Mexico..-....-.--- 1890 | Legislature...--......------------------ 1891 | For schools---| 5 ae ond Friday in } Legislature.
arch.
New York .........---- 1889 |....- Ge RBpesicee SoocsoooSoceenaeeeODuGood IIEET || Hoedemnocecoasea First Friday after Do.
May 1.
North Carolina -..----- Do.
North Dakota -. Governor.
Ohio ..-.-.-.. 205 Do.
Oklahoma.........-.--- .| Superintendent
of public in-
struction.
Oregon ....-. Legislature.
Pennsylvan IEEY. |eacon lo Governor.
Rhode Island 1887 |.--.- do Do.
South Carolina - (a) Individual action... -
South Dakota 188 Governor -.-.......- sSco0ss0¢ Do.
Tennessee -.-.--..-.--- 1875 | Normal College..---.--.---------------- County superin-
tendent.
MOSER -Sossosssoseesa00q 1890 | Legislature Legislature.
Utah ..-..- 1892 |----= GO soscec s520 Do.
Vermont. -. 1885 | Governor Governor.
Virginia -.- 1892 | Village Improvement Society - .
Washington -.-- ...| 1892. | Agricultural College.--.--------.-------
West Virginia-.--.--.. 1883 | Superintendent of public instruction. -- .| Superintendent
of schools.
Wisconsin 1889 | Legislature Governor.
Wyeming...- 1888 |.--.- do .--.. Do.

a@ Uncertain.

Private efforts in the Hast in the way of fostering and carrying on economic timber planting
should not be forgotten, such as the prizes offered by the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture,
the planting done by the private landholders at Cape Cod, in Rhode Island, Virginia, and else-
where. Altogether, however, these efforts have been sporadic and unsystematic, and not on any
scale commensurate with the destruction of virgin forest resources.

ASSOCIATED PROPAGANDA.

The first forestry association organized for the purpose of advancing forestry interests was
formed on January 12, 1876, in St. Paul, Minn., largely through the efforts of Leonard B. Hodges.
This association was aided by State appropriations, which enabled it to offer premiums for the
setting out of plantations, and also to publish and distribute widely a Tree Planters’ Manual.
Revised editions are issued from time to time, and a distribution of plant material is also occasion-
ally attempted, the State aiding to the extent of $1,000 to $2,000 annually.

In 1875 Dr. John A. Warder issued a call for a convention in Chicago to form a national
forestry association. This association was completed in 1876 at Philadelphia, but never showed
any life or growth.

In 1882 a number of patriotic citizens at Cincinnati called together a forestry congress, incited
thereto by the visit and representations of Baron von Steuben, a Prussian forest official, when
visiting this country on the occasion of the centennial celebration of the surrender of Yorktown.

A yery enthusiastic and representative gathering, on April 25, was the result, lasting
through the week, which led to the formation of the American Forestry Association. This
association, holding yearly and intermediate meetings in different parts of the States, has become
the center of all private efforts to advance the forestry movement. Twelve volumes of its pro-
ceedings contain not only the history of progress in establishing a forest policy, but also much
other information of value on forestry subjects. It now publishes a monthly journal, The Forester.
It is unaided by government, its efforts being entirely borne by private means and the annual dues
of its membership, its officers doing gratuitous work. It has been especially instrumental in
bringing about the establishment of the Federal forest reservation policy, which we will note
further on in detail.

Other local or State forestry associations were formed more or less under the lead of the
national association, and exist now in Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dakota, Colorado,
and Washington, while several other societies, like the Sierra Nevada Club and the Mazamas of

172 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the Pacific coast, and State -horticultural societies in various States, make the subject one to be
discussed and to be fostered.

The most active of these associations, publishing also, since its formation in 1886, a bimonthly
journal, Forest Leaves (at first less frequently), is the Pennsylvania State Iorestry Association,
which has succeeded in thoroughly committing its State to a proper forest policy, as far as official
recognition is concerned.

FORESTRY COMMISSIONS.

Usually as a result of this associated private effort various States have appointed forestry
commissions or commissioners. These commissions were at first for the most part instituted for
inquiry and to make a report, upon which a forest policy for the State might be framed. Others
have become permanent parts of the State organization with executive or educational functions.
Such commissions of inquiry were appointed at various times in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin,
North Dakota, Colorado, California; while commissioners or commissions with executive duties
exist now or did exist for a time in Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, Colorado, and California.

Maine has an efficient forest-fire law (chap. 26 of Revised Statutes) based on that of the State
of New York, and a forest commissioner (created in 1891, Public Laws, chap. 100)—the State land
agent of the State being ex officio designated as such—to look to its execution. The forest
commissioner has in addition annually a small amount of money appropriated to satisfy the
requirements of the following two sections of the law:

Suc. 15. The forest commissioner shall take such measures as the State superintendent of public schools and
the president of the State college of agriculture and the mechanic arts may approve for awakening an interest in
behalf of forestry in the public schools, academies, and colleges of the State, and of imparting some degree of
elementary instruction upon this subject therein.

Src. 16. The forest commissioner shall prepare tracts or circulars of information, giving plain and concise
advice for the care of wood lands and for the preservation of forest growth. These publications shall be furnished
to any citizen of the State upon application.

Two very interesting and instructive reports on the growth of the spruce and on allied subjects
are the result.

New Hampshire had a temporary commission of inquiry, appointed in 1881 and reporting
in 1885; and another such commission in 1889, reporting in 1593, when the permanent forestry
commission was created (March 29, 1893) with a paid secretary, who publishes an annual report.
The main function of the commission is one of inquiry and suggestion, besides partial supervision
of the forest-fire law. The acquisition of public parks, if private munificence should be found
willing to furnish the necessary funds, is also made a part of the function of the commission. Two
small areas have been donated..:

In Massachusetts no special public officers are charged with the care of forestry interests,
and hence the otherwise useful legislation is probably of only partial effect. Its best feature is
perhaps that of encouraging communities to become owners of forest tracts (chap. 255, acts of
1882). The city of Boston has made special efforts in this direction, having set aside more than
7,000 acres for forest parks. The State board of agriculture was, in 1890, ordered to inquire “into
the consideration of the forests of the State, the need and methods of their protection,” and
report thereon, which order did not produce anything of value. A bill to secure such forest
survey, introduced into the legislature in the year 1897, failed of passage.

In Vermont a commission of inquiry was instituted in 1882, reporting in 1884 without any
* practical result, the proposed legislation remaining unconsidered.

In New York a law was passed in 1872 naming seven citizens, with Horatio Seymour,
chairman, as a State park commission, instructed to make inquiries with the view of reserving
or appropriating the wild lands lying northward of the Mohawk or so much thereof as might be
deemed expedient, for a State park. The commission, finding that the State then owned only
40,000 acres in that region, and that there was a tendency on the part of the holders of the rest
to combine for the enhancement of values should the State want to buy, recommended a law
forbidding further sales of State lands and their retention when forfeited for the nonpayment of
taxes.

FORESTRY COMMISSIONS—NEW YORK. 173

Tt was eleven years later, in 1883, that this recommendation was acted upon, when the State
through the nonpayment of taxes by the owners had become possessed of 600,000 acres.

In 1884 the comptroller was authorized to employ ‘“‘such experts as he may deem necessary
to investigate and report a system of forest preservation.” The report of a commission of four
members was made in 1885, but the legislation proposed was antagonized by the lumbering
interests. The legislature finally passed a compromise bill entitled “An act establishing a forest
commission, and to define its powers, and for the preservation of forests.”

This legislation, afterward amended, is the most comprehensive of that of any State in the
Union.

The original forest commission, appointed under the act of May 15, 1885, was superseded in
1895 by the commission of fisheries, game, and forests, under the law of April 25, 1895. This
law is a comprehensive measure in which allied interests are brought under the control of a single
board. Under this law the commission consists of five members appointed by the governor with
consent of the senate, the term of office being five years. The president, who is designated as
such by the governor, receives a salary of $5,000 per year and traveling expenses, and devotes all
his time to the work of his office. The remaining four commissioners each receive $1,000 per year
and traveling expenses. The board holds at least four meetings on designated days each year.
It has a secretary at $2,000 per year, and necessary clerical force. The duties of the board are to
propagate and distribute food, fish, and game; to enforce all laws for the protection of fish and
game, and for the protection and preservation of the forest reserve. It has full control of the
Adirondack Park and forest reserve, and is authorized to make rules for its care and safety.

The commission appoints thirty-five “fish and game protectors and foresters” (hereafter called
foresters), one of whom is to be known as chief, and two others as his assistants, the chief to have
direction and control of the entire force. The foresters give bonds for the proper discharge of
their duty. The chief forester receives $2,000 per year and traveling expenses; the assistant
foresters $1,200 each; and the remaining foresters $500 each: all have an extra allowance for
traveling expenses and each of them receives one-half of all fines collected in actions brought
upon information furnished by them. It is their duty to enforce all laws and regulations of
the commission for the protection of fish and game and for the protection and preservation
of the forest reserve and all rules and regulations for the care of the Adirondack Park. They
haye full power to execute all warrants and search warrants and to serve subpcenas.

Hach forester keeps a record of his official acts and reports a summary of it, with important
details, monthly to his chief. The monthly paymeut of salary is contingent upon the receipt
of this report. The chief forester reports to the commission all cases of neglect of duty or
negligence on the part of the foresters, and he also makes a monthly report of the operations
of his departiment.

The commission may, in its discretion, appoint or remove special foresters recommended by
any board of supervisors, but such special foresters receive no compensation from the State. All
peace officers have the same powers as foresters in the enforcement of the fisheries, game, and
forest law.

Article XII, chapter 395, Laws of 1895, describes the forest preserve (sec. 270), and defines
the powers and duties of the commission (sec. 271), whose duty it is to (1) have the care, custody,
control, and superintendence of the forest preserve; (2) maintain, protect, and promote the
growth of the forests in the preserve; (3) have charge of the public interests of the State in
regard to forestry and tree planting, and especially with reference to forest fires in every part
of the State; (4) possess all the powers relating to the preserve which were vested in the
comiissioners of the land office and in the comptroller on May 15, 1885; (5) prescribe rules and
regulations affecting the whole or any part of the preserve for its use, care, and administration,
and alter or amend the same; but neither such rules or regulations nor anything contained in
this article shall prevent or operate to prevent the free use of any road, stream, or water as the
same may have been heretofore used, or as may be reasonably required in the prosecution of any
lawful business; (6) take measures for the awakening of an interest in forestry in the schools and
the imparting of elementary instruction on such subject therein, and issue tracts and circulars for
the care of private woodlands, etc.; (7) print and post rules for the prevention and suppression of
forest fires.

174 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Section 272 provides that all income from the State forest lands, including receipts for tres-
passes, shall be paid into the State treasury and constitute a fund for the purchase of lands within
the Adirondack Park. The comptroller shall audit the accounts of the board, and an annual
report of all its doings shall be made in January of each year. Section 273 provides for the divi-
sion of lands within the forest preserve in which the State owns an undivided interest, with indi-
viduals. Section 274 provides for the taxation of the forest preserve. All wild or forest land
within the forest preserve shall be assessed and taxed at a like valuation and rate as similar lands
of individuals within the counties where situated. The assessors shall file with the commission
and the comptroller a copy of the assessment roll of their towns, and shall state (under oath)
which and how much of the lands assessed are forest lands and which are lands belonging to the
State. The comptroller, after hearings, shall “correct or reduce any assessment of State land
which may be, in his judgment, an unfair proportion to the remaining assessment of land within
the town,” and shall otherwise approve the assessment. No such assessment shall be valid with-
out the approval of the comptroller. No tax for the erection of schoolhouses or road opening
shall be valid unless such erection or opening is first approved by the board. Payment of taxes
on State lands shall be made by the State treasurer crediting the county treasurer with the
amount of such taxes due on such lands payable on the State tax of the year. Sections 275-279
and 281 provide for protection against fire, with penalties for violation of same. Section 280 pro-
vides for actions for trespasses upon the forest preserve. In addition to authorizing the board to
bring suits for trespass on the lands of the forest preserve the same as a citizen may bring for
trespass on private lands, it makes the cutting of trees or removal of any tree, timber, or bark
from any portion of the preserve a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of $25 for every tree so cut
or removed. The board is empowered to employ attorneys, with the consent of the attorney-
general and comptroller, to prosecute offenders against this act, and such offenders may be
arrested without warrant (sec. 282).

Article XIII refers to the Adirondack Park; section 290 defines its limits and adds: “Such
park shall be forever reserved, maintained, and cared for as ground open to the free use of all the
people for their health and pleasure, and as forest lands, necessary to the preservation of the
headwaters of the chief rivers of the State, and a future timber supply; and shall remain part of
the forest preserve.”

The park is placed in the control and custody of the board of fisheries, game, and forest,
which is empowered (1) to contract for the purchase of land within the limits of the park; (2) to
contract with owners of land situated within the park limits that such lands may become part of
the park and subject to the provisions of this article in consideration of the exemption of such
lands from taxation for State and county purposes, provided that the owners or their grantors
shall refrain forever from removing any timber except spruce, tamarack, or poplar, 12 inches in
diameter at three feet from the ground, or fallen, burned, or blighted timber, and obey such other
conditions of occupancy as may be equitable. Owners may also clear land for agricultural or
domestic purposes, at the rate of not more than 1 acre within the boundary of each 100 acres
covered by such contract; (3) to prescribe and enforce rules for the licensing or regulation of
guides and other persons engaged in business therein; (4) to lay out roads and paths in the park.

Contracts mentioned in this article require the approval of the commissioners of the land
office, and every conveyance mentioned in this article shall be certified by the attorney-general to
be in conformity with the contract, and approved by him as to form before acceptance or delivery.
The law further provides that the board include in its annual report an account of its proceedings
with reference to the park.

The legislature of 1897 passed the following important act (approved April 8, 1897), which is
quoted entire: i

AN ACT to provide for the acquisition of land in the territory embraced in the Adirondack Park, and making an appropriation therefor.

The people of the State of New York, represented in senate and assembly, do enact as follows:

Srcrion 1. The governor, within twenty days after this act takes effect, shall appoint from the commissioners
of fisheries, game, and forest, and the commissioners of the land office, by and with the advice and consent of the
senate, three persons to constitute a board to be known as ‘‘the forest preserve board.” The members of such
board may be removed by the governor at his pleasure. Vacancies shall be filled in like manner as an original
appointment. The members of the board shall not receive any compensation for their services under this act, but

FORESTRY LEGISLATION IN NEW YORK. 175

shall receive their actual and necessary expenses, to be audited by the comptroller. The board may employ such
clerical and other assistants as it may deem necessary. ‘The forest preserve board annually in the month of January
shall make a written report to the governor showing in detail all its transactions under this act during the preceding
calendar year.

Src. 2. It shall be the duty of the forest preserve board, and it is hereby authorized, to acquire for the State, by
purchase or otherwise, land, structures, or waters, or such portion thereof in the territory embraced in the Adiron-
dack Park, as defined and limited by the fisheries, game, and forest law, as it may deem advisable for the interests of
the State.

Src. 3. The forest preserve board may enter on and take possession of any land, structures, and waters in the
territory embraced in the Adirondack Park, the appropriation of which in its judgment shall be necessary for the
purposes specified in section two hundred and ninety of the fisheries, game, and forest law, and in section seven of
article seven of the constitution.

Src. 4. Upon the request of the forest preserve board an accurate description of such lands so to be appro-
priated shall be made by the State engineer and surveyor, or the superintendent of the State land survey, and
certified by him to be correct, and such board or a majority thereof shall indorse on such description a certiticate
stating that the lands described therein have been appropriated by the State for the purpose of making them a part
of the Adirondack Park; and such description and certificate shall be filed in the office of the secretary of state.
The forest preserve board shall thereupon serve on the owner of any real property so appropriated a notice of the
filing and the date of filing of such description containing a general description of the real property belonging
to such owner which has been so appropriated; and from the time of such service the entry upon and appropriation
by the State of the real property described in such notice for the uses and purposes above specified shall be deemed
complete, and thereupon such property shall be deemed and be the property of the State. Such notice shall be
conclusive evidence of an entry and appropriation by the State. The forest preserve board may cause duplicates of
such notice with an aftidavit of due service thereof on such owner to be recorded in the books used for recording
deeds in the office of the clerk of any county of this State where any of the property described therein may be
situated, and the record of such notice and such proof of service shall be evidence of the due service thereof.

Src. 5. Claims for the value of the property taken and for damages caused by any such appropriation may be
adjusted by the forest preserve board if the amount thereof can be agreed upon with the owners of the land appro-
priated. The board may enter into an agreement with the owner of any land so taken and appropriated for the
value thereof and for any damages resulting from such appropriation. Upon making such agreement the board
shall deliver to the owner a certificate stating the amount due to him on account of such appropriation of his lands,
and a duplicate of such certificate shall also be delivered to the comptroller. The amount so fixed shall be paid by
the treasurer upon the warrant of the comptroller.

Src. 6. If the forest preserve board is unable to agree with the owner for the value of the property so taken or
appropriated, or on the amount of damages resulting therefrom, such owner, within two years after the service upon
him of the notice of appropriation as above specified, may present to the court of claims a claim for the value of
such land and for such damages, and the court of claims shall have jurisdiction to hear and determine such claim
and render judgment thereon. Upon filing in the office of the comptroller a certified copy of the final judgment of
the court of claims, and a certificate of the attorney-general that no appeal from such judgment has been or will be
taken by the State, or, if an appeal has been taken, a certified copy of the final judgment of the appellate court,
affirming in whole or in part the judgment of the court of claims, the comptroller shall issue his warrant for the
payment of the amount due the claimant by such judgment, with interest from the date of the judgment until the

thirtieth day after the entry of such final judgment, and such amount shall be paid by the treasurer.

Src. 7. The owner of land to be taken under this act may, at his option, within the limitations hereinafter
prescribed, reserve the spruce timber thereon ten inches or more in diameter at a height of three feet above the
ground. Such option must be exercised within six months after the service upon him of a notice of the
appropriation of such land by the forest preserve board, by serving upon such board a written notice that he elects
to reserve the spruce timber thereon. If such a notice be not served by the owner within the time above specified,
he shall be deemed to have waived his right to such reservation, and such timber shall thereupon become and be
the property of the State. In case land is acquired by purchase, the spruce timber and no other may be reserved
by agreement between the board and the owner, subject to all the provisions of this act in relation to timber
reserved after an appropriation of land by the forest preserve board. ‘The presentation of a claim to the court of
claims before the service of a notice of reservation shall be deemed a waiver of the right to such reservation.

Src. 8. The reservation of timber and the manner of exercising and consummating such right are subject to the
following restrictions, limitations, and conditions:

1. The reservation does not include or affect timber within twenty rods of a lake, pond, or river, and such
timber can not be reserved. Roads may be cut or built across or through such reserved space of twenty rods, under
the supervision of the forest preserve board, for the purpose of removing spruce timber from adjoining land, and
the reservation of spruce timber within such space shall be deemed a reservation by the owner, his assignee, or
representative, of the right to cut other timber necessary in constructing such road, but such reservation does not
confer a right to remove such other timber so cut, or to use it otherwise than in constructing a road.

2. The timber reserved must be removed from the land within fifteen years after the service of notice of reser-
vation, or the making of an agreement subject to regulations to be prescribed by the forest preserve board; but
such land shall not be cut over more than once, and the said board may prescribe regulations for the purpose of
entorcing this limitation. All timber reserved and not remvuved from the land within such time shall thereupon

176 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

become and be the property of the State, and all the title or claim thereto by the original owner, his assigns or
representatives, shall thereupon be deemed abandoned.

Src. 9. A person who reserves timber as herein provided is not entitled to any compensation for the value of
the land purchased or taken and appropriated by the State, nor for any damages caused thereby, until:

1. The timber so reserved is all removed and the object of the reservation fully consummated; or

2. The time limited for the removal of such timber has fully elapsed, or the right to remove any more timber is
waived by a written instrument filed with the forest preserve board; and

3. The forest preserve board is satisfied that no trespass on State lands has been committed by such owner or
his assigns or representatives; that no timber or other property of the State not so reserved has been taken,
removed, destroyed, or injured by him or them, and that a cause of action in behalf of the State does not exist
against him or them for any alleged trespass or other injury to the property or interests of the State; and

4. That the owner, his assignee, or other representative has fully complied with all rules, regulations, and
requirements of the forest preserve board concerning the use of streams or other property of the State for the pur-
pose of removing such timber.

Src. 10. A warrant shall not be drawn by the comptroller for the amount of compensation agreed upon between
the owner and the forest preserve board, nor for the amount of a judgment rendered by the court of claims, until a
further certificate by the board is filed with him to the effect that the owner has not reserved any timber or that he,
his assignee, or other representative, has complied with the provisions of this act, or has otherwise become entitled
to receive the amount of the purchase price, award, or judgment.

Suc. 11. The forest preserve board may settle and adjust any claims for damages due to the State on account of
any trespasses or other injuries to property or interests of the State, or penalties incurred by reason of such tres-
passes or otherwise, and the amount of such damages or penalties so adjusted shall be deducted from the original
compensation agreed to be paid for the lands, or for damages, or from a judgment rendered by the court of claims on
account of the appropriation of such land. A judgment recovered by the State for such a trespass or for a penalty
shall likewise be deducted from the amount of such compensation or judgment.

Src. 12. If timber is reserved upon land purchased or appropriated as provided by this act, interest is not
payable upon the purchase price or the compensation which may be awarded for the value of such land or for
damages caused by such appropriation, except as provided in section six.

Suc. 13. Persons entitled to cut and remove timber under this act may use streams or other waters belonging
to the State within the forest preserve for the purpose of removing such timber, under such regulations and condi-
tions as may be prescribed or imposed by the forest preserve board. The persons using such waters shall be liable
for all damages caused by such use. 5

Src. 14. If timber be reserved, its value at the time of making an agreement between the owner and the forest
preserve board for the value of the land so appropriated aud the damages caused thereby, or at the time of the
presentation to the court of claims of a claim for such value and damages, shall be taken into consideration in
determining the compensation to be awarded to the owner on account of such appropriation either by such agree-
ment or by the judgment rendered upon such a claim.

Src. 15. The forest preserve board may appoint inspectors to examine the lands upon which timber is reserved
and ascertain and report to the board, from time to time, or whenever required, whether such timber is being
removed in accordance with the provisions of this act, whether any trespasses or other violations of this act are
being committed, and whether the persons entitled to the use of such waters for the purpose of removing timber
have complied with the regulations and conditions relating thereto prescribed or imposed by the board.

Src. 16. The forest preserve board shall fix the compensation of all clerks, inspectors, or other assistants
employed by it, which compensation shall be paid by the treasurer, upon the certificate of the board and the audit
and warrant of the comptroller. A person so appointed may be removed at the pleasure of the board.

Src. 17. The forest preserve board shall take such measures as may be necessary or proper to perfect the title
to any lands in the forest preserve now held by the State, and for that purpose may pay and discharge any valid lien
or incumbrance upon such land, or may acquire any outstanding or apparent right, title, claim, or interest which,
in its judgment, constitutes a cloud on such title. The amounts necessary for the purpose of this section shall be
paid by the treasurer upon the certificate of the board and the audit and warrant of the comptroller.

Src. 18. If an offer is made by the forest preserve board for the value of land appropriated, or for damages
caused by such appropriation, and such offer is not accepted, and the recovery in the court of claims exceeds the
offer, the claimant is entitled to costs and disbursements as in an action in the supreme court, which shall be allowed
and taxed by the court of claims and included in its judgment. If in such a case the recovery in the court of claims
does not exceed the offer, costs, and disbursements to be taxed shall be awarded in favor of the State against the
claimant and deducted from the amount awarded to him, or if no amount is awarded judgment shall be entered in
favor of the State against the claimant for such costs and disbursements. If an offer is not accepted, it can not be
given in evidence on the trial.

Src. 19. When a judgment for damages is rendered for the appropriation of any lands or waters for the pur-
poses specified in this act, and it appears that there is any lien or incumbrance upon the property so appropriated,
the amount of such lien shall be stated in the judgment, and the comptrolier may deposit the amount awarded to
the claimant in any bank in which moneys belonging to the State may be deposited to the account of such judgment,
to be paid and distributed to the persons entitled to the same as directed by the judgment.

Suc. 20. If a person cuts down or carries off any wood, bark, underwood, trees, or timber, or any part thereof,
or girdles or otherwise despoils a tree in the forest preserve, without the permission of the forest preserve board, an
action may be maintained against him by the board in its name of office and in such an action the board may recover

€

FORESTRY COMMISSIONS—PENNSYLVANIA. IEA

treble damages if demanded in the complaint. Every such person also forfeits to the State the sum of twenty-five
dollars for every tree cut down or carried away by him or under his direction, to be recovered in a like action by the
forest preserve board. All sums recovered in any such action shall be paid by the board to the State treasurer and
credited to the general fund.

SEC. 21. Service of a notice by the forest preserve board under section four must be personal if the person to be
served can be found in the State. The provisions of the code of civil procedure relating to the service of a summons
in an action in the supreme court, except as to publication, apply, so far as practicable, to the service of such a
notice. If a person to be served can not with due diligence be found in the State, a justice of the supreme court
may, by order, direct the manner of such service, and service shall be made accordingly.

Src. 22. The court of claims, if requested by the claimant or the attorney-general, shall examine the real
property affected by the claim and take the testimony in relation thereto in the county where such property or part
thereof is situated. The actual and necessary expenses of such judge and of each officer of the court in making
such examination and in so taking testimony shall be audited by the comptroller and paid from the money appro-
priated for the purposes of this act.

Src. 23. The power to appropriate real property, vested in the forest preserve board by section four, is subject
to the following limitations: Such real property must adjoin land already owned or appropriated by the State at the
time the description and certificate are filed in the office of the secretary of state, except that timber land not so
adjoining State land may be appropriated whenever in the judgment of the board timber thereon other than spruce,
pine, or hemlock is being cut or removed to the detriment of the forest or the interests of the State.

Src. 24. The sum of six hundred thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropri-
ated for the purposes specified in this act, out of any moneys in the treasury not otherwise appropriated. In addition
to the amount above appropriated, the comptroller, upon the written request of the forest preserve board, is hereby
authorized and directed to borrow, from time to time, not exceeding in the aggregate the sum of four hundred
thousand dollars for the purposes specified in this act, and to issue bonds or certificates therefor payable within ten
years from their date, bearing interest at a rate not exceeding five per centum pcr annum, and which shall not be
sold at less than par. The sums so borrowed are hereby appropriated, payable out of the moneys realized from the
sale of such bonds or certificates, to be expended under the direction of the forest preserve board for the purposes of
this act, and to be paid by the treasurer on the warrant of the comptroller.

Sec. 25. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are hereby repealed.

Src. 26. This act shall take effect immediately.

Under this act the State spent last year $1,000,000 in purchasing forest lands to the amount
of over 250,000 acres, so that the total holdings comprise now over 1,000,000 acres; and during
the present year (1898) another half million dollars is being disbursed for the same purpose.

In New Jersey the appropriations for the State geological survey have since 1894 contained a
clause which provides that the State geologist shall make (1) a survey to ascertain the extent,
location, and character of the wild lands or forest lands of the State, and the advantages of their
retention in forestry; (2) a survey of the more inportant watersheds or drainage basins and their
forested areas, with reference to the protective measures needed to save this forest cover and
thereby maintain the purity of the water, as well as promote the more equable flow of the streams;
(3) a study of the relations of forests as climatic factors, and particularly to the rainfall; (4) a
compilation of the forest legislation in other States and countries in so far as it may be applicable
to conditions in New Jersey.

Two reports have been published discussing forest conditions in various parts of the State,
effects of forest fires, relation of forests to stream-flow, ete.

In Pennsylvania, through the efforts of the State forestry association, a commission of inquiry
was first created by the following act on May 23, 1893:

AW ACT relative to a forestry commission.

Be it enacted, ete. :

Srcrion 1. That the governor be authorized to appoint two persons as a commission, one of. whom is to be a
competent enginecr, one a botanist, practically acquainted with the forest trees of the Commonwealth, whose duty
it shall be to examine and report upon the conditions of the slopes and summits of the important watersheds of the
State, for the purpose of determining how far the presence or absence of the forest cover may be influential in
producing high and low-water stages in the various river ‘basins; and to report how much timber remains standing
of such kinds as have special commercial value, how much there is of each kind; as well, also, as to indicate the part
or parts of the State where each grows naturally, and what measures, if any, are being taken to secure a supply of
timber for the future. It shall further be the duty of said commission to suggest such measures in this connection as
have been found of practical service elsewhere in maintaining a proper timber supply, and to ascertain, as nearly as
practicable, what proportion of the State not now recognized as mineral land is unfit for remunerative agriculture
and could with advantage be devoted to the growth of trees.

Src. 2. The said commission shall also ascertain what wild lands, if any, now belong to the Commonwealth,
their extent, character, and location, and report the same, together with a statement of what part or parts of such

H. Doe. 181 12

178 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

lands would be suitable for a State forest reserve; and further, shonld the lands belonging to the Commonwealth
be insufficient for such purpose, then to ascertain and report what other suitable lands there may be within the State,
their extent, character, and value. The final report of the said commission shall be presented to the legislature not
later than March 15, 1895.

Src. 3. The said commission shall have power to appoint one competent person to act as statistician, whose duty
it shall be'to compile the statistics collected by said commission, under their direction and supervision, whose salary
shall be one thousand dollars per annum, with necessary expenses, to be paid in the same manner as is hereinafter
provided for the payment of the forestry commission.

Src. 4. The commissioners appointed hereunder shall be entitled to receive by quarterly payments a compen-
sation as follows: The engineer, twenty-five hundred dollars ($2,500) per annum; the botanist, twenty-five hundred
dollars ($2,500) per annum, with necessary expenses; and the sum of twenty thousand dollars ($20,000) is hereby
appropriated out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to be paid by warrant drawn by the
auditor-general,

Before the report of this commission was published the legislature of 1895 provided for an
executive department of agriculture, and included in its organization a provision for a division of
forestry, the botanist member of the previous commission, Dr. J. T. Rothrock, being appointed
commissioner of forestry:

The law creating a department of agriculture was approved by the governor March 13, 1895.
The chapters referring to forestry are as follows:

Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in general assembly met,
and it is hereby enacted by authority of the same:

Section 1. That there be, and hereby is, established a department of agriculture, to be organized and admin-
istered by an officer who shall be known as the secretary of agriculture, who shall be appointed by the governor,
by and with the advice and consent of the senate, for the term of four years, at an annual salary of three thousand
five hundred dollars, and who, before entering upon the duties of his office, shall take and subscribe the oath pre-
scribed in article seven of the constitution. Said secretary shall be ex officio secretary of the State board of agri-
culture, and shall succeed to all the powers and duties now conferred by law upon the secretary of said board.

Src. 2. That it shall be the duty of the secretary of agriculture, in such ways as he may deem fit and proper to
encourage and promote the development of agriculture, horticulture, forestry, and kindred industries, to collect and
publish statistics and other information in regard to the agricultural industries and interests of the State. *~ ~*~ *
In the performance of the duties prescribed by this act the secretary of agriculture shall, as far as practicable,
* * * enlist the aid of the State geological survey for the purpose of obtaining and publishing useful information
respecting the economical relations of geology to agriculture, forestry, and kindred industries. He shall make an
annual report to the governor, and shall publish from time to time such bulletins of information as he may deem
useful and advisable. Said report and bulletins shall be printed by the State printer in the same manner as other
public documents, not exceeding five thousand copies of any one bulletin.

Src. 3. That it shall be the duty of the secretary to obtain and publish information respecting the extent and
condition of forest lands in this State, to make and carry out rules and regulations for the enforcement of all laws
designed to protect forests from fires and from all illegal depredations and destruction, and report the same annu-
ally to the governor, and, as far as practicable, to give information and advice respecting the best methods of pre-
serving woodlands and starting new plantations. He shall also, as far as practicable, procure statistics of the
amount of timber cut during each year, the purposes for which it is used, and the amount of timber Jand thus
cleared as compared with the amount of land newly brought under timber cultivation, and shall in general adopt
all such measures as, in his judgment, may, be desirable and effective for the preservation and increase of the timber
lands of this State, and shall have direct charge and control of the management of all forest lauds belonging to the
Commonwealth, subject to the provision of law relative thereto. ~ ~ * q

Src. 4. There shall be one deputy secretary, who shall be appointed by the governor for the term of four years,
at a salary of three thousand dollars a year, who shall also be director of farmers’ institutes. ‘The other officers of
the department shall be appointed by the governor for the term of four years, and shall be an economic zoologist, a
commissioner of forestry, a dairy and food commissioner, who shall have practical experience in the manufacture
of dairy products, and a State veterinarian, who shall be a graduate of some reputable veterinary college, who shall
receive an annua! salary of twenty-five hundred dollars each. *~ * * The governor is hereby authorized to
appoint one chief clerk of the department, at an annual salary of sixteen hundred dollars, a stenographer, at a
salary of eight hundred dollars a year, and one messenger, at a salary of six hundred dollars a year, and the dairy
and food commissioner, the commissioner of forestry, and the economic zoologist shall each have a clerk, who shall
be appointed by the governor and who shall serve under the direction of the respective commissioners aforesaid and
receive a salary of fifteen hundred dollars a year each.

c, » *

Src. 6. That the secretary may, at his discretion, employ experts for special examinations or investigations,
the expenses of which shall be paid by the State treasurer in the same manner as like expenses are provided by
law, but not more than five thousand dollars shall be so expended in any one year. In this annual report to the
governor he may include so much of the reports of other organizations as he shall deem proper, which shall take the
place of the present agricultural reports and of which thirty-one thousand six hundred copies shall be published
and distributed as follows: To the senate, nine thousand copies; to the house of representatives, twenty thousand

FORESTRY COMMISSIONS—-PENNSYLVANIA. 179

copies; to the secretary of agriculture, two thousand copies; to the State librarian, for distribution among public
libraries and for reserve work, five hundred copies; and to the State agricultural experiment station, one hundred
copies. :

Src. 7. That the secretary of agriculture shall have an office at the State capitol, and it is hereby made the
duty of the commissioners of public buildings and grounds to provide the necessary rooms, furniture, and apparatus
for the use of the department.

Sec. 8. That all acts or parts of acts inconsistent herewith be, and the same are hereby, repealed.

The legislature of 1897, in addition to passing—

An act making constables of townships ex officio fire wardens for the extinction of forest fires, and for
reporting to the court of quarter sessions violations of the laws for the protection of forests from fire, prescribing
the duties of such fire wardens and their punishment for failure to perform the same, and empowering them to
require, under penalty, the assistance of other persons in the extinction of such fires;

and

An act to amend the first section of an act entitled ‘“‘An act to protect timber lands from fire,” approved
the second day of June, anno Domini one thousand eight hundred and seventy, providing for a penalty in case of
the failure of county commissioners to comply with the terms of said act, after demand made upon them by the
commissioner of forestry, and providing for the Commonwealth bearing part of the expenses incurred under said act;
also,

x

An act to authorize constables and other peace officers, without first procuring a warrant, to arrest persons
reasonably suspected by them of offending against the laws protecting timber lands—

enacted the following laws, thus firmly establishing a forest policy for the State.

AN ACT for the preservation of forests and partially relieving forest lands from taxation.

Be it enacted, etc.: 5

SECTION 1. That in consideration of the public benefit to be derived from the retention of forest or timber
trees, the owner or owners of land in this Commonwealth having on it forest or timber trees of not less than fifty
trees to the acre, and each of said trees to measure at least eight inches in diameter at a height of six feet above the
surface of the ground, with no portion of the said land absolutely cleared of the said trees, shall, on making due
proof thereof, be entitled to receive annually from the commissioners of their respective counties during the period
that the said trees are maintained in sound condition upon the said land a sum equal to eighty per centum of all
taxes annually assessed and paid upon the said land, or so much of the said eighty per centum as shall not exceed
the sum of forty-five cents per acre: Provided, however, That no one property owner shall be entitled to receive said
sum on more than fifty acres.

Sec. 2. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed.

AN ACT authorizing the purchase by the Commonwealth of unseated lands for the nonpayment of taxes for the purpose of creating a
State forest reservation.

Be it enacted, etc.:

Section 1. That from and after the first day of January, anno Domini one thousand eight hundred and
ninety-eight, whenever any unseated lands within this Commonwealth shall, under existing laws, become liable to
sale by the respective county treasurers or the county commissioners for non-payment of taxes, it shall be the duty
of such treasurers and commissioners to publish a notice once a week for six successive weeks in at least two
newspapers of general circulation within the county in which the lands lie, and if two newspapers be not published
in said county, then in one newspaper in or nearest to the same, which notice shall contain the names of the owners
when known, the warrant numbers, names of warrantees when known, the number of acres contained in each tract,
the township in which the same is located, and the sums due upon each tract for taxes, and, further, to mail to the
secretary of agriculture and the commissioner of forestry each ten copies of such printed advertisement immediately
upon the publication thereof.

Src. 2. It shall be the duty of the commissioner of forestry to inquire into and examine the location and
character of the lands so advertised, and if in his judgment the same are so located and are of such a character as
to make them desirable to the Commonwealth for the purpose of creating and maintaining a forestry reservation,
he shall have power, at his discretion, to purchase any such lands for and in behalf of the Commonwealth at such
tax sales, subject to the right of redemption under existing laws: Provided, however, That the bid made and the
price paid for said lands shall in no case exceed the amount of taxes for the nonpayment of which the same are
being sold, and the costs. For all purchases so made in behalf of the Commonwealth the auditor-general shall
draw his warrant upon the State treasurer to the order of the county treasurer, upon certificate filed by the
commissioner of forestry with the said auditor-general.

Suc. 3. In the event of redemption of said lands, the redemption money paid shall be remitted to the State
treasurer by the county treasurer, with a statement describing the tract of land so redeemed.

Src. 4. The title to all lands so purchased, and not redeemed after the expiration of the time limited for
redemption, shall be taken as vested in the Commonwealth to the same extent and witb like effect as though such
purchase had been made by an individual at such sale, and the county treasurer shall certify to the secretary of
agriculture lists of all lands purchased in behalf of the Commonwealth and not redeemed within the time limited

180 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

for such redemption, with a description of each tract as required by section one of this act, and thereafter such
lands shall not be subject to further taxation while the same are owned by the Commonwealth. 1t shall be the duty
of the secretary of agriculture to keep a record in a book, to be especially provided for that purpose, of all the lands
so acquired by the “Commonwealth, with full description of each tract, the character of the same, the date of
purchase, the price paid, when the title became absolute, or, if redeemed, the date of redemption.

Src. 5. The lands so acquired by the Commonwealth shall be under the control and management of the
department of agriculture, but assigned to the care of the division of forestry, and shall become part of a forestry
reservation system having in view the preservation of the water supply at the sources of the rivers of the State, and
for the protection of the people of the Commonwealth and their property from destructive floods.

Suc. 6. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed.

Approved the 30th day of March, A. D. 1897.

AN ACT to secure State forestry reservations, and providing for the expenses thereof.

Be it enacted, etc.:

Srcrion 1. That a commission, to be composed of the commissioner of forestry, the chairman of the State
board of health, the deputy secretary of internal affairs, and two other persons, one of whom shall be a lawyer or
conveyancer of at least ten years’ professional experience, and the other one a practical surveyor, to be appointed
by the governor, be hereby created.

Src. 2. The said commission shall, after examination, locate and report to the governor, or to the legislature if
it be in session, the following forestry reservations:

(1) One of not less than forty thousand acres upon waters which drain mainly into the Delaware River.

(2) One of not Jess than forty thousand acres upon waters which drain mainly into the Susquehanna River

(3) One of not less than forty thousand acres upon waters which drain mainly into the Ohio River.

Provided, That each of these reservations shall be in one continuous area so far as the same is practicable.

Src. 8. That the lands selected shall be of a character better suited to the growth of trees than to mining or
agriculture, and that at least fifty per centum of the area of each HE NEOe shall have an average altitude of not
less than six hundred feet above the level of the sea.

Src. 4. That the said commission shall have full power to take by right of eminent domain and condemn the
lands it has selected for the purposes aforesaid as State reservations for the use and behoof of the Commonwealth,
and wherever it shall be necessary to have a recourse to a jury to assess the damages for any property to be taken
as aforesaid the said jury shall consist of such number and shall proceed, and their award shall be reviewed
and enforced, in the same manner as now provided by law for the taking of land for the opening of roads in the
respective counties in which said property is situated. And all the lands acquired by the State for public reserva-
tions by the action of said commission shall be paid for by the State treasurer, upon a warrant drawn by the auditor-
general of the Commonwealth, after approval by the governor.

Sec. 5. The commissioners appointed under this act shall serve without compensation, except so far as the
officials designated hereby are compensated by the continuance of their salaries as such officials while serving as
commissioners; but the necessary expenses of travel and all other necessary expenses incurred under the provisions
of this act shall be paid by the State treasurer, on the warrant of the auditor-general, after due certification.

Src. 6. Provided, That nothing herein contained shall authorize the taking, for the purpose of this act, of any
land held by any corporation created for the purpose of the preservation of forests.

Approved the 25th day of May, A. D. 1897.

The forest reservations provided by this law have been in part and will soon be all located.
It is already being realized that their area is too small and that increase at once is indicated.

In North Carolina a similar provision to that in New Jersey has existed since 1891 in the laws
appropriating for the State geological survey, requiring of the same reports on the forest resources.
Three’ bulletins (Nos. 5, 6, and 7) have been published, one on the ‘“Torest, forest lands, and
forest products of eastern North Carolina,” another on ‘Forest fires: Their destructive work,
causes and prevention,” and the third giving a comprehensive survey of the “‘ Timber trees and
forests of North Carolina.”

In the West Virginia legislature a well-considered bill was introduced last year providing for a
forest commission and State forest reserves. The State geological survey has functions similar to
that of North Carolina. 3

In Ohio a forestry bureau was instituted in 1885, its functions being of an educational and
advisory nature. It published four or five annual reports containing information on a variety of
subjects, but for a number of years these reports, and probably the bureau, have been discontinued.

Michigan had a commission of inquiry, created in June, 1887, by constituting the State board
of agriculture a forestry commission for the purpose of formulating the needed legislation. The
report of this commission, published in 1888, remained without any active measure as a
consequence.

FORESTRY COMMISSIONS—WISCONSIN. 181

The latest legislation for a commission of inquiry was enacted in Wisconsin in 1897:
AN ACT to provide for a committee to.draw up a plan to protect and utilize the forest resources of the State of Wisconsin.

The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assembly, do enact as follows:

SrcTION. 1. The governor is hereby authorized to appoint a commission consisting of three members who shall
devise and draw up.a plan for the organization of a forestry department, which shall have the management of such
State lands as may be suitable for timber culture and forestry. The said commissioners shall embody in their plan
provisions for the classification of the lands now owned by the State and the reservation to the State of all lands
which are better fitted for the growing of timber than for agricultural purposes; the purchase of similar lands which
may have been abandoned by their owners, or may have been struck off to counties for unpaid taxes; the management
of the forests existing on such lands according to the principles of scientific forestry; the replanting of forests on
such lands, as far as they have been denuded of their timber; and such other provisions as may be deemed advisable.
They shall aim at devising the best means by which the forest resources of the State can be utilized for the people
and preserved for future generations without retarding the development of the agricultural, manufacturing, and
mining industries; shall have regard to the influence which the maintaining of forests has upon the climate and
water supply of the State; and shall draw up a plan by which the forestry department may be from the first self-
supporting and in time become a source of revenue to the State. The report of said commissioners shall be submitted
to the legislature of the State at its next regular session, within the first ten days after the beginning thereof, in
the form of a bill or bills.

Src, 2. Said bill or bills may be accompanied by a report explaining the provisions of such bill or bills and
giving the reasons for any of the provisions contained therein. The said bill or bills, together with such report,
shall be printed by the State printer at the expense of the State in not more than five hundred copies, and shall be
distributed to such persons as the governor may direct.

Sec. 3. The said commissioners shall receive no compensation for their services, but shall be entitled to their
actual and necessary expenses, including clerk hire, which expenses and clerk hire shall not, in the aggregate, exceed
two hundred and fifty dollars, to be paid by the State treasurer upon warrants drawn by the secretary of state, upon
verified statements made by the chairman of such commission. The superintendent of public property shall furnish
such commission with the suitable and necessary stationery for the performance of such work.

Sec. 4. There is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, a sufficient
sum to carry out the provisions of this bill.

Sec. 5. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage and publication.

Approved April 14, 1897.

The commission appointed by the governor sought the cooperation of the Division of Forestry
of the Department of Agriculture, whose experts, in cooperation with the State geological survey,
made a comprehensive forest survey of the forested counties of the State, upon the basis of which
the commission is framing its propositions.

The State also has an effective forest-fire law, which is in charge of a special commissioner, as
will be shown later.

In Minnesota, as a consequence of the terrible warning by the fires of 1894, on April 18, 1895,
the legislature passed ‘‘an act to provide for the preservation of forests and for the prevention
and suppression of forest fires,” under which the State auditor was made ex officio forest com-
missioner, with a chief fire warden as executive officer in charge of the organized service to
combat forest fires. Beyond these duties the latter officer is only required to add to his report
“suggestions relative to the preservation of the forests of the State and to the prevention and
extinguishment of forest and prairie fire.” Three annual reports have so far appeared and show
the wisdom of the legislation.

An effort was made during the legislative session of 1897 to secure the enactment of the
following bill, which passed the house but failed to reach a vote inthe senate. The bill is included
here, notwithstanding its failure to become a law, because it embraces a novel and interesting
method of securing to the State the benefits of a forest reservation.

AN ACT to encourage the growing and preservation of forests, and to create forest boards and forest reserve areas.

(Sections 1 to 8 provide for the acquirement of forest reserve areas, the appointment of a forestry board of
nine members, who shall serve without pay other than the reimbursement of actual expenses incurred, and who
shall have a secretary, and elect a president and vice-president. The State treasurer is made treasurer of the board,
and county commissioners and town supervisors are made county and town forestry boards. The duties of the
boards are defined, and the remainder of the bill, embracing its unique features, is as follows:)

Sec. 9. Any person or corporation being the owner in fee simple of any cutover or denuded, or partially cutover
or partially denuded, natural forest lands, which will not probably be utilized for many years for agricultural
purposes, or any bare or waste, or partially bare or waste, rough prairie lands, or any very sandy, very rough, or

182 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

very rocky lands in this State, or any lands deemed absolutely necessary for the preservation of water courses (all
to be determined ly said State forestry board) may deed the same to the State of Minnesota for forestry purposes;
‘all lands so deeded to the State for forestry purposes by any person or corporation are hereby forever dedicated for
forestry purposes.

Before such deed shall be made and delivered a proposition in writing shall be made by such owner or owners
to said State forestry board to so deed the same for forestry purposes, under the terms of this act and amendments
thereof, made prior to such offer, and the question of the acceptance thereof shall be referred to the town or county
forestry board where the land is situated (or both such town and county forestry boards) for its adyice on the
question of accepting the same; and said State forestry board, or its executive committee, may hear the person
offering so to deed, or his or her representative, and also may hear such town or county forestry board or its repre-
sentative, both sides in person, or by written reasons submitted, why such deed should or should not be received,
and the decision of the State forestry board to receive or reject such offer and deed shall be final. Such deed may
be made by quitclaim, where by the advice of the attorney-general, or by the advice of its attorney, if said board
have one, said Jands are clear of liens except for taxes and tax sales still owned by the State.

The board may appoint an executive committee annually, on which it may confer authority to perform any
executive act, and to exercise its judgment in minor details which can not conveniently be acted upon by the board.

Suc. 10. At least once in every five (5) years, and as much oftener as the State forestry board may decide, the
accumulated income from each tract of land so deeded by persons or corporations for State forestry purposes shall
be divided by the State forestry board and disposed of as follows, to wit:

1st. One-third (4) shall belong to the State, to reimburse the State for the care and protection of the forests
thereon, and for the nonpayment of taxes thereon to the State, county, and town, which third (4) shall be divided
between the State, county, and town where the land is situated as follows, to wit: One-half (4+) to the State, one-
fourth (4) to the county, and one-fourth (+) to the town.

2d. Two-thirds (#) shall be paid to such publie educational institution or system in the State as the grantor may
designate in the deed of conveyance, or in a separate instrument executed as deeds of land are required to be
executed and recorded in the office of the register of deeds of the county where the land is situated, or by will. But
in case the grantor fail to so designate such institution or system, or if for any reason such institution or system
fails to exist. then the same shall paid to the proper officer or officers or boards for the benefit of the public school
system of the State and the University of Minnesota, the public school system to have three-fourths (#) thereof, and
the said university to have one-fourth (+) thereof.

Src. 11. The State, by and through said State forestry board, shall have full power and authority to lease for
revenue, or for protection from fire, trespassers, or otherwise, low meadow tracts, or other tracts for pasture, when
the same will not interfere with the growth of forest trees, and to sell dead and down timber and mature timber,
and to deed said tracts or parcels or parts of the same, where the growth of towns, the building of railroads, water
powers, or other public improvements may demand alienation by the State, and said State forestry board may cause
to be cut and sold, or sold with the right to cut and haul away, forests or trees when said board may determine that
the State’s and the beneficiaries’ interests will be subserved by so doing, but all proceeds of such sales or leases shall
be divided as is the income therefrom as above provided.

Sec. 12. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage.

In North Dakota the office of commissioner of irrigation and forestry was created in 1890,
seemingly mainly for educational purposes. In Kansas for some time the educational campaign
for timber planting of the State horticultural society was supplemented by the State in the estab-
lishment of two experimental tree stations, under a superintendent, from which plant material is
distributed to intending planters. ;

The State of Colorado was the first to recognize in her constitution the existence of a duty on
the part of the government with regard to her forestry interests.

Article XVIII of the constitution, adopted in convention March 14, 1876, contains the follow-
ing clauses:

Src. 6. The general assembly shall enact laws in order to prevent the destruction of and to keep in good pres-
ervation the forests upon the lands of the State or upon lands of the public domain, the control of which shall he
conferred by Congress upon the State. :

Sec. 7. The general assembly may provide that the increase in the value of private lands caused by the plant-
ing of hedges, orchards, and forests thereon shall not, for a limited time, to be fixed by law, be taken into account
in assessing such lands for taxation.

The constitutional convention also presented a memorial to Congress asking for the transfer
of the public-timber lands in the then Territory to the care and custody of the State, which
remained, however, without attention.

The intentions of the constitution to take care of the forestry interests of the State were,
however, not carried into effect until 1885, when a law was passed creating the office of a forest
commissioner and constituting the county commissioners and road overseers throughout the
State, forest officers in their respective localities, to act as a police force in preventing depredation

FOREST-FIRE LEGISLATION. 183

and fire, and to encourage and promote forest culture. But the provisions to carry out this
laudable work were from the start insufficient, and the office of forest commissioner finally
remaining without a salary became vacant, the law ineffective. A new departure, however, was
made in 1897. In that year a department of forestry, game, and fish was created. The salaried
officers provided are a commissioner and three wardens, and the commissioner may appoint deputy
wardens without pay. Section 9 of the law provides that—

Said commissioner shall, as much as possible, promote the growth and extension of the forest areas of the
State, and encourage the planting of trees and the preservation of the sources of water supply, but nothing in this
act contained shall authorize the commissioner to interfere with the use of timber for domestic, mining, or
agricultural purposes, in accordance with existing laws. He shall have the care of all woodlands and forests which
may at any time be controlled by the State, and shall cause all such lands to be located and recorded in a book to
be kept for the purpose.

Section 10 prohibits the appointment to any office created by this act of any person directly
or indirectly engaged in the manufacture of lumber, railroad ties, telegraph poles or any business
requiring a large use of wood. The law makes it a misdemeanor to cause fires to be set without a
guard, or to cut coniferous timber from public or State lands for shipment outside the State.
The remainder of the law provides for the protection of fish and game.

California began its course for the establishment of a forest policy in the most promising manner
in 1885, March 3, by creating a State board of forestry. At first it was mainly a commission of
inquiry with educational functions; police powers were conferred upon it in 1887 “for the purpose
of making arrests for any violation of any law applying to forest and brush lands within the State,
or prohibiting the destruction thereof,” with an appropriation of $30,000 for the two years following,
but by 1891 political complications and perversion of the moneys appropriated undid the good
work of the first board, and the office, as well as the functions, were abolished. Besides three
valuable reports on the forest conditions and forest trees of the State, the board left as an inheritance
two experiment stations, where exotic trees are being tested, now under charge of the University
of California.

FOREST-FIRE LEGISLATION.

Besides this legislation regarding forest commissions, by which the interest and duty of the
State is recognized with regard to forest conditions, laws recognizing the duty and necessity of
protecting forest property more efficiently against fire have been enacted in several States since
1885, when, in New York in connection with the establishment of the forest commission, the first
comprehensive forest-fire law, drafted by the writer, was enacted. Laws against willful and
malicious firing existed then on the statute books of nearly every State, but they were ineffective
for lack of responsibility for their execution. The New York law for the first time recognized the
need of officers responsible for the execution of the law and of the organization of an army of
firewardens throughout the State.

The States of Maine, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Minnesota followed,
with some modifications, this example of New York.

The principles most needful to keep in view when formulating legislation for protection
against forest fires are—

(1) No legislation is effective unless well-organized machinery for its enforcement is provided.
The damage done by forest fires being in many cases far-reaching beyond the immediate private
personal loss, the State must be prominently represented in such organization.

(2) Responsibility for the execution of the law must be clearly defined and ultimately rest
upon one person, and every facility for ready prosecution of offenders must be at the command of
the responsible officer.

(3) None but paid officials can be expected to do efficient service, and financial responsibility
in all directions must be recognized as alone productive of care in the performance of duties as
well as in the obedience to regulations. In the case of corporations the officer most directly
responsible for any damage must be amenable to law in addition to the corporation itself.

(4) Recognition of common interest in the protection of property can also be established only
by the creation of financial liability on the part of the community and all its members.

184 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
i

The following is the draft of an ideal comprehensive bill which embodies the principal features
of the desired legislation and has served as a basis for the existing laws:

AN ACT for the protection of forest property.
FOREST COMMISSIONER.

Section 1 creates a forest commissioner, whose office may be either an enlargement of some existing office or,
much better, a separate one, with adequate compensation in either case, to be appointed by and reporting directly
to the governor.

Section 2 prescribes the duties of the forest commissioner, namely, tol organize, supervise, and be responsible,
under the provisions of this act, for the protection of forest property in the State against fire. In addition he is to
collect statistics and other information regarding the forest areas in the State, and the commerce of wood and allied
interests, especially such information as will explain the distribution, condition, value, and ownership of the
woodland; this information and the results of the operation of this act, together with suggestions for further
legislative action, to be embodied in annual reports.

Section 3 provides for the giving of a bond by the forest commissioner for the faithful performance of his duties,
and fixes fines for such neglect in performing the duties of the office as may be proven, and explains the manner of
imposing and collecting such fines. :

ORGANIZATION OF FIRE SERVICE.

Section 4 constitutes the selectmen of towns, or the sheriffs, deputies, constables, supervisors, or similar officers
as firewardens. If preferred, special fire commissioners may be appointed by the forest commissioner, with the
advice of county commissioners, or both methods of providing firewardens may be employed together. The towns
are to be divided into fire districts, the number and boundaries to be governed by the exigencies in each case, and each
district to be under the charge and oversight of one district firewarden. One of these should be designated as town
firewarden, to take command in ease of large conflagrations. The town firewarden and at least 50 per cent of the
district firewardens should be property owners in the county, unless a sufficient number of such can not be found or
residents refuse to serve. A description of each district and the name of its firewarden are to be recorded with the
forest commissioner and the town clerk or similar officer.

Section 5 provides for employment of special fire patrols in unorganized places in any county and during the
dangerous season, especially in lumbering districts, and for co-operation of forest owners. Wherever unorginized
places exist in a county or so far distant from settlements as to make discovery of fires and speedy arrival of regular
firewardens impossible, or wherever forest owners whose property is specially endangered require, the forest com-
missioner may annually appoint special fire patrols, to be paid at daily rates, the owner paying one-half the expense
and the State the other half; such patrols to be under the regulations of this law and to report to the nearest fire-
wardens. The manner of appointment and the matter of compensation and duties are to be formulated by the forest
commissioner.

Section 6 defines the power and duties of firewardens: To take measures necessary for the control and extinction
of fires; to post notices of regulations provided in this law and furnished by the forest commissioner; to ascertain
the cause of fires and prepare evidence in case of suits; to report each fire at once to the forest commissioner on
blanks furnished, giving area burned over, damage, owner, probable origin, measures adopted, and cost of extinguish-
ing; to have authority to call upon any persons in their district for assistance, such persons to receive compensation
as determined by the selectmen or county commissioners at the rate of not to exceed 15 cents per hour and to be
paid by the town or county upon certification by the forest commissioner.

Persons refusing, when not excused, to assist or to comply with orders, shall forfeit the sum of $10, the same to
be recovered in an action for debt in the name and to the use of the town or county, or for the fire-protection fund.

Firewardens shall be paid $10 a year as a retainer besides day’s wages at the same rates as sheriffs or similar
officers for as many days as they are actually on duty, and shall be responsible for prompt extinction of fires and be
amenable to law for neglect of duty. The district firewarden shall call on the town firewarden in case of inability
to control fires, and the town firewarden shall have sherift’s power to enlist assistance, as is provided in case of a
mob.

FIRE-INDEMNITY FUND.

Section 7 provides for the creation of a fire-indemnity fund, each county to pay into the State treasury $1 for
each acre burnt over each year, the special fund so constituted to be applied in the maintenance of the system
provided by this act and for the payment of damages to those whose forest property has been burned without
neglect on their part or on that of their agents.

The burned areas shall be ascertained by the county surveyor and shall be checked from the reports of fire-
wardens by the forest commissioner. All fines collected under the provisions of this law shall also accrue to the
fire fund.

JURISDICTION AND LEGAL REMEDIES.

Section 8 establishes jurisdiction and legal proceedings in each case of prosecution of incendiaries and
adjustment of damages, and imposes upon every district judge the duty in charging the grand juries of his district
to call special attention to the penal provisions of this act and of any similar acts providing for offenses against
forest property.

FOREST-FIRE LEGISLATION. 185

Section 9 charges the forest commissioner to issue and publish, by posters and otherwise, reasonable regulations
regarding the use of fires; such regulations to contain special consideration of campers, hunters, lumbermen, settlers,
colliers, turpentine men, railroads, etc., and to be approved by the governor.

Section 10 makes it a misdemeanor to disobey the posted regulations of the forest commissioner, or to destroy
posters, or to originate fires by neglect of the same; provides that the prosecution shall be prepared by the
forest commissioner, and imposes fines and imprisonment in addition to damages. Fines should be double the actual
damages, one-half to go to the fire fund, one-half to the damaged person.

Section 11 makes it a criminal act, subject to indictment, to willfully set fires, and imposes fine and
imprisonment.

Section 12 provides that any person whose forest property is damaged by fire not originated by his own
neglect, and who is able to prove neglect on the part of the firewarden, may call on the forest commissioner for
award of damage, whereupon the forest commissioner, in conjunction with the county authorities, shall investigate
the case and refer his findings to the judicial officer of the district, who shall charge the grand jury to indict any
offender against this act and aujudge any neglectful firewarden or other officer or any person refusing to act upon
orders of the firewarden.

Any neglect on the part of the forest commissioner to investigate and find in each case within one year from
the appeal of the owner shall be followed by dismissal unless reasonable cause for failure be shown.

LIABILITY OF RAILROADS.

Section 13 charges railroad companies to keep their right of way free from inflammable material by burning,
under proper care, before certain dates to be established by the forest commissioner. Failure to do so upon
notification by the commissioner shall be followed by the arrest of the superintendent of the section, who shall be
liable prima facie to procedure under section 10.

Section 14 provides for the use of spark arresters, failure to comply with this provision to be followed by arrest
of the superintendent or other officer in charge of the motive power and hy procedure under section 10.

Section 15 provides that fires originating from the tracks of a railroad company shall be prima facie evidence
of neglect on the part of the company, and the engineer and firemen shall be liable to arrest and procedure under
section 10. ,

Section 16 provides that in all cases where a fire originates through neglect of a railroad company or its agents,
both the company and its officers shall be liable for damages under the provisions of section 12.

Section 17 establishes special liabilities for damage by fires in case of railroads under construction.

FIRE INSURANCE AND STOCK LAWS.

Section 18 provides for the incorporation of forest fire insurance companies. In States where cattle are allowed
to roam, provisions to stop this practice should be enacted. .

FURTHER DUTIES OF FOREST COMMISSIONERS.

Section 19 defines minor duties of forest commissioners, namely, to co-operate with superintendents of schools
and other educational institutions in awakening an interest in behalf of forestry and rational forest use.

Section 20 provides for salary and other expenses of the office of forest commissioner, which should be liberal
in proportion to the responsibility of the office.

Section 21 repeals all acts and parts of acts inconsistent with provisions of this act.

How near to this ideal we come in practice may appear from the legislation enacted for
Minnesota in 1895, which is still only partially effective on account of deficient appropriations and
limited functions of the commissioner or chief firewarden.

AN ACT to provide for the preservation of forests of this State and for the prevention and suppression of forest and prairie fires.

Be it enacted by the legislature of the State of Minnesota:

SEcTron 1. The State auditor shall be forest commissioner of this State, and his orders shall be supreme in all
matters relating to the preservation of the forests of this State and to the prevention and suppression of forest and
prairie fires as hereinafter provided. The supervisors of towns, mayors of cities, and presidents of village councils
are hereby constituted firewardens of their respective towns, cities, and villages in the State, and the chief fire-
warden may appoint as firewardens such other persons as he may deem necessary, living in or near to unorganized
territory in this State, whose districts, to be known as fire districts, he may determine.

Src. 2. The aforesaid forest commissioner shall appoint a competent deputy to be known as chief firewarden,
who, from personal experience, is familiar with the conditions of the forest and methods by which fires may be
controlled. Said chief firewarden shall receive a salary of twelve hundred ($1,200) dollars per year, and shall hold
his office during the pleasure of the forest commissioner. He shall represent the authority of the forest commis-
sioner, and it shall be his duty to enforce the provisions of this act throughout the State.

Suc. 3. The chief firewarden shall have general charge of the firewarden force of the State, and shall have
authority to mass such firewarden force as may be available at any special point to suppress fires. In case the fire-
warden force of any locality is deemed by said chief firewarden inadequate to prevent or suppress forest or prairie:

186 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

fires, he may appoint, temporarily, needed firewardens, whose duties and authority shall be the same as herein
given to town supervisors acting as firewardens. He shall properly divide into fire districts all unorganized
territory in this State and appoint competent firewardens therein; he shall co-operate with any police or military
force of the United States Government which may be detailed to guard the national domain from fire; he shall
investigate the extent of the forests in the State, together with the amounts and varieties of the wood and timber
growing therein, the damages done to them from time to time by forest fires and the causes of such fires, the method
used, if any, to promote the regrowth of timber, and any other important facts relating to forest interests which
may be required by the forest commissioner. The information so gathered, with his suggestions relative thereto,
shall be included in a report to be made by him annually to the forest commissioner.

Src. 4. The forest commissioner shall provide and officially sign an abstract of the penal laws of this act, with
such rules and regulations in accord therewith as he may deem necessary, and on or before the first day of April of
each year he shall forward as many copies as he considers needful to the chairman of each town board of supervisors
and presidents of villages, to the forest firewardens that he has appointed, and to all railroad companies and to the
chairman of each board of county commissioners in this State, and it shall be the duty of said firewardens to post
up such abstract as warning placards in conspicuous places in their respective districts, and it shall be the duty of
the county commissioners of each county to cause the said abstract to be published in at least three issues of the
official papers in their respective counties during the fire-dangerous season of each year, which shall be reckoned
from the 15th of April to the Ist of November.

Src. 5. During a dry and dangerous season, when forest and prairie nee are prevailing or are liable to break
out, the chief firewarden shall use such means under his command as he may deem necessary to prevent or suppress
such fires, and his expenses shall be paid by the State, which expenditures in one year shall not exceed five thousand
dollars, to be paid for out of the general revenue fund, upon the order of the forest commissioner.

Src. 6. It shall be the duty of each fire warden to take precautions to prevent the setting of forest or prairie
fires, and when his district is suffering or threatened with fire, to go to the place of danger to control such fires, and
each forest firewarden shall have authority to call to his assistance in emergencies any able-bodied male person
over eighteen years of age, and if such person refuses, without reasonable justification or excuse, to assist, or if any
firewarden refuses or neglects to perform the duties assigned him in this act, such officer or person shall be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall upon conviction thereof be punished by a fine of not more than one hundred
($100) dollars, or imprisonment in the county jail not to exceed three (3) months.

Src. 7. The chief firewarden and the several firewardens created by this act shall have authority to enforce
the provisions of this act, and it shall be their duty to co-operate with the firewarden of any adjoining district, and
in the absence of such firewardens to direct the work of control and extinguishment of forest or prairie fires in such
district, and to arrest, without warrant, every person violating any provisions of this act, and to forthwith take
the offender before a magistrate and make complaint against such person. The chairmen of boards of township
supervisors, presidents of villages, and firewardens appointed by the chief firewarden shall inquire into the cause
of each forest or prairie fire within their districts and shall report the same to the chief firewarden and the methods
used to control or extinguish such fires and the amount of property destroyed and the number of lives lost, if any,
and report such other facts in regard to said fires as said chief firewarden may require. During the more dangerous
season of the year the chief firewarden may require frequent reports from the chairmen of township beards, or in
unorganized towns from firewardens appointed by the said chief firewarden, as to condition of forest and prairie
fires and as to what is being done to control the same.

Src. 8. Each firewarden shall receive for his actual services rendered under this act two ($2) dollars per day,
two-thirds of which shall be paid by the county where such service is performed and one-third by the State; and
any employee engaged in like service shall receive at the rate of one and fifty one-hundredths ($1.50) dollars per
day, and said expense shall also be paid, two-thirds by the county where such service is rendered and one-third by
the State, as hereinafter provided; but no payment shall be made to any claimant under this act until he shall have
presented an itemized account and made oath or affirmation that said account is just and correct, which account
shall be approved by the board of township supervisors and shall be andited by the county commissioners, when
satisfied of the justice of the claim, and left on file with the county auditor; in case of unorganized townships the
board of county commissioners alone shall approve and audit such accounts. The county auditor shall thereupon
issue to each claimant his warrant upon the county treasurer for the entire sum to which such claimant is entitled,
and the treasurer shall pay the same. Such county auditor shall transmit the original oath and copy of the warrant
to the State auditor, who shall audit such claim, and one-third thereof shall be paid out of the State treasury from
the general reyenue fund by warrant issued by the State auditor upon the State treasury in favor of the counuy
thereof paying the same, and forward the same to the auditor of said county: Provided, That no firewarden shall be
paid in any one year for more than ten (10) days’ service in extinguishing and preventing forest or prairie fires,
nor for more than five (5) days’ service in each year in posting notices and making the reports required by this act,
nor in the aggregate for more than fifteen (15) days’ service, of whatever character, in any one year; nor shall any
one person employed by firewardens to assist in extinguishing or preventing forest or prairie fires be paid for more
than five (5) days of such service in any one year. No county shall expend more than five hundred (#500) dollars of
public money in any one year under this act.

Src. 9. Any person who willfully, negligently, or carelessly sets on fire, or causes to be set on fire, any woods,
prairies, or other combustible material, whether or not on his own Jands, by means whereof the property of another
is injured or endangered, or any person who willfully, negligently, or carelessly suffers any fire set by himself to
damage the property of another, is guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one hun-
dred ($100) dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding three months. Any person who maliciously

FOREST-FIRE LEGISLATION. 187

sets on fire, or causes to be set on fire, any woods, prairies, or other combustible material whereby the property of
another is destroyed and life is sacrificed shall be punished with a fine of not over five hundred ($500) dollars, or be
imprisoned in the State prison for a term of not over ten (10) years, or both such fine and imprisonment.

Src. 10. Any person who shall kindle a fire on or dangerously near to forest or prairie land and leave it
unquenched, or shall be a party thereto, and every person who shall use other than incombustible wads for firearms,
or who shall carry a naked torch, firebrand or other exposed light in or dangerously near to forest land, causing
risk of accidental fire, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred ($100) dollars, or imprisonment in the
county jail not exceeding three (3) months.

Src. 11. Every person who shall willfully or heedlessly deface, destroy, or remove any warning placard posted
under the requirements of this act shall be liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred ($100) dollars for each such
offense, or imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding three (3) months.

Src. 12. It shall be the duty of all railroad companies operating any railroad within this State to use efficient
spark arresters on all their engines and to keep their right of way to the width of fifty (50) feet on each side of the
center of the main track cleared of all combustible materials and safely dispose of the same within said limits of
their right of way between the 15th day of April and the 1st day of December. No railroad company shall permit
its employees to leave a deposit of fire or live coals, or hot ashes, in the immediate vicinity of woodland, or lands
liable to be overrun by fires, and where engineers, conductors, or train men discover that fences or other materials
along the right of way or woodland adjacent to the railroad are burning, or in danger from fire, they shall report the
same promptly at the next telegraph station that they may pass. In seasons of drought railroad companies shall
give particular instructions to their employees for the prevention and prompt extinguishment of fires, and they shall
cause warning placards furnished by the forest commissioner to be posted at their stations in the vicinity of forest
and prairie grass lands, and where a fire occurs along the line of their road they shall concentrate such help and
adopt such measures as shall be available to effectively extinguish it. Any railroad company willfully violating
the requirements of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and be punished by a fine not exceeding one
hundred (#100) dollars for each such offense, and railroad employees willfully violating the requirements of this
section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and be punished by a fine of not less than five (#5) dollars nor more than
fifty ($50) dollars. But this section shall not be construed to prohibit or prevent any railroad company from piling
or keeping upon the right of way cross-ties or other material necessary in the operation or maintenance of such
railroad.

Src. 13. It shall be the duty of each and every owner of thrashing or other portable steam engines to have
efficient spark arresters on their engines at all times when in use, and no person in charge of any thrashing engine
shall deposit live coals or hot ashes from his engine in any place without putting them out or covering them with at
least three inches of earth before leaving them. All persons violating the provisions of this section shall be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not less than five (#5) dollars nor
more than fifty ($50) dollars.

Suc. 14. Nothing in this act shall be construed as affecting any right of action for damages.

Sec. 15. Woodland territory within the terms of this act shall be construed to mean bodies of forest and brush
land. :

Src. 16. All moneys received as penalties for violating the provisions of this act shall be paid into the county
treasury of the county wherein the offense occurred, to be known as the county fire fund, and used under the direction
of the county board in defraying the expenses of enforcing the provisions of this act within such county.

Suc. 17. The forest commissioner shall annually, on or before the first day of December, make a written report
to the governor of his doings in respect to the duties herein assigned him, together with an itemized account of the
expenses incurred in carrying out the provisions of this act, which report shall include such statistics and facts as
he has obtained from the chief fire warden and from the several fire wardens of the State and from other sources,
together with his suggestions relative to the preservation of the forests of the State and to the prevention and
extinguishment of forest and prairie fires.

Sno. 18. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are hereby repealed.

Src. 19. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage.

Approved April 18, 1895.

The Wisconsin law (chapter 266, Laws of 1895) is similar in general character to the Minnesota
law, except that the chief clerk of the State land office and his deputy are made State forest
warden and deputy forest warden, respectively, without additional salary. ‘Towns are limited to
$100 per year expenditure in extinguishing fires.

The Maine law (chapter 100, Public Laws of 1891) makes the State land agent the forest
commissioner. The selectmen of towns are made fire wardens and their duties are to post copies
of the law in conspicuous places and to superintend the work of extinguishing fires. ‘They are
empowered to call upon any person for assistance, and a refusal makes the party liable to $10 fine.
The county commissioners in counties where there are unorganized places may appoint not to
exceed ten fire wardens. No town shall expend for extinguishing fires more than 2 per cent of its
valuation for purposes of taxation. Anyone who neglects to extinguish a camp fire is liable to a
fine not exceeding $100 or imprisonment in the county jail one month, or both. Non-combustible
wads must be used by hunters. Municipal officers (and county commissioners in unorganized

188 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

places) shall make strict inquiry into the causes of fires within wooded lands, and prosecute the
offender without delay. Town selectmen shall, where a forest fire of more than one acre has
oceurred, report to the forest commissioner the extent of fire and the amount of loss, and the
measures found efficient in subduing fire, for which purpose blanks shall be furnished by the forest
commissioner.

Railroad companies are required to have their employees burn or cut and remove all grass,
etc., from their right-of-way once a year; to use spark arresters on their locomotives; to refrain
from depositing live coals, fire, or ashes on their track; and to report fires along right-of-way at
the next stopping place that is a telegraph station. Railroad companies are held liable for all
damage to forest growth by any person in their employ during road construction. During con-
struction of such roads through woodland, abstracts of the laws relating to forest fires shall be
posted along the roadway at distances of 200 feet. Anyone so employed who fails to extinguish
a fire made by him is liable to a fine not exceeding $500 or imprisonment not exceeding sixty days,
or both, and it is made the duty of all persons having charge of men in such railroad construction
to see that the provisions of this act are complied with, any negligence subjecting them to the
punishment above named. Violations of this act by railroads are punishable by a fine of $100 for
each offense. The forest commissioner shall encourage an interest in forestry in the public schools,
and shall prepare circulars of information giving advice for the care of woodlands. He shall have
copies of this chapter and all other laws of the State relating to forest fires printed and freely
distributed to the selectmen of all the towns of the State, who shall post them up in schoolhouses,
sawmills, logging camps, and other places, and to forest owners, who may post them at their own
expense. Anyone defacing or destroying such notices is liable to a fine of $5.

Reports of the commissioners all bear testimony to the beneficent effect of the legislation,
especially in educating people to consider the value of forest property, although the execution of
the laws is still difficult and unsatisfactory.

That it is not necessary to have forest fires, or that they can be at least reduced to insignificant
dimensions, may be learned from the experiences of other nations, who exercise the first function
of the State, namely, the more thorough protection of life and property of its citizens.

In a recent report we read that in 1896 ‘‘very considerable damage by fire” occurred in the
Prussian State forests (some 6,000,000 acres), and then the reporter brings a table showing that
altogether less than 2,500 acres were burnt over. One “extensive” fire is reported as destroying
1,000 acres of “hopeful” pine and spruce plantation 20 to 25 years old, the result of incendiarism.

In the following year (1897) the entire loss was not over 100 acres. During the ten years
1882 to 1891 there were 156 cases of fire reported: 96 from negligence, 53 from malice, 3 from
lightning, and only 4 from Jocomotives; and seven years out of the ten are without any record of
fire due to this last cause. And this on an area of 6,000,000 acres, of which more than half is on
dry sandy soil stocked with pure pine forest, where the pine litter is never burned or removed,
and with large bodies of sapling timber and young growth interspersed.

Comment is unnecessary as to the possibility of protecting forest property from fire.

The Indian forest administration, under circumstances not less difficult, nay, perhaps, more
difficult than those prevailing in the United States, still more strongly refutes the assertion that
forest fires may not be suppressed.

Not only have the people of all timbered parts of India practiced the firing of woods for
many centuries, both for purposes of agriculture and pasture, but the natural conditions in most
of the Indian forests are such as to discourage the most sanguine.

In most parts the forest is a mixed growth, of which a considerable portion is valueless and is
left to die and litter the ground with dry and decaying timber, furnishing ready fuel. ‘To this is
added a mass of creeping and climbing vegetation,a dense undergrowth, largely composed of
giant grasses and bamboos, covering the ground with standing or fallen canes, green and dry. It
is a dangerous forest; and yet the forest department fights and prevents fires, and succeeds.

The number of fires has been diminished to an astonishing degree, the efficiency has grown
with perfection of methods, and the expenses have been constantly reduced, and have never been
over $10 per square mile in any year. And this in a country where heat and moisture stimulate
a rank growth, where a clearing will be covered in one year with grass in which an elephant can
hide, and where hot, dry winds make a most dangerous forest-fire combination every year,

FORESTRY EDUCATION. 189

There is no insuperable difficulty in stopping the fire nuisance in this country, provided the
moral obligation is recognized, the will is there, and the necessary organization is provided.

FORESTRY EDUCATION.

The New York legislature of 1898 made provision for the establishment of a college of
forestry in Cornell University, and provided for the purchase of a school forest of 30,000 acres to
be used as an experimental demonstration area for iliustrating the principles and practice of
scientific forest management. ‘The school was organized in April, 1898, with Dr. B. E. Fernow as
director and dean.

Its first session opened in September, with the beginning of the collegiate year 1899. This is
the first professional school of forestry established in America which offers in its courses the same
full complement of studies to be found in European institutions of similar kind.

As indicating the scope of the subject and the requirements for a fully educated forester of
highest degree, the following schedule of studies announced by the college is reproduced.

This step firmly establishes the forest policy of the State of New York, eventually to place its
large forest property under the management of technically educated foresters issuing from this
State college.

Schedule of the courses leading to the degree of Bachelor of the Science of Forestry (B.S. I.).

{Courses in parentheses are elective in whole or in part.]

alae | apsee j |
Designa-| First | Second | Third || |Designa-| irst | Second | Third
coursest term. term. term. | | courses. | term. | term. | term.
| fi | | |
FRESHMAN YEAR. | JUNIOR YEAR. | |
Mathematics ...........----- 7 Chemistry) ---------- -)-=— == 21b Doles Sese cigs | Weed hoetios
O ---------------------- 10 | Botany -.--------- 1L 3
Physics = ssebobed 2a | Geology 20 3. |
DO Peet eee tece nc oeee 2b Dove aes soecece 22 (3) | (3) | (3)
Chemistryaeeeeee eee reas ir | Engineering -.-.-. iii that Lychee pa aa | 1 2
Invertebrate zoology.--.---- 1 Political economy --- 9 Bil |ocesesiscss | 3 | 3
Vertebrate zoology 2 -|| Pisciculture and vene coocosgssel| Cl ERS ae Bena
Entomolog 3 || Forestry 3 |
Botany 1 Do 4
‘0 2 Do .. 6
Geolog 10 Doses seees 7 |
Do 23 |
Forestry 1 SENIOR YEAR. |
SOPHOMORE YEAR.
Chemistrygermeees ssa eee ee 16
Entomology .--..------.----- 2
US. Ot am ygee nite misters stata eieiesia 9
DX) scocesonsoas sssesc050° 5
(Geolopyeeeereeeeeaseeeemes 1
Do. 21
a Do ..-- 32
Engineering 4
Sign Ou eer ee 5 8 |
Political economy .-.-------- | 34 3
IEHAA adonscoccodosesecene 2 || (8) | (3) 1(3) |

The resources of the entire university, with its library, laboratories, museums, and collections,
are practically at the disposal of the college by the action of the board of trustees, and hence,
besides the required courses, any additional courses offered by the various departments which are
thought to be of especial value to forestry students may be elected by them whenever they have
satisfied the requirements.

The courses in fundamental and supplementary branches, which are needful and required for
the three or four year forestry courses and for graduation, are selected from those offered in the
departments of the university.

-The courses in forestry are briefly described as follows:

1. Synoptical course in forestry. Economic nature and political aspects. Designed especially for students of
political economy, agriculture, engineering, and freshmen in the college of forestry, to acquaint the student in a
brief manner with the several subjects comprising the field of forestry. Lectures only. Two hours, fall or spring.

2. One-year course in forestry, with special reference to silviculture. Designed especially for agriculturists
and others who desire a brief study of the technicalities of woodcraft and silviculture. Lectures and demonstrations.

Three hours, through the year. ‘
3. Silviculture. Principles of arboriculture, application of dendrology to crop production, methods of

190 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

reproduction, improvement of the crop, nursery practice, and forest planting. Lectures, recitations, and field
demonstrations. Three hours, through the year. !

4. Forest protection, Methods of guarding against trespass, loss from fires, insects, and diseases; measures to
prevent erosion, washing, and detericration of soils. Lectures and recitations. Three hours, spring term.

5. Timber physics and wood technology. Technical properties of wood and its uses. The course is arranged
to meet also the needs of students in civil engineering and architecture, and others interested in the properties and
uses of wood. Lectures, recitations, and laboratory work. Three hours, fall and winter.

6. Exploitation. Methods and means employed in the harvest of forest products, logging, transportation, mill-
ing, and preparation of wood for market. Lectures and recitations. Three hours, winter term. Excursions to
actual operations and points of manufacture.

7. Forest mensuration. Methods of ascertaining volume of felled and standing trees, of whole forest growths,
timber estimating, determining accretion of trees and stands. Lectures, recitations, and field work. Three hours,
winter and spring.

8. Forest regulation. Principles and methods underlying the preparation of plans of management for contin-
uous wood and revenue production. Lectures and recitations. Four hours, fall term. Field work in summer.

9. Forest administration. Organizing a forestry service, manner of employing and supervising labor, business
methods as applied to forest management. Lectures and recitations. Two hours, spring term.

10. Forest valuation. Principles and methods of ascertaining the money value of forest growths at different
ages for purposes of sales, exchanges, damage suits, ete. “Lectures. Two hours, spring term.

11. Forestry statics and finance. Application of the principles of finance to forest management; methods of
finding the most profitable form of management, determining rotation and expenditures with reference to revenue.
Lectures and recitations. ‘Three hours, winter term.

12. Forestry history and politics. Historical development of the economic and technical features of modern
forestry; forestry conditions at home and abroad; forests and forestry as factors in the household of the community
and nation; basis and principles underlying forest policies of the State. The course will prove of value and interest
to students of political economy. Lectures only. Two hours, wintcr and spring.

The only other institutions in the country which have given any attention to instruction in
forestry heretofore have been the land-grant colleges of the several States. Of these, twenty-two
have offered courses varying in length from a brief series of lectures to two full terms’ work.
These are the agricultural colleges of Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Iowa, Idaho, Kansas,
Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Dakota,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Texas, Vermont, Washington, and West
Virginia. Nine colleges touch upon forestry incidentally in connection with instruction in
other branches, such as botany and horticulture, namely, those of Virginia, North Carolina,
Georgia, Mississippi, Colorado, Oklahoma, Indiana, and Maine. Ten institutions report no
reference to the subject whatever. As to the character of the instruction in the courses in
forestry, it varies greatly in the several institutions. The usual purpose is to give the students a
general idea of the influence of forests upon climate and water flow and of forest geography, with
more specific training in identification of trees and in propagation and planting.

It is evident that considered as a part of a general course in agriculture it is not feasible or

desirable to make forestry the major subject, as is necessary in a technical school; but the brief
courses offered in the agricultural colleges have been very successful in promoting public interest
in forest protection and silviculture.
; In 1895 there were introduced into Congress two bills providing for forestry education, one
(H. R. 8389) providing an appropriation of $5,000 to each of the agricultural colleges, to be
devoted either to instruction or providing object-lessons in the field; the other (H. R. 8390)
providing for a post-graduate school—a national school of forestry—in connection with the
Department of Agriculture and its Division of Forestry.

No action beyond hearings before the Committee on Agriculture, to which the bills were
referred, resulted.

FEDERAL FOREST POLICY.

The most important development in establishing a forest policy in the United States has been
the change in the disposition of its public timber lands as a result of the educational campaign of
the American Forestry Association. This association in 1888 presented a comprehensive bill,
drawn by the chief of the Division of Forestry, providing for the withdrawal from entry or sale
of all public, timber lands not fit for agricultural use, and for their proper administration under
technical advice (S. 1476 and 8.1779, Fiftieth Congress, first session).

Modifications of this bill were introduced from year to year and their enactment urged. In

FEDERAL FOREST POLICY. 19M

the Fifty-first Congress, through the earnest insistence of Secretary of the Interior John W.
Noble, who was fully imbued with the necessity of some action such as was advocated by the
association, the following section was added to the act entitled “An act to repeal timber-culture
laws, and for other purposes,” approved March 3, 1891:

Snc. 24. That the President of the United States may, from time to time, set apart and reserve, in any State or
Territory having public lands bearing forests, any part of the public lands wholly or in part covered with timber

or undergrowth, whether of commercial value or not, as public reservations, and the President shall, by public
proclamation, declare the establishment of such reservations and the limit thereof. 7

Acting upon this authority, Presidents Cleveland and Harrison established seventeen forest
reservations, with a total estimated area of 17,500,000 acres previous to 1894.

These forest reservations, together with the national parks which were established before, to
be sure for quite different purposes, made thus the forest lands reserved by the (Government
aggregate over 20,000,000 acres as follows:

No.a Forest reservations. Established. Area.

Acres.
1 | Yellowstone National Park timber-land reserve (Wyo.) Sept. 10, 1891 1, 239, 040
2 | White River Plateau timber-land reserve (Colo.). ---| Oct. 16,1891 1, 198, 080
3 | Pecos River forest reserve (N. Mex.) .------ -| Jan. 11, 1892 311, 040
4 | Sierra forest reserve (Cal.) .------ -| Feb. 14, 1893 4, 096, 000
5 | Pacific forest reserve (Wash.) -.-- -| Feb. 20, 1893 967, 680
6 | Pikes Peak timber-land reserve (C .| Mar, 18, 1892 184, 320
7 | Bull Run timber-land reserve (Oreg. .| June 17, 1892 142, 080
8 | Plum Creek timber-land reserve (Col --| June 23, 1892 179, 200
9 | South Platte forest reserve (Colo.) -| Dec. 9, 1892 683, 520

10 | San Gabriel timber-land reserve (Ca 2 .-| Dec. 29, 1892 555, 520
11 | Battlement Mesa forest reserve (Colo --| Dec. 24, 1892 858, 240
12 | Afognak forest and fish culture reserve (Alaska) -------------- elbsecs GW) ceases Unknown.
13 | Grand Canyon forest reserve (Ariz.) ----------------------- eae --| Feb. 20, 1893 1, 851, 520
14 | Trabuco Canyon forest reserve (Cal.) .| Feb. 25, 1893 49, 920

15 | San Bernardino forest reserve (Cal.)..----------- ----------------- = === = 0222 nn nnn nnn nnn () sooss0> 737, 280
16 | Ashland forest reserve (Oreg.) ------ Sept. 28, 1893 18, 560
17 | Cascade Range forest reserve (Oreg.)------------------------- = eee ences neces a lanes GQ -sa5000 4, 492, 800

Total acreage of forest reserves --..--.---2- == -- <= === = == = = =m ww nnn 17, 564, 800
18 | Yellowstone National Park 2, 142, 720
19 | Yosemite National Park at. , 1890 967, 680
20 | Sequoia National Park ------ d 161, 280
21 | General Grant National Park J | 2, 560

aThe numbers refer to those used on map, Plate IT.

The reservations were established usually upon the petition of citizens residing in the respec-
tive States and after due examination, the forestry association acting as intermediary.

Meanwhile the legislation devised for the administration of the forest reserves, existing or to
be established, specially urged by Representative McRae, chairman of Public Lands Committee,
failed to be enacted, although in the Fifty-third Congress it was passed by both Houses, but failed
in conference.

Secretary Hoke Smith, of the Department of the Interior, impressed with the importance of
devising some adequate system of protection and management of the forests, both within the
reserves and in the public domain, and urged by the committee of the Forestry Association,
under date of February 15, 1896, requested the National Academy of Sciences, the legally
constituted adviser of the Government in scientific matters, to investigate and report ‘upon the
inauguration of a rational forest policy for the forested lands of the United States.” He especially
desired an official expression as to the desirability and practicability of preserving the forests
from fire and maintaining as forested lands portions of the public domain now bearing wood
growth; as to how far the influence of forests on climate, soil, and water conditions warranted a
policy of forest conservation in regions where the public domain is principally situated; and what
specific legislation should be enacted to remedy existing evils.

Under date of February 1, 1897, the academy submitted to Secretary Francis a preliminary
report recommending the creation of thirteen additional forest reserves with a total area of
21,379,840 acres. These reserves were proclaimed, as recommended, by the President February 22,
1897. On May 1, 1897, the president of tie academy submitted his complete report, embodying

192 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

a comprehensive review of the subject, with recommendations and bills for the establishment of a
bureau of forestry in the Department of the Interior. This report has been printed as Senate
Document No. 105.

The following forest reservations were created, upon the recommendation of the committee of
the National Academy of Sciences, their status‘as to final extent and retention as reserves being
still in doubt:

Acres.

Tl, IOs ISHWNG) Mase tin SON DEIR. cacose sacesgeeases SseSe0 025555 s2e5 coos Sekese Soasse soscasossese 967, 680
2a Big Orn) FRESOL Ve} 11) \VV py iO LOUD ee ete ela ll ee 1, 198, 080
Sh Wao Pleas WIESE) Thal WS 7OUN oo c555 compass conSes sede case Ss00 Dons SOOE aeoSd Bore DasSonod sans Oceore 829, 440
Ae Plathead) Horestshesenveimny Mio mbamajeet =i e ae le alee ial eee ela ere ee 1, 382, 400
5: (Lewis ane Clarke) Horest:heservein Montanala-s-)-s5-e-- =o) se eee eee eee ee eae. Cole eee Pees 2, 926, 080
6. Priest River Forest Reserve in Idaho and Washington --..-......---.-.---..--..--1-------.---------- 645, 120
7. Bitter Root Forest Reserve in Montana and Idaho .-...-...-........---..---...---------.----------- 4, 147, 200
8. Washington Forest Reserve in Washington....-..--...--...-...----.------------------------------- 3, 594, 240
8h Ollyarajiore IMonesin EEA wa \We COMA OM oo6 3250 ore sass oeoc soos oSe5 OOS S56 Sant ao05 chen soso sees Sosa aes 2, 188, 800
10; Mountihainier Honesi#eserye nna Washi eo hO Neer ata == ares ae ae le se eee ee ee 1, 267, 200
Hey Stanislaus} Horestesenveyin Californias seem eat ase esse eeeteea = eee ee eae ee eee eee 691, 200
124 SantJiacintonorestpresctv.en’ Gait orn aes eee ee eae ee eee ee etee aes ene ann re 737, 280
TS Wubi JBOWESH INGE 5050 sosss0 co0s08 050509 ShoSds cobs HoSo0o So0 CO08 Saas ON SSHy DSoSsONHOHEDS SosoDeeese 705, 120
Motallestimated aredee nese sae eee scene eee eae = Waotis elsjnse Wee eeeas «meisneateee eee ose eee 21, 379, 840

The sundry civil appropriation bill passed June 4, 1897 (see Senate Doc. No. 102), set aside
the proclamations of February 22, 1897, suspending the reservations, which were made upon the
recommendation of the committee of the academy, until March 1, 1898, presumably to give time
for the adjustment of private claims and to more carefully delimit the reservations, an appropria-
tion of $150,000 for the survey of the reservations under the supervision of the Director of the
Geological Survey being made. The provisos attached to this appropriation embody the most
important forestry legislation thus far enacted by Congress. These provisos had been in the main
formulated in a bill known as the McRae bill (H. BR. 119), which was passed by the House of
Representatives and the Senate of the Fifty-third Congress—without, however, becoming a law;
and again had passed the House in the Fifty-fourth Congress, it being the legislation advocated
by the American Forestry Association as a first step toward a more elaborate forest administration
of the public timber lands. Excluding minor items, the law provides that—

All public lands heretofore designated and reserved by the President of the United States under the provisions
of the act approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, the orders for which shall be and remain in
force and effect, unsuspended and unrevoked, and all public lands that may hereafter be set aside and reserved as
public forest reserves under said act, shall be as far as practicable controlled and administered in accordance with
the following provisions:

“No public forest reservation shall be established, except to improve and protect the forest within the reserva-
tion, or for the purpose of securing favo able conditions of water flow, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber
for the use and necessities of citizens of the United States; but it is not the purpose or intent of these provisions or
of the act providing for such reservations to authorize the inclusion therein of lands more valuable for the mineral
therein or for agricultural purposes than for forest purposes.

“For the purpose of preserving the living and growing timber and promoting the younger growth on forest
reservations, the Secretary of the Interior, under such rules and regulations as he shall prescribe, may cause to be
designated and appraised so much of the dead, matured, or large growth of trees found on such forest reservations
as may be compatible with the proper utilization of the forests thereon, and may sell the same for not less than
the appraised value in such quantities to each purchaser as he shall prescribe, to be used in the State or Territory
in which such timber reservation may be situated, respectively, but not for export therefrom. Before such sale
shall take place, notice thereof shall be given by the Commissioner of the General Land Office for not less than
sixty days, by publication in a newspaper of general circulation, published in the county in which the timber is
situated, if any is therein published, and if not, then in a newspaper of general circulation published nearest to the
reservation, and also in a newspaper of general circulation published at the capital of the State or Territory where
such reservation exists; payments for such timber to be made to the receiver of the local land office of the district
wherein said timber may be sold, under such rules and regulations as the Secretary of the Interior may prescribe;
and the moneys arising therefrom shall be accounted for by the receiver of such land office to the Commissioner of
the General Land Office in a separate account, and shall be covered into the Treasury. Such timber, before being
sold, shall be marked and designated, and shall be cut and removed under the supervision of some person appointed
for that purpose by the Secretary of the Interior, not interested in the purchase or remoyal of such timber nor in
the employment of the purchaser thereof. Such supervisor shall make a report in writing to the Commissioner of

FEDERAL FOREST POLICY. 193

the General Land Office and to the receiver in the land office in which such reservation shall be located of his
doings in the premises.

“Upon the recommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, with the approval of the President, after sixty
days’ notice thereof, published in two papers of general circulation in the State or Territory wherein any forest
reservation is situated and near the said reservation, any public lands embraced within the limits of any forest
reservation which, after due examination by personal inspection of a competent person appointed for that purpose
by the Secretary of the Interior, shall be found better adapted for mining or for agricultural purposes than for forest
usage, may be restored to the public domain. And any mineral lands in any forest reservation which have been or
which may be shown to be such, and subject to entry under the existing mining laws of the United States and the
rules and regulations applying thereto, shall continue to be subject to such location and entry, notwithstanding any
provisions herein contained.”

The law authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to permit the use of timber and stone by
bona fide settlers, miners, etc., for firewood, fencing, buildings, mining, prospecting, and other
domestic purposes. It protects the rights of actual settlers within the reservations, empowers
them to build wagon roads to their holdings, enables them to build schools and churches, and
‘provides for the exchange of such for allotments outside the reservation limits. The State within
which a reservation is located maintains its jurisdiction over all persons within the boundaries of
the reserve.

Under the above enactment, the Commissioner of the General Land Office has formulated
rules and regulations for the forest reservations, and a survey of the reserves last proclaimed is
being made by the United States Geological Survey, the appropriations for such a survey having
been continued for the year 1898; and the date for the segregation of agricultural lands and their
return to the public domain open for entry having been deferred.

The appointment of forest superintendents, rangers etc., although not with technical knowl-
edge, to take charge of the reservations marks the beginning of a settled policy of the United
States Government to take care of its long-neglected forest lands.

In this connection it will be interesting to show that the agitation for rational treatment of
the public-timber domain is by no means of recent date, but may be said to celebrate this very
year its silver jubilee. A quarter century ago exactly the first true forestry bill was introduced
by Mr. Haldeman in the Forty-second Congress and was lost. It provided that in the disposal of
the public domain the conditiou be inserted into the patents that 10 per cent of the land shall be
kept in timber, or, if not timbered, shall be planted to timber.

The subjoined table exhibits the long struggle for some kind of legislation; the failure of the
numerous bills introduced, and the inactivity of committees and legislatures. It was originally
printed in Bulletin 2 of the Division of Forestry, Department of Agriculture, in 1887, and has been
here brought up to date.

It will be seen that hardly any kind of legislation which could be suggested has been over-
looked, from the creation of forest commissions to investigate the subject to providing for fully
organized forest administrations and the establishment of forestry schools.

The earliest action of the General Government having regard to the preservation of timber
was in 1799, when Congress appropriated $200,000 for “‘the purchase of growing or other timber,
or of lands on which timber is growing, suitable for the Navy, and for its preservation for future
use.” The special object of this legislation was to secure a supply of live-oak timber, which was
considered peculiarly valuable for shipbuilding, and was in great demand for that purpose, both
at home and abroad, while its growth was confined to a limited portion of our territory in the
vicinity of the Gulf. Two small islands on the coast of Georgia, containing together about 2,000
acres, were purchased under the act of 1799. Another act (Rev. Stat., sec. 2458), having
the same object in view, was passed in 1817, by which the Secretary of the Navy was directed to
cause lands producing live oak or red cedar to be explored, and to have selections made of tracts
necessary to furnish for the Navy a sufficient supply of such timbers. Under this act 19,000 acres
in Louisiana, which had recently become ours by purchase from France, were reserved.

Additional enactments were made in 1820 and 1827, by which the selection of lands to be
reserved was intrusted to the surveyor of public lands in place of agents appointed by the
Secretary of the Navy, and the President was authorized to withhold such lands from sale.

In 1822 an act was passed (Rev. Stat., sec. 2460) authorizing the President to employ the
land and naval forces, so far as necessary, effectually to prevent the felling or other destraction

EEE Doe Now leila

194 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of timber in Florida, and to take such other measures as might be deemed advisable for the
preservation of timber there. (Florida had recently been ceded to the United States by Spain,
and was known to abound in live-oak timber.)

In 1831 an act was passed (Rey. Stat., secs. 2461, 2462, and 2463) of wider scope than that of
1822. This made it a felony, with penalty of fine and imprisonment, to cut or remove timber
from any of the public lands, whether reserved or not, except for the use of the Navy, and
subjected any vessel transporting such timber without proper authority and for any other purpose
than for the use of the Navy, to confiscation, and the master of the vessel to a fine.

This act is the one under which, up to the present time, all the protection they have had has
been secured to the public forests, the Supreme Court having construed the act (9 How., 351) as
authorizing the protection of all timber on the public lands and punishment for trespass upon the
same. Under the act of 1831 the Treasury Department undertook a partial oversight and
protection of timber on the public lands through its ordinary agents. In 1855 this oversight was
transferred to agents of the Land Department, registers and receivers being instructed to act
also as timber agents, but without any additional compensation. Where trespass was willfully
committed, payment of stumpage was demanded or the timber was seized and sold and the
proceeds paid into the Treasury. Where the trespass was committed ignorantly, actual entry of
the land only was required, with payment of the usual entry charges.

The first appropriation for the payment of agents specially employed for the protection of
timber on the public lands was made in 1872, when $5,000 were appropriated. A like sum was
appropriated annually thereafter for five years. In 1875, to meet expenses for suppressing depre-
dations upon timber on the public lands, $25,000 were appropriated, and subsequently these
appropriations were increased until in 1893 they reached the limit of $120,000, then to be reduced
to $40,000, $60,000, and $90,000, for 1894, 1895, and 1896 respectively.

House in 5 ;
Year. Congress. which origi- Object of bill. Action taken.
nated.
1871 | 41st, 3d sess-.----- H. R. 2930 ...| For the sale of timber lands in California and Oregon--.-.- eferrad to Committee on Public
ands.
.3005...| Vo authorize the sale of timber lands in California, Oregon, | Passed in House. In Senate, referred

and Washington Territory, not exceeding 640 acres to to Committee on Public Lands.
one person or association, without residence, at $2.50 per

acre.

1871 | 42d, Ist sess.....-.. 38b, IRV oan sieterred to Committee on Public

ands.

1872 | 42d, 2d sess .....-- H.R. 2197 ...| To encourage the planting of trees and the preservation | Referred to Committee on Agriculture.
of woods on the public domain. (The first real and com- Reported favorably. Faiied of pas-
prehensive forestry bill.) sage—81 yeas, 87 nays.

1872) |-.-.- - CO casccocnccaa|lossosooccssse Resolution that the Committee on Agriculture inquire | No action.

whether a certain percentage of each quarter section of

public lands sold must be planted with trees or a certain

percentage of existing forests preserved for the purpose

of preventing or remedying drouth.

1873 | 48d, 1st sess......- H.R. 410....| Same as Gartield bill (274) above.......--------------------- Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. June 3, reported back with
amendments and recommitted. De-
cember, 1874, H. R. bill 4194 reported
by committee as substitute. Passed
February 22, 1875. In Senate, Feb-
ruary 22, referred to Committee on
Public Lands.

1874 | 48d, 1st sess..-.-.- Senate 471 -.| For the survey and disposal of the timber lands of the | Referred to Committee on Public
United States. Miners may buy stumpage, not more Lands. Reported with amend-
than 160 acres, till that is cut, at $2.56 per acre. Home- iwents.

steaders may buy 40 acres of timber land near agricul-
tural land at same price.

1874 |..--. QW ssoreacacnse H. R. 2497...| For the appointment of a commission for inquiry into the | Referred to Committee on Public
destruction of forests and into the measures necessary Lands. Reported back with H. BR.
for the preservation of timber. 2510 as a substitute.

1874 |----- GW) seeonasescse H.R. 2540 ...| For the appointment of a commission to inquire into the | Reported by Committee on Public
destruction of forests and into the measures necessary Lands as a substitute for preceding
for the preservation of timber. bill, H. R. 2497.

1875 | 43d, 2d sess ...-..- H. Rt. 4480...| To regulate the survey and sale of the timber lands of the | Referred to Committee on Public
United States. Commissioner of the Land Office to sur- Lands.

vey and appraise lands more valuable for their timber
than for agricultural use. Such lands not to be entered
under homestead or preémption laws, but appraised and
offered at public sale, and if not sold then to be open to
private entry at a price not less than the appraisal.

1875 | 44th, Ist sess...-.- H. Ri. 323 ..2.| To regulate the survey and sale of the timber lands of the Do.
United States. Same bill as the preceding. ‘

UGB) jeose- WD ssascqcocn08 Senate 2 ....| To repeal section 2303 of the Revised Statutes, thereby | Referred to Committee on Public
opening timber lands in Southern States to private entry Lands. Reported back and passed.
im unlimited quantities and at the reduced price of $1.25 In House referred to Committee on
per acre. Public Lands. Passed House and

became a law July 4, 1876, through
inaction of the President.

Year.

FEDERAL FORESTRY LEGISLATION.

Congress.

House in-
which origi-
nated.

195

Object of bill.

1875

1876

1876

1876

1876

1877
1877

1877

1878

1878

1878
1878

1878
1873

1879

1879

1880

1880

1880

1880
1880

1882

44th, Ist sess ..--.

46th, 1st sess

46th, 2d sess

47th, lst sess......

Senate 6 ....

- KR. 660...

pibiet

. R.1310--.

R. 2075 - - -

. 2658 - - -

H. R. 3981...

Senate 926 --

H. R. 3800... .

Senate 20...

H. R. 6087...

H. R. 1164...

H. R. 6321. --

H. R, 6430...

Senate 1812 -

H. R. 6371---
H. R. 1846...

Senate 760 -.

For sale of timber lands in California, Oregon, and the Ter-
ritories. Same as previous bills with similar title.

For the sale of the timber lands in the Territories. Lands
valuable for timber, but not for cultivation, to be sold at
$2.50 per acre, not more than 40 acres to one person.

To regulate the survey and sale of the timber lands of the
United States. Lands valuable chiefly for timber not to
be subject to entry under preemption or homestead laws,
but to be appraised and sold at not less than the ap-
praised value.

Tor the appointment of a commission, etc.

Same as pre-
ceding bill (H. R, 2540).

For the preservation of the forests adjacent to the sources
of navigable rivers and other streams. Such timber
lands to be withdrawn from sale and a commission to de-
termine what should be reserved so as to prevent scanty
supply of water.

For the sale of timber lands in the Territories.
bill (H. R. 660) in Forty-fourth Congress.

To regulate the survey and sale of timber lands of the
United States. Same as bills in the Forty-third and
Forty-fourth Congresses.

To put into market certain timber lands of the United
States. Declaring subject to entry, in any quantity, all
public timber lands in Alabama, Louisiana, and Minnesota
which have been subject to entry in limited quantities
for twenty years, and after entry of such lands to be no
prosecution for trespass or timber cutting.

To provide for the entry of unsurveyed timber lands.
Allowing the owner of a mine to take 160 acres of timber
land for every 20 acres of mineral land owned by him,
and the owner of agricultural land 40 acres for every
quarter section, and for every $20,000 expended on a mill
or furnace 640 acres may be taken at $2.50 per acre.

Withdrawing lands chiefly valuable for timber from entry
under preémption or homestead laws. Such lands to be
surveyed and divided into ‘timber lands” and ‘‘ min-
eral timber lands.” On the latter the timber only to be
sold. Timberlands to be appraised and sold by commis-
sioners. Such lands as are needed for irrigation pur-
poses to be withheld from sale.

ate appropriated to suppress depredations on public
timber.

Allowing sale of timber lands unfit for cultivation in Cali-
fornia, Oregon, Nevada, and Washington Territory at
$2.50 per acre. No one person or association to enter
more than 160 acres.

Bill/similar ito next DelOWy= <- eee nem am i ee =

Same as

Allowing residents of Colorado, Nevada, and other Terri-
tories and all mineral districts to fell and remove, for
building and other domestic purposes, trees on mineral
lands. -

To regulate the survey and sale of timber lands. Same as
bill presented December, 1875 (H. R.323), providing that
timber lands more valuable for lumber than for agricul-
tural purposes be reserved from entry under homestead
or preemption laws, appraised, and sold to highest
bidder, but not for less than appraisement.

To regulate the survey and sale of timber lands of the
United States. Same as last bill above.

To prevent depredations upon timber in the Indian Terri-
tory.

Authorizing citizens of Colorado, Nevada, and the Terri-
tories, to fell and remove timber on the public domain,
for mining and domestic purposes. Extending the act
of June, 1878.

To prevent depredations upon timber on Indian reserva-
tions.

To prevent depredations upon timber on the Indian res-
ervations. Same as last bill above.

Act condoning trespass on public lands prior to March,
1879. Persons against whom suits were pending prior to
that date to enter lands trespassed upon and pay accrued
costs, thereupon suits to be discontinued. At same time
price to be paid for lands to be reduced from $2.50 to $1.25.

For the classification of the public lands in Coloraro and
the sale of timber thereon. ‘he Secretary of the Interior
to regulate the sale, and reserve timber on head waters
of streams and on mountains.

Action taken.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Passed Senate February,
1876. In House February, 1876, re-
ferred to Committee on Public Lands.
March, 1877, House refused to sus-
pend rules and pass the bill.

Referred to Committee on Pubke
Lands. ;

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported with amendments
and recommitted.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. No opportunity was af-
forded for regular action on the bill,
but, on motion of Mr. Dunnell, the
substance of it was added as an
amendment to the general appropri-
ation bill, and becamealaw August-
1877.4

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Reported by Committee on Public
Lands as a substitute for several
bills. Recommitted.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Passed Senate. Reported
to and passed House. Approved by
President June 3.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Referred to Committee
Lands. Amended and
Senate. Pussed House
by President June 3.

Reterred to Committee
Lands.

on Public
passed by
and signed

on Public

Do.

Referred to Committee on Indian
Affairs.
Referred to Committee
Lands.

on Public

Reported from the Committee on
Indian Affairs.

Referred to Committee on Indian
Affairs.

Approved by the President June 15,
1880. :

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. 5

a By this enactment the Commissioner of Agriculture was directed to appoint a competent person to make the contemplated inquiries
and investigations.

196

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

House in
which origi-
nated.

Object of bill.

Action taken.

Year. Congress.
1882 | 47th, Ist sess
1882 |.-.-- GO casss6
1882 |}. --.- does
1882 | 47th, 2d sess
1883 |-.-.- do ..----
1883 |.-..- GG ssdc05
1883 |.-..- do ..-..-
1883 | 48th, 1st sess
1883 }..... do ..--..
1883
1883 |.

1884

1884 |..... GD cacocio
1884 |.-..- GO Lsesss
1884 | 48th, 2d sess-
1885 | 49th, Ist sess
1885 |-.-.. GO ecooes
1885 |--... doy ---=

1885
1886 |-

1887 | 49th, 2d sess
1888 | 50th, Ist sess
1888 |...-- do ....-.
1888 |....- GD) atone
1888 |..-.- (WD sacocs

Senate 1641 -

Senate 1826 -

H. Kt. 6315 - --
H. RK. 6997...

H. R. 7509... -

Senate 2496 -

H. R. 4757 - --

H. R. 832.-.--

Senate 1258 -

H. fi. 4811. -
H. R. 5206 --
Senate 1544 -

Senate 1188 -

Senate 1824 -

Senate 2451 -

Senate 581 --|

H.R. 379...
H. R. 2946...

Senate 551 _.

H.R. 5556. .|

H. R. 10430. .

Senate 16...

Senate 196 -.

Senate 540 -.

Senate 596 --

To amend act of 1878, so as to allow any one in Western
States and Territories to remove timber from mineral
lands for any purpose, under rules and regulations of the
Secretary of the literior and payment of $2.50 per acre
for the timber. No timber to be cut by mill owners or
lumber manufacturers.

For the preservation of woods and forests adjacent to
sources of navigable rivers. Same as bill introduced in
House, First session, Forty-fourth Congress.

For the preservation of woods, etc. Same as Senate bill
next above.

To provide for the classification and disposition of pine-
timber lands. Such lands, chiefly valuable for their tim-
ber, not to be subject to préémption or homestead entry,
but to be appraised by the Secretary of the Interior, and
sold trom time to time at public sale, for not less than
two-thirds the appraisement. Mineral lands exempt from
the act.

To regulate the sale of the timber lands of the United
States. Similar to last bill above, but lands remaining
nnsold) to be subject to private entry at the appraised
value.

For the protection and preservation of the forests of the
United States. One hundred thousand dollars to be
appropriated to Colorado for the establishment of an
experiment station under the direction of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

Act to exclude the public lands in Alabama from the oper-
ation of laws relating to mineral lands. (In reality an
act to sell all mineral lands in Alabama as agricultural
lands, at private sale, in unlimited quantities, and at the
reduced rate of $1.25 per acre, to citizens or aliens.)

For the classification and disposition of pine-timber lands.
Same as above bill presented in Forty-seventh Congress.

Tor the preservation of woods and forests adjacent to
sources of navigable rivers, etc. Same as bill in Forty-
seventh Congress.

-do .- =

-do

To prevent cutting of timber on military or Indian reserva- |
tions.

For the protection, preservation, and extension of the for-
ests of the United States. To establish an experiment
station in connection with the Department of Agricul-
ture west of the Mississippi River. To propagate and
distribute forest trees, investigate qualities, time of
growing, profit, ete. One hundred thousand dollars ap-
propriated.

Act to establish a forest reservation on the head waters of
the Missouri and Columbia Rivers.

For the protection of forests on the public domain. With-
draws all tintber land from sale under existing laws.
Forest commission to be appointed to examine and class-
ify forest lands and determine what should be perma-
nently reserved. Timber on reserved lands to be sold
under direction of the Commissioner of the Land Office.

To establish a forest reservation in Montana. Same as bill
8. 1824, in Forty-eighth Congress.

To repeal act of 1878 for the sale of timber lands in Cali-
fornia, Oregon, Nevada, and Washington Territory.

For the preservation of woods and forests adjacent to
sources of navigable rivers, etc. Same as bill offered in
Ory ee Congress.

()
o define and punish the offense of setting fire to woods or
forests belonging to the United States.

For the protection of forests in California. To withdraw
from sale Government forest lands in California not
suited to agriculture. Such lands not to be alienated
from the Government, but to be placed temporarily under
the management of the forest commissioners of Califor-
nia. Fifty thousand dollars appropriated to carry out
the act.

To set apart from the public domain in the State of Ore- |
son, as a public park for the benefit of the people of the

nited States, townships 27, 28, 29, 30, and 31,in ranges
5 and 6 east of the Willamette meridian, in the State of |
Oregon.

To cancel certain reservations of lands on account of live
oak in the southwestern land district of the State of
Louisiana.

To establish a forest reservation on the headwaters of the
Missouri River and the headwaters of Clarks Fork of the
Columbia River.

For the preservation of the woods and forests of the
national domain adjacent to the sources of the naviga-

ble rivers and their affluents in the United States.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Referred to Committee on Agriculture.

Do.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Do.

Referred to Committee on Appropria-
tions.

Approved by the President March 3,
1883.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.
Referred to Committee on Agriculture.

Do.

Do.

Referred to Committee on Indian Af-
fairs. Passed in Senate April 23; in
House of Representatives referred
to Committee on Indian Affairs.

Referred to Committee on Agricul-
ture and Forestry.

Passed Senate June, i884. In House
printed.

Referred to Committee on Agricul-
ture. Reported favorably.

Referred to Committee on Agricul-
ture. Reported favorably. Passed
Senate. In House on calendar.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Referred to Committee on Agriculture.

Do.

Referred to Committee on Judiciary.
Reported at second session, with
amendments, and placed on the Cal-
endar.

Referred to Committee on Public

» Lands. Reported favorably.

Reported back adversely and indefi-
nitely postponed.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported back. Passed Sen-
ate. Referred to House Committee
on Public Lands. Reported back.
Amended and passed House. Sen-
ate concurs in House amendment.
Examined and signed. Approved
by President.

Reterred to Committee on Agriculture
and Forestry.

Do.

FEDERAL FORESTRY LEGISLATION.

197

House in
Year. Congress. which origi- Object of bill. Action taken.
nated.
1888 | 50th, Ist sess.....- Senate 957.--| To establish a public park at Pagosa Springs, in the State | Referred to Committee on Public
of Colorado. Lands. Reported back with amend-
ments. Amended and passed Sen-
ate. Referred to House Committee
on Public Lands.
1888 |.-... GW ssceacdosces Senate1476..| For the protection and administration of the forests of the | Referred to Committee on Agriculture
public domain. and Forestry.
WEES |e con GM) ccoasbescone Senate1779..|....- Debated and referred to the Commit-
tee on Agriculture and Forestry.
1888 |....- Gh) gosceacecone Senate1817..| To grant the State of Oregon townships 27, 28, 29, 30, and | Referred to Committee on Public
31 south, in ranges 5 and 6 east of the Willamette merid- Lands. Reported back with amend-
ian, in the State of Oregon, for a public park. ment. Amended and passed Senate.
Referred to House Committee on
Public Lands.
1888 |....-. GIO sococcos80se Senate 2427..| To establish a public park to be called and known as the | Referred to Committee on Public
Royal Arch Park. Lands. Reported back with amend-
ments. Amended and passed Senate.
Referred to House Committee on
Public Lands.
1888 |..... GOsaacoososasa Senate2510..| To amend act authorizing citizens of Colorado, Nevada, | Referred to Committee on Public
and the Territories to fell and remove timber on the pub- Lands.
lic domain for mining and domestic purposes.
1888 |..:.. dote-eaciee= ce Senate 2877..| Authorizing citizens of Colorado, Nevada, and the Terri- Do.
: tories to tell and remove timber on the public domain for
mining and domestic purposes.
THERES eco (0) canscosccood H. R, 1225 For the protection of forest lands belonging to the United Do.
States and California. *
0.

1888

1888

1888
1888
1890
1890

1890

1890
1890

1890
1890

* 1890
1890

- R. 7901 ---

. R. 8006 ---

Hi. R. 9055 - - -
Hi. R. 11087 -.
Senate549-..

Senate 1394-.

Senate 1523...

Senate3199-. .
Senate 4156-.

To establish a public park at pease Springs, Colo.
une 3, 1878...-....

‘Lo repeal the timber-land act of

To further amend the public-land laws, and for the preser-
vation of natural forests on the public domain, the pro-
tection of water supply, and for other purposes.

To set apart a certain tract of land situated on the head-
waters of the Pecos River, in New Mexico, as a public
park.

For the preservation of the woods and forests of the na-
tional domain adjacent to the sources of navigable rivers
and their affiuents in the United States.

To define and punish the offense of setting fire to and burn-
ing woods, grass, or forests on lands belonging to the
United States.

For the protection and the administratiou of the forests on
the public domain.

For the preservation of the woods and forests of the na-
tional domain adjacent to the sources of the navigable
rivers and their affluents in the United States.

For the protection and administration of the forests of the
public domain.

To amend an act entitled “An act authorizing the citizens
of Colorado, Nevada, and the ‘Lerritories to fell and re-
move timber on the public domain for mining and domes-
tic purposes,’ approved June 3, 1878.

To secure to actual settlers the public lands adapted to
agriculture, to protect the forests on the public domain,
and for other purposes.

To amend section 5388 of the Revised Statutes of the United
States in relation to timber depredations.

To establish a public park to be called and known as the
Royal Arch Park.

To set apart a certain tract of land in the Verritory of New
Mexico as a public reservation.

For the protection and administration of the forests on the
public domain,

Authorizing the citizens of Colorado, North Dakota, South
Dakota, Montana, Nevada, and the Territories to fell
and remove timber on the public domain for mining and
domestic purposes.

For the preservation of the woods and forests of the na-
tional domain adjacent to the sources of the navigable
rivers and their aftluents in the United States.

Lo authorize the entry of the public lands by incorporated
towns for cemetery and park purposes.

Yor the protection of trees and other growth on the public
domain from destruction by fire.

For the preservation of the woods and forests of the na-
tional domain adjacent to the sources of the navigable
rivers and their affluents in the United States.

To amend an act entitled ‘‘An act for the sale of timber
lands in the States of California, Oregon, and Nevada,
and in Washington Territory,’ approved June 3, 1878.

To dispose of the timber lands of the State of Arkansas at
cash entry.

For the reservation and preservation of forest lands on the
public domain and to establish a commission to examine
into the condition of the said lands, and to report a plan
for their permanent management.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Laid on table.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Do.
Referred to Committee on Agriculture.

Referred to Committee on Revision of
Laws. Reported back.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Laid on table.
Referred to Committee on Agriculture.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Laid on table.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Reported by Committee on Public
Lands as a substitute for H. R. bill
No. 6045 and other bills relating to
the public lands. Passed. In Sen-
ate referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Passed House. Referred to Senate
Committee on Indian Affairs. Re-
ported back. Passed Senate. Ex-
amined and signed. Approved by
President.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Do.

Referred to Committee on Agriculture
and Forestry.

ferred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Referred to Committee on Agriculture
and Forestry.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Introduced by Committee on Agricul-
ture and Forestry. Debated,
amended, and passed Senate. Re-
ferred tv House Committee on Pub-
lic Lands.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Do.

Do.
Do.

198

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

House in :
Year. Congress. | which origi- Object of bill. Action taken.
| mated.
1890 | 51st, Ist sess------ H. R. 8247...) I'o authorize entry of the public lands by incorporated | Referred to Committee on Public
cities and towns for cemetery and park purposes. Lands. Reported back. Passed
House. Referred to Senate Com-
mittee on Public Lands. Reported
back with amendment. Amended
and passed Senate. House noncon
curs in Senate amendment. Confer-
: ence appointed. Conference report
‘ made and agreed to. Examined and
signed. Approved by President.

1890 |.-..- GO sosesescssss H. R. 8459 .--| For the protection of watersheds and irrigation systems | Referred to Committee on Irrigation
and for the establishment of a forest administration on of Arid Lands in the United States.

| the Western mountains and plains.

1890 |_.... Nee eaeaccc H.R. 10715 .-| To provide for the sale of timber and stone lands and the | Referred to Committee on Public
timber thereon. Lands.

1891 | 5lst, 2d sess-.-.--- H. R. 12750.-| To dispose of the timber lands of the State of Arkansas | Referred to Committee on Public

| at cash entry. Lands. Reported back.

TEAM | begce do)2 2-0 tees H. R. 13390--| To amend ‘‘An act to set apart certain tracts of land in the Do.

| State of California as forest reservations, approved Octo-
ber 1, 1890.”

1892 | 52d, Ist sess .----- Senate 382 --| For the protection of trees and other growth on the public | Referred to Committee on Agriculture
domain from destruction by fire. and Forestry. Reported back ad-

| versely and indefinitely postponed.

TERY) ecco G@ <cesccsceso= Senate 664 --| For the sale of timber lands in the State of Montana, and | Referred to Committee on Public

| to make the same subject to the mineral laws of the Lands.
United States after their sale as timber lands.

T1S92H| Sener GWiccesssocnose Senate 2763-.) Wor the protection and administration of the public forest | Referred to Committee on Agriculture
reservations. and Forestry. Reported back ad-

versely and indefinitely postponed.

1892 Senate3090_-| Providing for an experimental forestry tree-culture reserve - Do.

1892 Senate 3235--| To provide for the establishment, protection, and adminis- | Referred to Committee on Agriculture
tration of public forest reservations, and for other pur- and Forestry. Reported back with

| poses. amendments.

1892 |.-... AD secocosessce H.R. 29----- To dispose of the timber lands of the State of Arkansas at | Referred to Committee on Public

| cash entry. Lands. Laid on table.

1892 |----- (I cseasoasedss H. R.102.---| Vo secure to actual settlers the public lands adapted to | Referred to Committee on Publié
agriculture, to protect the forests on the public domain, Lands.
and for other purposes.

18927 seeee dWeccoesdeciees H. R.338....| For the preservation of the woods and forests of the na- | Referred to Committee on Agriculture.

| tional domain adjacent to the sources of the navigable
| rivers and their afiiluents in the United States.

TROD So: GY sssacsses22 H. R. 2647 -..| For the protection of trees and other growth on the public Do.
lands and on the publle parks and reservations of the
United States from destruction by fire. f

TEP) ||5 5654 Giceecssescoss H. R. 5979 .--| Regulating the manner and limitation of tree culture ....-. Referred to Committee on Public

ands.

1892 |.-..- OM iseeeaeneoss H. R. 6656 -..| To provide for the sale of stone and timber lands unfit for | Introduced by Committee on Public
cultivation, and for other purposes. Lands as substitute for H. R. 5142

and H. R.29. Laid on table.

IELP) eso Gly soanceeecsse H. R. 8259-..| To dispose of the timber lands of the State of Arkansas | Referred to Committee on Public
at cash entry. Lands.

1892 |.--.- doe assess H. Ri. 8445.--| To repeal the act of October 1, 1890, in relation to forest res- | Referred to Committee on Private
ervations in California, and instructing the Secretary of | Claims.
the Interior to issue patents to settlers thereon.

1892) 22ese @Wieeasosaeonss H. R. 9709.--| To classify timber lands and provide for the sale of the | Referred to Committee on Public

| 2 timber thereon. Lands.

1893 | 52d, 2d sess -..----| Senate 2275 -| For the relief of purchasers of timber and stone lands | Passed House. Examined and signed.
under the act of June 3, 1878.

1893 |.---- Gi agencosnoses HOR 97902==| bees Ole en cee ae past ee see eae Panne cee cece e eee ne aeons Referted to Committee on Public

ands.

1893 |....- GWs=sseeooosee H. R. 9981--.| Reserving the timber reservation in Oklahoma Territory Do.

| for the benefit of the Territorial institutions of learning.

TEHE ||soe5- doyeeeceme saat H. 8. 10101--| To protect public forest reservations .-......-----.-----.--. Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported back.

1893 |....- Ghyaseasesacoad H. R. 10207 --| To provide for the protection and administration of public | Referred to Committee on Public

| forest reservations, and for other purposes. Lands.

1894 | 58d, Ist sess.------ Senate 74..-.| To provide for the classification and disposition of the pub- Do.
lic lands, the protection and administration of the public

Z forest reservations, and for other purposes.

1894 |..... G® coseasonsas= Senate 612..-| Authorizing citizens of that part of the State of Washing- Do.
ton eastward of the Columbia River to fell and remove
timber on the public domain for mining and domestic
purposes.

1894 |..... GD -oscrsccsess H.R.119.-..| To protect public forest reservations......-.-.-..-----.---- Referred to Committee on Public

i Lands. Reported back with amend-
ments. Debated. Withdrawn.

1895 | 53d, 2d sess ..----. Senate 2069.-| To amend the act of June 3, 1878, for the sale of timber | Referred to Committee on Public
and stone lands. Lands.

1895 |..... GI) csnssos52c80 H.R.119....! To protect public forest reservations....-...---------.----- Recommitted to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported back with amend-
ments. Resolution making bill spe-
cial order reported, debated, and
withdrawn.

1895 }.---. GO sssssscess0- H. R. 4726 ...| For the relief of citizens who have entered lands under an | Referred to Committee on Public
act entitled ‘‘An act for the sale of timber lands in Cali- Lands. H. R. 7359 reported as sub-
fornia, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington Territory.” ap- stitute.
proved June 3, 1878, and to amend said act and all acts
amendatory thereof.

IEEE Jesse CW scdcesoacsed H. R.5714..-| To amend an act entitled ‘‘An act for the sale of timber | Referred to Committee on Public
land in the States of California, Oregon, Nevada, and Lands. Reported back. Debated.
Washington Territory.”

TEBE locas Gi isecscaancoud H.R. 7173 ...| To provide for the reduction of the limits of Battlement | Referred to Committee on Public
Mesa Forest Reserve, in the State of Colorado. Lands.

T8955) Peer CB ccenacescsos For the relief of certain settlers who have entered lands | Introduced by Committee on Public

H. R. 7259 - - -

under the timber and stone act, ete.

Lands as substitute for H. R. 4726.
Passed House. Referred to Senate
Committee on Public Lands. Re-
ported back.

FEDERAL FORESTRY LEGISLATION. 199

House in
Year. Congress. which origi- Object of bill. Action taken.
nated.

1895 | 53d, 3d sess------- H. R.7854...| Lo prevent the free use of timber on the public lands and | Referred to Committee on Public
to revoke all permits heretofore granted in certain States, Lands. Reported back with amend-
and for other purposes. ment.

1895 |....- G1 p5sccq0esco9 H.R. 7918-.-| Authorizing bona fide settlers on public lands to cut timber | Referred to Committee on Public
therefrom, and for other purposes. Lands.

1895 | 53d, 8d sess------- Senate 2571 .| To create a forestry commission..--.---------------++-7---- Referred to Committee on Forest Res-

. ervations.

1G |5anod! (1 sdeccons6ese H. R.119..-.| To protect public forest reservations.---------------------- Debated in the House. Amended and
passed House. Referred to Senate
Committee on Public Lands. Refer-
ence changed to Committee on Forest
Reservations. Reported back with
amendment. Amended and passed
Senate. Referred to House Commit-
tee on Public Lands. _ Conference
appointed. Report made and with-
drawn.

1895 |. ---- GW cosetdodeases H.R. 7259 ...| For the relief of certain settlers, who have entered lands) Passed Senate. Examined and signed.

under the timber and stone act, etc. iF

1895 |----- GD ssscocsssec5 H. R.7854...| Lo prevent the free use of timber on the public lands and | Debated, amended, and passed House.
to revoke all permits heretofore granted in certain States, Referred to Senate Committee on
and for other purposes. Public Lands.

1895 |.-..- (10) ceoacneccase H.R. 8323...| Making an additional appropriation to meet the expenses | Referred to Committee on Appropria-
of protecting the timber on the public jands for the fiscal tions.
year ending June 30, 1895.

1896 | 54th, 1st sess--.---| Senate 914 ..| To protect public forest reservations...-..------+-----+---- Referred to Committee on Forest

Reservations.

1896 |..-.- do .---- assn505 Senate 1214 | To appropriate funds for investigations and tests of Ameri- | Referred to Committee on Agriculture
can timber. and Forestry.

1896 |.-..- GO saoccoaseces Senate 1349 .| For the relief of applicants to purchase public lands under | Referred to Committee on Public
the timber and stone act. - Lands.

1896 |....- (I) geseidosaceos Senate 1632 .| To permit owners of claims to iron and coal mines on forest | Referred to Committee on Public
reservations of the United States to perfect their titles Lands. Reported back with amend-
thereto, and to procure a patent therefor, and for other ments. Amended and passed Sen-
purposes, ate. Referred to House Committee

on Public Lands. Reported back
with amendment.

1896 |.-..- do ...---------| Senate 1803 .| Ic repeal section 8 of an act entitled ‘“‘An act to repeal | Referred to Committee on Public
timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,” approved Lands.

March 8, 1891.
1896 |.--.. GW) ecmmacesaese Senate 2118.| To protect public forest reservations. ------++-------------- Referred to Committee on Forest Res-
ervations and Protection of Game.
Reported back. Passed over in
Senate.

1896 |.--.- GO. sso socesose¢ Senate 2946.| Lo protect and administer the public timber lands..--.----- Reterred to Committee on Forest Res-
ervations and Protection of Game.

1896 |.-..- GO sssancssne=¢ Senate 2963.| To amend sections 18, 19, 20, and 21 of the act entitled ‘‘An | Referred to Committee on Public
act to repeal timber-culture laws, and tor other pur- Lands.
poses,” approved March 3, 1891.

1896 |....- AD sesoccnescon H.R. 14....- For the relief of purchasers of timber and stone lands | Referred to Committee on Public
under the act of June 3, 1878. Lands. Reported back adversely

and laid on table.

SOGH eee GD aascoscossed eid Os To prevent the free use of timber on the public lands for | Referred to Committee on Public
commercial use, and for other purposes. Lands.

1896 |....- GO smociecaonsac H.R. 119..-.| Lo protect public forest reservations. -.--- squooenesnessoces Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported back with amend-
ment. Passed House. Referred to
Senate Committee on Forest Reser-
vations and Protection of Game.

1896 |---.. GO scnansoneoee H.R. 832..-.| Lo protect the forests on the public domain from destruc- Referred to Committee on Public
tion by fire. Lands.

1896 |...-- (WW sossoaseseos TL. BR. 2280 ...| To open the forest reservations of the State of Colorado for | Referred to Committee on Public
the location of mining claims. Lands. H. R. 4991 reported as sub-

stitute.

TS9Gn| meee Onsen cessee TH. R. 4058 ...| To set apart certain lands now known as the Pacific For- Referred to Committee on Public
est Reservation as a public park, to be known as the Lands. Reported back with amend-
Washington National Park. ment. Amended and passed House.

= Referred to Senate Committee on
Forest Reservations and Protection
of Game.

1896 |.-..- (1® ascoosonceoe H.R. 4065 __.| For the relief of applicants to purchase public lands under | Referred to Committee on Public
the timber and stone act. Lands.

1896 |..-.- (0) ndoncsseboes H.R. 4067...| To amend an act entitled ‘‘An act for the sale of timber Do.

Jands in the States of California, Oregon, Nevada, and in
Washington Territory,” approved June 3, 1878.

1896 |.-...- GW sccccasescod Hi. R.4336...| Lo extend the mineral land laws of the United States to | Referred to Committee on Indian Af
lands embraced within reservations created by Presi- fairs.
dential proclamation, and for other purposes.

1896) |=-=-- AW descoqssssca H. R.4442...| To amend the act of June 3, 1878, entitled ‘‘An act for the | Referred to Committee on Public
sale of timber lands in the States of California, Oregon, Lands. Reported back.

Nevada, and in Washington Territory,’ as amended by
section 2 of the act of August 4, 1892.

1896 |.-.-- GD escacsestaos H.R. 4562...| To amend an act entitled ‘An act for the sale of timber | Referred to Committee on Public
lands in the States of California, Oregon, Nevada, and Lands.
Washington Territory.”

1896 |...-- WO ccossosccoss HI. R. 4991 __.| Lo open forest reservations in the State of Colorado for the | Introduced by Committee on Public

location of mining claims. Lands as substitute for H. R. 2280.
Debated and passed House. _ Re-
ferred to Senate Committee on Pub-
lic Lands. Reported back Passed
Senate. Examinedand signed. Ap-
proved by President.

1896 |-.-.- GD sacieessoonee H. R. 8730 ...| Lo BODIOP Tate funds for investigations and tests of Ameri- Referred to Committee on Agriculture.
can timber.

1896 |.--.- GID) seconos-tose H.R. 9123 ...| To prevent forest fires on the public domain....----- BeisoN00 Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported back. Debated
and passed House. Referred to Sen-
ate Committee on Public Lands,

200

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

House in p X ‘
Year. Congress. which origi- Object of bill. Action taken.
nated.

1896 | 54th, Ist sess------| H. R.9124.-..| To protect the forests on the public domain from destruc- | Referred to Committee on Public

| tion by fire. Lands, Reported back.

1896 |.-..- Gab Seseecone H. R. 9143 ...| To protect public forest reservations -.---..--.--..--.------ eetomed to Committee on Public
Lands.

1897 | 54th, 2d sess .-.--- Senate 1632 _| To permit owners of claims to iron and coal mines on forest | Consideration in House objected to.

reservations of the United States to perfect their title
thereto, and to procure a patent therefor, and for other
purposes.

1897 |....- (essen Seeeciac Senate 2118 .| To protect public forest reservations -.-..------------------ Passed over in Senate.

TSO Tepes do ......------| H.R. 9124...) To protect the forests of the public domain from destruc- | Debated and rejected in House.

tion by fire.

TERY! locos GW) crensessecse H. R. 9123 -..| To reat forest fires on the public demain-.---.-----.------- Reported back and passed Senate
Examined and signed. Approved
by President.

1897 |.--.- GU) aeasecccedao H. R.9923...| To confirm title to purchasers of certain lands under the | Referred to Committee on Public

timber and stone law. Lands.

1897) |= ===. GN) peseosiecso5e H. R. 10270...) Providing for the selection of lands in lieu of swamp lands Do.

included in forest reservations.
TRE bese 00 2222 ee | 1. R. 10356. | To restore to the public domain the lands embraced within Do.
the forest reservations in the State of Wyoming set up
and established by Executive order February 22, 1897.
TEBY/ |isecoc ikNssmosokoncés H. R. 4058 ...| To set apart certain lands now known as the Pacific Forest | Reported back. Passed Senate. Ex-
Reserve as a public park, to be known as the Washington amined and signed.
National Park.

To give a more complete view of the action of the Government in its bearings upon forestry,
it seems proper to append to the foregoing synopsis the following record of legislation, actual as

well as only proposed:

TIMBER-CULTURE ACTS.

House in
which origi-
nated.

Year. Congress.

Object of bill.

Action taken.

1873 42d, 2d sess-.------ Senate 680 --

1874 | 48d, 1st sess------- 18le Len 7 a=
1876 |---.- 60) ssdsceccesn5 HR 242 Toe.
1878 | 45th, 2d sess 43s 1815 18. ePBb)- =|
1881 | 47th, Ist sess.....- H.R. 430.--.
1882 Hi. R. 4497...
1885 Senate 65...
1885 |---.- GO) asmsccssens HRS452 oer
1885 |.:.-. (ID coansceecaos H. R. 380...
1886 |.-... GO) sssocecocdas HR. 52102. =
1886 H.R. 1238 .--
1888 Senate 2893 -
1888 |.--.- GID seezopccestid Hi. R. 1801. .-
1888 }.--.- do ..... yrsceeee H. R. 1601...
1888 |---.- GW enseasseasse H. R. 2003...
1890 | 51st, Ist sess -...-- Senate 66...
1890 |.---- GW scsencscoscs Senate 366 --
1890) |-= == 5 (GUD cconcsocciees H.R. 84....-

To-encourage the growth of timber on Western prairies.
A person planting 40 acres of timber trees on Govern-
ment land to be entitled to 160 acres at the expiration of
10 years. Tho so-called timber-culture act.

To amend the above act. Confines privilege of entry to
heads of families or persons over 21 years of age and to
citizens of the United States. Reduces the time for
perfecting title to eight years. Restricts the amount
to be entered by one person to 160 acres. Allows home-
steaders to obtain patent by planting one-sixteenth of
homestead with trees.

To amend act of 1873. Allows extension of time for per-
fecting title in case of the destruction of trees by grass-
hoppers; also permits seeds and nuts to be planted in-
stead of trees.

To amend the act of 1873. Reducing the number of acres
to be planted to 10 for every quarter section, and in the
same proportion for smaller quantities, but requiring
closer planting—2,700 trees per acre. Five acres to be

broken first year and 5 the second, and planted with |

trees in the third and fourth years.
stead provision of the act of 1874.

To amend the act of 1878. Specifying the kinds of trees to
be planted.

To repeal the act of 1878

To repeal all laws for the preemption of public lands and
those allowing entries for timber culture, the sale of
desert lands, etc. -

To repeal all laws for the preemption of public lands and
those allowing entries for timber culture.

To repeal preemption and timber culture laws.
identical with bill 452.

To repeal all laws for the preemption of public lands and
tor timber-culture entries.

Mojamend the act OL 16s eases a= ee ele eae

To amend an act entitled ‘‘ An act to amend an act entitled
‘An act to encourage the growth of timber on the West-
ern prairies.’ ”

To repeal all laws providing for the preemption of the pub-
lic lands, the laws allowing entries for timber culture,
the laws authorizing the sale of desert lands, and for
other purposes.

To reper all laws providing for the preemption of the pub-
lic lands, the laws allowing entries for timber culture,
and for other purposes.

To repeal the preemption and timber-culture laws, and to
amend the desert-land act, and for other purposes.

To repeal all laws providing for the preemption of the pub-
lic lands, the laws allowing entries for timber culture,
and for other purposes.

To amend an act entitled ‘‘An act to amend an act entitled
‘An act to encourage the growth of timber on the West-
ern prairies.’ ’’

Repeals the home-

Nearly

To repeal all laws providing for the preemption of the pub-
lic lands, the law allowing entries for timber culture and
amending other land laws, and for other purposes.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported favorably and
passed. Approved March 3, 1873.

Passed and approved March 13, 1874.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported favorably. Passed
and approved May 20, 1877.

Reported with amendments by com-
mittee. Passed and approved June
14, 1878.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

Do.
Do.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Laid on table.

Do.

Do.

Referred to Committeo on Public
Lands. Reported back adversely
and indefinitely postponed.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported back. Passed
Senate. Referred to House Com-
mittee on Public Lands.

Referred to Committee on Public
Lands.

FEDERAL FORESTRY LEGISLATION.

TIMBER CULTURE ACTS—Continued.

“An act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for other pur-
poses,”’

House in
Year. Congtess. which origi- Object of bill. Action taken.
nated.

1890 | 51st, Ist sess ....-.| H. R.550..-.| To amend an act entitled ‘‘ An act to amend an act entitled | Referred to Committee on Public
‘An act to encourage the growth of timber on the West- Lands.
ern prairies.’ ”

1890 GO) saesaassoe H. R. 5404...) To provide for the commutation of timber-culture entries..| Referred to Committee on Public

: Lands. H. R. 7254 reported as a
substitute.

1890 CO. nocssaress H. R. 5598...) To repeal the timber-culture act .....--..-..-.---.---------- etenced to Committee on Public

ands.

1890 GO ssatesoan4 H.R. 7254...) To repeal the timber-culture laws, and for other parposes..| Introduced by Committee on Public

Lands as substitute for H. R. 5404.
Debated and passed House. Re-
ported back with amendment. De-
bated, amended, and passed Senate.
Referred to House Committee on
Public Lands. House nonconeurs
in Senate amendments. Conference
appointed.

1891 | 51st, 2d sess-.--... Senate 5129 .| To amend section 8 of an act approved Mar. 3, 1891, en- | Passed Senate. Debated and passed
titled ‘‘ An act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for other House. Examined and signed. Ap-
purposes.” proved by President.

1891 | GD conaadasse H. R. 7254. ..| To repeal timber-culture laws, and for other purposes.-.--.| Conference report made. Debated and
| agreed to. Examined and signed.
| Approved by President.

1892 | 52d, 1st sess-..-- Senate 1024 _| To amend chapter 561 of the laws of the second session of | Referred to Committee on Public
| the 51st Congress entitled ‘‘ An act to repeal timber-cul- Lands.

| _ ture laws, and for other purposes.”

1892 Gi) Gessdosase Senate 1179 -| To amend section 1 of an act approved Mar. 3, 1891, en- | Referred to Committee on Public
titled ‘‘An act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for Lands. Reported back adversely
other purposes.” and indefinitely postponed.

1892 GO seccascone Senate 1248 .| To repeal section 24 of an act entitled ‘‘An act to repeal Do.
timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,” approved
Mar. 3, 1891.

1892 (10) sommagnsase Senate 2180 .| Declaring the construction of an act entitled ‘‘ An act to Do.
repeal timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,”’
approved Mar. 3, 1891.

1892 G®) sspcs0eses Senate 3281 | To amend section 7 of ‘‘An act to repeal timber-culture | Referred to Committee on Public

| laws, and for other purposes,’’ approved Mar. 3, 1891. Lands.

1892 | Oat es Senate 3393 .| To amend an act approved March 3, 1891, entitled ‘‘An act | Referred to Committee on Public
to repeal timber-culture laws, and for other purposes.” Lands. Reported back with amend-

\ ments.

1892 dope ees H.R. 412....| To amend section 1 of an act entitled ‘‘An act to repeal | Referred to Committee on Public
timber-culture laws, and for other purposes.”’ Lands. H. R. 7961 reported as sub-

stitute.

1892 CW snnesenade H. R. 7691...| To amend an act entitled ‘‘An act to repeal timber culture | Introdticed by Committee on Public
laws, and for other purposes.” Lands, as substitute for H. R. 412.

Debated.

TEP |loses-CO scoccsr .----| H.R. 8702...) To amend an act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for | Referred to Committee on Public
other purposes. : Lands.

1892 | dows chess H.R. 9003...) To amend section 24 of ‘‘An act to repeal timber-culture | Introduced by Committee on Public
laws, and for other purposes,”’ approved Mar. 3, 1891. Lands as substitute for H. R. 2657.

1893 | 52d, 2d sess ..--- Senate 2564 .| To amend section 6 of the act approved Mar. 3, 1891, en- | Reported back.
titled ‘‘An act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for
other purposes.”

1894 | 53d, 1st sess-.-.-- Senate 113 ..| To extend the provisions of ‘‘ An act to amend section 8 of | Reforred to Committee on Military
an act approved Mar. 3, 1891, entitled ‘ An act to repeal Affairs.
the timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,’’’ to all
of that part of Oregon lying east of the Cascade range
of mountains.

1894 GW escseseses H. R.1986...| To amend section 6 of an act approved Mar. 3, 1891, en- | Referred to Committee on Public

: titled ‘‘An act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for Lands. Reported back. Passed
other purposes.” House. Referred to Senate Com-

mittee on Public Lands. Reported

back. Passed Senate. Examined

and signed. Approved by President.

1895 | 53d, 2d sess -.-.- Senate 1281 _| To amend section 7 of ‘‘An act to repoal timber-culture Referred to Committee on Public
laws, and for other purposes,” approved Mar. 3, 1891. Lands.

1895 U) Saasaapoos Senate 1696 .| To amend an act approved Mar. 3, 1891, entitled ‘‘ An act Do.
to repeal timber-culture laws, and for other purposes.”

1895 GO) =-sesco0e5 H.R. 4458...; To amend section 7 of ‘‘An act to repeal timber-culture | Referred to Committee on Public
laws, and for other purposes,”’ approved Mar. 3, 1891. Lands. Reported back.

1895 | 58d) 3d sess-.-.--.|----- GO saodec]|eS6ce! GW ascoadotonnocanacacbossectaccaceenEEodoconaescon cadens Referred to House Committee on the

Judiciary.

1895 GD coosde0ces H. R. 8424...} To amend the law relating to final proofs in timber-culture qeotezred to Committee on Public
entries. ands.

1896 | 54th, Ist sess......| Senate 103 ..| Relating to final proof in timber-culture entries.......--.-- Referred to Committee on Public

; Lands. Reported back with amend-
ment; amended and passed Senate.
Referred to House Committee on
Public Lands. Reported back. De-
bated, amended, and passed House.
Senate concurs in amendments. Ex-
amined and signed. Approved by
President.

1896 UW esdecosons Senate 1378 .| To amend an act entitled ‘‘An act to repeal timber-culture | Referred to Committee on Public
Jaws, and for other purposes,’’ approved Mar. 3, 1891. Lands.

1896 GM eassacoass H. R. 2644...| To amend the law relating to final proofs in timber-culture Do.
entries.

1896 H. R. 3543...| To amend the law relating to final proof in timber-culture | Referred to Committee on Public
entries. Lands.

1896 H.R, 4248...| Granting to certain successful contestants of timber-eul- Do.
ture entries the privilege of now exercising their right
of entry under the timber-culture act of June 14, 1878.

1896 H.R. 4694...| To amend section 1 of the act of Mar. 3, 1891, entitled Do.

202 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TIMBER CULTURE ACTS—Continned.

House in : q
Year. Congress. which origi- Object of bill. Action taken.
nated.

|
1896 | 54th, Ist sess..----| IT. R. 4959...| To repeal section 8 of an act entitled ‘‘An act to repeal | Referred to Committee on Public
timber-culture laws and for other purposes,’’ approved Lands.

Mar. 3, 1819. b:
1897 | 54th, 2d sess ------| Senate 3328 -| To amend an act entitled ‘‘An act: to repeal the timber- | Referred to Committee on Public
culture laws, and for other purposes.” Lands. Reported back. Passed
Senate. Referred to House Com-
mittee on Public Lands. Reported
back with amendments. Debated,
amended, and passed House. Sen-
ate concurs in House amendments.
Examined and signed. Senate re-
quests President to return Dill.
. President complies with Senate re-
quest. Debated and referred to
Senate Committee on the Judiciary.
Committee discharged, bill recon-
sidered, and House amendments
nonconcurred in. Conference ap-
pointed. Conference report made
and agreed to. Examined and
signed.

1897 | 54th, 2d sess-.------ Senate 3689 -| To amend an act entitled ‘‘An act to repeal the timber-eul- | Referred to Committee on Public
ture laws, and for other purposes.” Lands.

1897 |-= == GW sases0255220 H. R. 10314 --)..-.. do... Referred to Committee on Public
Lands. Reported back.

FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT AND ENDOWMENT OF FORESTRY SCHOOLS.

1882 | 47th, Ist sess.-----| Senate 1880 -| To aid in the endowment of a school of forestry at St. Paul. | Referred to Committee on Agricul-
Granting 300 sections of public land for the purpose. ture.
1883 | 47th, 2d sess .----- H. R. 7440...| Lo grant lands to Dakota for the purpose of establishing a | Referred to Committee on Public
school of forestry. Granting 400 sections of land for the Lands.
purpose.
1884 | 48th, Ist sess------ H. R. 4361.--| To grant lands to Dakota for the purpose of establishing a Do.
school of forestry. Same bill as the preceding.
1886 | 49th, 1st sess.--.-- H. R. 2826...) Lo grant lands to Dakota for the purpose of establishing a Do.
_ school of forestry. Same as two preceding bills.
1895 | 54th, Ist sess.--.-- Senate 793 -.| To establish and maintain a national school of forestry-.-.--. Do.
1895 |---.- GW s-ccncsonso ER. 30825 = |22=2- GD scaccaccssosaossossorsessze0000 aon eoooansqgbeasenacas Do.

RECENT LEGISLATION.

[The following legislation was embodied in the sundry civil appropriation bill, which became
a law in 1897. This law enables the Secretary of the Interior to formulate a plan for the proper
administration of the forest reservations, but its provisions can hardly become operative without
a sufficient appropriation to carry it into effect. Plans for the survey of the reserves, as provided
in the following law, are now (June 24) about matured. |

AN ACT making appropriations for sundry civil expenses, etc., approved June 4, 1897.
(1897. Fifty-fifth Congress, first session.)

The sections of the bill referring to the forest reservations are as follows:

For the survey of the public lands that have been or may hereafter be designated as forest reserves by
Executive proclamation, under section twenty-four of the act of Congress approved March third, eighteen hundred
and ninety-one, entitled “An act to repeal timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,” and including public lands
adjacent thereto, which may be designated for survey by the Secretary of the Interior, one hundred and fifty
thousand dollars, to be immediately available: Provided, That to remove any doubt which may exist pertaining to
the authority of the President thereunto, the President of the United States is hereby authorized and empowered to
revoke, modify, or suspend any and all such Executive orders and proclamations, or any part thereof, from time to
time as he shall deem best for the public interests: Provided, That the Executive orders and proclamations dated
February twenty-second, eighteen hundred and ninety-seven, setting apart and reserving certain lands in the
States of Wyoming, Utah, Montana, Washington, Idaho, and Sonth Dakota as forest reservations, be, and they are
hereby, suspended, and the lands embraced therein restored to the public domain the same as though said orders and
proclamations had not been issued: Provided, further, That lands embraced in such reservations, not otherwise
disposed of before March first, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight, shall again become subject to the operations of
said orders and proclamations as now existing or hereafter modified by the President.

The surveys herein provided for shall be made, under the supervision of the Director of the Geological Survey,
by such person or persons as may be employed by or under him for that purpose, and shall be executed under
instructions issued by the Secretary of the Interior; and if subdivision surveys shall be found to be necessary, they
shall be executed under the rectangular system, as now provided by law. The plats and field notes prepared shall
be approved and certified to by the Director of the Geological Survey, and two copies of the field notes shall be
returned, one for the files in the United States surveyor-general’s office of the State in which the reserve is situated,

,

FEDERAL FORESTRY LEGISLATION. 203

the other in the General Land Office; and twenty photolithographic copies of the plats shall be returned, one copy
for the files in the United States surveyor-general’s office of the State in which the reserve is situated; the original
plat and the other copies shall be filed in the General Land Office, and shall have the facsimile signature of the
Director of the Survey attached.

Such surveys, field notes, and plats thus returned shall have the same legal force and effect as heretofore given
the surveys, field notes, and plats returned through the surveyors-general; and such surveys, which include subdi-
vision surveys under the rectangular system, shall be approved by the Commissioner of the General Land Office as in
other cases, and properly certified copies thereof shall be filed in the respective land offices of the districts in which
such lands are situated, as in other cases. All Jaws inconsistent with the provisions hereof are hereby declared
inoperative as respects such survey: Provided, however, that a copy of every topographic map and other maps
showing the distribution of the forests, together with such field notes as may be taken relating thereto, shall be
certified thereto by the director of the survey and filed in the General Land Office.

All public lands heretofore designated and reserved by the President of the United States under the provisions
of the act approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, the orders for which shall be and remain in full
force and effect, unsuspended and unrevoked, and all public lands that may hereafter be set aside and reserved as
public forest reserves under said act, shall be as far as practicable controlled and administered in accordance with
the following provisions:

No public forest reservation shall be established except to improve and protect the forest within the reservation,
or for the purpose of securing favorable conditions of water flows, and to furnish a continuous supply of timber for
the use and necessities of citizens of the United States; but it is not the purpose or intent of these provisions, or of
the act providing for such reservations, to authorize the inclusion therein of lands more valuable for the mineral
therein or for agricultural purposes than for forest purposes.

The Secretary of the Interior shall make provisions for the protection against destruction by fire and depreda-
tions upon the public forests and forest reservations which may have been set aside or which may be hereafter set
aside under the said act of March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, and which may be continued; and he
may make such rules and regulations and establish such service as will insure the objects of such reservations,
namely, to regulate their occupancy and use and to preserve the forests thereon from destruction; and any violation
of the provisions of this act or such rules and regulations shall be punished as is provided for in the act of June
fourth, eighteen hundred and eighty-eight, amending section fifty-three hundred and eighty-eight of the Revised
Statutes of the United States.

For the purpose of preserving the living and growing timber and promoting the younger growth on forest
reservations, the Secretary of the Interior, under such rules and regulations as he shall prescribe, may cause to be
designated and appraised so much of the dead, matured, or large growth of trees found upon such forest reserva-
tions as may be compatible with the utilization of the forests thereon, and may sell the same for not less than the
appraised value in such quantities to each purchaser as he shall prescribe, to be used in the State or Territory in
which such timber reservation may be situated, respectively, but not for export therefrom. Before such sale shall
take place, notice thereof shall be given by the Commissioner of the General Land Office, for not less than sixty
days, by publication in a newspaper of general circulation, published in the county in which the timber is situated,
if any is therein published, and if not, then in a newspaper of general circulation published nearest to the reserva-
tion, and also in a newspaper of general circulation published at the capital of the State or Territory where such
reservation exists; payments for such timber to be made to the receiver of the local land office of the district wherein
said timber may be sold, under such rules and regulations as the Secretary of the Interior may prescribe; and the
moneys arising therefrom shall be accounted for by the receiver of such land office to the Commissioner of the
General Land Office in a separate account, and shall be covered into the Treasury. Such timber, before being sold,
shall be marked and designated, and shall be cut and removed under the supervision of some person appointed for
that purpose by the Secretary of the Interior, not interested in the purchase and remoyal of such timber nor in the
employment of the purchaser thereof. Such supervisor shall make report in writing to the Commissioner of the
General Land Office and to the receiver in the land office in which such reservation shall be located of his doings in
the premises.

The Secretary of the Interior may permit, under regulations to be prescribed by him, the use of timber and
stone found upon such reservations, free of charge, by bona fide settlers, miners, residents, and prospectors for
minerals, for firewood, fencing, buildings, mining, prospecting, and other domestic purposes, as may be needed by
such persons for such purposes; such timber to be used within the State or Territory, respectively, where such
reservations may be located. ;

Nothing herein shall be construed as prohibiting the egress or ingress of actual settlers residing within the
boundaries of such reservations, or from crossing the same to and from their property or homes; and such wagon
roads and other improvements may be constructed thereon as may be necessary to reach their homes and to utilize
their property, under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the Interior. Nor shall
anything herein prohibit any person from entering upon such forest reservations for all proper and lawful purposes,
including that of prospecting, locating, and developing the mineral resources thereof: Provided, That such persons
comply with the rules and regulations covering such forest reservations.

That in cases in which a tract covered by an unperfected bona fide claim or by a patent is included within the
limits of a public forest reservation, the settler or owner thereof may, if he desires to do so, relinquish the tract to
the Government, and may select in lieu thereof a tract of vacant land open to settlement not exceeding in area the
tract covered by his claim or patent; and no charge shall be made in such cases for making the entry of record or
issuing the patent to cover the tract selected: Provided further, That in cases of unperfected claims the requirements

204 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of the laws respecting settlement, residence, improvements, and so forth, are complied with on the new claims,
credit being allowed for the time spent on the relinquished claims.

The settlers residing within the exterior boundaries of such forest reservations, or in the vicinity thereof, may
maintain schools and churches within such reservation, and for that purpose may occupy any part of the said forest
reservation, not exceeding two acres for each schoolhouse and one acre for a church.

The jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, over persons within such reservations shall not be affected or
changed by reason of the existence of such reservations, except so far as the punishment of offenses against the
United States therein is concerned; the intent and meaning of this provision being that the State wherein any
such reservation is situated shall not, by reason of the establishment thereof, lose its jurisdiction, nor the
inhabitants thereof their rights and privileges as citizens, or be absolved from their duties as citizens of the State.

All waters on such reservations may be used for domestic, mining, milling, or irrigation purposes, under the
laws of the State wherein such forest reservations are situated, or under the laws of the United States and the rules
and regulations established thereunder.

Upon the recommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, with the approval of the President, after sixty
days’ notice thereof, published in two papers of general circulation in the State or Territory wherein any forest
reservation is situated, and near the said reservation, any public lands embraced within the limits of any forest
reservation which, after due examination by personal inspection of a competent person appointed for that purpose
by the Secretary of the Interior, shall be found better adapted for mining or for agricultural purposes than for
forest usage, may be restored to the public domain. And any mineral lands in any forest reservation which have
been or which may be shown to be such, and subject to entry under the existing mining laws of the United States
and the rules and regulations applying thereto, shall continue to be subject to such location and entry, notwith-
standing any provisions herein contained.

The President is hereby authorized at any time to modify any Executive order that has been or may hereafter
be made establishing any forest reserve, and by such modification may reduce the area or change the boundary lines
of such reserve, or nay vacate altogether any order creating such reserve.

AWN ACT making appropriations for sundry civil expenses, etc., approved June 30, 1898.

Protection and administration of forest reserves.—To meet the expenses of executing the provisions of the sundry
civil act approved June fourth, eighteen hundred and ninety-seven, for the care and administration of the forest
reserves, to meet the expenses of forest inspectors and assistants, and for the employment of foresters and other
emergency help in the prevention and extinguishment of forest fires, and for advertising dead and matured trees for
sale within such reservations: Provided, That forestry agents and supervisors, and other persons to be designated by
the Secretary of the Interior for duty under this appropriation, shall be allowed per diem, subject to such rules and
reculations as he may prescribe, in lieu of subsistence, at a rate not exceeding three dollars per day each, and actual
necessary expenses for transportation, seventy-five thousand dollars.

That section eight of an act entitled ‘“‘An act to repeal the timber-culture laws, and for other purposes,”
approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, be, and the same is hereby, amended as follows: That it
shall be lawful for the Secretary of the Interior to grant permits, under the provisions of the eighth section of the
act of March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, to citizens of Idaho and Wyoming to cut timber in the State
of Wyoming west of the continental divide, on the Snake River and its tributaries, to the boundary line of Idaho,
for agricultural, mining, or other domestic purposes, and to remove the timber so cut to the State of Idaho.

D. FOREST POLICIES OF EUROPEAN NATIONS.

The conditions which a hundred years ago influenced the policies of the Huropean nations—
namely, the necessity of looking out for continuance of domestic supplies—are at present well
overcome, provided the supplies in other countries last and can readily be secured.

In regard to supplies, the European countries may be grouped into those which produce as
yet more than they need, namely: Russia, Austria-Hungary, Servia, Sweden and Norway, which
are, therefore, exporters; those which produce large quantities of forest products, but not
sufficient for their needs, Germany, France, Switzerland; those which depend largely or almost
entirely on importation, England, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece,
and Turkey.

Nevertheless, at least in Germany, the desirability of fostering home production and advan-
tages of a general economic character, especially employment of labor in winter time which the
forest industries insure, have still an influence upon the policy of the Government, even with
supply forests.

In this way may be explained the protective tariff against wood imports, which was enacted
in 1885 and increased later, especially to keep out competition from the virgin woods of Austria-
Hungary and Russia. The last revision of 1892 has for its object not the discouragement of
importation, but the inducing of importation of only raw material to be manufactured at home, by
imposing a duty five times as high on lumber as on logs.

_ The result, however, has been more satisfactory from the revenue point of view than in
protecting the forest owners, the Austro-Hungarian railroads equalizing the duty charges by
lower rates.

The existence of a State forest policy, such as most European States have adopted, is based
at present mainly on the protective value of the forest cover and the recognition that private
interest can not be expected, or is insufficent, to give proper regard to this feature in its treatment
of the forest areas.

It can not be said that a finally settled policy exists in any of the States, not even in Germany,
but only that it is in a highly advanced stage of formation, with the tendency of increasing
governmental activity and interference.

Such a policy is expressed in various ways, State ownership, State supervision of communal
and private forests, restriction of clearing and enforced reforesting, establishment of forestry
schools, and experiment stations.

State ownership of forest areas, which in the beginning of the century began to decrease
under the influence and misapplication of Adam Smith’s teaching, and the doctrine of individual
rights urged to its extreme consequences, is now on the increase in most States. Thus France,
which during and after the Revolution, took the lead in this dismemberment of the forest property
which the monarchy had maintained, sold during the years 1791 to 1795 nearly one-half of the
State forests and continued to reduce the area until there remained in 1874 but one-fifth of the
original holdings. Since then a reversal of the policy has been in practice, the area not only
being increased but financial assistance in reforesting on a large scale being given to private
owners and communities. i

Thus in the budget for 1895 of $2,500,000 appropriated for the State forest department,
$1,000,000 is set aside for the extension of the State forests and necessary improvement of the
existing ones. The State owns about 2,600,000 acres—somewhat over 10 per cent of the total

205

206 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

area. In addition the private property is controlled entirely as regards clearing; that is to
say, no cleariug may be done without notice to the Government authorities, or, in the mountain
districts, without sanction of the same. ;

This control is especially stringent with reference to the holdings of village and city corpora-
tions, which represent over 27 per cent of the forest area. These must submit their plans of
management to the State forest department for approval, and are debarred from dividing their
property, thus insuring continuity of ownership and conservative management.

The necessity for such control became apparent in the first quarter of the century, when as a
consequence of reckless denudation in the Alps, Cévennes, and Pyrenees, whole communities
became impoverished by the torrents which destroyed and silted over the fertile lands at the foot
of the mountains. Some 8,000,000 acres of mountain forest in twenty departments were involved
in these disastrous consequences of forest destruction, with 1,000,000 acres of once fertile soil made
useless. The work of recovery was begun under laws of 1860 and 1864, and a revised law, the
reboisement act, of 1882. Under this law the State buys and recuperates the land, or else forces
communities or private owners to do so with financial aid from the Government.

Since the operation of this law the State has spent in purchases of worn-out lands and in works
to check the torrents and in reforesting, nearly $12,000,000, not including subventions to commu-
nities and private owners. It is estimated that $28,000,000 more will have to be expended before
the area which the State does or is to possess, some 800,000 acres in all, will be restored.

A forestry school at Nancy educates the officers, and is among the best on the Continent.

England, in the home country, has had little need of a forest policy on account of its insular
position and topography. Of the 3,000,000 acres of woodlands, mostly devoted to purposes of the
chase or parks, 2 per cent are State forests, and so encumbered with rights of adjoining commoners
as pasture or for wood supplies that no rational management is possible. But in India there is
a well-organized forest administration with a very extensive area, namely, 60,000 square miles
reserved and 34,590 square miles protected and under active control of the Government. ‘The
organization of the forestry service was begun in 1865 by German foresters. (See pages 259-263.)
At present special schools of forestry, one in England and one in India, supply the technical
education of the officers.

Italy has long suffered from the effects of forest devastation by droughts and floods, but the
Government was always too weak to secure effective remedies. The State owns only 1.6 per cent
of 116,000 acres of forest, the balance of 7,000,000 acres belonging to communities and corporations
or individuals. Yet by the laws of 1877, revised in 1888, the policy of State interference is clearly
defined. Excellent though the law appears on paper, it has probably not yielded any significant
results or even general enforcement, owing to the financial disability of the Government. This
law placed nearly half the area not owned by the State under Government control, namely, all
woods and lands cleared of wood on the summits and slopes of the mountains above the upper
limit of chestnut growth, and those that from their character and situation may, In consequence
of being cleared or tilled, give rise to landslips, caving, or gullying, avalanches and snowslides,
and may to the public injury interfere with water courses or change the character of the soil or
injure local hygienic conditions. Government aid is to be extended where reforestation appeared
necessary. -

Of the 76,000 acres which required immediate reforestation, for reasons of public safety, only
22,000 were reforested in twenty years up to 1886, the Government contributing $85,000 toward
the cost.

In the revised law of 1888, as a result of the vast experiences preceding, a further elabora-
tion of the same plan was attempted by creating further authority to enforce action. It is now
estimated that 534,000 acres need reforesting at a cost of $12,000,000, of which two-fifths is to be
contributed by the State.

Expropriation proceedings may be instituted where owners refuse to reforest, with permission
to reclaim in five years by paying the cost of work, with interest, incurred by the State.

In Austria, the disastrous consequences which the reckless devastation and abuse of her
mountain forests by their owners has brought upon whole communities have led to a more stringent
and general supervision of private and communal forests than anywhere else. Since 1883 there

EUROPEAN FOREST POLICIES. 207

has been also in progress a work of recuperation similar to the French reboisement work, in which,
up to 1894, nearly $1,500,000 had been spent, the State contributing variously from 25 to 100 per
cent toward covering the expense. A fully organized forest department manages the Government
forests, 2,000,000 acres, which are gradually being increased by purchase, or 73 per cent of the
whole forest area. One higher, and several lower schools provide instruction.

Some 150,000 acres of waste land were reforested by the State between 1881 and 1890.

Even Russia, although one of the export countries, with $30,000,000 to $35,000,000, and
largely in the pioneering stage, has a well-devised forest policy, developed within the last thirty
or fifty years, which consists not only in maintaining Government forests to the extent of about
280,000,000 acres under tolerably good management, and 30,000,000 of Crown forests, personal
property of the royal family, but in restricting private owners from abuse of their property, where
the public welfare demands, while in the prairie country in southern Russia large amounts of
money are spent by the Government in planting forests and assisting private enterprise in the
same direction.

With the Siberian forests and those of the Caucasus added, the area of Government forest
may reach the large figure of 600,000,000 acres, which, though not yet all placed under manage
ment, is sooner or later to come under the existing forest administration.

The restrictive policy dates from a very elaborate law passed in 1888, in which the democratic
spirit in the constitution of the body controlling the exercise of property rights is interesting.
The approval of working plans or of clearings on private property is placed in the hands of a
specially constituted committee for each county, which includes the governor, justices of the
peace, the county council, and several forest owners, and the Government itself must secure the
approval of this committee for its operations.

By this law, throughout EKuropean Russia, woodlands may be declared ‘“ preserved forests” on
the following grounds: That they serve as preventives against the formation of barrens and *
shifting sands, and the eucroachment of dunes along seashores or the banks of navigable rivers,
canals, and artificial reservoirs; that they protect from sand drifts towns, villages, cultivated
land, roads, and the like; that they protect the banks of navigable rivers and canals from land-
slides, overflews, or injuries by the breaking up or passing of ice; when growing on hills, steep
places, or declines, they serve to check land or rock slides, avalanches, and sudden freshets,
and all forests that protect the springs and sources of the rivers and their tributaries.

In these preserved forests, working plans are made at the expense of the Government, and
in the unpreserved forests at the expense of the owners. In each province the Government
maintains an inspector-instructor, whose duty is to advise those who apply to him in forest
matters, and as far as possible he is to superintend on the spot all forestry work. The Government
has established nurseries from which private owners can obtain young trees and seeds at a low
price. The owners are allowed to employ as managers of their forests the trained officials of the
forest administration, while medals and prizes are given yearly to private owners for excellency
in forest culture and management. Two higher and thirteen lower schools of forestry are also
maintained by the Government. :

The country which has attracted most interest in all matters pertaining to forestry, because
the science of forestry is there most developed and most closely applied, is Germany. The policies
prevailing and methods employed are fully described in another part of this report.

It may, however, be interesting to trace somewhat the historical development both of the
application of forestry principles and of the existing forest policy.

Although as early as Charlemagne’s time a conception of the value of a forest as a piece of
property was well recognized by that monarch himself, and crude prescriptions as to the proper
use of the same are extant, a general really well-ordered system of forest management hardly
existed until the beginning of the eighteenth century. Sporadically, to be sure, systematic care
and regular methods of reproduction were employed even in the thirteenth and fourteenth centu-
Ties. \

To understand the development of the present forest policy in Germany one must study the
peculiar conditions and development of property rights that led to it. Germany was originally
settled by warriors, who had to keep together in order to resist enemies and conquerors on every

208 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

side, ready to move and change domicile at any moment. ‘The soil which was conquered, conse-
quently, was not divided, but owned as a whole, managed by and for the whole tribe. It is only
in the sixth century that signs of private property in woodlands are discernible. Before that
time it was res nullius, or, as it is expressed in legal manuscripts, ‘‘ quia non res possessa sed de
ligno agitur.”

Wood being plentiful and yet needed by everybody, it appeared a crime only to take wood
which had been already appropriated or bore unmistakable signs of ownership, such as being
cut or shaped. But severe punishments were in earliest times inflicted for incendiarism and
for damage to mast trees, since the seed mast for the fattening of swine was one of the most
important uses of the forest.

There was not much need of partition, especially 0, the forests. The community, to which all
the land of a district belonged, and which was managea by and for the aggregate of society, was
called the “mark,” a communistic institution of most express character, and every “marker” or
shareholder was allowed to get the timber needed by him for his own use without control.

This early communal ownership of forest land undoubtedly explains the fact that even to-day
over 5 per cent of the forest is owned by communities, cities, or villages. Gradually the necessity
of regulating the cutting of the wood became apparent, as the best timber in the neighborhood
of the villages was removed, and we find quite early mention of officials whose duty it was to
superintend the felling, removing, and even the use of the timber. By and by even the firewood
was designated by officials. Manufacturers received their material free of charge, but only as
much as was needed to supply the community. Occasionally there were rules that each man had
to plant trees in proportion to his consumption. So that by the end of the fourteenth century
quite a system of forest management had been developed.

Meanwhile the Roman doctrine of the regal right to the chase had also begun to assert itself
by the declaration of certain districts as ban forests or simply forests, in which the King exclu-
sively reserved the right to chase. The Kings again invested their trusted followers and nobles
with this right to the chase in various districts, thus gradually dividing the control of the same.

While at first these reservations did not bring with them restrictions in the use of the timber
or pasture or other products of the forest, gradually these uses were construed as exercised only
by permission, and the former owners were reduced to holders of ‘“servitudes,” i. e., holders of
certain rights in the substance of the forests. The fact that the feudal lords frequently became
the obermarkers or burgomasters of the mark community lent color of right to these restrictions
in the use of the property, besides the assertion that the needs of maintaining the chase required
and entitled them to such control.

It is interesting to note that through all the changes of centuries, these so-called servitudes
have lasted until our own times, much changed, to be sure, in character, and extending by new
grants especially to churches, charitable institutions, cities, villages, and colonists. Such rights,
to satisfy certain requirements from the substance of an adjoining forest, were then usually
attached to the ownership of certain farms, and involved counter service of some sort, usually in
hauling wood or doing other forestry work.

Sometimes when the lordly owners of large properties exercised only certain prerogatives to
show ownership, these, in the course of time, lapsed into the character of servitudes, the forest
itself by occupation becoming the property of the community. With changes in value and other
changes in economic conditions, these rights often became disadvantageous and more and more
cumbersome to either or both sides.

The present century has been occupied with the difficult labor of relieving this state of things
and making equitable arrangements by which the forests become unencumbered and the bene-
ficiaries properly satisfied by cession of land or a money equivalent.

This chapter of the history of forest <policy is especially interesting to us as a tendency, nay
the practice exists of granting such rights to the public timber to the settlers in the Western
States, which by and by will be just as difficult to eradicate when rational forest management is
to be inaugurated. :

Over 5,000,000 marks and several hundred acres of land were required in the little Kingdom
of Saxony to get rid of the servitudes in the State forests. The Prussian budget contains still an

e

EUROPEAN FOREST POLICIES. 209

item of 1,000,000 marks annually for this purpose; and although over 22,000,000 marks and nearly
20,000 acres of land have been spent for this purpose in Bavaria, the State forests there are still
most heavily burdened with servitudes. :

The doctrine of the regal right to the chase, as we have seen, led to the gradual assertion of
all property rights to the forest itself, or at least to the exclusive control of its use. This right
found expression in a legion of forest ordinances in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which
aimed at the conservation and improvement of forest areas, abounding in detailed technical
precepts.

At first treating the private interest with some consideration, they gradually more and more
restrict free management. Prohibition of absolute clearing, or at least only with the permission
of the government; the command to reforest cleared and waste places; to foster the young
growth; limiting the quality of timber to be felled; preventing devastation by prohibiting the
pasturing of cattle in the young growth, of the removal of the forest litter, of pitch gathering,
ete., were among these prescriptions, and many others, such as prescribing the manner and time
of felling, the division into regular felling lots, determination as to what is to be cut as firewood
and what as building timber. Then, with the increasing fear of a reduction in supplies, followed
prohibitions against exportation, against sale of woodlands to foreigners, against speculation in
timber by providing schedules of prices, and from time to time entire exclusion from sale of some
valuable species. Even the consumer was restricted and controlled in the manner of using wood.

In medieval times, besides private forests of the King and lords, only the communal forest
(allmende) was known, and small holdings of farmers were comparatively rare until the end of
the Middle Ages.

The thirty years’ war and the following troublesome times gave rise not only to extended
forest devastation, but also to many changes in ownership of woodlands. With the growing
instability of communal organization of the “ mark,” division of the common property took place,
and thus private ownership by sinall farmers came about, reducing the communal holdings.
Colonization schemes by holders of large estates also led to dismemberment.

A very large amount of the mark forest came into possesssion of the princes and noblemen
by force, and later possessions of the princes were increased by the secularization of the property
of monasteries and churches. Until the end of the last century these domains belonged to the
family of the prince, just as the right to the throne or the governing of the little dukedom,
contributing toward the expenses of government.

But when, as a consequence of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars and
subsequent changes, the conception of the rights of the governing classes changed, and in some
States like Prussia much earlier, a division of domains into those which belonged to the prince’s
family as private property and those which were State forests was effected, so that now the
following classes of forest property may be distinguished :

(1) State forests, which are administered by the government for the benefit of the common-
wealth, each State of the Confederation owning and administering its own.

(2) Imperial forests, belonging to and administered for the benefit of the Empire, situated in
the newly acquired province of Alsace-Lorraine.

(3) Crown forests (Fidei-commiss), the ownership of which remains in the reigning family,
administered by State government, but the revenues of which are in part applicable to government
expenses.

(4) Princely domains, which are the exclusive and private property of the prince.

(5) Communal forests possessed by and administered by and for the benefit of village and
city communities, or even provinces as a whole.

(6) Association forests, the owners of the old “mark” forests, possessed by a number of
owners, the State sometimes being part owner.

(7) Institute and corporation, school or bequest forests, which belong to incorporated institu-
tions, like churches, hospitals, and other charitable institutions.

(8) Private forests, of larger or smaller extent, the exclusive property of private owners.

The proportions of these classes of property which existed in the beginning of the century

H. Doce. 181——14.

210 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

experienced considerable changes by the sale of State forests, the sales being due partly to
financial distress, partly to a mistaken application of Adam Smith’s theories, which supposed that
free competition would lead to a better management and highest development of the forest
industry as well as of other industries.

This tendency, however, was checked when the fallacy of the theory became apparent,
especially with reference to a property that demands conservative treatment and involves such
time element as we have seen.

The hopes which were based on the success of individualistic efforts were not realized, and
although control of private action had been retained by the State authorities, this could not
always be exercised, and the necessity of strengthening the State forest administration became
apparent. The present tendency, therefore, is not only to maintain the State forests, but to
extend their area by purchase, mostly of devastated or deforested areas and by exchange for
agricultural lands from the public domain. Thus, in Prussia, the increase of State forest area has
been at the rate of 14,000 acres per year since 1867.

In districts where small farmers own extensive areas of barrens a consolidation is effected,
the parcels of remaining forest and the barrens are put together, the State acquires these and
pays the owners either in money or other property.

In Prussia, during the decade 1882-1891, 30,000 acres were in this way exchanged for 17,000
acres, and in addition some 200,000 acres, waste or poorly wooded, purchased at an expense of
$3,500,000, round numbers. During the same decade the reforestation of 50,000 acres of waste
lands was effected, while nearly 75,000 acres in the State’s possession remained to be reforested.

The annual budget for these reforestations of waste lands has been $500,000 for several years.

The area of barrens and poor soils, only fit for forest purposes in Prussia, is estimated at over
6,000,000 acres.

The present distribution of the property classes for the whole Empire of the 35,000,000 acres
of forest is about as follows, varying, to be sure, very considerably in the States of the Confed-
eration:

Per cent.
State and Crown forests (of which the Crown owns less than 2 per cent).----------.---..--.-. 3.7
Jona PEA WIS ose sos 5s2o0s 2220 cess cose ose psoas ess oes oo resacocees sossse se02 seo5 cco cess 1
Commiunaltforestst(o; 000/000 facres) heeeee esas eee aan eee ae eee eee eee 15. 2
ANS OCHA AG, TOVE)SMishe ose k to nashee Soeeoed ooossa SSeone saseds mee SSS DASmSoOgESeS Cecsooestéeo tao sess 2.5
Institutesfonestsy-j-eis soe es seta stale nia te ene ae emote tat arare aie cierto ae neat err 1.3
Private forests ye- oes ace ania wel yee sence tee tae faan elec cee ee ae eee eee 48.3

The State and Crown forests are all under well-organized forest administrations, sometimes
accredited to the minister of finance, sometimes to the minister of agriculture. These yield an
annual net revenue of from $1 to $5 and $6 per acre of forest area, with a constant increase from
year to year, which will presently be very greatly advanced when the expenditures for road build-
ing and other improvements cease.

In the State management the constant care is not to sacrifice the economie significance of the
forest to the financial benefits that can be derived, and the amount cut is most conservative.

The Imperial forests are of course managed in the same spirit as the several State forests.

While the present communities, villages, towns, and cities are only political corporations, they
still retain in some cases in part the character of the ‘‘mark,” which was based upon the holding
of property..

The supervision which the princes exercised in their capacity of Obermarker or as possessor
of the right to the chase, remained, although based on other principles, as a function of the State
when the ‘“‘mark” communities collapsed, the principles being that the State was bound to protect
the interest of the eternal juristical person of the community against the present trustees, that it
had to guard against conflicts between the interest of the individual and that of the community in
this property, and secure permanency of a piece of property which insured a continued and
increasing revenue. The principle upon which the control of these communal holdings rests is
then mainly a fiscal one.

The degree of control and restriction varies in different localities. Sale and partition and

EUROPEAN FOREST POLICIES. 211

clearing can mostly take place only by permission of the State authorities, and is usually discoun-
tenanced except for good reasons (too much woods on agricultural soil).

With reference to 5.6 per cent of communal forest property, this is the only control which is of
a fiscal nature. The rest is more or less closely intluenced in the character of its management,
either by control of its technicalities or else by direct management and administration on the part
of the Government.

Technical control makes it necessary that the plans of management be submitted to the
Government for sanction, and that proper officers or managers be employed who are inspected by
Government foresters. This is the most general system, under which 49.4 per cent of communal
forests are managed (as well in Austria and Switzerland), giving greatest latitude and yet securing
conservative management. To facilitate the management of smaller areas several properties may
be combined under one manager, or else a neighboring government or private forest manager
may be employed to look after the technical management.

Where direct management by the State exists, the State performs the management by its own
agents with only advisory power of the communal authorities, a system under which 45 per cent
of the communal forests are managed (also in Austria and France).

In Prussia this system exists only in a few localities, but it is since 1876 provided as penalty
for improper management or attempts to avoid the State control.

This system curtails, to be sure, communal liberty and possibly financial results to some
extent, but it has proved itself the most satisfactory from the standpoint of conservative forest
management and in the interest of present and future welfare of the communities. Its extension
is planned both in Prussia and Bavaria.

Sometimes the State contributes toward the cost of the management on the ground that
it is carried on in the interests of the whole commonwealth. A voluntary cooperation of the
communities with the State in regard to forest protection by the State forest guards is in
vogue in Wurttemberg, and also in France. Institute forests are usually under similar control as
the communities.

The control of private forests is extremely varying. A direct State control of some kind is
exercised over only 29.7 per cent of the private forest, or 14.6 per cent of the total area, mostly
in southern and middle Germany. while 70.3 per cent of the private property, or 34.5 per cent of
the total forest area, is entirely without control, a condition existing in Prussia and Saxony.

As far as the large land owners are concerned, this has mostly been of no detriment, as they
are usually taking advantage of rational management; but the small peasant holdings show the
bad effects of this liberty quite frequently in the devastated condition of the woods and waste
places. As a recent writer puts it: ‘“‘The freedom of private forest ownership has in Prussia led
not only to forest dismemberment and devastation, but often to change of forest into field. On
good soils the result is something permanently better; on medium and poor soils the result has
been that agriculture, after the fertility stored up by the forest has been exhausted, has become
unprofitable. These soils are now utterly ruined and must be reforested as waste lands.

Need, avarice, speculation, and penury were developed into forest destruction when in the
beginning of this century the individualistic theories led to an abandonment of- the control
hitherto existing, and it was found out that the principle so salutary in agriculture and other
industries was a fateful error in forestry.

Where control of private forests exists it takes various forms:

(1) Prohibition to clear permanently or at least necessity to ask permission exists in Wurttem-
berg, Baden, and partially in Bavaria. (Protection of adjoiners.)

(2) Enforced reforestation within a given time after removal of the old growth and occasionally
on open ground where public safety requires.

(3) Prohibition of devastation or deterioration—a vague and undefinable provision.

(4) Definite prescription as to the manner of cutting (especially on sand dunes, river
courses, etc.).

(5) Enforced employment of qualified personnel.

In addition to all these measures of restriction, control and police, and enforcement, there

212 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

should be mentioned tle measures of encouragement, which consist in the opportunity for the
education of foresters, dissemination of information, and financial aid.

In the latter respect Prussia, in the decade 1882-1892, contributed for reforestation of waste
places by private owners $335,000, besides large amounts of seeds and plants from its State
nurseries. Instruction in forestry to farmers is given at twelve agricultural schools in Prussia.
In nearly all States permission is given to Government officers for compensation, to undertake at
the request of the owners the regulation or even management of private forest property.

For the education of the lower class of foresters there may be some twenty special schools in
Germany and Austria, while for the higher classes not only ten special forest academies are
available, but three universities and two polytechnic institutes have forestry faculties.

Besides, all States have lately inaugurated systems of forest experiment stations; and
forestry associations, not of propagandists but of practitioners, abound. As a result of all this
activity in forestry science and practice, not less than twenty forestry journals in the German
language exist, besides many official and association reports and a most prolific book literature.

&. FOREST CONDITIONS AND METHODS OF FOREST MANAGE-
MENT IN GERMANY, WITH A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF FOREST
MANAGEMENT IN BRITISH INDIA.

Forrest AREA, EXTENT AND OWNERSHIP.

Germany, as constituted at present, has an area of 133,000,000 acres—about one-fifteenth of
our country—a population of about 47,000,000, or less than 3 acres per capita, or only one-tenth of
our per capita average. Its forests cover 34,700,000 acres, or 26 per cent of the entire land surface.
A large portion of the forests cover the poorer, chiefly sandy, soils of the North German plains, or
occupy the rough, hilly, and steeper mountain lands of the numerous smaller mountain systems,
and a small portion of the northern slopes of the Alps. They are distributed rather evenly over
the entire Empire. Prussia, with 66 per cent of the entire land area, possesses 23.5 per cent of
forest land, while the rest of the larger States have each over 30 per cent, except small, indus-
trious Saxony, which lies intermediate, with 27 per cent of forest cover.

Considering the smaller districts of Prussia, Bavaria, and the smaller States, it is found that
out of 64 provinces and districts, 15 have less than 20 per cent forest; 18 have from 20 to 29 per
cent; 23, including the greater part of the country, have from 30 to 39 per cent, and 5 of the
smaller districts have from 40 to 44 per cent of forest. The districts containing less than 20 per
cent of forests are, as might be supposed, mostly fertile farming districts in which the plow land
forms over 40 per cent of the land, but they also include neglected districts like Hanover and
Luneburg, where a former shortsighted, selfish, and improvident policy has led to the deforesta-
tion of poor, flat lands, which have gradually been transformed into heaths, where an accumulation
of bog-iron ore, and other obstacles render the attempts at reforestation difficult, expensive, and
unsatisfactory. Left to forests, these same lands, which now are unable to furnish support to
farmers or to produce a revenue to their owner, could easily pay the taxes and interest on a
capital of $50 to $100 per acre. To reforest them now costs $10 to $50 per acre and requires a
lifetime before any returns can be expected.

Since it is one of the common claims in the eastern United States that the land is all needed
for agriculture, and since it will be conceded that in hardly any State east of the Mississippi
much land necessarily remains untilled, it may be of interest to note that in this densely populated
Empire of Germany out of 67 districts and provinces the plow land forms less than 20 per cent in
4 districts, 30 to 39 per cent in 10 districts, 40 to 49 per cent in 26 districts, 50 to 59 per cent
in 20 districts, and 60 to 69 per cent in 7 districts, in spite of the fact that a large part of the
forests are in private hands and would be cleared if the owners saw fit to do so.

In our country the total area in farms is only 18 per cent at present.

Of the total of 34,700,000 acres of forest land (an area about as large as the State of Wis-
consin) 32.7 per cent belongs to the several States as State property; 19 per cent belongs to
villages, towns, and other corporations, and 50 per cent to private owners, a considerable part of

this being in large estates of the nobility.
213

214 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The following figures show these ownership relations for the eight larger States, which
involve 96 per cent of the total area of the empire:

Forests.
“ . Total land Owned by the—
State. Population. aanheNG. y
Total. Per cent. Comme
State. see 3, | Private.
) Millions. MM acres. HM acres. M acres.| Macres.| M acres.
Germany -----------------------------+-------------+----- 47 133, 392 34, 750 100 11, 360 6, 710 16, 680
IRE RG aoa nb soasneconnedsonsaseasodss ssonesncsodsccneccoessssad 29.9 88, 000 20, 240 58 6,100 3, 240 10, 900
Bavaria ---.-- cod 5.6 18, 800 6, 200 18 2, 160 890 3, 150
Wurttemberg 1.9 4, 800 1, 470 4.2 480 470 530
7 3.2 3, 700 1, 020 3 430 60 530
1.6 3, 730 1, 360 4 237 667 447
Alsace-Lorraine - - 1.5 3, 600 1,100 3.1 360 520 220
SHCSS ON eee ee eer ens of) 1, 900 590 1.7 170 220 200
Mecklenburg-Schwerin -5 3, 290 560 1.6 255 85 220

This same relation, expressed in per cent, becomes:

Forests owned by—

Forest
State. cover of

total area.| States. Somers: Private.
Per cent. | Percent. | Percent. | Per cent.

Germany .--..---------- 2-2-2222 eee en nn eee nnn ne enema enna s cena ne 25.7 Bb |} = 19 48.3
Prussia ste 23.5 30 17 : 53
TR een esecooscesaeeses ooce 35 34 14 52
Wurttemberg - - 31 32 32 36
Saxony ------ 27 43 6 51
Baden: -.----.-- 37 18 49 33
Alsace-Lorraine 30 33 47 20
Soe eee 31 29 37 34
17 46 15 39

The condition of the forests to a great extent depends on the degree of supervision or control
exercised by the State authorities. It is best in all cases in the State forests, is equally good in
the corporation forests under State control, and is poorest in the private forests, particularly those

of small holders. :
STATE CONTROL.

The amount of State influence or control varies in the several States, and varies in some cases
even in one and the same State for different districts. Of the State forests, without exception, it
can be said that they are nearly in that form which, according to present knewledge and with
reasonable effort, is able to produce the greatest quantities of wood material in those dimensions
and of such kinds as best to satisfy the demands of the markets and at the same time render the
management as profitable as possible. This does not mean that they are not improving, for as
forestry knowledge increases and the methods are perfected the results are better. From what
follows it also appears that all State forests as a whole pay, and pay handsomely, when the low
intrinsic value of the land on which the forest stocks is considered.

The control of the corporation forests is perfect only in a few of the smaller States, notably
Baden, Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine; also in some districts in Prussia where the corporation forests
are managed by the State authorities, the wishes of the villagers or corporate owners being, however,
always duly considered. In alarge portion of Prussia, in Wurttemberg, and in Bavaria the corpora-
tion provides its own foresters; but these must be approved, as well as their plans of operations, by
the State authorities, so that here the management is under strict control of the State, and favora-
ble forest conditions at least partially assured. In Wurttemberg the corporation is given the choice
of supplying its own foresters or else joining their forests to those of the State. This has led to
State management of near 70 per cent of all corporation forests. Only the corporation forests of
Saxony and those of a small part of Prussia are without any supervision. Of the private forests,
those of Prussia and Saxony, involving 69 per cent of all private forests of the Empire, are entirely
free from interference. They can be managed as the owner sees fit, and there is no obstacle to their
devastation or entire clearing and conversion into field or pasture. The remainder of the private
forests are under more or less supervision. In most districts a State permit is required before

GERMAN FOREST CONDITIONS. 215

land can be cleared. Devastation is an offense, and in some States, notably Wurttemberg, a badly
neglected forest property may be reforested and managed by State authorities. In nearly all
States laws exist with regard to so-called “protective forests” i. e., forests needed to prevent floods,
sand blowing, land and snow slides, or to insure regularity of water supply, etc. Forests proved
to fall under this category are under special control, but as it is not easy in most cases to prove
the protective importance of a forest, the laws are difficult to apply and rarely enforced.

A partial return to the State supervision of private forests has been attempted in Prussia by
the establishment of a law which renders the owner of a forest liable for the damage which the
devastation or clearing of his forest property causes to his neighbor. This law, however, like the
former, is so difficult to apply, and puts the plaintiff to great expense, so that so far it has not
been enforced to any extent except where the Government itself is the injured party.

In the following statement the areas of forest are grouped according to the degree of State
supervision and manuer of management:

Of the entire 34,700,000 acres of forest land, there are approximately—

(1) Managed by State authorities as State property, 11,360,000 acres, which is 32.7 per cent.

(2) Managed by the State authorities, but the property of corporations, villages, towns, etc.,
a little over 2,212,000 acres, which is 6.3 per cent.

(3) Under strict Government control,the plans of management and the permissible cut having
to be approved by State authorities (corporation property), 3,875,000 acres, which is 11.1 per cent.

(4) Under supervision of the State, not only as common property but as special property,
subject to inspection and, in part, to control of State forest authorities; nearly all private prop-
erty and partly belonging to large estates, 4,767,000 acres, which is 13.7 per cent.

(5) Without any Government control or supervision beyond that of common property. These
forests may be divided, sold, cleared, and mismanaged, except under the certain cases before men-
tioned. Here belong all private forests of Saxony and Prussia and part of the corporation forests
of Prussia and all those of Saxony, 11,490,000 acres, which is 33 per cent.

CHARACTER OF FOREST GROWTH.

The greater part of the German forests is stocked with conifers, chiefly pine (the Scotch pine,
a pine similar to our red or Norway pine) and spruce. The pine prevails on the sandy areas of
North Germany, and occupies about 60 per cent of the Prussian and 30 per cent of the Bavarian
forests. The spruce is the chief conifer and principal timber tree of Saxony and southern Ger-
many. The hard woods, chiefly beech, some oaks, with small amounts of ash, maple, elm, etc.,
are most abundant in the valley of the Rhine, Lorraine, and Wurttemberg, but good beech forests
occur in nearly all parts of the Empire.

The greater part of all forests of Germany are “ timber forests,” where the trees are cut at an
age of over 80 years (generally 90 to 120 years).! Timber forests form over 90 per cent of the State
forests of all larger States, are the prevalent form in the forests of corporations, and are common
in those of private owners. The other two common forms, the “coppice” and “standard coppice,”
where the trees are cut at an age of less than 30 years (usually 15 to 25 years, and in the standard
coppice a small part only is allowed to reach better age and size), are most abundant in private
forests and to a less extent in corporation properties, but form only a very small part of the
State woods, where they are steadily diminishing in importance. The coppice is a hard-wood
forest, depends on the sprouting capacity of the trees, and furnishes small poles, firewood, and
tanbark. Both forms of the coppice and standard coppice require a smaller amount of standing
timber, furnish quicker returns, but do not furnish those kinds of products which the market
demands in largest quantity.

In the timber forest the trees of any particular tract or division are supposed to be of about
the same age, differing not over 20 years in the extreme, so that for a rotation of one hundred
. years, i. e., a management where the crop is harvested at the age of 100 years, one-fifth, or 20 per
cent, of all the forests should be 1 to 20 years old; another 20 per cent, 21 to 40 years old, ete.
In spite of the great difficulty of attaining this regularity of distribution in the forests of an
entire State without disturbing the yearly cut of timber, this regularity is already attained very
closely in most of the State forests. Thus in the State forests of Prussia, of the total area of

! For fuller description of the systems of management, see pp. 225 to 259 of this report.

216 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

timber forest (90 per cent of all State forests), the age of the timber is as follows: On 13 per cent
of the area, over 100 years old; on 13 per cent, 81 to 100 years old; on 14 per cent, 61 to 80 years
old; on 18 per cent, 41 to 60 years old; on 19 per cent, 21 to 40 years old; on 19 per cent,
1 to 20 years old, and about 4 per cent are clearings, where the timber has been cut lately. In all
forests the ground is at once reforested, if cut clean, or else the cut is so arranged that a natural
seeding goes on as the harvest progresses, this latter consisting of several fellings, separated by a

number of years.
EXPLOITATION.

The cutting in all State forests is generally done by the cord or by the cubic foot (really by
the stere, festmeter, or cubic meter). In rare cases the timber is cut and moved by the purchaser;
nearly always it is cut and moved by the forest authorities and sold and delivered at the main
roads. The logs are not cut to uniform lengths, but care is had in the forest to eut to best advan-
tage. Long, straight timbers are left long, if possible, and sold as long, round, or sometimes hewn
pieces; saw timber is cut in even lengths; poles are cut to suit local markets; wagon and coopers’
stock, ete., are cut to suit, or left in round timbers, while pulp wood, cord wood, and branches, and
sometimes even stumps, are worked up in customary manner, graded, and sold by the cord
(really “stere” or ‘“‘raummeter”).

In the conversion of the logs into lumber there are more complications in dimensions than
withus. The measure is generally the meter and centimeter; edging is not done by even numbers.
Lumber is sold by cubic measure, and the handling is thus generally not so simple as in America.

As far as practical means and methods in felling and logging operations go we can learn but
little from Germany, except that more care in the utilization of the timber would be profitable
here as itis abroad. Yet it may be of interest, and not entirely devoid of suggestive value, to
brietly recite the practices followed in most Government forests.

The location of fellings for the year having been determined with due consideration, the
rangers engage and control, under supervision of the district manager, the crew of wood choppers
under a foreman, who are mostly men living in the neighborhood of the range or district and
accustomed to all kinds of forest work.! A contract, which contains conditions, regulations, and
a scale of prices, is made with them, which they sign. The men are paid by the job, the prices
per unit differing, of course, in different localities and being graded according to the kinds of
timber, size, ete.

To cite one example we may take the schedule prices paid at the forest belonging to the city
of Goslar, as this will interest us further on. There are 40 men nearly permanently employed
either in wood chopping, planting, or otherwise, and their average earnings during three years
have been about 80 cents per working day. The prices for cutting spruce, including moving to
roads and barking, and the average prices obtained for ten years were as follows:

Average price ob-
tained in the
e woods.
Cost of cutting. pee Sy tee
Lowest | Highest
class. class.

Saw timber, above 5 inches in diameter (5 classes), 85 cents per 100 cubic feet.| $9.50 $16. 20
7.

Long poles (3 classes), from 84 cents to $1.68 per 100 cubic feet - 90
Small poles (4 classes), from $1.37 to $3.07 per 100 cubic feet.. 5. 80
Firewood, split, 70) cents to $1 per cord.--.--.----------.------ 4 4,30
’ Minewood Drs lyse Olperi COLUM ee eres eee ee erent renee er trrerreree rn aee 1. 60

In Prussia the average cost of lumbering (wood cutting and bringing to roads) for all kinds
and dimensions is 65 cents per 100 cubic feet; that is to say, the wood-choppers’ bill on the
300,000,000 solid cubic feet of wood harvested annually in the Prussian Government forests
amounts to $1,950,000. It will appear from the prices for wood cited that often the harvesting is
more expensive than the price obtained, as, for instance, for brushwood, which will hardly sell for
half the cost of cutting, but its removal is necessary from cultural considerations. The wood
choppers are also sometimes expected to move the cordwood at least to the neighboring roads, so
as to obviate the driving of teams through the woods or young growth.

1Tn the census of Game for 1881-82 sine were reported as enone} in Sneeiny. hunting, and fishing 384,637
persons. Unfortunately, no division of the three occupations was made.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT. 217

Tf the felling is to be a clearing, a strip is assigned to each gang of 3 men, 1 with an ax and 2
with saws (felling with the saw, of course, is the rule); if a regeneration cutting or thinning, the
trees to be taken are carefully selected by the ranger or manager and marked with a marking
hammer. As a rule, all fellings are done during winter, and all trees, except in the coppice and
small poles, are felled with the saw close to the ground. In the pineries of the North German
plain, where the root wood is salable, they are even dug out and then sawed off close to the root,
thus saving a good piece of log timber, which in Saxony increases the wood value of the harvest
by fully 3 per cent. Which parts of the log are to be cut into firewood and which into lumber
wood or special timbers, and the length of the same according to the best use that can be made
of the stick, are determined by the foreman, or in valuable timber by the ranger or manager
himself. A scale of sizes and classes of timber (sortiment) exists; in general, all wood over 3
inches diameter is called Derbholz (coarse wood or lumber wood), all below 3 inches is brushwood
(Reisholz), with which root wood (Stockholz) is classed. These last two grades are used as fire-
wood, with which is also classed body wood or split wood (Scheitholz), split from pieces over 6
inches diameter at the small end, and round billet wood (Kniippelholz) of 3 to 6 inches diameter.

The wood to be used in the arts, called timber wood (Nutzholz), may appear either in bolts,
corded, or in logs. The diameter measurement of logs is made by the ranger, with calipers, at
the middle of the log. Every cord and every log is numbered and the diameter and length noted
on the log, and a list prepared in which the cubic contents are calculated. From this list the
manager checks off the result of the felling, marking each piece or cord with the marking hammer,
and after advertisement sells at public auction,in the woods or at some public place, the single
pieces or cords to the highest bidder over and above the Government rate, which for the different
grades is established every three years on the basis of, but below current market prices. The
sale of logsis made per cubic foot, and the size of the log influences the rate or price, heavier logs
being disproportionately higher in price.

PRICE OF WOOD IN THE FOREST.
During the years 1884-1887 the following prices were obtained by the Prussian forest adminis-

tration for wood in the forest. This is practically for stumpage, cut and marked, the buyer hauling

it from the woods:
Price per 100 cubic feet of wood in Prussia.

Pieces containing 18-36 cubic feet. pee | ace ae tee

Timber: |

(Ohi eke ee yy eee Re eee $8.50 | $17.30 | $12.00-14.00

Beech, as 5.50 - | 12.25 7.50- 8.50 |

Spruce .- 4.75 | 11.65 7.00- 8. 00

Pine 4.75 | 11.00 6.25- 6.35
Firewood:

Beech; ash, elm, maple ---------- 22. - 2.8. ee sith) || 1.75 1. 00- 1.20

SRE oscecececspbodcasaccocaans -40 | 1. 50 70— .85

IPO. s soanesesaobeocousGQDORUEOTEacaSeceReneacosacaaDgs - 45 1.30 80- .90

To gain an idea of the appreciation of the wood product, without reference to kind, size, and
quality, the following series of figures will serve:

Average price per 100 cubic feet of wood realized by the Prussian Government for its entire crop (about 300,000,000
cubic feet).

Year. Price.
TCE 0 SOR mae Oreo SDE RAE OtIS BOC OR SEE OO HS Seg Ob DS CO EBB OCS EOS ERO eSCS BOS SOE eo BER CoE Canarrse $3. 27
BSE ae ae te a oro a cctire ey ma ect are Fore PS Ie ais ne attra ee oe erctavepete este Staten sisjeiein eS \nicls 3. 66
EO Soe SO COBB Sh Do Bee COS HS in Ne SS EEE GB tC BE ODO S Hoc SEDO Set cp eons SA Ce pase Se Srcisaee sree 3. 69
1 ET a nS Boe HAR EHE COORD ARABS CIA a OEE CINE Soe ROO ESE EOS OS CHES Ma Onno Sc COREE Ae Genomes rit 4,71
USO SeGe te GRO BOOS A Bee RE ERR CIEE ie eC ABE BER MAC SUCHE GOH GoaG BEES EEOC DEA CBE at aCe oir 4. 35
TOTS SSO SOSG BOC AAS OC eee Be EERIE BEE cid CHS COCOO DEES OS EUS GOCGBE BE OS SCO E Se aee Serres ererescs 5.21
TER bao eee eS OCC S De CEASA DROSS EGE BOE CBOE OSE OBOE OE DOG SIGHG CORE CH OS CCISE Sot ee Eee ees 4,47
TEE ecco OO OSE Be SCO SSS STE Ere Babs Cann GREGG DOG BODO CODD GOS Bet C SCE GROOT eae er eee 4.30
Ee OS eate bo eccd ede b BEC E aE O SR OS DEAS OGRE ON CC OCIS eC EOD SOCOSUIE DOOD SEE SCA Crees nse cie meric 4,40

The highest price for any district was obtained in 1888, being $8.49, while the lowest was
$2.82. The lower prices in later years are explained by the large importations of wood, especially
from Hungary, Russia, and Sweden; for while our misinformed forestry friends point to Germany
as the Eldorado of forestry and proclaim the proportion of forest area there maintained, namely,

218 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

about 25 per cent, as the ideal and necessary for self-support, and therefore to be maintained also
in this country, they overlook the fact that Germany imports not less than $60,000,000 worth of
wood and wood manufactures, mostly of the same kind as grown or manufactured in that country.
This represents about 10 per cent of the total consumption of Germany, while the importations
of the United States, which imports from Canada only competing classes of forest products,
represent not more than 1 per cent of our probable consumption.

The exports of forest products from Germany, on the other hand, are, to be sure, nearly 50
per cent of her imports, but they represent mostly manufactures, while in the United States the
reverse is the case; that is to say, the United States exports twice as much as it imports, and that
mostly raw material, namely, twice as much in value of raw material as of manufactures.

The countries from which Germany imports raw or partly manufactured wood are mainly
Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Sweden, which furnish nearly five-sixths of the total importation,
while Holland, England, Denmark, Belgium, France, and Switzerland draw about $14,000,000
worth of raw material from Germany. (See tables further on.)

To protect the forest owners of Germany, a tariff on importations was imposed in 1885 and
increased later. Of the effects of this last measure a government report says that as a financial
measure these tariffs have had excellent success, for the revenue from these duties increased from
$646,000 in 1880 to $1,732,000 in 1886. But for the forest owner the hoped-for results did not
become apparent; the Austro-Hungarian railroads and shipping interests lowered their rates so as
to largely equalize the duty charges. The duties on unmanufactured materials being very low, the
lack of results in the market of these is still more noticeable. Yet a salutary effect is stated to
be a prevention of still lower prices, and because otherwise there would have been a lack of useful
occupation for labor finding remunerative employment in the manufacture of the raw material,
which, without the increase in duties, would have been imported in manufactured condition.

PRICE OF MANUFACTURED LUMBER.

The following samples of schedules for manufactured lumber, always delivered at the railroad
station, may serve to give an idea to our lumbermen how nearly prices compare with those
prevalent in our country. We choose those of eastern provinces, which are in sharpest competition
with Russian and Hungarian imports:

Province of Posen.
Timber (7-8.5 inch square) :

IBN geacec asa eeseoesae ascent osecod ase Be sere Staeee nae are ate ee eetere per cubic foot.. $0.20 to $0. 22

SiPANCOadcaseseonadoodeses ESSqos Sesacu asdcu sdasanessesonomasogsscen cases] dope -16
Pine (Scotch):

Migs (4 WHAM), B OMRSESs catcce cacmascsaobesnsdescedestac per 1,000 feet B. M.. 27.00 38.00

Planks (1s—1inich))s Sic asses eae ss eetaeas ar =e a re eal al do.--- 26.00 31.00

Flooring (1-inch), 3 classes...--...---..----.----------------------------- do_.-. 17.00 22.00

Flooring (14-inch), 3 classes...-....---.------ ------------------ ---------- do..-. 20.00 26.00
Spruce, rough boards, not edged (4-5 inch) ..---.------ ----------------------- dos=== 12. 00
Spruce (14-inch), edged, 12-18 feet.-...-...---...---.------------ ------------- do..-- 20.00 22.00

Delivered at Berlin.

Oak (clear), 82 cents per cubic foot, or $68 per 1,000 feet B. M.

Elm, 78 cents per cubic foot.

Railroad ties—pine, 45 cents; oak, 90-95 cents.

It will be seen that prices for some grades are as high as and higher than in New York. The
manager is expected to secure at least the government rate, and has discretion in conducting the
sales to the best advantage of the government. Under certain circumstances sales by contract
without auctioneering, and, lately, selling on the stump, are permitted.

The transportation from the woods, as stated before, is usually left to the buyer; rarely does
the administration float the timber or cord wood out, or carry it to a depot or wood yard to be sold
from there, or engage in milling or. other operations. On the other hand, it has been recognized
during the last twenty-five years that good roads and other ready means of transportation increase
the price of the wood disproportionately. A good road system is, therefore, considered the most
necessary equipment of the administration, and an extension of permanent and movable logging
railroads is one of the directions of modern improvement. ‘The interesting, important, and
practical features to us in the logging railroads are their movable character, being divided into

ROADS IN GERMAN FORESTS. 219

sets of pairs of short (2 to 5 yard) rails (12 to 16 pounds per yard) attached to from two to four
cross-ties, wood or metal, the light sets weighing 75 to 100 pounds (heavy sets up to 166 pounds),
so that one workman can readily carry them; the ready connection of sets, one hooking at once
into the other without separate mechanism, forming a sufficiently satisfactory joint; the simple
“climbing switch,” which is applied on top of the track, permitting ready transfer from side track
to main track and ready relocation. ‘These roads can be readily laid down without much or any
substructure and readily relocated. The cost is shown in the following statement:

For a fully equipped road, 24 to 28 inches width, 6 miles length, for rails and ties. -------- $9, 000
For earthwork, if any, and laying .--.------.------------ ---- -------- ---- +--+ +--+ -------- 50 to 500
For rolling stock and apparatus. -...-.--.---------------------+--+--222 222222 rer rte 2, 500

12, 000

Or $2,000 per mile at the highest.

Upon a basis of 800,000 cubic feet (about 7,000,000 feet B. M.) to be transported, it is calculated
that the cost of transportation by railroad, stone road, and dirt road will be about as 1: 2:6, the
cost on the first being about 3 cents per 1,000 feet B. M. per mile as against 18 cents on dirt roads.

Comparing the cost of construction it is stated that the ratio between corduroy, gravel road
(13 feet wide), macadam, and movable track is as 1: 1.25: 2.35 :1.17, placing the last among the
cheapest.

‘A most instructive exhibit at the World’s Fair, in many ways, especially at the present time,
since the movement for better roads in this country has begun, was the model of the city forest of
Goslar, a small town (13,300 inhabitants) in the Harz Mountains, whose citizens, from this piece
of property, a spruce forest of 7,368 acres extent, derive not- only their pure drinking water,
healthful enjoyment in hunting, and refreshing coolness in summer, but also a net income,
amounting in round numbers to $25,000 ($3.40 per acre), toward payment of city taxes. This
is the result of careful management, which permits an annual cut of 350,000 cubic feet of wood.
Of this only 50,000 cubic feet goes into firewood, and 46 per cent, or 160,000 cubic feet, is saw
timber, which sells at 10 to 16 cents per cubic foot; while smaller dimensions, poles, ete., sell all
the way down to below 4 cents, and firewood at $1.60 for brush to $4.30 for split or round wood
per cord. Until 1875 the district was without proper roads. By an effort of the competent
manager the city fathers were persuaded to locate and build a rational system of roads on which
altogether, until 1891, there was spent for building and maintenance about $25,000. The greatest
interest attaches to the statistics carefully gathered by the district manager, Mr. Reuss, since it
is always difficult to determine the money value of such an expenditure in dollars and cents.

The proper location of the roads is the most important feature. The roads are ranked
according to their importance; the width and manner of finish depend on theirrank. Main roads
are macadamized; roads of third rank, which are used for occasional hauling of wood, are dirt roads.

These statistics were exhibited in a neat table, as follows:

STATISTICS OF ROAD SYSTEM IN FOREST DISTRICT OF CITY OF GOSLAR (HARZ MOUNTAINS, GERMANY).

Properly located, graded, and built roads reduce cost of logging and hauling, and advance the price for wood.
Area, 7,368 acres spruce forest; annual cut, 350,000 cubic feet; road building begun in 1875; total mileage of
improved roads in 1891, 141 miles; cost of road system and maintenance until 1891, $25,000.

Cost of logging reduced by good logging roads.

(Daily wages remaining constant at 60 cents. ]

Length of | Cost of
well-built | logging per
| logging 100 cubic
roads. feet.

Year.

Bee ee
i
oO

Garvinpy perl OOkorDichtce tesa ate ter alee alan aS $0. 70
Saving on annual cost of 350,000 cubic feet .......----2---------- 2-2-2222 ones es ec ee en rset etn er cts sc eresec en en cscs sess cea 2, 450. 00

220 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Cost of haulage reduced by good wagon roads.

[Price per load remaining constant at $3.60. Full load, before improvement, 85-100 cubic feet; after improvement, 175-250 cubic feet. ]

Cost of

haulage

Year. per 100

cubic feet.

1871-1877, before road improvements $1.52

TE ETSHEY oe ono cecoos cess socedose cceaoe 6 -98

ARE5—1891! Sos os ese e cece cee winjee ce aieewa wie ene enema melee mle ema min lnm ele me onl . 80
Saving per 100 cubic feet .--------------------------- === === nnn nnn nnn nn nnn nee enn anca cans caa ae $0. 72. 00
Saving on annual cut of 350,000 cubic feet .-----.------------ +--+ ----2 2200 eeen ee cere eee n eee ne rennet eccrine es cscs snscascss 2,520.00

Price of wood influenced by road improvements.

{Comparison of prices paid at Goslar and at other Harz districts.]

Prices for wood per 100 cubic feet.

Length of
Year. improved! Atother | Difference
we At Goslar. | Harz dis- | in favor of
v tricts. Goslar.
Miles.
22 $8. 25 $8.18 $0. 07
34 8. 65 8.04 . 61
42 9.59 8.44 1.15
55 979) 8.44 1.35
64 9. 05 7.78 1.27
68 8. 45 7.43 1. 02
71 8. 65 7.63 1.02
7 10.17 8.18 1.99
78 8. 88 8. 24 . 64
79 9,59 9.39 - 20
81 11.12 erik 1.41
82 11.12 9.98 1.14
83 11.39 10.58 -81
85 11. 72 10. 92 82

cs)
SI
=
oS
-
oo
=
ie)

Ss

=
“e
Oo

Average for fifteen years -------------------

CS
=
9
Re)
)
Ca)
Co

Increase in price on total cut of 350,000 cubic feet-...----.--.---------------------------------------- seeeneee woe een nee eee reren ern nee $3
Total profit from improved road system in reduced cost of logging and hauling, and in advance of price received for wood, per annum. 8

Or nearly 33 per cent on investment.
Saving their cost in two years.

Cost of road, macadamized in 1885, $6,960; maintenance for one year, $480; total, $7,440. During 1885-86 hauling
470,000 cubic feet requiring on old road 4,273 loads of 110 cubic feet average, at $3.60, $15,282.80 (or $2.70 per 1,000
feet B. M.); on improved road, 2,652 loads of 177 cubic feet average, at $3.60, $9,547.20 (or $1.70 per 1,000f__t B. M.),
saving of $1 for every 1,000 feet B.M. Total saving in haulage, $5,735.60, or 77 per cent on cost of road in one year.

YIELD PER ACRE.

The amount of timber cut per acre is very large as compared with average yields in wild woods.
Of late the average yield has varied from about 5,500 cubic feet per acre in Prussia to 9,000 cubic
feet for the Saxon State forests. The yield has been steadily increasing since the beginning of
this century, and in most States it has been nearly doubled through better management. At that
earlier time much land was badly stocked or devoid of any cover, much timber was injured and
stunted by continual removal of the litter and consequent impoverishment of the soil, and in most
forests the young timber occupied much more than its share of ground, and thus less timber grew.
In every one of the States and districts these conditions have been changed materially for the
better, the cut was increased from year to'year, the wood capital or standing timber grew in total
amount, and the productive capacity of the forest soils has generally improved. The cut for any
given province or State is generally given as so much per acre of total area. Thus the cut for
Saxony is placed at 90 cubic feet per acre of total forest area, though, of course, the yield of those
tracts actually cut was about 9,000 cubic feet per acre cut. In the following table the figures
relating to the State forests are from recent official records, also those of the corporation forests
of Baden, Alsace-Lorraine, Bavaria, and parts of Wurttemberg, while the figures for private
forests and most of the corporation forests are estimates based on the experience of former years
and of only part of the provinces.

YIELD OF GERMAN FORESTS. 22

Yearly cut per acre in the State and other forests of Germany (in million cubic feet.)

Cut per acre of forested area.
Total (in-
cluding ye |) Limbex:
State. stump and | Mood over and bolt-
branes [aoostumy | eae
= wood). Kohat
wlisre firewood).
used).
|
HorthelentineyMmpire sesese aaa eee cee ene relat 55 37.5 16.4
State forests of— |
ISR coeasoconocane sansa bnoaosoosasecbnedodnosenoREcesas 54 42 19
Bavaria -.-.. -- 712 55 24
Wurttemberg 81 67 36
Saxony ---- 90 68 54
IBYAMIGN 5 sec coasaesoncsesbnosocss ooo csSsosecbesancooeons - 74 59 24
Alsace-Lorraine- 5 57 46 22,
| 18 GREG hee ASG ee ac OO Ero COCU ECON COSe eos BEaSas 1a | 52 16
Mecklenburg-Schwerin 61 50 11.6
The entire Empire Se 63 | 43 22.5
Corporation forests of the entire Empire a 56 | 41 16.6
Private forests of the entire Empire b.-.-.........-...----.--- 50 30 12

a Partly from official records, part estimate.
b Generally estimated, as no accurate data are available for any entire State.

Using the above basis, the total annual cut of the country (in million cubic feet) is about as
follows:

| In the forests belonging to—
7s Total |-————- —
State. cut. | States Corpora-| Individ-
sapien st tions. uals.
ID MLDS) INN PINE co soca coonedotodcanscsenesosesiooes 1,910 710 370 830
THOS ISB BO SE eine deme CCN ieee US aeSe ER Rea one )i,054 | 331 178 545
LEWAMID. cosccostsoss cctecuncacogsocosdncsecbosoSsonoDSSoNS 354.5 153 44.5 157
Wiunthemberpees secre ee neeeene nee see een ens Haddacee 89.5 Gs! Sebs 26.5
SEP OINY dosoosode og onmoses cosas Hse Sabo SaaSecHsascooeosEese 67.3 S64). | 3.3 26.5
BAU eMMet soo hese be eee Senne) one eon Se eeeeeeese eee 85.9 16.6 47. 22.3
JUROR LD PENG sooscenene snceboascs seas eoaseccosaasscese 65.3 21.3 33 1l
TIGR ne Seascrods DahosencabeacHoODOcacd SSEESBaSoeSesecoon 34.8 12.7 12.1 10
Mecklenburg-Schwerin -..-.....---.------ oSdcdscosesesess 30.7 15 4.7 11

CONSUMPTION OF WOOD MATERIALS.

Thus Germany has a steady and increasing supply of over 1,900 million cubie feet of timber
per year (about one-tenth of our consumption) from the lands which in most other countries remain
barren wastes. Of these 1,900,000,000 there are near 600,000,000 cubic feet of saw timber and the
like, the rest being cord wood and mostiy firewood. From this it would appear that Germany
produces about 40 cubic feet of wood per head of population, and that of this about 12 cubic feet
are saw timber, etc., as against 350 and 50 cubic feet: for our consumption. But in spite of the
great economy of wood this amount of home-raised material does not satisfy the demand of the
home markets, and Germany with its 1,900,000,000 cubic feet is to-day the second greatest importer
of wood, particularly of saw timber, in the world.

The import in this case means the excess of import over export, since naturally in all countries
an export of some timber takes place.

Consumption of wood (million cubic feet).

Log timber, ete. Relative
, i a Produced Per cent impor:

Country. Total. aii, They), Imported. feeadnced i a imported. tance as

at home, |L™ported. import-

| ers. |

Germany .-------..--------- 2, 090 1,910 180 570 180 24 40
England -..-.---..--..----- 591 140 451 42 451 99 100
JOREIMNCS) < ccncsdpsscossoccoss 1,175 1, 075 100 200 100 33 22

AD, FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Per head of population, and comparing with the consumption in the United States, this .

becomes:
Consumption of wood per capita of population (cubic feet).

Relative
Import .
. 7 Produced = Log tim- | wood con-
Country. : Total. | at home. exer ber. sumption
eu per head.
Per cent.
Germany 44 40.5 3.8 15 12.7
England 15 3.6 11.5 13 4.3
France -- 32 30 2 8.3 3)
(Win bed eS fables See eeiee ete ieee tele ae eeeaea 350 | 349.7 0.3 a50 100

a This refers to lumber or sawed material alone.

Since the consumption by sawmills of large timber, particularly coniferous material, is still
increasing, it is clear that Germany has not nearly as much forest land as it needs, or else must
still improve greatly its methods of production. At present 26 per cent of its saw timber, etc.,
is imported.

The following figures give an idea of the extent and distribution of the German trade in
woods and wood manufactures:

Germany’s trade in wood and wood manufactures, 1892.

r
Country. Imports. Exports.
United States. ..-----.nenne---- eee n ee nnn wenn ne nee ee wenn nn = =n a@ $2, 418, 000 $1, 504, C00
IRIS). co noasaas soos coussoredsscososseesacoosessoosOas00S --| 026,908, 000 741, 000
Austria-Hungary..-.---------------.-------- 20 ---| ¢€16, 363, 000 1, 946, O0U
SINGH 5 os sncccce sscosossod sesessonssosSsessece o--- one a5, 222, 000 305, 000
INTEGER): asco cegoscaes soso woeersoorssasecsoasestecsoscoass sla 1, 796, 000 3, 405, 000
England -..-..-- noodseartonsaosascues ae 3 1, 313, 000 13, 449, 000
stole. son ScoodbooossondeseasonconssesosaS Sos coe) 822, 000 2, 546, 000
Norway -.----- ne SL ae seas Se eh 849, 000° 176, 000
Belgium -...--- soooc coaassoabesnsoss S05 as 730, C00 1, 469, 000
Denmark ....-.--- Sodoassannedesocesans on 20 56, 000 967, 000
Hamburg .-..--. aoooeesacsomacoadas oa6 3 124, 000 1, 551, 000
Switzerland - 220, 000 1, 822, 000
East India. e1, 114, 000 174, 000
Spain - -- F 1, 302, 000 354, 000
Argentin 9g 359, 000 129, 000
Brazil - 68, 000 384, 000
Porto Rico and Cuba.. h 352, (IN) pee tceconesscese
Motel eee et ee ee oh ae ee ene ee ae ee 60, 016, 000 30, 922, 000
a Lumber. ce Oak, etc., logs. e Largely rattan. g Largely quebracho.
U Pine logs. dSawed lumber. J Nearly all cork. h Mahogany, ete.

The prices paid by Germany have so far been very reasonable. Thus her imported lumber
cost in 1892 only $18.30 per thousand feet; firewood only $6.50 per cord; fine hewn timber
(mostly hard pine in long pieces) $30 per thousand feet, ete.

With the enormous resources in Huropean Russia and Sweden, part of which are not even
organized as yet, there is no apprehension of rapid advances in prices and no likelihood of
scarcity of supply.

FINANCIAL RESULTS OF FOREST MANAGEMENT.

Concerning the financial results of forest management only the records of the State forests
are accessible. It is clear that the income depends on the amount of timber cut and the prices
obtained. -If, therefore, the yearly cut has been increased, in some cases doubled, by good man-
agement since the beginning of this century, the income naturally is doubled. ‘To this increase in
amount of salable material there was added a general advance in prices, partly due to the
depreciation of money in general, but vastly increased by the improvements in transportation, for
which large sums have been expended, especially during the last fifty years.

The financial results of the various Government forest administrations vary considerably, as
is natural, since market conditions vary much. It is believed that all these administrations are
less profitable than they might be, being managed with great conservatism, and less for corre
financial result than for desirable economic results.

The following table exhibits in a brief manner the results of this kind of management, the
figures referring to conditions in 1890 or thereabout. The record for the city of Zurich is added

FINANCIAL RESULTS OF GERMAN FORESTS.

223

to show how an intensively managed small forest property under favorable conditions of market
compares with the more extensively managed larger forest areas:

Forestry statistics of certain German forest administrations, showing average cost of administration, gross and net income

per acre, 1890.

Revenue. Expenditures and revenues per acre of forest.
Expenditures.
a gio 5 | Ga | &
States. orest otal ex- a Beye} 5 ‘ S
area. penditure. Grosse Net. “ g £ 3 S g 2
eo SS 7 S oO
ag an o s - 5
os OR "a ad & n fe
& 2 E i=} R = iS ~
° 5) ca & I 3 ©
a me | ate a ‘S) oo a
|
- Acres. |
JARs cooasorooosoSbassccnE0b0R, 6, 000, 000 | $8, 000, 000 |$14, 000, 000 | $6,000,000 | $1.33 58 | $0.48 | $0.30) $0.14) $0.06 $0. 96
IEIVENBEY scossoconscqoKcescononRHes 2, 300,000 | 3,150,000 | 5,880,000 | 2,730, 000 1.37 53 . G4 37 -11 -l1 1.19
Wiurtvem berg aces eee nee nee eee 470,000 | 1,025,000 |} 2, 260, 000 1, 235, 000 2.17 45 | - 87 92 . 22 - 33 2. 63
SERMON cosososcesaqnseccqaaescoeed 416,000 | 1,040,000 | 2,750,000 | 1,710,500 2.50 37 | ~ 65 -81 a llal - 21 4.11
Badeneereeesese eee eee 235, 000 404,000 | 1, 090, 000 686, 000 1.54 40 32 - 83 -15 -12 2.90
CityofZurichoeeeese en eeeeteee 2, 760 14, 000 26, 000 12, 000 5. 00 54 1.14 2.10 16 1.14 4.40

The latest figures (1897) show a considerable increase in all directions, expenditures, gross,
and net income, over those prevailing ten years ago, and, as we will see further on in the discussion
of the conditions in the single States, these increases have been steady for a long period.

The following figures represent the income and expense for State forests of the entire Empire
and for the principal States as at present:

Financial results, 1897.
[Million dollars.]

Gross | Total Net
State forests: income. | expenses. | revenue.
CONMAIh 7G coapadpsacansacoeNeancconcoscisonodasbedaogocouecdos. ke 39, 361 18, 833 20, 528
IEE) Blesc cst caccneanoco=duomacHacosSon coaesoascrosoeeaceocesed 17, 445 9, 079 8, 366
TEE NERB EY coc. qo asso sonsencnogesemecoaanac osenaagboomoseocoueass 8. 100 3, 881 4,219
Wiurttem berg seseapssaces sete ene eee reer seen ee eeeeeeen oe 3, 019 1, 224 1, 795
[SEED My sacodaosatoanaboc cnn SesHcanecdosneesopebeosoubosdoadsoo 2, 865 1, 032 1, 833
LEE 5S ooaeesneinuacadccad SeenbnocD Acne aaguSusSEneEUEDoCoobEen 1, 337 618 719
1, 522 752 770
840 405 435
609 356 253

aThis item is a trifle below the truth, as the small principalities are here assumed to have no larger income than the average of the
Jarger States.

From this statement it appears that Germany has a yearly gross income of nearly $40,000,000
from its State forests, i. e., from one-third of its total forest area alone, while the value of its forest
products from the entire forest area (35,000,000 acres) may be estimated to sum up the handsome
total of over $107,000,000, or round $3 gross income for every acre under forest cover.

The following table illustrates the results of forest management in the several States. For
comparison the figures represent the yearly income and outlay per acre of total forest area, so that
for instance the gross income of $3.47 per acre for Germany means that the German State forests
yield each year about that sum for every acre of State forest, or $39,300,000 on the whole.

Yearly income and expenses per acre of forested area.

| | Expenses.
Cut of . |
se 2 Gross | As a per Net
SUES ONESIES. NW ood per income. Total ceut of | revenue.
acre. ota gross
income.
== = — :
Cubic feet.

(E.GMc Hil oooonibaoooeseconsonsqeEcesooneecesas 62 $3. 47 $1. 66 48 $1. 81
IPRUSSi eee 5+ 2. 66 1.38 2 1. 28
Bavania..-..- 72 3.71 1.78 48 1.93
Wurttemnberg 81 6.50 2. 64 40.5 3. 86
Saxony; 5-222. 90 6,90 2. 36 34 4.54
Badentrersesses sas 73 5. 82 2. 69 46.2 3.13
Alsace Lorraine. - 57 4.24 2.09 49.4 2.12,
ISIGER@)c bon ncneseancossecso 75 4.95 2.37 48 2.58
Mecklenburg-Schwerin 61 2,52 1.47 58 1.05

a This figure represents the average for 90 per cent of all State forests, and would be little changed if data for the other 10 per

cent were accessible.

224 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

From these figures it appears that the several governments expend on an average about
$1.66 per acre per year on their forest property, and that they obtain thereby a gross income of
$3.47 per acre and a net revenue of $1.81, or 52 per cent of the gross income per acre per year.
Considering the $1.81 as the interest on the value of the forest lands, and using the 3 per cent
interest rate as customary for large investments, these figures show that by proper management
the German States keep their poorest lands at a capital value of over $60 per acre; in other
words, that the German State forests pay $19,000,000 for labor and taxes, and in addition pay
interest at 3 per cent on a capital of $60 per acre. A large part of this land if deforested would
not support a farmer and would rapidly degenerate into mountain pasture and heath, which at
best could not be sold at over $5 per acre, and even then would prove more a detriment than
advantage to the community. It also appears from the above figures that the revenue is largely
in proportion to the expenses, that the forest which is best cared for also pays the best. The
same conclusion is reached by a study of the past. In 1850, when the total expenses per acre in
the Prussian forests were only 37 cents, the net income was only 46 cents; to-day it is $1.35 and
the net income $1.28, and the same holds for other States. Thus Saxony expended 80 cents
an acre per year in the beginning of this century and received 95 cents net income; to-day she
spends $2.36 and receives $4.54, or nearly fivefold. That these advances are not merely the
expression of higher prices for wood is clear from the fact that the average price of wood for the
Prussian cut (300,000,000 cubic feet) has advanced since 1850 from $3.27 per 100 cubic feet to only
$4.40, or 37 per cent, while the net income rose from 46 cents to $1.28, or 176 per cent.

Since so much has been argued as to the impossibilities and impracticability of employing
these better forestry methods elsewhere, and especially since the idea of sowing or planting forests
has at all times been ridiculed in the United States, it may be of interest to note just how Germany
expends her money in the woods.

The following figures present the various large items as per cent of the gross income. ‘Thus
the total expenses in the Prussian forest use up 50 per cent of the gross income, the logging alone
14.8 per cent, etc.

The expenses represented the following proportions of the total income in per cent:

Adminis- Planting,
Total ex- tration and |Cuttingand| sowing,
State forest of— ES protection |moving the| drainage

Pp BE (mostly timber. |work, wood

salaries). roads, etc.

Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent.
IPA) so coogeesconsososdnssoSsecoscsoccosSSsseccocs oz 20 14.8 7.5
Bavaria-..-- 48 24 20 6.6
Wurttember, 40.5 12 14.6 8.6
Saxony -.-.- 34 12 14.5 6.4
iBadeniss- seer = 46.2 9.4 17.7 10.4
«“Alsace-Lorraine 2 n=. = oe = nn eee 49.4 17 15.2 8.4
IICE Ge ase aS scab osocooceesbebESocorEae Ss teosecobeed 48 19 21 ais
Mecklenburg Schwerin. -......---...--.--.-....---- 47 7 17.5 9.2

The above figures are doubly interesting, since they show that in Saxony, the very State where
the timber is usually cut clean and the land restocked entirely by planting it with nursery stock,
the item of planting, ete., uses up the smallest per cent of the total income—6.4 per cent.

From this brief outline it will be apparent that forestry in its modern sense is not a new,
untried experiment in Germany; that the accurate official records of several States for the last
one hundred years prove conclusively that wherever a systematic, continuous effort has been made,
asin the case of all State forests, whether of large or small territories, the enterprise was successful ;
that it proved of great advantage to the country, furnished a handsome revenue where otherwise
no returns could be expected, led to the establishment of permanent woodworking industries, and
thus gave opportunity for labor and capital to be active, not spasmodically, not speculative, but
continuous and with assurance of success. This rule has, fortunately, not a single exception. To
be sure, isolated tracts away from railroad or water, sand dunes, and rocky promontories exist in
every State, and the management of these poor forest areas costs all the tract can bring and often
more; but the wood is needed, the dune or waste is a nuisance, and the State has found it profit-
able to convert it into forest, even though the direct revenue falls short of the expense.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—PRUSSIA. 225

FOREST ADMINISTRATION.

The care and active legislative consideration of the forest wealth dates back fully three cen-
turies. The socalled “Forstordnungen” (forest ordinances) of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries laid the foundation for the present’system, and in some States, like Wurttemberg, were
never repealed, but merely modified to adapt them to modern views of political economy. The
end of the seventeenth century brought much discussion into the subject of forest legislation, as
in all other public affairs, and even conservative Germany was led beyond the point of equilibrium,
and in most States the State supervision, especially of private forests, was abandoned. ‘This led
to the division and parceling of forest properties, and with the diminutive holding came misman-
agement and to considerable extent the complete devastation. This condition never affected any
of the State forests nor the majority of corporation forests, so that these properties continued on
their way to improvement. The wretched condition of many of the private forests is deplored,
exposed, discussed, but so far those States which gave the private forest free have been unable to
do more than to teach by example and to encourage, both means entirely ineffective when, as is
usually the case, the owner is too poor to handlea forest. What remains to be done is being done
as fast as means and opportunity offer. The State buys these half wastes, restocks them at great
expense, and thus public money pays for public folly.

To provide for a suitable and efficient forest service Germany has expended large sums in
promoting forestry education. At nine separate colleges men are prepared for this work, and the
forest manager (‘‘Oberfoerster,” ‘“Revierfoerster”) in any of the State forests is a college-bred
man with a general education about equivalent and similar to that leading to a degree of bachelor
of science in our better universities. The organization in all German States is similar—a central
office at the seat of government, manned by experienced foresters, acts as advisor to the govern-
ment, shapes the forest policy of the State, introduces all large measures of reform, etc., and acts
as court of appeal in important forest cases. In each province, if the State is large (if not, the
central office acts), a provincial forest office sees after the work of the province. This office
cooperates with the forest managers in preparing plans for every piece of forest land, in deter-
mining the cut of the year, and it also examines the work as well as the records of every district,
and acts as tribunal for the province in forest matters. But the real managers of the forests are
the “‘Oberfoerster” or “ Revierfoerster,” each of whom has on an average about 19,000 acres of
forest land for which he acts as responsible director. He lives in the forest, keeps himself
informed as to all details, plans for every piece of ground (his plans must be approved by his
superiors), and executes all plans. He determines where and when to cut, to plant, to build roads,
and it is he who sells the forest products. In all cases he has a number of assistants and guards
who act as police, and at the same time as foremen to the laborers, directing their work and
keeping their time, or measuring their cut or work. The district which the Oberfoerster manages
forms the unit im all records and transactions. All forest officials of any responsibility are
employed for life or good behavior, their requirements, duties and rights, rates of pay, pension,
ete., are all clearly set forth in the forest laws of every State.

In the following pages the conditions and results of forest management in the leading States
are fully set forth, based upon the latest official data available.

FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LEADING STATES.
PRUSSIA.

The Kingdom of Prussia, with its 30,000,060 people and an area of nearly 90,000,000 acres of
land, representing all natural conditions from the low coast plain to the precipitous mountain
system, with its busy centers of manufacture and commerce and its distant rural provinces,
stands out to-day as the strongest example of the great benefits of scientific forestry.

The forests of Prussia cover 8,192,505 hectares (about 20,300,000 acres), or 23.5 per cent of the
total area. This proportion of forest varies for different parts of the Kingdom from 16 per cent to
39 per cent; it is below the average of 23 per cent in seven provinces, of which only Schleswig-
Holstein falls below 16 per cent, and is above the average in six provinces, some of which, like
Brandenburg, belong to the densely populated portions of the Kingdom. The area relations

H. Doe. 181——15

226 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

have remained practically constant for about thirty years, there being then as now in forest
20,000,000 acres; cultivated 42,000,000 acres, or about twice as much cultivated land as forest.

Of the forest area, 8 per cent belongs to the crown, 30 to the state, 12.5 to villages or
municipalities, 1 to Stiftungen (Fonds), 2.7 to corporations, and 52.9 to private owners. This
ownership relation has changed a trifle during the last twenty years, the state and municipal
forests having gained a little over 1 per cent at the expense of the private and corporation forests.

Situated between latitude 49° to 55° N. and longitude 23° to 40° EH. and occupying portions of
the extensive coast plain along Baltic and North seas, as well as covering parts of nine separate
mountain chains, the forests of Prussia naturally display considerable variety. Of the total
20,000,000 acres, about half falls to the plain, one-fourth to the hilly, and one-fourth to the regular
mountain districts. The climate is moderately cold; the mean or average temperature for summer
is about 60° to 65° F., varying but little for the different parts of the Kingdom, and being quite
uniform for all three summer months. Spring and fall, the latter a trifle warmer and more even
than the former, have a mean temperature of about 45° F., while that of the winter months is
generally near the freezing point, the coldest weather for any one place and month being rarely
below 25° F.

Prussia is a moderately humid country. The records from thirty to seventy years indicate an
even distribution of precipitation, varying generally between 22 and 28 inches, reaching a height
of over 32 inches, and only 3 out of about 40 stations. With regard to the manner of management,
the kind of timber raised, and the financial results of the work, the State forests, for which alone
exact statistics exist, may serve.as examples, though the results are somewhat better in these
than in the forests of municipalities and private owners.

The total area of State forest in 1893 was 2,464,757 hectares, or about 6,750,000 acres. This ~
total area has remained almost unchanged for over thirty years. During this time many large
and small tracts have been sold or exchanged to round off the State holdings and to satisfy
private rights, many of which had become extremely troublesome and proven a great hindrance
in the proper management of the woods. These sales and exchanges were fully balanced by
purchases, especially of poor, unproductive private forests and heath lands, for which purpose
of late the State appropriates annually the large sum of 1,000,000 marks ($250,000), the policy of
increasing the State holdings having been steadily pursued for more than fifty years. About two-
thirds of the State forests are situated in the North Gemma plain, ee some occur in every
province of the Kingdom.

Of these State forests 97 per cent are regular timber forest, B aatiy pine and spruce, where
the final crop is intended to furnish saw timber, and every particular parcel is supposed to be
stocked with trees of nearly the same age. Only one-half of 1 per cent is managed as “ Plenter-
wald” with the method of selection where trees of all sizes and age mingle together on the same
parcel and the logging merely involves the selection of suitable sizes. One-half of 1 per cent is
standard coppice, where the bulk of the trees, commonly hard woods, are cut off while still small,
15 to 30 years old, while a small portion is left over to grow into larger sizes; and 1.7 per cent is
managed as coppice, largely oak coppice for tanbark, where the trees aly the sprouting hard
woods) are cut down every ten to twenty-five years, the wood being utilized chiefly as poles and
fuel. Of the timber forests, 62 per cent is stocked with pine, almost entirely Scotch pine (Pinus
sylvestris), furnishing hard pine similar to our red or Norway pine, 16 per cent 1s beech, 12 per cent
spruce, and nearly 6 per cent oak forest. Thus about 75 per cent of all Prussian State forests are
coniferous woods and only about 25 per cent stocked with hard woods, principally oak and beech.

In general the trees of the timber forests are cut at an age of about 100 years (a 100-year
rotation). At present 13 per cent of the area is stocked with trees over 100 years old; 13 per
cent, 81 to 100 years old; 14 per cent, 61 to 80 years old; 18 per cent, 41 to 60 years old; 19 per
cent, 21 to 40 years old; 19 per cent, 1 to 20 years old, and about 4 per cent are cut alana (recent
fellings) to be reforested at once.

SAXONY.

If Prussia may be regarded the best example of the success of rational forestry in a large
country, and Wurttemberg can be cited as proving the great value of a very conservative, almost
paternal, attitude of the State with regard to its forests, surely Saxony deserves the credit of
leading all other countries in the intensity of its forest management.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—SAXONY. 227

The total area of the State is 3,700,000 acres, and its population 3,182,000, and its total forest
area about 1,020,000 acres, or 27 per cent. Of this forest area, 173,889 hectares, or nearly 430,000
acres, equal to about 43 per cent of all forests of the country, belong to the State. The accurate
records for these State forests have been kept for more than eighty years, and fully illustrate the
development and growth of forestry in the Kingdom. The bulk of the forests are mountain forest;
91 per cent in conifers, mostly spruce, and only 9 per cent in,hard woods, most of which is beech;
while only about 4 per cent is nonproductive rock and water area.

As early as 1764 the State of Saxony began the improvement of the then rather dilapidated
forest properties. The real systematic work of forest survey and management, however, did not
begin until Heinrich Cotta (often called the father of modern forestry) began his noteworthy
efforts in 1811. Though the Government never appropriated special funds for the increase of its
forest holdings, the money which accrued from the sales of other State lands, as well as roadways,
building sites, etc., sufficed to increase the area during the past eighty years by fully 16 per cent,
the growth being a slow, steady one, fully illustrating the policy of the Government.

Thus the growth was: 1836 to 1846, 5,000 acres; 1846 to 1853, 5,000 acres; 1853 to 1863, 5,000
acres; 1863 to 1873, 17,200 acres; 1873 to 1883, 17,200 acres; 1883 to 1893, 12,560 acres.

As in all German States, nearly every piece of State forest was burdened by rights of private
persons and corporations, for which Saxony has paid, almost entirely in cash, the handsome price
of $1,300,000.

During the last sixty years the area stocked with conifers has steadily grown from about
310,000 to over 385,000 acres, and the area of beech and other hard woods except oak has been
proportionately diminished, the hard woods all told covering at present only about 14,000 acres, or
a little over 35 per cent of the forest area. The condition of the forests, though, of course, very
good at the start, if compared to ordinary wild woods, has steadily improved since 1817, in spite
of the fact that each decade a larger amount of wood was cut.

The following figures serve to illustrate this important fact and at the same time show that
there has not only been a steady increase in the total amount of wood standing and the amount
cut, but that the larger sizes form to-day a much greater per cent than formerly:

Per acre of forested area.
Total
amount of Amount cut.
wood cut
Years. each year toodororl| Amount.

(average B3inches | Timber | Standing
for each Total. thick (cord | (not cord | POF acre on
decade). wood and| wood). | ‘tal area.

timber).

M. cub. ft. | Cubic feet. | Oubicfeet.| Cubic feet. | Cubic feet.
60 40 7

1817-1826 .0 cnc ncaesscnnccncesanne--- PALM) GD eM Ncctsccitects
1827-1836 21, 800 61 39 WO) losenesgccass
1837-1846 ... 20, 400 56 36 TS | erator
1847-1853 -.. 23, 500 64 44 14 2, 120
1854-1863 ..- 26, 000 70 43 23 2, 280
1864-1873 ... 31, 600 82 60 37 2, 480
1874-1883 36, 600 90 66 47 2, 650
1884-1893 37, 400 90 68 54 2, 620

From these figures it appears that the cut on the whole has increased from 21,000,000 cubic
feet to 37,000,000, or by fully 57 per cent, and the cut per acre and year of total forest area from 60
cubic feet to 90 cubic feet, or exactly 50 per cent. Moreover, of the 90 cubic feet per acre in 1893
there were 68 cubic feet, or 75 per cent, wood over 3 inches (excluding stump wood), while from 1817
to 1826 only 66 per cent was over 3-inch stuff. But what indicates even more strongly the eftect
of better management is the fact that more than half of the cut of 1893 was sold, not as cord wood,
but as timber (saw timber, ete.), while even as late as 1865 only a fourth could thus be utilized,
though the manner of selection (inspection) has changed but little since that time. That with all
this intense utilization of the forest the standing timber should increase instead of becoming
exhausted is perhaps the strongest example of the success of scientific forestry and one which in
this country would scarcely be believed possible by most of the lumbermen and woodsmen.

Practically, all State forests are timber forests and the prevalent method of treatment has for
a long time been the “ kahlschlag” method of cutting, where all trees are cut at the harvest and
the bare area is at once planted with nursery stock. The expenses for cultural work all told,

228 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

including maintenance of nurseries, seed and plant purchases, as well as planting, amount to only
12 cents an acre per year, or 1.8 per cent of the gross income, while for the last twenty years more
than twice this sum has been expended for construction and improvement of roads, the great
value of which are nowhere more fully recognized than in busy Saxony.

The financial results are exhibited in the following table:

reneral financial results in the State forests of Saxony.

Per acre and year of total forest
Annual Annual area.
Years, income Annual net in-

e (gross). eat come. Income epee Net in

| (gross). I 7 come
TSI H18 26S eee eee en $649, 000 $297, 000 $352, 000 $1. $0. 80 $0. 95
1827-1836... -------- 25 692, 000 321, 000 371, 000 1 - 86 1. 00
1837-1846. .-_..--.-- 761, 000 342, 000 419, 000 2 . 90 1.12
1847-1853. .-.------- 976, 000 388, 000 588, 000 2.9 1.02 1.54
1854-1863. _.-.------ 1, 368, 000 443, 000 925, 000 3. Se 1.14 2.39
1864-1873-.....--..- 1, 986, 000 33, 000 1, 423, 000 4 1.39 3. 52
1874-1883. .-..------ --| 2,624, 000 875, 000 1, 749, 000 6. 2.08 4.15
1884-1893. .-..2..-----..-- 2, 890, 000 | 996,000 | 1,894, 000 6. 229) 4.37

The extraordinary results indicated in the above table can not entirely be credited to the
increase of wood prices and the general depreciation of money during this century; they are
primarily the monetary expression of the improvements indicated in the previous tables; they
mean increased sales, and sales of older, larger, and better material.

When it is considered that Saxony has taken in about $190,000,000 during the last fifty years
from a small area of rough lands (left waste in many countries, even in Europe), a tract of land
half the size of a good county in Wisconsin, the great advantage of a careful treatment of forest
areas must become clear to everyone. Considering the net income as the interest of the value of
the forest lands at the prevailing 3 per cent rate, the table shows that scientific care has increased
the value of these poor mountain lands from $100 to $150, whereas their deforestation would quickly
convert them into poor alpine pastures which would bankrupt their owners at $10 an acre. The
table also shows clearly that it is not accident, not merely a general improvement of the country,
but that it is careful, systematic work which has led to these improvements. When Saxony spent
ouly $1 on each acre of forest land she received only $1.54 net income; when she spent $2.39, her
net income was more than doubled, reaching during the ten years ending 1893 $4.37.

The following figures illustrate the nature and relative importance of the expenses per acre
as compared with the income, as well as the prices obtained for the material:

Price per Forad- | Felling iamiaye
cubic foot Wood Gar08 ministra- and a aes
Decade ending— of wood aris c Rat Be Yotal. | tion and| moving Reais i Roads.
over 3 GE A.C OTe protec- | timber, Oe me
inches. tion. ete. work.
Cents. | Cubic feet. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents.
IER a oandnsncoona abo oseDocooScoD oad 2 60 $0. 80 38 30 8 2
1836 aul 61 86 40 31 8 5
1846. 5.6 56 90 44 31 10 4
1853 - 6.0 64 1.02 47 37 | 11 5
1863. 7.4 70 114 49 45 13 6
1873. 8.1 82 1.39 54 62 10 11
1883. 9.4 90 2.08 T7 92 13 24
1893..... 9.9 90 2, 29) 93 95 14 26

From the above it appears that the prices of wood have doubled since 1817, but that during
the last twenty-five years they have remained practically constant. Part of this advance is due
to the general advance of prices, but part also to the improvement of the material sold. The
advance in the expenditure for administration since 1846 is due both to the advance in wages and
salaries generally (seen also in the advance of cutting expenses), but is also due to the greater
competence of the administration. Saxony, unlike Michigan and other States of this Unoin,
prefers to spend the money in protecting its forest rather than saving the expense and losing the
property. Of special interest is also the fact that even in this intensive management, where
almost every acre is reforested by planting with nursery stock, the cultural operations, including
drainage and kindred expenses have varied only within a few cents per acre, involving during

‘

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—BAVARIA. 229

the last thirty years generally less than 2 per cent of the gross income. To many in this land of
forest fires it may perhaps be remarkable that this general enemy and its destructions bave not
been of sufficient consequence to deserve compilation for this general statement. These mountain
forests of spruce and pine are simply not allowed to burn up.

The management of the forests of Saxony is similar to those of Prussia. While those of the
State are under conservative and most efticient care, those of private persons and corporations
are practically free; the only thing the State authorities do is to give good example, assist private
individuals, ete., by furnishing cheap plant material from the forest nurseries and to prepare plans
for the management of forests if such plans are asked and paid for.

BAVARIA.

The kingdom of Bavaria has a total area of about 18.8 million acres, or little more than half
that of the State of Wisconsin, supporting a population of about 5,589,000 people. It comprised
about 10,500,000 acres, or 56 per cent, of fields and gardens; 750,000 acres, or 4 per cent, of pasture
lands; 6,350,000 acres, or 34 per cent, of forest; 1,200,000 acres, or 6 per cent, of unproductive
land, largely mountains, roads, and water surfaces.

On the whole, this relation of areas has not changed materially in over thirty-five years, so
that in 1893 the total area of forest lands is given at about 6,200,000 acres, or at 35.1 per cent of
the entire land surface. ‘

Of these 6,200,000 acres there are: State forests, 2,160,000 acres, or 34.8 per cent; corpora-
tion forests, 780,000 acres, or 12.6 per cent; pond forests, 110,000 acres, or 1.7 per cent; private
forests, 3,150,000 acres, or 50.9 per cent.

The forest laws and forest organization resemble those of Baden and Wurttemberg. The
private forests are under State supervision, clearing of forest lands requires a permit, the mis-
management or devastation of a forest property is forbidden, and devastated forest areas are to
be reforested by the State and the expense charged to the forest. All corporation and Fonds
forests are under direct control of or are managed under control of the State forest authorities,
so that fully one-half the forest area of Bavaria is under careful treatment. As with all German
States, Bavaria constantly endeavors to increase the State holdings, and deteriorated and other
forest properties are bought up as opportunity offers. During the fifty years ending 1894, the
State purchased about 144,000 acres, at a cost of $5,577,000, or about $38 per acre. Besides this
increase of territory, the State has, during this same period, expended about $3,800,000 in the
purchase of easements or servitude, involving 10,716 separate cases of privileges to timber and
firewood. Nevertheless, there are still many of these privileges or servitudes, which require an
annual outlay of over $400,000 and thus represent a capital value of over $10,000,000.

The distribution of the forests over the kingdom is rather an even one. Six of the eight
provinces have over 30 per cent, the lowest 22 per cent of forest area, while the highest 38 per
cent. Of the entire forests area about 90 per cent is covered by timber forest, where the timber
is cut usually at about 100 to 120 years, and only 9.4 per cent as coppice and standard coppice.

Forty years ago the same was stocked as follows:

| Coppice

Timber | and Selection
forests. | standard forests.

4 | coppice.

Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent.
SUIMIG) WIN GonaouadaaooaqgEUeeseanacaAd scadsbegoosacoaasocncaaassea | 92 3
COR POTINON TO WANS) soooscesonsoocassacoRos ses ze 2=ccosEsoceaScOsseS [Pe eee tae Soh ey) 3
IGIVANIE) HOEEUS sooo posaogacassoscoToboorasaoso cS sconsocaononeaObcE> 72 12 | 14

True average for the whole area.........-----..-.-----.--------- _

78.5 | 12.7 8.4

The principal forest trees are the conifers, chiefly spruce. Of the total, about 46.2 per cent is
spruce and fir, 30 per cent pine, 9.7 per cent beech, 4 per cent oak (two-thirds oak-bark coppice),
2.3 per cent other hard-wood timber, 6.8 per cent other hard-wood coppice.

Thus, conifers represent about 77 per cent, the hard woods 23 per cent. The conifers are
primarily the trees of the mountains, the hard woods, beech particularly, being most abundant in

230 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULUURE.

the valley of the Rhine, the Palatinate, and Lower Franconia, where the beech forests cover as
high as 80 per cent of the forest area.

In 1860 the total cut for the kingdom was 275 million cubie feet of stem wood, 35 million cubic
feet of branch wood, 30 million cubic feet of stump wood, making a total of 340 rainen cubic feet,
and was divided as follows:

| Per cent | ~-
| of total | Yield per
eut. 3 :
Z. |——
| Cubic ft.
SUERTE Re peor corasonad aedooc Caabndboocne SsoacscnssococeunooadoncaanSascecegee 39 58
Corporation forests) es oees one ee ue eee ee a eee eee eee coe ae eee cere 14 46
LEXENVENIG) ATONE sooo cog ncnanen ov oeadda mada se cotoosacbinanntbecogsonSHancaoDesoESSS 46.5 | mel
Motall ss seve Leese seen uae ee See AEE cee ie sea neese | 100 51

For the State forests alone the cut in 1894 of wood over 3 inches, excluding branch and stump
wood, was 55 cubic feet per acre, and included saw and other timber, 55 million cubic feet; cord
wood (exclusive of branches and stumps), 64 million cubic feet.

The financial results for the 2.16 million acres of State forests were, in 1894: Total income,
$8,100,000, or $3.71 per acre; total expense, $3,881,000, or $1.78 per acre; net income, $4,219,000,
or $1.93 per acre.

Compared to other small States of Germany, particularly Saxony and Wurttemberg, the net
revenue per acre of forest is decidedly low; but it must not be forgotten that a considerable part
of these State forests is situated in the high Alps, where the difficulties of removing the timber
have so far been very great, and the value of timber consequently very small. Thus, fine timber
trees, worth $50 to $100 on the markets of the lower Rhine, are worth little over $1 apiece in these
Alpine districts.

As might be expected, the permanent improvements of the forests, particularly the construc-
tion of highways and roads, still require large sums every year. Thus, in 1894, Bavaria spent
over 1,000,000 marks ($250,000) on road construction.

The management of the forests is quite similar to that of the other German States. The
Revierforster, corresponding to the Prussian Oberforster, is the responsible manager of each
district. The districts are quite large; they include usually about 5,000 acres of State forest, so
that one Revierforster is usually 6 to 10 miles from his neighbor.

For all State and corporation forests, an area of a little over 3 million acres, there are 609
Revierforster or managers, 1,589 guards and assistants, besides 175 accountants and 107 superior
officials. The manager or Revierforster makes and executes the plans and keeps the records for
the woods of his district.

As in Wurttemberg, rational measures for the proper use and treatment of forests of Bavaria
date back to the beginning of the seventeenth century. As early as 1616 a forest law was
passed which embodied all that seemed at that time desirable. This law was modified, some
complications arising from the change of size and form of the kingdom, and also through the
radical views promulgated during the second half of the eighteenth century. On the whole,
however, Bavaria remained conservative, which in view of its large mountain forests must be
regarded as particularly fortunate.

The establishment of the forest school at Munich took place about 1789, when a general
reorganization occurred, and the functions of the forester changed from those of a hunter to those
of a producer of amalnen.

WURTTEMBERG.

This little State, with an area of about 4,820,000 acres, or about one-seventh that of
Wisconsin, and a population of little over 2,000,000 people, ranks among the most conservative as
well as the most successful among the commonwealths of Europe. In matters of forestry this
State began proper measures as early as 1614, when laws were inaugurated for the proper
treatment of forest properties, which remain fundamental to this day. ‘These early laws, which
made the proper care of forests obligatory to all and forbade both forest devastation and clearing
(the latter possible only on permit), were properly enforced and maintained even through the

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT——-WURTTEMBERG. 231

troublesome times of the end of the eighteenth century. They were remodeled and perfected to
suit modern conditions in 1875 and 1879 the law of the former date dealing with the forests of
public corporations, the latter with State and private forests in general.

The “forest police law” of 1879 requires:

(a) Clearing of forest requires a State permit; illegal clearing is punished with a fine.

(b) A neglected piece of forest shall not become waste land; the State authority sees to its
reforestation, with or without help of owner, the expenses to be charged to the forest.

(c) If the forester is convinced that a private owner cuts too much wood or otherwise
mismanages his forest, he is to warn the owner, and if this warning is not heeded the forest
authority may take in hand and manage the particular tract.

(ad) Owners of small tracts of forest can combine into associations and can place their
properties with municipal or even State forests for protection and management. In the latter
case they share the advantages of part of the municipal or communal forests which are managed
by State authorities.

The law of 1875 relating to the management and supervision of forests belonging to villages,
towns, and other public corporations places the forests under this category all under direct State
supervision; there being a special division of corporation or municipal forests in connection with
the State forest bureau. The law demands that all corporation forests be managed in accordance
with the principles of a continued supply, the same as the State forests. The corporation may
employ its own foresters, but these must be approved by the forest bureau and are responsible for
the proper execution of the plans of management. These plans are prepared by the foresters and
must be approved by the State forest authorities. If preferred, the corporation may leave the
management of its forests entirely to the State authorities. This is always done if a corporation
neglects to fill the position of its forester within a certain period after it becomes vacant. Where
the State forest authorities manage either corporation or private forest, the forest is charged with
8 cents per acre and year for this administration. This fee is generally less than it costs, so that
the State really has been making a sacrifice so far in providing a satisfactory TARE BEMSTE for
these forests.

As in all other German States, nearly every piece of forest land was formerly encumbered
with certain rights which entitled the holders to certain fixed amounts of firewood, timber, to
pasture live stock, ete. The law of 1848 obliges the holders of these rights to part with them if
the proprietor pays the value of the rights, the manner of ascertaining the value being set forth
in the law itself. Thus, for the right of cutting his supply of firewood in a forest the holder of
the right is paid a sum which if placed at 4 per cent interest will purchase as much wood as the
holder of the right used per year, the average of twelve seasons being the criterion. Of the
different rights or privileges, those concerning pasturage and the cutting of hay in the forests
are practically settled, and the State paid between 1873 and 1880 about 2,445,000 marks, or
$611,000, for these rights. For privileges of cutting wood and timber the State has expended
large sums. Even prior to 1848, between 1825 and 1850, forest land valued in the aggregate at
about $3,000,000, and between 1850 and 1880 over $500,000 more have been paid out to rid the
woods of these pestiferous rights, and yet as late as 1873 these rights were worth $32,000 per
year, or a capital (at 4 per cent interest) of $800,000.

In matters of taxation all forests are assessed according to the net revenue which aay
produce. Of the total area of the land, about 42 per cent is plow land, 18 per cent meadows and
pastures, 31 per cent forest, 3 per cent gardens and vineyards, and 2 per cent roads. In its
distribution over the State the forest forms 27 per cent of the area of the Nekar Kreis, 39 per
cent of the area of the Schwarzwald Kreis, 31 per cent of the area of the Jaxt Kreis, and 25 per
cent of the area of the Donau Kreis.

Of the total of about 1,470,000 acres of forest, 480,000, or 52 per cent, belong to the State;
470,000, or 32 per cent, to corporations, and 530,000, or 36 per cent, to individuals.

Of the corporation forests, nearly 360,000 acres are managed by State foresters; of the private
forests, 200,000 acres are held by the nobility, including the royal family.

Accurate statistics have been prepared so far only for the State forests and of late also for the
corporation forest, so that a more detailed description of these classes must serve as bly Sisson
for the whole.

MB FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The State forests of 480,000 acres oceupy parts of all four provinces of the country. About
92 per cent lie between 900 and 2,400 feet altitude; 42 per cent are stocked on leyel ground, 29 per
cent on gentle slopes, and about the same amount on steep declines. Over 40 per cent of these
forests are situated on sandy soils, and the rest are largely on the poor limestone soils of the Jura,
and only a small part on the drift formation skirting the north side of the Alps.

Of the State forest area there is covered by a pine growth of spruce, 28 per cent; beech, 20
per cent; fir, 9 per cent; pine, 7 per cent; mixed growth of conifers, 14 per cent; conifers and
hardwoods, 9 per cent; mixed hardwoods with oak, 7 per cent; mixed hardwoods without oak, 2
percent. Thus about 60 per cent is coniferous growth and only 30 per cent hardwoods, with about
9 per cent mixed timber. f

Fully 97 per cent of the State forests are managed by the timber forest system. The rotation is
for timber forest, 100 years for 74 per cent of the area; 80 years for 24 per cent of the area, and
120 years for 2 per cent of the area.

At the present (1894) the areas containing timber over 100 years old cover 11 per cent of the
area; $1 to 100 years old cover 15 per cent of the area; 61 to 80 years old, 15 per cent; 41 to 60
years old, 17 per cent; 21 to 40 years old, 19 per cent; 1 to 20 years old, 23 per cent; so that a
fairly regular distribution for a 100-year rotation exists.

These timber forests yield about 56! cubic feet per acre of timber from the main cut or harvest
and 11 cubic feet per acre from thinnings, making in all 67 cubic feet per acre and year for the entire
area. The 3 per cent managed in coppice and standard coppice cut only about 14 cubic feet per
acre and year.

The total cut for 1894 was, for wood over 3 inches thick: Oak, 1,200,000 cubic feet, or 3.9 per
cent; beech and some other hard woods, 7,900,000 cubic feet, or 26 per cent; conifers, 21,500,000
cubic feet, or 70 per cent.

This cut was composed of—

A.—Timber generally over 6 inches at the top end.

Amount. | Per cent.

Cubie fect.
| Oak 560, 000 3.8
420, 000 2.8
13, 800, 000 94
Total. seer eee seco ees 14, 780, 000 100

B.—Poles 2-6 inches, 3 feet from butt end.

Amount. /|Per cent.

Cubie feet.

JER Omits ete here te ene te onesie 1, 500 0.2
Beech and other hard woods. ------ 6, 400 -9
Conifersiaseenneee eee e eee cee 685, 000 99

Rotaleas seen ssoeecceee 692, 900 100
C.—Cordwood.
For

wooden | For firewood.
ware.

Oubicfeet.| Cubic fect.
OEM oconttanosoo nse secnrcssessosos 46, 000 590, 000
Beech and other hard woods --| 78,000 7, 400, 000
Conifers ia. e coerce enact ie ne ae ences 295, 000 6, 450, 000

The above figures, especially those for the yield in saw and other timber, clearly point out the
great advantage of the conifers over the hard woods. The same is also clearly illustrated by
the fact that the material sold as firewood forms only 40 per cent in conifers, but 94 per cent in

‘This means that if the timber is 100 years old, as most of it is, each acre of forest cuts 5,600 cubic feet of wood
at time of harvest.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—WURTTEMBERG. 23

beech and other hard woods, leaving out the oak. Moreover, the yields have been much greater
for conifers than beech.

Thus the yield for material over 3 inches thick in the hard woods was only 51 cubic feet per
acre and conifers 74 cubic feet per acre, while the average value of the two is about as 5 for beech
and other hard woods, leaving out oak, to 8 for coniferous wood, so that the yield in money per
acre for the two was more nearly 2.4 times as great for conifers as for hard woods.

The prices obtained for wood, generally delivered at the main roads, was: Timber, oak (white
oak), 25 cents per cubic foot; conifers, 11.7 cents per cubic foot. Cord wood, beech, 4.9 cents per
cubic foot, or $6.30 per cord; conifers, 3.6 cents per cubic foot, or $4.60 per cord.

The money results were for 1894 as follows:

(Grosssin COMe Ems e reese eee eee eee eee eee cee eee eee oO Lo O00 orm O0Iperscent

Motaliexsp ensemes-esrneree sees hese eae ct cease see eee eee eee eee 224 O00mors4 Opericent

ING ball COMO yaaa) sae a Macnee A acis oe een mee acini dels oan See eisisce = secede 1, 795, 000, or 60 per cent
or per acre of forest area:

(CARDED WAGON Go s5 sootSeusa S655 Kdag eon sede BGGes cdo pasa Coes. daue deaD boSa pean Sascce DA Rees aaae $5. 20

TI XPSNSES!s)ser rations eae ate) Mae any ee eae one Woe Speer Be Saas oleae wie aise 2.51

ING teIN COMME wer am atte eek le an bile la Se seen fas etmatey Sie ast eye eeea as cjeers al ein cS oe os aay ate emis OU OG)
this latter forming 59 per cent of the gross revenue.

Among the expenses were conspicuous:

Bellin oxo febim Were setaoi sew oys oe = Sac ieee rae Oe ee eee eee Scene ne se eeieeaie oad een oe eas 000

Aaminisiranonvandsprotecuioniee essere seeseeeee see eee ea oaaiee nese cineca eee eee sooo O00

Roads, new, and repair ----..-.. - 300 ea90.0050 25c0 dose oo00 Sd00.5890 Sega asco OSes ang s2es soa0RC 163, 000

SEBEGE Soe cesnesasteens Seco SER eRe eee ac Cce eee Coder ne SoCs e esac ie SAM ECS re GEBaNaaarcca = 103, 000

JPlonnhies CONNEC Onsos Sago aaseecnes Gsao sos Gaon es sECoOs ase SAS tose Ssoe SHecsaauSeeeretise 91, 000

The following figures illustrate the progress of the last eighty years, and at the same time
indicate how steadily this small area of otherwise almost valueless land has been made to furnish
an ample supply of timber and a handsome revenue:

Results of forest management in the State forests of Wurttemberg.

era > AL year.a
Wsguaver ia acre and year.a
Forest | 3 inches rice per .

MCPS area. | thick cut |cubicfoot.| Net Cutwood

| each year. income. ancien
M acres. |Mcubicfeet.| Cents. Cubicfeet.
Peete ary BISA) |[Ssdcodeues
sacsonstesas 02 ogscossaaas

15, 200 ~52 33

17, 200 - 64 37

17, 700 85 39

25, 000 1.78 55

25, 400 1.93 55

23, 800 1.11 52

26, 600 4.3 1.42 58

| 28, 400 7.5 3. 22 61

25, 300 9.7 3.54 54

26, 600 Whe) 2. 62 57

28, 800 10.7 4.21 61

28, 700 8.0 2. 66 60

29, 400 8.1 2. 90 61

30. 200 8.7 3. 33 63

30.600 | 9.3 3. 69 63

l

a Refers to entire forest area—swamp, water, surfaces, and all.

Most of the logging is done by the cubic foot or cord, and the prices are about 60 to 65 cents
per 100 cubic feet of coniferous and 80 cents per 100 for hard-wood timber, while cord wood is
generally worked up for about $1 per cord, including piling at roadway. All cut-over land is
at once reforested. During 1894, 275 acres were thus recovered by seeding and about 6,000 acres
by planting, the latter being thus generally the rule, especially in the coniferous districts. The
total expenses of cultural work were $88,000, or less than 3 per cent of the gross income.

The thinnings of the dense sapling timber involved during the year about 20,000 acres and
furnished about 240 cubic feet of wood per acre. Most of this material in the hard-wood district
has to be eut into inferior firewood, but the spruce, fir, and pine can usually be sold as poles and
pulp stuff, ete.

234 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Though largely stocked on sandy soils and composed of pine and other conifers, there are no
forest fires reported for the year. The administration of forests is in the hands of “ Revierfoerster,”
corresponding to the Prussian “Oberfoerster,” who prepare the plans and execute them, being
assisted by a body of subalterns. The district of a Revierfoerster covers about 10,000 acres of
forest, while the range or “hut” of the forest guard is generally about one-tenth of this. These
guards also serve as foremen in all cultural and felling operations, but the Revierfoerster is
supposed to keep fully informed on all details and preserve accurate record. Besides their duties
as State forest officers, it is expected that these men also keep themselves informed as to the
condition of private and other forests.

BADEN.

In this intensively cultivated little State, with a total area of only about 3,720,000 acres,
supporting a population of 1,656,000, the forests occupy over 37 per cent of the entire land surface.
The forest area has increased between 1880 and 1895 by over 50,000 acres, being in the latter
year 550,891 hectares, or about 1,360,000 acres. These forests were owned as follows:

Owner. | 1895. 1880.

SUAIG) cAceaconsseesiocs
Villages and towns -
Other corporations ....----.------------=+--------------
Private persons: |

237, 000 232, 000
620, 000 610, 000
47, 000 33, 000

| Acres. Acres.

Nobility ---.--.-----------------------------+------
QIGhiibe smb qaSces Scores ecessacsoccmeccamarosasaac

147,000 | 147, 000
310,000 | 285, 000

The forest policy of Baden has been conservative and there is no State in Germany where the
general conditions of the forests are better. Since all municipal and corporation forests are under
direct State control, being managed by the State forest authorities, about 910,000 acres, or over
60 per cent of all forests, enjoy a careful, conservative treatment, which insures to them the largest
possible return in wood and money. But even the private forests are under the supervision of
the State authorities, and though the private owner may use his forest very much as he pleases he
can in no way devastate or seriously injure it. Clearing requires a permit, also a complete clear-
ing cut, which latter is permitted only if the owner guarantees the reforestation of the denuded
area within a given time. Bare and neglected spots in forests must be restocked, and failure of
private owners to comply with the forest rules and laws leads to temporary management of the
forest by the State authorities, such management never to continue less than ten years. Of the
State forests there are about 93 per cent timber forest with a rotation of eighty to one hundred
and twenty years and only 7 per cent coppice and standard coppice intended to produce tanbark
and firewood. Of the corporation forests about 83 per cent are timber forest, so that of all the
forests under State management about 85 per cent are timber forest managed on long rotations
and furnishing large returns.

Of the State forests, 21 per cent are hardwoods, with little or no conifers; 30 per cent are
mixed forests, hardwoods, and conifers in about equal parts; 49 per cent are coniferous forests,
the bulk being stocked with spruce and fir, while only about 4 per cent of the total is stocked with
pine alone.

Full and accurate statistics existing only for the State forests, and, as far as the annual cut
is concerned, for corporation forests, the following figures apply only to about 60 per cent of the
forests of the country.

The eut for 1894 was in—

Corporation

State forests. forests.

A. From timber forests: Cubic feet. Cubic feet.
Main crop ---- 11, 100, 000 29,100, 000

Thinnings 4,500, 000 9, 800, 000
Stumps --------- 150, 000 330, 000
B. From coppice and standard coppice: :
WENN ONG) coeetbercaanecesadeccacsessozend 780, 000 7, 600, 000
UNIS) nage mescoadacaose sb cossescscess 30. 000 120, 000
Sint Shes aeace eo eseco sesso cesebaccedeer+|paeecorosuecos 50, 000

16, 560, 000 47, 000, 000

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—BADEN. 235

This same cut per acre of total forest area is—

Timber forest: Cubic feet.
PU Tp Se Abo S60 Sans COUR CHER Oas DEN AACISSS MOOSE REISE OSCR SE BAT eras is oo ea is aee Ie Ie Ri ge 74.
(Corporatlonpeeminee a eia ns misses ieien Savese ater eri epsieiain Gals Sree Senta ene arte lseeie ele ciais cay 71

Coppice and standard coppice: _

PUNO Sr eise Bee O DM GOO COCCI OSI RECS Hea eee aetna a a iP Sa OE Ee ate ae 53
Corporationwereercr tee cea ees Soc sae ie cio ee Se See cin eee wee EOE PER Ee ey ree certs 66

This enormous yield of nearly 64 million cubic feet of wood Baden has obtained from this
small area for many years without in the least decreasing the amount of standing timber or wood
capital. In the State forest the cut per acre since 1867 has never been less than 57 cubic feet per
year, or since 1885 has never fallen below 71 cubic feet, while twice since 1870 it has been over 85
cubic feet per acre and year.

Of the total of nearly 64 million cubic feet, 19,200,000 cubic feet are timber and other wood
not sold as fire or cord wood, and 29,100,000 cubic feet are cord wood over 3 inches.

The forests of Baden are generally well located, and the State has long realized the great
importance of good highways, so that the prices for timber are generally good and the income
from the woods correspondingly high.

The following prices in the woods were obtained in 1894:

or round timber long lengths and saw logs (per cubic foot) :

QOalkes. Saccfe see ee cele sae eae een se is Ce ae oes Sie Se in cieewpactein Geb at eecie ds $0.16 to $0. 39
BOO CN sce mses = Smee eee ee aaa cenle eiape neers se ee Seas eesees Shocmo ssa caseeakesed 5 165
‘Ash and maplereoseee ssa sas te see koarac aayes eects sais PaSuee den SSH OSSeOnOeS 24
Birch. f2'252 shes. same etesas alsesei oaisohie saevsacecasaeceesesees Seen checbeecesed . 08
IN en aac te eae See ae see mectnae es meena Some Se Sa ue cee .23
Otherihardwoo0dsisto-22 aa ase soso ae eas ase ee eeee ae aee Sanise ue scemerescne - 16
Conifers Mone istemsrac nase sions =) sesetaee ela ane seep ace oe ne eee eee nate e ate are -O7to .13
Conifers as aiwel 0 osm ey eee ee antec em ine ie net are eA etie Mgt nenU Sere irapalaes -llto .14
Coniferssmallwiary tlesiasce sacs telseiete claws oer cloaa ee ietete sacle ase -erecearasee - 08
For cord wood (per cord):
BEC ChE ewe cers aoa oat Mse metne aeree ne bter hee oh ease Mazak aia bslte ie yee eeeioaee cette 6.50 to 8.40
CBee ya eae Pte SR SC a) sae A RTE a ee a eR re Re 5. 80 to 10. 80
Otherthardwoodse 2252 eae sacra se ae sae nessa eleeee see eae eee eestor eles se 6.30 to 7.80
Coniferso- a2 aoe te saaen eats a gepeiniais s sleet Sa ernc einen se bate eoerescn escelseice 4.00to 4.80

The financial results in the State forests were as follows:
For the year 1894—

Moan Comepensaen teense ae eee elements sats cee cto cee esete aie Seite roe a ee ce cis (steiserm ites ate $1, 337, 000

Motaliexpenses!: ace seca sss aeee ts oc aaeeiee <sclescelce wales ssecen ee sare seeds accel ena eia 618, 000

INetiincomessast sobre ae ae se site eles a avee sels amiss eee Sees Sava cn cinis ae sleminersven ee 719, 000
Or per acre of forest-stocked area—

Grossi Comes essen n\o = aie se mle ce steciabiseia sisted ee isieciniteecreeneeses mes $5. 82, or 100 per cent

IE SPOUSES pe oet eee rae lene hee ers ect oe aac cet te ere eens eee meee aes 2.69, or 46.2 per cent

Neti COMO pee eee eee ese ae nee ee en eae sae nee sete a aeei ae Veen ronoMOMOoTeI pel Cont

How steadily this handsome revenue has Been re cceiveae may be inferred from the fact that
during the twenty-eight years ending 1894 the gross income has never been below $4.24 per acre;
that for thirteen out of the twenty-eight years it varied between $4.24 and $5; that twelve years
it was between $5 and $6, and three years above $6 per acre.

The following figures show this relation for the period 1881 to 1894:

Production and cost per acre of forested area.

|
The ex-
Annual » Annual A
Year. Cut. | income Sank __ net oeeth aS
(gross). income. |i \¢ome—
|
Cubicfeet. Per cent.
59 $4. 08 $2.13 $1. 94 52
62 4.41 2.17 2.24 49
67 4.80 2.24 2.55 47
67 4, 87 2.30 2.57 47
71 5.15 2.34 2. 80 45
74 5. 23 2.47 2.76 47
85 5,33 2, 60 2.73 49
75 5.16 2.50 2.65 49
76 5. 48 2.59 2. 88 47
80 5. 85 2.60 3.25 44
74 5. 65 2. 58 3. 06 46
73 5.73 2.65 3.08 46
12 6, 07 2. 64 3. 42 43
73 5. 82 2. 69 3.13 46

236 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Considering the fact that these forests, in the aggregate only about as large as ten townships,
are scattered over considerable area, and thus their protection and management is rendered much
more costly than if in more compact form, these results are certainly most remarkable.

Of the expenses, those of special interest are:

IL@EraiNS (GEMGNENIN) Cocco ssc sono esbe cece sass sese case Sass eos oaso Sosa soso cess sasassse cscs S2BIL, (IM)
AGInTNTGHTIPITIOM soso acne ccod ces sacs cose sone coos eeoels sae ce seen ote saisncs Kenclse aeleeeeeses 132, 000
Protection= <a. -224 22 fSseeae oe eine cae aes o See ee eee ale see Paeie = Se ele ale Sennoteints see aes OOO,
Roads, new: and repainisss. 2. ee essen oe eee mee eee eats eae Se Reel sees oes eee ee EOO0
Sowing, planting, ete 48 cmm = nici sacicloe one ecetee miele minereeale eieiefo clove ale eine wee snreisejseeeiaeer= 42. 000

As stated before, wherever the forest is cut, reforestation is at once begun. As in other
States, part of this is carried on by the process of natural regeneration, where the old trees are
never entirely removed until they have been made to seed the ground, but part is also done by
artificial sowing and planting. In 1894 about 125 acres were seeded anew; 65 acres were seeded
to correct failures of former years; 760 acres were planted for the first time, and about 850 acres
of former failures were corrected.

The work of seeding costs $11.95 per acre, the planting $11.43 per acre, which shows that it
is not by a penny-wise and pound-foolish system of retrenchment that the most extraordinary
results of the Baden forest management are attained.

ALSACE AND LORRAINE.

These two small provinces, formerly under French rule, have an area of about 3,600,000 acres
and a population of about 1,500,000, and are under the Imperial Government. The existing forest
laws of these provinces were left in torce on their transfer to Germany, so that now, as in former
times, the French “code forestier” of 1827 and some subsequent dates decide in all affairs
concerning the forests. The laws in the main are like those of Baden; they restrict the right
of the private owner to a proper use of the forest and forbid all devastation; any clearing requires
a State permit, and with regard to protection against fire, insects, etc., they are subject to the
ordinary forest police regulations. As in Baden, the forests of corporations are managed by State
authorities, so that a well-planned forestry system applies to all forests except those of private
owners, and even these are under rigid supervision and partial control.

The total area covered by forest is 444,466 hectares, or about 1,100,000 acres, forming about
30 per cent of the entire land surface. Of this forest area there belong to the State 340,000
aeres, or 31 per cent; villages and towns, 490,000 acres, or 45 per cent; private owners, 220,000
acres, or 20 per cent. Besides these there are about 40,000 acres of land belonging jointly to the
State and villages and 6,000 acres belonging to corporations other than municipalities.

Since all forests, except those of private owners, are under the management of the State
forest authorities, fully 80 per cent of the forests of these provinces are in most excellent condition.
Though the exact proportion has not been ascertained, it may be said that about 60 per cent of
the forests are hardwoods, largely beech and oak, and only 40 per cent conifers.

The total cut for 1891 was—

Cubic feet.

Hor State forests: foi. sks ccs a okt Goes nee en aie Seer Celele cieiee Se ie as ee oes ne eee eae 21, 400, 000
HMorCOLPOLa lon! <2 \isaSas oe xh see te Se ee eee ac ee eee Seee eee eee eee 33, 000, 000
MROG A SACS Sacco Secs See eee ee al ee 0a Ue eta eR 54, 400, 000

of which about 17,500,000 cubic feet was nutzholz, or timber not sold as cord wood or firewood.
Of the 21,000,000 cubic feet of wood cut in the State forests there were in 1891:

« Cord and : Per cent
Kind of wood. Timber other Total of of total
(nutzholz). fuemank wood. ents

Cubic feet. Cubic feet. Oubie feet.
Qalete = Sosnloate Scissntecseoe asso ceccecccaseseeces 1, 600, 000 2, 100, 000 3, 700, 000 18
Beech with other little hardwood: 800, 000 8, 300, 000 9, 100, 000 43
Gontfersvomacer cee rene en eee coe eeeeee 5, 500, 000 2, 700, 000 8, 200, 000 39

a EEE ee

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—ALSACE-LORRAINE. 237

The average price per cubic foot was:

For timber or work wood— Cents.
(Ole Jacbuld Geeta Sau SE OBOE Cree DOO Ser er MER Cae nee Ca Ser eer ees ete Oe SO AS ECi CeCe ee eke seem 17
TBC OC Lee eee ey ae a SS cp SE tee ay I Sek Flee Nts eo Peg ea aU Not ad 11
(CIMT So ooeoquo Se cuSandbS VaecropESnumoUe bn Oonced cobpeE GaDbopaSuonucS er eetetenforre le teeheicieieaicie 8.5

For firewood—
Oa ee aye apenas a late etoe ciate ste wisiwicialeie Sa cicia Ricleis = Cepepeeie sei sjareinie eoiets me aera ee eee etc ctsie acc tie! 53565)
LEGGE Ns Sees oneSooUsaSOseS TINE shetnial ere) Sls /ate eva wis = stele Bere eytiae eee ae eens os ee eee cheeiae eee Gar
Womens eee epee eee Sere eisieks wistecic owing bi evets siete ua cielo ste s cial arciate sig eieiercleusento erersieiere Mewes eeiensiow sya 4,2

On the whole the State received 7.2 cents per cubic foot for all its timber and firewood.
Among the improvements made during the year the items of roadmaking and reforestation are
most conspicuous.

In the State forests alone about 1,500 acres were seeded, generally at a cost of $2 to $3 per
acre, the lowest being 60 cents; while in few cases the cost exceeded $4 per acre. About 3,200
acres were planted, 1,280 acres for the first time, the rest being corrections of former failures.
Planting largely with hardwoods cost on an average about $5.50 per acre. Roadmaking is
vigorously pursued, as much of the land is quite rough, and well-planned, permanent, macadamized
roads have proven to be among the best investments. In some of the districts forest railways
have also been constructed.

The final results during 1891 were as follows:

iin COME NLLOME WO OG mem merice a se aaa coir orale ne eee eee ye awe Seb kre Sates eh oe ress ae $1, 523, 000
QUIET POROGUNCUD so25c6 60050 seeds sadEsS coco ene SORES ASS5 coda HeSSec OnsEes boobs cogs tees 22, 000
(CHAS scteco cose eso coodceSose Soe osa sou SeadoNSESo base Donnon cede SOSasaodseq CbESSeO So56 15, 000

NOW wc cane Soecnd codé Secsc0 coce Sade Sco cot edseos Gens Sscdqcce. S555 adoSsqesescces 1, 560, 000

Of this $54,000 is figured for wood, which was given to persons holding servitude rights.
The expenses were:

Running expenses—

Gentralsforestibureaultcs.a-c mec cece ecesoee aie cit ena coe sisceecciecl. Uenicecicce s Paes $26, 000
MberioSershersisacee cee eerie we elo erect heise ce ae de Sere Se cians Skislec teltievsecicnaee ee were 97, 000
(GHERTGLS an Satis BOGAN E Ase SOR ee eS RE RE RB re Ce InN DaTeee Oi Us De 116, 000
LOGUE oo 6 sad cose coeddo cease ecco couucs Seen cess 5S0u cesses, cae cboSSd c5e5s5q55e60 231, 000
(Road mallcin Oeste eee eee er eS ea SeyeS cise cps Se cieine Sacisteteisieteieieja secleeeic en ceases 47, 000
THIEN, SOWA, GIRNINOR, GUC ceec cad cs6os5 beaebe CooSes codons sdcceD sean seaseS se5e 47, 000
OW NET? TRTATMINE CXGIOMEDS acocce Seas osg5 SanboocosnEs StecdabosnsbSedesoaeoSdS ragses SESS 128, 000
PEAS CI VOMTTE coccos coco 300s Seva usseoobege coe eou CoRodS sdesseoSds cbcsos conse oooces 60, 000
TOMILEPOON EO ass5 cesmen cacdo pbodos Good selem | adooSUBEaeTooodboe decsromscossac 752, 000

INCH GAROTS MNCOWAC so cacs scones Goobco SodnS0 Obeo do Sme BDH enon sceccasesnooccasse5 1, 522, 000
INGUINENENTO Gocenaus ooo uo SoCn Go enoS secu coos DESor Dee oarSonoereoresseroccomese 770, 000

The following figures present the course of these relations for the decade ending 1891:

Financial results for the State forests in Alsace-Lorraine.

Cut per acre and | onacrolotitotalenc
- year. | Per acre of total area | Price of
War, ross in- = wood per
Pens Wood a Gross in- Ex- Net in- | cubic
over 3 Total. 5 as sacl foot.
aches come. | penses. come,
Cubicfeet.| Cubic feet. Cents.
$1, 337, 000 43 | 55 $3.77 $2. 20 $1.55 6.1
1, 370, 000 2 55 3. 86 2.04 1.81 | 6.5
1, 429, 000 45 61 4.03 2. 04 1.97 6.2
1, 301, 000 45 59 3.67 2. 05 1.61 5.8
1, 254, 000 45 59 3. 62 2.01 1.49 a 1
1, 308, 000 48 62 3. 67 2.06 1.59 5.95
1, 335, 000. 45 57 3.74 1.98 1. 74 6.0
1, 371, 000 46 58 3, 84 2. 08 1.74 6.2
1, 477, 000 49 61 4.12 2.06 2. OF 6.5
1, 522, 000 46 56 4.24 2.09 2.12) 7.1

238 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The net income, in spite of large yields in wood material and a fairly good market, is com-
paratively small, though slightly improving. In 1886, when this income was still lower, a special
investigation was undertaken, to set forth the reasons of this small net revenue and to suggest
improvement. All oberfoersters of note contributed their opinions, and on the whole good results
seem to have come from their suggestions for improvement. The chief trouble evidently lies in
the great proportion of hardwoods, which leads to a large production of firewood and a small
proportion of timber or work wood. Thus 66 per cent of all oak, 91 per cent of all beech, and 83
per cent of all other hardwoods had to be sold as cord and fire wood, bringing generally about 5
cents per cubic foot solid, or about $5 per cord, while for the coniferous woods only 36 per cent
has to be sacrificed as cord wood, the rest being sold as timber for just twice the amount obtained
for firewood.

This condition of affairs is materially aggravated by tbe general use of coal as fuel and the
rejection of beech as tie timber on railways, etc. This condition of affairs in Alsace-Lorraine is of
great interest in considering the forest conditions of the United States. It shows evidently that
it is the coniferous timbers which must be looked to as the important ones, and that even large
supplies of hardwoods can not be expected to replace such staples as white pine or spruce.

METHODS OF GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT.

The following brief description of the methods of German forest management, by which the
results described have been attained, was originally prepared in connection with an exhibit at the
World’s Fair, which the chief of the Division of Forestry collected and installed upon the invita-
tion and at the expense of the German Government, and is mainly reprinted with additions from
his annual report for 1893. The description having been based upon the objects exhibited no
attempt has been made to alter the form.

MAP WORK AND FOREST DISTRICTING.

The first requirement in the management of any property is that all its conditions should be
known and recorded; hence a topographic survey of the forest district to be placed under man-
agement is the first requisite. Such survey refers not only to the boundaries and topographical
features of the district itself, but also to the surroundings, especially with reference to connections
with markets. Finally, for government forests, the geographical position of the forest areas in
general should be grouped according to ownership. . Maps of the latter description were exhibited
from the Governments of Bavaria and of Wurttemberg.

These show in three different colors the forest areas belonging to the Government, to commu-
nities and institutions, and to private owners. From these it could be seen not only that the three
classes of proprietors share about equally in the ownership of the forest area, but that the
Government owns mainly the forests on the mountains, where forest management must be carried
on not for profit, but for indirect benefits in the preservation of favorable soil and water conditions,
which therefore makes the permanent, well-organized management “by and for the people”
necessary. Contrary to the notion to which currency is so often given in the United States, the
various governments of Germany do not own more than 35 per cent, exercising partial control (so
as to prevent destruction and waste) over only 15 per cent in the hands of communities and
institutions, and leaving the balance of 50 per cent of the forest area in private hands almost
entirely without restriction.

Sometimes the contours of the country are also indicated on the maps, which serve the useful
economic purpose of permitting ready reference of the forest areas to the topography. As an
instance of such work there was shown a relief map of Hesse. On this the forest areas were
indicated in green color.

For the sake of orderly administration, the whole country is separated into forest divisions or
inspections (Sometimes both), each of which forms a separate unit of administration.

It is to be understood that we are now speaking only of the Government forests, which are
under a uniform general administration.

The administration of the Government forests is usually assigned either to the finance

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—SURVEY. 239

department (as in Bavaria) or to the department of agriculture and forestry (as in Prussia), with
one director and council directly in charge under the supervision of the minister or secretary.
The position of the director (Oberlandforstmeister) corresponds somewhat to that of our Com-
missioner of the General Land Office, except that, an extensive technical knowledge being needed
in the position, the incumbent is promoted through all positions from the lower grades. Again,
each forest division is placed under a separate administrative body consisting of an administrator
(Oberforstmeister) with a council of forest inspectors (Forstmeister), each of whom has supervision
of a number of the final units of administration, the forest districts (Oberfoersterei, Forstamt).
The district officer (Oberfoerster, Revierfoerster, ete.), with a number of assistants, rangers
(Foerster), and guards (Schutzbeamte), is then the manager and executive officer in the forest
itself, while the higher supervising and inspecting officials are located at the seats of government.

SURVEY OF THE FOREST DISTRICT.

The survey of each forest district is carried out to the utmost minutiz.

In Prussia the maps of the districts are made on the scale of 1:5,000 in portfolio sheets, repre-
senting a careful survey by theodolite of the boundaries of the district, the permanent differences
of soiland occupancy (roads, waters, fields, meadows, moors, ete.), and the division of the district
into smaller units of management. This kind of map, of which only three copies are made, is
then, for purposes of use in daily routine, reduced to a scale of 1:25,000 on one sheet, and printed.
The first matter of interest that strikes us on these blank or base maps is the division lines by
which the district is divided into parcels or compartments. In the plain these lines divide the
district into regular oblong compartments (Jagen) of about 60 to 75 acres each, with sides of 100
and 200 yards, respectively, separated by openings or avenues which we may call “rides” (Gestell,
Schneisse), so that the whole makes the appearance very much like the map of an American city
regularly divided into blocks. ‘The rides (from 8 to 40 rods wide) running east and west and north
and south are lettered, the former, broader ones (main avenues) with capital letters, the latter
(side avenues) with small letters, while the compartments are numbered. In the forest itself at
each corner a monument of wood or stone indicates the letters of the rides and numbers of the
compartments, rendering it easy to find one’s way or direct any laborer to any place in the forest.
The rides are often used as roads and serve also the purpose of checking fires, ete.

In the hill and mountain districts this regular division becomes impracticable and the lines of
compartments conform to the contour, while the opening of the avenues is restricted to those
which can be readily transformed into roads; roads, indeed, determining the division lines
wherever practicable.

In hill or mountain districts topographic or contour maps become necessary, especially for the
purpose of rational road construction, a matter on which in modern times great stress is laid and
to which we shall refer later on more in detail. Such contour maps are sometimes executed in
papier-maché or gypsum models for readier reference.

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT.

The fundamental principles upon which the German Government forests and most of the
communal and private forests are managed is briefly expressed in the idea that the forest growth
is to be treated as a crop to be reproduced as soon as harvested, involving continuity of crops.
To carry this principle into effect most advantageously the management must take care to husband
the natural forces and conditions upon which thrifty forest growth relies, which leads to the
second principle, that of highest efficiency of crops, or the two leading principles combined, to
produce the largest amounts of material (or revenue) in the shortest time without impairing the
condition and capacity for reproduction of the forest, perpetuating valuable forest growth wher-
ever this is the best crop or where soil conditions make a forest cover desirable. In government
forests in addition the financial principle prevails of treating the forest as a permanently invested
capital, from which only the interest is to be used, making the amount harvested or the revenue
derived to be as nearly alike from year to year or from period to period, and as nearly correspond-
ing to the annual accretion, as it is possible to make them.

240 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The present Oberlandforstmeister, or director, of the Prussian forest department uses the
following language in laying down the principles upon which the Government manages its forests:

The Prussian State forest administration does not accede to the principles of a continuous highest soil rent
based upon compound interest calculations, but believes, in contradistinction to private forest management, that it
can not avoid the obligation in the management of the State forests of keeping in view the welfare of the whole
community of citizens, and therein taking into consideration the need for continued supply of wood and other forest
products as well as the other objects to which in so many directions the forest is subservient. The administration
does not consider itself entitled to pursue a one-sided financial policy, least of all to submit the Government forests
to a pure money-making management strictly based on capital and interest calculations, but considers it its duty to
so manage the forests as a patrimony belonging to the whole nation that the present generation may be benefited by
the highest possible usufruct in satisfying its wants and deriving the protection which the forest renders, and that
to future generations may be secured at least as large usufruct of the same kind.

To carry out these principles the intimate knowledge of the conditions of the property,
referred to above, is necessary and is obtained by a careful forest survey as a basis for a systematic
administration and forest regulation.

These data of this forest survey are not only recorded in writing but such as can be readily
noted are finally placed upon the blank maps described above, together with the results of the
forest regulation described further on, so that the manager can readily overlook the details of his
district and the propositions for its management.' This information—after further subdivision of
the compartments where needed on account of differences in soil conditions or growth—is given by
means of different colors, difference in shade, numbers, figures, marks, and signs. These maps,
which are prepared after a most painstaking forest survey, and which we may call ‘‘manager’s
map” (Plate XX XIJ), show at a glance not only the nature of soil conditions and what the prin-
cipal kind of timber and its admixtures are in each compartment or subdivision, but also how old
the growth; whether it is to be treated as a coppice, standard coppice, or timber forest; at what
period in the rotation it is to be cut, and such notes as the manager himself may add from year
to year, as, for instance, the yearly fellings, plantings, movable nurseries, new road projects, ete.

One of the most instructive exhibits in this direction was that showing the changes in Timlitz
forest, Saxony. The map of the district in 1822 presented about the condition of one of our
mismanaged Michigan forests of pine and hard woods mixed, from which all the good timber had
been culled, leaving it to inferior kinds with few groups of straggling pines and more valuable
hard woods, without symmetry or system in the distribution of kinds or age classes. At the same
time a map was constructed showing ideally how the forest was to look after eighty years’ well-
planned management. We can then follow in the maps made every ten or twenty years the
changes in appearance under the hand of the forester. During the management new information
and experience have dictated modifications of the original working plan, giving rise to a new
manager’s map, the approach to which appearing in the timber map for 1885 leaves no doubt that
at the end of the period of regulation we will have a well-grown pine forest, with deciduous trees
mixed in or confined to the more suitable situations, so disposed over the area that annually or
periodically the same amount, or nearly so, of valuable material can be harvested.

The painstaking methods of surveying, describing, measuring, calculating, planning, book-
keeping, and repeated revising of all the work from decade to decade were shown in the regulation
work of the district of Hinternah, Prussia, contained in six large folio volumes of manuscript,
continued from the year 1822 to the last revision in 1890. We can only briefly indicate what this
work involves, which was briefly summarized in the following exhibit:

FOREST REGULATION.

PROGRESS OF WORK REQUIRED TO BRING FOREST AREAS UNDER RATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT.

I. Geodetic and topographic survey and mapping.

Il. Forest survey in connection with I, noting all areas distinguished by quality of soil, composition, and age of
timber; general description of forest conditions, of climatic conditions, of surrounding conditions, of
possible dangers, of market conditions, means of transportation, etc.

1Each State government pursues somewhat different methods of mapping. Sometimes two sets of maps are
made, one to show the conditions, which might then be called a timber map, the other to show the working plan;
but these are now mostly combined into one.

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GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—FOREST REGULATION. 241

III. Forest districting. Division of forest into parcels or lots and aggregation of lots into blocks and ranges. In the
plain, rectangular lots, divided by cleared lines called rides (Gestell), are customary ; in hilly and mountainous
country division lines follow the COREE NON of soil. Differences of soil or character of growth within lots
give rise to formation of sublots.

IV. Forest yield valuation (assessment). Ascertaining amounts of timber standing, rate of growth on various sites,
determining capability of production and future yield in material and money.

V. Determining plan of management (working plans). General plan for all time; special plans for period of ten to
twenty years. Determining length of rotation; amounts annually to be cut, designating lots to be cut,
with a view to obtaining favorable distribution of age classes; thinnings to be made; methods to-be used
in felling and cultures.

METHODS OF FOREST REGULATION.

In Prussia it was Frederick the Great who first ordered a regulated administration of the
Government forests soon after the beginning of his reign. The first simple prescriptions of
dividing the forests into equal areas and cutting every year a proportionate area were followed up
with more elaborate ordinances, having in view a closer equalization of the amounts of material
harvested and revenues obtained, besides other considerations of management for continuity, until
finally the basis for present methods of regulation was reached in the ordinance of 1836, since
modified in its details, under which “the preservation, revision, and perfection of the work of
forest valuation and regulation” is carried on.

The modus operandi, similar in principle in all Government forest administrations, is about as
follows:

Let us assume that the Government has purchased ' a new forest district, comprising, say,
10,000 acres, the average size of the existing districts. The necessary surveys and blank maps,
as explained, have been made and the boundaries carefully established in the field, the division
into compartments or parcels, larger or smaller according to the need of a more or less intensive
management, have been noted on the maps and marked on the ground (the avenues perhaps
partially opened), and for the sake of satisfactory administration a number of the parcels have
been combined into subdistricts, “‘ blocks,” or ranges; and thus the first—purely geometrical—
basis for a rational administration has been established. Now the arithmetical basis is to be
ascertained. For this, in the first place, a general description of the district in its present
condition is desirable, parts of which, however, can be furnished only after the more thorough
measurements described later. Such a description recites all needful knowledge regarding the
extent, the manner of division, the boundaries, and the legal rights. Next follows a description
in general terms of topography, climate, and soil conditions, and of the forest growth, being a
condensation of the special description by parcels. The manner of treatment hitherto, the market
conditions, current market prices, and usual wages are noted. Then, after recital of the processes
and methods by which the information in the following detail work has been obtained, the principles
adopted for the management and its motivation are stated, forming a general guide for the manager
for all time.

These principles are formulated by a commission after sufficient general knowledge of the
condition of the district is obtained. In this important part of the general description not only
the territorial partition of the district into compartments and blocks or ranges is determined, and
reasons given for it, but also the system of management for each block or parts of blocks, | whether

feces for Romeets al vary, of course, aruoariling to their location eval condition, just as in our country. In 1819
Bavaria sold 27,000 acres of her State forests at $68 per acre. In Prussia the Government has lately (1881-1887) paid
prices ranging from $5 to $60 per acre, and for a round 70,000 acres the price per acre was $21 average. These were
mostly devastated waste lands in the northern plain. In Thuringia, where prices for wood and land are higher, the
price for forest land is from $20 to $60 and as high as $80. These prices do not, of course, include any timber growth,
the value of which, if present, is calculated according to well-known careful methods of determininy ‘expectation
values.” According to a calculation by Dr. J. Lehr, based on the net income as representing interest at a3 per cent
rate, and assuming a ninety-year rotation of the forest growth for the entire German Empire, the forest land was
worth $25 per acre and the wood on it $156 per acre.

H. Doe. 181——16

242 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

coppice, standard coppice, timber forest, etc.,! and the length of rotation—i. e., the time within
which a block is to be cut over and reproduced; furthermore, the principles according to which
the fellings are to progress, reproduction is to be secured, thinnings are to be made, the annual
yield to be expected, and the time within which the forest is to be brought into a rcgular system-
atic order of management—in short, all the general framework of the management as far as
determining a set policy into which the special working plans should fit. Before this report can
be made final, however, the work of the valuator or examiner must have proceeded to some extent.

VALUATION WORK.

The valuator or estimator, upon whose work as a basis the general and special working plans
depend, begins by examining and describing briefly the conditions of the soil, its productive
capacity, and the kind and appearance of the growth in each compartment (or subparcel, if con-
ditions of growth or soil make such subdivision desirable). In the description the dominating
kind of timber, or, if mixed in equal proportions, that upon which the mauagement is to be promi-

1 NorE.—Timber forest (Hochwald, high forest) is a forest in which trees are allowed to grow to maturity, and
reproduction is effected either by natural seeding from the old growth in various ways, or by planting or sowing
after removal of the old growth; it is usually managed in rotations of 70 to 120 years.

Coppice (Niederwald, low forest) is a forest in which reproduction is expected by sprouts from the stumps;
this is usually managed in rotations of 10 to 40 years.

Standard coppice (Mittelwald, middle forest) is a combination of the two former, the standards being allowed
to grow to maturity and reproduction being secured both by seed and sprouting.

Determining the rotation.—Our friends who are attempting to bring about a more rational treatment of our
forests have often a mistaken notion as to when timber should be cut, when it is ready for the harvest. This can
not be determined by any set period, as in the ripening of fruit in agriculture, or by any more or less defined age,
much less by any diameter measure. The determination of the “ felling age” (Haubarkeitsalter) or of the length of
“rotation” (Umtrieb) depends on the use to which the crop is to be put, the manner in which it is to be reproduced,
and the amount of material that can be produced, or the amount of profit that can be derived from it. This
determination is one of the most difficult, requiring both careful financial calculation and knowledge of forest
technique. r

The “silvicultural rotation” is that which considers mainly the forest technique, being the time when perfect
natural reproduction is most surely attainable—i. e., fullest seed production in timber forest, highest sprouting
capacity in coppice forest; or when preservation of the productive capacity of the soil, avoidance of damage from
windfalls, diseases, etc., are uppermost considerations. These considerations of course also influence in part the
determination of any of the following rotations, which we may eall ‘‘ economic rotations.”

The “rotation of greatest material production” is that which allows the forest to grow as long as the average
annual accretion is at a maximum. This differs of course with species, climate, soil, etc. If for the mass of
material we substitute its money value and strive to so arrange that the time of rotation coincides with the largest
money returns, we have a “ financial rotation.”

Various points of view lead to different kinds of financial rotations:

“Rotation of the highest harvest value,” or “technical rotation,” which attempts to produce certain desired
sizes and qualities in largest quantity with a view of obtaining thereby the largest money return for the crop under
the circumstances (management for telegraph poles, fence posts, osier holts, tan-oak coppice).

“Rotation of the highest forest revenue,” when the growth is to be harvested at the time of its maximum average
annual net money value; this time is influenced both by the amount of material and the price paid for better sizes
and quality of wood. In this rotation no regard is paid to the original capital invested in the soil; when this latter
factor is introduced into the calculation we arrive at the true ‘financial rotation” or ‘rotation of the highest soil
(or ground) rent,” in which the forest is to be cut at atime when the capital invested in soil, stock, and management
furnishes the highest interest rate. This capital, as far as the soil is concerned, may be represented by its actual
cost or by its market value, or else by its capacity for production (Bodenerwartungswerth; soil-expectation value),
which is found by adding the values of expected returns at harvest discounted to the present time and deducting
the expenses incurred up to the time of harvest, similarly discounted.

To determine this value experience tables must give the data. Local conditions and prices and the rate of
interest applied of course influence the length of the financial rotation. It is shortest for a firewood management
(in Germany, say 60 to 70 years), for spruce and pine at an interest rate of 2 to 3 per cent a rotation of 70 to 90 years,
with oak 120 years, appear as profitable rotations; where small sizes, mining timber, posts, poles, etc., are bringing
good prices, the most profitable financial rotation may beshorter. It stands to reason that the length of this rotation,
as well as of all others, can be only approximately calculated. The forestry literature of Germany is most prolific
just now with regard to determining financial rotations, and the highest mathematical skill is employed in the
discussion. ;

Growth (Bestand, stand) is here and further on used in the collective sense of the word to denote an aggregate
of trees, for which also the word ‘‘stand” may be employed.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—REGULATING A FOREST. 243

-nently based, is named first, and the average age of the growth with special reference to the
dominating timber is ascertained for the purpose of ranging the parcel into an “age class,” which
comprises usually twenty years, so that the growth of 1 to 20, 21 to 40, 41 to 60 years, ete., form
each an age class or period. The density of the growth and larger openings devoid of tree growth
are specially noted. The valuator at the same time is expected to form, from general appearances,
an opinion as to the best treatment of each parcel in the near future, and note it, and especially
whether the growth is to be cut during an earlier or later period than its age would warrant,
considering the likelihood of its thrifty or its unsatisfactory growth. He also estimates the amounts
to be taken out in thinnings for the next twenty years.

With this information established a table may be constructed, in which the area of each parcel
is entered, according to its average age or ‘age class,” modified by considerations of productive
capacity, and from this a “timber map” is made, showing the present conditions of the forest,
the kind of dominating timber in each parcel being denoted by a color, intermixed timbers by
signs, and the age by the shade of the color in 4, 5, or 6 gradations, according to the number of age
classes, aS Shown in the accompanying ideal map.

ARRANGEMENT OF AGE CLASSES.

Now follows the determination of the future arrangement of age classes, the object of which
is to have, when the forest is regulated, in each period of the rotation an approximately equal or
equally producing area to be cut. It therefore becomes necessary to shift the distribution of age
classes, in order to attain the equality of the sum of areas in each period. In addition to the mere
equalization of areas, there are several other considerations guiding the valuator in arranging the
age classes. The oldest timber, as well as that which for some reason has ceased to make
satisfactory growth, is of course to be cut first; hence the conditions of these areas are more
specially examined regarding health, density of cover, soil, vigor, etc. In coniferous growths,
especially in the plain, the danger from windfalls, if one parcel is cut and thereby the other
exposed to the prevailing storms, necessitates such an arrangement in the location of the fellings
(or age classes) that the removal of an old growth will leave behind it a young growth which is
less liable to be thrown. ‘This local distribution of the age classes by which, in the direction of
the prevailing winds, no two neighboring growths are assigned to the same period is also desirable
from other considerations. By avoiding a series of extensive fellings side by side the danger from
fires is lessened and liability to spread of diseases and insect attacks, danger from frost, and
drought to young growths is confined or reduced. Hence an arrangement of the age classes as
near as possible after the following scheme has been generally adopted, in which the Roman figures
denote the age classes, I standing for the oldest growth, containing, if the rotation has been set
at 100 years, timber of 80 to 100 years, to be felled within the first twenty years; II for that to be
felled within twenty-one to forty years from the present, and so on; V to be felled in from eighty
to one hundred years.

Vv Tit i IV
IV IL VE IIL
Prevailing winds—>
Tit I TV II
| ii V It I
L — — ——
Fic. 23.—Diagram showing arrangement of age classes.

In mountainous districts, where the topography influences the expense of transportation,
fellings are often more concentrated and the higher parcels used and reproduced before the lower,
in order to avoid injury to the young growth by a reversed condition when the material from above
would have to pass through the young growth below. Various minor points may also dictate
exceptional arrangement. In coppice growth, needed protection of the stocks against cold north

244 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

winds makes it desirable to have the fellings progress from the south and west toward north and
east. Altogether it will have become apparent that the distribution of successive fellings is an
important matter, not only from the standpoint of regulated administration, but also of successful
culture.

In the accompanying map (Pl. XXXII) we have attempted to give an idea of the matter on
which a “‘manager’s map” is constructed, and how ideally in a forest of the plain the arrangement
of age classes would appear when the forest regulation is perfected.

YIELD CALCULATIONS.

When the distribution of areas has been effected in accordance with the considerations set
forth, the yield calculations are made. These are computed after careful measurements and by
various methods of calculation, which have been developed after much experience during more
than one hundred years. ;

Since the different compartments are cut at different times, not only the present ‘stock on

HUNDRED ¢ HUNDRED

CUBIC FT. CUBIC FT.
180 180
160 160
140 Zz 140 |

pea Sings ws Beech.
120 120
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20

a re
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120YEARS

Tic. 24—Diagram showing comparative progress of yields of spruce, fir, pine, and beech on best and poorest site classes.

hand” needs to be measured, but also the accretion for each age class from the present to the
middle of the period in which it is to be utilized as to total quantity (decreasing in arithmetical
proportion as the stock on hand is diminished by fellings), when by adding the two quantities and
dividing the total by the number of years in the rotation or time of regulation the equalized
yearly quota to be utilized, or “ felling budget” (Haubarkeitsertrag or etat), can be calculated.
The determination of existing stock is made by measuring diameter breast high by means of
calipers, estimating the average height, and calculating contents with the aid of tables which give
the corresponding volumes of timber wood (above 3 inches diameter). These tables are constructed
after numberless detail measurements, frem which the “factor of shape” for each species, soil, or
climate is derived, for, since the tree is neither a cylinder nor a cone, which could be calculated
from the base and height, the modification from either of these two forms, the “factor of shape”
must be determined experimentally in order to arrive at the approximately true contents. In
very irregular growths and with skillful valuators a simple estimating of contents or the use of
so-called normal yield or “experience tables,” which give for the various species, soils, and climates
the amount of wood that would normally be produced per acre at a given period, is not excluded.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—FOREST REGULATION. 245

Normal yield table for spruce.

[Main growth (exclusive of thinnings) per acre. ]

Cross- | Cross-
: Num- | Section | 4 ey Wood Wood, | Num- section Aver- Wood Wood
Age. ber of area of: age above’ total Age. | ber of area or age | sbones total’
trees. Benet height. diameter.| ™2SS- trees. | “breast height. diameter.| ™288-
high. | high.
Site class T. | Site clase IIT. |
Sq. ft. Feet. Cu. ft. Ou. ft. | Sq. ft. Feet. Ou. ft. Cu. ft.

0 WA GEN HSI os soseq5coco0 \|Soooseer 49,2 4.9 86 TG) I) WO GER oscoccbsssesa|lboaseccs 18.3 1,9) |lsskaucsaoe 200
20 years.- | 2,591 114.4} 16.7 1,101 OHA OWS coaosoosSanellaoonesos 53.7 6.6 100 T712
30 vears.- 1, 700 159.5 29. 2 2, 603 4, 204 30 years.....-..- 3, 732 86.6 15.7 | 472 1, 617
40 years. 1, 065 188. 4 47.6 4,748 6,378 || 40 years......- | 2,412 130.1 25.6 1, 244 2, 760
50 years. 724 209.7 62.6 1, PRB 8, 623 50 years......- --| 1,580 154.9 36.7 2, 574 4, 247
60 years. - 515 225.8 76.7 9, 209 10, 625 || 60 years......... --| 1,056 171.8 48.2 4, 004 5, 634
70 years... 390 237. 1 88. 2 10, 582 12,198 || 70 years...--..-- 724 185. 3 59.0 5, 219 6, 893
80 years. - 321 244.9 97.4 11, 655 13, 213 || 80 year: 500 196, 2 67.9 6, 220 7,994
90 years. - 269 250.9 105.3 12,555 14, 043 || 90 years..-..-- 424 205. 2 74.1 7, 093 8, 866

100 years. - - 243 258.4 | 112.5 13, 299 14, 715 || 100 years.....-- : 380 214.9 79.4 7, 922 9, 638
110 years... oss 229 264.5 | 117.7 13, 971 15, 272 |) 110 years.....-. 30 346 223. 2 88. 0 8, 694 10, 296
120;years.---.-........ 226 269.7 121.4 14, 586 15, 730 | IPA) CRS 655055 canes 320 230. 6 85.6 9, 324 10, 725

|

Site class IT. | Site class IV.

|
Osyenrsteeeee terres 26.1 BuO eae yal ANB ||| WW) 3CETS-casscccocode|b=55500- 11.3 UGS ee, 157
20 years.-......--.... a ToS) || ile) 315 WGP AD SEER beagaeocoauellobesaoue 36.5 ONO scbosdsane 500
30 yea 3a 89. 9 22.6 1,187 2, 460 CU WWENES 35 GeeSadeosollooeooane 12.2 10.5 140 | 1, 044
40 years. 151.8 35.1 2, 502 4,018 || 40 years..... 3, 164 107.9 18.0 515 | 1, 830
50 years. - 180/01} 472. 4,176 5,191 |) 50 yeans)-- 222222 1, 968 130. 1 26: 2) 1, 287 2, 788
60 years. - 200. 1 | 59: 7 6, 220 7, 851 60 years 1, 276 143.5 30.1 2, 231 3, 761
70 years. - 213.6 71.8 7, 808 9, 481 70}years---2- 2. -- 864 154.9 42.6 3, 089 4,519
80 years. - 222.7 83.0 9, 295 10,725 || 80 years........- 648 162. 6 51.5 3,790 5, 248
90 years - - 231.5 91.5 10, 339 11, 683 SO }yearstese seen renee 554 172.3 57.1 4, 361 5, 763

100 years. - 239.2) 97.7 11, 125 12, 398 | 100syears=-- <2 --- ===. 500 181.5 61.3 4, 848 6, 249

110 years... 4 246.5 | 103.0 11, 740 13,013 || 110 years..-..-.--...- 464 187.0 63.3 5, 305 6, 707

120}hyears. 5.2 2s--5- = - 252.3 | 106. 6 12, 269 16} GB |) WPA) ES socoss5Satec|lbonncsss 191.4 66. 6 5, 720 7, 150

In very regular growths trial areas only are measured. The more usual manner of deter-
mining the rate of accretion, however, for purposes of yield calculation, is by felling sample trees
of each class, dissecting and measuring the accretions of past periods.

In modern times the exact measurements are mostly confined to the growths that are utilized
during the first or first two periods of twenty years.

FELLING BUDGET.

After all these data for each compartment have been booked, and the yield of branchwood
and roots—for even these are mostly utilized—as well as the probabie amounts to be taken out in
thinnings, have been estimated and recorded, and after the likelihood of decreased accretion
in the different compartments has also been determined from measurements and experience, the
“felling budget” is determined as a sum of the stock on hand and the amount of annual accretion
multiplied by the time, during which it is allowed to grow, i. e., in the average to the middle of
the period in which the compartment is placed, divided by the period of rotation. Thus a growth
of eighty-five years, which showed a stock on hand of 3,825 cubic feet per acre, and hence bad an
average accretion hitherto of 3,825 + 85 = 45 cubic feet per year, which is likely to be reduced on
account of gradual reduction in stock and other untoward conditions to 30 cubic feet, would yield
during the first period 3,825 + 30 x10 = 4,125 cubic feet. And if the compartment contained 50 acres
it should be credited in the working plan in the column for the period I with 4,125 x 50 = 206,250
cubic feet. By adding up the amounts of the yield of all the compartments placed in the first
period and dividing by 20 (the length of the period) the annual budget which should be felled
during the period is found. If, however, it is desired to equalize the fellings more or less through
a longer period— for instance, the time of rotation—then the amounts in all the periods must be
summed up, and these sums as nearly as possible equalized by shifting the position of the com-
partments from one period into another (necessitating always new calculations of the accretion)
until the equalization in the periodic sums is effected.

Kyen then, however, before finally determining the annual budget, a calculation is made to
see whether the area contains as much timber as it normally should; if more, the budget may be
increased; if less, a saving must be made in order to bring up the stock on hand to the normal.
If, for instance, we know from the experience tables that our forest should normally yield 50 cubic
feet per acre a year in a 100-year rotation, then the normal stock would be 100 x 50—2—2,500 cubic

246 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

feet per acre. This is the average amount of wood per acre which we should strive to keep in
stock in order to get the full benefit of the productive capacity of the soil and insure an equal
growth and equal annual cut for all time. In reality this ideal is, of course, never reached, but
this so-called normal forest, conceived in ideal condition, serves as a guide in the working plans,
and the conception is a most useful and important one. To put it into practice we must either
save at first on the annual cut until normal condition is attained, or we may increase the cut if
more old timber than necessary for normal stock is on the ground. Additional reserves may also
be provided for to avoid any unforeseen shortcomings in the budget due to insect ravages, mis-
takes in calculations, etc.

We can not here enter into the details of all the work of the valuator, being satisfied with
having indicated in general the methods pursued. In coppice management, of course, all these
fine calculations become unnecessary, and the periodical or annual cut is determined by area mainly.

From the general plan thus elaborated the special plan for the first period or half period of
the management is worked out in detail both for fellings, cultures, and other work, road building,
drainage, etc. This special plan, then, is the basis on which the local manager finally makes out
the annual plans of work, which are submitted for revision and approval to the controlling officers.
Thus, while the general and special working plans lay down the general principles, the annual
plans, into which enter considerations of immediate needs and financial adjustments, permit such
deviations from the general plans as may appear needful from year to year. very ten or twelve
years, or at other stated periods, a careful revision of the whole regulation work is made, in which
the carefully noted experiences of the manager are utilized to correct and perfect the plans.

FOREST PROTECTION.

In this country the greatest danger to the forest, besides the indiscriminate cutting, is to be
found in fires. How little this scourge of American forests is known in Germany may appear
from the statistics of fires in the Government forests of Prussia (representing 60 per cent of the
German forest area), 56 per cent of which are coniferous, which show that railroading may be
carried on without the necessity of extra risks, if proper precautions are provided. During the
years 1882-1891 there had occurred 156 larger conflagrations—96 from negligence, 53 from ill will,
3 from lightning, and only 4 from locomotives. Seven years out of ten are without any record of
fire due to this last cause.

From 1884 to 1887 fires occurred in Prussia on 3,100 acres, but only 1,450 were wholly
destroyed, i. e., 380 acres per year, or 0.005 per cent of the total area of Government forests. In
Bavaria during the years 1877-1881 only 0.007 per cent of the forest area was damaged by fire,
and the loss represented only 0.02 per cent of the forest revenues. During the unusually hot and
dry summer of 1892 only 49 fires, damaging more or less 5,000 acres, occurred.

Besides the thorough police organization and the compartment system, which permits not only
ready patrolling but also ready control of any fire, the system of safety strips, described in the
report of this division for 1892, where a fuller discussion of this subject may be found, prevents
the spread of fire from locomotives.

A much more fruitful cause of damage to the cultivated forests of Germany is found in insect
ravages. The annual expenditures in fighting and preventing these in the Prussian Government
forests in ordinary times amount to about $50,000. Caterpillars and beetles eat the leaves, and
thereby reduce the amount of wood produced and the vitality of the tree; bark beetles follow and
kill it; borers of all kinds injure the timber. Hence entomology, the study of life habits of the
injurious insects and the methods of checking their increase, forms part of the forester’s work.

Fungus growth and decay kill the standing tree and injure the cut timber. The study and
methods of counteracting this injury form, therefore, part of the work of the forester.

FOREST CROP PRODUCTION OR SILVICULTURE.

While we have so far considered mainly the administrative and managerial features of German
forestry practice, we come now to the most important and truly technical branch of the art,
namely, the forest crop production or forest culture. This part we may call forestry proper, for
while the methods of forest regulation, forest utilization, and forest protection, which may be

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—SILVICULTURE. 247

comprised in the one name, “forest economics,” are incidental, and may differ even in principle in
various countries and conditions, the methods of crop production or forest culture, being based
on the natural laws of the interrelations of plants to soil and climate, must, at least in principle,
be alike all over the world. Here pure forestry science finds its application and development.

These principles have been elucidated more fully in the next chapter. We will, therefore,
here only briefly restate the more important ones with some of their applications in German
practice.

PLANTING.

Seemingly the simplest and easiest way of reproducing the crop is that practiced in agricul-
ture, namely, removing the entire mature crop and sowing or planting a new crop. But this
method, which has been so largely practiced in Europe and admired by our countrymen and
writers on forestry, has its great drawbacks, which have of late become more and more apparent,
and the tendency now is to return more and more to the “natural reproduction.” While the
simplicity of the method of clearing and planting recommends itself for a routine or stereotype
management, it has not always proved as successful as would be expected. The large clearings
which the young planted seedlings are unable to protect from the drying influences of sun and

Fic. 25.—Iron dibble used in setting out small pine seedlings.

wind bring about a desiccation and deterioration of the forest soil and an enormous increase of insect
pests, while other dangers in later life from wind and disease have been largely the result of these
uniform growths. And when it is understood that to secure a desirable stand the plantings must
be gone over and fail places replanted five, six, and more times, it becomes apparent that the
method is extremely expensive, and hence the proper treatment of the natural crop with a view
to its reproduction by natural seeding is the most important part of forest culture. Yet under
certain conditions, and where no natural crop to manage is found, planting or sowing becomes a
necessity, and various methods and tools have been developed to meet various conditions.

It would exceed the limits of this report to describe these various methods; we can refer to
only one of the simplest and cheapest with which every year many millions of small 1 or 2 year
old pine seedlings are set out in soils which do not need or do not admit of preparation by plow
or spade. The instrument used is an iron dibble (fig. 25); the shoe, with one rounded and one flat
side, in shape like a half cone, 8 inches long with 35-inch base; the handle, a five-eighths-inch rod,
34 feet long, is screwed into the base of the shoe and carries a wooden crossbar, by which the
instrument is handled. The modus operandi is to thrust this iron dibble into the ground; then
by moving it lightly back and forth to somewhat enlarge the hole and withdraw it; a boy or girl

248 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. §S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

puts the plantlet in the hole to the flat side; the dibble is thrust again into the ground 1 to 14 inches
back of the first hole somewhat slantingly toward the bottom, and pressed forward to fasten the
plant in its stand; then by irregular thrusts the last-made hole is obliterated. Two planters with
a boy, carrying the plants in a mixture of loam and water to keep the roots moist and also heavy
for better dropping, may set 5,000 plants in a day.

INTRODUCTION OF EXOTICS—WHITE PINE YIELDS.

The valuable species of trees indigenous to Germany which are subject to special consideration
in forest management are but few. The most important forest-forming ones are 1 pine, 1 spruce,
1 fir, 1 larch, 1 oak, 1 beech, 1 alder. In addition we find of broad-leaved trees a blue beech, 1
ash, 3 kinds each of elm, maple, and poplar, in some parts a chestnut, and 2 kinds of birch and
linden, and several willows, together with some 8 or 10 kinds of minor importance, while of
conifers in certain regions 4 other species of pines are found. Some years ago the attention
of European foresters was forcibly turned to the richness of the American forest flora, and a
movement set in to introduce exotic tree species which might be more productive or show better
qualities than the native. Our white pine, a good-sized section of which was exhibited, had been
quite extensively planted in the beginning. of this century, and these plantations, some 80 or 9\)
years old, are now coming into use. The quality of the wood, however, has not as yet found much
favor, but the quantity per acre exceeds that of any of the native species. Records are extant
which show, at 70 years of age, a yield of 14,000 cubic feet of wood containing about 70,000 feet
of lumber B. M. per acre.

On moderately good forest soil in Saxony a stand 78 years old contained over 400 trees per
acre, of which three-fourths were white pine, the rest spruce, larch, beech, and oak. Only 5 white
pine trees were under 70 feet high, the majority over 80. Notwithstanding the crowded position,
only 45 trees were under 8 inches diameter, the majority over 12 inches, the best 28 inches. The
total yield was 12,880 cubic feet of wood per acre, besides the proceeds of previous thinnings. The
rate of annual accretion in cubic feet of wood for white pine in the last years amounted to 2.5 per
cent of the totai contents of the trees, or about 0.4 cubic foot per tree. Of the trunk wood at
least 90 per cent could be utilized for lumber, since the shape of these trunks was so nearly
cylindrical as to be equal in contents to one-half a perfect cylinder of the height and diameter of
the trees taken breast high.

A stand 82 years old on poor land produced 12,500 cubic feet of wood, indicating an average
yield for the eighty-two years of 212 cubic feet of wood per annum, of which about 700 feet of
lumber B. M. could be calculated. On very poor soil and planted very thick without admixture
of hard woods it produced trees 24 feet high and 5 inches thick in twenty years; and on fairly
good soil trees 54 feet high, 114 inches thick, in thirty to thirty-five years, excelling in either case
_ the native spruce (P. excelsa) both in height and thickness.

It is also of interest to mention in this connection that a plantation of about 7 acres in the city
forest of Frankfort-on-the-Main during the eighteen years ending 1881 brought $115 rent per year
for the privilege of seed collecting alone: failing to produce seed only three out of the eighteen
years and yielding a maximum of $500 rent during one of the eighteen years; much of the seed
finding a market in the United States.

Besides the white pine, the black locust has also for quite a long time found a home in the
plantations of Kurope, but the species which are now propagated in large quantities, having after
trial shown superior advantages in behavior and growth, are our Pacific coast conifers, the Sitka
spruce, the Douglas spruce, the Lawsons cypress, and the Port Orford cedar, sections and photo-
graphs of which, grown in Germany, were exhibited, as well as of black walnut and hickory. These
trees are now used to plant into fail places or openings, in groups or single individuals, and are
especially prized for their soil-improving qualities and their rapid growth.

The methods of management for natural reproduction are generally divided into three classes,
namely, the coppice, when reproduction is expected from the stumps; the standard coppice, when
part of the growth consists of sprouts from the stump and another part of seedling trees; and the
timber or high forest, when trees are grown to maturity and, unless harvested and replanted,
reproduction is effected entirely by natural sowing.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—SILVICULTURE. : 249

COPPICE MANAGEMENT.

This practice is employed for the production of firewood, tanbark, eharcoal, and wood of
small dimensions, and is mostly applicable only to deciduous trees. The eapacity of reproduction
from the stump is possessed by different species in different degrees, and depends also on climate
and soil; shallow soil produces weaker but more numerous shoots than a deep, rich soil, and a
mild climate is most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power. With most trees this
capacity decreases after the period of greatest height-growth; they should therefore be cut before
the thirtieth year, in order not to exhaust the stock too much. The oak coppices for tan bark are
managed in a rotation of from ten to twenty years. Regard to the preservation of reproductivity
makes it necessary to avoid cutting during heavy frost, to make a smooth cut without severing the
bark from the stem, and to make it as low as possible, thus reducing liability to injuries of the
stump and inducing the formation of independent roots by the sprouts.

It will be found often that on poor and shallow soil trees will cease to thrive, their tops dying.
In such cases it is a wise policy to cut them down, thus getting new, thrifty shoots, for which the
larger root system of the old tree can more readily provide. This practice may also be resorted to
in order to get a quick, straight growth, as sprouts grow more rapidly than seedlings, the increased
proportion of root to the part above ground giving more favorable conditions of food supply. It
must not be forgotten, however, that this advantage has to be compensated somewhere else by a
disadvantage; sprouts, though growing fast in their youth, cease to grow in height at a compara-
tively early period, and for the production of long timber such practice would be detrimental.

Regard to the preservation of favorable soil conditions, which suffer by oft-repeated clearing,
requires the planting of new stocks where old ones have failed. Mixed growth, as everywhere,
gives the best result. Oaks, walnut, hickory, chestnut, elm, maples, birch, cherry, linden, catalpa,
and the locust also, with its root-sprouting habit, can be used for such purpose.

If when cutting off the sprouts, at the age of from 10 to 20 years, some trees are left to grow
to larger size, thus combining the coppice with timber forest, a management results which the
Germans call “ Mittelwald,” and which we may call standard coppice management.

STANDARD COPPICE.

This is the method of management which in our country deserves most attention by farmers,
especially in the Western prairie States, where the production of firewood and timber of small
dimensions is of first importance, while the timber forest, for the production of larger and stronger
timbers, can alone satisfy the lumber market. The advantages of this method of management,
combining those of the coppice and of the timber forest, are:

(1) A larger yield of wood per acre in a short time.

(2) A better quality of wood.

(3) A production of wood of valuable and various dimensions in the shortest time with hardly any additional
cost. ;

(4) The possibility of giving closer attention to the growth and requirements of single individuals and of
each species.

(5) A ready and certain reproduction.

(6) The possibility of collecting or using for reforestation, in addition to the coppice stocks, the seeds of the
standards.

The objections to this mode of treatment are the production of branches on the standards
when freed from surrounding growth, and the fact that the standards act more or less injuriously
on the underwood which they overtop.

The first objection can be overcome to a certain extent by pruning, and the second by proper
selection and adjustment of coppice wood and standards. The selection of standards—which
preferably should be seedlings, as coppice shoots are more likely to deteriorate in later life—must
be not only from such species as by isolation will grow into more useful timber, but if possible
from those which have thin foliage, thus causing the least injury by their cover to the underwood.
The latter should, of course, be taken from those kinds that will best endure shade. Oaks, ashes,
maples, locust, honey locust, larch, bald cypress, a few birches, and perhaps an occasional aspen,
answer well for the standards; the selection for such should naturally be from the best-grown

250 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

straight trees. The number of standards to be held over for timber depends upon the species
and upon the amount of undergrowth which the forester desires to secure. The shadier and the
more numerous the standards the more will the growth of the coppice be suppressed. From a
first plantation one would naturally be inclined to reserve and hold over all tho well-grown
valuable saplings. The coppice is, of course, treated as described above.

As before mentioned, on account of the free enjoyment of light which the standards have
they not only develop larger diameters, but also furnish quicker-grown wood (which in deciduous
trees is usually the best) and bear seed earlier, by which the reproduction of the forest from the
stump is supplemented and assisted. Any failing plantation of mixed growth, consisting of trees
capable of reproduction by coppice, may be recuperated by cutting the larger part back to the
stump and reserving only the most promising trees for standards.

If equally weil-grown coppice and standards are desired, a regular distribution of the standards,
mostly of the light-needing, thin-foliaged kinds, should be made. If prominence is given to the
production of useful sizes, the standards may be held over in groups and in regularly distributed
specimens, in which case those of the shade-enduring kinds are best in groups.

THE TIMBER FOREST.

In the timber-forest management we may note various methods: The method of selection
(Plenterwald), in accordance with which only trees of certain size are cut throughout the whole
forest, and the openings are expected to fill up with an after-growth sown by the remaining trees.
This method prevailed in former ages, but was finally almost everywhere abandoned because of the
difficulty of organized administration and control of such an irregular forest containing trees of
all ages, and because the after-growth is apt to progress but slowly with fore-grown trees sur-
rounding and overshadowing it, or may consist of worthless kinds. Of late a revival of this
method with various modifications designed to meet the objections is noticeable; the advantage of
keeping the soil constantly shaded and thereby preserving the soil moisture also recommending
this method. More uniform growths, more regular distribution of age elasses, and a more regu-
lated administration was possible by various “regeneration methods,” by which a certain area—
a compartment—would be taken in hand and the cutting so systematically directed that not only
a uniform young growth would spring up through the whole compartment, but by the gradual
‘removal of the mother trees light would be given to the young growth as needed for its best
development. This method (Femelschlag) is practiced almost exclusively in the extensive beech
forests, somewhat in the following manner:

REGENERATION METHODS.

In the first place it is necessary to know the period at which a full seed year may be expected.
This differs according to locality and kind. One or more years before such a seed year is expected
the hitherto dense crown cover is broken by a preparatory cutting of the inferior timber, enough
being taken out to Jet in some light, or rather warm sunshine, which favors a fuller development
of seed, the increased circulation of air and light at the same time hastening the decomposition of
the leaf-mold and thus forming an acceptable seed bed.

As soon as the seed has dropped to the soil, and perhaps, in the case of acorns and nuts, been
covered by allowing pigs to run where it has fallen, a second cutting takes place uniformly over
the area to be regenerated, in order that the seeds may have the best chance for germination—
air, moisture, and heat to some degree being necessary—and that the seedlings may have a proper
enjoyment of light for their best development and yet not be exposed too much to the hot rays of
the sun, which, by producing too rapid evaporation and drying up the needful soil moisture, would
endanger the tender seedlings. This cutting requires the nicest adjustment, according to the
state of the soil, climatic conditions, and the requirements of seedlings of different kinds.

While the beech requires the darkest shade, the pine tribe and the oaks demand more light,
and should, by the successive cuttings, be early freed from the shade of the mother trees. Beech
seedlings are more tender, and only by the gradual removal (often protracted through many
years) of the shelter of the parent trees can they be accustomed to shift for themse!ves without

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—SILVICULTURE. 251

liability of being killed by frost. The final cutting of the former generation of trees leaves many
thousand little seedlings closely covering the soil with a dense shade.

That the method of management must differ according to species and local conditions is
evident; and in a mixed forest especially are the best skill and judgment of the forester required
to insure favorable conditions for each kind to be reproduced. It is to be expected that such
seedlings are rarely satisfactory over the whole area, and that bare places of too large extent must
be artificially sown or planted.

Another method is the “management in echelons” (Coulissen, Saumschlag), which consists
in making the clearings in strips, and awaiting the seeding of the clearing from the neighboring
growth. It is applicable to species with light seeds, which the wind can carry over the area to be
seeded, such as larches, firs, spruces, most pines, etc.

The cuttings are made as much as possible in an oblong shape, with the longest side at right
angles to the direction of the prevailing winds. The breadth of the clearing, on which occasional
reserves of not too spreading crowns may be left, depends of course on the distance to which the
wind can easily carry the seed which is to cover the cleared area. Observation and experience
will determine the distance. In Germany, for spruce and pine, this has been found to be twice the
height of the tree; for larch, five or six times the height; for fir, not more than one shaft’s length.
From 200 to 360 feet is perhaps the range over which seeding may be thus expected. One year
rarely suffices to cover the cleared area with young growth, and it takes longer in proportion to
the breadth of the cutting. This method is very much less certain in its forestal results than the
next named, and more often requires the helping hand of the planter to fill out bare places left
uncovered by the natural seeding. But it is the one that seems to interfere least with our present
habits of lumbering, and with it eventually the first elements of forestry may be introduced into
lumbering operations.

To be sure, it requires from three to eight times the area usually brought under operation, but
instead of going over the whole area every year it may be operated in a number of small camps
systematically placed along a central road connecting the different camps or cuttings with the mill.

As a rule the pine forests in Germany are reproduced by artificial plantations, the spruce
forests by either natural or artificial regeneration, or both combined, while the beech forests are
entirely reproduced as described above, oaks and other hard woods being usually planted, although
a return to a more extended use of natural reproduction is noticeable.

IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS—THINNINGS.

The principles which underlie the practice of thinning out young growths in order to accel-
erate their development have been theoretically well developed, but the practice in Germany
remains behind the theory. The difficulty of disposing of the material taken out in the thinnings
discourages the practitioner, and the financial value of the operation in the acceleration of the
remaining crop is not fully appreciated.

A few results of German practice in thinning may serve to give an indication of its value.

A natural growth of pine (Scotch) which was thinned when six years old showed an increased
rate of accretion three times as great as that of the part not thinned, which was also deficient in
height growth.

A 50-year-old spruce (Norway) growth, having been twice thinned, showed an average accretion
22 per cent greater than the part not thinned.

A growth of spruce (natural sowing), slightly mixed with maple, aspen, willow, and ironwood,
when 15 years old was opened to the poor population to take out firewood; thus one-half of the
growth for a few years was thinned out irregularly. The part thus thinned eighteen years later
contained four and one-half times more wood than the undisturbed part; the former contained
trees of from 1 to 9 inches in diameter and 15 to 65 feet in height; the latter did not produce any
above 5 inches in diameter and 48 feet in height.

Another experiment, made upon a pine growth 50 years old, showed that by interlucation the
rate of growth within eleven years stood three to one and three-fourths in favor of the thinned part.

Another writer planted Scotch pine 6 feet apart; two years later he planted the same ground

252 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. °

to bring the stand to 3 feet apart; he thinned when fifteen years old, and carefully measured
contents when twenty years old. Although the plantation was stocked on poor soil, yet the
average annual accretion was found to be 2.43 cords (Austrian) per acre, a yield “‘which is
unexcelled.” The writer adds that “if in such growths the number of trees is reduced in the
fifteenth to twentieth years to 280 trees per acre, the yield in sixty years might equal that
obtained in one hundred or one hundred and fifty years in the old manner.”

A plantation of Norway spruce, made with seed, was when thirty-three years old still so dense
that it was impenetrable; hardly any increase was noticeable and the trees were covered with
lichens. When thirty-five years old it was thinned, and again, when forty-two years old the
condition of the growth was such as to make a thinning appear desirable; between the two
thinnings, within seven years, the accretion had increased by 160 per cent, or 27 per cent yearly
in the average, and the appearance of the trees had changed for the better. ;

A coppice of tanbark oak was thinned when fifteen years old on half the area; when twenty
years old both parts were cut, and it was found that the thinned part yielded more wood and more
and better bark than the unthinned part, and yielded in money 14.5 per cent more, although no
higher price was asked for the better bark.

An area of 12 acres was planted, one-half with 2-year-old pine seedlings from the forest, the
other half with seed.

Three thinnings were made with the following yield of round firewood (cut to billet length
and over 23 inches in diameter) and brushwood (less than 23 inches in diameter).

The planted part yielded at the thinnings:

| When— Firewood. | Brush.
Cords. | Cords.
| lO years/olilizs 2280 Sele bec: op asec conn seem etek aa | 1.4 |
j 15 years (0) (REL oe eect teree oe ee ee en nots lal 4.9 PIE
alsa Gea Wee S28 ose Sea soacecoenanecanaebed abou mocSoe | 4.5 2.8
| ies ee
| Total noes sce 6. sm un! Se Ee Seas ee eee | 10.8 7
The sowing was first thinned when 8 years old, yielding:
| When— | | iirewonil Brush.
ai a bas
| Cords. i Cords.
8 years old .-- | 2.8 |
10 years old... 3.6
20 years old... | 1.4
Total See) tes sone ask: Se 5: leah ed Mead een ese | 32 | 7.8
| \
In twenty-four years the total yield, inclusive of thinning, was:
Cubie feet of
solid wood.
PlaniGedpanyt ae ne aS eiclme s Ses tee ret ee tea a oS ae ne PS a ae a ee ee oe 3, 495
Sowedspantions fess Ses 5 SE SSA ae NERS EE Si ee tL Red TEA Sea TRL Cs Meee yet op ee MS ROY ES es Eee aE 1, 998
In;favoriof planted part: :. . o2<)2 25. -\cedaseesaee sects Males ee Ne SEES Ree oe en ee ew eR OTH

Thinnings are usually made for the following purposes:

(1) Improvement cuttings, to improve the composition of the forest and give advantage to the
better kinds.

(2) Interlucations, to improve the form and hasten development of young timber.

(3) Regeneration cuttings, to produce favorable conditions for seed formation and reproduc-
tion of the forest.

(4) Accretion cuttings, to improve rate of diameter growth in older timber.

Thinnings are to open the crown-cover, giving access to light and air, their object being to
accelerate decomposition of the litter and turn it into available plant food; to improve the form
and hasten the development of the remaining growth. The degree of thinning depends on soil,
species, and age, and is best determined as a proportion between the present growth and that
which is to remain with reference either to crown-cover, mass, or diameter.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT SILVICULTURE. 253

Since it is observed that in the struggle for existence among the individual trees there are
quite early some trees getting the advantage and becoming dominant, it is inferred that thinnings
are most effective in the earlier period of the crop.

In discussing the degree to which the thinning is to be made, a classification of the trees
according to the character of their development is made by German foresters as follows:

Class 1.—Predominant trees with highly developed crowns.
Class 2.—Codominant trees with tolerably well developed crowns.
Class 3.—Subdominant trees with normal crowns, but poorly developed and crowded
above.

Class 4.—Dominated trees with crowns poorly developed and crowdeil laterally.

(a) Crowns wedged in laterally, yet not overtopped.
Re oe eater iuifarion crow the ye ene Cronin’ compressed soeE ay overtopped.

Class 5.—Suppressed trees, entirely overtopped.

(a) Crowns still having vitality (shade enduring species).
(b) Crowns dying or dead.

Dominant or superior growth. |

The following illustration of the appearance of these tree classes will be found serviceable in
understanding these relations. ’

a

Pie
Bs,

Ot

Fic. 26.—Tree classes: Classification according to crown development. Schematic. Class 1 (predominant) : Nos. 1, 3,6, 11, 16,20; class
(codominant): Nos. 8, 13, 18; class 3 (subdominant): Nos. 9, 14,17; class 4 (oppressed): Nos. 5,7, 12; class 5 (suppressed, a): Nos. 2,19; class
(suppressed, b): Nos. 4, 10, 15.

2
5

The degrees of thinning usually resorted to are the following:

(1) Slight thinning takes out trees of class 5.

(2) Moderate thinning takes out trees of class 5 and 4b.

(3) Severe thinning takes out trees of class 5, 4, and sometimes 3.

The time when the first thinning should take place is generally determined by the possibility
of marketing the extracted material at a price which will cover at least the expense of the
operation. This is, however, not always possible, and the consideration of the increase in value
of the remaining growth, or rather of the detriment to the same by omission of timely thinning,
may then be conclusive.

On good soil and on mild exposures interlucation may take place earliest, because here the
growth is rankest and a difference in the development of the different stems is soonest noticeable.

254 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Light-needing and quicker-growing kinds show similar conditions to those grown on good soil,
and here, therefore, early thinnings are desirable. In these cases the thinnings have also to be
repeated oftenest, especially during the period of prevalent height accretion. Absolute rules as
to the time for interlucations and their periodical repetition evidently can not be given. The
peculiar conditions of each individual case alone can determine this. The golden rule, however,
is early, often, moderately. The right time for the beginning of these regular and periodical
interlucations is generally considered to have arrived when the natural thinning out before
mentioned commences and shows the need of the operation. This occurs generally when the
crop has attained the size of hop poles. At this stage the well-marked difference in size of the
suppressed trees will point them out as having to fall, and there will not be much risk of making
any gross mistakes. Until the trees have attained their full height the thinning should remain
moderate. From this time forward it will prove expedient to open out the stock more’ freely
without ever going so far as to thin severely. Within the last few years new and revolutionary
ideas regarding principles and methods to prevail in thinnings are gaining ground, which we have
not space here to discuss.
UNDER-PLANTING.

All these manipulations experience modifications according to circumstances, different species
and soil conditions requiring different treatment. One of the most interesting modifications, the
results of which in a given district were fully exhibited, is the v. Seebach management in beech
forests. Such a management, vhich contemplates the production of heavier timber in the shortest
time, tries to take advantage of the increase in accretion due to an increase of light which is
secured by severe thinning, and in order to prevent the drying out of the soil by such severe
thinning a cover of some shady kind is established by sowing or planting. This cover gradually
dies off under the shade of the old timber, the crowns closing again after a number of years. The
rate of growth in a stand of 70 to 80 years was thereby increased from 51 cubic feet per acre and
year to 77 cubic feet per acre and year, while a neighboring stand, otherwise the same but not so
treated, increased by only 60 cubic feet, distributed over a larger number of trees.

The same method is applied to the production of heavy oak timber. In this case the oak
growth is thinned out when about 60 years old and ‘“underplanted” with beech. It may also be
applied to older growths with advantage, as appears from the following results:

A stand of oaks 150 to 160 years old in 1846 was thinned to 96 trees per acre, averaging
37 cubic feet of wood per tree, the cleared space being ‘‘underplanted” with beech and spruce.
In 1887 the oaks, now 190 to 200 years old, of which 59 trees only were left, contained 56 cubic
feet in the average, thus growing during the last forty years more than one-half as much as
during the one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty years previous to the operation, i. e.,
doubling the rate of growth. In this case, under the light-foliaged oaks, some of the beech and
spruce developed sufficiently to furnish marketable material.

With Scotch pine it has been found in one case that while the average accretion of a stand
120 years old under ordinary condition was about 59 cubie feet per acre and year—the yield by
thinning included—a stand underplanted with beech showed an accretion of 100 cubic feet per
acre and year, besides much better log sizes and earlier supply of saw timber.

Translated into money an example from Bavaria may be cited as follows:

On 1 acre of pine 80 years old, underplanted at a cost of $2.85 per acre with beech now 40 years old, there
were found—

Average
Yield of | annual
wood. accretion

per acre.

Cubic ft. | Cubic ft.
IKDS OES acpsosSaeoomS assess cscose ashcanminocdbocseacee nes 322 40
2,300 beech 156 39

Supposing this stand to be left forty years longer, it may be figured that the pine would bring $650 and the
beech $120; total per acre, $770, of which $49 was yielded in thinnings. White pine without undergrowings is
expected to produce only $520 per acre when 120 years old.

GERMAN FOREST MANAGEMENT—ADMINISTRATION. 255

FORESTERS, FORESTRY EDUCATION, AND FORESTRY LITERATURE.

To be sure, the highly elaborate system of forest administration and forest management here
outlined could not be developed or maintained without a special high-grade education of those
who direct the work. This education is provided for in the most ample manner, and consists not
only in theoretical studies at schools, academies, and universities, but also in practical studies in
the forest itself under the guidance of competent and experienced forest managers.

The course which applicants for positions in the higher administrative forestry service are
expected to follow, with more or less modification in the different states, may be briefly outlined
here:

After promotion from college the student goes into the woods for a short period (one-half to
one year) to acquaint himself, under the guidance of a district manager, with the general features
of the business he proposes to engage in, and thereby tests his probable fitness for it. He then
visits for two and one-half or three years a forestry school (called academy when by itself, when
at a university it is connected with the ‘‘taculty” for national economy), wkere theoretical studies
with demonstrations in the forest are pursued.

After examination and promotion the applicant is bound at his own expense to occupy himself
for two years at least in studying the practice in various districts, changing from place to place.
If occupation can be found for him he is employed at small daily wages on some scientific or
administrative work, always keeping an official diary of his doings and observations, certified to
by the district manager with whom he stays, and which forms part of his final examination. lor
nine months during this time he must continuously perform all the duties of a lower ofticial—a
ranger—for a whole or part of a range, and sometimes also for a given time certain functions
of a district manager. Then, after two years of law studies at a university, he enters into a
close and difficult examination for a position as district manager, lasting eight to ten days. By
passing this he is placed on the list of eligibles, and has thereby secured a right, enforcible in
the courts if need be, to a position when a vacancy arises and his name is reached in the order
of the list. This, in Prussia, may now be within eight or ten years after listing. During the
interval he may be, and mostly is, employed on daily wages in various sorts of scientific and
administrative work, such as revising and making new valuations, laying out roads, acting as
tutor at the academies or as assistant to district managers, or else taking the place of a manager
temporarily, etc.

The higher administrative offices are filled by selections from the managers, length of service
counting only when special fitness for the kind of work required accompanies it; so that, as in the
army, the highest officer has been through all the grades below, and is conversant with every
detail of the service. The pay is small, graded in each kind of position according to length of
service and somewhat according to the cost of living in different places. The honor of the position,
to which usually other honors are added, its permanency, and the assurance of a pension, graded
according to length of service, in case of disability or age, make up for small salaries. The
salaries, subject to change from time to time, without adding the value of perquisites like houses,
farm lands, etc., range about as follows in Prussia:

ikdinector (@Oberlandiorstmeisten) pee ss-seee es acleer eee oe ais ete eee cine ene noe eee een eeieecie $3, 600
Astoresticouncilorsy@uandforsimeister eseseese ee eeekeee esas eee eee eee eee eee $1, 800 to 2, 400

33 chief inspectors (Oberforstmeister) (with additions for house and traveling up to $1,100) .--. - 1, 050 1, 500
89 inspectors (Forstmeister) (with additions for house and traveling up to $1,100) ....-...-.----- 900 1,500
679 district managers (Oberfoerster) (with additions up to $825 and house and field)..--.....----- 500 900
3, 390 rangers (Foerster) (with house and additions up to $110) -.....--...----.-----..-------------- 260 360
BES) MAOIs) (AIG EIB) ooccss popes cen sed sordsn coso00 d0Scs Seeees oaSoES sSoboN Sotess cHeSbo Coos 100 200

The rangers (Foerster) follow different courses of instruction, part of which they receive in
subordinate positions under district managers; while serving in the army in special battalions
(chasseurs) they receive also theoretical instruction, which is supplemented in special schools.
When finally promoted to the responsible position of rangers, in which much discretion and
latitude are given them, their pay amounts to from $260 to $360, with a house and field, with the
assurance of pension on withdrawal.

256

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The following schools are provided for the higher grades of foresters:

Higher forestry schools in Germany for the education of forest managers.

[Austria and Switzerland included. ]

\Instructors

| | Average
| 7 | Length : : Total
Name of place. State. | When | of course hoe forestry | number of attendance
founded. | ~/_ branches |. ‘inet of forestry
| (years). | proper. tustructors.| students.

At universitie |

(GIES GE soccinecactecese so stoootantoseescesonerersoses)) IER Osassso-eseccecses 1825 | 3 | 3 (a) 40-50

Tiibingen - Wurttemberg.- 1818 (b) 3 (a) 50-60

Munich------ Bavaria. ----2---- 1878 | (b) | 8 | ais c 90-100
At polytechnicum : | |

IKGISATING | soso ssncsc sens coor ese cess eosescersseses Bad ene eee 1832 3 2 19 | 15-30

Ziirich - -- | Switzerland - 1855 3 3 «20 15-30

Vienna ------ \eAn striae sss eeeeeeel 1875 3 6 43 | 130-140
Separate academies i |

Aschaffenburg - Bavaria. --.----------- 1807 2 2 9 | 90-100

Tharandt --.--- -| Saxony -..--.- -| 1811 24 3 10 100-135

Hisenach. -- Saxe Weimar | 1830 2 3 8 65-75

Eberswalde e|Perossiaeeeees 1831 24 ot 14 140-150

WATE Na sSoncoossescosss 1868 | ae 5 13 40-60

|

a The entire corps of professors of the university.
estry students; in Ziirich, 20 professors.

In Munich 18 professors are engaged in lecturing on subjects which concern for-

In Munich all studies can be followed in any year, as the students may select. The attendance :

varies, of course, widely in different years, having been as high as 216 in Eberswalde and 120 in Minden. The above figures are for 1835-86.

b Not prescribed.

c During the winter of 1898 there were 140 students at Munich out of 527 forestry students at all forestry schools.

The following table will serve to give an idea of what instruction is to be had at these

institutions:

Plan of studies at Forest Academy Lberswalde.

Whole | Whole
Subjects of instruction. number Subjects of instruction. number
of hours. || | of hours.
FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCES. PRINCIPAL SCIENCES.
Natural sciences. Caltivationjofforestsee- scree eae eee nee eae eae 80
Forest implements....--.---- 20
General and theoretic chemistry.-.-..............----------- 3 Geographical forest botany - - 48
Special inorganic and organic chemistry applied - 80 || Protection of forests-.-.-.------- 32
Physics and meteorology -.- 80 || Forest usufruct and technology - 80
Mineralogy and geognosy -.- GO |) Forest surveying 20
Definition of minerals and rocks--- 20 || Appraising forests --. co5 80
Reviews for organic natural sciences -- - 16 || Calculation of the value of forests and forest statistics --- 32
Botany in general and forest botany in particular -----.- 64 || Administration of forest and hunting. --- 48
Anatomy of plants, vegetable physiology and pathology 60 || Redemption of rights of usage -..--.--- 32
Microscopy ---------------------------------------------- 20 || Forest history -.-----------.-.- 40
Botanical reviews .---------------- 20 || Forest statistics 20
Botanical excursions, each 24 hours 80 || Review of various forest matters-
_ General zoology - eso 16 |) Bxaminations.2-22--/---.-2----
Vertebrates 80 | Forest excursions, each 4 hours
Invertebrates, with special reference to forest insects - 80 |
Zoological preparations Bees 16 | Lota is Saas ene oo eect aoe eee
Zoological reviews--.----------------- 20 |
Zoological excursions, each 3 hours..-.. GeccecosadoseTosoeas 96 | SECONDARY SCIENCES.
TotalanshuraléscienGeSs a= scsse see aCe eaer reece 840 | Jurisprudence.
Mathematics. |
(CGMIGERY coccscopssa5cSeese SSbendasese SONIOba Ose ooosSosose=o5 72 |
Interest and rent account 20
Wood-measuring --------- 20
Mathematical reviews and exercises - 56 Total = 3 180
Surveying and leveling exercises, ez 192 || Construction of roa 32
Plan-drawing exercises, 24 hours..........-.------+--------- SOM) | Eton tin cee eee eee ene 32
——-—\_|| Shooting exercises, 2 hours each.............-.------------ 96
Totalimathematics ea. =a = «eee = one eee ae 440 a
== Total sum of hours for secondary sciences. -.----.--. 340
Economic sciences. ee
Grand total :2t25¢ Sec. aeeseee se see eee eee 2, 648
Public economy and finances .---..--..--.----.-.---..------ 48
‘ ————
Total sum of hours for fundamental sciences. ---.---- 1, 328

Fundamental sciences
Principal sciences
Secondary sciences

Average per instruction week (21 weeks in winter, 17 during summer; 2 winter courses, $ summer courses) :

2618,
93

~ = 28.5 hours, or per day, 4.9 hours.

SYSTEM OF FORESTRY KNOWLEDGE. 257

If we were to codify into a system the science of forestry as developed in Germany we might
come to the following scheme, which exhibits the various branches in which a well-educated
forester must be versed:

SYSTEM OF FORESTRY KNOWLEDGE,

I. FOREST POLICY—ECONOMIC BASIS OF FORESTRY (THE CONDITION).
Aspects.

1. Forestry statistics. (Areas, forest conditions; products. By-products: Trade; supply and demand; prices;
substitutes. )
2. Forestry economics.
(a. Study of relation of forests on climate, soil, water, health, ethics, etc.
b. Study of commercial peculiarities and position of forests, and forestry in political economy.)
3. History of forestry.
Application.

4, Forestry politics. (Formulation of rights and duties of the State and of its methods in developing forestry; legis-
lation, State forest administration, education.)

Ii. FOREST PRODUCTION

TECHNICAL BASIS OF FORESTRY (THE CROP).
Aspects.

5. Forest botany. (Systematic botany of arborescent flora; forest geography; plant and climate; biology of trees
in their individual and aggregate life; forest weeds.

6. Soil physics and soil chemistry with special reference to forest growth.

7. Timber physics. (Anatomy of woods; chemical physiology and physical properties of woods. Influences deter-
mining same; diseases and faults. )

8. Technology. (Application of wood in the arts; requirements and behavior; mechanical and working properties;

durability; special needs of consumers; use of by-products, waste materials, minor forest products. )

Application.
9. Silviculture. (Methods of growing the crop.)
a. Natural reforestation; cutting for reproduction.
b. Artificial afforestation; procurement of plant material; nursery practice, choice of plant material, methods
of soil preparation, of forest planting.
- c. Improving and accelerating the crop. Cultivation, filling, thinning, pruning, undergrowing.
d. Systems of management. Timber forest, standard coppice, coppice, ete.
10. Forest protection. (Against insects, climatic injuries, fire, cattle, etc.)
11. Forest improvement and engineering. (Treatment of denuded mountain slopes, shifting sands, barrens, swamp
and moors, road building, etc.)
12. Forest utilization. (Methods of harvesting, transporting, preparation for market.)

II. FOREST ORGANIZATION—ADMINISTRATIVE AND FINANCIAL BASIS (THE REVENUE).
Aspects.

13. Forest survey. Ascertaining area and condition of the forest; ascertaining rate of accretion, yield.
14. Forest valuation and statics. Ascertaining money value of forest soil and forest growth as capital of the manage-
ment and comparing financial results of various kinds of management.

Application.

15. Forest regulation. Ustablishing units of management and administration; determining working plans, distri-
buting yearly or periodical cut, ete.
16. Forest administration. Routine methods, business practice, personnel, organization of service and mechanical
operations.
LITERATURE.

In addition to the live teachings, which an able corps of professors impart at these institutions
and that which competent managers are ready to impart to the young students in the forest itself,
a large number of weekly, monthly, quarterly, and annual journals and publications are keeping
the foresters and forestry students aw courant with the progress of forestry science and forestry
technique. Adding the publications of this nature which appear in Austria and Switzerland in
the German language, and which have their constituency in Germany as well, we can make the

H. Doe. 181 17

258 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

following respectable list, not counting the journals of the lumber trade and other related
publications. Those marked with an asterisk (*) are to be found in the library of the Division of
Forestry; those marked (t) are considered the best or are most comprehensive; those marked (?)

have been discontinued.
German forestry periodicals.

= ome 3 ‘oe | = Estab-
Name of publication. Published at | Issued lished.
— —— |

Allgemeine Forst-u. Jagdzeitnng * t.-...ssese0.eeee cece e eee nnn nn eee ween eee ee Frankfort on the Main .---. Monthly 1824
amie WEG sa s3s2- 52 stescgnescsssese0> oacc ee 2q\| BEM @esessoscnosososccsses Irregularly ee 1865
Aus dem Walde.....--.-------- Boos soe eee Weekly.-..... (2)
Deutsche Forst-u. Jagdzeitung -----.---------------------- =| d Semimonthly - sese (2)
Forstliche Blaetter----------.------------------------------ =| i ---| Monthly 1863
Forstlich-naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift *1.- ASHE bs 5) i Bl Peers do .. 1892
Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt *t------- 2208 imieees Pa Seca do ..- 1856
Jabresbericht des schlesischen Forstvereins-.-------------- -| Annually 1841
Jahresbericht der preussischen F. u. J. Gesetzbegung.- - a I pogsoonooeoacicebcosacslloor ad do..- 1868
Land-u. Forst-wirthschaftliche Zeitschrift i Quarterly 1886
Muendener forstliche Hefte* ...- Irregularl: 1892
Oesterreichische Forst zeitung * <a 1882
Der praktische Forstwirt fuer d = (2) (2)
Schweizer Zeitschrift fuer Forstwesen. - ---| Quarterly..--.......-. ()
Tharandter forstliches Jahrbuch* .-..-.-...----------------- fs ---| Annually-- 2 1850
Verbandlungen der Forstyereine ..---------.---------------- ari sl[oesze GO cascoscseseseccsbososseon$
Bericht ueber die Versammlung deutscher Forstmaenner --- do . | eee C1 (eee eens sos [eer ee
Zeitschrift fuer Forst-u. Jagdwesen *7 --..-------------------- Monthly zs 1869
Zentralblatt fuer das gesammte Forstwesen*t.-.-.---------------------------| Viemua ----.----.-----------|---.- Gece emaec anes 1875
Zeitschrift der deutschen Forstbeamten ........--.---.---------------------- (2) (2)

Should the reader wish to collect a library of the most modern thought on any or all subjects
pertaining to forestry in Germany the list of books contained in the library of the Department of
Agriculture, a catalogue of which has been published, with over 1,200 numbers and probably 2,000
volumes, would give him a good selection.

FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS.

Forestry associations thrive better in Germany than in the United States and are of a different
character; they are associations of foresters, who practice what they preach. There is no more
need of a propaganda for forestry than there would be here for agriculture, and the discussions,
therefore, are moving in technical, scientific, and economic directions. Besides some thirty or
forty larger and smaller local associations, there is held every year a forestry congress, at which
the leading foresters discuss important questions of the day.

FOREST EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

In addition to all these means of education and of advancement of forestry science, and in
addition to the demonstration forests connected with the various schools of forestry, there has
been developed in the last twenty years a new and most important factor in the shape of forest
experiment stations, which are also mostly connected with the forestry schools. If forestry had
a strong and well-supported constituency before, this additional force has imparted new impulses
in every direction.

The first incentive for the establishment of these stations came from the recognition that the
study of forest influences upon climate could be carried on only with the aid of long-continued
observations at certain stations. Accordingly, during the years 1862 to 1867, forest meteorological
stations were instituted in Bavaria, which, under the efficient direction of the well-known and
eminent Dr. Ebermayer, for the first time attempted to solve these and other climatic questions
on a scientific basis. The results of these and other observations have been fully discussed in
Bulletin 7 of the Forestry Division and are briefly recorded in this report.

While these stations were continued and others added in all parts of the country, an enlarge-
ment of the programme was soon discussed with great vigor, leading (between the years 1870-1876)
to the institution of fully organized experiment stations in Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Thuringia,
Wurtemberg, Baden, Switzerland and Austria following in the same direction; all of these finally
combining into an “association of German forest experiment stations,” similar to the association
of agricultural experiment stations in our country. Thus the science of forestry, which hitherto
had been developed empirically, has been placed upon'the basis of exact scientific investigation,
the fruit of which is just beginning to ripen in many branches.

FOREST MANAGEMENT IN BRITISH INDIA. 259

We in the United States are fortunate, in that we can learn from the experience and profit
from the assiduous work of these careful investigators. While we may never adopt the admirable
administrative methods that fit the economic, social, and political conditions of Germany, we shall
ever follow them where the recognition and utilization of natural laws lead to the practical
acknowledgment of general principles and to desired economic results in forest culture.

ForEST MANAGEMENT IN BrrvisH INDIA.

In order to show how the transfer of German methods may work advantageously, eyen in a
country entirely differently conditioned, the results obtained by the forest management in British
India are here briefly stated.

India, with a total area of nearly 1,500,000 square miles or 936,000,000 acres (an area about
one-half that of the United States without Alaska), has a population of about 270,000,000, or four
times as great as that of the United States.

Of the entire area about 950,000 square miles, or 63 per cent, are under British rule, the
remaining 550,000 square miles, with a population of about 53,000,000, being divided among a
large number of more or less independent native States.

Of the entire population about 70 per cent are farmers and farm laborers, who cultivate about
200,000,000 acres of land, 30,000,000 of whieh is irrigated. The greater part of the main peninsula
is a high plateau with steep descents to the ocean, both on the western aud eastern coast.

To the north of this plateau is a broad, fertile, river plain extending from the upper Bramah-
putra to the mouth of the Indus, a distance of nearly 2,000 miles, without rising more than 900
feet above sea level. North of this large and densely settled Indo-Gangetic plain, and forming
the barrier between India and Thibet, is the great Himalaya Mountain system, drained by the
three great river systems of northern India.

More than half of India lies within the Tropics and over 90 per cent is farther south than New
Orleans, the latitude of which is 30°. From this it is apparent that the climate is generally hot,
but, owing to diversity of elevation and peculiarities of the distribution of rainfall, it is by no
means uniform.

The rains of India depend on extraordinary sea winds, or monsoons,” and their distribution
is regulated by the topography of land and the relative position of any districts with regard to
the mountains and the vapor-laden air currents. Thus excessive rainfall characterizes the coast
line along the Arabian Sea to about latitude 20° N., and still more the coast of Lower Burmah, and
to a lesser extent also the delta of the Ganges and the southern slope of the Himalayas. A mod-
erately humid climate, if gauged by annual rainfall, prevails over the plateau occupying the large»
peninsula and the Lower Ganges Valley, while a rainfall of less than 15 inches occurs over the
arid regions of the Lower Indus. In keeping with this great diversity of climate, both as to
temperature and humidity, there is great variation in the character and development of the forest
cover. The natural differences in this forest cover are emphasized by the action of man, who for
many centuries has waged war against the forest, clearing it permanently or temporarily for agricul-
tural purposes or else merely burning it over to improve grazing facilities or for purposes of the chase.
Thus only about 25 per cent of the entire area of India is covered by woods, not over 20 per cent
being under cultivation, leaving about 5d per cent either natural desert, waste, or grazing lands.
The great forests of India are in Burmah; extensive woods clothe the foothills of the Himalayas
and are scattered in smaller bodies throughout the more humid portions of the country, while the
dry northwestern territories are practically treeless wastes. In this way large areas of densely
settled districts are so completely void of forest that millions of people regularly burn cow dung as
fuel, while equally large districts are still impenetrable, wild woods, where, for want of market, it
hardly pays to cut even the best of timbers.

The great mass of forests of India are stocked with hardwoods (i. e., not conifers), which in
these tropical countries are largely evergreens, or nearly so, and only a small portion of the forest
area is covered by conifers, both pine and cedar, these pine forests being generally restricted to
higher altitudes. The hardwoods, most of which in India truly deserve this name, belong to a
great variety of plant families, some of the most important being the Leguminosi, Verbenacee,
Dipterocarpex, Combretacex, Rubiacexe, Ebenacee, Euphorbiace:, Myrtacee, and others, and

260 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

but a relatively small portion of them represent the Cupuliferee and other important hardwood
timber families so characteristic of our woods.

In the greater part of India the hardwood forest consists not of a few species, as with us, but
is made up of a great variety of trees unlike in their habit, their growth, and their product, and
if our hardwoods offer on this account considerable difficulties to profitable exploitation, the case
is far more complicated in India. In addition to the large variety of timber trees there is a
multitude of shrubs, twining and climbing plants, and in most forest districts also a dense under-
growth of giant grasses (bamboos), attaining a height of 30 to 120 feet. These bamboos, valuable
as they are in many ways, prevent often for years the growth of any seedling tree, and thus form
a serious obstacle to the regeneration of valuable timber. The growth of timber is generally
quite rapid; the bamboos make large, useful stems in a single season. Teak grows into large-size
saw timber in fifty to sixty years. But in spite of their rapid growth and the large areas now in
forest capable of reforestation, India is not likely to—at least within reasonable time—raise more
timber than it needs. In most parts of India the use of ordinary soft woods, such as pine, seems
very restricted, for only durable woods, those resisting both fungi and insects (of which the white
ants are specially destructive), can be employed in the more permanent structures, and are there-
fore acceptable in all Indian markets.

At present teak is the most important hardwood timber, while the deodar (a true cedar) is the
most extensively used conifer. Teak occurs in all moist regions of India except the mountain
countries, never makes forests by itself (pure forests), grows mixed with other kinds, single, or in
clumps, is girdled two to three years before felling, is generally logged in a primitive way, com-
monly hewn in the woods and shipped—usually floated—as timber, round or hewn, and rarely sawn
to size. Teak is as heavy and strong as good hickory, has little sapwood, stands well after
seasoning, and is remarkably proof against decay and the still more dreaded white ants, and is
really the only important export timber of India, about $2,500,000 worth having been shipped in
1894-95, bringing about $1 per cubic foot, or more than four times as much as good pine timber
in the market.

As will be seen from the following figures timber forms only about 20 per cent of the export
of forest products, which consist chiefly of lac, the basis of shellac (really the product of an
insect) and of tanning materials:

Exports of forest products from India, 1894-95.

Thee (DENSE MIT GEWEC)) oe ance oes See Sees oben Doses coos oodseo SosaTe pESoe eas ssorse $7, 000, 000
WE oss cencimseonseneeas Seng qousss Seon ouTboD SSS cosBoodEs Sone OsuESo cron ocoeseoncacosaEs 2, 800, 000
WERROURIRINS, coc oe cosets coop eee o ened cons seo orecoe Seon pesras cossce Goss abe CoDesssocaoes 2, 300, 000
Cimieln aingl eam)? ~~. sos cooo coos ces 50s Hebe soomES HOSS SeeETE CusM SND CDUSOS bOSesascoecE 1, 450, 000
(CROUIHO NOG: sos ean Gusicsas sod ocrS ceoewaaaae eno Hosp scodas Sud sor Ret oscesaccouEsisdepsss 530, 000
Fancy woods—sandal, ebony, rosewood --- ------- ==. -- = = 22. oo ew we ame =~ = == 290, 000
(OP ir Ey OY) Saas gen ricecc roe Moca sned Sala Hose Bune aeeEceraieas BoacSaosbenulboE cesc odcop sce 140, 000

Motal ose oped aces ceereee ears See ese ce cise see a ee ace ee aero sae eee 14, 530, 000

The imports of timber into India have so far been very insignificant. Attempts at introducing
American coniferous timber (pine, spruce, larch, and hemlock) from the Pacific coast have not
been successful, though it would seem that some wood goods, such as boxes, sash and door, and
cheap furniture, should find a favorable and extensive market if once the trade is established.
Perhaps a treatment of these materials with some of the new fireproofing substances could be
made to render them at the same time more resistant to white ants and other insect borers,
and thus procure for them several important advantages at once.

In the past the people of India, as far as known, never realized the importance of their
forests. They were cleared, destroyed, mutilated at all times and in all places, and the use of
wood never seems to have formed an important factor in Hindoo civilization.

With the advent of foreign commerce the exploitation of the forests for the more valuable
export timbers received a new stimulus and the forests were culled regardless of the future, either
of forest or people. This matter was aggravated by the construction of railways, which, in
themselves large consumers, also offered a premium on all that contributed to increased trafic.
When, finally, it was noticed that the demands of timber for public works in some localities could

INDIAN FOREST MANAGEMENT. 261

no longer be supplied without costly transportation, the matter at last received public attention.
In 1856, Dr. D. Brandis was appointed superintendent of forests for Pegu; in 1862 he was charged
with the duty of organizing a forest department for all India, and in 1864 he was appointed the
first inspector-general for the forests of India. During the thirty-four years of its existence this
department has steadily and rapidly grown in the area managed, the number of men employed,
and the revenue derived for the State. In 1894-95 this forestry department had control of about
112,900 square miles of forest, nearly half of all the forests, and about 12 per cent of the entire
area of India. Of these State forests, 74,000 square miles are “ reserve” or permanent State forests,
while the rest are held as “protected” and “unclassed,” a large portion of which will become
reserve or permanent forests as fast as the necessary surveys and settlement can be made.

With the irregular distribution of forests, the peculiarities of Indian affairs, and the unsurveyed
wild, and difficult conditions of the forests themselves, it is but natural that the work thus far
has been chiefly one of organization, survey, and protection, and to a far less degree an attempt
at improvement both by judicious cutting and reforestation.

Over 33,000 square miles have been surveyed for forest purposes since 1874. and over 4,000
square miles were added during the year 1894-95, at a cost of over $200,000.

Work of establishing and maintaining boundary lines, which is often a very difficult and
costly matter in the dense tropical jungles, involved during the same year an expense of over
$40,000, and there are at present about 60,000 miles of such boundary lines maintained. Besides
this survey work proper, there is a large force constantly at work to ascertain the amount and
condition of timber supplies and to prepare suitable plans for their exploitation and improvement,
so that about 12 per cent of the entire forest area, or over 570,000 acres, is by this time managed
with definite working plans as to amount of timber to be cut, what areas to be thinned, reforested,
ete. The work of protection is chiefly one of preventing and fighting fires. This protection with
present means can not be carried on over the entire forest areas, of which large tracts are not even
crossed by a footpath, and in a Jand where the regular firing of the woods has become the custom
of centuries, and where, in addition, intensely hot and dry weather, together with a most luxuriant
growth of giant grasses, render these jungle fires practically unmanageable. In all forests near
settlements the forest must be isolated by broad ‘fire traces” or otherwise. In the jungle forests
these traces must be broad; the grass, often taller than an elephant, must be cut and burned
before the grass on either side is dry enough to burn. Similarly, the traces in the long-leaf pine
forests must be very wide and first converted into grass strips, cut or kept clean by burning. In
spite of the unusual difficulties there were in 1894-95 over 33,000 square miles protected against
fire, and on only 8 per cent of this area did the element succeed in doing any damage. In this
work, too, great progress has been made during the last twenty years; the efficiency has steadily
increased, and the expense, about $10 per square mile in 1883, has been reduced to less than half.

In the protection against unlawful felling or timber stealing and grazing, the Government
of India has shown itself fully equal to the occasion by a liberal policy of supplying villagers
in proximity to the forests with fuel, etc., at reduced prices or gratis. Over $2,000,000 worth was
thus disposed of in 1894-95, the incentive to timber stealing being thereby materially reduced.
A reasonable and just permit system of grazing, where again the needs of the neighboring
villagers are most carefully considered, not only brings the Government a yearly revenue of nearly
$500,000, but enables the people to graze about 3,000,000 head of animals in the State forests
without doing any material damage to tree growth.

Though the forests of India are now, and will continue for some time to be, little more than
wild woods, with some protection and a reasonable system of exploitation, in place of a mere
robbing or culling system, yet the work of actually improving the forests steadily increases in
amount and perfection. 4

In the large teak forests of Burma, as well as other provinces, care is had in helping this
valuable timber to propagate itself; the useless kinds of trees are girdled, huge climbers are cut
off, and a steady war is waged against all species detrimental to teak regeneration. Where the
teak has entirely disappeared, even planting is resorted to. Thus in Burma over 395,000 acres
have been restocked with teak by means of taungyas, or plantations, where the native is allowed
to burn down a piece of woods, use it for a few years as field (though it is never really cleared) on
condition of planting it with teak, being paid a certain sum for every hundred trees in a thrifty

262 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

condition at the time of giving up his land. Similarly, the department has expended large sums
in establishing forests in parts of the arid regions of Beluchistan, and on the whole has expended
about $150,000 during 1894-95 on cultural operations, which up to that time involved about
76,000 acres of regular plantations and 36,000 acres taungyas (mostly teak), making a total of
112,000 acres, besides numerous large areas where the work consisted merely in aiding natural
reproduction.

In disposing of its timber the Government of India employs various methods. In some of
the forest districts the people merely pay a small tax and get out of the woods what and as much
as they need. In other cases the logger merely pays for what he removes, the amount he fells
being neither limited in quantity nor quality. The prevalent systems, however, are the permit
system, where a permit is issued indicating the amount to be cut and the price to be paid for the
same, and the contract system, where the work is more or less under control of government officers
and the material remains government property until paid for. Toalimited extent the State carries
on its own timber exploitation, as appears from the following figures, where the cut for 1894-95 for
the entire country is given:

| : Removed by—
Kind and quantity of product.

|
| Es
| State. | Purchaser.

Timber (1,000 cubie feet) artes f 39, 900
Fuel (1,000 enbic feet) - rs 69, 000
Bamboos (1,000 pieces) - 132, 200

1, 500

Minor products ($1,000) .--

i

In spite of the many difficulties, a poor market (no market at all for a large number of woods),
wild, unsurveyed, and practically unknown woodlands, requiring unusual and costly methods of
organization and protection, the forestry department has succeeded, without curtailing the timber
output of India, in so regulating forest exploitation as to insure not only a permanence in the output,
but also to improve the woodlands by favoring the valuable species, and thus prepare for an
increase of output for the future, and at the same time has yielded the Government a steadily ©
growing revenue, which bids fair to rank before long among the important sources of income.

The growth of both gross and net revenue is illustrated by the following figures:

Proportion
Expenses. | of expense
| to income.

Gross in-

early i during th riod—
Yearly income during the peri come.

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Per cent.
1870-1874 ... $2, 810, 000 $1, 960,000 | 70
1875-1879 - -- so 3, 330, 000 2, 288, 000 69
1880-1884 - --| 4,408, 000 2, 806.000 | 64
1885-1889 - -- ----| 5, 834, 000 8,713,000 | 64
IGUAL RE Bocce Goeben sambae Sxoaceeons 7, 974, 000 4,266,000 | 54

From this it is clear that in India as in Europe not only the gross but also the net income has
become greater in proportion as a better organization is permitted to expend more money on the
care of the forests.

During the year 1894-95 the income from State forests was distributed as follows:

IY COTY ee Ba Ne Pe me Leo te Cong cite eR ey pe Oren ay AL a ea $6, 170, 000
Minoriproducts =: 2.522 55, s2222sietecmccis sees le oe sens Sees oe Se Se ae ema ae re eee 670, 000
Grazin gee. saison hence da sas Sessa Be See eee aoe ene Sate ore Sent ey te aes tae ee 780, 000
OtherAncomes). 825 2 hk. seed relate tered eps ee aoe Se Se ls Se eae ister etee ToeeS 750, 000

Biiotaltin Come). 0/422: !atae Gaal te amen nne a keen in Ae pen ee ea Sa 8, 370, 000

The expenditures for the same year were:

For administration (pay of officers, foresters, etc.) --..-----------------+--------------- $2,200, 000
IOP Clay HAD iia ee Nl TSO Ab oe oo ee eee cosas aanene Cobo aaceoe asHcso coo esse 1, 350, 000
CO AY=3 OA oft ol eects eee eas oP rR Ree OM Dak te meee code saocs os 760, 000
Forest school....-.------- Tralee: dle rec VAR a ene ht Mae dans SATIN ei eae a Re Cor 46, 000

Notalirecurring expenses... 55-2 semis sae eee ees eee Aeon eee eae at 4, 356, 000
For survey and other extraordinary work 300, 000

Rotalllexpenditure ye srces 3- Sc, oe c/o eee ee ee ee ee eee ean GoG. O00,

leaving a net revenue of $3,714,000, or 44 per cent of the gross income.

INDIAN FOREST MANAGEMENT. 263

It is of special interest to note that the expense of fire protection amounted, under these most
extraordinary circumstances, only to $130,000, or 1.6 per cent of the gross income, and that for
cultural work, the horror of the American anti-forest proclaimer, only $150,000, or 1.8 per cent of
the gross income, was paid.

The forest laws of India were like those of most countries, a matter of growth and adaptation,
with the important difference, however, that the well-defined object of preserving to this great
and peculiar people a continuous supply of the all-essential timber was steadily kept in mind.
The principal acts are those of 1865, 1869, and especially the ‘Indian forest act” of 1878, with
secondary legislation applying to particular localities, such as the act of 1881 for Burma, and 1882
for Madras and others.

In general these forest laws provide for the establishment of permanent or “reserved” State
forests, to be managed according to modern forestry principles. They provide for a suitable force of
men; give the forest officers certain police powers; prohibit unwarranted removal of forest
products, the setting of fires, or otherwise injuring the forest property. The laws also regulate
grazing and the chase by permit systems, and prescribe rules by which the work of the depart-
ment is carried on, as well as the manner in which officers are engaged, promoted, etc. Since the
peculiar circumstances required men specially fitted and trained, schools were established to
furnish the recruits for this steadily growing service. The one at Coopers Hill, England, where a
thorough course is intended to prepare men for the superior staff positions, and the Imperial
school at Dehra Dun, which is to supply the great number of the executive staff, the young men
starting in usually as guards or rangers at a pay of about $25 per month, working their way up
to places worth $70 per month, and if well suited, eligible for further promotion. In the Dehra
Dun school and the executive staff the native element is fast making itself felt, and there is little
doubt that the men of India will soon be able to manage the forests of their own native land.

F, PRINCIPLES OF SILVICULTURE.

}
How TREES GROW.

Trees, like most other plants, originate from seed, build up a body of cell tissues, form foliage,
flower, and fruit, and take up food material from the soil and air, which they convert into cellulose
and other compounds, from which all their parts are formed. They rely, like other plants, upon
moisture, heat, and light as the means of performing the functions of growth. Yet there are
some peculiarities in their behavior, their life and growth, which require special attention on the
part of a tree grower or forest planter.

FOOD MATERIALS AND CONDITIONS OF GROWTH.

Trees derive their food and solid substance in part from the air and in part from the soil.
The solid part of their bodies is made up of cellulose, which consists largely of carbon (44 per
cent of its weight), with nydrogen and oxygen added in almost the same proportions as in water.
The carbon is derived from the carbonic acid of the air, which enters into the leaves, and under
the influence of light, air, and water is there decomposed; the oxygen is exhaled; the carbon is
retained and combined with elements derived from the water, forming compounds, such as starch,
sugar, etc., which are used as food materials, passing down the tree through its outer layers to
the very tips of the roots, making new wood all along the branches, trunk, and roots.

This process of food preparation, called “assimilation,” can be carried on only in the green
parts, and in these only when exposed to light and air; hence foliage, air, and light at the top
are essential prerequisites for tree growth, and hence, other conditions being favorable, the more
foliage and the better developed it is and the more light this foliage has at its disposal for its
work, the more vigorously will the tree grow.

In general, therefore, pruning, since it reduces the amount of foliage, reduces also for the
time the amount of wood formed; and just so shading, reducing the activity of foliage, reduces
the growth of wood.

SOIL CONDITIONS.

From the soil trees take mainly water, which enters through the roots and is carried through
the younger part of the tree to the leaves, to be used in part on its passage for food and wood
formation and in part to be given up to the air by transpiration. ,

In a vigorously growing tree the solid wood substance itself will contain half its weight in
the form of water chemically combined, and the tree, in addition, will contain from 40 to 65 per
cent and more of its dry weight in water mechanically or hygroscopically held. This last,
when the tree is cut, very largely evaporates; yet well-seasoned wood still contains 10 to 12 per
cent of such water. The weight of a green tree—a pine, for instance—is made up in round
numbers of about 30 per cent of carbon and 70 per cent of water, either chemically or hygroscop-
ically held, while a birch contains a still larger percentage of water.

The largest part of the water which passes through the tree is transpired—i. e., given off to the
air in vapor. The amounts thus transpired during the season vary greatly with the species of
tree, its age, the amount of foliage at work, the amount of light at its disposal, the climatic
conditions (rain, temperature, winds, relative humidity), and the season. These amounts are,
however, very large when compared with the quantity retained; so that while an acre of forest

264

FOREST GROWTH AND SOIL. 205

may store in its trees, say, 1,000 pounds of carbon, 15 to 20 pounds of mineral substances, and
5,000 pounds of water in a year, it will have transpired—taken up from the soil and returned to
the air—from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water (one-quarter to one-half as much as agricul-
tural crops).

Mineral substances are taken up only in very small quantities, and these are mostly the
commoner sorts, such as lime, potash, magnesia, and nitrogen. These are carried in solution to
the leaves, where they are used (as also on their passage through the tree), with a part of the
water, in food preparation. The main part of the mineral substances taken up remains, however,
as the water transpires, in the leaves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves
are shed or when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make humus. The mineral
constituents of the tree remain as ashes when wood is burned, the remaining elements passing
into the atmosphere in the form of gas.

Hence the improvement of the fertility of the soil by wood crops is explained, the minerals
being returned in more soluble form to the soil; as also the fact that wood crops do not exhaust
the soil of its minerals, provided the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground.

For this reason there is no necessity of alternating wood crops, as far as their mineral needs are
concerned; the same kind of trees can be grown on the same soil continuously, provided the soil
is not allowed to deteriorate from other causes.

As the foliage can perform its work of food assimilation only when sufficient water is at its
disposal, the amount of growth is also dependent not only on the presence of sufficient sources of
supply, but also on the opportunity had by the roots to utilize the supply, and this opportunity is
dependent upon the condition of the soil. If the soil is compact, so that the rain water can not
penetrate readily and runs off superficially, or if it is of coarse grain and so deep that the water
rapidly sinks out of reach of the roots and can not be drawn up by capillary action, the water
supply is of no avail to the plants; but if the soil is porous and moderately deep (depth being the
distance from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil, rock, or ground water), the water not only
can penetrate, but also can readily be reached and taken up by the roots.

The moisture of the soil being the most important element in it for tree growth, the greatest
attention must be given to its conservation’ and most advantageous distribution through the soil.

No trees grow to the best advantage in very dry or very wet soil, although some can live and
almost thrive in such unfavorable situations. A moderately but evenly moist soil, porous and
deep enough or fissured enough to be well drained, and yet of such a structure that the water
supplies from the depths can readily-be drawn up and become available to the roots—that is the
soil on which all trees grow most thriftily.

The agriculturist procures this condition of the soil as far as possible by piowing, drainage,
and irrigation, and he tries by cultivating to keep the soil from compacting again, as it does under
the influence of the beating rain and of the drying out of the upper layers by sun and wind.

The forest grower can not rely upon such methods, because they are either too expensive or
entirely impracticable. He may, indeed, plow for his first planting, and cultivate the young trees;
put in a few years this last operation will become impossible and the effects of the first operation
will be lost. He must, therefore, attain his object in another manner, namely, by shading and
mulching the soil. The shading is done at first by planting very closely, so that the ground may
be protected as soon as possible from sun and wind, and by maintaining the shade well throughout
the period of growth. This shade is maintained, if necessary, by more planting, and in case the
main crop in later life thins out inordinately in the crowns or tops, or by the accidental death of
trees, it may even become desirable to introduce an underbrush.

The mulching is done by allowing the fallen leaves and twigs to remain and decay, and form
a cover of rich mold or humus. This protective cover permits the rain and snow waters to pene-
trate without at the same time compacting the soil, keeping it granular and in best condition for
conducting water, and at the same time preventing evaporation at the surface.

The soil moisture, therefore, is best maintained by proper soil cover, which, however, is needful
only in naturally dry soils. Wet soils, although supporting tree growth, do not, if constantly wet,
produce satisfactory wood crops, the growth being very slow. Hence they must be drained and
their water level sunk below the depth of the root system.

266 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Irrigation is generally too expensive to be applied to wood crops, except perhaps in the arid
regions, where the benefit of the shelter belt may warrant the expense.

Attention to favorable moisture conditions in the soil requires the selection of such kinds of
trees as shade well for a long time, to plant closely, to protect the woody undergrowth (but not
weeds), and to leave the litter on the ground as a mulch.

Different species, to be sure, adapt themselves to different degrees of soil moisture, and the
crop should therefore be selected with reference to its adaptation to available moisture supplies.

While, as stated, all trees thrive best with a moderate and even supply of moisture, some can
get along with very little, like the conifers, especially pines; others can exist even with an
excessive supply, us the bald cypress, honey locust, some oaks, ete. The climate, however, must
also be considered in this connection, for a tree species, although succeeding well enough on a dry
soil in an atmosphere which does not require much transpiration, may not do so in a drier climate
on the same soil.

In the selection of different kinds of trees for different soils, the water conditions of the soil
should therefore determine the choice.

LIGHT CONDITIONS.

To insure the largest amount of growth, full enjoyment of sunlight is needed. But as light
is almost always accompanied by heat and relative dryness of air, which demands water from the
plant, and may increase transpiration from the leaves inordinately, making them pump too hard,
as it were, young seedlings of tree species whose foliage is not built for such strains require
partial shading for the first year or two. The conifers belong to this class.

The great extent of our country, involving as it does wide ranges of climatic and soil condi-
tions, makes it impossible to give complete lists of trees adapted to various soil conditions in all
parts of the United States. The safest rule for the planter to follow is to be guided in his
selection of species by the character of the growth in similar sites near the land to be planted.
Speaking generally, the following lists may be usetul:

Trees that endure wet soils.—South of the Ohio River and central Missouri: Bald cypress,
white cedar, red cedar, black gum, holly, water oak, red birch, cottonwood. North of the Ohio
,and Missouri rivers: White cedar, arbor vitie, larch, black spruce, cottonwood, white willow,
sycamore.

Dry soils.—South of the Ohio River and central Missouri: Mesquite (Texas and southwest),
black oak, hackberry, shortleaf pine. North of Ohio and Missouri rivers: Bull pine, jack pine,
scrub pine, white oak, post oak, jack oak. .

The remaining species, north and south, require moist or fresh soils for their development,
conditions under which all species succeed best.

In later life the light conditions exert a threefold influence on the development of the tree,
namely, with reference to soil conditions, with reference to form development, and with reference
to amount of growth.

The art of the forester consists in regulating the light conditions so as to secure the full
benefit of the stimulating effect of light on growth without its deteriorating influences on the soil
and on form development.

As we have seen, shade is desirable in order to preserve soil moisture. Now, while young
trees of all kinds, during the “brush” stage of development, have a rather dense foliage, as they
grow older they vary in habit, especially when growing in the forest. Some, like the beech, the
sugar maple, the hemlock, and the spruce, keep up a dense crown; others, like the chestnut, the
oaks, the walnut, the tulip tree, and the white pine, thin out more and more, and when fully grown —
have a much less dense foliage; finally, there are some which do not keep up a dense shade for any
length of time, like the black and honey locust, with their small, thin leaves; the catalpa, with its
large but few leaves at the end of the branchlets only, and the larch, with its short, scattered
bunches of needles. So we can establish a comparative scale of trees with reference to the amount
of shade which they can give continuously, as densely foliaged and thinly foliaged, in various
gradations. If we planted all beech or sugar maple, the desirable shading of the soil would
never be lacking, while if we planted all locust or catalpa the sun would soon reach the soil and dry
it out, or permit a growth of grass or weeds, which is worse, because these transpire still larger

SHADE AND LIGHT REQUIREMENTS. 267

quantities of water than the bare ground evaporates or an undergrowth of woody plants would
transpire. Of course, a densely foliaged tree has many more leaves to shed than a thinly foliaged
one, and therefore makes more litter, which increases the favorable mulch cover of the soil.
Another reason for keeping the ground well shaded is that the litter then decomposes slowly, but
into a desirable humus, which acts favorably upon the soil, while if the litter is exposed to light,
an undesirable, partly decomposed “raw” humus is apt to be formed.

Favorable soil conditions, then, require shade, while wood growth is increased by full enjoy-
ment of light; to satisfy both requirements, mixed planting, with proper selection of shade--
enduring and light-needing species, is resorted to.

As the different species afford shade in different degrees, so they require for their development
different degrees of light. The dense foliage of the beech, with a large number of leaves in the
interior of the crown, proves that the leaves can exist and perform their work with a small amount
of light; the beech is a shade-enduring tree. The scanty foliage of poplars and pines shows that
these are light-needing trees; hence they are never found under the dense shade of the former,
while the shade-enduring can develop satisfactorily under the light shade of the thin-foliaged
kinds. Very favorable soil conditions increase the shade endurance of the latter, and climatic
conditions also modify their relative position in the scale.

All trees ultimately thrive best—i. e., grow most vigorously—in the full enjoyment of light, but
their energy then goes into branching. Crowded together, with the side light cut oft, the lower
lateral branches soon die and fall, while the main energy of growth is put into the shaft and the
height growth is stimulated. The denser shade of the shade-enduring kinds, if placed as neigh-
bors to light-needing ones, is most effective in producing this result, provided that the light is not
cut off at the top; and thus, in practice, advantage is taken of the relative requirements for light
of the various species.!

The forester finds in close planting and in mixed growth a means of securing tall, clear trunks,
free from knots, and he is able, by proper regulation of light conditions, to influence the form
development, and also the quality of his crop, since slow growth and rapid growth produce wood
of different character.

There are some species which, although light-foliaged and giving comparatively little shade,
are yet shade-enduring—i. e., can subsist, although not develop favorably, under shade; the oaks
are examples of this kind. Others, like the black cherry, bear a dense crown for the first twenty
years, perhaps, seemingly indicating great shade endurance; but the fact that the species named
soon clears itself of its branches and finally has a thin crown indicates that it is light-needing,
though a good shader for the first period of its life. Others, again, like the catalpa, which is
shady and shade enduring, as the difficulty with which it clears itself indicates, leaf out so late
and lose their foliage so early that their shading value is thereby impaired. Black locust and .
honey locust, on the other hand, leave no doubt either as to their light-needing or their inferior
shading quality.

That soil conditions and climatic conditions also modify crown development and shade
endurance has been well recognized abroad, but in our country this influence is of much more
importance on account of the great variation in those conditions. Thus the box elder, an excel.
lent shader in certain portions of the West, is a failure as soil cover in others where it nevertheless
will grow. ;

We see, then, that in determining the shading value as well as the shade endurance of one
species in comparison with another, with reference to forestry purposes, not only soil and climate
but also the character of foliage and its length of season must be considered.

As to shade endurance the more valuable species of the United States, including exotics,
may be classed as follows:

Light-demanding from seedling stage: Aspen, cottonwood, black walnut, black locust, honey

1 This relation of the different species to varying light conditions, their comparative shading value and shade
endurance, is one of the most important facts to be observed and utilized by the forester. European foresters have
done this, but since they had to deal with only a few species and over a limited territory, they could quite readily
classify their trees with reference to their shade endurance, and take it for granted that shade endurance and density
of foliage or shading value were more or less identical. With our great wealth of useful species it will be necessary
and profitable to be more exact in the classification.

268 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 58. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

locust, white ash, green ash, red pine, bull pine, sycamore, larch, black birch, mesquite, the
hickories.

Light-demanding when mature, but enduring moderate shade in youth: The oaks, white pine,
black cherry, catalpa, silver maple, red maple, the elms, tulip, yellow birch.

Shade-enduring: Beech, sugar maple, box elder, mulberry, hackberry, hemlock, red cedar,
Douglas spruce, white fir, white spruce, arbor vitse, and white cedar.

PHYSIOLOGY OF TREE GROWTH.

As we have seen, root ‘and foliage are the main life organs of the tree. The trunk and
branches serve to carry the crown upward and expose it to the light, which is necessary in order
to prepare the food and increase the volume of the tree, and also as conductors of food materials
up and down between root and foliage. A large part of the roots, too, aside from giving stability
to the tree, serve only as conductors of water and food material; only the youngest parts, the
fibrous roots, beset with innumerable fine hairs, serve to take up the water and minerals from the
soil. These fine roots, root hairs, and young parts are therefore the essential portion of the root
system. A tree may have a fine, vigorous-looking root system, yet if the young parts and fibrous
roots are cut off or allowed to dry out, which they readily do—some kinds more so than others—
thereby losing their powers to take up water, such a tree is apt to die. Under very favorable
moisture and temperature conditions, however, the old roots may throw out new sprouts and
replace the fibrous roots. Some species, like the willows, poplars, locusts, and others, are
especially capable of doing so. All trees that “‘ transplant easily” probably possess this capacity
of renewing the fibrous roots readily, or else are less subject to drying out. But it may be stated
as a probable fact that most transplanted trees which die soon after the planting do so because the
fibrous roots have been curtailed too much in taking up, or else have been allowed to dry out on
the way from the nursery or forest to the place of planting; they were really dead before being
set. Conifers—pines, spruces, etc.—are especially sensitive; maples, oaks, catalpas, and apples
will, in this respect, stand a good deal of abuse.

Henee, in transplanting, the first and foremost care of the forest grower, besides taking the
seedling up with least injury, is the proper protection of its root fibers against drying out.

The water, with the minerals in solution, is taken up by the roots when the soil is warm enough,
but to enable the roots to act they must be closely packed with the soil. It is conveyed mostly
through the outer, which are the younger, layers of the wood of root, trunk, and branches to the
leaves. Here, as we have seen, under the influence of light and heat it is in large part transpired
and in part combined with the carbon into organic compounds, sugar, ett., which serve as food
materials. These travel from the leaf into the branchlet, and down through the outer layers of
the trunk to the very tips of the root, forming new wood all the way, new buds, which lengthen into
shoots, leaves, and flowers, and also new rootlets. To live and grow, therefore, the roots need the
food elaborated in the leaves, just as the leaves need the water sent up from the roots.

Hence the interdependence of root system and crown, which must be kept in proportion when
transplanting. At least, the root system must be sufficient to supply the needs of the crown.

“SAP UP AND SAP DOWN.”

The growing tree, in all its parts, is more or less saturated with water, and as the leaves,
under the influence of sun and wind and atmospheric conditions generally transpire, new supplies
are taken in through the roots and conveyed to the crown. This movement takes place even in
winter, in a slight degree, to supply the loss of water by evaporation from the branches. In the
growing season it is so active as to become noticeable: hence the saying that the sap is “up,” or
“rising,” and when, toward the end of the season, the movement becomes less, the sap is said to
be “down.” But this movement of water is always upward; hence the notion that there is a
stream upward at one season and in one part of the tree and a stream downward at another
season and perhaps in another part of the tree is erroneous. The downward movement is of food
materials, and the two movements of water upward and food downward take place simultaneously
and depend, in part at least, one upon the other, the food being carried to the young parts,
wherever required, by a process of diffusion from cell to cell known as “osmosis.”

FOOD AND WATER MOVEMENT. 269

These food materials are, by the life processes of the active cells, changed in chemical
composition as need be, from sugar, which is soluble, into starch, which is insoluble, and back
into sugar, and combined with nitrogenous substances to make the cell-forming material, proto-
plasm (fig. 27).

In the fall, when the leaves cease to elaborate food, both the upward and the downward
movement, more or less simultaneously, come to rest (the surplus of food materials, as starch, and
sometimes as sugar, being stored for the winter in certain cell tissues), to begin again simultane-
ously when in spring the temperature is high enough to reawaken activity, when the stored food of
last year is dissolved and started on its voyage. The
exact manner in which this movement of water upward
and food materials downward takes place, and the
forces at work, are not yet fully understood, nor is
there absolute certainty as to the parts of the tree in %
which the movement takes place. It appears, how-
ever, that while all the so-called “sapwood” is capable
of conducting water (the heartwood is probably not),
the most active movement of both water and food
materials takes place in the cambium (the growing
cells immediately beneath the bark) and youngest
parts of the bark.

The deductions from these processes important to
the planter are: That injury to the living bark or bast
means injury to growth, if not destruction to life; that
during the period of vegetation transplanting can be
done only with great caution; that the best time to
move trees is in the fall, when the leaves have dropped
and the movement of water and food materials has
mostly ceased, or in spring, before the movement be-
gins again, the winter being objectionable only because
of the difficulty of working the soil and of keeping the
roots protected against frost. All things considered,
spring planting, before activity in the tree has begun,
is the best, although it is not impossible to plant at
other times.

In the making of protoplasm and the plant tissues
resulting from its growth, many chemical changes
occur within the plant, as a result of which not only 7
woody tissue, which may be considered the permanent
essential product of growth, but alsomany by-products —-P- 27-—Physiological importance of different parts of

3 E the tree; pathways of water and food materials.
are formed. It not infrequently happens that what (Schematic,)
has here been termed the by-product is of greater com-
mercial importance than the wood itself. Thus among familiar woody species the India rubber
tree is only valued for its sap, the logwood of Central America for dyeing, the cinchona trees for
their alkaloid (quinine products), etc. Again, some of our most important timber trees yield also
useful by-products. The maple yields millions of pounds of excellent sugar, the longleaf pine is
the principal source of the resin and turpentine supply of the world, and the bark of hemlock and
of certain oaks furnish most of the tannin used in American tanneries.

aAciO
“Are,

ACcIO
~~ cansonic

4—CARBONIC’
L
Se,

p OXYOEN

HEARTWOOD, NO MOVEMENT.

PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT.

Like wheat or corn, the tree seeds require as conditions for sprouting sufficient moisture,
warmth, and air. The seeds, however, differ from grain in that most of the kinds lose their power
of germination easily; with few exceptions (locust, pine, spruce), they can not be kept for any
length of time.

The first leaves formed often differ essentially in shape from those of the mature tree, which
may cause their being confounded with other plants, weeds, etc.

270 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The little seedlings of many, especially the conifers, are quite delicate, and rem ain very small
the first season; they need, therefore, the protecting shade of mother trees, or artificial shading,
and also protection against weeds. The amount of light or shade given requires careful regulation
for some of them; too much light and heat will kill them, and so will too much shade. This
accounts for the failure of many seedlings that spring
up in the virgin forest.

The planter, then, is required to know the nature and

F the needs of the various kinds of seeds and seedlings, so

as to provide favorable conditions, when he will avoid sow-

ing in the open field such

as require the care which

it is impractical to give
outside of the nursery.

GROWTH IN LENGTH AND
RAMIFICATION.

Whilethe stalk of wheat
or corn grows for one sea-
son, exhausts itself in seed
production, and then dies,
the tree continues to grow
from season to season,
in length as well as in
thickness. The growth

Raat: in length of shaft and
eee ee ena, branches gororecda tom
failing to develop. buds, made up of cell tis-
sues, which can subdivide

and lengthen into shoots, as well as make leaves. These buds are
formed during summer, and when winter begins contain embryo
leaves, more or less developed, under the protecting cover of scales
(fig. 29). When spring stimulates the young plant to new activity,
the buds swell, shed their scales, distend their cells, increasing their
number by subdivision, and thus the leaves expand, and the bud
lengthens into a shoot and twig. During the season new buds are
formed, and the whole process repeats itself from year to year,
giving rise to the ramification and height growth of the tree. The
end buds being mostly stronger and better developed, the main axis
of tree or branch increases more rapidly than the rest. All these
buds originate from the youngest, central part of the shoot, the
pith, and hence when the tree grows in thickness, enveloping the

: E : 7 Z Fic. 29.—Buds of maple. A, longitudi-
base of the limbs, their connection with the pith can always be nal section through tip of a maple

traced. This is the usual manner of bud formation; in addition, ti) % end bud; s, lateral pads; &

yet : s winx "scars of leaves of last season. B, cross
so-called “adventitious ” buds may be formed from the young living section through end bud, showing

wood in later life, which are not connected with the pith. Such elded leaves im center and scales sur-
buds are those which develop into sprouts from the stump when ee
the tree is cut; also those which give rise to what are known as “ water sprouts.” Many buds,
although formed, are, however, not developed at once, and perhaps not at all, especially as the
tree grows older; these either die or remain “dormant,” often for a hundred years, to spring into
life when necessary (fig. 29). i:

The fact that each ordinary limb starts as a bud from the pith is an important one to the
timber grower; it explains knotty timber and gives him the hint that in order to obtain clear
timber the branches first formed must be soon removed, either by the knife or by proper shading,
which kills the branches and thus ‘‘ clears” the shaft.

The planter has it also in his power to influence the form development of the tree by removing

HOW TREES GROW. PAYAL

some of the buds, giving thereby better chance to the remaining ones. This pruning of buds is,
where practicable, often better practice than the pruning of limbs.

Since the tree does not grow in length except by its buds, it is evident that a limb which
started to grow at the height of 6 feet has its base always 6 feet from the ground, and if allowed
to grow to size, must be surrounded by the wood which accumulates on the main stem or trunk.
If a limb is killed and broken off early, only a slender stub
composed entirely of rapidly decaying sapwood is left,
occasioning, therefore, only a small defect in the heart of
the tree; but if left to grow to considerable age, the base
of the limb is incased by the wood of the stem, which,
when the tree is cut into lumber, appears as a knot. The
longer the limb has been allowed to grow the farther out is
the timber knotty and the thicker is the knot. Ifthe limb
remained alive, the knot is “‘sound,” closely grown together
with the fibers of the tree. If the limb died off, the remain-
ing stub may behave in
different ways. In pines
it will be largely com-
posed of heartwood, very
resinous and durable;
separated from the fibers ;
of the overgrowing wood, Fic. 30.—Dormant bud K, on a 12-year-old branch
it forms a “loose” knot, of beech. The bud is still capa le of development
Sait c bis a1piybo tall. s(0 tales epson ah na wd
aboard, leaving a hole.

In broad-leaved trees, where no resin assists in the process of
healing, the stub is apt to decay, and this decay, caused by the
growth of fungi, is apt to penetrate into the tree (fig. 32). In
parks and orchards pruning is resorted to, and the cuts are
painted or tarred to avoid the decay. In well-managed forests
and dense woods in general the light is cut off, the limb is killed
when young and breaks
away, the shaft ‘clears it-
self,” and the sound trunk
furnishes a good grade of

material. The difference
Fia. 31.—Section through a 12-year-old stem . q
of beech, showing manner of bud and limb In development of the
formation. a, dormant buds; b, theirtrace )ranech system, whether
of pith extending to the pith of the stem; . 7 9 .
c, alimb which started two years ago from in full enjoyment of light,
a dormant bud; d, normal limb; e,a limb in open stand, or with the
dead for four years; f. adventitious buds. side light cut off, in dense
position, is shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 33).

Both trees start alike; the one retains its branches, the
other loses them gradually, the stubs being in time over-
grown; finally, the second has a clear shaft, with a crown
concentrated at the top. while the first is beset with ;
branches and branch stubs for its whole length (fig. 34). Teneo cectionitimonstlekpartividecsyediknctin

When ripped open lengthwise, the interior exhibits oak wood. a, wood of the knot; } and ¢, wood cal-
the condition shown in fig. 36, the dead parts of the knot Toa ene ete eee
being indicated in heavier shading. Since the branches
grow in more or less regular whorls, several knots, stumps, or limbs are met every 6 to 24 inches
through the entire stem.

Hence, in forest planting, trees are placed and kept for some time close together, in order to
decrease the branching in the lower part of the tree and thus produce a clean bole and clear lumber.

272 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

GROWTH IN THICKNESS.

The young seedling and the young shoot of the older tree much resemble in interior structure
that of any herbaceous plant, being composed of a large amount of pith, loose squarish cells, and
a few bundles of long fibers symmetrically distributed about the center, the whole covered with a
thin skin or epidermis. Each strand or bundle of fibers, called fibro-vascular (fiber-vessel) bundles,
consists of two kinds, namely, wood fibers on the inner side and bast fibers of different structure
on the outer side. Between these two sets of fibers, the bast and the wood, there is a row of cells
which form the really active, growing part of the plantlet, the cambium. The cambium cells are
actively subdividing and expanding, giving off wood cells to the interior and bast cells to the
exterior, and extending at the same time sidewise, until at the end of the season not only are
the wood and bast portions increased in lines radiating
from the center, but the cambium layer, the wood cells,
and the bast cells of all the bundles (scattered at the
beginning) join at the sides to form a complete ring, or
rather cylinder, around the central pith. Only here and
there the pith cells remain, interrupting the wood cylinder
and giving rise to the system of cells known as medullary
rays. The cross section now shows a comparatively small
amount of pith and bast or bark and a larger body of
strong wood fibers. The new shoot at the end, to be sure,
has the same appearance and arrangement as the young
plantlet had, the pith preponderating, and the continuous
cylinder of cambium, bast, and wood being separated into
strands or bundles.

During the season, through the activity of the cambial
part of the bundles, the same changes take place in the
new shoot as did the previous year in the young seedling,
while at the same time the cambium in the yearling part
also actively subdivides, forming new wood and bast cells,
and thus a second ring, or rather cylinder, is formed. The
cambium of the young shoot is always a continuation of
that of the ring or cylinder formed the year before, and
this cambium cylinder always keeps moving outward, so
that at the end of the season, when activity ceases, it is
always the last minute layer of cells on the outside of the
wood, between wood proper and bark. It is here, there-
fore, that the life of the tree lies, and any injury to the

cambium must interfere with the growth and life of the

Fia. FAWN TO in and out of uke forest. A AT EG

young tree alike in both cases; Band C, successive :
stages of tree grown in the open; B’ and C’, corre- The first wood cells which the cambium forms in the
Sen oe oa Se ae forest. spring are usually or always of a more open structure,
nae thin-walled, and with a large opening or “Jumen” com-
parable to a blown-up paper bag; so large, in fact, sometimes, is the “lumen” that the width of
the cells can be seen on a cross section with the naked cye, as, for instance, in oak, ash, elm, the
so-called ‘pores” are this open wood formed in spring. The cells which are formed later in
summer have mostly thick walls, are closely crowded and compressed, and show a very small
opening or “lumen,” being comparable, perhaps, to a very thick, wooden box. They appear in
the cross section not only denser but of a deeper color, on account of their crowded, compressed
condition and thicker walls. Since at the beginning of the next season again thin-walled cells
with wide openings or lumina are formed, this difference in the appearance of ‘spring wood”
and “summer wood” enables us to distinguish the layer of wood formed each year. This “annual
ring” is more conspicuous in some kinds than in others. In the so-called “ring-porous” woods,
like oak, ash, elm, the rings are easily distinguished by the open spring wood; in the conifers,

HOW TREES GROW. 273

especially pines, by the dark-colored summer wood; while in maple, birch, tulip, etc., only a thin
line of flattened, hence darker and regularly aligned, summer cells, often hardly recognizable,
distinguishes the rings from each other. Cutting through a tree, therefore, we can not only
ascertain its age by counting its annual layers in the cross section, but also determine how much
wood is formed each year (fig. 36). We can, in fact, retrace the history of its growth, the vicissi-
tudes through which it has passed, by the record preserved in its ring growth.

To ascertain the age of a tree correctly, however, we must cut so near to the ground:as to
include the growth of the first year’s little plantlet. Any section higher up.shows as many years
too few as it took the tree to reach that height.

This annual-ring formation is the rule in all
countries which have distinct seasons of summer
and winter and temporary cessation of growth.

Only exceptionally a tree may fail to make its
growth throughout the whole length, on account
ot loss of foliage and other causes, and occasion-
ally, when its growth has been disturbed during
the season, a “secondary” ring, resembling the
annual ring, and distinguishable only by the ex-
pert, may appear and mar the record. \

To the forest planter this chapter on ring | -
growth is of great importance, because not only re
does this feature of tree life afford the means of
watching the progress of his crop, calculating es
the amount of wood formed, and therefrom deter-
mining when it is most profitable for him to har-
vest (namely, when the annual or periodic wood
growth falls below a certain amount), but since
the proportion of summer wood and spring wood
determines largely the quality of the timber, and
since he has it in his power to influence the pre-
ponderance of the one or other by adaptation of
species to soils and by their managemeut, ring
growth furnishes an index for regulating the
quality of his crop.

FORM DEVELOPMENT.

If a tree is allowed to grow in the open, it
has a tendency to branch, and makes a low and _ Fie.34.—Trees in and out of the forest. D, tree grown in the
spreading crown. In order té lengthen its shaft Opell; Diy tree srownn the forest.
and to reduce the number of branches it is necessary to narrow its growing space, to shade its
sides so that the lower branches and their foliage do not receive light enough to perform their
functions. When the side shade is dense enough these branches die and finally break off under
the influence of winds and fungous growth; wood then forms over the scars and we get a clean
shaft which carries a crown high up beyond the reach of shade from neighbors.

The branches being prevented from spreading out, the shaft is forced to grow upward, and
hence, when crowded by others, trees become taller and more cylindrical in form, while in the
open, where they can spread, they remain lower and more conical-in form (figs. 37 and 38).

There are, to be sure, different natural types of development, some, like the walnuts, oaks,
beeches, and the broad-leafed trees generally, having greater tendency to spread than others, like
spruces, firs, and conifers in general, which lengthen their shaft in preference to spreading, even
in the open. This tendency to spreading is also influenced by soil conditions and climate, as well
as by the age of the tree. When the trees cease to grow in height their crowns broaden, and this
takes place sooner in shallow soils than in deep, moist ones; but the tendency can be checked and
all can be made to develop the shaft at the expense of the branches by proper shading from the

sides.
H. Doe. 181——18

274 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

It follows that the forest planter, who desires to produce long and clean shafts and best working
quality of timber, must secure and maintain side shade by a close stand, while the landscape
eardener, who desires characteristic form, must maintain an open stand and full enjoyment of

light for his trees.

Now, as we have seen, different species afford different amounts of shade, and in proportion
to the shade which they afford can they endure shade.

shade-enduring trees.
walnut, the locust, the
He catalpa, the poplars,
H and the larch show by
the manner in which
their crowns thin out,
the foliage being con-
fined to the ends of the
branches, that their
leaves require more
light—they are light-
needing trees; so that
the scale which ar-
ranges the trees ac-
cording to the amount
I of shade they exert
.c serves also to measure
H their shade endurance.
In making, there-
fore, mixed planta-
tions the different
By kinds must be _ so

Fic. 35.—Sections of logs showing the relative development of grouped and managed
knots. #, from tree grown 1n the open; Z’, from tree grown that the shady trees

in a dense forest; a@ and ¢, whorls of knots; b, dead limb; ill t 1

sk, ‘sound knot;” dk, ‘* dead knot.” Wi not out BLOW. aud

overtop the light-need-

ing. The latter must either have the start of the former or must be
quicker growers.

RATE OF GROWTH.

Not only do different species grow more or less rapidly in height
and girth, but there is in each species a difference in the rate of
growth during different periods of life and a difference in the per-
sistence of growth.

It stands to reason that trees grow differently in different soils
and situations, and hence we can not compare different species with
respect to their rate of growth except as they grow under the same
conditions.

Thus the black walnut may grow as fast as or faster than the ash
on a rich, deep, moist, warm soil, but will soon fall to the rear in a
wetter, colder, and shallower soil.

The beech or sugar maple or spruce, which maintain
¢ a large amount of foliage under the dense shade of
their own crown, show that their leaves can live and
functionate with a small amount of light. They are
On the other hand, the black

Lech,

Fie. 36.—Scheme to illustrate the ar-
rangement of annual growth. 1, 2, 3,
etc., represent the parts of the stem
grown during the first, second, third,
etc., twenty years of the life of the
tree. k, knots; the shaded partof each
is the ‘‘dead knot”’ of lumber.

Given the same conditions, some species will start on a rapid upward growth at once, like the
poplars, aspen, locust, and silver maple, making rapid progress (the most rapid from their tenth
to their fifteenth year), but decreasing soon in rate and reaching their maximum height early.
Others, like the spruce, beech, and sugar maple, will begin slowly, often occupying several,

RATE OF GROWTH. 275

sometimes as many as 10 to 15, years before they appear to grow at all, their energy all going into
root growth. Then comes a period of more and more accelerated growth, which reaches its
maximum rate at 25 or’30 years; and when the cottonwood or aspen has reached the end of its
growth in height the spruce or pine is still at its best rate, and continues to grow for a long time
at that rate. In later life the rate decreases, yet height growth sometimes does not cease altogether
for centuries. As a rule, the light-needing species are the ones which show the rapid height
growth at the start, while the shade enduring are slow at the start, but persistent growers.

This fact is important in explaining the alternations of forest growth in nature; the persistent
shade-enduring species crowd out the light-needing, and the
latter rapidly take possession of any openings that fire or storm
has made. It is also important with reference to the manage-
ment of wood crops and starting of mixed plantations; the light-
needing species must be mixed only with such shade-enduring
species as are slower growers than themselves.

The diameter growth shows also periodic changes in its rate,
and is, of course, influenced in the sane way by soil, climate,
and light conditions as the height growth.

In the juvenile or brush stage, lasting 6 to 10 years in light-
needing and 20 to 40 years in shade enduring species, the diame-
ter grows comparatively little, all energy being directed to
height growth and root growth. When the crown has been definitely formed more food material
is available for wood formation, and the increase in foliage is accompanied by a more rapid increase
of trunk diameter; in favorable situations the highest rate occurs between the fortieth and sixtieth
years; in the poorer situations, between the fiftieth and eightieth years, which rate continues for
some time. Then comes a period of slower rate, which finally in old age dwindles down almost
to zero.

But neither the diameter growth nor the width of the annual rings alone tells us directly
what amount of wood is forming. The outer rings, being laid over a larger circumference, although
narrower than the preceding rings, may yet have greater cubic

contents. The statements of diameter growth are, therefore,
misleading if we are interested in knowing how much wood is
forming.

Accordingly the growth in volume must be considered
separately, as determined by the enlargement of the cross-
section area and the height. The growth in volume or mass
accretion is quite small in young trees, so that when wood is cut
young the smallest amount of crop per year is harvested, while,
if it is allowed to grow, an increase more than proportionate
to the number of years may be obtained.

Only when the tree has a fully developed crown does it
begin to make much wood. Its volume growth progresses then
at compound interest, and continues to do so for decades, and
sometimes for a century or more.

On poorer sites the rate is slower, but remains longer on the
increase, while on good sites the maximum rate is soon reached.

Of course in a forest, where light conditions are not most

‘favorable, because form development and soil conditions require
shade, the total wood formation is less than in an isolated tree favorably placed. Just so the domi-
nant trees in a forest—i. e., those which have their crowns above all others—show, of course, the
advantage they have over the inferior trees which are suffering from the shade of their neighbors.

Finally, if we would take into consideration an entire forest growth, and determine, for
instance, how much wood an acre of such forest produces at different periods, we must not over-
look the fact that the number of trees per acre changes as the trees grow older. Some of them
are overshaded and crowded out by the others, so that a young growth of spruce might start
with 100,000 little seedlings to the acre, of which in the twentieth year only 10,000 would be alive,

Fie. 37.—Oak tree grown in the open.

Fic. 38.—Maple tree grown in the forest.

276 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

while in the fortieth year the number would be reduced to 1,200, and in the hundredth year to
280. Hence the rate of growth of any single tree gives no idea of what the acre of forest will do.

Thus, while a single good white pine might grow the fastest in volume when about one hun-
dred years old, then making wood at the rate of, say, 1.5 cubic feet per year, an acre of pine on
good soil, containing about 1,600 trees, may make the most wood in the thirtieth year, then
growing at the rate of 170 cubic feet per acre, while in the hundredth year the rate would not
exceed 70 cubic feet; and an acre of pine in a poorer location, with about 1,400 trees, may make -
the most wood in the fortieth year, at the rate of 100 cubic feet per acre.

From the consideration of the relation of light conditions to soil conditions, to form develop-
ment, and to rate of growth, we may make the following deductions of interest to the forest
planter:

In order to secure the best results in wood production, in quantity and quality, at the same
time preserving favorable soil conditions, the forest should be composed of various species, a
mixture of liglt-needing and shade enduring kinds. The light-needing ones should be of quicker
growth; the shady ones, in larger numbers, should be slower growers. For the first fifteen to
twenty-five years the plantation should be kept as dense as possible, to secure clear shafts and
good growth in height; then it should be thinned, to increase crown development and diameter
growth; the thinning, however, is not to be so severe that the crowns can not close up again in
two or three years; the thinning is to be repeated again and again, always favoring the best
developed trees.

RATE OF GROWTH.

- The more commonly cultivated trees may be classified with reference to their rate of growth,
as follows:
Rapid growers to maturity: Cottonwood, aspen, tulip, loblolly pine, white pine, white elm,
box elder, silver maple, jack pine.
Rapid growing in youth, but much slower in age: Black cherry, long-leaf pine, short-leaf
pine, catalpa, black walnut, black locust, honey locust, the birches.
Slow but persistent growers: White ash, sugar maple, the oaks, the hickories, the spruces,

and hemlock.
REPRODUCTION.

All trees reproduce themselves naturally from seed. Man can secure their reproduction also
from cuttings or layers; and some kinds can reproduce themselves by shoots from the stump
when the parent tree has been cut. This latter capacity is possessed in a varying degree by
different species; chestnuts, oaks, elms, maples, poplars, and willows are most excellent sprouters ;
most conifers do not sprout at all, and the shoots of those that do sprout soon die (Sequoia or
California redwood seems to be an exception). Sprouts of broad-leafed trees develop differently
from seedlings, growing very rapidly at first, but soon lessening in the rate of growth and never
attaining the height and perhaps not the diameter of trees grown from the seed; they are also
shorter lived. With age the stumps lose their capacity for sprouting. To secure best results, the
parent tree should be cut close to the ground in early spring, avoiding severe frost, and a sharp
cut should be made which wil! not sever the bark from the trunk.

Not all trees bear seed every year, and plentiful seed production, especially in a forest, occurs,
as a rule, periodically. The periods differ with species, climate, and season.

Not all seeds can germinate, and in some species the number of seeds that can germinate is
very small, and they loose their power of germination when kept a few hours, like the willows.
Others, if kept till they have become dry, will “lie over” in the soil a year or more before germi-
nating. The same thing will occur if they are covered too deep in the soil, provided they
germinate at all under such conditions.

In order to germinate, seeds must have warmth, air, and moisture. The preparation of a seed
bed is, therefore, necessary in order to supply these conditions in most favorable combination.
In the natural forest millions of seeds rot or dry without sprouting, and millions of seedlings
sprout, but soon perish under the too dense shade of the mother trees.

Man, desiring to reproduce a valuable wood crop, can not afford to be as lavish as nature, and
must therefore improve upon nature’s methods, making more careful preparation for the production

FOREST PLANTING. 277

of his crop, either by growing the seedlings in nurseries and transplanting them, or else by cutting
away the old growth in such a manner as to secure to the young self-grown crop better chances
for life and development.

How To PLANT A FOREST.

Forest planting and tree planting are two different things. The orchardist, who plants for
fruit; the landscape gardener, who plants for form; the roadside planter, who plants for shade, all
have objects in view different from that of the forest planter, and therefore select and use their
plant material differently. They deal with single individual trees, each one by itself destined for
a definite purpose. The forester, on the other hand, plants a crop like the farmer; he deals not
with the single seed or plant, but with masses ef trees; the individual tree has value to him only
as a part of the whole. It may come to harvest for its timber, or it may not come to harvest, and
yet have answered its purpose as a part of the whole in shading the ground or acting as nurse or
“forwarder” as long as it was necessary.

His object is not to grow trees, but to produce wood, the largest amount of the best quality
per acre, whether it be stored in one tree or in many, and his methods must be directed to that end.

As far as the manner of setting out plants or sowing seeds is concerned, the same general
principles and the same care in manipulation are applicable as in any other planting, except as
the cost of operating on so large a scale may necessitate less careful methods than the gardener
or nurseryman can afford to apply; the nearer, however, the performance of planting can be
brought to the careful manner of the gardener, the surer the success. The principles underlying
such methods have been discussed in the chapter ‘‘ How trees grow;” in the present chapter it is
proposed to point out briefly the special considerations which should guide the forest planter in

particular.
WHAT TKEES TO PLANT.

Adaptability to climate is the first requisite in the species to be planted.

It is best to choose from the native growth of the region which is known to be paeered to it.
With regard to species not native, the reliance must be placed upon the experience of neighboring
planters and upon experiment (at first on a small scale), after study of the requirements of the
kinds proposed for trial.

Adaptation must be studied, not only with reference to temperature ranges and rainfall, but
especially with reference to atmospheric humidity and requirements of transpiration.

Many species have a wide range of natural distribution, and hence of climatic adaptation.
If such are to be used, it is important to secure seeds from that part of the range of natural
distribution where the plants must be hardiest,i.e., the coldest and driest region in which it
occurs, which insures hardy qualities in the offspring. Jor instance, the Douglas spruce from
the humid and evenly tempered Pacific slope will not be as hardy as that grown from seed
collected on the dry and frigid slopes of the Rockies. Lack of attention to this requisite accounts
for many failures. It must also be kept in mind that while a species may be able to grow in
another than its native climate, its wood may not there have the same valuable qualities which it
develops in its native habitat.

Adaptability to soil must be studied less with reference to mineral constituents than to phys-
ical condition. Depth and moisture conditions, and the structure of the soil, which influences the
movement of water in if, are the most important elements. While all trees thrive best in a
moist to ‘‘fresh” soil of moderate depth (from 2 to 4 feet) and granular structure, some can adapt
themselves to drier or wetter, shallow, and compact soils. Fissures in rocks into which the roots
can penetrate often stand for depth of soil, and usually aid in maintaining favorable moisture con-
ditions. In soils of great depth (i. e., from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil) and of coarse
structure water may drain away so fast as not to be available to the roots.

Soil moisture must always be studied in conjunction with atmospheric moisture, for while a
species may thrive in an arid soil, when the demands of transpiration are not great, it may not do
so when aridity of atmosphere is added. Trees of the swamp are apt to be indifferent to soil
moisture and to thrive quite well, if not better, in drier soils.

Adaptability to site—While a species may be well adapted to the general climatic conditions
of a region, and in general to the soil, there still remains to be considered its adaptability to the

278 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

particular ‘“ site,” under which term we may comprise the total effect of general climate, local
climate, and soil. The general climatic conditions are locally influenced, especially by the slope,
exposure, or aspect, and the surroundings. Thus we know that eastern exposures are more liable
to frost, western exposures more liable to damage from winds, southern more apt to be hot and to
dry out, and northern to be cooler and damper, having in consequence a shorter period of vegeta-
tion. Hollows and lowlands are more exposed to frosts and more subject to variations in soil
moisture, ete.

Hence for these various situations it is advisable to select species which can best withstand
such local dangers.

The use value, or utility, of the species is next to be considered. This must be done with reference
to the commercial and domestic demand, and the length of time it takes the species to attain its
value. The greater variety of purposes a wood may serve—i. e., the greater its general utility—
and the sooner it attains its use value, the better. White pine for the northeastern States as a
wood is like the apple among fruits, making an all-round useful material in large quantities per
acre in short time. Tulip poplar, applicable to a wider climatic range, is almost as valuable, while
oak, ash, and hickory are standard woods in the market. Other woodsare of limited application.
Thus the black locust, which grows most quickly into useful posts, has only a limited market,
much more limited than it should have; hickory soon furnishes valuable hoop poles from the
thinnings, and later the best wagon material, not, however, large quantities in a short time; while
black walnut of good quality is very high in price, the market is also limited, and the dark color
of the heartwood, for which it is prized, is attained only by old trees. The black cherry, used for
similar purposes, attains its value much sooner.

By planting various species together, variety of usefulness may be secured and the certainty
of a market increased.

The forest value of the species is only in part expressed by its use value. As has been shown
in another place, the composition of the crop must be such as to insure maintenance of favorable
soil conditions as well as satisfactory development of the crop itself. Some species, although of
high use value, like ash, oak, etc., are poor preservers of soil conditions, allowing grass and weeds
te enter the plantation and to deteriorate the soil under their thin foliage. Others, like beech,
sugar maple, box elder, etc., although of less use value, being dense foliaged and preserving a
shady crown for a long time, are of great forest value as soil improvers.

Again, as the value of logs depends largely on their freedom from knots, straightness, and
length, it is of importance to secure these qualities. Some valuable species, if grown by themselves,
make crooked trunks, do not clean their shafts of branches, and are apt to spread rather than
lengthen. If planted in close companionship with others, they are forced by these “nurses” or |
“forwarders” to make better growths and clean their shafts of branches.

Furthermore, from financial considerations, it is well to know that some species develop more
rapidly and produce larger quantities of useful material per acre than others; thus the white
pine is a “big cropper,” and combining with this a tolerably good shading quality, and being in
addition capable of easy reproduction, it is of highest “forest value.”

Hence, as the object of forestry is to make money from continued wood crops, use value and
forest value must both be considered in the selection of materials for forest planting.

Mutual relationship of different species, with reference especially to their relative height growth
and their relative light requirements, must be considered in starting a mixed plantation.

Mixed forest plantations (made of several kinds) have so many advantages over pure planta-
tions (made of one kind) that they should be preferred, except for very particular reasons. Mixed
plantations are eapable of producing larger quantities of better and more varied material, preserve
soil conditions better, are less liable to damage from winds, fires, and insects, and can be more
readily reproduced.

The following general rules should guide in making up the composition of a mixed plantation:

a. Shade-enduring kinds should form the bulk (five-eighths to seven-eighths) of the plantation, except on
specially favored soils, where no deterioration is to be feared from planting only light-needing kinds, and in which
case these may even be planted by themselves.

b. The light-needing trees should he surrounded by shade-enduring of slower growth. so that the former may
not be oyertopped, but have the necessary light and he forced by side shade to straight growth,

FOREST. PLANTING. 279

c. Shade-enduring species may be grown in admixture with each other when their rate of height growth is
about equal or when the slower-growing kind can be protected against the quicker-growing (for instance, by
planting a larger proportion of the former in groups or by cutting back the latter).

d. The more valuable timber trees which are,to form the main crop should be so disposed individually and
planted in such numbers among the secondary crop or nurse crop that the latter can be thinned out first without
disturbing the former.

In localities which for climatic reasons prevent a wide range of choice of species a light-
needing rapid growing species may be used as a nurse, forming as much as three-fourths of the
plantation, provided the remaining trees are disposed according to rule a, if care be taken to remove
the nurses as soon as they interfere with the permanent trees. In this case the rapid-growing
species is used only to create more favorable conditions for the permanent trees and to protect
them during infancy.

Where a plantation of lighter-foliaged trees has been made (black walnut, for instance), it can
be greatly improved by “underplanting” densely with a shade-enduring kind, which will choke
out weed growth, improve the soil, and thereby advance the growth of the plantation.

The selection and proper combination of species with reference to this mutual relationship to
each other and to the soil are the most important elements of success.

Availability of the species also still needs consideration in this country; for, although a
species may be very well adapted to the purpose in hand, it may be too difficult to obtain material
for planting in quantity or at reasonable prices. While the beech is one of the best species for
shade endurance, and hence for soil cover, seedlings can not be had as yet in quantity. Western
conifers, although promising good material for forest planting, are at present too high priced for
general use. Some eastern trees can be secured readily—either their seed or seedlings—from the
native woods; others must be grown in nurseries before they can be placed in the field.

Whether to procure seeds or plants, and, it the latter, what kind, depends upon a number of
considerations. The main crop, that which is to furnish the better timber, had best be planted
with nursery-grown plants, if of slow-growing kinds, perhaps once transplanted, with well-
developed root systems, the plants in no case to be more than 2 to 3 years old. The secondary or
nurse crop may then be sown or planted with younger and less costly material taken from the
woods or grown in seed beds, or else cuttings may be used.

In some loealities—for instance, the Western plains—the germinating of seeds in the open
field is so uncertain and the life of the young seedlings for the first year or two so precarious
that the use of seeds in the field can not be recommended. In such locations careful selection
and treatment of the planting material according to the hardships which it must encounter can
alone insure success.

Seedlings from 6 to 12 inches high furnish the best material. ‘The planting of larged-sized
trees is not excluded, but is expensive and hence often impracticable, besides being less sure of
success, since the larger-sized tree is apt to loose a greater proportion of its roots in transplanting.

METHODS OF PLANTING.

Preparation of soil is for the purpose of securing a favorable start for the young crop; its
effects are lost after the first few years. Most land that is to be devoted to forest planting does
not admit of as careful preparation as for agricultural crops, nor is it necessary where the climate
is not too severe and the soil not too compact to prevent the young crop from establishing itself.
Thousands of acres in Germany are planted annually without any soil preparation, yearling pine
seedlings being set with a dibble in the unprepared ground. This absence of preparation is even
necessary in sandy soils like that encountered in the sandhills of Nebraska, which may, if
disturbed, be blown out and shifted. In other cases a partial removal of a too rank undergrowth
or soil cover and a shallow scarifying or hoeing are resorted to, or else furrows are thrown up and
the trees set out in them. .

In land that has been tilled, deep plowing (10 to 12 inches) and thorough pulverizing give the
best chances for the young crop to start. For special conditions, very dry or very moist situations,
special methods are required. The best methods for planting in the semiarid regions of the
far West have not yet been developed. Thorough cultivation, as for agricultural crops, with
subsequent culture, is successful, but expensive. A plan which might be tried would consist in,

280 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

breaking the raw prairie in June and turning over a shallow sod, sowing a crop of oats or alfalfa,
harvesting it with a high stubble, then opening furrows for planting and leaving the ground
between furrows undisturbed, so as to secure the largest amount of drainage into the furrows and
a mulch between the rows.

The time for planting depends on climatic and soil conditions and the convenience of the
planter. Spring planting is preferable except in southern latitudes, especially in the West, where
the winters are severe and the fall apt to be dry, the soil therefore not in favorable condition for
planting. ‘

The time for fall planting is after the leaves have fallen; for spring planting, before or just
when life begins anew. In order to be ready in time for spring planting, it is a good practice to
take up the plants in the fall and ‘heel them in” over winter (covering them, closely packed, in a
dry trench of soil). Conifers can be planted later in spring and earlier in fall than broad-leafed
trees. .

The density of the trees is a matter in which most planters fail. The advantages of close
planting lie in the quicker shading of the soil, hence the better preservation of its moisture and
improved growth and form development of the crop. These advantages must be balanced against
the increased cost of close planting. The closer the planting the sooner will the plantation be
self-sustaining and the surer the success.

If planted in squares, or, better still, in quincunx order (the trees in every other row alter-
nating at equal distances), which is most desirable on account of the more systematic work possible
and the more complete cover which it makes, the distance should not be more than 4 feet, unless
for special reasons and conditions, while 2 feet apart is not too close, and still closer planting is
done by nature with the best success. :

The following numbers of trees per acre are required when planting at distances as indicated:

IBD IY IESE coc coo eSoseosesdnoesosnonauS UG) Giel0) || 2 lon? 4 teeth sconces esessoSseese scsasccsoocs 5, 445
TaD OCO Le ee nn MeN LI NL a ld 520) Babyy Bifee beeen a2) cie moar et eee ent 4, 840
BN 2 WEG ossnes c2e050 cosobe saScoE BoNaee MOS EO) |) 3 lay 2 ERY) S=ec oe sesees csososo5eSos somede 3, 630
DeDyAOUOO beret toe seria ieit stare /siaireln are 2 (; 260. || 4\by) 4 feet ce Soaps teers eet cee etaerere tetevarapar 2, 722

To decrease expense, the bulk of the plantation may be made of the cheapest kinds of trees
that may serve as soil cover and secondary or nurse crop, the main crop of from 300 to 600 trees
to consist of better kinds and with better planting material, mainly of light-needing species.
These should be evenly disposed through the plantation, each closely surrounded by the nurse
crop. It is of course understood that not all trees grow up; a constant change in numbers by -
the death (or else timely removal) of the overshaded takes place, so that the final crop shows at
100 years a close cover, with hardly 300 trees to the acre.

After-culture is not entirely avoidable, especially under unfavorable climatic conditions and
if the planting was not close enough. Shallow cultivation between the rows is needed to prevent
weed growth and to keep the soil open until it is shaded by the young trees, which may take a
year with close planting and two or three years with rows 4 by 4 fect apart, the time varying also
with the species. j

It is rare that a plantation succeeds in all its parts; gaps or fail places occur, as a rule, and
inust be filled in by additional planting as soon as possible if of larger extent than can be closed
up in a few years by the neighboring growth. ;

When the soil is protected by a complete leaf canopy, the forest crop may be considered as
established, and the after-treatment will consist of judicious thinning.

The diagrams following present planting schemes illustrative of the rules given above, the
species being adapted to planting on the Western plains.

FOREST PLANTING. 281
Rues 1 anp 2.—One acre planted 3 by 3 feet requires 4,840 trees.
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Shade enduring.

Trees.

Hox GIG? cbecon sooade cade cose oheces cosSne cB Seo SEG0NS Sc sBSNSSa5e PeSsabocech BScsceboadss 1, 210
WIR MES EM AMMO: coos oocdeas S5000s ceSa00 Sege Bes? BRAS eRECSS Eos SngcRe AES SoBe SG CsOs Son 2, 420
ID SID ORCAS GPANCO bocce pasa cndces ceSoss eoSasn saS=s9 925800 288885 68999959009 SEER EN ESS GOSS 96 454
Gin Blnelk GNOWRY ccabcocass sossco sadn pogo nens sasccn cose pS Sees AoOo.oRes BaaKes Se296R poe ae OSSc 151
GOI i csndae coe ccoaco descr sencaso ssuobe Gao so gend iene 0Ons sas9eesne s9920299S2. 2090 980005 151

Light demanding.

THAI IGE oasone ocooesbdoaes bonus ccears RancoR psSUaeRENSsS saucab chotepiccieesa.scoe BSocKe 303
PMI MING. peadon caccoe coooes cadaus see os eeeeds nacdce coBnds adeecEPaSaKoEeRChe oBeend Coa =o8 132
O—Bur oak .----.------ bose sedoededs ooéecd ondSod Qe eee nob eeo ecesée.cdeSce soSpea oS cdse cB 5en9 19
MOV coe som dacoe bcedeos coecan suDoge cHbSedns Denes DSbEon ceo Ses oasaSSbsEScocoases ORES 4, 840

In this mixture the boxelder and Russian mulberry trees are the nurse trees, and it may be
necessary to cut them all out within from ten to twenty years. They will not have attained more
than stake or small fuel size in that timo, but by shading the remaining trees on the sides they
will have prevented their formation of side branches, and thus forced them to straight single
stems.

After the removal of the nurse trees there will remain 1,210 trees to the acre, standing 6 by 6
feet apart. Of these the pine, oak, and locust, numbering 454, are more light demanding than the
“spruce, cherry, and catalpa, which number 756. It will be observed that each of these light-
demanding trees is neighbored by more shade-enduring kinds.

The next trees to be removed will be the locusts and catalpas, which should be fit for fence
posts by the time the plantation becomes sufficiently crowded to make their removal necessary.
The cutting of these, when between 15 and 30 years old, will leave 756 trees per acre, of which
oaks, pines, and cherry (which demands more light with age), making two-fifths of the whole
number, will be light demanding, and the spruce shade enduring.

The thinning from now on will depend entirely upon the requirements of the standing trees,
the purpose of getting the greatest possible amount of timber of the highest quality as the final
crops being kept constantly in view.

282 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

This discussion of the plan is based upon the impossible supposition that all the trees will
live until cut out. Much thinning, in point of fact, will result from the dying of trees, so that the
ideal perfect stand is never reached in practice.

The scheme indicated, it is perhaps needless to add, is given merely to illustrate the practice,
and can be adapted to any suitable species which the planter may be able to secure.

One acre planted 3 by 3 feet requires £4,840 trees.

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eNO Ns pedeae oaocuk don abe Cosmo CE an rE ORE Ce CoCO Sa da5bae basoed onde cade se bscdoaqoeuse cdoade 3, 630
Sa- Wihnteys pra cesentraee seine sees ee lets wiare Is Sh -siaie Sstere yee teie neal SS entero pera eee ee 605
C>Rediced aris. sncsense acs Sek seees ees 22 wielate cinteinitaye Soto aretha sts clay yale ater aisle ayorererstahee Meee eer 302
P= Wihitespine seen eee ee Sane ines Se Sees als SLE DSS REA Sleep men Spee S Seas Eee ame om 303
Motalee eases saacjee oe Sees seat ewe woe se el ave esen eee er ee Eos eS eeee cee Solace cere eeeeeee 4, 840

This plan illustrates the use of a rapid-growing light-demanding species (aspen) as a protection
for several conifers which are difficult to establish in the open, especially in the plains. It will
be noticed that two of the conifers, the spruce and cedar, are shade-enduring species, and that the
light-demanding pines will be surrounded by the shaders when the aspen has been cut out. This
use of the aspen as a soil cover was suggested by an examination of cut-over pine land in northern
Minnesota, where the aspen quickly takes the ground when the pine is removed, and the pine
seedlings appear thickly under its protection. It will be observed that, taking out the aspen, the
plan is based on the same principles of light influence as is the plan above.

PLANTING IN WASTE PLACES.

Aside from the fence rows, which are usually the worst weed beds of the farm, there are many
small areas in the average farm which from a variety of causes are unprofitable for cropping.
These may well be planted to trees.

In the most favored region the farm “of which every foot is arable” is seldom seen. Even on
the richest of prairie farms the crests of the rolling surface are apt to become impoverished after
years of tillage in spite of the best efforts of the farmer, and when the erops fail to pay for the
labor expended on them the land is as surely ‘“‘waste” as though it were undrained swamp or
rocky hillside. In the less densely populated parts of the country, where land is cheap, the fields
are abandoned when this stage is reached. In the Hast and South, where the entire country was
once covered with forest, natural reforestation soon takes place, and in a few years the old fields
are clothed with pines, spruces, and deciduous trees, the varieties being dependent upon the
adjacent growth. Within this area the farmer can always control the character of the forest
growths on the waste lands of his farm, either by planting or by use of the ax, or both, and there
is oftentimes great need of good judgment in cutting out inferior trees or undesirable varieties.

Few farmers seem to have realized the great value of a close-planted, dense-foliaged grove as
a conservator of moisture. The snows accumulating in such groves are shaded from the sun, and
long after the adjacent fields are bare the snow is slowly melting and the water trickling down
over the plowed fields, which are thus thoroughly saturated. The summer rains are also saved
fo the farm by the same means. Following the deep-descending roots of the trees, they are

PLANTING WASTE PLACES. 283

retained in the lower strata of the soil and then pass to the adjoining lands and are brought
within reach of the growing plants.

Jt is not to be supposed that limited plantations, confined to the waste places of the farm,
would have an appreciable effect on the general climate of a region, for the influences must be
ereat that can affect atmospheric conditions over a wide area. Locally, however, the planting of
hilltops and the consequent heightening of elevations will often result in the creation of air
currents that will prevent cold air from settling in the lowlands between, thus obviating late
spring and early autumn frosts, and this protection can be made more efficient if the configuration
of the neighboring lands be studied with a view to creating the strongest possible draft.

In regions where tender vegetables and fruits are largely cultivated such protection may
be of primary importance, and the clearing of adjoining hill crests and slopes will often result in
serious disturbance of the local climate.

In general, the climatic conditions of the forested area of the country are less extreme than
those of the plains, but with the record of the three recent drought years the need of moisture
conservation is apparent alike in the Kast and West.

While in the West the thin-soiled ridges are best devoted to tree growth for wind-breaks and
snow catches, throughout the Eastern and Southern States such localities should be kept in trees
for the prevention of erosion or gullying, one of the most troublesome results of tillage.

The general action of the elements in uneven or rolling surfaces invariably tends to carry the
more fertile top mold of the higher ground, or at least the decaying vegetation on the surface, to
the lower levels, which thus relatively increase in fertility at the expense of the elevations above
them. In addition to this genéral tendency there have been deposited throughout the North-
western States, by glacial and water action, drift soils containing a great quantity of bowlders,
which are especially thick on the high ridges, making their cultivation very expensive. In many
localities throughout the Mississippi Valley the trend of the underlying strata of rocks is upward,
often coming so close to the surface in the ridge lands as to render them worthless for cultivation.
Along many river and creek valleys the hills which confine the lowlands rise so abruptly as to
make cultivation impracticable. These and many other special cases which might be nentioned
constitute the waste highlands of farms, all of which should be devoted to forest-tree culture.

Trees, as has been seen, can exist and make a profitable growth on lands too poor to support
farm crops, if the leaves, twigs, and fruit be permitted to lie on the ground and decay. When
planted in the thin soil of a limestone hill crest, they may make very slow growth during the first few
years; but as the soil becomes shaded by the tree tops the growth becomes more rapid, and when
the trees have attained a strong foothold, their roots penetrating the crevices of the rocks to the
water below, they grow with additional vigor. Yet, it is not to be expected that as vigorous
growth can be secured in these high waste places as in the lower, moist, and deep soils. One has
only to recall the general character of the waste places of the farm to realize how little can be
gained from cropping them. The ridge soils are too thin to support a growth of cereal crops; the
swamp soils are too wet for tillage; the cultivation of irregular plats of small extent becomes too
expensive, by reason of the difficulties of plowing, seeding, and harvesting. Once in trees, these
difficulties are reduced toa minimum. ‘The thin soils of the ridges are protected from the weather
by the tree crowns, and their decaying foliage gradually increases the fertility of the soil.

The odd corners and fence rows of American farms represent in the aggregate a great quantity
of unproductive land, which might be planted to trees. Such limited areas, often composed of
but afew square rods or very narrow strips, can not be treated as forests, but trees must be grown
on them for special purposes, in which timber production will hardly be considered.

The highways throughout the farming districts of the United States may be bordered with
trees, which, while giving shade, may be used as living fence posts, or may become valuable nut
orchards, but in any event will afford protection, in winter and summer alike, to the traveler and
to the adjacent fields. In Minnesota, Wyoming, and other Western States the highways are at
least 66 feet wide, and often a hundred. These tracts, separated only by wire fences from the
cultivated fields, are not merely waste lands, but for the most part veritable propigating beds for
noxious weeds, which cause much loss to the farmer. Try as he may, he can not protect his
lands from Russian thistle, mustard, and the numerous other weed pests so long as these broad
highways exist as a seeding ground for them, If they were planted to trees, with a vigorous

284 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

undergrowth to protect the surface of the soil, they would not only make any weed growth
impossible, but would also be a potent means of preventing the dissemination of weeds from one
section to another, by arresting them when carried by the winds. In many of the Western States
the farmer is permitted by law thus to plant a portion of the highway with trees.

Yet another form of waste land is to be considered, and here the farmer living within the
forest area is much more concerned than the prairie dweller. Had the adaptability of soils to
tillage been made the basis of clearing lands in the early days, there would be less talk of “thin”
soils now, for on many farms lands were cleared which should never have been stripped of their
first cover. Steep hillsides, rocky slopes, highlands with hardly a foot of soil between the surface
and the underlying rock, have been denuded of their forest cover, and their subsequent tillage
has been all but profitless to the farmer. With constant cropping they have become so impover-
ished that their cultivation has been abandoned. Yet they have still enough fertility to support
a vigorous tree growth. On many New England farms such thin lands have been planted to
white pine with the most encouraging results. In many rocky, drift, eroded, and exhausted hill
farms there is a depth of soil sufficient for the requirements of all varieties of trees, and the
farmer within the forest area has thus a wide range of choice in the selection of trees. He
may grow timber for railroad ties, for posts, for telegraph poles, for lumber, and for many other
purposes, using the species that is best adapted to his need and to his locality.

In the Southern States the loblolly and short-leaf pines can be quite as readily grown as the
white pine at the North. The loblolly seems to consider the abandoned fields its heritage, for
throughout the lower Atlantic and Gulf States it quickly covers the old fields with its seedlings,
which grow rapidly.

THE FARM NURSERY.

When such species as catalpa, box elder, black locust, green ash, white elm, and silver maple
can be bought for less than $2 per thousand for strong 1-year-old plants, it would seem cheaper to
purchase than to grow from seed. But with land, tools, and teams at hand, a forest-tree nursery
can be cultivated at very little expense, and the farmer, by gathering seed of the native trees, and
purchasing desirable seeds not to be had at home, can grow on a fraction of an acre seedlings
enough for an extensive plantation.

Of the broad-leafed trees, the silver maples, elms, poplars, cottonwood, aspen, and willows
ripen their seeds before midsummer. These should be planted as soon as ripe, care being taken
not to cover the small seeds too deep. They will germinate in a few days, and by autumn will be
of a size suitable for transplanting.

Of the species whose seeds ripen in autumn, those of the tulip, catalpa, honey locust, black
locust, and Kentucky coffee tree should be thrashed from their pods when gathered and kept over
winter in a cool place where they will neither dry out nor mold. Birch seeds soon lose their
vitality if permitted to dry, and they should be stored in close boxes or jars and kept over winter
in a cool cellar. When the soil is moist in the fall, birch may be sown before the ground freezes,
but in the dry soil of the plains the seeds should be kept over winter. They must be sown in beds
shaded as for conifers, and covered very lightly. The seed usually ripens in August in the
Northern woods, and should be gathered at once, separated, and stored until planting time.

The sprouting of the seeds of other broad-leafed trees of the Northern forest flora is hastened
by subjecting them to the action of frost. This is accomplished either by fall planting or by
mixing the seeds with sand and placing them in boxes on the north side of an outbuilding or other
protection from the sun, whence they should be planted as soon as possible in the spring, or even,
when the ground is sufficiently thawed out, in late winter. The nuts and acorns may be simply
spread on a well-drained surface and protected from drying by a few inches of leaves held down
by boards; but they are more subject to the depredations of rodents when thus disposed of. The
seeds of fruit trees, such as cherry, mulberry, osage orange, wild crab apple, and hawthorn, should
be separated from the pulp by maceration and washing before storing. Cherry and mulberry seeds
ripen during the summer, and as the fruit is much relished by birds, watchfulness is necessary to
get them. They may be slightly dried after washing, and then mixed with sand. Some seeds,
notably those of the hawthorns, are apt to lie over two or more years. Germination of such
refractory seeds is hastened by soaking in water continuously for a week or more before planting.

THE FARM NURSERY. 225

When the soil is moist in the fall, the seeds of all trees which ripen after midsummer may be
planted, and thus the labor of storing is saved. But spring planting is usually more satisfactory,
because uniform conditions ean be better maintained where the seeds have been properly stored.

-The soil is also usually in the best condition for receiving the seeds in the spring, and lighter
covering is possible.

Tt must be remembered that the seed of the oaks, nuts, and cherries must not be permitted to
become thoroughly dry. Chestnut, beech, and the oaks are especially delicate in this respect, so
that with these species it is always safest to plant as soon as the seed is ripe.

The forest-tree nursery should be placed in deep, moist, well-drained loam, and should be
thoroughly cultivated.

It should be so arranged as to reduce hand work toa minimum. All the tree seeds except
birch and the conifers, which must be grown under screens, can be sown in drills, 3 or 4 feet apart,
thus making horse cultivation possible.

Hand weeding is important, for the tiny seedlings of many trees are very delicate, and the
more vigorous grasses will quickly choke them out if left unprotected. Where a large nursery is
made, frequent use of the harrow-toothed cultivator is most desirable, for it keeps a dust blanket
on the surface of the soil which prevents excessive evaporation and insures the most perfect soil
conditions obtainable through culture. Prompt attention is a requisite of successful nursery
management.

Seedlings of box elder, silver maple, red maple, catalpa, black locust, and cottonwood are
rampant growers the first season, and their growth may be checked, to make transplanting less
difficult, by sowing the seed thick in broad drills. Black wild cherry, the elm, the ‘ash, honey
locust, black walnut, tulip, crab apple, hackberry, linden, and coffee tree are of moderate growth
and easily attain transplanting size the first year. The oaks and the nut trees generally, hard
maple, beech, and hawthorn will usually be benefited by remaining two or three years in the
nursery. The birches should be transplanted from the seed bed to the nursery row the second
year, and set in permanent forest the third.

While the cone bearing trees are more difficult to manage than the broad-leafed species, it will
be found advantageous to the farmer to grow his own conifers. Not only are coniferous trees
(pines, spruces, cedars, larches, etc.) more difficult to transplant, but they are disastrously affected
by the drying of their roots; and in the operations of commercial nurseries—digging, storing, and
packing—as well as in transit, there is more or less danger from this cause. It will frequently
happen, too, that plants thus injured, unless the injury be very severe indeed, will appear in good
condition when received, so that the purchaser accepting them will be disappointed in his stand,
whatever care he takes in planting the stock. Even should the cost of growing the cone-bearing
trees be more than it would cost to purchase them, as will often be the case if the time of the
grower be considered, the trees will prove cheaper in the end, because favorable weather can be
chosen for transplanting them; they can be dug as needed, and absolutely protected from drying
out during the brief interval between digging and planting.

Farmers living adjacent to the pineries can easily secure seed by gathering the cones just
before they burst open and spreading them in a thin layer until sufficiently dry to open, when the
seed will fall out. The same method is used in securing all seeds save the red cedar, the fruit of
which is a gummy berry. The berries of the cedar should be soaked for several days in water,
then rubbed together to remove as much of the gum as possible, when they may be planted or
mixed in sand and kept frozen during winter. A bath in weak lye will hasten the cleaning process.
The seeds of the remaining conifers are kept dry over winter. They can be purchased of leading
seedsmen throughout the country, and, as a rule, come true to name, though difficulty regarding
the Rocky Mountain species is sometimes experienced. As seeds lose their vitality to a consider-
able degree the second year, and to a much greater degree thereafter, it is important to secure
them fresh.

A well-drained, preferably sandy, loam should be chosen and the seed bed prepared as is usual
for cold frames, so that as soon as the seed is planted the bed can beshaded. It should be open to
the air on all sides, and the seed may be sown broadeast in the bed, or in drills a few inches apart.
The seed should be covered but little, if any, more than its own depth. Pine, spruce, and Douglas
spruce seed usually germinates in eighteen to twenty days, red cedar in two to six months, and

286 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

larch in twenty to thirty days. Shortly after the trees are up, or at any time during the first sum-
mer, a disease called ‘damping off” is liable to attack them. This is a fungous growth, and results
in the decay of the tiny seedlings at the ground. It is often very destructive. The only remedy
is to sow clean dry sand among the seedlings and withhold water for a few days. This is not
always effective, but it will usually check the disease.

The shade for the seed bed is variously made. In the large nurseries it is usually a shed,
roofed and sided with laths, but this would be too expensive for a farm nursery. Useful shades are
made by laying brush across supports or by bunches of rushes or swamp grass similarly placed,
but of course these are more difficult to keep in order. Where proper attention is paid to ventil-
ation, an inexpensive shade can be made by tacking cheap sheeting to a frame to rest upon
supports running along the side of the bed.

It may be advisable sometimes to purchase one or two year old seedlings from reliable growers.
They should be planted, in shaded beds, about 3 inches apart, in rows 6 to 12 inches apart. it
will be necessary to keep them shaded one to three years, according to their rate of growth. The
oftener the cone-bearing trees are transplanted before being set permanently the better, as by this
process the growth of fibrous roots close to the collar is encouraged. Especial care must be taken
in handling conifers to prevent their roots from drying in the least, as whenever the roots dry it
is almost impossible to make the trees live. The seedlings should be packed in damp moss at the
nursery, and as soon as received the roots should be puddled in liquid mud and heeled in in a
shaded place. The heeling in should be carefully done, the fine soil pressing close upon the roots,
but not covering the tops. Ina shaded place the trees may be left thus until the roots begin
erowth. In planting it is best to carry the trees in a bucket, with just enough water to cover the
roots. They should be planted firmly and be well trampled, and a little loose soil dusted over the
trampled surface to prevent baking. No tree should be set much deeper than it stood before, and
this is specially important in transplanting conifers.

Conifers are ready for setting in plantations when from two to six years old. Marches can
usually be set when two or three years old, the pines and cedars when from three to five years old,
and the spruces when from four to six years.

How to TREAT THE Woop Lov.

In the northeastern States it is the custom to have connected with the farm a piece of virgin
woodland, commonly called the wood lot. Its object primarily is to supply the farmer with the
firewoed, fence material, and such dimension timbers as he may need from time to time for repairs
on buildings, wagons, ete.

As a rule, the wood lot occupies, as it ought to, the poorer part of the farm, the rocky or
stony, the dry or the wet portions, which are not well fitted for agricultural crops. As a rule, it
is treated as it ought not to be, if the intention is to have it serve its purpose continuously; it is
cut and culled without regard to its reproduction.

As far as firewood supplies go, the careful farmer will first use the dead and dying trees,
broken limbs, and leavings, which is quite proper. The careless man avoids the extra labor which
such material requires, and takes whatever splits best, no matter whether the material could be
used for better purposes or not.

When it comes to the cutting of other material, fence rails, posts, or dimension timber, the
general rule is to go into the lot and select the best trees of the best kind for the purpose. This
looks at first sight like the natural, most practical way of doing. It is the method which the
lumberman pursues when he “culls” the forest, and is, from his point of view perhaps, justifiable,
for he only desires to secure at once what is most profitable in the forest. But for the farmer
who proposes to use his wood lot continuously for supplies of this kind, it is a method detrimental
to his object, and in time it leaves him with a lot of poor, useless timber which encumbers the
ground and prevents the growth of a better crop.

Our woods are mostly composed of many species of trees; they are mixed woods. Some of
the species are valuable for some special purposes, others are applicable to a variety of purposes,
and again others furnish but poor material for anything but firewood, and even for that use they
may not be of the best.

IMPROVING THE CROP. 287

Among the most valuable in the northeastern woods we should mention the white pine—king
of all—the white ash, white and chestnut oak, hickories, tulip tree, black walnut, and black cherry,
the last three being now nearly exhausted; next, spruce and hemlock, red pine, sugar maple,
chestnut, various oaks of the black or red oak tribe, several species of ash and birch, black locust;
lastly, elms and soft maples, basswood, poplars, and sycamore.

Now, by the common practice of culling the best it is evident that gradually all the best trees
of the best kinds are taken out, leaving only inferior trees or inferior kinds—the weeds among
trees, if one may call them such—and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless.

It does not supply that for which it was intended; the soil, which was of little use for anything
but a timber crop before, is still further deteriorated under this treatinent, and being compacted
by the constant running of cattle, the starting of a crop of seedlings is made nearly impossible.
It would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or pasture; the farm has by so much lost in value.
In other words, instead of using the interest on his capital, interest and capital have been used
up together; the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed.

This is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the management of the wood lot
and the smallest care is taken to avoid deterioration and secure reproduction.

IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS.

The first care should be to improve the crop in its composition. Instead of culling it of its
best material, it should be culled of its weeds, the poor kinds, which we do not care to reproduce,
and which, like all other weeds, propagate themselves only too readily. This weeding must not,
however, be done all at once, as it could be in a field crop, for in a full-grown piece of woodland
each tree has a value, even the weed trees, as soil cover.

The great secret of success in all crop production lies in the regulating of water supplies; the
manuring in part and the cultivating entirely, as well as drainage and irrigation, are means to
this end. In forestry these means are usually not practicable, and hence other means are resorted
to. The principal of these is to keep the soil as much as possible under cover, either by the shade
which the foliage of the tall trees furnishes, or by that from the underbrush, or by the litter which
accumulates and in decaying forms a humus cover, a most excellent mulch.

A combination of these three conditions, viz, a dense crown cover, woody underbrush where
the crown cover is interrupted, and a heavy layer of well-decomposed humus, gives the best result.
Under such conditions, first of all, the rain, being intercepted by the foliage and litter, reaches the
ground only gradually, and therefore does not compact the soil as it does in the open field, but
leaves it granular and open, so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil. Secondly,
the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade and lack of air circulation in the dense
woods, so that more moisture remains for the use of the trees. When the shade of the crowns
overhead (the so-called “crown cover,” or ‘““eanopy,”) is perfect but little undergrowth will be seen;
but where the crown cover is interrupted or imperfect an undergrowth will appear. If this is
composed of young trees, or even shrubs, it is an advantage, but if of weeds, and especially grass,
itis a misfortune, because these transpire a great deal more water than the woody plants and
allow the soil to deteriorate in structure and therefore in water capacity.

Some weeds and grasses, to be sure, are capable of existing where but little light reaches the
soil. When they appear it is a sign to tke forester that he must be careful not to thin out the
crown cover any more. When the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a sign that
too much light reaches the ground, and that the soil is already deteriorated. If this state
continues, the heavy drain which the transpiration of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture,
without any appreciable conservative action by their shade, will injure the soil still further.

The overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there are not enough trees on
the ground to close up the interspaces with their crowns, or else because the kinds of trees which
make up the forest do not yield much shade; thus it can easily be observed that a beech, a sugar
maple, a hemlock is so densely foliaged that but little light reaches the soil through its crown
canopy, while am ash, an oak, a larch, when full grown, in the forest, allows a good deal of light to
penetrate. j

Hence, in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop, we must be careful not
to interrupt the crown cover too much, and thereby deteriorate the soil conditions. And for the

288 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

same reason, in the selection of the kinds that are to be left or to be taken out, we shall not only
consider their use value, but also their shading value, trying to bring about such a mixture of
shady and less shady kinds as will insure a continuously satisfactory crown cover, the shade-
enduring kinds to oecupy the lower stratum in the crown canopy, and to be more numerous than
the light-needing.

' The forester, therefore, watches first the conditions of his soil cover, and his next care is for
the condition of the overhead shade, the ‘“‘crown cover;” for a change in the condition of the
latter brings change into his soil conditions, and, inversely, from the changes in the plant cover of
the soil he judges whether he may or may not change the light conditions. The changes of the
soil cover teach him more often when ‘“ to let alone” than when to go on with his operations of
thinning out; that is to say, he can rarely stop short of that condition which is most favorable.
Hence the improvement cuttings must be made with caution and only very gradually, so that no
deterioration of the soil conditions be invited. We have repeated this injunction again and again,
because all success in the management of future wood crops depends upon the care bestowed upon
the maintenance of favorable soil conditions.

: As the object of this weeding is not only to remove the undesirable kinds from the present
crop, but to prevent as much as possible their reappearance in subsequent crops, it may be
advisable to cut such kinds as sprout readily from the stump in summer time—June or July—
when the stumps are likely to die without sprouting.

It may take several years’ cutting to bring the composition of the main crop into such a
condition as to satisfy us.

METHODS OF REPRODUCING THE WOOD CROP.

Then comes the period of utilizing the main crop. As we propose to keep the wood lot as
such, and desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood crop in place of the old one, this latter must be
cut always with a view to that reproduction. There are various methods pursued for this purpose
in large forestry operations which are not practicable on small areas, especially when these are
expected to yield only small amounts of timber, and these little by little as required. It is
possible, to be sure, to cut the entire crop and replant a new one, or else to use the ax skillfully
and bring about a natural reproduction in a few years; but we want in the present case to lengthen
out the period during which the old crop is cut, and hence must resort to other methods. There
are three methods practicable.

We inay clear narrow strips or bands entirely, expecting the neighboring growth to furnish
the seed for covering the strip with a new crop—“the strip method;” or we can take out single
trees here and there, relying again on an aftergrowth from seed shed by the surrounding trees—
the ‘selection method;” or, finally, instead of single trees, we may cut entire groups of trees
here and there in the same manner, the gaps to be filled, as in the other cases, with a young crop
from the seed of the surrounding trees, and this we may call the “ group method.”

In the strip method, in order to secure sufficient seeding of the cleared strip, the latter must
not be so broad that the seed from the neighboring growth can not be carried over it by the wind.
In order to get the best results from the carrying power of the wind (as well as to avoid windfalls
when the old growth is suddenly opened on the windward side) the strips should be located on the
side opposite the prevailing winds. Oaks, beech, hickory, and nut trees in general with heavy
seeds will not seed over any considerable breadth of strip, while with maple and ash the breadth
may be made twice as great as the height of the timber, and the mother trees with lighter seeds,
like spruce and pine, or birch and elm, may be able to cover strips of a breadth of three or four
and even eight times their height. But such broad strips are hazardous, since with insufficient
seed fall, or fail years in the seed, the strip may remain exposed to sun and wind for several years
without a good cover and deteriorate. It is safer, therefore, to make the strips no broader than
just the height of the neighboring timber, in which case not only has the seed better chance of
covering the ground, but the soil and seedlings have more protection from the mother crop. In
hilly country the strips must not be made in the direction of the slope, for the water would wash
out soil and seed.

Every year, then, or from time to time, a new strip is to be cleared and “regenerated.” But

REPRODUCING THE WOOD LOT.

if the first strip failed to cover itself satisfactorily the operation is
unwise to remove the seed trees further by an additional clearing.
should be used only where the kinds composing

289

stopped, for it would be
Accordingly, this method
the mother crop are frequent and abundant

seeders and give assurance of reseeding the strips quickly and successfully.
The other two methods have greater chances of success in that they preserve the soil
conditions more surely, and there is more assurance of seeding from the neighboring trees on all

sides.

The selection method, by which single trees

are taken out all over the forest, is the same as

has been practiced by the farmer and lumberman hitherto, only they have forgotten to look after

the young crop.

excessive shade of the mother trees.

will be necessary to be ready with
the ax all the time and give light
as needed by the young crop. The
openings madeby taking out single
trees are so small that there is
great danger of the young crop
being lost, or at least impeded in
its development, because it is im-
practicable to come in time to its
relief with the ax.

The best method, therefore, in
all respects, is the yroup method,
which not only secures continuous
soil cover, chances for full seeding,
and more satisfactory light condi-
tions, but requires less careful at-
tention, or at least permits more
freedom of movement and adapta-
tion to local conditions (fig. 39).

It is especially adapted to mixed
woods, as it permits securing for
each species the most desirable
light conditions by making the
openings larger or smaller, accord-
ing as the species we wish to favor
ina particular group demand more
or less shade. Further, when dif-
ferent species are ripe for regener-
ation at different times, this plan
makes it possible to take them in
hand as needed. Again, we can
begin with one group or we can

Millions of seed may fall to the ground and germinate,

but perish from the
If we wish to be successful in establishing a new crop it

SY

ATU

Fia. 39.—Showing plan of group system in regenerating a forest crop. 1,2, 3, 4, suc-
cessive groups of young timber, 1 being the oldest, 4 the youngest, 5 old timber; @,
wind mantle, specially managed to secure protection.

take in hand several groups simultaneously, as may be desirable and practicable.

We start our groups of new crop either where a young growth is already on the ground,
enlarging around it, or where old timber has reached its highest usefulness and should be cut in
order that we may not lose the larger growth which young trees would make; or else we choose a
place which is but poorly stocked, where, if it is not regenerated, the soil is likely to deteriorate

further. The choice is affected further by the consideration that dry situations

should be taken

in hand earlier than those in which the soil and site are more favorable, and that some species

reach maturity and highest use value earlier than others and should

therefore be reproduced

earlier. In short, we begin the regeneration when and where the necessity for it exists, or where
the young crop has the best chance to start most satisfactorily with the least artificial aid. Of
course advantage should be taken of the occurrence of seed years, which come at different inter-

vals with different species.
H. Doe. 181——19

290 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

If we begin with a group of young growth already on the ground, our plan is to remove
gradually the old trees standing over them when no longer required for shade, and then to cut
away the adjoining old growth and enlarge the opening in successive narrow bands around the
young growth. When the first band has seeded itself satisfactorily, and the young growth has
come to require more light (which may take several years), we remove another band around it, and
thus the regeneration progresses. Where no young growth already exists, of course the first
opening is made to afford a start, and afterwards the enlargement follows as occasion requires.

SIZE OF OPENINGS.

The size of the openings and the rapidity with which they should be enlarged vary, of course,
with local conditions and the species which is to be favored, the light-needing species requiring
larger openings and quicker light additions than the shade-enduring. It is difficult to give any

a

nC

hi

i
SN

Old timber. 3d. 2d. Ist cutting. 2a. 3d. Old timber.
Fie. 40.—A ppearance of regeneration by group method.

rules, since the modifications due to local conditions.are so manifold, requiring observation and
judgment. Caution in not opening too much at a time and too quickly may avoid failure in
securing good stands.

In general, the first openings may contain from one-fourth to one-half an acre or more, and
the gradual enlarging may progress by clearing bands of a breadth not to exceed the height of the
surrounding timber.

The time of the year when the cutting is to be done is naturally in winter, when the farmer
has the most leisure, and when the wood seasons best after felling and is also most readily moved.
Since it is expected that the seed fallen in the autumn will sprout in the spring, all wood should,
of course, be removed from the seed ground.

The first opening, as well as the enlargement of the groups, should not be made at once, but
by gradual thinning out, if the soil is not in good condition to receive and germinate the seed and
it is impracticable to put it in such condition by artificial means—hoeing or plowing.

It is, of course, quite practicable—nay, sometimes very desirable—to prepare the soil for the
reception and germination of the seed. Where undesirable undergrowth has started it should be

REPRODUCING THE WOOD LOT. 291

cut out, and where the soil is deteriorated with weed growth or compacted by the tramping of
cattle it should be hoed or otherwise scarified, so that the seed may find favorable conditions. To
let pigs do the plowing and the covering of acorns is not an uncommon practice abroad.

It is also quite proper, if the reproduction from the seed of the surrounding mother trees does
not progress satisfactorily, to assist, when an opportunity is afforded, by planting such desirable
species as were or were not in the composition of the original crop.

It may require ten, twenty, or forty years or more to secure the reproduction of a wood lot in
this way. A new growth, denser and better than the old, with timber of varying age, will be the
result. The progress of the regeneration in groups is shown on the accompanying plan, the
different shadings showing the successive additions of young crop, the darkest denoting the oldest
parts, first regenerated. If we should make a section through any one of the groups, this, ideally
represented, would be like fig. 40, the old growth on the outside, the youngest new crop
adjoining it, and tiers of older growths of varying height toward the center of the group.

WIND MANTLE.

On tie plan there will be noted a strip specially shaded surrounding the entire plat (fig. 39, a),
representing a strip of timber which should surround the farmer’s wood lot, and which he should
keep as dense as possible, especially favoring undergrowth. This part, if practicable, should be
kept reproduced as coppice or by the method of selection, i. e., by taking out trees here and there.
When gaps are made, they should be filled, if possible, by introducing shade-enduring kinds,
which, like the spruces and firs and beech, retain their branches down to the foot for a long time.
This mantle is intended to protect the interior against the drying influence of winds, which are
bound to enter the small wood lot and deteriorate the soil. The smaller the lot the more necessary
and desirable it is to maintain such a protective cover or windbreak.

COPPICE.

Besides reproducing a wood crop from the seed of mother trees or by planting, there is another
reproduction possible by sprouts from the stump. This, to be sure, can be done only with broad-
leafed species, since conifers, with but few exceptions, do not sprout from the stump. When a
wood lot is cut over and over again, the reproduction taking place by such sprouts we call
“ coppice.”

Most wooded areas in the Eastern States have been so cut that reproduction from seed could
not take place, and hence we have large areas of coppice, with very few seedling trees interspersed.
As we have seen in the chapter on “ How trees grow,” the sprouts do not develop into as good
trees as the seedlings. They grow faster, to be sure, in the beginning, but do not grow as tall and
are apt to be shorter lived.

For the production of firewood, fence, and post material, coppice management may suffice,
but not for dimension timber. And even to keep the coppice in good reproductive condition care
should be taken to secure a certain proportion of seedling trees, since the old stumps, after
repeated cutting, fail to sprout and die out.

Soil and climate influence the success of the coppice; shallow soils produce weaker but more
numerous sprouts, and are more readily deteriorated by the repeated laying bare of the soil; a
mild climate is most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power of the stump.

Some species sprout more readily than others; hence the composition of the crop will change
unless attention is paid to it. In the coppice, as in any other management of a natural wood
crop, a desirable composition must first be secured, which is done by timely improvement cuttings,
as described in a previous section.

The best trees for coppice in the Northeastern States are the chestnut, various oaks, hickory,
ash, elm, maples, basswood, and black locust, which are all good sprouters.

When cutting is done for reproduction the time and manner are the main care. The best
results are probably obtained, both financially and with regard to satisfactory reproduction, when
the coppice is cut between the twentieth and thirtieth year. All cutting must be done in early
spring or in winter, avoiding, however, days of severe frost, which is apt to sever the bark from
the trunk and to kill the cambium. Cutting in summer kills the stump, as arule. The cut should

292 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

be made slanting downward, and as smooth as possible, to prevent collection of moisture on the
stump and the resulting decay, and as close as possible to the ground, where the stump is less
exposed to injuries, and the new sprouts, starting close to the ground, may strike independent roots.

Fail places or gaps should be filled by planting. This can be readily done by bending to the
ground some of the neighboring sprouts, when 2 to 3 years old, notching, fastening them down
with a wooden hook or a stone, and covering them with soil a short distance (4 to 6 inches) from
the end. The sprout will then strike root, and after a year or so may be severed from the mother
stock by a sharp cut (fig. 41).

For the recuperation of the crop, it is desirable to maintain a supply of seedling trees, which
may be secured either by the natural seeding of a few mother trees of the old crop which are left,
or by planting. This kind of management, coppice with seedling or standard trees intermixed, if
the latter are left regularly and well distributed over the wood Jot, leads to a management called
“standard coppice.” In this it is attempted to avoid the drawbacks of the coppice, viz, failure to
produce dimension material and running out of the stocks. The former object is, however, only
partially accomplished, as the trees grown without sufficient side shading are apt to produce

branchy boles and hence

We J knotty timber, besides in-
[\/ e juring the coppice by their
| / VY shade.

PLAN OF MANAGEMENT.

In order to harmon-
ize the requirements of
the wood lot from a sylvi-
cultural point of view and
the needs of the farmer:
for wood supplies, the cut-
ting must follow some sys-
tematic plan.

Theimprovementcut-
tings need not, in point
of time, have been made
all over the lot before be-
ginning the cuttings for
regeneration, provided they have been made in those parts which are to be regenerated. Both
the cuttings may go on simultaneously, and this enables the farmer to gauge the amount of cutting
to his consumption. According to the amount of wood needed, one or more groups may be started
at the same time. It is, however, desirable, for the sake of renewing the crop systematically, to
arrange the groups in a regular order over the lot.

Fic. 41,—Method of layering to produce new stocks in coppice wood.

How TO CULTIVATE THE Woop CRop.

Where only firewood is desired—i. e., wood without special form, size, or quality—no attention
to the crop is necessary, except to insure that it covers the ground completely. Nevertheless, even
in such a crop, which is usually managed as a coppice, some of the operations described in this
chapter may prove advantageous. Where, however, not only quantity but useful quality of the
crop is also to be secured, the development of the wood crop may be advantageously influenced
by controlling the supply of light available to the individual trees.

It may be proper to repeat here briefly what has been explained in previous pages regarding
the influence of light on tree development.

EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WOOD PRODUCTION.

Dense shade preserves soil moisture, the most essential element for wood production; a close
stand of suitable kinds of trees secures this shading and prevents the surface evaporation of soil
moisture, making it available for wood production. But a close stand also cuts off side light and

IMPROVING THE CROP. 293

confines the lateral growing space, and hence prevents the development of side branches and
forces the growth energy of the soil to expend itself in height growth; the crown is carried up,
and long, cylindrical shafts, clear of branches, are developed. A close stand thus secures desir-
able form and quality. Yet, since the quality of wood production or accretion (other things being
equal) is in direct proportion to the amount of foliage and the available light, and since an open
* position promotes the development of a larger crown and of more foliage, an open stand tends to
secure a larger amount of wood accretion on each tree. On the other hand, a tree grown in the
open, besides producing more branches, deposits a larger proportion of wood at the base, so that
the shape of the bole becomes more conical, a form which in sawing proves unprofitable; whereas
a tree grown in the dense forest both lengthens its shaft at the expense of branch growth and
makes a more even deposit of wood over the whole trunk, thus attaining a more cylindvical form.
While, then, the total amount of wood production per acre may be as large in a close stand of
trees as in an open one (within limits), the distribution of this amount among a larger or smaller
number of individual trees produces different results in the quality of the crop. And since the
size of a tree or log is important in determining its usefulness and value, the sooner the individual
trees reach useful size, without suffering in other points of quality, the more profitable the whole
crop.
NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE.

The care of the forester, then, should be to maintain the smallest number of individuals on
the ground which will secure the greatest amount of wood growth in the most desirable form of
which the soil and climate are capable, without deteriorating the soil conditions. He tries to
secure the most advantageous individual development of single trees without suffering the disad-
vantages resulting from too open stand. The solution of this problem requires the greatest skill
and judgment, and rules can hardly be formulated with precision, since for every species or combi-
nation of species and conditions these rules must be modified.

In a well-established young crop the number of seedlings per acre varies greatly, from 3,000
to 100,000, according to soil, species, and the manner in which it originated, whether planted, sown,
or seeded naturally.| Left to themselves, the seedlings, as they develop, begin to crowd each
other. At first this crowding results only in increasing the height growth and in preventing the
spread and full development of side branches; by and by the lower branches failing to receive
sufficient light finally die and break off—the shaft ‘clears itself.” Then a distinct development of
definite crowns takes place, and after some years a difference of height growth in different indi-
viduals becomes marked. Not a few trees fail to reach the general upper crown surface, and
being more or less overtopped, we can readily classify them according to height and development
of crown, the superior or “dominating” ones growing more and more vigorously, the inferior or
“dominated” trees falling more and more behind, and finally dying for lack of light, and thus a
natural reduction in numbers, or thinning, takes place. This natural thinning goes on with vary-
ing rates at different ages, continuing through the entire life of the crop; so that, while only 4,000
trees per acre may be required in the tenth year to make a dense crown cover or normally close
stand, untouched by man, in the fortieth year 1,200 would suffice to make the same dense cover,
in the eightieth year 350 would be a full stand, and in the one hundredth not more than 250, accord-
ing to soil and species, more or less. AS we can discern three stages in the development of a
single tree—the juvenile, adolescent, and mature—so, in the development of a forest growth, we
nay distinguish three corresponding stages, namely, the “thicket” or brushwood, the “‘pole-wood”
or sapling, and the “timber” stage. During the thicket stage, in which the trees have a bushy
appearance, allowing hardly any distinction of stem and crown, the height growth is most rapid.
This period may last, according to conditions and species, from five or ten to thirty and even forty
years—longer on poor soils and with shade-enduring species, shorter with light-needing species on
good soils—and, while it lasts, it is in the interest of the wood grower to maintain the close stand,
which produces the long shaft, clear of branches, on which at a later period the wood that makes
valuable clear timber may accumulate. Form development is now most important. The lower
branches are to die and break off before they, become too large. With light-needing species and

1Tf the crop does not, at 3 to 5 years of age, shade the ground well, with a complete crown cover or canopy, it
can not be said to be well established and should be filled out by planting.

294 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

with deciduous trees generally this dying off is accomplished more easily than with conifers. The
spruces and even the white pine require very dense shading to “clear” the shaft. During this
period it is only necessary to weed out the undesirable kinds, such as trees infested by insect and
fungus, shrubs, sickly, stunted, or bushy trees which are apt to overtop and prevent the develop-
ment of their better neighbors. In short, our attention is now devoted mainly to improving the
composition of the crop.

WEEDING AND CLEANING THE CROP.

This weeding or cleaning is easily done with shears when the crop is from 3 to 5 years old.
Later, mere cutting back of the undesirable trees with a knife or hatchet may be practiced. In
well-made artificial plantations this weeding is rarely needed until about the eighth or tenth year.
But in natural growths the young crop is sometimes so dense as to inordinately interfere with the
development of the individual trees. The stems then remain so slender that there is danger of
their being bent or broken by storm or snow when the growth is thinned out later. In such cases
timely thinning is indicated to stimulate*more rapid development of the rest of the crop. This
can be done most cheaply by cutting swaths or lanes 1 yard wide and as far apart through the
crop, leaving strips standing. The outer trees of the strip, at least, will then shoot ahead and
become the main crop. These weeding or improvement cuttings, which must be made gradually
and be repeated every two or three years, are best performed during the summer months, or in
August and September, when it is easy to judge what should be taken out.

METHODS OF THINNING.

During the “thicket” stage, then, which may last from 10 to 25 and more years, the crop is
gradually brought into proper composition and condition. When the ‘‘pole-wood” stage is
reached, most of the saplings being now from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and from 15 to 25 feet in
height, the variation in sizes and in appearance becomes more and more marked. Some of the
taller trees begin to show a long, clear shaft and a definite crown. The trees can be more or less
readily classified into height and size classes. The rate at which the height growth has progressed
begins to fall off and diameter growth increases. Now comes the time when attention must be
given to increasing this diameter growth by reducing the number of individuals, and thus having
all the wood which the soil can produce deposited on fewer individuals. This is done by judicious
and often repeated thinning, taking out some of the trees, and thereby giving more light and
increasing the foliage of those remaining; and as the crowns expand, so do the trunks increase
their diameter in direct proportion. These thinnings must, however, be made cautiously lest at
the same time the soil is exposed tao much, or the branch growth of those trees which are to
become timber wood is too much stimulated. So varying are the conditions to be considered,
according to soil, site, species, and development of the crop, that it is well-nigh impossible,
without a long and detailed discussion, to lay down rules for the proper procedure. In addition
the opinions of authorities differ largely both as to manner and degree of thinning, the old school
advising moderate and the new school severer thinnings.

For the farmer, who can give personal attention to detail and whose object is to grow a variety
of sizes and kinds of wood, the following general method may perhaps be most useful.

_ First determine which trees are to be treated as the main crop or “final-harvest” crop. For
this, 300 to 500 trees per acre of the best grown and most useful kinds may be selected, which
should be distributed as uniformly as possible over the acre. These, then—or as many aS may
live till the final harvest—are destined to grow into timber and are to form the special favorites as
much as possible. They may at first be marked to insure recognition; later on they will be readily
distinguished by their superior development. The rest, which we will call the “subordinate”
crop, is then to serve merely as filler, nurse, and soil cover.

WHAT TREES TO REMOVE.

{t is now necessary, by careful observation of the surroundings of each of the “ final-harvest”
crop trees, or “superiors,” as we may call them, to determine what trees of the “subordinate”
crop trees, or “‘inferiors,” must be removed. AJlnurse trees that threaten to overtop the superiors

THINNING THE WOOD CROP. 295

must either be cut out or cut back and topped, if that is practicable, so that the crown of the
superiors can develop freely. Those that are only narrowing in the superiors from the side, with-
out preventing their free top development, need not be interfered with, especially while they are
still useful in preventing the formation and spreading of side branches on the superiors. As
soon as the latter have fully cleared their shafts, these crowding inferiors must be removed. Care
must be taken, however, not to remove too many at a time, thus opening the crown cover too
severely and thereby exposing the soil to the drying influence of the sun. Gradually, as the
crowns of inferiors standing farther away begin to interfere with those of the superiors, the
inferiors are removed, and thus the full effect of the light is secured in the accretion of the main
harvest crop; at the same time the branch growth has been prevented and the soil has been kept
shaded. Meanwhile thinnings may also be made in the subordinate crop, in order to secure also
the most material from this part of the crop. This is done by cutting out all trees that threaten
to be killed by their neighbors. In this way many a useful stick is saved and the dead material,
only good for firewood, lessened. It is evident that trees which in the struggle for existence have
fallen behind, so as to be overtopped by their neighbors, can not, either by their presence or by
their removal, influence the remaining growth. They are removed only in order to utilize their
wood before it decays.

It may be well to remark again that an undergrowth of woody plants interferes in no way
with the devolopment of the main crop; on the contrary, aids by its shade in preserving favorable
moisture conditions. Its existence, however, shows in most cases that the crown cover is not
as dense as it should be, and hence that thinning is not required. Grass and weed growth, on the
other hand, is emphatically disadvantageous and shows that the crown cover is dangerously open.

The answer to the three questions, when to begin the thinnings, how severely to thin, and
how often to repeat the operation, must always depend upon the varying appearance of the growth
and the necessities in each case. The first necessity for interference may arise with light-needing
species as early as the twelfth or fifteenth year; with shade-enduring, not before the twentieth or
twenty-fifth year. The necessary severity of the thinning and the repetition are somewhat inter-
dependent. It is better to thin carefully atfd repeat the operation oftener than to open up so
severely at once as to jeopardize the soil conditions. Especially in younger growths and on poorer
soil, it is best never to open a continuous crown cover so that it could not close up again within
three to five years; rather repeat the operation oftener. Later, when the trees have attained
heights of 50 to 60 feet and clear boles (which may be in forty to fifty years, according to soil and
kind) the thinning may be more severe, so as to require repetition only every six to ten years.

The condition of the crown cover, then, is the criterion which directs the ax. As soon as the
crowns again touch or interlace the time has arrived to thin again. In mixed growths it must not
be overlooked that light-needing species must be specially protected against shadier neighbors.
Shade-enduring trees, such as the spruces, beech, sugar maple, and hickories, bear overtopping
for a time and will then grow vigorously when more light is given, while light-needing species,
like the pines, larch, oaks, and ash, when once suppressed, may never be able to recover.

Particular attention is called to the necessity of leaving a rather denser ‘wind mantle” all
around small groves. In this part of the grove the thinning must be less severe, unless coniferous
trees on the outside can be encouraged by severe thinning to hold their branches low down, thus
increasing their value as windbreaks.

The thinnings, then, while giving to the ‘“final-harvest” crop all the advantage of light for
promoting its rapid development into serviceable timber size, furnish also better material from
the subordinate crop. At 60 to 70 years of age the latter may have been entirely removed and
only the originally selected ‘“‘superiors” remain on the ground, or as many of them as have not
died and been removed; 250 to 400 of these per acre will make a perfect stand of most valuable
form and size, ready for the final harvest, which should be made as indicated in the preceding
chapter. \

THE RELATION OF FORESTS TO FARMS.

That all things in nature are related to each other and interdependent is a common saying, a
fact doubted by nobody, yet often forgotten or neglected in practical life. The reason is partly
indifference and partly ignorance as to the actual nature of the relationship; hence we suffer,
deservedly or not.

296 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. —

The farmer’s business, more than any other perhaps, depends for its success upon a true
estimate of and careful regard for this interrelation. He adapts hiscrop to the nature of the soil,
the manner of its cultivation to the changes of the seasons, and altogether he shapes conditions
and places them in their proper relations to each other and adapts himself to them.

Soil, moisture, and heat are the three factors which, if properly related and utilized, combine
to produce his crops. In some directions he can control these factors more or less readily; in others
they are withdrawn from his immediate influence, and he is seemingly helpless. He can maintain
the fertility of the soil by manuring, by proper rotation of crops, and by deep culture; he can
remove surplus moisture by ditching and draining; he can, by irrigation systems, bring water to
his crops, and by timely cultivation prevent excessive evaporation, thereby rendering more water
available to the crop; but he can not control the rainfall nor the temperature changes of the sea-
sons. Recent attempts to control the rainfall by direct means exhibit one of the greatest follies
and misconceptions of natural forces we have witnessed during thisage. Nevertheless, by indirect
means the farmer has it in his power to exercise much greater control over these forces than he
has attempted hitherto. He can prevent or reduce the unfavorable effects of temperature changes;
he ean increase the available water supplies, and prevent the evil effects of excessive rainfall; he
can so manage the waters which fall as to get the most benefit from them and avoid the harm
which they are able to inflict.

Before attempting to control the rainfall itself by artifice, we should study how to secure the
best use of that which falls as it comes within reach of human agencies and becomes available by
natural causes.

How poorly we understand the use of these water supplies is evidenced yearly by destructive
freshets and floods, with the accompanying washing of soil, followed by droughts, low waters, and
deterioration of agricultural lands. It is claimed that annually in the United States about 200
square miles of fertile soil are washed into brooks and rivers, a loss of soil capital which can not
be repaired for centuries. Atthe same time millions of dollars are appropriated yearly in the river
and harbor bills to dig out the lost farms from the rivers, and many thousands of dollars’ worth of
crops and other property are destroyed by floods aifd overflows; not to count the large loss from
droughts which this country suffers yearly in one part or the other, and which, undoubtedly, could
be largely avoided, if we knew how to manage the available water supplies.

The regulation, proper distribution, and utilization of the rain waters in humid as well as in
arid regions—water management—is to be the great problem of successful agriculture in the
future.

One of the most powerful means for such water management lies in the proper distribution
and maintenance of forest areas. Nay, we can say that the most successful water management is
not possible without forest management.

THE FOREST WATERS THE FARM.

Whether forests increase the amount of precipitation within or near their limits is still an
open question, although there are indications that under certain conditions large, dense forest
areas may have such an effect. At any rate, the water transpired by the foliage is certain, in
some degree, to increase the relative humidity near the forest, and thereby increase directly or
indirectly the water supplies in its neighborhood. This much we can assert, also, that while
extended plains and fields, heated by the sun, and hence giving rise to warm currents of air, have
the tendency to prevent condensation of the passing moisture-bearing currents, forest areas, with
their cooler, moister air strata, do not have such a tendency, and local showers may therefore become
more frequent in their neighborhood. But, though no increase in the amount of rainfall may be
secured by forest areas, the availability of whatever falls is increased for the locality by a well-
kept and properly located forest growth. The foliage, twigs, and branches break the fall of the
raindrops, and so does the litter of the forest floor; hence the soil under this cover is not com-
pacted as in the open field, but kept loose and granular, so that the water can readily penetrate
and percolate. The water thus reaches the ground more slowly, dripping gradually from the
leaves, branches, and trunks, and allowing more time for it to sink into the soil. This percolation
is also made easier by the channels along the many roots. Similarly, on account of the open
structure of the soil and the slower melting of the snow under a forest cover in spring, where it

FARM AND FOREST. 297

lies a fortnight to a month longer than in exposed positions and melts with less waste from
evaporation, the snow waters more fully penetrate the ground. Again, more snow is caught
and preserved under the forest cover than on the wind-swept fields and prairies.

All these conditions operate together, with the result that larger amounts of the water sink
into the forest soil and to greater depths than in open fields. This moisture is conserved because
of the reduced evaporation in the cool and still forest air, being protected from the two great
moisture-dissipating agents, sun and wind. By these conditions alone the water supplies available
in the soil are increased from 50 to 60 per cent over those available on the open field. Owing to
these two causes, then—increased percolation and decreased evaporation—larger amounts of
moisture become available to feed the springs and subsoil waters, and these become finally
available to the farm, if the forest is located at a higher elevation than the fleld. The great
importance of the subsoil water especially and the influence of forest areas upon it has so far
received too little attention and appreciation. It is the subsoil water that is capable of supplying
the needed moisture in times of drought.

THE FOREST TEMPERS THE FARM.

Another method by which a forest belt becomes a conservator of moisture lies in its wind-
breaking capacity, by which both velocity and temperature of winds are modified and evaporation
from the fields to the leeward is reduced.

On the prairie, wind swept every day and every hour, the farmer has learned to plant a
wind-break around his buildings and orchards, often ouly a single row of trees, and finds even
that a desirable shelter, tempering both the hot winds of summer and the cold blasts of winter.
The fields he usually leaves unprotected; yet a wind-break around his crops to the windward
would bring him increased yield, and a timber belt would act still more effectively. Says a
farmer from Illinois:

My experience is that now in cold and stormy winters fields protected by timber belts yield full crops, while
fields not protected yield only one-third of a crop. Twenty-five or thirty years ago we never had any wheat killed
by winter frost, and every year we had a full crop of peaches, which is now very rare. At that time we had plenty
of timber around our fields and orchards, now cleared away.

Not only is the temperature of the winds modified by passing over and through the shaded
and cooler spaces of protecting timber belts disposed toward the windward and alternating with
the fields, but their velocity is broken and moderated, and since with reduced velocity the
evaporative power of the winds is very greatly reduced, so more water is left available for crops.
Every foot in height of a forest growth will protect 1 rod in distance, and several belts in
succession would probably greatly increase the effective distance. By preventing deep freezing
of the soil the winter cold is not so much prolonged, and the frequent fogs and mists that hover
near forest areas prevent many frosts. That stock will thrive better where it can find protection
from the cold blasts of winter and from the heat of the sun in summer is a well-established fact.

THE FOREST PROTECTS THE FARM.

On the sandy plains, where the winds are apt to blow the sand, shifting it hither and thither,
a forest belt to the windward is the only means to keep the farm protected.

In the mountain and hill country the farms are apt to suffer from heavy rains washing away
the soil. Where the tops and slopes are bared of their forest cover, the litter of the forest floor
burnt up, the soil trampled and compacted by cattle and by the patter of the raindrops, the water
can not penetrate the soil readily, but is carried off superficially, especially when the soil is ot
clay and naturally compact. As a result the waters, rushing over the surface down the hill, run
together in rivulets and streams and acquire such a force as to be able to move loose particles and
even stones; the ground becomes furrowed with gullies and runs; the fertile soil is washed
away; the fields below are covered with silt; the roads are damaged; the water courses tear their
- banks, and later run dry, because the waters that should feed them by subterranean channels have
been carried away in the flood.

The torest cover on the hilltops and steep hillsides which are not fit for cultivation prevents
this erosive action of the waters by the same influence by which it increases available water
supplies. The important effects of a forest cover, then, are retention of larger quantities of water

298 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and carrying them off under ground and giving them up gradually, thus extending the time of
their usefulness and preventing their destructive action.

In order to be thoroughly effective, the forest growth must be dense, and, especially, the forest
floor must not be robbed of its accumulations of foliage, surface mulch, and litter, or its under-
brush by fire, nor must it be compacted by the trampling of cattle.

On the gentler slopes, which are devoted to cultivation, methods of underdraining, such as
horizontal ditches partly filled with stones and covered with soil, terracing, and contour plowing,
deep cultivation, sodding, and proper rotation of crops must be employed to prevent damage
from surface waters.

THE FOREST SUPPLIES THE FARM WITH USEFUL MATERIAL.

All the benefits derived from the favorable influence of forest belts upon water conditions can
be had without losing any of the useful material that the forest produces. The forest grows to be
eat and to be utilized; it is a crop to be harvested. It is a crop which, if properly managed, does
not need to be replanted; it reproduces itself.

When once established, the ax, if properly guided by skillful hands, is the only tool necessary
to cultivate it and to reproduce it. Thereis no necessity of planting unless the wood lot has been
mismanaged.

The wood lot, then, if properly managed, is not only the guardian of the farm, but it is the
savings bank from which fair interest can be annually drawn, utilizing for the purpose the poorest
part of the farm. Nor does the wood lot require much attention; it is to the farm what the
workbasket is to the good housewife—a means with which to improve the odds and ends of time,
especially during the winter, when other farm business is at a standstill.

It may be added that the material which the farmer can secure from the wood lot, besides the
other advantages recited above, is of far greater importance and value than is generally admitted.

On a well-regulated farm of 160 acres, with its 4 miles and more of fencing and with its wood
fires in range and stove, at least 25 cords of wood are required annually, besides material for
repair of buildings, or altogether the annual product of probably 40 to 50 acres of well-stocked
forest is needed. The product may represent, according to location, an actual stumpage value of
from $1 to $3 per acre, a sure crop coming every year without regard to weather, without trouble
and work, and raised on the poorest part of the farm. It is questionable whether such net results
could be secured with the same steadiness from any other crop. Nor must it be overlooked that
the work in harvesting this crop falls into a time when little else could be done.

Wire fences and coal fires are, no doubt, good substitutes, but they require ready cash, and
often the distance of haulage makes them rather expensive. Presently, too, when the virgin woods
have been still further culled of their valuable stores, the farmer who has preserved a sufficiently
large and well-tended wood lot will be able to derive a comfortable money revenue from it by
supplying the market with wood of various kinds and sizes. The German State forests, with
their complicated administrations, which eat up 4 per cent of the gross income, yield, with prices
of wood about the same as in our country, an annual net revenue of from $1 to $4 and more per
acre. Why should not the farmer, who does not pay salaries to managers, overseers, and forest
guards, make at least as much money out of this crop when he is within reach of a market?

With varying conditions the methods would of course vary. In a general way, if he happens
to have avirgin growth of mixed woods, the first care would be to improve the composition of the
wood lot by cutting out the less desirable kinds, the weeds of tree growth, and the poorly grown
trees which impede the development of more deserving neighbors.

The wood thus cut he will use as firewood or in any other way, and even if he could not use
it at all and had to burn it up the operation would pay indirectly by leaving him a better crop.
Then he may use the rest of the crop, gradually cutting the trees as needed, but he must take care
that the openings are not made too large, so that they can readily fill out with young growth from
the seed of the remaining trees, and he must also pay attention to the young aftergrowth, giving
it light as needed. Thus without ever resorting to planting he may harvest the old timber and
have a new crop taking its place and perpetuate the wood lot without in any way curtailing his
use of the same.

G ERINCIELES OF FOREST ECONOMY:

It is possible to carry on forest production, to grow and market forest products, without
making a special business of it.

The farmer can manage his wood lot so as to produce and reproduce a valuable wood crop,
applying all the art of silviculture without any special bookkeeping or other business organization.
If he performs his own labor and counts it nothing, and if he use his own wood crop in his buildings,
fences, or in his stove, or can sell it to his neighbors, and if he keep his wood lot on the rocky
part of his farm or where it serves as protection against damage from winds or waters, he can
make forest growing at least indirectly profitable without much effort.

The case is different when we go into forest growing as a business for the market and for
revenue, for profit on an invested capital, and on expenditures. Then it becomes necessary to
adopt more systematic procedures, to organize, as in a large mercantile establishment, the business
in detail, to adopt proper methods of bookkeeping, to keep control of income and outgo, so as to
insure the profitable running of the business; and, as in all properly conducted business enter-
prises, the adequacy of the capital employed and of the margin realized must enter into
consideration.

Besides the purely technical care of the productive forces to secure the best quantitative
‘and qualitative production of material—the highest “gross” yield—there must be exercised a
managerial care to secure the most favorable relations of expenditure and income, the highest
“net” yield, a surplus of money results without which the industry would appear purposeless, at
least from the standpoint of private enterprise and investment.

Carried on by government activity for reasons of general cultural advantages, the “net yield”
or money profits may be considered secondary, perhaps be dispensed with, and it may even appear
rational to carry on this industry like any other form of public works, at a loss. Nevertheless,
even in that case, it would be desirable to organize and systematically carry on the business, to
keep account, compare, and bring into relation the results with the efforts; to measure the cost.

The manner in which such systematic business organization and accounting is done must vary
according to the conditions and peculiarities of the industry, and hence it differs widely in the
different industries. Thus, although agriculture and forestry, both having to do with productions
of the soil, would appear of similar nature, yet the conditions of production vary so widely that
their methods and problems of management and of accounting must also differ considerably.

In both these industries there is required a fixed and a working capital; but while the
agriculturist has this outside of land and houses, in movable condition, or can in a short time—at
the end of each season—make most of it movable, the forest manager has his working capital
mostly bound up, immovable, represented in the growing timber, the accumulation of many years’
growth, which may or may not be ready for harvest.

The length of time with which forestry has to caleulate in the creation of its products is an
element which introduces problems into the calculation of future yields, both gross and net,
unknown to most other industries and difficult to solve. A further difficulty, also peculiar to the
industry, is the fact that it can not be readily determined what part of the forest ought to be left
as working capital and what part should be harvested; there is no definite time, naturally
determined, when the harvest is ready, and the question as to which part of the growing timber
should be left standing for further accumulation of products to be harvested involves compli-
cated technical as well as financial and managerial considerations.

Furthermore, there are difficulties arising from the manner in which forest growth develops,
in estimating or determining the accretions in quantity and value of the crop, and difficulties in

sey 299

300. FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

determining the value of forest soil and in predicting the market value of the products at future
times when they will be ready for harvest.

All these difficulties, which are peculiar to the forestry business, at least to a much greater
degree than to any other business, require much more careful planning and systematic procedure
than is usually necessary with other industries in which the product is sold or expected to be
turned to account within a short time from its production and in which the cost of production
and the price of products can be more readily ascertained, the methods of carrying on the business
more readily changed or adapted to changing market conditions, and the fixed capital more
readily liquidated.

This branch of the forestry business, therefore, in countries where the industry is developed,
has experienced very elaborate treatment, the purely economic or managerial problems—forest
economy or forest management—being sharply distinguished from the problems of technical forest
production, forestry technique. While this latter branch deals with the questions of silviculture,
forest protection, and forest utilization—how to grow, protect, and use to best advantage the forest
products—the former, forest economy, deals with the questions of forest valuation, forestal statics,
and forest regulation, how to determine the quantity of production, how to compare expenditure
and result, how to dispose of the forces of production, regulate orderly, and systematically
manage the forest property so as to produce continuously the most satisfactory money results.

We speak now, it must not be forgotten, not of the business of chopping down and turning
into cash virgin forest growth, a mere crude exploitation of the natural forest resources in which
the present lumber industry is concerned, but we propose to outline the considerations which are
needful when we desire to engage in the business of producing the supplies for the lumber industry
after virgin supplies are exhausted, an industry which so far has remained undeveloped in the
United States. In the lumber industry of to-day the business methods, as far as the accounting
of forest supplies are concerned, are of the crudest. It consists in ascertaining roughly the
amount of timber! which could at once be readily utilized with profit, and no account is made of
any tuture values, or rarely so.

The forest is treated like a quarry or mine from which the pay ore is removed, then to be
abandoned. If there should be anything of value left or developed later, this is worked out in
the same way, like working over the dump of an abandoned mine. In other words, the lumber
industry is not a productive but a transformative industry, preparing the product for market; it
st nds in relation to the forestry industry as that of the cattle breeder to that of the butcher, and
wood production is not a part of it.

The lumbering industry, concerned in the utilization of forest products, is only the tail end of
the forestry industry, which latter begins with the systematic management of the forest resources
for reproduction and continued revenue.

Tn the forestry business we consider the forest somewhat like an orchard from which we only
reap the fruit annually, or like a herd of cattle kept for breeding purposes when we may slaughter
the old but look for a constant supply of young eattle, growing and maintaining a due proportion
of calves and heifers. Thus the forester proposes to use annually or periodically only as much
as has annually or periodically grown. If, for instance, he had found that on his 1,000 acres
the average annual wood production was 50 cubic feet per acre he would be entitled to cut
50 x 1,000 = 50,000 cubic feet yearly.

In order to produce this amount continuously and in such form and size as to be useful, and
to permit a harvesting every year, there would have to be a certain amount of wood stored up
and distributed over younger and older trees or stands of trees, which are maintained as stock

1The ascertainment of the amount of standing timber is done in various ways. Usually the judgment of a
more or less experienced expert, a ‘‘ timber looker,” is taken, who by riding or walking through the woods mentally
forms an idea of the number of logs that could be got from the land, and of the cost of moving them to the mill.
An improvement consists in making at least a few trial measurements either of the contents of average acres, or else
counting and measuring the trees of certain kinds which constitute the main value. This is done especially with
walnut, cherry, or yellow poplar, and other kinds which are especially valuable and occur scattered through the
woods; these are now often sold by the tree instead of by the acre or by the M feet B. M.

A fair method also practiced is to sell by the “scaling” when the logs are cut and collected on ‘‘skidways,”
where they are measured and paid for by the M feet B. M.

PRINCIPLES OF FOREST ECONOMY. 301

on which the annual growth takes place (the wood capital), just as in the herd a certain number of
cows and bulls and heifers of various ages must be kept to secure a continuous supply of cattle
and a tolerably uniform revenue on the investment.

In order to be able to determine what this wood capital is to be and how much the yield or
revenue that can be expected the manager must have knowledge of the manner and rapidity with
which the crop develops.

It is not necessary to go into details of the methods developed to ascertain the amount of
wood growing per acre at different ages, or how to determine the rate of gzowth and the quanti-
tative as well as qualitative accretion. It will, however, be needful to indicate briefly what in
general the results of such measurements would be in order to get an insight as to how these will
influence the methods of management.

While individual trees of the same species may develop very differently and seemingly without
law, when we deal with larger numbers under forest conditions we may more readily discern that
amore or less precise law and rate of growth can be established for each species and condition.
Of course different soil and climatic conditions and the character of the site influence the rate of
development of forest growth, yet on all sites the relative rate at various periods remains more or
less constant.

Thus for a given species and site we will be able to discern after a brief seeding stage a
juvenile stage, when trees develop in height growth at the expense of diameter growth; an
adolescent stage, when height growth decreases and diameter growth accelerates, and a mature
stage, when height growth practically ceases and diameter growth, although persisting, declines.
The growth in volume progresses differently because the very wide rings or layers which are laid
on in early life, and which denote rapid diameter growth, cover only a small circumference, while
the much narrower ring of a later period laid on over a much thicker stem represents a much
larger volume.

Thus the rate of growth in white pine decreases in height and thickness practically from the
polewood stage forward, while the rate of growth in volume increases up to the sixtieth or eightieth
year, and then continues uniformly for a century or more before it declines.

Or to illustrate in figures, a white pine seedling only 1 foot high and one-half inch in
diameter, with hardly an appreciable volume of stem, will have reached a height of 30 feet in
twenty years, 60 feet in forty years, 100 feet in one hundred years; the width of the rings will have
averaged one-eighth to one-sixth inch during the first thirty years, while at one hundred years the
average will have come down to one-twelfth inch; but the volume growth, which during the first
thirty years was but a fraction of a cubic foot, has after sixty years attained a rate of 1 to 2 cubie
feet per year, and is kept at that rate to a great age—two hundred and fifty to three hundred
years.

If we substitute the red or Norway pine we will find the progress quite different. It may start
out at about the same rate as the white pine, and at sixty years may also have attained a rate
of 2 cubic feet per year, but soon the rate begins to decline, and in the one hundred and twentieth
year with a volume of 80 cubic feet the average accretion is only two-thirds cubic foot per year.
Its average growth for the one hundred and twenty years has now become equal to the current
rate of growth.

The tree then passes its maximum capacity of wood production, for from this time on its
current growth falls behind its average, and from the standpoint of quantitative production the
tree should now be cut.

But there is a growth in value which does not progress continuously and proportionately
with the growth in yolume, and which is also an important factor in deciding when a tree is
to be cut.

Generally in all lumber and timber markets the prices are classified, and sticks, boards, ete.,
are priced according to size as well as freedom from defects and knots. For instance, poplar logs
under 12 inches may have no price at all, logs of 16 to 20 inches may bring $15, those of 20 to 29
inches may bring $20, and if over 30 inches $25 may be paid per 1,000 feet B. M. contained in the
log. Hence, although the quantitative development may have decreased in the log of 29 inches,
it may still pay to hold it over until the better-paying size is attained.

302 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

In a stand of trees, an acre of forest growth, the progress of wood production is, to be sure,
different from that in the individual tree, for here the amount of wood to the acre at any time
depends on the number of trees as well as their volume. And this number, as we have seen,
rapidly decreases as the trees grow older and crowd each other, when some are killed and
eliminated from taking part in the total wood production, while the remaining, with the increase
in light and food supplies, increase their production. This increase in the rate of volume growth
per acre is very rapid in young woods and on good soil; it reaches a maximum and then declines
more or less rapidly according to species and site, very much according to the diameter growth of
the individual.

The question as to the number of trees which should be allowed to grow per acre, so as to
produce not only the largest amount of wood, but of useful sizes and best quality, which means
freedom from knots and technically most serviceable in form and grain, is one of the foremost
problems of both the technicist and the manager.

The capacity of our unmanaged virgin forests in this respect is no criterion of the possibili-
ties, and on the other hand the experience of other countries is only partially applicable to our
conditions. But as an example of what our white pine forests, for instance, may eventually
produce, we may cite the experience with spruce in Germany, which on good soil is capable of
producing at the rate of 40 cubic feet per acre each year during the first decade, as much as 120
cubic feet in the second decade, and at the rate of 200 cubic feet at the age of 40, while at one
hundred and fifty it shows only an average of 80 cubic feet per acre annually; having declined
from about the seventieth year on.

On poorer soils about one-half of this production may be expected, and if we inquire into the
total quantity per acre we may find at thirty years 4,200 cubic feet of wood, more than twice that
amount at sixty years, and 14,000 cubic feet at one hundred years, which appears an enormous
yield compared to those of our virgin forests, whose yield is depressed by the presence of much
valueless material and lack of density, and which would in double the time hardly have produced
such amount. With other species, to be sure, entirely different ag ggregate amounts would result,
but in general, the march of progress would be in a similar proportion.

If, however, we have to deal not with seedling trees, but with coppice growth like the sprout
lands of our New England States, the progress is entirely different. There are several million
acres of hard-wood coppice in these States, which, when fairly stocked, produce annually for the
first twenty-five to thirty years at the rate of a cord or a little less (i. e., about 100 cubic feet solid)
per acre, but after that time very rapidly decline in production without an equivalent value
increase, and hence must be cut when the maximum amount of wood production has been attained ;
this is also necessary from silvicultural reasons, as the stacks if left too long, are impaired in
reproductive power.

To be sure, such woods yield hardly any other material than firewood and fence rails. There
are many trees to the acre, 1,500 to 2,000 at least, but each one is small, not more than 10 to 12
inches in diameter at best, hence the supply of firewood is in excess of the home demand and the
price obtained hardly covers the expense of getting the material to market.

To produce materials of size and quality such as we now require in the lumber market, nature
has taken from one hundred and fifty to five hundred years, and for the giants of the Pacific, two
thousand years anid more. Even with the best skill in managing the crop, not less than seventy-
five to one hundred years from the seed will be required to produce logs fit for the mill, such as
are now considered hardly worth sawing.

From such measurements and considerations of the quantitative and qualitative development
of the crop, the economist will learn that the time at which a forest growth is utilized has an
important bearing on the more or less intensive and profitable use of the resource.

When the crop, accumulated during a longer or shorter period, is ripe for the ax depends not
only upon silvicultural and forest-technical considerations influenced by soil and climatic condi-
tions and the species composing the forest, but, from a business point of view, upon market con-
ditions and financial considerations. The material would hardly be useful for anything but firewood
or small posts and fencing material at best before twenty years, and again for lumber or purposes
of construction it may be considered fit for use not before one hundred and more years.

PRINCIPLES OF FOREST ECONOMY. 303

Market conditions may be such that the small demand for the first-mentioned class of products
would make it unprofitable to cut the growth, and again while, other things being equal, the larger
dimensions are not only more valuable and in greater demand, but permit a greater and greater
intensity of exploitation,’ yet the long time during which the capital represented in the standing
timber is tied up, and must therefore produce at compound interest, may have a disadvantageous
influence upon the balance sheet.

The determination, therefore, of the length of time during which the growth is to be allowed
to accumulate, which is called rotation, requires not only consideration by the technicist, but very
close and complicated calculations by the manager. According to the point of view from which
this period of rotation is determined, we can distinguish and designate these time periods by
various names which explain themselves, namely, as silvicultural rotation, rotation of greatest
material production, financial rotation of highest harvest value, rotation of highest forest rey-
enue, ete.”

Now, if an owner of land should stock it all with forest growth at the same time, he would
have to wait twenty, forty, sixty, one hundred years or more, according to the rotation which he
has recognized as most desirable, before he would have any returns, or else, if he should have a
tract of virgin growth, all ripe for the ax, and cut it all, he would again have to wait many decades
without income until the new growth can be profitably cut.

Such an intermittent revenue is not only undesirable for private enterprise, but also impracti-
cable, since the cost of caring for the property would have to be provided for without any direct
income during a long period.

For small holdings, such as the wood lot of a farmer, attached to the farm and readily super-
vised by him while attending to his regular business, the objection to the intermission of revenue
is not serious altogether he manages his wood lot mainly for his own use. But in growing wood
crops for the market as a business it is necessary to change the intermittent into an annual revenue,
or at least one returning in short periods.

This is done by gradually bringing the forest into such condition that each year, or at least
during each short period of the rotation, a portion or parcel, as nearly as possible producing the
same amount of material or revenue, becomes ready for the harvest, until finally the whole forest
area assumes the condition of what may be called the normal forest, or at least a regulated forest

Ideally such a forest when so regulated would yield every year or short period of years the
same amount of material and approximately the same money revenue, the amount to be cut
annually or periodically being as nearly as possible the amount annually growing.

If, for instance, we have a pine forest which we propose to manage under a rotation of one
hundred years, which means that we expect to return for a new crop within one hundred years to
the same acre we have just cut, and finding from our measurements that all our acres are of a
uniformly producing capacity, we would have it divided into 100 equally large compartments, each
stocked with trees just one year older than the preceding, and successfully representing 100 age
classes, so that we could cut each year one compartment with the same amount of wood just one
hundred years old.

! How, with the increase in the size of the log, the amount of lumber that can be obtained from it increases or
the necessary waste decreases disproportionately may be seen from the subjoined table of output, based upon the
results of the average sawmill practice:

ae ic gntents Contents in | Waste as a
B. Meor One feet B.M.as| per cent of
Diameter of log (10 feet long)— twelfth eubie| Pex Scribner | real contents
Hoots allows or Doyle's | deduced by }
ing no waste. rules. Doyle.
10 inches 65 23 65
14 inche 127 62 51
16 inche 167 90 46
18 inche 211 122 42
20 inches. 261 160 39
CENTENONED) oo ososacansaaeses as 376 250 3:
BU SHANE osscenoecaodsoans ec 588 429 28
SOM CHES teenies ere malate el dg 847 640 25
AD TANG .ocaSecoccemosnece as 1, 046 810 23
RM) TN coacssobodeseccqsctonadesead 1, 635 1, 322 20

2 Note from page 332, Report 1893, ‘‘Determining rotation.”

304 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The total amount of wood standing in such a forest at the time of entering upon the work
would represent the normal stock—the wood capital which must be maintained in order to insure
au equal annual yield. The average difference of the amounts of wood standing in any two
compartments would represent the normal annual accretion—the amount of wood which we are
entitled to harvest if we desire to secure a continuous revenue in equal annual amounts.

If, for example, on our 100 acres managed with a 100-year rotation we found the average
annual accretion per acre to be 50 cubic feet, the normal stock—the wood capital—which must be
maintained on the acre would be found by the addition of the contents of all compartments,

100 x 50 no : F :
5 00) 250,000 cubic feet. The total normal yield which we are entitled to harvest

would be represented by the oldest 100 year-old compartment, containing, naturally, 50 x 100 =
5,000 cubic feet, or 2 per cent of the normal stock.

If we were to cut more than this normal yield in any year, we would be trenching on the
capital stock and disturb the attempted equalization of income. If we were to cut less, we would
unnecessarily accumulate capital in the wood, which would be lying idle and be for the time
unremunerative.

The conception of a normal forest, with normal stock, normal accretion, normal distribution
of age classes, and normal yield, first taught in 1758, is a most useful one, representing an ideal
or standard which, although in practice never attained and hardly fully attempted, serves
nevertheless as a guide in calculation and working plans.

In practice the growths of different age may be distributed in compartments of separate
areas or they may be distributed in single trees over the entire area or in groups of trees, and
thus many variations of the method may occur, but they are all based on the same principle of
maintaining a wood capital distributed over a number of age classes in such amounts that the
oldest classes always represent what may be cut as the annual or periodic revenue which has
accumulated on the entire capital.

Before even an approach to such ideal and systematic condition can be secured in our virgin
woods a long time must elapse—the period during which the regulation is gradually perfected,
the length of which depends upon the condition of the forest area. If begun with a well-stocked
virgin forest composed of old and young timber of varying age, the conditions are most favorable,
and a systematic management can be instituted in a comparatively short time and with a revenue
from the start.

In any case it requires a strong mind and persistent effort on the part of the owner to
accumulate the wood capital, to forego, if need be, present revenue for future profits and to keep
capital and interest account in the growing crop clearly separate, and to abstain from cutting
into the wood capital before it has done its full duty when tempting opportunity arises for
liquidating it.

This fact, namely, that a differentiation into fixed capital and interest as represented in the
growing timber and the harvest is not readily recognizable—that the choice of when to harvest
the growth is not based on natural conditions so much as on the opinion and pecuniary interest
of the owner, and in addition that there is a long time during which he could if he chose turn the
accumulated fixed capital into cash—may sometimes, to be sure, appear as an advantage from the
standpoint of private industry, but from that of national economy it is fraught with danger, as it
is apt to lead to uneconomical use of the forest resource whenever the owner finds himself in
difficulties or sees a temporary advantage in reducing this capital, which can be restituted only
by the expenditure of a long time.

If a farmer sells his cattle, horses, plows, etc., and leaves the ground to fallow, he may suffer
loss individually, but the community does not, or at least only to a slight (legree; for while, to
be sure, the land does not produce, it accumulates in the fallow conditions the elements of
fertility, and as a rule is not long allowed to remain unused and can in a Sseason’s time be made
to produce again.

On the other hand, if a forest growth is removed without reference to the requirements of a
regulated management, namely, without leaving a wood capital of useful kinds upon which a new
growth can accumulate, not only is the area of wood production reduced, but in the new spon-
taneous growth of undesirable kinds which, as a rule, come in, an impediment to useful occupation

PRINCIPLES OF FOREST ECONOMY. 305

of the soil is invited, while by the sudden excessive offer of material followed by corresponding
decrease of supplies the market and prices are disturbed and the rational management (if existing)
of neighboring forest areas unfavorably influenced.

Such disturbances leading to trade depressions, while in the end they are equalized by trade
booms, are never desirable, and especially not in an industry which requires such a long time to
gain an equilibrium.

To be sure, the growing of wood crops, as in agriculture may be carried on in a small way
with a small wood capital, or else in a large way with a large wood capital, but it will be readily
seen that since the most useful, most necessary, and most valuable sizes of timber upon which the
lumber industry of the country is based requires not less than a century for their production,
this industry must finally be carried on by large capital, preferably by corporations, which have
in them the elements of perpetuity, and eventually by the Government.

The present consumption, for instance, of the lumber industry in the United States may be
set at 40,000,000,000 feet B. M. annually, which corresponds to about 5,000,000,000 cubic feet of
log timber in the woods; the normal wood reserve, which under first-class management could be
expected to furnish such amounts continuously, would figure up to at least 1,000 billion cubie feet,
which would require 400,000,000 acres fully stocked in good condition to be constantly kept in
wood.

Figuring the stumpage value somewhat like the present average rates at 2 cents per cubic
foot it appears that a eapital of at least $20,000,000,000 would have to be tied up in the wood
capital which is capable of furnishing continuously the present requirements of our lumber
market. In this calculation we assume that our requirements for firewood and other forest prod-
ucts, not lumber and timber, can be satisfied by the inferior material remaining over after the
log timber has been taken out, which is not now the case.

The experience of Huropean nations has amply demonstrated that the small forest owner soon
tires of the burden of maintaining the wood capital; he reduces it by shortening the rotation
more and more, confining himself finally to the production of firewood and inferior sizes, and being
unable to acquire or employ the skill necessary to carry on a systematic forestry business, his
wood lots deteriorate more and more and play no role in the supplies for the lumber market which
are furnished by the State forests and the large landed proprietors, who can keep up well-stocked
areas of large enough size to pay for the employment of competent managers and skilled labor
and the maintenance of a business organization; who can leave the large wood capital intact,
which with the long rotation is necessary to produce sizable material, and who are satisfied with
the low but steady and safe interest which their capital produces.

H. Doe. 181—— 20

H. FOREST INFLUENCES.

[Condensed from Bulletin 7, Forest Influences, pp. 191, 1893, with additional notes.]

One of the arguments upon which a change of policy in regard to our forests, and especially
on the part of the National Government, is demanded, refers to the influence which it is claimed
forest areas exert upon climate and water flow. It is argued that the wholesale removal and
devastation of forests affects climate and water flow unfavorably.

Popular writers on forestry, friends of forestry reform, and the public mind have readily taken
hold of this proposition, enlarged upon it, and generalized without sufficient and relevant premises,
and before it was possible for science and systematic observations to furnish grounds or sound
deductions; hence we have had only presumptions supported by superficial reasoning and ocea-
sional experiences. Even scientific writers have discussed the question without proper bases, and
have sought to reason out the existence or absence of such an influence upon general premises
and such evidence as the history of the world seemed to furnish, or else upon observations which
were either of too short duration to allow elimination of other disturbing factors or else were
otherwise unreliable.

From the complication of causes which produce climatic conditions it has always been difficult
to prove, when changes of these conditions in a given region were observed, that they are perma-
nent and not due merely to the general periodic variations which have been noted in all climates
of the earth, or that they are due to a change of forest conditions and to no other causes; hence
some climatologists have thought proper to deny such influences entirely. On the other hand
there are as trustworthy and careful observers who maintain the existence of such influences;
but only of late has the question been removed from the battlefield of opinions, scientific and
unscientific, to the field of experiment and scientific research, and from the field of mere specu-
lation to that of exact deduction. But the crop of incontrovertible facts is still scanty, and
further cultivation will be necessary to gather a fuller harvest and then to set clear the many
coniplicated questions connected with this inquiry.

Meanwhile a thorough beginning with a view to settle the question by scientific methods and
careful systematic measurements and observations has been made in Europe, where the existence
of well-established forest administrations, manned with trained observers, has rendered practicable
the institution of such work on an extensive scale—the only one which can yield adequate results.
Nevertheless, the results of these experiments, cited below, have so far failed to advance materially
our positive knowledge regarding the relation of forest growth and meteorological phenomena.

The reason for this failure is to be sought, first, in the complexity of the problem, which ren-
ders any experimentation difficult, and, secondly, in the deficiency in appliances and methods of
meteorological observations. :

Not only is it difficult to analyze or control the various causes that may influence climatic.
variations from year to year, but we are not yet prepared to determine the uniformity of the local
distribution of meteorological phenomena or of the measurements of the same by our instruments.

Hence some of the small, though well-defined differences in rainfall and temperature observed
over forest and open country in earlier experiments may be attributed to the nonconformity of the
natural local distribution of these phenomena or to lack of uniformity in instruments and methods.

It may be proper to call attention to and accentuate the fact that the question of practical
importance is not so much as to the effects upon the general climate, but as to the local modification
of climatic conditions which a forest area may produce.

306

FOREST INFLUENCES. 307

It can not be too strongly impressed upon those who disclaim any influence of forest cover on
climate, because the cosmic causes by which this is produced are immeasurably greater, that there
are two classes of climate always to be considered separately, namely, the general climate and the
local climate. The latter is of most importance to us, and alone can be modified by small causes.
We modify it by building a house around us, thus altering the temperature aud moisture conditions
of the atmosphere so inclosed; but the question is, whether we can alter these conditions on a
larger scale by such means as alternating forest areas and fields or by large bodies of forest. We
are not so much concerned as to whether the total rainfall over the continent is increased, but
whether the distribution of precipitation in time and quantity over and near a forest area is
influenced by its existence; whether we or our crops feel its absence or presence in our immediate
neighborhood; whether the protection it seems to afford and the changes it seems to produce in
the meteorological phenomena are or are not real and of sufficient magnitude to influence our
forest policy.

We can understand readily that if any influence exists it must be due, in the first place, to
the mechanical obstruction which the forest cover presents to the passage of air currents and
to the action of the sun’s rays upon the soil—it must result from a difference in insolation, and
consequent differences in temperature and evaporation over forest and field. It is also readily
understood that the influence can become appreciable only when large enough areas exhibiting
such differences are opposed to each other, capable of producing local currents of air which may
intercommunicate the characteristics of the one area to the other. ‘The size and character of the
forest growth, its density, height, situation, and composition are, therefore, much more important
in determining its influence than has been hitherto supposed. It is not trees, but masses of foliage
which may be effective. A large sheet covering an extended area from the influence of the sun
would produce almost the same differences in meterological conditions that a forest cover is
expected to produce.

While, then, we may admit a priori that extent or area and condition of the forest cover are
important, we have as yet no data from which to caleulate any proper size or proportion, and the
attempts to fix a certain percentage of forest cover needed for favorable climatic conditions of a
country are devoid of all rational basis.

Leaving the question of forest influences upon climate as still awaiting final solution, we may
speak with much more confidence of the effect which forest cover exerts upon the disposal of
water supplies. This effect can be much more readily studied and shows itself much more
conspicuously. It is perhaps also much more important to human economy, for it is becoming
more and mere apparent that our agricultural production is dependent not so much upon the
amount of rainfall as upon the proper disposal of the waters that fall.

Recognizing this truth, the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1891
sent the following resolution to the Secretary of Agriculture:

The American Association for the Advancement of Science respectfully submits for the consideration of the
Secretary of Agriculture that the future of successful and more productive agriculture depends very largely upon a
rational water management, meaning thereby not only the use of water for irrigation in the arid and subarid
regions, but the rational distribution and use in the humid regions of available water supplies by means of
horizontal ditches and irrigation systems, combined with proper mechanical preparation of the soil, and with
drainage systems, with the object of fully utilizing the water for plant production and providing for the safe and
harmless removal of the surplus. !

The present policy of forest production and of allowing our waters to run to waste not only entails the loss of
their beneficial influence upon plant production, but permits them to injure crops, to wash the fertile mold from the
soil, and even to erase and carry away the soil itself.

It is upon these considerations that the association respectfully suggests to the honorable Secretary the
desirability of utilizing the Weather Bureau, the various agricultural experiment stations, and other forces, in

forming a systematic service of water statistics, and in making a careful survey of the condition of water supplies,
which may serve as a basis for the application of rational principles of water management. ~

How poorly we understand the use of these supplies is evidenced yearly by destructive
freshets and floods, with the accompanying washing of soil, followed by droughts, low water, and
deterioration of agricultural lands.

It may be thought heterodox, but it is nevertheless true, that the manner in which most of the
water of the atmosphere becomes available for human use (namely, in the form of rain) is by no

308 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

means the most satisfactory, not only on account of its irregularity in time and quantity, but also
on account of its detrimental mechanical action in falling; for in its fall it compacts the ground,
impeding percolation. A large amount of what would be carried off by underground drainage is
thus changed into surface drainage waters. At the same time, by this compacting of the soil,
capillary action is increased and evaporation thereby accelerated. These surface waters also loosen
rocks and soil, carrying these in their descent into the river courses and valleys, thus increasing
dangers of high floods and destroying favorable cultural conditions.

Here it is that water management and, in connection with it or as a part of it, forest manage-
ment should be studied; for without forest management no rational water management is possible.
The forest floor reduces or prevents the injurious mechanical action of the rain and acts as a
regulator of water flow. Hitherto water management in rainy districts has mainly concerned
itself with getting rid of the water as fast as possible, instead of making it do service during its
temporary availability by means of proper soil management, horizontal ditches and reservoirs—
drainage and irrigation systems combined. It seems to have been entirely overlooked that irriga-
tion, which has been considered only for arid and subarid regions, is to be applied for plant
production in well-watered regions with equal benefit and profit, if combined with proper drainage
systems and forest management.

The experimental demonstration of this influence of forests and water flow is also still in doubt,
and the problem is as difficult and complex as that regarding the influence on temperature and
rainfall. Nevertheless, sufficient experience exists to sustain the general philosophy, to which a
close student of nature is forced, long before he can demonstrate the qualitative and quantitative
character of an important influence of forests on water conditions.

SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.

For those who wish to know only what the present state of the question of forest influences
is, we have summarized what conclusions may be drawn from the facts presented in Bulletin 7,
referring them to that report for the basis of these conclusions and the discussion in extenso. For
easy reference the pages of the bulletin containing the data upon which each conclusion is reached
are given in parentheses at the end of each paragraph, and the diagrams which show in graphic
manner the result of the observations upon which the conclusions are mainly based are repro-
duced. ‘Fhere are also added to this summary some references to later developments in this subject,

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

(1) We must keep separate two main questions, namely, What is the difference of conditions
within and without the forest? and How far is the difference of conditions within the forest com-
municated to the outside, i. e., how far does the forest influence the conditions outside? (Pp.
23-40, Bul. 7.)

(2) The general climatic conditions in which the forest is situated as well as its situation with
reference to elevation and exposure, furthermore its composition, whether evergreen or deciduous,
its density, its height and extent, the character of the forest floor, and other features which
determine its quality, must all combine in producing variety, at least quantitatively, both as to
difference of conditions within and without the forest and as to possible exchange of the same,
and hence the question of forest influences can be properly discussea only with reference to these
other conditions. We must refrain from generalizing too readily from one set of conditions to
another set of conditions. (Pp. 40-121, Bul. 7.)

(3) In the matter of forest influence upon water flow, besides the above mentioned, other
conditions, the topography and geology or stratification of soil, must also be taken into account
and generalizations without regard to these must be avoided. (Pp. 123-157, Bul. 7.)

(4) No influence upon the general climate which depends upon cosmic causes can in reason be
expected from a forest cover. Only local modifications of climatic conditions may be anticipated ;
but these modifications, if they exist, are of great practical value, for upon them rest success or
failure in agricultural pursuits and comfort or discomfort of life within the given cosmic climate.
The same condition must be insisted upon with reference to forest influences upon water flow,
which can exist only as local modifications of general water conditions, which are due in the first
place to climatic, geologic, and topographic conditions. (Pp. 157-170, Bul. 7.)

FOREST INFLUENCES. 309

DIFFERENCE OF METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS WITHIN AND WITHOUT THE FOREST.

(1) Soil temperatures.—The general influence of the forest on soil temperatures is a cooling
one, due to the shade and to the longer retention of moisture in the forest floor as well as in the
forest air, which must be evaporated before the ground can be warmed. As a consequence, the
extremes of high and low temperature within the forest soil occur much later than in the open,
and both extremes are reduced, but the extreme summer temperatures much more than the winter
temperatures. (Pp. 40-46, Bul. 7.)

The difference between evergreen and deciduous forests, which almost vanishes in the winter
time, is in favor of the deciduous as a cooling element in summer and autumn, while during
spring the soil is cooler under evergreens. The effect increases naturally with the age and height
of the trees. (Pp. 46-50, Bul. 7.)

(2) Air temperatures under the crowns.—The annual range of air temperature is smaller in the
forest than in the open; the effect upon the minimum temperature (i. e., the effect in winter) is
less than on the maximum temperature (i.e., the effect in summer.) The combined effect is a
cooling one. The range of temperature is more affected than the average absolute temperature,
or, in other words, the moderating influence is greater than the cooling effect. (Pp. 51-53, Bul. 7.)

The monthly minima for middle latitudes are uniformly reduced during the year, and the
monthly maxima are much more reduced during the summer than during the winter. On the
average the forest is cooler than the open country in summer, but about the same in winter, with
a slight warming effect in spring. (Pp. 53-58, Bul. 7.)

The difference between the mean monthly air temperatures in the woods and in the open
varies with the kind of forest much more than is the case for soil temperatures. The evergreen
forest shows a symmetrical increase and decrease throughout the year. The deciduous forest
shows a variable influence which diminishes from the midwinter to springtime, but increases
rapidly as the leaves appear and grow, becoming a maximum in June and July and then
diminishing rapidly until November. The annual average effect is about the same both for
evergreens and deciduous forests. (Pp. 58-60, Bul. 7.) ;

Forests situated at a considerable elevation above the sea have sensibly the same influence
on the reduction of the mean temperature as do forests that are at a low level. (P. 60, Bul. 7.)

Young forests affect the air temperature very differently from mature forests; in the former
the minimum temperatures are always reduced, but the maxima are exaggerated. The observa-
tions on which this conclusion is based ought, perhaps, to be considered as pertaining rather to
the case of temperatures in the tree tops. (P. 60, Bul. 7.)

(3) Air temperatures within the crowns.—The mean temperature of the air in the tree tops,
after correcting for elevation above ground, is rather higher than over open fields. The effect of
tree tops does not appreciably depend upon the height of the station above ground. ‘The effect
upon the minima is generally greater than on the maxima, the total effect being a warming one.
A tree-top station is in general intermediate, as to temperature, between a station near the ground
in the forest and one in the open field. (Pp. 61-66, Bul. 7.)

Evergreen forests show less difference between the temperature in the crown and below, and
altogether more uniformity in temperature changes throughout the year, than deciduous growth.
(P. 67, Bul. 7.)

The vertical gradient for temperature within the forest on the average of all stations and all
kinds of forest trees is large, varying from 0.61° F. per 100 feet in April to 2.50° F. in July.
(P. 68, Bul. 7.)

A reversal of the vertical gradient, namely, a higher temperature above than below, occurs in
the wood, especially in the summer time. It also occurs in the open air regularly at night, and
may be three or four times as large as that just mentioned. In general, the action of the forest
tends to produce a vertical distribution of temperature like that over snow or level fields on clear
nights. (P. 69, Bul. 7.)

(4) Air temperature above the crowns.—The temperature, at considerable heights above the
forest, appears to be slightly affected by the forest, and more so with evergreens than with
deciduous growth. The vertical gradients of temperature within 30 feet above the tops of the
trees are all reversed throughout the leafy season; the gradients are also greater above the tree
crown than below, at least during the clear sky and calm air. The wind affects the temperature

310 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

under and within the crowns, but makes little difference above them. The surface of the forest
crown appears meteorologically much like the surface of the meadow or cornfield. It is as if the
soil surface has been raised to the height of the trees. (Pp. 69-72, Bul. 7.)

(5) Air temperature in general.—From the preceding generalizations it appears that the forest
affects the temperature just as any collection of inorganic obstacles to sunshine and wind; but as
an organic being the forest may be also an independent source of heat. Careful observations of
the temperature within the trunk of the tree and of the leaves of the tree show that the tree
temperature is affected somewhat by the fact that the water rising brings up the temperature ot
the roots, while the food material from the leaves brings their temperature down, and the tree
temperature, considered as the result of the complex adjustment, is not appreciably affected by
any heat that may be evolved by the chemical processes on which its growth depends. It is not
yet clear as to whether the chemical changes that take place at the surface of the leaves should
give out any heat; it is more likely that heat is absorbed, namely, rendered latent, especially in
the formation of the seed; the process of germination usually evolves this latent heat; the immense
quantity of water transpired and evaporated by the forests tends to keep the leaves at the same
temperature as that of the surface of water or moist soil. (Pp. 73-95, Bul. 7.)

(6) Humidity of air.—The annual evaporation within the forests is about one-half of that in
the open field; not only is the evaporation within a forest greatest in May and June, but the
difference between this and the evaporation in the open field is also then a maximum, which is the
saving due to the presence of the woods. The average annual evaporation within the woods is
about 44 per cent of that in the field. Fully half of the field evaporation is saved by the presence
of the forest. (P. 96, Bul. 7.)

The quantity of moisture thrown into the air by transpiration from the leaves in the forest is
sometimes three times that from a horizontal water surface of the same extent, and at other times
it is less than that of the water. The transpiration from leaves in full sunshine is decidedly
greater than from leaves in the diffused daylight or darkness. The absolute amount of annual
transpiration, as observed in forests of mature oaks and beeches in central Europe, is about one-
quarter of the total annual precipitation. (Pp. 77-80, Bul. 7.)

The percentage of rainfall, evaporated at the surface of the ground, is about 40 per cent for
the whole year in the open field and about 12 per cent for the forest, and is greater under
deciduous than under evergreen forests. (P. 98, Bul. 7.)

The evaporation from a saturated bare soilin the forest is about the same as that from a water
surface in the forest, other conditions being the same. (P. 99, Bul. 7.)

The presence of forest litter like that lying naturally in undisturbed forests hinders the
evaporation from the soil to a remarkable extent, since it saves seven-eighths of what would
otherwise be lost. (P. 100, Bul. 7.)

The total quantity of moisture returned into the atmosphere from a forest by transpiration
and evaporation from the trees and the soil is about 75 per cent of the precipitation. For other
forms of vegetation it is about the same or sometimes larger, varying between 70 per cent and 90
per cent; in this respect the forest is surpassed by the cereals and grasses, while, on the other
hand, the evaporation from a bare soil is scarcely 30 per cent of the precipitation. (P.101, Bul. 7.)

The absolute humidity within a forest exceeds that of the glades and the plains by a small
quantity. The relative humidity in the forest is also larger than in the glades or plains by 2 per
cent to 4 per cent. Forests of evergreens have from two to four times the influence in increasing
relative humidity than do forests of deciduous trees. (Pp. 102-105, Bul. 7.)

The gauges in European forest stations catch from 75 to 85 per cent when placed under the
trees, the balance representing that which passes through the foliage and drips to the ground or
runs down along the trunks of trees, or else is intercepted and evaporated. ‘The percentage
withheld by the trees, and which either evaporates from their surface or trickles along the trunk
to the ground, is somewhat greater in the leafy season, though the difference is not great.
Deciduous and evergreen trees show but slight differences in this respect. More rain is usually
caught by gauges at a given height above the forest crown than at the same height in open fields,
but it still remains doubtful whether the rainfall itself is really larger over the forests, since the
recorded catch of the rain gauge still requires a correction for the influence of the force of the
wind at the gauge. (Pp. 106-110, Bul. 7).

In such cases, where over a large area deforestation and reforestation have seemingly gone

FOREST INFLUENCES. 311

hand in hand with decrease and increase of rainfall, the possible secular change in rainfall must
also be considered. Yet the experience of increased rainfall over the station at Lintzel, with
increase of forest area, points strongly toward a possible interdependence under given conditions.
(Pp. 111-118, Bul. 7.)

By condensing dew, hoar frost, and ice on their branches, trees add thereby a little to the
precipitation which reaches the ground, and by preventing the rapid melting of snow more water
remains available under forest cover. (P. 121, Bul. 7.)

The question as to the march of destructive hailstorms with reference to forest areas, which
seems settled for some regions in France, remains in doubt for other, especially mountain, regions.
(Pp. 121-129, Bul. 7.)

From these statements we would expect as a consequence of deforestation an effect on the
climate of the deforested area in three directions, namely: (a) extremes of temperature of air as
well as soil are aggravated; (b) the average humidity of the air is lessened; and possibly (c) the
distribution of precipitation throughout the year, if not its quantity, is changed.

INFLUENCE OF FORESTS UPON THE CLIMATE OF THE SURROUNDING COUNTRY.

(1) An influence of the forest upon the climate of its surroundings can only take place by
means of diffusion of the vapor which is transpired and evaporated by the crowns and by means
of air currents passing through and above the forests being modified in temperature and moisture
conditions; the mechanical effect upon such air currents by which they are retarded in their
progress may also be effective in changing their climatic value.

(2) Local air currents are set up by the difference in temperature of the air within and without
the forest, analogously to those of a lake or pond, cooler currents coming from the forest during
the day in the lower strata and warmer currents during the night in the upper strata. The latter
currents, being warmer and moister, can be of influence on the temperature and moisture con-
ditions of a neighboring field by moderating temperature extremes and increasing the humidity
of the air. ;

This local circulation is the one most important difference between forest and other vegetation.
How far away from the forest this circulation becomes sensible is not ascertained. In winter time,
when the temperature differences become small, no such circulation is noticeable. (P.120, Bul. 7.)

(3) The general air currents in their lower portions are cut off entirely by the forest, which
acts as a wind break. This influence can of course be experienced only on the leeward side. How
far this protection reaches it is difficult to estimate, but it certainly reaches farther than that of a
mere wind break, since by the friction of the air moving over the crowns a retardation must be
experienced that would be noticeable for a considerable distance beyond the mere wind-break
effect. Deforestation on a large scale would permit uninterrupted sweep of the winds, a change
more detrimental where the configuration of the ground does not fulfill a similar function—in
large plains more than in hilly and mountainous regions, and at the seashore more than in the
interior. (Pp. 118-120, 153, Bul. 7.)

The upper air strata can be modified only by the conditions existing near and above the
crowns. At the same time they must carry away the cooler and moister air there and create an
upward movement of the forest air, and thereby in part the conditions of this become also active
in modifying air currents. The greater humidity immediately above the crowns is imparted to the
air currents, if warm and dry, and becomes visible at night in the form of mists resting above and
near forest areas. These strata protect the open at least against insolation and loss of water by
evaporation, and have also a greater tendency to condensation as dew or light rain if conditions
for such condensation exist. ‘[his influence can be felt only to the leeward in summer time, and
with dry, warm winds, while the cooling winter effect upon comparatively warmer moist winds is
not noticeable. Theoretical considerations lead to the conclusion that in mountain regions only
the forest on the leeward slope can possibly add moisture to a wind coming over the mountain,
but this does not necessarily increase the precipitation on the field beyond. Altogether, the
theoretical considerations are as yet neither proved nor disproved by actual observations, and as
to rainfall the question of influence on the neighborhood is stil] less settled than that of precipita-
tion upon forest areas themselves. Wherever moisture-laden winds pass over extensive forest
areas the cooler and moister condition of the atmosphere may at least not reduce the possibility

312 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

of condensation, which a heated plain would do; but observations so far give no conclusive
evidence that neighboring fields receive more rain than they otherwise would. (Pp. 76, 83, 89,
103, Bul. 7.) ;

(4) With regard to comparative temperatures in forest stations and open stations that are
situated not far apart from each other, it would appear that the forest exerts a cooling influence,
but that more detailed conclusions are hindered by the consideration that the ordinary meteoro-
logical station itself is somewhat affected by neighboring trees.

The study of the stations in Asiatic and European Russia seems to show that in the western
part of the Old World the presence of large forests has a very sensible influence on the tempera-
ture. Similar studies for stations in the United States seem to show that our thin forests have a
slight effeet in December, but a more decided one in June. It appears also that our wooded
regions are warmer than the open plains, but there is no positive evidence that this difference of
temperature is dependent upon the quantity or distribution of forests or that changes in tempera-
ture have occurred from this cause. (Pp. 94, 95, Bul. 7.)

(5) When a forest incloses a small area of land, forming a glade, its inclosed position brings
about special phenomena of reflection of heat, local winds, and a large amount of shade. For
such situations it is found that the mean range of temperature is larger in the glade than in the
open; the glade climate is more rigorous than the climate of open plains; the glade is cooler and
its diurnal range larger during the spring, summer, and autumn. (Pp. 84-88, Bul. 7.)

Favorable influences upon moisture conditions of the air are most noticeable in localities where
much water is stored in underground with overlying strata which are apt to dry when our summer
drought prevails. Here the forest growth is able to draw water from greater depths and by
transpiration return it to the atmosphere, thereby reducing the dryness and possibly inducing
precipitation. In most climates this action would be less effective or of no use. Hence in regions
with oceanic climate, with moist sea winds, like England and the west coasts of Kurope or of the
northern United States, deforestation from a climatic point of view may make no appreciable
difference, such as it would make in continental climates like the interior of our country, the Rocky
Mountains, and southern California.

Whether large or small areas of forest and open fields alternating or what percentage of forest
is most favorable can not as yet be discussed, since we are not clearly informed even as to the
manner and the amount of influence which forest cover exercises. In general, we may expect
that an alternation of large forested and unforested areas in regions which on account of their
geographic situation have a dry and rigorous climate is more beneficial than large uninterrupted
forest areas, which would fail to set up that local circulation which is brought about by differences
in temperature and permits an exchange of the forest climate to the neighboring field.

More recent experiments tend to modify somewhat the conclusions arrived at heretofore, and
indicate, as has been suggested, that the differences in temperature and humidity of woods and of
open land that have been recorded are largely to be attributed to variability of instruments and
of readings, and to nonconformity of conditions.

Even the well-planned Austrian experiments have produced neither striking nor consistent
results. In 1893, Dr. Lorentz Liburnau concluded that forests did not cool the air of the
surrounding country, and that temperature extremes were even heightened in the immediate
vicinity of the woods. Concerning humidity, it was found that while with one set of stations this
appeared increased by an uncertain trifle through the proximity of the forest, in another set no
influence was observed, and in one case the air current from the woods was positively drier at
noon time than that of the open country, and even though Lorentz Liburnau is still hopeful in
the matter he felt compelled to admit that a “distance effect” of forest influence was so far not
demonstrated. ;

Schubert, in 1895 and again in 1897, published results of extensive temperature measurements
which point to an entire absence of influence in this respect, the air of the forest being in no case
sufficiently cooler to warrant a decision. His experiments gave a difference of only 5° F. in favor
of the pine woods. This author came to practically the same conclusion regarding the humidity
of the forest and the open country.

Miittrich, in 1896, comparing different modes of placing the thermometers found that these
thermometers side by side varied by as much as 1.2° F.

In a recent investigation of the methods employed in investigations of this character Hoppe

FOREST INFLUENCES. oilee

arrived at the following results: A number of the most approved instruments placed side by side
and read at the same time of day gave readings differing by as high as 1.6° F., and usually by as
much as 0.7° F., thus indicating clearly that such differences of temperature as had hitherto been
considered real or valid differences were possibly nothing more than inaccuracies or insufficiencies
of observation or due to nonuniformity of conditions. Nevertheless, having thus ascertained the
difficulties and errors of instruments, Hoppe proceeded to investigate the influence of soil covers
and found that even over the sod of a poor meadow the temperature is lower and the humidity
greater than over a piece of rocky bare land, temperature and humidity being measured by the
same instruments in both cases. He finds that this is still more constant and pronounced when
forest and bare land are compared. The differences were small, however, the average of his results
for sixty-six days being a difference in temperature of 3.2° F., and in relative humidity of 7 per
cent. His results would seem to indicate a great uniformity of difference, and that the differences
in temperature and humidity are nearly as great at night as during the day. A point of great
interest is also brought out prominently by these experiments, namely, the need of a large
number of observations. Thus, Hoppe found that the same instrument (an Assmann aspiration
psychrometer) varied from minute to minute often with the slightest changes in cloudiness, so
that during noonday and in one minute the relative humidity fell from 47.4 per cent to 41.2 per
cent, and the temperature rose from 73.5 to 75° I’., and within five minutes the humidity rose from
43.8 to 50.9, fell to 48.8 and rose again to 52.2.

WIND-BREAK EFFECTS.

Prof. F. W. King, of the University of Wisconsin, has made an investigation into the protec-
tion afforded by wind breaks, and records his observations in Bulletin 42 of that institution. The
following extracts show the general character of his observations:

Lying to the eastward of a field of clover, seeded last year, is a piece of oats,seeded to clover, and here the
catch is very much better close to the grass, and is evidently so as far out in the field as 2 rods.

A north-and-south road, fenced with wire and 2 rods wide, has scattering trees from 10 to 18 feet high, together
with a scanty growth of hazel on both sides. To the east of this is a field of oats badly damaged by the winds at a
distance from the shelter, but a strip 2 rods wide adjoining that seems wholly to have escaped injury.

A level field seeded to clover and timothy last year is bounded on the north by a road and a strip of woods.
Here the clover has a much thicker stand and ranker growth in a belt alongside than it has to the southward.

Coming next to a field of oats some 60 rods from east to west and 30 rods north to south, lying east of a piece of
woods, we find its whole eastern two-thirds so completely ruined that it is scarcely more than a naked field, while
the western third is fresh and green.

Another piece of oats seeded to clover, and lying on the south side of a wooded pasture, has a length of 80 rods
from east to west, but a width of only 15 rods. This field is fresh and green throughout its whole extent and has a
good catch of clover, but the patch is best and thickest in the strip 3 rods wide along the wooded pasture.

Influence of woods on the rate of evaporation to the leeward.—To study the rate evaporation at different distances
from groves, six evaporimeters were used made after the plan of the Piche evaporimeter, but with the evaporating
surface much larger, while the graduated tubes were the same size, the object being to make the instruments
more sensitive.

Sheets of chemical filter paper were used as the evaporating surfaces, all from the same packages and having
a diameter of 5.9 inches; this gives an area, after deducting that covered by the graduated tube, of 27.06 square
inches.

The first experiment was made to the northwest of Plainfield on a piece of ground planted to corn, lying to the
south of a grove of black oaks having a mean height not far from 12 to 15 feet. At the time there was a gentle
breeze from a little west of north. The instruments were all suspended at a height of 1 foot above the surface of
the ground and unsheltered in any way from the wind or sun, and in the first trial they were placed at intervals
of 20 feet along a line at right angles to the south margin of the woods. The amount of evaporation at the six
stations between 11.30 a. m. and 12.30 p. m., is given in the following tables:

Cubie
centimeters.

At Station’ A, 20 feet from woods, the evaporation was-:-2-- -----+ 2-6-6 cesencccenessss+ eee ene Tal, 55
At/Station B) 40 feet from woods, the evaporation was----2-------- 22-24 ec. eee ene een ee == 11.6
AtiStation ©) 60! feet from woods, the evaporation was. 2. -2-2-25-- 22226 22 -o-- ose ee eee eon 11.9
SIUM es Sine pode as 6 coo=bameORSU Gono oN oeoseo boSGES CqOGeR Ont ooe Agaced cna oSp GES ESU See see naSe 35.0

At Station D, 280 feet from woods, the evaporation was. ---- .:-.--.----- we e- eee ne ween ene iss
At Station HE, 300\feet from woods, the evaporation waS.----.-.----.------ ----<- ---- -------eee 14,2
At Station F, 320 feet from woods, the evaporation was.-.-....--.-- -------+ «+--+ s<-e-- = -e--- 14.7

314 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

These are the amounts of evaporation in one hour, and they show that the difference between 20 to 60 feet from
the woods and that between 280 to 320 feet was 43.4—35.0=—8.4 c. c., and this is 24 per cent greater evaporation
at the three outer stations than at the three inner ones.

On May 31 another trial was made in the town of Almond, to the south of an oak grove 80 rods square, in a
field sowed to oats and wheat mixed. Here the first instrument was placed 20 feet from the margin of the grove,
the second 100 feet distant, the third 200 feet, ete. ‘The first two instruments stood upon ground seeded last year
to clover and timothy, but only timothy was growing where the second instrument stood. The grain upon the field
had a fair stand where the observations were made, and was about 4 inches high. There was at the time a fair wind
from nearly due north and the day was clear. As in the former triais the evaporometers were suspended at a height
of 1 foot above the ground and were unsheltered in any way. The following table expresses the results obtained:

Cubic
centimeters.

At Station A, 20 feet from woods, the evaporation was..-.--.---------------------------------- Tul, a
At Station B, 100 feet from woods, the evaporation was. ..-.-.-------------------------------- 14.3
At Station C, 200 feet from woods, the evaporation was. .-.-.-------.-------------------------- 15.7
At Station D, 300 feet from woods, the evaporation was. -.-.---------------------------------- 18.5
At Station E, 400 feet from woods, the evaporation was--------------------------------------- 18.5
At Station F, 500 feet from woods, the evaporation was------.-------------------------------- 18.3

From this table it will be seen there is an increasing amount of evaporation until 300 feet from the woods is
reached, and that beyond and including this the rate is practically the same, but at 300 feet the evaporation is 17.7
per cent greater than at 200 feet and 66.6 per cent greater than at 20 feet from the woods.

Influence of a hedgerow on the rate of evaporation to the leeward.—On May 30 three of the instruments were
set up to the south of a very scanty hedgerow, consisting of a strip of blue grass 16 feet wide in which there are
scattering black and burr oaks from 6 to 8 feet in height, with a few attaining a height of 12 feet. This hedge has
yery many open gaps in it, and the first instrument is set up behind a clump of six trees, spanning a length of 40
feet, there being a gap of nearly the same width on both sides of it. To the north of this, in the direction from
which the wind was blowing, there is a broad naked field being planted to potatoes, which has a width of about 80
rods, while the instruments hung over a field of oats in which the grain was about 4 inches high. After the instru-
ments were set up it became cloudy and sprinkled a very little at times, the wind being from a little east of north,
rather strong and chilly. Herg again the instruments hung one foot above the surface, and the resuits obtained are

given below: :
Cubic

centimeters.
At Station A, 20 feet from hedge, the evaporation was ...--....-..---------------------------- 10.3
At Station B, 150 feet from hedge, thelevaporabion was: 2-2. 2-2. 2s = eee ee ae 12.5
At Station C, 300 feet from hedge, the evaporation was -..--..---.---------------------------- 13.4

Here it will be seen the evaporation at 300 feet from the hedgerow was 3.1 ¢.c., or 30.1 per cent greater than at
20 feet distant, and at 150 feet the difference was 0.9 c.c., or 7.2 per cent less than 300 feet. It is evident, therefore,
that even such a hedgerow does exert an influence upon the rate of evaporation which is readily measured.

INFLUENCE OF FORESTS UPON WATER AND SOIL CONDITIONS.

(1) In consequence of deforestation, evaporation from the soil is augmented and accelerated,
resulting in unfavorable conditions of soil humidity and affecting unfavorably the size and con-
tinuity of springs. The influence of forest cover upon the flow of springs is due to this reduced
evaporation as well as to the fact that by the protecting forest cover the soil is kept granular and
allows more water tu penetrate and percolate than would otherwise. In this connection, however, it
is the condition of the forest floor that is of greatest importance. Where the litter and humus mold
is burned up, as in many if not most of our mountain forests, this favorable influence is largely
destroyed, although the trees are still standing. (Pp. 130-137, Bul. 7.)

(2) Snow is held longer in the forest and its melting is retarded, giving longer time for filtra-
tion into the ground, which also being frozen to less depth is more apt to be open for subter-
ranean drainage. Altogether forest conditions favor in general larger subterranean and less
surface drainage, yet the moss or litter of the forest floor retains a large part of the precipitation
and prevents its filtration to the soil, and thus may diminish the supply to springs. This is
especially possible with small precipitations. Of copious rains and large amounts of snow water,
quantities, greater or less, penetrate the soil, and according to its nature into lower strata and to
springs. This drainage is facilitated not only by the numerous channels furnished by dead and
living roots, but also by the influence of the forest cover in preserving the loose and porous structure
of the soil.

Although the quantity of water offered for drainage on naked soil is larger, and although a
large quantity is utilized by the trees in the process of growth, yet the influence of the soil coyer
in retarding evaporation is liable to offset this loss, as the soil coyer is nop itself dried ont,

FOREST INFLUENCES. 315

The forest, then, even if under unfavorable topographical and soil conditions (steep slopes and
impermeable soils) it may not permit larger quantities of water to drain off underground and in
springs, can yet influence their constancy and equable flow by preventing loss from evaporation.
(Pp. 137-140, Bul. 7.)

(3) The surface drainage is retarded by the uneven forest floor more than by any other kind
of soil cover. Small precipitations are apt to be prevented from running off superficially through
absorption by the forest floor. In case of heavy rainfalls this mechanical retardation in connection
with greater subterranean drainage may reduce the danger from freshets by preventing the rapid
collection into runs. Yet in regions with steep declivities and impermeable soil such rains may
be shed superficially and produce freshets in spite of the forest floor, and an effect upon water
conditions can exist only from the following consideration. (Pp. 140-159, Bul. 7.)

(4) The well-kept forest floor, better than even the close sod of a meadow, prevents erosion
and abrasion of the soil and the washing of soil and detritus into brooks and rivers.

This erosion is especially detrimental to agricultural interests as well as water flow in regions
with this surface and impenetrable subsoils, and where rains are apt to be explosive in their
occurrence, as in our western and southern country. The best soil of the farms is often washed
into the rivers, and the water stages of the latter by the accumulations of this soil are influenced
unfavorably. (Pp. 159-162, Bul. 7.)

(5) Water stages in rivers and streams which move outside the mountain valleys are dependent
upon such a complication of climatic, topographic, geological, and geographical conditions at the
head waters of their affluents that they withdraw themselves from a direct correlation to surface
conditions alone. Yet it stands to reason that the conditions at the head waters of each affluent
must ultimately be reflected in the flow of the main river. The temporary retention of large
amounts of water and eventual change into subterranean drainage which the well-kept forest
floor produces, the consequent lengthening in the time of flow, and especially the prevention of
accumulation and carrying of soil and detritus which are deposited in :the river and change its
bed, would at least tend to alleviate the dangers from abnormal floods and reduce the number and
height of regular floods. (Pp. 162-170, Bul. 7.)

Nore.—Concerning the moisture of the soil the results of the most recent experiments differ. Ramann, in 1895,
published a series of results which indicated that the soil of the forest may be even drier than that of the neighbor-
ing open land. This view he finds strengthened by experiments made in small clearings within the forest, where
he finds the soil of the sunny side of the clearing and that of the old forest itself decidedly drier than the soil of the
shaded part of the clearing, though he also finds the soil under a young bush cover more moist than that under old
timber.

Whether a forest cover aids in the accumulation of ground water by improving the permeability of the soil
was made the object of an experiment by Wollny in a series of inconclusive small pot experiments which led this
investigator to the questionable result that bare land was more conductive to percolation than ground covered
either by grass or trees. This would surely be true only if the bare ground, as in the experiments, is kept in an
artificial, not natural condition.

Attempts to deduce the influence of forest on water flow from wholesale measurements and observations have
been made in this country by Vermeule, of New Jersey (see Proceedings American Forestry Association, Vol. XI, p).
130-137, and report of N. J. Geological Survey, 1894), and Rafter, of New York (Proceedings of American Forestry
Association, Vol. 12, pp. 139-165, and report of State engineer and surveyor of New York, 1896), the former claiming
that no appreciable influence existed, the latter calculating the influence of the forest to be equal in value to 5 or 6
inches of rainfall, this amount of moisture being saved by its presence.

Among recent papers which possess the highest value in describing the movements of water in the ground,
and thus throw light on a most important phase of the whole subject, Bulletin 32 of the Experiment Station, Fort
Collins, Colo., by Prof. L. G. Carpenter, is noteworthy. Professor Carpenter shows that it is possible by mechanical
means (ditches in this case) to prevent the rapid run off in high-water time and thus produce a steadier flow of a
stream and also raise the level of the ground water, as well as saturate large areas of otherwise aridland. In other
words, he shows that in Colorado the work of irrigation has resulted in a rise in the level of the ground water,
changing deep wells into shallow ones; that it has taken water out of the Platte and Cache la Poudre rivers and
saturated thousands of acres of formerly arid land, the seepage of which has changed dry branches into steady
rivulets and supplies already a steady inflow into the rivers, from which the water is taken above the fields. This
inflow tends to make these rivers steady and uniform sources of water supply and makes irrigation possible at points
below where in former times such irrigation would have been out of the question, i

@

316 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SANITARY INFLUENCE.

(1) The claimed influence of greater purity of the air due to greater oxygen and ozone pro-
duction does not seem to be significant. (P. 171, Bul. 7.)

(2) The protection against sun and wind and consequent absence of extreme conditions may
be considered favorable. (P.171, Bul. 7.)

(3) The soil conditions of the forest are unfavorable to the production and existence of patho-
genic microbes, especially those of the cholera and yellow fever, and the comparative absence of
wind and dust, in which such microbes are carried into the air, may be considered as the principal
claim for the hygienic significance of the forest. (P.172, Bul. 7.)

We may summarize that the position of the forest as a climatic factor is still uncertain, at
least as to its practical and quantitative importance, but that its relation to water and soil condi-
tions is well established. As a climatic factor, it would appear that the forest of the plain is of
more importance than that of the mountains, where the more potent influence of elevation
obscures and reduces in significance the influence of their cover; as a regulator of water condi-
tions, the forest of the mountains is the important factor; and since this influence makes itself-
felt far distant from the location of the forest, the claim for attention of Government activity and
for statesmanlike policy with reference to this factor of national welfare may be considered as well
founded. Every civilized government must in time own or control the forest cover of the moun-
tains in order to secure desirable water conditions.

In conclusion, I may urge that systematic observations bearing on the subject of forest influ-
ences should be instituted in this country by a Government agency, perhaps under the authority
of the Weather Bureau and with the cooperation of the agricultural experiment stations. No
other country is so well adapted for the study of this question as the United States, offering all
the varying climatic conditions of a whole continent under one government, with changes in
forest conditions constantly progressing.

GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS.

The following diagrams, reproduced from Bulletin 7, represent more in detail, yet in a succinct
manner, the results of the long-extended series of observations by the Prussian forest-meteoro-
logical stations. These stations were double stations; i. e., one set of instruments was placed in
the forest and a corresponding set at some distance from the forest in open fields. The stations
represent varying conditions in geographical and topographical location and in character of forest
erowth. At Lintzel there was only one station, originally in an extensive open heath, which was
gradually planted to forest, allowing an observation of changes due to these changed conditions.

The conditions at the various stations were as follows:

German stations for forest meteorology.

| | Distance to margin
| Longi- | pyeya.| Kind of trees and of forest. Beginning
Station. Latitude. tude east) rate age at founding |—_—_——____|__ of obser-
of Ferro.) “0™ of station. Forest Field vations.
| | station. | station. |
wl OS eieer: Feet. Feet.
IMB a aoSosecesod 54 50 38 13 128 | 45-year spruce ...--. 262 459 | 1873, x, i.
Kurwien. ----- aoe 53 34 39) (9 423 | 80-140-year pines -.--} 679 433 | 1873, xii, i.
Carlsberg. ---- 50 28 34 0} 2,484 | 45-year spruce -.--.- 591 869 | 1874, xi, i.
Eberswalde--- 52 50 31 29 79 | 45-year pines -.-- 410 591 | 1875, xii, i.
Schmiedefeld - 50 36 28 28 | 2,349 | 60-70-year spruce 984 492 | 1881, x,i.
Friedrichsrode 51 52 28 14 | 1,296 | 65-85-year beeche 367 | 1,138 | 1874, x, i.
Sonnenberg - 51 45 2810} 2,549 | 45-year spruce 328 650 | 1877, vi, i-
Marienthal 52 16 28 38 420 | 60-year beeches 984 656 | 1878, v,i.
Lintzel .--.- 5259) 2755 | 325 |. 1881, iui, 7.
Hadersleben 55 16 27 9 125 1875, x,i.
Schoo. ---.-- 53 36 25 14 10 | 20-year pines --.----- 656 1, 640 | 1876, x, i.
Lahnhof -- 50 53 25 54} 1,998 | 70-year beeches ----- 2, 461° 640 | 1877, vi, i.
Hollerath ..- ass 50 27 24 3 2,024 | 45-year spruces ----- 361 328 | 1874, x, i.
St. Johann-.---..-.--- 48 29 26 59 2,493 | 50-year spruces ----- 1, 640 656 ¥
Hagenau ..-------- 48 50 25 28 499 | 55-65-year pines ....| 4, 167 2,192 | 1875, v, i.
Neumath .----:-... 48 59 24 57 | 1,158 | 45-year beeches ----- 820 820 | 1875, v, i.
Melkerei .......--- 48 25 24 57 | 3,064 | 60-80-year beeches -- 3, 937 | 5,249 | 1875, v,1.
| ]

®

FOREST INFLUENCES. Ile

The compilation of the records at these stations into the ingenious graphic form here presented
was made by Mr. Mark W. Harrington, formerly Chief of the United States Weather Bureau;
they explain themselves without the need of additional text to any one who will learn to read
them with the aid of the following explanation and show at a glance the difference of meteoro-
logical conditions prevailing in the forest and in the open.

NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND READING OF THE DIAGRAMS.

The horizontal lines (ordinates) above or below the zero line represent values or amounts, degrees of tempera-
ture, inches of precipitation or evaporation, percentages, etc. The vertical lines (abscissa) represent time, dividing
the field into twelve seasonal divisions corresponding to the twelve months of the year, the outer lines both stand-
ing for the month of December or commencement of winter. The curye lines are constructed by noting on each
monthly line the values found for the month, and then connecting these points by either straight or rounded-off
lines.

Unless otherwise noted, the values so plotted are the differences between the readings under two sets of condi-
tions, namely, in most cases the values which were found for the stations in the woods (W) diminished by the values
found for the stations in the open field (O), or 7— 0.

The value of this difference is positive, if the curve runs above the zero line—that is to say, the records for the
woods (J) showed higher values than for the open field (0); it is negative, i. e., the record for the woods was
lower, if the curve line runs below the zero line. The greater, therefore, the vertical distance of any point in the
curve from zero line, the greater is the influence of thé woods. In temperature readings, for instance, the curve
above the zero line would denote that the woods were warmer; below the zero line, that the woods were cooler than
the open field by as many degrees as the curve runs above or below the zero line, the latter representing that state
of conditions when W—O, i. e., when there is no difference in the readings for the two sets of conditions.

Where values for each set of conditions are plotted separately, the area included within the two curve lines
(hatched) exhibits the difierence between the woods and open field.

To exhibit more readily the amount of influence of the forest, the areas included by the zero line and the curve
for mean values is also hatched in most cases.

318 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Soil temperatures.

Average; iS), 20] a

Hadersleben, - - - - - - = - - = - - -

Wit 2s oo 2s ae a Fee eo SB 6

Holler dt). en Ue ewe see ab Uhm

CHU, Soa jae Se 6 a 6 Se a Seene

lighiiif, 2 5 6 pe a ee e's Bee S

Moricnihd a

IV LEZEN Ae Ree tel) neh =) eer Gee
pedi WE, = «2 o 2 oe eo oo se 8
Si dui, = 6 6 3 = & evafeq i= oe 5
IRIN, = Be Be ee eee a ae a Bo
Cmts 2 se sa Sle a oe Se eB 6
Eberswalde, - - cheat pt LOM a est nt cosly et Ue
Sehmiedefeld, aD AU De ROR rie Sant 1k Feces
(Hagenc
SOTENUET C=
RGR, 6 2 op eo oe es ee oe se
WAR Ss = Ss = se SS Se

a Scale of degrees.

Scale of degrees.

At surface. ——————- At six inches, -=======— At four feet.

Fic. 42 —Differences of mean annual temperatures of soil (W—Q).

FOREST INFLUENCES.

Soil temperatures—Continued.

ue De == = +
aunt

WADERSLEBEN, ___ Soars

coe aoe en SL

CARLSBERG.

ERI ZEN

DEGREES
OF
FAHRENHEIT.

of a station is its zero line.

or dotted line like that in the margin.)

\

Fia. 43.—Difference of temperature (W—O) at the depth of 4 feet. (The line running under the name
The curve for the station is represented by the nearest broken, unbroken,

1s
Le Sy rn ea
ri ae SSS oe
N
© -2 5 “a
°o = ‘o}— ——_— —— — | — — - — 7 SS = Se Se ey ———
2 = SIS z
Efe 4 Sal A
+1° | Se
0 SSeS BSS ——
= (fF AN 2
B|_ 2 Oh Z
r <
2 = ay \ 3G
x - 4 \, a
7) 0 E
—§5 ex “a
EG + 1° SES
0 a a
- 1 S |
na 2° Be] ig
al Y) ¥ x Ae
S -3 y
° *
= |-4 i
3 |-s9 : Z
& [6 CoE A
—7° Ny eae A a
3° S| nt
WINTER SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN.
a DECIDUOUS TREES.

EVERGREEN emREEG:

Fia. 44.Differences of soil temperature (woods and open fields). Comparison of
deciduous and evergreen trees (W—QO).

319

320 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Soil temperatures—Continued.

Fe
ul
re
cc
2
oO
we
EF
<

AT SIX INCHES.

AT SURFACE,

Fie. 46.—Differences of soil temperature (woods and open fields). Comparison of ele-
vations above sea level ()V/—QO).

WINTER.

At surface. —— — — — AtG inches below surface. ------.--- At 4 feet below surface.
Fig. 47.—Differences of temperature for young trees, Lintzel Station, woods and open fields (1W—0O).

FOREST INFLUENCES.

Soil temperatures—C ontinued.

WINTER. : AUTUMN.

Average results. —— — — Results on loam BOB saseodasose= Results on quartz soil.
Fic. 48.—Effects of litter on soil temperature (littered surface—bare). (Ww—o.)

WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN.

Depth of 0.8 inch. ———— Depth of 4.6 inches. ..-.-.------ Depth of 9.3 inches.

Fic. 49,—Difference of soil temperature, under sod, and bare surface (sod—bare). Becquerel’s observations.

=
eae eI
=m 7 ZZ

SS ee
| winter. | SPRING

Fie. 50.—Under decidnous trees.

MMMM Yul VY4-

08 SSI ILE SSL ISLPLED CSTE LE

—— ae

SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN.

Fic. 51,—Under evergreen trees.

eA CU Uy Yy

es WINTER:

Sus en ess ee es
uae ve | eee eee
P| winter, [SPRING [SUMMER | AUTUMN |

wee -e eee -- MINIMA. MEAN 1 MAXIMA.
Fic. 52.—Under young forest (Lintzel).
H. Doe. 181——21

321

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Air temperatures in forests and open fields.

Minimum. Maximum.

JNA 93 2 sa

KGW, = 2) 2 = =

Gmbh, 2 2 2 = =

Eberswalde, - - - -

Schmiedefeld, - - - -

Friedrichsrode, - — =

SOU ETLUCT On

Wirngadtil, 2 = 5 =

TintZe rae ee

elas, 2 = = s

SAM, 2 = ss 2 5

Kilian, 2 2 5 5°

Hollerath, -

Qe dO, = = = =

Lif, 2 = = > =

NED, 2 2 2 2 3

WAG 2 5 se = 5

AUG 2 2 2 2 -

Seale.

Fic. 53.—Forest air temperature differences (W—O). German stations. Mean annual (cross-
bar), maxima (below zero line), minima (above zero line), and range (length of lines).

FOREST INFLUENCES. . 323

Air temperatures in forests and open jfields—Continued.

MEAN Se re ys Oe inact MAXIMA.

“>

YY) LIZ

Ly

Gj

WY)
See

ear eZ
WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER.

Fia. 54.—Friedrichsrode.

=Sso=_ ae

La" Z ele ase

WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER.

AUTUMN.

Fia. 56.—Sonnenberg.

5 19 oy esos ere
QO |-----|---- aaoe= =
Z x oe ie : = a
= 2 [oS2=4 =n Z
=isic = se =
ae
WINTER SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN.

Fie. 57.—Eberswalde.

LU thy =z a eee Yt fii za as

Fig. 58.—Schoo,

324 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Air temperature in forests and open jfields—Continued.

cree en ena MINIMA. ae MEAN. ————— MAXIMA.

7 ea ees
J

° J——— 4-—

WINTER. SPRING. ; SUMMER. AUTUMN.

Fig. 61.—Average.

eer Ee

+12 ———

ons :
=) @=2“nyyy YY IJMYPoP_
ees Se “MLL |

WINTER.

Fic.—62.—Blevated stations.

|. “HY YWIv@@$ YGF Z_
me LL
Ages ==

N

|| WINTER. SPRING.

Fie. 63.—Near sea level.

FOREST INFLUENCES

Tree-top temperature differences, woods and open-fields.

Minimum. Maximum.
Average, = ose = > ES
Ste JONGNI = =n = Oo
Melkereit, - - - 26.
is@iapthi, 2 as 2S.
Schmiedefeld, - - Sl.
Sonnenberg, a= 1S. Ms
Marienthal,- - - 38.
NTA, = SS ADs
HOw, 5 5 = A
MONO) = BRS
IHRM, = os IL
Friedrichsrode,- - 26.
Eberswalde,=- - - 39.
Carlsberg, = = = 36.
Hadersleben, - - 41.
Neumath; - - - 386.
Ndi, os = 2 2 Is,

io) an & io) % w i) “i
+ AF + | ! |
Scalers (2222 ee eee ee eee

Fig. 64.—Forest temperature differences for the year at height of the tree top (W—9O).

YUU al
ssa

WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER. , AUTUMN.

Fia. 65,—A verage differences of tree-top temperature, sixteen German stations (W—O).

325

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tree-top temperature differences, woods and open fields—Continued.

weecnerenees MINIMA, rer!

MEAN. ————— MAXIMA,

QI
SALE” |

WINTER. SPRING.

Fie. 66.—Friedrichsrode.

al

WINTER. AUTUMN.

WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER.

Fie. 68.—St. Johann.

ee |
=o25==

Fie. 70.—Schoo.

AUTUMN.

FOREST INFLUENCES.

Tree-lop temperature differences, woods and open jsields—Continued.

MEANS ee re MAXIMA.

SeCONGCENeEE MINIMA. —

SPRING |. __ SUMMER.

Fie. 72.—Kurwien.

WINTER. ce SUMMER, AUTUMN.

lig, 75.—Deciduous trees,

327

328

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

pa aa

SUMMER. AUTUMN.

— — — — Deciduous trees. -........-lMvergreen trees. ——Areraye of all.

Fig. 77.—Vertical temperature, gradient in woods, degrees Fahrenheit for 100 feet.

wees
WINTER. SPRING.

— = -— — EVERGREEN TREES., AVERAGE OF BOTH. —___--_ DECIDUOUS TREES,

Fic. 78.—Vertical temperature gradients from observations above trees.

DECIDUOUS TREES.

WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN.
_—_...-.... MINIMA. SEEN EAN ______ MAXIMA,

Fie. 79.—Forest temperature, differences above trees—from Fautrat’s observations.

FOREST INFLUENCES.

ouocos =
eg
|
7 oa
oa
tee ot
ee ee

ee a aa

ot

Fic. 80.—Evaporation and precipitation.

a a
Jy 47 7 >| |
a YY O>, ||

Be oo a
n=
“ora

WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER.

|_t— . 81.—Monthly evaporation in the fields (upper ve) and woods (lower curve).

rime
NYIOZ 777
Heeececeeeees

LE, VM); Yl. Yd WZZZz4 ar aw a
Pa winter | seni, | sumer | _auTuMn

Fic. 82.—Percentage of evaporation in the woods as compar ed with that in open fields.

——— EVERGREEN TREES») 6G see DECIDUOUS TREES YOUNG TREES,
Fia. 84,—Percentage of evaporation in woods to that in the open air

I. THE WORK IN TIMBER PHYSICS IN THE DIVISION OF
FORESTRY:

By Fininerr Rovru,
Late Assistant in the Division of Worestry.

HISTORICAL.

As in the case of other materials, exact investigation of the properties of wood did not.begin
until the latter part of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century, when Girard
Buffon and Duhamel du Monceau in France, and Peter Barlow, the nestor of engineering in
England, laid the foundation for this inquiry by devising suitable methods and working out
correct formule for the computation of the results. As might be expected, the results of this
pioneer work, particularly that of the French investigators, were often contradictory, and have
to-day little more than historical value.

Subsequently our knowledge of wood in general, and that of Kuropean species in particular,
was increased by a number of experimenters. Among these, Chevandier and Wertheim in France,
and Nordlinger in Germany, stand out conspicuous. Unfortunately, their apparatus was crude
and, in the case of the French workers, the series was too small to satisfy so complicated a
problem, while Nérdlinger was obliged to content himself with small and few specimens, owing to
a want of proper equipment.

In England considerable money was expended from time to time both by Government and
private enterprise, but the eagerness of making the matter as practicable as possible led, unfortu-
nately, to much testing of large sizes and to the employment of insufficient (because unsystematic)
methods, so that such extreme experiments as those of Kowke and others have really neither
furthered science nor helped the practice. In this country the engineering world for a long time
relied largely on the results of European testing, and the wood consumers in general depended
on a meager accumulation of experience and crude observation concerning most of the fine array
of valuable and abundant kinds of timber offered in our markets.

Ignorance and prejudice had their way. Chestnut oak was pronounced unfit for railway ties,
and thus millions of logs were left rotting in the woods, though this prejudice had not a single
fair trial to support it. “Bled” longleaf, or Georgia pine, was considered weaker and less durable,
millers and dealers were obliged to misrepresent their goods, causing unnecessary loss and litiga-
tion, and yet there existed not a single record of a properly conducted experiment to substantiate
these views. Gum was of no value, Southern oak was publicly proclaimed as unfit for carriage
builders, and the views as to the usefulness of different timbers were almost as numerous as the
inen expounding them.

The engineering world was the first to realize this deficiency, and: men like Hatfield, Lanza,
Thurston, and others attempted to replace the few antiquated and unreliable tables of alien text-
books by ‘he results performed on American woods and with modern appliances.

In addition to these efforts of engineers, Sharples, under Sargent’s direction, in his great
work for the Tenth Census of 1880, subjected samples of all our timber trees to mechanical tests,
but, since in these tests only a few select pieces represented each species, the engineering world
never ventured to use the results. As regards the rest of the wood testing in our country, it may
be said that it generally possessed two serious defects: (1) the wood was not properly chosen, and
(2) the methods of testing were defective, especially with respect to the various states of seasoning,
wood being tested in almost eyery state from green to dry, without distinetion, This is the more

330

TIMBER PHYSICS. 331

remarkable since the important influence of moisture was recognized and emphasized by both
French and German experimenters more than forty years ago.'

These facts were fully appreciated by the engineers of our country, as is well shown by the
numerous, often emphatic, approvals and recommendations of the timber-physics work undertaken
by the Division of Forestry, and by the eagerness with which wood consumers generally seized on
all information of this kind as fast as the Division of Forestry could supply the same.

SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN OAK.

Though fully planned before, the work in timber physics was really begun in order to decide
an important controversy as to the relative value of Southern and Northern grown oak.

A representative committee of the Carriage Builders’ Association had publicly declared that
this important industry could not depend upon the supplies of Southern timber, as the oak grown in
the South lacked the necessary qualities demanded in carriage construction. Without experiment
this statement could be little better than a guess,” and was doubly unwarranted, since it condemned
al enormous amount of material, and one produced under a great variety of conditions and by at
least a dozen different species of trees, involving, therefore, a complexity of problems difficult
enough for the careful investigator, and entirely beyond the few unsystematic observations of the
members of a committee on a flying trip through one of the greatest timber regions of the world.

A number of samples were at once collected (part of them supplied by the carriage builders’
comuittee) and the fallacy of the broad statement mentioned was fully demonstrated by a short
series of tests and a more extensive study into structure and weight of these materials. From
these tests it appears that pieces of white oak from Arkansas excelled well-selected pieces from
Connecticut both in stiffness and endwise compression (the two most important forms of resistance).

Results of tests on Northern and Southern white oak made in Washington University Laboratory, St. Louis, Mo., by Prof.
J. B. Johnson, 1889.

| Bending and cross breaking. Size of test piece 1§ by |

1g by 24. Compression. | Shearing.
Test piece. = = ==
Stiffness. | eae Resistence Ww Endwise. Transverse. Longitudinal.
| | 8Modulus | Modulus | | Modulus |
| ‘ of elas- 3. W. L. Modulus pounds Modulus Modulus
ere ticity, || CEE geeaen || ote So per xanga | Pounds |p... | pounds
Where procured. | No. Hanee pounds uate | pounds nee pounds ane square Han ee per | Hange per
AO: per ; per “~”’ | per eubie ; inch. e square | * | square
sqnare | square inch. Size 1§ by inch. inch.
inch. | inch. | 5 inches. |
Tot fal ere Pace ae eae . ah ea|
A.a. I 1 9 990, 000 | 3) 13,760 4 59 6 6, 160 | 1 3, 400 3 1, 875
| 24 5 1, 280, 000 | 1 | 18, 500 1 92 7 | 5, 480 | 3 | 3, 100 1 1, 560
Average ...--.|.-.-.- 3 1,185, 000 | 1| 16,130 | il | 76 | 3) 5 820 Lj 3,250 | 1 1, 468
A.b. iw 8 6 | 1,120,000 | 8| 12,300 6 | q7 | ll 4,740 7 2, 500 Cy see
4 10 920, 000 | 5} 12,700 5 55 9 4,980 | £ 2, 800 T 1, 225
| \
Average -.--.-|--.--- 4| 1,020, 000 | 3} 12,500 | 3 51 5| 4,860 2 2, 650 | 3 1, 225
} — —— |
5 11 850, 000 | 9 | 11,400 2 83 | 8 | 5,230 5 | 2,700} 4 1, 875
6 7 1, 140, 000 | 7 12, 300 7 45 10 | 4, 820 8 | 2,500 | 2) 1,540
Average ...-.-|--.--- 5 995, 000 5 | 11,850 2 64 | 4 5,025 | 3) | 2) 600 2 | 1, 458
| ! | | | | |
13 pooctosedorsoceseas Size: 1§ by 1§ by 18 inches. | Size: 1 cube.
ens ial eee Sn a = ae | = = == ==
| | | | | | |
T 3 | 1,570,000 | 6} 12,380 9 27 | 4 6, 800 11 2,000 10 860
8 8 1, 100, 000 | 2| 14, 690 3 | 82 | 1 7, 800 2 3,200 | 5 1, 260
9 4 1, 385, 000 | 11; 1, 240 | 11 | 19 5 6, 800 9} 2, 300 di 825
Arerage ..2-24|-2-2== 2 1,351, 667 2 | 12, 70 | 4) 43 | | Thies 4} 2,500 5 | 982
— | —_— | =
10 1 1,653, 000 | 4 | 13, 030 8 30 | 3 6, 900 6| 2,600 8 ||) 1,050
11 2 | 1,581, 000 | 10 11, 590 10 | 22 | 2 | 7, 700 | 10 2, 100 9 | 940
\- | } ——_—. =| = —
Average -..--.|.----- 1, 1,617, 000 4| 12,310 5 | 26 | 1 | 7, 300 5 2, 350 | 4 | 995
| | |
1 For a more complete history see Bulletin 6 of Division of Forestry. °

2See Report of the Division of Forestry, 1890, page 209.

W.= total load at center in pounds
W.L.3 where | L. =length in inches.
3 Young's modulus of elasticity: E=7p.v he . D. = deflection in inches.
Bes b. = breadth jn inches.
h. = height in inches,

332 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U, 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Description of test material and results of physical examination.

Notation as to station, site, and tree.---....... smeiSaeaieaes A. a. I. Connecti- | A, b. If. Conneec-| B. Arkansas.

cut upland. | ticut lowland.

Number of test piece...--..----....-..----..---------- ee Ns 3.
ORG HORE IN We) so50 copeess Res soa eseoasenensoasscosos North. Southwest.
Meightin tree. <.--20)-cisd cases ces ee cee ene eee “Butt cut.” “ Butt cut."
Position in tree (with reference to periphery) .-------.----- Not known. | Not known.
Size of test material: |

WGN. 55 coe asecccosesssessoSsceseeseesenecsccsscess | 4 4

WN oon occe se eessanesees assess soceretsssssoosS: 13 inch. | 1g inch.

Depth (measured across rings)-....------------------- 13 inch. 13 inch. Notispecitied

INN OP MUSE. 32 se sce ssdts So asogseossoscopeesosasseo5

Width of rings (average) --| 2.7 millimeters. 1.5 millimeters.
Summer wood as a whole... ---| 80 per cent. 04 per cent.
Firm bast tissue..--.-----.- ---| 60 per cent. 37.5 per cent.
Space lost by large vessels ------ .--| 14.7 percent. 24.9 per cent.
Moisture conditions when tested...-...--..--------------- Nearly seasoned. | Half seasoned.
IDENT coco ssdoconnoos seooneic acts ocooconooaceroenoessecses 84 17

These particular tests can hardly settle definitely any question. Samples 1 and 2 being
selected stock, second growth, can not be used for comparison with samples of B, except to show
that for stiffness the unselected Southern stock is superior to the best Northern growth, as also in
resistance to endwise compression. The samples 3, 4,5, and 6 are probably more nearly compara-
ble to samples of B, and here we find the Southern oak very much superior, not only in stiffness
and columnar strength, but also in ultimate cross-breaking strength, while for resistance to shock,
at least one sample of Southern oak is superior to three samples of forest-grown Northern, and
even to one of the best Northern second growth. This piece (No. 8) exhibits, altogether, qualities
which render the verdict tenable that Southern oak is not necessarily inferior to Northern oak in
any of its qualities.

Beyond this it would not be safe to use these figures for generalizations.

In 1888 the really first beginning in timber physics was made in the form of a preliminary
physical and structural examination of a set of trees representing the more important lumber pines
of the South and of the lake region, as well as of bald cypress. A comprehensive plan was fully
worked out and the mistakes of former methods were carefully avoided. In 1891 amore extensive
study of the four great Southern timber pines, the longleaf, Cuban, loblolly, and shortleaf, was
begun, and the material was at the same time collected in such a manner as to enable a detailed
inquiry into the relative merits of timber bled or tapped for turpentine as compared with unbled
timber.

The trees were collected by Dr. Charles Mohr, of Mobile, Ala., an acknowledged authority on
the botany of the region, and thus a correct identification was assured. Of each tree entire cross
sections as well as the intervening logs were utilized, the former being subjected to examinations
into their specific weight (the acknowledged indicator of many valuable technical properties), into
the amount of moisture contained, into the shrinkage consequent on drying, and into the strue-
tural peculiarities, particularly those structural features which are readily visible and may be
utilized in practice for purposes of timber inspection.

The logs were sawed and tested according to definite plans in the well-equipped test laboratory
of the Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., under the direction of Prof. J. B. Johnson, a recog-
nized authority in engineering. The first series of test results are embodied in Bulletin No. 8 of
the division, where the strength values for the longleaf pine are fully tabulated and discussed. So
eagerly was this bulletin sought by wood consumers, that an edition of 5,000 copies was exhausted

in a short time.
BLED AND UNBLED PINE.

In addition, this series of tests together with an extensive chemical analysis and physical and
structural examination of material from unbled and bled trees, as well as from trees bled and
abandoned for five years, re-enforced by an extended study of bled and unbled timber at various
points of manufacture, proved conclusively that the discrimination against bled timber was
unwarranted, since the bled timber was neither distinct in appearance, behavior, nor strength.

To avoid error in so important a matter, and also for a comparison of the three most important
turpentine trees—the Cuban and longleaf with the loblolly pine—the extensive chemical! analyses
of Dr. M. Gomberg, of the Michigan University, were repeated and extended by Mr. O. Carr, of
the Chemical Division of the Department of Agriculture, This series of additional chemical

RESINOUS CONTENTS OF PINE. 333

analyses fully substantiated Dr. Gomberg’s work, so that it was safe to announce that: (1) Bled
timber is as strong as unbled timber; and (2) that it contains the resinous substances in the same
amounts and similarly distributed as the wood of unbled timber, so that it seemed to follow as a
simple corollary that bled timber is also as durable as unbled, and hence equal to the latter in
every respect.

The importance of this fact was quite fully realized. Trautwine, in his standard work, the
Engineers’ Pocketbook, at once placed the fact on eminent record, and the lumbermen of the
South, as well as all trades journals, spread the welcome news in every paper and at every
opportunity. .

The work of Mr. Gomberg in determining the distribution of the resin through the different
parts of the tree is unique in method and classical in its clear scientific procedure and statement.
Since the publication in which it first appeared was at once exhausted, it appears proper to repro-
duce it in full, leaving out only a few tables, as a part of the most valuable work in timber physics
performed under direction of the Division of Forestry:

A CHEMICAL STUDY OF THE RESINOUS CONTENTS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN TREES OF
THE LONGLEAF PINE BEFORE AND AFTER TAPPING FOR TURPENTINE.
[By M. GomMBERG. j

Botanists tell us that resins are produced by the disorganization of cell walls and by the
breaking down of starch granules of cells. Chemists believe that resins are oxidation products of
volatile oils, the change being expressed by formula as follows: 2C,)H\+30=C.)H)0.+ HO.

Whatever view be correct,' one thing is certain, and that is that the formation of either resins
or essential oils requires the presence in the tree of those peculiar conditions which we call vital.
The tree must live, must be active, must assimilate carbon dioxide and imbibe moisture, in order
that oil of turpentine and rosin be formed.

The heart of the tree is the dead part of it. It does not manufacture any turpentine. <A part
of the oleoresin in it had been formed when the heartwood was yet sapwood, and remained there
after the change from sap to heart had taken place. Itis also probable that the heart of the tree
acts as a storehouse in which there is deposited a portion of the oleoresin formed in the leaves
and sap.

When a tree is tapped for turpentine there are two possible changes that might be supposed
to take place: (1) The tree may be considered as placed in a pathological condition, when it will
strive to produce a larger amount of oleoresin in order to supply the amount removed. In a few
yyears the energy of the tree will be exhausted and the amount freshly supplied will fall far below
the amount of oleoresin drawn off by the tapping. The tapping will then have to be discontinued.
The oleoresin in the heartwood will in this case remain untouched. (2) The oleoresin previously
stored away in the heart might, by some unknown means and ways, also be directed toward the
wound.

If the first change takes place then, the tapping will have little effect upon the chemical
composition of the heartwood. If, however, the second condition prevails during tapping, then
of course the heartwood will be seriously affected for some time after tapping, and will contain a
much smaller amount of oleoresin than it contained before tapping. Moreover, the tapping may
affect not only the amount of oleoresin, but also the quality of the new product and the relative
distribution of volatile products.

For this reason the chemical side of the problem has been approached by parallel analyses of
tapped or untapped trees for their relative amounts of turpentine. It was hoped that by a large
series of analyses an average might be obtained showing whether tapped and untapped trees differ
from each other in that respect.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TURPENTINE.

Under the name of turpentine is known an oleoresinous juice produced by all the coniferous
trees in greater or less amount. It is found in the wood, bark, leaves, and other parts of the
trees. It flows freely as a thick juice from the incisions in the bark. It consists of resin or resins

1The one view does not exclude the other.

334 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

dissolved in an essential oil; the latter is separated from the former usually by distillation with
steam.

There are many varieties of turpentine, corresponding to the different varieties of conifer,
but only three are commercially important, as they are the source of the three principal oils of
turpentine.

(1) The turpentine of Pinus pinaster (syn. P. maritima), collected in the southern departments
of France around Bordeaux. From it is obtained the French turpentine, which yields 25 per cent
of volatile oil.

(2) The turpentine from Pinus palustris, P. teda, P. heterophylia, collected in the southern
sea-bordering States from North Carolina to Texas. From them, principally from the first source,
is obtained the English or American oil of turpentine, which yields 17 per cent of volatile oil.
Formerly the P. rigida was also worked for turpentine in the North Atlantic States, but it is now
exhausted. .

(3) The turpentine from Pinus laricio var. austriaca, collected mainly in Austria and Galicia.
From it is obtained the German turpentine oil, which yields 32 per cent of volatile oil.

The Russian oil of turpentine is obtained from Pinus silvestris and Pinus ledebourii, by the
direct distillation of the resinous wood, without previously collecting the turpentine. It is said to
be identical with the German oil of turpentine, but more variable, as it contains products of
destructive distillation, both of wood and rosin.

The turpentines from the different sources differ from each other—(1) in their action upon
polarized light, (2) in the relative amounts of volatile oil they yield on distillation with steam, and
(3) in the nature of the volatile oils they contain.

Colophony.—The rosin in the different varieties of turpentine is practically the same. It is
known aS common rosin or colophony.' It consists chemically of a mixture of several resin acids
and their corresponding anhydrides. The chief constituent is abietic anhydride, ©,,H,.0,, abietic
acid being C,,H,,0;. The crystals that are noticed in crude turpentine are the free abietic acid;
on melting the thick turpentine, or on distilling the volatile oil, the acid is changed to the anhy-
dride. Colophony is nonvolatile, tasteless, brittle, has 1 smooth shining fracture, sp. gr. about
1.08. It softens at 80° C., and in boiling water melts completely at 135° C.

The volatile oil—The second principal constituent of turpentines are the volatile oils. The
chief ingredient of the three turpentine oils is a hydrocarbon of the same composition, C,)H,.;
nevertheless the three oils have distinct hydrocarbons differing from each other in physical if not
in chemical properties. The empirical formula of the hydrocarbon is O;)Hjs, and according to the
latest researches of Wallach? it has the following structural formula:

CH(CH3)?
1
CH
HCE CHa
274g) CHF
CCHs

thus being a dihydro-para-cymene, paracymene being ©;)Hy,,

CH(CHe, 2
¢
HE, CH
HC CH
€ CH;

1 Colophon, a city of Iconia, whence rosin was obtained by the Greeks.
2 Ann. Chem. (Liebig), 239, 49; Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 24, 1545.

RESINOUS CONTENTS OF PINE. 335

The position of this particular terpene, pinene, will be best seen from the general classifica-
tion of terpenes taken from Wallach. !

I. Hemiterpenes or pentenes of the formula C;Hs.

II. Terpenes or dipentenes of the formula CoH\¢.

(1) Pinene, obtained from many varieties of turpentine.

(2) Camphene, obtained artificially from camphor.

(8) Fenchene, obtained artificially from fenchone, a constituent of many fennel oils.

(4) Lemonene occurs in orange-peel oil, in oils of lemon, bergamot, cuminin, ete.

(5) Dipentene, obtained artificially from pinene. Occurs in Russian and Swedish turpentine.
(6) Sylvestrene occurs in Russian and Swedish turpentine.

(7) Phelandrene oceurs in the oils of bitter fennel and water fennel, elemi, eucalyptus.

(8) Terpinene occurs in oil of cardamom.

(9) Lerpinolene, only slightly known.

Ill.—Polyterpenes, of the formula (C;Hs),, as eedrenes C,;H2, caoutchoue (C5Hs),,, ete.

The hydrocarbon of the American and French oils of turpentine is pinene. It is dextro-
rotatory when obtained from the American turpentine oil, and is known as austro-terebinthene
or australene; levo-rotatory when obtained from the French turpentine oil, and is known as
terebinthene. Otherwise the two hydrocarbons agree entirely in specific gravity, boiling point,
and behavior toward chemical reagents.

The hydrocarbon of the Russian oil of turpentine is sylvestrene. It is dextro-rotatory, and
has a higher boiling point than pinene. The latter boils at 155° to 156° C., the former at 175° to
178° C.

But even the turpentine oils of high grade as found on the market do not consist of pure
pinene; especially is this true of ordinary oil of turpentine, which is obtained from the cruder
turpentine by a single distillation with steam. Different samples vary from one another
considerably in their specific rotatory power as well as their boiling point.

American oil of turpentine has a density of 0.864° to 0.8709. According to Allen? it begins
to boil at a temperature between 156° and 160° C., and fully passes over below 170° ©. “A good
sample of rectified American oil will give 90 to 93 per cent of distillate below 165°, the greater
part of which will pass over between 158° and 160°”,* while in the experience of J. H. Long,'
“In the examination of a large number of pure commercial samples of turpentine oil it was
observed that the boiling point was uniformly at 155° to 156°, and that 85 per cent of the samples
distilled between 155° and 1639, The distillation is practically complete below 185° C.”

Then, again, as found by Long, the vapor densities of many samples of oil are too high to
allow the formula C,,H,, for the entire oil. Fractions of different boiling points show different
degrees of specific rotation. All this would indicate that ordinary turpentine oil contains
hydrocarbons heavier than pure pinene, C,;,H,;. They are probably either isomeric with pinene,
but of a higher boiling point, or may belong to the polyterpenes.

Still less do we know of the source of these hydrocarbons. Whether they are produced by
the tree simultaneously with pinene, and are therefore to be found in the oleoresin or whether
they are all or in part produced by external agencies after the turpentine has been dipped can not
be answered. Probably the formation of these other hydrocarbons takes place in both ways
spontaneously in the tree and by some influences outside the tree.

Indeed, all terpenes have this property in common that they easily undergo change, from
optically active to inactive, from hemiterpenes to terpenes and polyterpenes. The change can be
brought about either by heat alone, or by heating the terpenes with salts or acids. So, when a
sample of American turpentine oil of +18.6° was heated to 200° C. for two hours it showed an
opposite rotation of —9.9°.° Pinene heated to 250° to 300° C. is converted into dipentene CH,
boiling at 175°, and a hydrocarbon CH, boiling at 260° C.

These illustrations will suffice to show that the transformation of pinene into isomeric and
heavier hydrocarbons may occur, at least partially, after the turpentine has been removed from
the tree.

‘Ann. Chem. (Liebig), 227, 300; Ber. d. Chem. Ges., 24, 1527. 8 Allen, Com. Org. Anal., 2, 441.
2 Allen, Com. Org. Anal., 2, 487. 4 Jour. Anal. and Appl. Chem., 6, 5.
°Muspratt’s Chemie, 4th ed., 1, 153.

336 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The crude turpentine from Pinus palustris, or long-leaf pine, is thus made up of—

(1) Rosin, 75 to 90 per cent; mostly abietic anhydride.

(2) Australene, 25 to 10 per cent; boils at 155° to 156° C.

(3) Some other terpenes of C,)H,;; small portions; kind not known.

(4) Some polyterpenes of (C;H;),; small portions; kind not known.

(5) Cymene (?) CioHi4; small portions, ifany; boils at 175° to 176° C.

(6) Traces of formic and acetic acids; produced probabiy by atmospheric oxidation during collection of

turpentine.
ANALYTICAL WORK.

As both the rosin and the volatile oil are easily soluble in chloroform, ether, carbon disulphide,
etc., their separation from wood by any of the above solvents would appear to be an easy matter.
But an exact quantitative determination of the volatile oil presents considerable difficulties, and
for these reasons: (1) Wood can not be dried free from moisture without driving off some of the
volatile hydrocarbons; (2) the ether extract can not be freed entirely from either without some loss
of the volatile oil.

Ifa weighed quantity of wood shavings is exhausted with either, the residue dried at 100° C.
and weighed, the total loss thus found will represent:

The moisture = H.
The rosin = Rf.
The volatile hydrocarbons = T.

It is sufficient to determine two of these factors; the third could then be determined by
difference. But as has been mentioned before, the ether extract can not be obtained in any degree

>—

Fic. 85.—Method of chemical analysis of turpentine.

of purity without loss of turpentine. The evaporation of ether in a stream of dry air, as proposed
by Dragendorf, for the estimation of essential oils in general, does not give satisfactory results
with turpentine oil, as Dragendorf himself observed.

A weighed quantity of a mixture of rosin and oil, made up in about the same proportions as
they exist in erude turpentine, was dissolved in a suitable amount of ether. The latter was then
evaporated in a current of dry air till the odor of ether was hardly noticeable. The mixture was
found to have gained considerably in weight by retaining ether in the thick sirupy oleorosin. It
was only by heating at 100° C. for some time that all of the solvent could be driven off, and then
the mixture was found to have lost in weight. Repeated trials proved that this method could not
be used safely. ;

An attempt was then made to determine the quantities H and R, and thus find 7 by difference
A weighed quantity of wood shavings was placed in a small flask a. The latter was connected
on one side with a tray of drying bottles, on the other two CaCl, tubes ) and ¢, similar in size
and form. ‘The flask is immersed in boiling water and a current of dry air is passed through the
whole apparatus for one and one-half hours. The flask is then cooled and air is passed for one
and one-half hours longer.

It was thought that while ) would retain all the moisture and a portion of the volatile com-
pounds, c would retain about the same amount of the volatile products only. Gain in weight of

INVESTIGATIONS INTO RESINS. Doe

ce subtracted from that of ) would then give the moisture H. The sample of wood shavings is

then exhausted with ether, the latter evaporated, and the residue heated at about 140° to 150° to

constant weight; this gives the rosin Rk. If L be the total loss by extraction with ether, we have
D—H+kR=T.

But it was soon found by experiments upon pure turpentine oil that the two CaCl, tubes did
not retain an equal amount of volatile oil. The quantity retained depended upon many circum-
stances, the chief one being the amount of moisture already present in the CaCl, tubes.

Even had the tubes retained quantities of turpentine oil, this method would still have the
objection that one of the constituents was to be determined by difference—an objection especially
serious when the ingredient to be so determined is small in comparison with the materials to be
weighed.

The writer has therefore attempted to make use of a somewhat different principle. <A few
trials were sufficient to show that the method promised to give satisfactory results. The basis of
the method is the same which served for the production of Russian turpentine oil on a large scale,
namely, the distillation of the volatile products from the wood itself, without previously obtaining
the turpentine. But instead of condensing the volatile products, their vapors are passed over
heated copper oxide, whereby they are burned to water and carbon dioxide. Many trials were
made with this method upon pure materials and on samples of resinous wood. As the results
were found to be entirely concordant and satisfactory, the method was adopted, and by it were
obtained the results presented in this report.

DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD EMPLOYED.

A weighed amount of wood shavings is placed in a straight CaCl, tube a. The tube is con-
nected on one side by means of a capillary tube with a drier A, which serves for freeing the air
from moisture and CO,. The other end of the tube is connected with an ordinary combustion

Fic. 86.—Methoid of distillation of turpentine.

tube ) containing granulated CuO. The tube is drawn out at one end as is shown in the figure,
and the narrow portion is loosely filled with asbestus wool. The connection is made glass to
glass, so that the vapors of distillation do not come in contact with any rubber tubing. The
forward end of the combustion tube is connected with a CaCl, tube ¢, one-half of which is filled
with granulated CaCl, and the second half with P,O;. Then follows a potash bulb d provided
with two straight tubes, the first one filled with solid KOH, the second with P,O;. The last tube
is connected with an aspirator.

All the connections having been made air-tight, the connection between the tube a and the
drier A is shut off by means of a clamp and the aspirator turned on. When the combustion tube
has been heated to dull redness the burner under the air-bath B is lit and the temperature raised
to 110°-120° C. The moisture contained in the tube escapes quite rapidly, carrying with it some
turpentine oil. The capillary tube at the other end of A practically checks backward diffusion

H. Doe. 181 22

338 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

or any accumulation of condensed vapors. In about fifteen minutes all the moisture appears at
the forward end of the combustion tube. The clamp is now opened and a stream of air at the
rate of somewhat over one liter an hour is passed through the whole apparatus, while the tem-
perature of the air bath is raised to 155° to 160° C., and kept at that point for about forty-five
minutes. Toward the end of the operation the temperature is raised to 165° to 170° C. for ten
minutes. Then the light under the air bath is turned off and air aspirated for twenty to twenty-
five minutes longer. As the air bath is in close contact with the combustion furnace, the whole
length of the tube is kept at a temperature above the boiling point of turpentine oil. In this
way a complete distillation is insured.

All the moisture is retained by ¢, while the CO, is absorbed in the potash bulbd. The gain of
weight in c represents the moisture originally present in the sample of wood plus the water
produced in the combustion of the hydrocarbons. The gain in weight of d represents the amount
of CO,, derived from the combustion of the volatile products.

The tube a is now transferred to an ordinary Soxhlet’s extraction apparatus and exhausted
with ether. The latter is distilled off, the residue dried for about two hours at 100° C., and
weighed. This represents the amount of rosin in the sample of wood taken.

As has been previously mentioned, the volatile oil of the oleoresin is not pure australene,
C,)His =(CsHy)2. It probably contains some other hydrocarbons, either of the same formula or
belonging to the class of polyterpenes (C;H,),. It is clear that whichever they be their percentage
composition is alike in all; they all have C= 88.23 per cent, H=11.77 per cent. Therefore, so
far as the combustion of the volatile terpenes is concerned, they can all be represented by the
equation :

C,) His + 140 =10 CO,,=8 H,0

L— ———™ eo

136 440 144

In other words, 440 parts of CO, are derived from 136 parts of volatile terpenes.
440:136=1:X; X —0.3091,
i.e., 1 part of CO, obtained in the combustion represents 0.309 parts of the volatile hydrocarbons.

For every 440 parts of CO, produced there are 144 parts of H,O formed.

4403144 =1:X; X —0,3272,
i.e., Simultaneously with 1 part of CO, there is produced 0.327 parts of H,O.
Let the weight of the sample taken = W,
Let the weight of CO, obtained = W’,
Let the weight of H,0 obtained = W”,
Then—W’ x 0.309=T, the amount of volatile hydrocarbons.
W’ x 0.327 = H’, the amount of HO corresponding to the volatile hydrocarbons.
W” x —H’,=H the amount of moisture in the wood.
= =per cent of T; = per cent of moisture.

Thus the moisture, the volatile hydrocarbons, and rosin are obtained directly from the same
sample. Where many estimations are to be made, it is of course unnecessary to cool down the
combustion tube between successive combustions.

The temperature of distillation.Some experiments were made to determine at what tempera-
ture it is safe to conduct the distillation. Although pure turpentine boils at 156-160° C., yet in
open air it can be volatilized at a much lower temperature, even on the water bath, without any
difficulty. Especially is this the case when the vapors are removed as soon as formed by a stream
of air, but it must be remembered that the volatilization of the essential oil directly from the
wood might be considerably hindered by the large amount of rosin.

A sample of wood distilled by the method outlined above gave the following results at
different temperatures:

j

| 120° | 140° | 150° | 160° 170°
Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.

| TP 1.0: 1,18 1.30 1.26 1.32
11.33 UDIGPB) |losaseseccd]|seasedissas

| H,O=| 11.17

INVESTIGATIONS INTO RESINS. 339

Another sample gave:

180° |
| |

| | 160°

Per cent.) Per cent,

The results would indicate that the distillation is practically complete at 160°, and that ihe
wood itself does not contribute any CO, by partial decomposion at that high temperature; for,
should the latter be the case, higher results might be expected at 180° than at 160°, and then the
sapwood would give much higher numbers for turpentine oil than those actually obtained.

Even if this method does not give the absolute amounts of volatile hydrocarbons, yet it
certainly gives results very near the truth, and, what is more important, under the same conditions
it gives constant results. Therefore, by employing strictly parallel conditions in the analysis of
the different samples, results are obtained which can be safely used as indices of comparison
of the relative amounts of volatile hydrocarbons in the samples under analysis.

MATERIAL FOR ANALYSIS AND METHOD OF DESIGNATION.

Materials.—Trees No. 52 and 53, abandoned five years.
Trees No. 60 and 61, abandoned one year.
Trees No. 1 and 2, not tapped.
‘Trees 54-57, abandoned five years.
Trees 58-59, abandoned five years.
Trees 63-65, abandoned one year.
Trees 66-69, abandoned one year.
Trees 17-19, not tapped.
Generally Disk II is 23 feet from ground.
Disk III is 33 feet from ground.
Disk IV is 43 feet from ground.

Method of designation.—lt was thought best to make a somewhat detailed analysis of a few
bled and unbled trees in order to gain an insight into the quantitative distribution of turpentine
in the trees. Hach disk was divided into pieces of about thirty rings each, the heart and sapwood
being kept separate. The number of the disk is designated by a roman figure, the kind of wood
_ by either s for sapwood or h for heartwood. ‘The arabic figure which precedes the h or s designates
the number of the piece, counting for the sapwood
from the bark; for the heartwood, from the line of
division between sap and heart.

Preparation of material_—The first six tables
give the results of what might be called “detail”
analysis, where each piece of about thirty rings has
been analyzed separately. The material for analy-
sis waS prepared in the following way: A radial
section of the disk, about 1 to 2 inches thick, js Fic. 87.—Distribution of turpentine in trees. (A piece marked

A 2 s 52 ITI 2h means tree No. 52, disk III, the second piece of the
selected. A piece of 1 inch is cut off transversely, heart.)
and the strip is then divided into pieces of about
thirty rings each. From the freshly cut transverse surface about 15 grams of thin shavings are
planed off and placed in a stoppered bottle. The exact amount used for analysis, usually from 3
to 5 grams, is found by weighing the bottle before and after taking out the portion for analysis.

The second set of tables, VII to XII, inclusive, give the results of “average” analysis. The
material for these analyses was obtained by mixing equal quantities of shavings from the corre-
sponding portions of several trees and taking for analysis an average sample of the mixture. The
sapwood furnish one analysis and the heart wood was either analyzed as a whole or divided into
portions, 1h and 2h, if of considerable thickness.

Notes ON TABLES I TO XII.

Each table contains a column “calculated for wood free from moisture,” giving the per cent of volatile hydro-
carbons and rosin obtained by calculation from results actually found. Objections might be raised to this mode ef
interpreting the results. It might be said that the moisture in the wood can not be disregarded, because it is as
much an essential proximate constituent of wood as the turpentine itself is. But since the analyses were not made
soon after the trees had been felled, the moisture found in the samples does not represent the original moisture, nor

340 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

does it represent equal portions of it in all samples. The numbers given in the column ‘‘water” are of course
suggestive as to the comparative degree of retention of moisture by the different samples, since the latter were all
exposed to about the same influences. But it seemed best to compare the amounts of volatile hydrocarbons and
rosin on wood free from that variable constituent; the more so as some time elapsed between the analysis of the
first and last samples.

The last column in each table contains the ratio between the volatile hydrocarbons and rosin. ‘This ratio is
multiplied by 100, and means that for every 100 parts of rosin as many parts of the volatile hydrocarbons are found

as is indicated in the column. ‘This ratio G
fA

:) is of little value in cases when the amount of turpentine is small,

because a very small increase of the first constituent—an increase within experimental error—will change the
quotient considerably. An increase of 0.07 per cent of volatile hydrocarbons in 60, IV, 1s will bring up

a from 7.2 to 10. A decrease of 0.07 per cent in 52, TV, 28 will change a from 25.20 to about 19. These numbers
vu uv

are therefore of very little significance when applied to the sapwood of all samples, to entire tree 52, and to some
parts of trees 60 and 1, all of which show only small portions of turpentine.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OBTAINED.

Relation of rosin and volatile hydrocarbon to moisture.—The amount of moisture retained by
different samples does not seem to have any direct relation to the amount of oleoresin in these
samples. Yet in the same tree, or rather in the different parts of the same disk, there seems to exist

something likearelationof thetwo. This is especially notice-
= able in tree No. 53. The moisture retained seems to vary in-
versely with the amount of oleoresin in the sample. Compare,
for example, in 53 II, 1h, 2h, 3h; in 53 Ili, 1h, 2h, 3h, 4h; in
“> 53 1V,2h, 3h, 4h. The piece richest in oleoresin is generally
th |2h Sh 4h the poorest in moisture. But this is by no means a universal
rule. Some trees show about the same per cent of moisture
Fis. 88—Relationship of different parts of same 12 parts widely differing from each other in the amounts of
disk. turpentine, and in many instances a smaller amount of tur-

pentine is associated with a smaller per cent of moisture.

Sapwood and heartwood.—All the analyses, detail and average, show conclusively that the
sapwood is comparatively very poor in turpentine; it is immaterial whether it comes from a rich
tree or a poor one, from a tapped tree or an untapped one. The turpentine in sapwood reaches
3 to 4 per cent in very rich trees, as in Nos. 53, 61, and 2; in the remaining trees it is 2 to 3 per
cent. Consequently the results obtained for sapwood are not taken into account in the following
paragraphs. When differences between trees are spoken of, it applies entirely to heartwood.

The different parts of the same disk show a constant relation in nearly all instances. In
most cases 1h is the richest, and thé heartwood grows poorer as we approach the pith of the tree.
In a few cases, as in 1 III and in 1 LV, 1h and 2h are practically identical, while in some instances,
in 2 III, 61 II, 61 Il, and 53 II, 1h is poorer than 2h. In nearly all cases the decline is marked
in 3h, and 4h is usually found to be the poorest part of the disk. This relationship can be
represented in a general way by the following curve:

Relation of volatile hydrocarbons to rosin.—As the
turpentine in the tree is a solution of rosin in an essen-
tial oil, it will follow that the richer a tree is in tur-
pentine the richer it will be in the constituents that go
to make up this mixture. One would also expect that
the ratio between the volatile hydrocarbons and rosin
would be tolerably constant in the different parts of ; ;
the same tree, but the results of analysis do not indi- Vic. 89.—Yield of ae aa constant quantity of
cate it. They show that this ratio increases with the ‘
amount of rosin. A part of heartwood having twice as much rosin as another part will contain
more than twice as much volatile products as the second part. This is true in a general sense
of parts of the same disk, of parts of different disks in the same tree, and parts from different
trees. There is no distinction in that respect between bled and unbled trees. This relationship
can be formulated in the following way: The crude turpentine from heartwood rich in oleoresin
will yield a comparatively larger amount of turpentine oil than the turpentine from heartwood
poor in oleoresin.

INVESTIGATIONS INTO RESINS. 341

It has been shown that the heartwood grows poorer from 1h toward the pith of the tree. It
Bie
will therefore follow from what has been said in the preceding paragraph that R will also grow

smaller from 1h to the pith. The yield of volatile oil from a constant quantity of turpentine
can be expressed in a general way by a graphic illustration similar to that which expresses the
yield of total oleoresin from different parts of the disk.
lt :
It is difficult to explain satisfactorily this decrease of 7. The two parts of the radial sec-
tions that have been the longest exposed to air are 1s and the last h. The question naturally

: uel : :
arises, May not the decrease of R be due to a greater evaporation of volatile hydrocarbons from

these two ends? But this can hardly be so. No. 53, II, 4h was analyzed at intervals of two
months and furnished the following data:

|
I, Sept. 28. In, Noy. 27. |
H,O=11. 23 7.24
ie — ele) 1. 34
lee 8.12 | F
Caleulated for wood free from moisture:
ee
|
T—1.30 ae 1.30
R—8.96 | 8.75

Sufficient experimental data are lacking to prove conclusively that the volatile hydrocarbons
do not evaporate to any extent from the heartwood except from freshly cut surfaces of it.

Relation between different disks of the same tree.—There is no constant relation between the
different disks of the same tree so far as the amount of oleoresin is concerned. Although the
disks do vary from each other, the variation can not be connected with gravitation, by virtue of
which the lower disks would contain a larger amount of turpentine than‘the upper ones; for dif-
ferent trees vary from cach other considerably in this respect, the variation being apparent in
both bled and unbled trees. If a, b, ¢ stand for the amounts of oleoresin in disks denoted by
Roman numerals, the relative magnitudes being represented by the letters in the alphabetic order,
then the results of analysis can be condensed in the following table for the trees denoted in Arabic
numbers:

|

| Ean eeoob er | 1 | 2
|
| ‘
Tvs CAN ENG s ast G@ || @
WOE 55 b | c @ |) © b
| 10 aaa e | w | oi a |
| |

It is evident that no constant relation as to amounts of oleoresin exists between the disks of
the same tree.

Comparison of tree 52 with 53.—These two trees were both supposed to have been sound,
healthy trees at the time of felling, and yet they differ from each other as much as two trees could
differ. The heartwood of one is very rich in turpentine; that of the other contains comparatively
very small quantities—only a trace. How to explain the difference? Previous to felling they had
both been tapped for four consecutive years; consequently both must have contained considerable
amounts of turpentine. Since the last tapping they stood for five years side by side, both exposed
to the same influences. This great difference can not be traced directly to tapping, for the latter,
itmay be assumed, would have afteeted both treesequally. Thecause of the difference between 53 and
52 ought to be looked for, rather, in the condition of the two trees before tapping. In connection
with this it would be interesting to know how much turpentine each tree had yielded when tapped.

Comparison of trees 60 and 61.—There is a decided difference between the two trees. The high-
est numbers in 60 are 0.84 per cent for volatile hydrocarbons and 5.35 for rosin, while in 61 0.75

342 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. §S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and 5.67 are the lowest numbers for the corresponding constituents, the highest being 3.49 and
16.29, respectively. Here again we have two trees of about the same age, under apparently the
same conditions of growth, tapped at the same time and abandoned for the same length of time
before felling, and yet differing very widely from each other. It is difficult to conceive why tap-
ping should have affected the heartwood of these two trees in such a strikingly different manner.
If the assumption is made that the tapping had drained both trees equally, what explanation can
be given for the fact that within one year of abandonment one tree is very rich in turpentine while
the other has less than one-fourth as much?

Comparison of trees 52 and 53 with GO and 61.—Compare 53 and 61. Here we have two trees
both very rich in turpentine, but while 53 had five years of rest after tapping, 61 had only one
year. Had the tapping forced the trees to pour out their oleoresin previously stored up in the
heart, we should expect to find in the time of rest the prime factor for the tree in resuming its
natural condition; but, on the contrary, results of analysis show that time of abandonment before
felling is of little importance. While we can have a tree very rich in turpentine within five
years after tapping, we can also have trees rich and poor even within one year, and trees almost
totally deprived of turpentine in the heartwood within five years after tapping.

Comparison of 1 with 2.—These two trees had never been tapped, and yet neither is rich in
turpentine. No. 2 contains about twice as much turpentine as No. 1, the difference becoming
smaller as we go up the tree. The highest numbers for 2 are 1.93 and 14.19 for T and R, respec-
tively, the lowest 0.86 and 5.89, with an average of about 1 and 7. We can say that there is as
much difference between untapped trees as there is between trees that have been tapped.

Average analyses.—The average analyses cover 16 trees. Thirteen trees furnish four sets of
analyses of tapped trees and 3 trees furnish one set of untapped. The results obtained are
summarized in the following table: ;

10, Til.
TreeNo.| a ¥} iehemisknl «y T Remarks.
T. Te. =5 X< 100: Te RR. > «100.
! I | R
Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. |
54-57 0.93 5. 88 15. 58 0.58 3.98 | 14.04 | Abandoned 5 years.
57-59 - 80 4.06 19. 63 . 82 4,29 | 19. 10 0.
63-65 -91 5.32 Wig nae ossJaedlsoca5o255- Jneeeeeee ee Abandoned 1 year.
66-69 . 89 4.95 Te ae SA lien aS eta Do.
17-19 64 2.98} 21.37 7 3.21 | 21.76. | Not tapped.

These results show a pretty constant average number for turpentine in tapped trees. The
heartwood of untapped trees is poorer in both volatile oil and rosin than that of tapped trees.
And here again it is worthy of notice that time of abandonment is of little importance to tapped
trees. The trees that had been abandoned for one year are fully as rich as those that had five
years to recover from tapping.

Comparison of tapped with untapped trees.—If now the heartwood of tapped trees be compared
with that of untapped, one is at a loss as to what conclusions should be drawn from so few
analytical data. It is remarkable that the two richest trees and the poorest tree are among those
that had been tapped. Of the remaining 19 trees, there is no difference between the 14 tapped
and 5 untapped. Whatever differences are found among bled trees are equally found among
those that have not been tapped.

Indeed, from the study of the results of analyses the writer is of the opinion that the difference
in untapped trees is due to the same cause as the difference in trees that have been tapped. As
stated above, the cause of the difference among tapped trees can not be traced directly to
tapping; it ought to be looked for, rather, in the condition of the trees previous to tapping.

The difference between trees 52 and 53 can be explained on the foliowing hypothesis: 53 had
been a rich tree from early growth and had a large amount of turpentine stored up in the heart-
wood; 52 for some reason or other had very little stored away. When the two trees were sub-
jected to tapping they gave up whatever turpentine they had in the sapwood and whatever they
could produce from season to season, till at the end of four years the production became too smalj
in amount and too poor in quality. The trees were then abandoned. But tree No. 53 had its
oleoresin in the heartwood untouched, while No. 52 had hardly any before tapping, and for the
same unknown cause did not store away any in the heartwood after the tree had been abandoned.

RESIN IN BLED AND UNBLED TREES. 843

The explanation offered in the preceding paragraph gains still more probability when trees 60
and 61 are compared with each other and also with 52 and 53. The difference between 1 and 2, the
results of average analyses—all these are very suggestive of the theory that the sap, and not the
heart of the tree, supplies the turpentine when the tree is tapped. The fact that the heartwood of
trees felled one year after tapping is fully as rich or as poor as that of trees felled five years after
tapping, seems to the writer of especial significance, for it shows that the richness of the heart-
wood in a tapped tree is independent of time of rest before felling.

It is a well-known fact that when a pine tree is cut transversely, liquid turpentine immedi-
ately appears on the fresh surface of the sapwood, while the heartwood remains perfectly clear.
It would seem as if the turpentine in the sap is far less viscid than that in the heart of a tree. It
is probable that the turpentine in the sap is richer in volatile hydrocarbons than that in the heart.
(A difference of cell structure and manner of existence of oleoresins may also account for this
difference in part.—B. E. F.)

It is generally stated that crude turpentine as obtained on a large scale yields from 10 to 25

per cent of volatile oil. This gives a= 11.11 to 30, with an average of over 20. This average
is somewhat higher than that for the z as found for the turpentine from heartwood of the 21
trees analyzed. Although experimental data are wanting to show conclusively that the difference
in the consistency of the oleoresin from sapwood and heartwood is due to a difference in the
relative amount of volatile oil, yet it is quite probable that this should be the cause. The oleoresin
in the heartwood of trees has been produced for the most part when the sheartwood was yet
sapwood. Therefore that part of turpentine which is found in the heartwood is the oldest in age
and consequently has been exposed the longest to oxidizing influences of air, which gradually
replace the water when the sapwood changes to heartwood. It is the same kind of oxidation and
of thickening which takes place when crude turpentine is exposed to the air and sun, or when a

7

: ‘ : : ; 1
fresh cut is made in the bark of a tree. It is probably for the same reason that R becomes smaller

as we approach the pith of the tree, because the parts nearest the pith are the oldest.

It is difficult to conceive how the thick oleoresin of the heartwood could be made to flow
toward the incision when a tree is tapped. It is also difficult to explain by what means the tree
could change this thick turpentine into a less viscid solution in order that it may flow toward the
wound.

One would judge, a priori, from the great difference in the consistency of the turpentine in the
heart and sap that only the liquid turpentine will flow when a tree is tapped. Tapping will then
have little effect, if any, upon the oleoresin stored up in the heartwood of the tree. A tree whose
heartwood is rich in turpentine will remain so after tapping.

The writer is not willing to generalize too hastily from so few results and consider them as a
solution of the problem. A large number of analyses, devoid of the possibility of chance selection
of samples, is necessary before a positive or a negative answer can be given to the question, does
the tapping of trees for turpentine affect the subsequent chemical composition of the heartwood?

But, however few in number the results are, they admit of the following conclusions:

(1) Trees that have been tapped can still contain very much turpentine in the heartwood.

(2) Trees that have been abandoned for only one year before felling can contain fully as much
turpentine in the heartwood as trees that have been abandoned for five years.

(3) Trees that have not been tapped at all do not necessarily contain more turpentine in the
heartwood than trees that have been tapped.

The following diagram serves to show what proportion of each disk was involved in each of
the detail analyses, and the results in each case. The right-hand vertical line represents the pith
of the tree, the horizontal lines represent the radical extension of each disk, as numbered by roman
number, the position of the disk in the tree being maintained as in nature, IV being the top, II
the lower, and ITI the intervening disk. The subdivisions of radii represent the actual divisions
of the disk to scale of one-half natural size, the portions to the left of the heavy subdivision line
representing sapwood s 1 and s 2; the portions to the right heartwood h, h, divided according to
the method as indicated above. The four columns of figures over each disk piece represent results
pertaining to that piece; they stand in order from the top for (1) number of rings, (2) volatile

344

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

hydrocarbons, (3) rosin, (4) ratio Ri (2) and (3) as caleulated on wood free from moisture. For
instance, for tree No. 53, disk IV, s2, we find—
40— Number of rings.
0.40— Per cent of volatile hydrocarbons.
3. 81— Per cent of rosin.
uh
10), B/== =o
R
40. 30. 34, 33. 31. 35.
0.40 0.46 4.56 4.49 3. 86 2. 66
3.81 ‘ 3.96 24, 01 22, 23 17.74 15.19
Tree (LOSSY {11.60 119.02 | 20.12 (Oval i eae IV.
No. 53. 40. 37. 35 38. 30. 18.
0.39 0.42 3. 87 3.81 2.10 1.25
2.96 3.02 21.77 20. 09 11.97 9.71
[13.01 | 13.82 | 17.85 | 18.94 {17.58 | 13.10 Ti.
37. 40. 33. 32. 32, 28.
0.18 0.19 2.56 4.39 2.22 1.46
0.97 0.96 12. 02 24.70 12.30 8.96
{| 18.39 LOA 1 21.93 | 22.43 | 18.29 | 16.33 Il.
40. 35. 32. 34. 30. 30.
$ 0.26 0.34 0.15 0.22 0.23 0.26 iilae
1.40 1.34 1.65 1.97 1.72 1.92
Tree Wo. 52. | = 18.78 (Leo [he Oise bi cate | 18.38 et aoe Iv.
30. 40. 30. 30. 32. 27. 11.
0.25 0.25 0.15 0.20 0.14 0.18 0.18
1.99 1.87 1.77 1.87 1.86 1.60 1.53
inet os | 13.67 8. 64 | 10.51 {7.65 | 9.65 | 9.26 Tot,
40. 40. 36. 32. 35. 24.
0.30 0.31 0.30 0. 26 0.17 0.17
2.19 2,01 2.17 1.88 3.98 1.51
13. 64 | 15.48 [14.14 | 14.38 i 8S | 11.60 TI.
30. 36. 40. 33. 35. 30.
0.22 0.28 3.07 3.49 3.14 1.08
3.01 2.75 13. 55 16.29 14, 18 8.04
Tree (eee 10. 20 | 22.65 | 21.42 [21.42 | 13.39 Tit.
No. 61. 35. 35. 36. 33. 30. 35.
0.20 0.26 1.57 2. 69 2.92 0.75
3.01 3.11 7.88 13.57 11. 34 5. 67
| 6.50 bo Re 1 19.85 19. 86 | 25.81 | 13.28 Il.
30. 27. 28. 36. 40.
0.16 0. 24 0, 84 0.41
2.32 2. 66 5. 85 3.13
| 7.02 | 9.09 1 15.59 [12.85 Iv.
30. 34. 30. 36. 36. 20.
0.28 0.35 0.58 0.40 0.42 0.50
Tree No. 60. 2. 65 2. 88 3. 60 2.99 2.42 3.3
| 10.33 | 12.16 Bist 59> 7 [tee 5723 ee | e702 | 14,70 TIT.
30. 35. 37. 33. 35. 27.
0.29 0.33 0.71 0.51 0.73 0.47
2.26 2, 63 5.03 2.71 5.19 3. 62
Le es | 12.56 Or | 13.00 Ii.
30. 28. 32. 19.
0.22 0.25 1.07 1.06
1.43 1.57 7.61 6.62
er ef] em | 16.04 Iv.
30. 33. 30. 25. 13.
0.32 0.34 0.94 0.73 0.40
2,25 9,25 4,90 5.12 3.57
Tree No.1. | 14.49 | 13.90 [eee ON te eso 11. 20 Til.
30. 35 35. 34. 15.
0.20 0.17 0.18 0. 66 0.37
1.06 1.32 6.57 3.92 2,28
[PREIS ASS [18872 Ne 1 7k97 eel] eNO: 16.50 II.
30. 36. 30. 30.
0.31 0.34 1.13 0.87
2,52 2.71 8.10 6.41
[deine 1286) tsi98 | a3) 53 Iv.
30. 36. 33 98. 17.
0.18 0.24 1.37 0.92 0. 86
1.95 2, 24 9.14 5. 89 7.40
Tree No.2. On OS ae Te III.
30. 26. 34. 30. 30. ll.
0.20 0.31 1.55 1.93 1.39 1.16
4,29 3.05 10. 10 14.19 8.78 8. 94
| 4.56 | 10.00 | 15.35 | 14.4 | 15.75 | 12.99 II.

Fia. 90.—Diagram of detail analyses, representing radial dimensions of test pieces in each disk. Scale, one-half natural size.

DISTRIBUTION OF RESINOUS CONTENTS.

TABLE I.—TREE No. 53.

Calculated on wood free

Volatil from moisture. al The
7 olatile ol. hydroc.
No. of disk. Eartet N ae of Width. Water. hydro- Rosin. Volatile Se ~100
carbone hydro- Rosin.
carbon.
Cm. Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent.
1s 37 3.3 10. 51 0.16 0. 87 0.1 0. 97 18.39
2s 40 4.0 10. 05 0.17 0. 86 0.19 0. 96 19.77
Ir 1h 33 3.0 9.11 2.32 10. 93 2.56 12. 02 21.23
pierces gs Gari calcards 2h 32 2.9 8.79 4.00 17. 83 4.39 24.70 22.43
3h 32 5.0 8.47 2. 03 11. 26 2. 22 12. 30 18. 29
4h 28 10.0 *11.23 1.30 7.96 1.46 8. 96 16. 33
1s 40 2.7 9. 08 0.35 2. 69 0.39 2.96 13. 01
28 37 2.6 8. 90 0.38 2.75 0. 42 3. 02 13. 82
Tit lh 35 3.5 7.89 3.57 20. 05 3. 87 21.77 17. 85
FO i en are 2h 38 4.1 8. 04 3.50 18. 48 3.81 20. 09 18. 94
3h 30 5.5 8.55 1.92 10. 95 2.10 11. 97 17.53
4h 18 7.0 8.79 1.14 8. 86 1.25 oa 13. 10
1s 40 4.0 8. 96 0. 36 3. 47 0. 40 3. 81 10. 37
2s 30 3.0 8. 67 0. 42 3. 62 0.46 3. 96 11. 60
Iv 1h 34 3.9 8. 04 4.20 22. 08 4.56 24. 01 19. 02
et ac cat Ae LT 2h 33 3.0 7.93 4.13 20. 56 4.49 22. 33 20.12
3h 31 5.8 8. 65 3.53 16, 21 3. 86 17.74 21.77
4h 15 5.3 9.55 2.41 13.74 2. 66 15.19 17.53
*53, II, 4h has been analyzed some three weeks earlier than the remaining parts of this tree, hence a large per cent of moisture.
TABLE II.—TREE No. 52.
1s 40 3.1 9. 72 0. 27 1.98 0. 30 2.19 13. 64
2s 40 3.9 9.77 0. 28 1. 81 0.31 2.01 15. 47
tI 1h 36 4.6 8. 67 0. 28 1.98 0.30 2.17 14, 14
CSCC Sa eee ota 2h 82 3.0 8. 44 0. 24 1. 68 0. 26 1.83 14. 38
3h 35 6.8 8. 80 0.16 1.81 0.17 1.98 8, 83
4h 24 7.4 8.55 0.16 1.38 0.17 1.51 11. 60
ls 30 3.0 9.12 0. 23 1.81 0. 25 1.99 12.71
2s 40 3.5 9.00 0. 23 1. 68 0.25 1.87 13. 67
1h 30 3.4 8.44 0.14 1. 62 0.15 Uti 8. 64
IDO Ceepgegcesecaosassoscs 2h 30 3.0 8.51 0.18 1,71 0.20 1.89 10.51
3h 32 4.8 8.37 0.13 1.70 0.14 1.86 7.65
4h 27 6.9 9. 35 0.14 1.45 0.15 1. 60 9. 65
5h 11 5.0 9.21 0.13 1.39 0. 14 1.53 9, 26
1s 40 3.5 8. 88 0. 24 1.28 0. 26 1.40 18.78
2s 35 3.3 8.49 0.31 1, 23 0. 34 1.34 25, 20
Iv lh 32 3.0 9. 08 0.14 1.50 0.15 1. 65 9.33
Og Gi alae an OT 2h 34 2.8 8. 86 0. 20 1.80 0. 22 1.97 11.11
3h 30 3.6 8.48 0. 21 1.57 0. 23 1.72 13.38
4h 30 6.8 8.10 0. 24 1.76 0. 26 1.92 13. 64
TABLE III.—TREE No. 61.
1s Bi) 3.0 7. 94 0.18 2017 0. 20 3.01 |» 6.50
28 35 3.0 7.90 0. 24 2.87 0. 26 3.11 8.36
Ir dh 36 2.8 7.35 1,45 7.30 1.57 7. 88 19. 85
a raed arn i a reer ene 2h 33 3,2 7.58 2.49 12. 54 2. 69 13. 57 19. 86
3h 30 4.5 7. 64 2.70 10. 46 2.92 11, 34 25, 81
4h 35 9.5 7.10 0.70 5. 27 0.75 5. 67 18. 28
1s 30 3.0 7. 65 0. 20 2.78 0. 22 3.01 7.35
28 36 2.7 7.43 0. 26 2.55 0. 28 2.75 10. 20
OI dh 40 3.1 7.14 2.85 12.58 3.07 13.55 22. 65
My NEES SE ae ce 2h 33 3.2 7.46 3, 23 15. 08 3.49 16. 29 21.42
3h 35 6.0 7.41 2. 91 13.59 3. 14 14.18 21,42
4h 30 8.0 7.09 1, 00 7.47 1,08 8. 04 13. 39
TABLE IV.—TREE No. 60.
1s 30 2.7 9. 91 0, 26 2. 04 0. 29 2. 26 12. 74
2s 35 2.8 9.34 0.30 2.39 0. 33 2. 63 12. 56
nae 1h 37 3.5 8.72 0. 65 4, 62 0.7L 5. 03 14. 07
POC SR a rota ro 2h 33 4.5 9.15 0. 46 2.47 0.51 2.71 18. 62
3h 35 4.6 8. 01 0. 67 4.71 0.73 5.19 14. 02
4h 27 6.5 8. 45 0.43 3.31 0. 47 3. 62 13. 00
1g 30 3.1 8. 74 0. 25 2.42 0. 28 2. 65 10. 33
28 34 2.8 8. 60 0. 32 2. 63 0. 35 2.88 12.16
TI lh 30 3.2 8. 68 0.53 3.47 0.58 3. 80 15. 27
MAME Ce Se 2h 36 4.4 9. 02 0. 36 2.72 0. 40 2.99 13. 23
3h 36 4.5 7.73 0. 38 2,23 0. 42 2.42 17.04
4h 20 6.0 7.73 0. 46 3.13 0.50 3.39 14.70
1s 30 2.6 7.51 0.15 2.15 0.16 2. 32 7.02
2s 27 2.6 7. 84 0.22 2.45 0. 24 2. 66 9.09
IN ssccedscecenocesosse4 1h 28 3.7 7.77 0.77 4,94 0. 84 5.35 15.59
2h 36 5.0 8.12 0. 37 2. 88 0.41 3.13 12. 85
3h 40 8.0 7.92 0. 26 2. 81 0. 28 3.05 9.18

346 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

TABLE V.—TREE No. 1.

| Calenlated on woed free
Volatile from moisture.
Soa < Part of | Number ef = NS A Vol. hydroc. |
No. of disk. baal: rings. Width. Water. | yar oe Rosin. Volatile ham, <100
va on: hydro- Rosin.
carbon.
Cm. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
1s 30 2.0 8. 67 0,18 0.97 0.20 1.06 18. 55
28 35 3.0 8.77 0. 16 1.21 0.17 1.32 13. 72
Tiles ete Sear Pape Ih 35 3.6 8. 56 1.08 6.01 1.18 6.57 i7. 97
2h 34 6.5 8. 39 0. 60 3. 60 0. 66 3. 92 16. 67
3h 14 3.0 7.67 0. 34 2.06 0. 37 2. 23 16.50
Is 30 2.8 7.94 0. 30 2.07 0.32 2. 25 14.49
28 33 3.0 7.92 0.31 2.23 0. 34 2.42 13.90
Pessoa 1h 30 3.8 8.13 0.86 4.50 0. 94 4.90 19.11
2h 25 4.2 7.7 0. 67 4.72 0.73 5. 12 14.21
3h 13 oh) 7.57 0.37 3. 30 0. 40 3.57 11. 22
1s 30 2.2 8.33 0. 20 1.31 0. 22 1.48 15. 27
Iv 28 28 2.8 8.12 0. 23 1. 44 0.25 1.57 15. 97
Scena tie aa we ecco aaa gist lh 32 5.0 7. 94 0. 99 7.01 1.07 7. 61 14.12
2h 19 5.2 7.73 0. 98 6.11 1.06 6. 62 16, 04

TABLE VI.—TREE No. 2.

1s 30 3.0 7. 65 0.18 3. 95 0. 20 4,29 4.56
28) 26 2.7 8.19 0. 28 2. 80 0.31 3.05 10. 00
IL 1h 34 3.5 7:31 1. 44 9,25 1.55 10.10 15. 35
Se ae ae Aa has oh 2h 30 5.0 8.11 1.77 13.05 | 1.93 14. 19 14. 41
3h 30 6.0 8.16 1.27) 8. 06 1.39 8.7 15.75
4h 11 4.2 7.88 Heyl &, 24 1.16 8. 94 12.99
1s 30 2.7 8.00 0.16 1.79 | 0.18 1.95 8.94
| 28 36 3.0 8.0L 0, 22 2.06 0. 24 2. 24 10. 06
THD See Bsesacnoeoee saca5 | 1h 33 3.2 7. 44 1.25 8. 46 1.37 9.14 14.77
| 2h 28 5.5 7.78 0. 85 5. 44 0. 92 5. 89 15. 61
| 3h 17 4.3 Tei 0. 80 6. 87 0. 86 7.40 11. 64
1s 30 Qt 8. 20 0.28 2.31 0. 31 2.02) 12.12
Iv | 2s 36 3.0 8. 08 0.31 2.49 0. 34 PAYAL 12.36
is ial cas agin Dabo oc 1h 30 3.6 8.10 1. 04 7.44 1.13 8.10 | 13.98
| Qh 30 7.6 7.81 | 0.80 5.91 0.87 6.41 | 13.53
TaBLE VII—SumMMARY OF RESULTS OF TREES Nos. 54 '1o 69 AnD Nos. 17 To 19.
Disk I. Disk III.
Seri 1 s. t of disk. ke i ae 7 i
Serial number of trees Part of dis Volatile hy- re Vol. hydr. a Volatile hy- ike Vol-hyar. ae
drocarbons. SD Rosin. * drocarbons. MOBLIN. Rosin. *
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
| 8 0.18 1.48 13.14 0. 26 1. 93 13. 33
AUG Ben GbTiccs aes eee ee ae eee th PIO) te SENS ae Ui) ea 4. 5.
aay Mtl or of-98 ql ars? 88 4] a4, np 9-58 2, 2
‘ 9 a rm
f 8 0.28 1.76 15 1:
BS EW) 292 seceee ea sacstesetopscoanesce \ h 0.80 4. uo
| s 0.18 il
CON Hoes ae yg a ter aea sors alae | qh (| 0.81, | 4.8
; | ont B® {] roof {| ea:
CALE Co) eee eet Alyy oy Selon He Re Le
s 0. 14, | 1. 49
M7 Seal Of re seek ee ees key th {| 0.78 3.
! ay DB {| -gos0-8£ {1
| |

TIMBER PHYSICS WORK.

The timber physics work was continued actively and the investigation extended to other kinds
of timber, both conifers and hard woods. In 1896 the Division was in position to announce its
findings with regard to the mechanical, physical, and structural study of the four principal Southern
pines (Circular 12). Based, as these results are, on over 20,000 mechanical tests and over 50,000
weighings and measurements, they may fairly be regarded as final, and thus avoid future discus-
sion and much fruitless and expensive private testing. According to this exhaustive study, the
Cuban and long-leaf pine rank foremost among our timber pines, and are fully 20 to 25 per cent
stronger than had previously been assumed. It also appeared that the wood of these species
varies in strength directly as the weight (little discrepancies being well accounted for by varia-
tions in resin contents, which add only to weight and not to strength); that in the same tree the
wood varies according to certain definite laws, being heaviest at butt, lightest in top, heavier in
the interior, and lighter and weaker in the outer parts of saw-size timber; that thus the age when
formed, as well as the position in the tree, exercises a definite influence which is generally far
greater than the much-quoted influences of soil, locality, ete. In this latter respect it was clear

TIMBER PHYSICS—SOUTHERN PINE. 347

from the results that the oft-claimed superiority of the timber of certain localities is not
substantiated by experiment, but that there is heavy and strong as well as lighter and weaker
timber in every locality throughout the range of these species. The all-important effect of
moisture was carefully considered throughout the work, and it was established that in general
an increase in strength of at least 50 to 75 per cent takes place during ordinary seasoning, so that:
for all designing of covered work, as in ordinary architecture, this improvement may be depended
upon and considered in the proportioning of the timbers.

The manner in which the valuable information was secured and communicated will appear
from the following reprint of Circulars 12 and 15, issued in 1896 and 1897:

SOUTHERN PINE—MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.
THE MATERIAL UNDER CONSIDERATION.

The importance of reliable information regarding the pines of the South is evident from the fact that they furnish
the bulk of the hard-pine material used for constructive purposes with an annual cut hardly short of 7,000,000,000
feet B. M., which, with the decline of the soft-pine supplies in the North, is bound to increase rapidly.

Although covering the largest area of coniferous growth in the country (about 230,000 square miles), proper
economies in their use are nevertheless most needful, since much of this area is already severely culled and the cut
per acre has never been very large. Hence the demonstration (a result of the investigations in this Division) that
bled pine is as strong and useful as unbled, and the assurance that long-leaf pine is in the average 25 per cent
stronger than it is often supposed to be, and therefore can be used in smaller sizes than customary at present, must
be welcome as permitting a saying in forest resources which may readily be estimated at from eight to ten million
dollars annually, due to this information.

The pines under consideration, often but imperfectly distinguished by consumers in name of substance, are:

(1) The long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris), also known as Georgia or yellow pine, and in England as ‘‘pitch
pine,” and by a number of other names, is to be found in a belt of 100 to 150 miles in width along the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts from North Carolina to Texas, furnishing over 50 per cent of the pine timber cut in the South—the
timber par excellence for heavy construction, but also useful for flooring and in other directions where strength and
Wearing qualities are required. r

(2) The Cuban pine (Pinus heterophylla), found especially in the southern portions of the long-leaf pine belt,
known to woodsmen commonly as ‘‘slash pine,” but not distinguished in the lumber market. It is usually mixed in
with long leaf, which it closely resembles, although it is wider ringed (coarse grained), and to which it is equal if
not superior in weight and strength.

(3) The short-leaf pine (Pinus echinata), also known, besides many other names, as yellow pine and as North
Carolina pine, but growing through all the Southern States generally north of the long-leaf pine region; much
softer and with much more sapwood than the former two, useful mainly for small dimensions and as finishing wood,
being about 20 per cent weaker than the long-leaf pine.

(4) The loblolly or old-field pine (Pinus taeda), of similar although more Southern range than the short leaf. also
known as Virginia pine, much used locally and in Washington and Baltimore, destined to find more extensive
application. At present largely cut together with short leaf and sold with it as ‘‘ yellow pine,” or North Carolina
pine, without distinction, although sometimes far superior, approaching long-leaf pine in strength and general
qualities.

The names in the market are often used interchangeably and the materials in the yard mixed. All four species
grow into tall but slender trunks, as a 1ule not exceeding 30 inches in diameter and 100 feet in height; the bulk of
the logs cut at present fall below 20 inches. The sapwood forms in old trees of long leaf (with 2 to 4 inches) about
40 per cent of the total log volume; in Cuban, short leaf, and loblolly 60 per cent and over.

A reliable microscopic distinction of the wood of the four species has not yet been found. As a rule long leaf
contains much less sapwood than the other three. The narrow-ringed wood of long leaf (averaging 20 to 25 rings
to the inch) usually separates it also from the other three, while the especially broad-ringed Cuban excels usually
also by broader summer-wood bands. In the log short leaf and loblolly may usually be recognized as distinguished
from the former by the greater proportion of sapwood and lighter color due to smaller proportion of summer wood.
The general appearance of the wood of all four species is, however, quite similar. The annual rings (grain) are
sharply defined; the light yellowish spring wood and the dark orange-brown summer wood of each ring being
strongly contrasted produce a pronounced pattern, which, although pleasing, especially in the curly forms (which
occur occasionally), may become obtrusive when massed.

348

The following diagnosis may prove helpful in the distinction of the. wood:

Diagnostic features of the wood.

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Name of species.

Long-leaf pine (Pinus
palustris Miller).

Cuban pine (Pinus

heterophylla (Ell) Sud).

Short-leaf pine (Pinus
echinata Miller).

Loblolly vine (Pinus
teda Linn.).

Specific gravity of kiln-fPossible range
\Most frequent range.
Weight, pounds per cubic foot, kiln-dried
(ASverg 26) eeree aera eee
Character of grain seen in cross section

dried wood.

wood.

os - 50 to . 90

.55 to .65

36
Fineand even; annual
rings quite uni-
formly narrow; on
large logs averag-
ing generally 20 to
25 rings to the inch.

Even dark reddish
| yellow to reddish
brown. .

Little; rarely over 2to
3 inches of radins.
Very abundant; parts
often turning into
‘“Vight wood;’’

- 50 to .90
-99 to .70

37
Variable and coarse,
rings mostly wide;
averaging on large
Jogs 10 to 20 rings to
the inch.

Dark straw color with
tinge of flesh color.

Broad; 3 to 6 inches --

Abundant, sometimes
yielding more pitch
than long leaf;
“bleeds” freely,

- 40 to . 80
-45 to .d5

30

Very variable; me-
dium, coarse; rings
wide near heart, fol-
lowed by zone of
narrow rings; not
less than 4 (mostly
about 10 to 15) rings
to the inch, but
often very fine
grained.

Whitish to reddish or
yellowish brown.

Commonly over 4
inches of radius.
Moderately abundant,
least pitchy; only
near stumps, knots,

and limbs.

- 40 to .80
-45 to .55

31
Variable, mostly very
coarse; 3 to 12 rings
to the inch, gener-
ally wider than in
the short leat.

Yellowish to orange
brown.

Very variable, 3 to 6
inches of the radius.
Abundant; more than
short leaf, less than
long Jeaf and Cuban,
but does not “bleed”

pitchy throughout.
yielding little
scrape.

if tapped.

The sapling timber of all four species is coarse grained, that of loblolly exceeding the rest in this respect.
The grain varies most in the butt, least in the top, is very fine in the outer portions of all old trees. Loblolly in the
center of the log frequently shows rings over one-half inch wide, and timber averaging eight rings to the inch is
not rare, while short leaf will average 10 to 15 rings to the inch. The greater or less proportion of the sharply
defined dark-colored bands of summer wood of the ring furnish the most reliable and ready means of determining
quality.

At present distinction is but rarely made in the species and in their use. All four species are used much alike,
although differentiation is very desirable on account of the difference in quality. Formerly these pines, except for
local use, were mostly cut or hewn into timbers, but especially since the use of dry kilns has become general and
the simple oil finish has displaced the unsightly painting and ‘‘graining” of wood Southern pine is cut into every
form and grade of lumber. Nevertheless, a large proportion of the total cut is still being sawed to order in sizes
above 6 by 6 inches, and lengths above 20 feet for timbers, for which the long leaf and Cuban furnish ideal material.
The resinous condition of these two pines make them also desirable for railway ties of lasting quality.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.

In general the wood of all these pines is heavy for pine (31 to 40 pounds per cubic foot, when dry); soft to
moderately hard (hard for pine), requiring about 1,000 pounds per square inch to indent one-twentieth inch; stiff,
the modulus of elasticity being from 1,500,000 upward; strong, requiring from 7,000 pounds per square inch and
upward to break in bending, and over 5,000 pounds in compression when yard-dry.

The values given in this cireular are averages based ona large number of tests, from which only defective
pieces are excluded.

In all cases where the contrary is not stated the weight of the wood refers to kiln-dried material and the
strength of wood containing 15 per cent moisture, which may be conceived as just on the border of air-dried

condition. The first table gives fairly well the range of strength of commercial timber.
Average strength of Southern pine.
Air-dry material (about 15 per cent moisture).
Compression strength. Bending strength. .
At rupture
With grain. dul 3 Wl
5 modulus 2 bie
Across At elastic, Elasticity -_,{ Tensile |! Shearing
Name. Acer Average grain. Average limit | (stiffness) Relative strensth ‘strength.
of aaciia for the weakest,3 per cent} oer for the weakest) modulus | modulus elastle Fae ;
oats one-teuth indenta- eaane " one-tenth 3 Wl 3 Wi ence
2 of all the tests.| tion. = of all the tests.) 9 p72 4A bh ?
Rela- |Rela- Rela- Rela.
Absolute.|;— 3. Absolute. tive. Absolute.|/;., |Absolute. 45.
Lbs. per | Lbs. per Ibs. per | Lbs. per Lbs. per Dbs.per | Ibs.per | In.-lbs. | Lbs. per | Lbs. per
sq. inch. sq. inch. sq.inch. | sq. inch. sq. inch. sq.imch. | sq.inch. |per cu.in.| sq. inch. | sq. inch.
Cuban pine --.- 7, 850 | 100 6,500 | 100 1, 050 11, 950 | 100 8,750 | 100 9,450 | 2, 305, 000 2.5 14, 300 680
Longleaf pine. - 6,850 | 87 5,650 | 87 1, 060 10,900 | 91 8, 800 | 101 8,500 | 1, 890, 000 2.3 15, 200 706
Loblolly pine -. 6,500 | 83 5,350 | 8&2 990 10,100 | 84 8,100 | 92 8,150 | 1, 950, 000 2,20 14, 400 690
Shortleaf pine - 5,900 | 75 4,800 | 74 940 9,230 | 77 7,000 | 80 7,200 | 1, 600, 000 2.05 13, 400 688

TIMBER PHYSICS

SOUTHERN PINE. 349

RELATION OF STRENGTH TO WEIGHT.

The intimate relation of strength and specific weight has been well established by the experiments. The aver-
age results obtained in connection with the tests themselves were as follows:

| Cuban. Longleaf. | Loblolly. | Shortleaf. |

| FLransVersOls Glen po theme eee eae sola cane ee see ae eecee eet 100 91 84 7
| Specific weight of test pieces-----..--.-.--..-..--..-..--.-------.... 100 94 82 vik |

Since in the determination of the specific gravity above given, wood of the same per cent of moisture (as is the
case of the values of strength) was not always involved, and also since the test pieces, owing to size and shape, can
not perfectly represent the wood of the entire stem, the following results of a special inquiry into the weight of the
wood represents probably more accurately the weight and with it the strength-relations of the four species.

WEIGHT RELATIONS.

[These data refer to the average specific weight for all the wood of each tree, only trees of approximately the same age being involved.]

Cuban. Longleaf. | Loblolly. | Shortleaf.

ANGIE ENO UGE oo saoocoqse aqgobpodd go aSonsqoSbosRss cooaDoRseade 171 127 137 131
Number of trees involved .-- = 6 22 14 10 |
Specific gravity of dry wood. 0. 63 0. 61 0. 53 0.51
Weight per cubic foot.-.--- < 39 38 33 32
Relative weight---...-.-- d 100 97 84 81
(@iransversestren ethid) ese se eeo cena cece te clement aeine eae niseela (100) (91) (84) | (77)

a The values of strength refer to all tests and therefore involve trees of wide range of age and consequently of quality, especially
those of longleaf, involve much wood of old trees, hence the relation of weight and strength appears less distinct.

From these results, although slightly at variance, we are justified in concluding that Cuban and longleaf pine
are nearly alike in strength and weight and excel loblolly and shortleaf by about 20 per cent. Of these latter,
contrary to common belief, the loblolly is the heavier and stronger.

The weakest material would differ from the average material in transverse strength by about 20 per cent and
in compression strength by about 30 to 35 per cent, except Cuban pine, for which the difference appears greater
in transverse and smaller in compression strength. It must, of course, not be overlooked that these figures are
obtained from full-grown trees of the virgin forest, that strength varies with physical conditions of the material
and that, therefore, an intelligent inspection of the stick is always necessary before applying the values in practice.
They can only represent the average conditions for a large amount of material.

DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHT AND STRENGTH THROUGHOUT THE TREE,

In any one tree the wood is lighter and weaker as we pass from the base to the top. This is true of every tree
and of all four species. The decrease in weight and strength is most pronounced in the first 20 feet from the stump
and grows smaller upward. (See fig. 91.)

This great difference in weight and strength between butt and top finds explanation in the relative width of
the summerwood. Since the specific weight of the dark summerwood band in each ring is in thrifty growth from
-90 to 1.00, while that of the springwood is only about .40, the relative amount of summerwood furnishes altogether
the most delicate and accurate measure of these differences of weight as well as strength, and hence is the surest
criterion for ocular inspection of quality, especially since this relation is free from the disturbing influence of both
resin and moisture contents of the wood, so conspicuous in weight determinations.

The following figures show the distribution of the summerwood in a single tree of longleaf pine, as an example
of this relation:

Tn the 10 2
In the 10 | rings, Nos. | AVem@8e | Specific
rings next 100 to 110 for entire Tera
tothe bark.) ¢, disk. oon
| from bark.
| |
| |
| Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
ING UTE) EMT) ceicicnsssa65s- Gasecoonesbacooe sss cemsaosececeasoocsoosce | 37 52 50 0.73
32 feet from stump eal 25 38 33 | 59
87 feet from stump-.- 15 37 26 55
|

Specific Weight.

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Weight and strength of wood at different heights in the tree.

Strength of longleaf
pine (pounds per Specific weight. Relative
square inch). Meanof | strength of
= all three longleaf
Jompres- species. pine.
Bendi Com eit Relative |Mean ofcom-
pou ae wise Longleaf. | Loblolly. | Shortleaf. | weight. | pression and
rength. (with bending.
grain).
Number trees nsed.------.-..- 06 22 14 12 48 56
Average age of trees----.-.--. 150 (over) 127 113 131
tae
Number of feet from stump:
erncadtoncaseuoesod osetcallsoSsoc scent eazobecsseso 751 - 629 614
{ 106 106 105 HOB Nsgccsadoccesos
Bocsoseeeees -eepestcetaes 12, 100 | 7, 850 705 595 585
100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Wc nsec chastotseoscootecas | 11, 650 7,200 | 674 578 565
96 98 96 7 I7 g7 m7
PAW ncosocscoStescasces2esced 10, 700 6, 800 624 534 523
88 93 89 90 90 90 90
A) ose scessocesecoesscocces 10, 100 | 6, 500 590 508 496
84 89 84 86 85 85 56
iM) --osesccosossstssoesssecc| 9,500 6, 300 560 491 472
7 86 80 53 81 $1 82
OW) ssascsodsoncescenoscassce 9, 000 6, 150 539 476 455
78 83 77 80 78 78 79
(i) -neseseczesossesotoc tease 8, 600 6, 050 528 470 454
71 2 7d 7. 78 77 76

Feet from Stump.
Fic. 91.—Variation of weight with height of tree.

Pounds per Cubic Foot.

TIMBER PHYSICS—-SOUTHERN PINE. 351

Logs from the top can usually be recognized by the larger percentage of sapwood and the smaller proportion
and more regular outlines of the bands of summer wood, which are more or less wavy in the butt logs.

The variation of weight is well illustrated in the foregoing table, in which the relative values are indicated in
italics. For comparison the figures for strength of long-leaf
pine are added.

Both weight and strength vary in-the different parts of
the same cross section from center to periphery, and though
the variations appear frequently irregular in single individuals,
a definite law of relation is nevertheless discernible in large
averages, and once determined is readily observable in every
tree.

A separate inquiry, avoiding the many variables which
enter in the mechanical tests, permits the following deduc-
tions for the wood of these pines, and especially for Jong
leaf, the data referring to weight, but by inference also to
strength:

1. The variation is greatest in the butt log (the heaviest
part) and least in the top logs. OFT.

2. The variation in weight, hence also in strength, from
center to periphery depends on the rate of growth, the heavier,
stronger wood being formed during the period of most rapid
growth, lighter and weaker wood in old age.

3. Aberrations from the normal growth, due to unusual
seasons and other disturbing canses, cloud the uniformity ofthe S077
law of variation, thus occasionally leading to the formation of
heavier, broad-ringed wood in old, and lighter, narrow-ringed
wood in young trees.

4, Slow-growing trees (with narrow rings) do not make
less heavy, nor heavier, wood than thriftily grown trees (with
wide rings) of the same age. (See fig. 92.) 4OFT

EFFECT OF AGE,

The interior of the butt log, representing the young sap-
ling of less than 15 or 20 years of age, and the central portion
of all logs containing the pith and 2 to 5 rings adjoining is
always light and weak. SOFT

The heaviest wood in long-leaf and Cuban pine is formed
between the ages of 15 and 120 years, with a specific weight of
over 0.60 and a maximum of 0.66 to 0.68 between the ages of 40
and 60 years. The wood formed at the age of about 100 years —
will have a specific weight of 0.62 to 0.63, which is also the
average weight for the entire wood of old trees. The wood
formed after this age is lighter, but does not fall below 0.50
up to the two hundredth year; the strength varies in the same
ratio.

In the shorter-lived loblolly and short leaf the period for
the formation of the heaviest wood is between the ages of
15 and 80, the average weight being then over 0.50, with a
maximum of 0.57 at the age of 30 to 40. The average weight
for old trees (0.51 to 0.52) lies about the seyenty-tifth year,
the weight then falling off to about 0.45 at the age of 140,
and continuing to decrease to below 0.38 as the trees grow
older.

That these statements refer only to the clear portions of
each log, and are variably affected at each whorl of knots (every
10 to 30 inches) according to their size, and also by the variable
amounts of resin (up to 20 per cent cf the dry weight), must
be self-evident. ; : ayeee

A a 0 Fic. 92.Schematic section through stem of long-leaf pine,

Sapwood is not necessarily weaker than heartwood, only showing variation of specific weight, with height, diame-
usually the sapwood of the large-sized trees we are now using ter, and age, at 20 (aba), 60 (ded), 120 (eece), 200 (fff)
is represented by the narrow-ringed outer part, which was years.
formed during the old-age period of growth, when naturally
lighter and weaker wood is made; but the wood formed during the more thrifty diameter growth of the first
eighty or one hundred years—sapwood at the time, changed into heartwood later—was, even as sapwood, the
heaviest and strongest. ¢

eof

FS
s

: pes ei
SQ) SPECIIC WEIGHT

—---3>-—--s45

SPECIAIC WEIGHT

s
N
AIS -=-

200 720 60 20 C20 60 120 200

SCALE VERTICAL [9 IN. =1FT,
» HORIZONTAL 181M </1/N.

352 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RANGE OF VALUES FOR WEIGHT AND STRENGTH.

Although the range of values for the individual tree of any given species varies from butt to top and from
center to periphery by 15 to 25 per cent and occasionally more, the deviation from ayerage values from one individual
to another is not usually as great as has been believed; thus of 56 trees of long-leaf pine, 42 trees varied in their
average strength by less than 10 per cent from the average of all 56.

The following table of weight (which is a direct and fair indication of strength), representing all the wood of
the stem and excluding knots and other defects, gives a more perfect idea of the range of these values:

Range of specific weight with age (kiln-dried wood).

[Lo avoid fractions the values are multiplied by 100.]

Cuban. |Longleaf.’ Loblolly.| Sort

Number of trees involved -..-----..---------.-------.------.--- 24 96 60 56

Trees over 200 years old -.- 61 bY feed ee aseeeed Peseta sen
Trees 150-200 years old -- 63 59 BU) |losseséccen
Trees 100-150 years old ..-----.-.--- 3 ene enw nnn ee 60.5 53 51
Trees 50-100 years old -.. 61 62 53.4 55
Trees 25-50 years old -.-- a0 55 61 53 57
Trees under 25 years old.......-..-..-------.--.---------- SGOT 51 55 48 53

Though occasionally some very exceptional trees occur, especially in loblolly and short leaf, the range on the
whole is generally within remarkably narrow limits, as appears from the following table:

Range of specific weight in trees of the same age approximately; averages for whole trees.

{Specific gravity multiplied by 100 to avoid fractions.]

Roar) A é |

| Name. ene a (y ay Single trees. 2 Average.

|

| (208 150-200 | 56 68 62 65 .. 3 dae eM E 62.5
Cuban ..-.---------- NB 50-100 GO DB GO 59> G7 sti eee ete ee eat aes ee 60.9
Long-leaf pine--..-- 13 100-150 | 59 66 57 62 66 58 59 57 57 66 59 62 57 60.5
Loblolly mine sess 10 TESA) || Syl Gl GS fil Gh Ge} Be Ai oH Ge 2 of 52.8
Short-leaf pine ----. 12 100-150 | 45 47 58 47 50 51 55 55 53 51 50 53 50.8

From this table it would appear that single individuals of one species would approximate single individuals of
another species so closely that the weight distinction seems to fail, but in large numbers—for instance, carloads of
material—the averages above given will prevail.

INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY.

In both the Cuban and long-leaf pine the locality where grown appears to have but little influence on weight
or strength, and there is no reason to believe that the long-leaf pine from one State is better than that from any
other, since such variations as are claimed can be found on any 40-acre lot of timber in any State. But with loblolly,
and still more with short leaf, this seems not to be the case. Being widely distributed over many localities different
in soil and climate, the growth of the short-Jeaf pine seems materially influenced by location. The wood from the
Southern coast and Gulf region, and even Arkansas, is generally heavier than the wood from localities farther north.
Very light and fine-grained wood is seldom met near the southern limit of the range, while it is almost the rule in
Missouri, where forms resembling the Norway pine are by no means rare. The loblolly, occupying both wet and
dry soils, varies accordingly.

INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE.

This influence is among the most important; hence all tests have been made with due regard to moisture
contents. Seasoned wood is stronger than green and moist wood. The difference between green and seasoned wood
may amount to 50 and even 100 per cent. The influence of seasoning consists in (1) bringing by means of shrinkage
about 10 per cent more fibers into the same square inch of cross section than are contained in the wet wood; (2)
shrinking the cell wall itself by about 50 per cent of its cross section, and thus hardening it, just as the cow skin
becomes thinner and harder by drying.

In the following tables and diagram this is fully illustrated. The values presented in these tables and
diagrams are based on large numbers of tests and are fairly safe for ordinary use. They still require further
revision, since the relations to density, etc., have had to be neglected in this study.

TIMBER PHYSICS—-SOUTHERN PINE. 353

Influence of moisture on strength.

Average of all yalid tests. Relative values.
Ten cent | ‘ Percent] a Nees: ae
Pas Cu- Long- | Lob- | Short- peat Cu- | Long-| Lob- |Short-) Aver-
of moist- <p |l ‘ 5 of moist- : mie ‘ 7 anes
aareta ban. leaf. | lolly. | leaf. HOW ban. | leaf. | lolly. | leaf. | age.
(tine it io ee oe a ets
f 33 | 8,450) 7,660 | 7,370] 6,900 | 33 100 100 100 | 100} 100
. 20 | 10, 050 8, 900 8, 650 8,170 sen te 20 118 rn |) alg aL) 7
Bending strength ----) 15 | 11,950 | 10,9001 10,100 | 9,230 || Bending strength.----.--- ) 15] 142| 142) 138] 134) 139
| 10 | 15,300 | 14,000 | 12,400 | 11, 000 10 181 182 168 } 160) } 173
3 298] sat) gas 2am eee eee
« 6 20 6, 600 bi 5, 35 5, eee Bae 2 32 22 | 28 | 22 26
Crushing end wise - --. 15 | 7,850 6. 850 | 6,500 | 5,900 | Crushing endwise ..-.---- 15 157 154 | 156 142 15D
10 | 9,200 9, 200 8,650 | 7,000 | 10 184 206; 206 16 | a
| | Mean of both bending and 38 100 109 | aD ao | 129
crushing)stren gthi=-—--- 15| 149| 143] 147| 138| 146
| 10 182 194; 187 | 164 182
| |

@33 per cent green, 20 per cent half dry, 15 per cent yard dry, 10 per cent room dry.

XY

Sele | eee SS Se

RS
N

CRUSHING STREWGTH /N \THOUSAND(6. PER SQUARE /N
a 4 aT

6 Ve e 9 10

ViG. 93.—Variation of compression strength with moisture.

It will be observed that the strength increases by about 50 per cent in ordinary good yard seasoning, and that
it can be increased by about 30 per cent more by complete seasoning in kiln or house.

Large timbers require seyeral years before even the yard-season condition is attained, but 2-inch and lighter
material is generally not used with more than 15 per cent moisture.

WEIGHT AND MOISTURE.

So far the weight of only the kiln-dry wood has been considered. In fresh as well as all yard and air-dried
material there is contained a variable amount of water. The amount of water contained in fresh wood of these
pines forms more than half the weight of the fresh sapwood, and about one-fifth to one-fourth of the heartwood; in
yard-dry wood it falls to about 12 to 18 per cent, while in wood kept in well-ventilated and especially in heated
rooms it is about 5 to 10 per cent, varying with size of piece, part of tree, species, temperature, and humidity of air.
Heated to 150° F. (65° C.) the wood loses all but about 14 to 2 per cent of its moisture, and if the temperature is
raised to 175° F. there remains less than 1 per cent, the wood dried at 212° F. being assumed to be (though it is not
really) perfectly dry. Of course large pieces are in practice never left long enough exposed to become truly kiln-dry,
though in factories this state is often approached.

As long as the water in the wood amounts to about 30 per cent or more of the dry weight of the wood there is
no shrinkage! (the water coming from the cell lumen) and the density or specific gravity changes simply in direct

In ordinary lumber and all large size material the exterior parts commonly dry so much sooner than the bulk
of the stick that checking often occurs, though the moisture per cent of the whole stick is still far above 30.

H. Doe. 181 23

;

354 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

proportion to the loss of water. When the moisture per cent falls below about 30 the water comes from the cell wail,
and the loss of water and weight is accompanied by a loss of volume, so that both factors of the fraction
Specific gravity — Weight
volume
are affected and the change in the specific gravity no longer is simply proportional to the loss of water or weight.
The loss of weight and volume, however, being unequal and disproportionate, a marked reduction of the specitic
gravity takes place, amounting in these pines to about 8 to 10 per cent of the specific weight of the dry wood.

SHRINKAGE.

The behavior of the wood of the southern pines in shrinkage does not differ materially. Generally the heavier
wood shrinks the most, and sapwood shrinks about one-fourth more than heartwood of the same specific weight.
Very resinous picces (‘light wood”) shrink much less than other w ood. In keeping with these general facts, the
shrinkage of the wood of the upper logs is usually 15 to 20 per cent less than that of the butt pieces, and the
shrinkage of the heavy heartwood of old trees is greater than that of the lighter peripheral parts of the same, while
the shrinkage of the heavy wood of saplings is greatest of all. On the whole, the wood of these pines shrinks
about 10 per cent in its volume, 3 to 4 per cent along the radius, and 6 to 7 per cent along the tangent or along the
yearly rings.

After leaving the kiln the wood at once begins to absor) moisture and to swell. In an experiment with short
pieces of loblolly and shortleaf, representing ordinary flooring or siding sizes, these regained more than half the
water and underwent more than half the total swelling during the first 10 days after leaving the kiln (see fig. 94).
Even in this less than air-dry wood the changes in weight far excel the changes in volume (sum of radial and
tangential swelling), and therefore the specific gravity, even at this low per cent of moisture, was decreased by
drying and increased by subsequent absorption of moisture. Immersion and, still more readily, boiling, cause the
wood to return to its original size, but temperatures even aboye the boiling point do not prevent the wood from

“working,” or shrinking, and swelling.

ee

AIR DRY AUNORY se 7
Fig. 94.—Loss of water in kiln drying and reabsorption in air, shrinking, and en

PERCENT OF MUSTURE ANO PER MILLE OF SHRINKAGE AND SWELLING

SHELF

In fig. 94 are represented the results of experiments on the rate of loss of water in the dry kiln and the reab-
sorption of water in the air. The wood used was of loblolly and shortleaf pine kept on a shelf in an ordinary room
before and after kiln-drying. The measurements were made with caliper.

EFFECT OW KILN-DRYING.

Although kiln-drying has become quite universal, opinions are still divided as to its effects upon the strength
of the material and other qualities. Many objections and claims as to physical and chemical changes produced by
the treatment remain unsubstantiated. The method most widely used and most severely criticised is that of the
“lower” kiln, where hot air (180° I.) is forced into the drying room by means of powerful fans. Besides the

TIMBER PHYSICS—SOUTHERN PINE. 355

many, in part, unreasonable and contradictory claims about closing or opening of pores, chemical or physical
influence on the sap and its contents, albumen, gum, resin, sugar, etc., substances whose very existence in many
cases is problematical or doubtful, the general claims of increased checking and warping, “casehardening,”
“‘honeycombing,” ete., as well as reduction of strength, are still prevalent even among the very manufacturers
themselves. The manner and progress of the kiln-drying may render this otherwise useful method of seasoning
injurious. Rapid drying of the heavier hardwoods of complicated structure, especially in large sizes and from the
green state, is apt to produce inordinate checking and thus weakening of the material. For Southern pine, howeyer,
it is entirely practicable to carry on the process without any injury, as is evidenced by the following experiment,
in which wood of Cuban pine in small dimensions (4 by 4) was seasoned in warm air (about 100° F.) and parts of
the same scantling were dried at temperatures varying from 150° at the entrance end to 190° F. at the exit

Bending strength. |

Compression

Ascites /Abelasticlimie|) S*eneth:

Mean of material not kiln-dried (reduced to 15 per | Lbs. per sq. in. | Lbs. per sq. in. | Lbs. per sq.in.
Cont Ol moisture) peeeme see ese seinen eee eee 12, 200 9, 070 7, 630
Average of kiln-dry material .....--..-..-.------- 11, 500 9, 180 8, 550

Well-constructed ‘‘ blower kilns,” where the hot air is blown in at one end and escapes at the other (this latter
always the entrance end for the material), are giving satisfaction. The best kiln, however, seems to be one in
which ample piping in the kiln itself insures sufficiently high (up to 180° F.), uniform temperature in all parts of
the kiln, and where the circulation, promoted by a suction fan, is moderate and under perfect control. In such
kilns even timbers of large size can be dried satisfactorily with a temperature not over 150° F.

EFFECT OF HIGI-TEMPERATURE AND HIGH-PRESSURE PROCESSES.

For some time a process employing high temperature under high pressure (temperature over 300° F’., pressure
150 pounds) has been discussed and applied, claiming as a result of the treatment (1) increase in strength; (2)
increase in durability; (3) absence of shrinkage.

The result of a series of experiments in which a number of scantlings of longleaf pine, one-half treated, the
other untreated, is as follows:

Bending Compression
strength. strength.
Lbs. per sq.in.| Lbs. per sq. in.
Treated. -.. 7,770 5, 600
Untreated 12, 340 7, 400

he same difference in favor of the untreated material obtained in every single case.

The chemical analyses performed on wood lying side by side along the same radius, being of the same annual
rings and same position in tree, gave the following:

Per cent of rosin and phenols calculated to dry weight of wood.

Tree No. 475. Tree No. 476. Average of both.

Treated. | Untreated. Treated. | Untreated.| Treated. | Untreated.

Rosin: Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Sapwood..------.---- 12 | 2.05 1.22 1. 23 1.22 1. 64
Heartwood ..- 8.35 | 10. 58 2. 23 1.93 5.29 6.26

Phenols:

Sapwood.......------ 0. 061 0. 083 0. 045 0. 083 0. 058 0. 083
Heartwood --.---.--- 0. 290 | 0. 180 0. 070 0. 058 0. 180 0.119

{ct appears that the protective rosin is rather decreased hy the treatment, and the antiseptic phenols not
increased in an adequate amount to be of value since it requires at least 20 times as much heavy oil in wood
impregnation to be effective. It is, however, possible that the change of color due to the process may be accom-
plished and be produced by the formation of empyreumatic bodies (allied to the humus substances) which may act
as preservative against the attacks of fungi.

The claim that the shrinkage of the wood is favorably influenced by the process was not sustained by a series
of experiments with oak and pine, which showed that the treated wood absorbs water from air or in the tub, swells
and shrinks in the same manner and to about the same extent as the untreated wood.

EFFECT OF IMMERSION ON THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.

The notion frequently expressed is that “soaking wood by floating, rafting, etc., reduces its tendency to decay
and shrinkage, but injures its strength.” The same was claimed for boiling or steaming preparatory to bending.
The last position was disproved by Peter Barlow in the first quarter of this century. The following figures (results
of an experiment involving several hundred separate tests) disprove the former assertion.

356 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The soaked wood was kept immersed six months, each piece having its check pieces from the same scantling,
which were not subject to the same process, but were tested—one green and one dry. All soaked pieces were
seasoned in dry kiln before testing. All values were reduced to 15 per cent moisture.

He Bending Compression
| Loholly pine: strength. strength. |
Lbs. per sq.in.| Lbs. per sq. in.
Soaked 6 months, and then dried _.....-.....-....-.-.-------------- 10, 820 6, 780
Not soaked (mean of green and dry tests) ------.-------.-----.---- 10, 570 7, 060

EEFECT OF ‘‘ BOXING” OR ‘‘ BLEEDING.”

“Bleeding” pine trees for their resin—to which only the longleaf and Cuban pine are subjected—has generally
been regarded as injurious to the timber. Both durability and strength, it was claimed, were impaired by this
process, and in the specifications of many architects and large consumers, such as railway companies, ‘‘bled” timber
was excluded. Since the utilization of resin is one of the leading industries of the South, and since the process
affects several millions of dollars’ worth of timber every year, a special investigation involving mechanical tests,
physical and chemical analyses of the wood of bled and unbled trees from the same locality were carried out by this
division. The results prove concusively (1) that bled timber is as strong as unbled if of the same weight; (2) that
the weight and shrinkage of the wood is not affected by bleeding; (3) that bled trees contain practically neither
more nor less resin than unbled trees, the loss of resin referring only to the sapwood, and, therefore, the durability
is not affected by the bleeding process.

The following table shows the remarkable numerical similarity between the average results for three groups
of trees, the higher values of the unbled material being readily explained by the difference in weight:

Number of
tests.

Specific Bendin g Compression

weight of strengt strength.

Longleaf pine.
test pieces.

Lbs. per sq.in. | Lbs. per sq.in.

Unboxed trees..+--5----------2+----------< 400 0. 74 12, 358 7, 166
Boxed and recently abandoned % 390 0.79 12, 961 7, 813

| Boxed and abandoned 5 years 535 0.76 12, 586 7,575 |

The amount of resin in the wood yaries greatly, and trees growing side by side differ within very wide limits.
Sapwood contains but little resin (1 to 4 per cent), even in those trees in which the heartwood contains abundance.
In the heartwood the resin forms from 5 to 24 per cent of the dry weight (of which about one-sixth is turpentine and
can not be removed by bleeding), so that its quantity remains unaffected by the process. Bled timber, then, is as
useful for all purposes as unbled.

To give an idea how necessary it is that a large series of material be tested before making
statements of the strength of wood of any species, we reproduce one of the many tables contained
in Bulletin 8, which at the same time exhibits the variation of strength throughout the tree and
from tree to tree.

357

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FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

358

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TIMBER PHYSICS—BEAMS AND COLUMNS. 309

SIZE OF TEST MATERIAL.

The long-standing idea of engineers and other consumers to have wood tested more nearly in
the sizes used in ordinary practice led to the adoption of test sizes, generally varying from 3 by 3
inches to 4 by 4 inches. Besides this, special inquiries with different kinds of timber into the
relation of large and small tests were instituted to ascertain the correctness of the general dogma
which claimed that tests on small pieces could not be utilized, since such pieces for their very size
gave higher values of strength. This investigation involved full-size columns as well as beams,
and was continued throughout the entire period of the timber-physics work. It led to a number ot
the most interesting and highly valuable results, as will appear from the following statements:

Selected tests of columns and compression pieces from the same trees compared.

Ratio |Smallpieces| Large
Number ena (average of} columns. Relative value. Deflec- Wailure
of tree. ues GE whole tree). tion. a ;
(a) (b) (a) (d)
Pounds per | Pounds per
Feet. sq-tnch. sq. inch. Inch.

239 12 14 6, 700 6,100 100 91 0.7 | Sheared.

240 12 14 7, 000 6, 960 100 99 0.1 | Compression.

241 12 15 6, 900 6, 500 100 94 0.7 Do.

309 12 12 6, 800 6, 500 100 96 0.4 Do.

312 12 16 6, 100 6, 300 100 103 0.4 Do.

|

In these columns (nearly one-tenth of all longleaf pine columns tested) the strength was 80 nearly the same as that
of the short pieces that it appears as if flexure had but little to do with the failure, the small differences being amply
accounted for by a larger number of defects in the columns. Should this prove true in general for wooden columns
as ordinarily designed, the problem would become simply a study of the influence of defects and of proper inspection.

The nature of the failures would also point in this direction:

Of 86 columns 32 failed normally, i. e., in simple compression; 22 were crushed near the end; 14 failed at knots,
and 19 by shearing, the rupture usually beginning at or near the ends; a small knot proved sufficient to causo a large
column, 20 times as long as its diameter, to fail at 14 inches from the end.

The deflection in the average for all columns (12 to 20 feet long) was only about 1 inch for the maximum
load, when, to be sure, destruction had progressed for some time; at the elastic limit the deflection was only about
one-half as much. These results would seem to warrant the statement that for pine columns at least, in which the
ratio of height to least diameter does not exceed 1 in 20, none of the accepted column formule are applicable, the
nature of the failure being mostly in simple compression, and depending more on specific defects than on the design
of the column. F

STRENGTH OF LARGE BEAMS AND COLUMNS.

Owing to the fact that much wood testing has been done on small, select, and perfectly seasoned pieces, usually
from butt logs, the values thus obtained seemed to differ very markedly from the results on large timbers usually
very imperfectly seasoned, and it was claimed that tests on small sizes always furnished too high values, just as if
the differences were due to sizes alone.

While, to be sure, a small piece may be so selected that defects are excluded, the grain straight and in the
most favorable position with regard to the load, the assumption of the difference in strength of small pieces from
that of large-sized sticks has never been made good experimentally.

Since it appears desirable to compare the results from large beams and columns not only with the average
data obtained from the general test scries on small 4 by 4 material, but also with the average strength of small pieces
cut from the same beams and columns, a special inquiry into the legitimacy of such a comparison was made. This
study involved over 100 separate tests, and proved the very important fact that uninjured parts of broken beams
and columns do not suffer in the test. The large-sized beams varied from 4 by 4 to 8 by 16 inches.

Tests of large and small beams—Bending strength.

Large beams.

Small beams
eut from

Small beams,

3
y} Sir
general Beams from

test series. Total. saebiel af large beams.
were cut.
Number of tests involved ----.--. 1, 986 127 57 | 236
“Lbs. per sq-in. | Lbs. per sq.in. | Lbs. per 3q. in. | Lbs. per sq. in.
on cleatesene eee caeee ase se eee ener 11, 300 11, 9, 800 10, 100
Loblolly ..---- ¢ 10, 000 10, 800 10, 300 10, 000

Shortleaf 9, 300 9, 200 8, 700 8, 700

From the preceding table it would appear that large timbers, when symmetrically cut (i. e., with the center of
the log as center of the beam), develop as beams practically the same strength as the average of the small pieces that
may be cut from them, and sometimes even higher values; the explanation being that cut in this manner the extreme
fibers which are tested in a beam come to lie in that part of the tree which, as a rule, contains the strongest timber.

360 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Results discordant from these may be explained by differences in the degree of seasoning of the outer layers
and also by the fact that especially in the northern pineries timbers are often cut from the top logs, which are

weaker and more defective.

Test of large and small columns—Compression strength.

Regular series
gs

Columns (sim-

Small pieces

fromsametrees| ple compres- cut from

as the columns. sion). columns.
Number of tests involved -.----.-..---.-----.----- 949 95 97

‘Ls. per sq. in.| Lbs. per sq. in.| Lbs. per sq.m.
WO A) ENE Sonenc sscoca sss sone sass cesseroccossSesess 6, 600 5, 300 7,100
Loblolly -- 6, 800 4,700 6, 300
Shortleat 2 5, 900 4,100 6, 200
Cuban ease Sie eck aoe eo oe oslo ae eee neon 7, 400 5, 000 8, 700

The square columns were mostly 8 by 8 inches, some 10 by 10 inches, a few of larger and also some of smaller dimen-
sions. Theratioof length to width varied from 12 to 27, about one-half being under and the other halfover 18 to1. The
compression pieces of the regular series, and those cut from the broken columns, were in general about 4 by 4 by 6 inches.

It will appear from this statement of average results that columns develop only from 62 per cent (in Cuban) to
78 per cent (longleaf) of the compression strength of ordinary short pieces. ‘The explanation may be due to several
reasons, natural and mechanical. In a column, unlike a beam, all the fibers are under great strain; hence all the
defects, which are by necessity found in every column, influence the results; the flexure of a column under strain is
an element of weakness, to which the short compression piece is not subject. In addition the difficulty of determin-
ing the average moisture condition of the large timber throughout the cross section and that of the small pieces cut
from them afterwards would render this method for columns less satisfactory; a larger number of tests will still be
required to establish comparable average conditions in the two kinds of tests. It would, therefore, be unsafe to
generalize too hastily from these average figures, at least as to the numerical difference, for there are remarkable
individual exceptions. Not only do individual columns show differences in strength 50 per cent and more lower
than the compression pieces from the same log, but sometimes they show practically the same or even a higher value
of strength, as will appear from the following selected cases, in which the data for the columns are placed in com-
parison with those obtained on compression pieces from the same tree.

ADDITIONAL SERIES ON BEAMS AND COLUMNS. 2

A series more extended as regards beams, involving 68 large and 777 small beams, besides over 1,000 compression
tests on the same material on which the beam tests were made, and tests on 6 large columns, has fully confirmed the

indications of the previous experiments.
TESTS ON COLUMNS.

The colunms were 12 by 12 inches and 8 by 12 inches in cross section, with a length of 182 to 168 inches. From
these were cut, as near as possible from the place of failure, two blocks 24 inches long, and these blocks were tested
on the same large testing machine (described in Bulletin 6), so that inaccuracies of machinery do not enter into
consideration. The results, tabulated as follows, prove conclusively the statement made upon the former more
extensive series (see Circular 12), that wooden columns in which the diameter and length are to each other as 1 to
18 or less behave like short blocks and fail in simple compression. The four columns of long-leaf pine exhibit-
practically the same strength as the short blocks—i. e., within 10 per cent—which, as has been shown above, is
within the limits of maximum uniformity.

Strength of large columns and short (24-inch) blocks cut from these columns.

Compression z
strength in pounds
5 : Dimensions | Moisture | Modulus of Raper
Kind of wood. of columns | of wood elasticity Ue el pamaanaes
(inches). (per cent).| (pounds). Short
Columns. hiocks
144 | 12 | 12 14.2 2, 274, 000 4, 840 6, 090
132 | 12 | 12 12:9 1, 740, 000 4, 840 5, 660
168 |12| 8 ~~ 30.9 1, 628, 000 2, 940 2, 950
168 | 12] 8 32.3 1, 570, 000 3,170 3, 530
Pee Loon elon maS 40.8 1, 764, 000 3, 030 3, 310
ID asseaecaboesncaceascsccotesod| Ma Ry 3 29.7 1, 776, 000 3, 710 3, 780

BEAM TESTS.

The experiments, of which the following tables contain the principal results, were performed on beams
generally 8 by 12 by 192 inches. After breaking the large beam 12 small beams were cut from the uninjured portion
of the large beam' in such a way that the entire cross section of the large piece was represented by two sets of 6
small beams each. Besides these tests on small beams, the compression strength of part of the material was tested
on small blocks, part of which was sawed and part split from portions of the large beam. (See diagram at head of

'The legitimacy of using such material for such purpose has been fully established by a long series of experi-
ments. (See Circular 12, Division of Forestry, p. 11.)

TIMBER PHYSICS—SIZE OF TEST MATERIAL.

table.) To avoid any complications due to differences or changes in moisture, the tests on large and small beams
were performed the same day.

Strength of large beams and of small beams, and of compression pieces cut from them.

[Usually 12 small beams cut from the uninjured part of each large beam.]

SAWED. SPLIT

19\20

aie

7|5|
aba

2de0
3/

[avaaaei)
P | Compression,
/ Strength | AveT#ee Moisture, endwise strength.
Kind of wood. Ninm Den of larse) |eenen
of Dean. peams. % an | Large | Small | Sawed Split
* | beams. | beams. | pieces. pieces.
\ |
|
| Lbs. per | Lbs. per Lbs. per | Lbs. per
sq. in. sq.in. | Per cent.| Per cent.| sq.in. sq. tn.
OFS Scccemnccssadececccacs w 7,400 8, 560 69.5 68.5 3, 960 4,120
2 5, 880 8, 660 70.3 69. 0 4,340 4,700
3 6,570 6, 220 75.3 15.2 3, 030 3, 190
4 8, 640 8, 800 66.6 67.6 4, 0S0 4, 460
5 8, 150 7,710 64.8 65.8 3, 680 3, 750
6 7,450 6, 910 63. 0 66.6 3, 330 3, 330
| 8 6, 870 6, 890 67.4 70.5 3, 470 3, 190
Shortleaf pine..-...-..--- 9 8, 300 7, 950 48.1 Be 7/ 4, 030 4, 160
10 7, 440 7, 250 42.1 56.3 3, 840 3, 850
11 5, 110 6, 760 38.9 33.3 3, 870 3, 630
12 7,360 6, 930 35. 2 33.5 3, 890 3, 850
13 7, 320 7, 300 37.4 40.6 4, 090 3, 800
iWihiteypineseesseeeeeee aa: | 14 3,110 8, 560 84.9 83.6 2, 440 2, 500
| 15 | 4, 280 4,340 43.8 41.2 2,710 2, 840
| 16 3,770 4,590 50.7 50.5 2, 660 2, 760
17 3, 460 3, 590 60.0 48.6 2,410 2,570
18 3, 990 3, 640 42.8 43.0 2, 800 2, 620
19 4, 040 4,400 62.4 60. 4 2, 760 2,780
20 4,410 4,180 53. 6 51.8 2, 680 2, 700
21 4,900 4, 320 50.1 51.0 3, 010 2, 900
22 3, 860 4,320 50. 2 60.8 2, 500 2, 430
22 4, 660 4, 890 52.0 58. 2 2, 850 2, 880
24 3, 960 4,440 76.3 71.5 2, 520 2,710
25 3, 920 4,410 53.6 60.5 2, 84¢ 2, 730
Shortleaf pine...--.....-- 26 4, 560 6, 290 31.2 30.5 3, 660 3, 850
27 4, 390 5, 610 33.9 36. 0 2, 830 3,110
28 6, 670 6, 830 28.6 28.9 3, 540 3, 590
29 7,410 | 7, 630 28.6 29.0 4, 450 4, 250
30 6, 600 7, 160 28.3 28.9 4, 200 4,190
31 5, 750 6, 000 34.3 35.5 3, 630 3, 530
32 6, 210° 7, 500 26.4 27.2 3, 940 4, 050
33 7, 450 8, 390 29.5 30.1 4, 350 4, 220
34 7, 000 7, 800 28. 4 29.5 4, 070 4,120
35 6, 030 6, 740 28.8 29. 4 3, 810 3, 640
36 6, 520 6, 890 31.6 31.6 4, 320 4, 370
37 7, 030 7, 890 29. 2 29.9 4, 380 4,920
38 7,710 8, 510 26.2 25.4 4, 500 4, 610
39 8, 090 8, 210 32.5 31.9 4, 550 4, 670
40 7, 680 7,980 31.1 32.3 4, 290 4, 380
ays 41 7, 330 8, 230 31.7 31.5 4, 680 4, 820
Longleaf pine ........---- 42 7, 290 8,740 30.9 31.2 4,950 5, 120
43 8, 850 9,720 28.1 28.9 5, 300 5, 440
44 8, 040 8, 870 26.3 26.9 4,730 5, 070
45 8, 090 8, 850 25.8 25.4 5, 000 5, 050
46 7, 620 7, 670 32.6 33.9 4,730 4, 830
47 6, 710 7, 610 33.0 33.4 4, 200 4, 520
| 48 8, 480 8, 300 29.3 29.3 4, 870 4, 890
i 4 } 49 5, 630 6, 250 34.5 33.7 3, 600 3, 630
iWhite\ypines=aaee reese 50 4, 900 5, 020 87.2 75.7 2,970 3, 200
| 51 5, 300 5, 210 71.4 | 69.6 3, 330 3, 240
52 4, 810 4,470 T.2 64.7 2, 940 3,100
53 3, 610 3, 610 54.5 58. 2 2,400 2,550
a 54 4,440 4,720 97. 6 | 94.9 2, 710 2, 900
Shortleaf pine.-.......-.. 55 6, 400 7, 610 27.0 27.2 4,340 4, 500
56 6, 690 6, 880 28,4 26. 6 4, 050 4, 210
| 7 6, 670 6, 990 27.0 26.4 4,100 4,340
Q i 58 7, 310 7, 490 28.5 26.8 4,100 4, 030
White pine..---.-........ 101 5, 070 7, 200 15. 4 16.2 5, 410 5, 720
102 6, 340 6, 890 11.0 11.7 4,920 5, 520
103 7, 070 8, 750 12.2 10.5 5, 140 5, 760
104 4, 900 6, 680 12.1 8.2 4, 360 4, 700
105 6, 640 6, 890 10.6 11.2 5, 450 5, 310
106 6, 180 7, 650 11.6 11.3 5, 190 5, 420
107 6, 080 6, 090 11.5 11.5 4, 810 5,170
108 5, 510 5, 810 11.1 10.7 5, 100 4,710
109 6, 930 7, 300 11.4" 10.5 5, 330 5, 080
110 5, 930 6, 010 12.1 11.6 4, 600 4, 670
111 4,010 5, 040 13.0 13.0 4, 270 4, 390

362 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

OBSERVATIONS AND DEDUCTIONS.

(a) The difference between the values for the large beam and the average for the small beams is not at all
constant, either in character or quantity; the large beam may be stronger (20 per cent of the cases) or practically
as strong—i. e., within 10 per cent (57 per cent of the cases)—or it may be weaker, and vary often considerably from
the average (23 per cent of the cases). ,

Of 696 tests on small beams 235 furnished results smaller than that of the large beam. Again, out of 396 small
beams fully 40 per cent were weaker that the large beam, while of another series of 300 only 24 per cent gave lower
values.

(b) There are in every case some small beams which far excel in strength the large beam; even in such cases,
where the average strength of the small beams is practically the same as that of the large beam, some small beams
show values 25 to 30 per cent greater than the large beam.

(c) In only 6 per cent of the cases each of the small pieces gave a higher result than was obtained from the
large beam, but in these cases the latter was evidently defective.

(d) In all beams the differences observed between the several small beams themselves are far greater than that
between the average value of the small beams and the value of the large beam from which they are cut.

From these observations, which are fnlly in accord with the observations on the numerous tests of the large
general series, it would appear that—

(1) Size alone can not account for the differences-observed; and, therefore, also that a small beam is not propor-
tionately stronger because it is smaller, for it may be either stronger or weaker; but that if it is stronger, the cause
of this lies in the fact that the larger beam contains weak as well as strong wood, besides other defects, which may
or may uot appear in the small stick.

(2) Generally, but not always, a large timber gives values nearer the average, since it contains, naturally, a
larger quantity as well as a greater variety of the wood of the tree; and, therefore, also—-

(3) Small beams, for the very reason of their smallness, containing, as they do, both a smaller quantity and
variety of the material, give results which vary more from the average than results from large beams, and, there-
fore, can be utilized only if a sufficient number be tested; but it also appears that— ;

(4) To obtain an average value, even a very moderate number of smaller pieces, if they fairly represent the
wood of the entire stem, give fully as reliable data as values derived from a large beam.

(5) Average values derived from a large series of tests on small but representative material may be used in practice with
perfect safety, and these averages are not likely to be modified by tests on large material.

It might be added that both the practicability and need of establishing a coefficient or ratio between results
from tests on large and small beams or columns falls away. To deserve any confidence at all, only a large series of
tests on either large or small beams would satisfy the requirement of estabiishing standard values, while a series of
small pieces has the preference, not only on account of greater cheapness and convenience in establishing the values,
but still more for the reason that only by the use of small, properly chosen material is it possible to obtain a
sufficiently complete representation of the entire log.

Before these results, part of which were published by installments, had all been computed
and arranged, the results of the work made it possible to publish, for the first time in the English
language, a brief exposition of the technical properties of wood in general, which appeared as
Bulletin 10 of the Division. This little booklet was copied verbatim several times by different tech-
nical journals of this country, was embodied in toto in one of the best works on the materials of
engineering, and was even translated into French by one of the foremost publishers of France,
besides being used itself as a text-book by several of our largest colleges. In addition to the
discussions of the several technical properties of wood, this booklet contains the first attempt in
the English language at a key by which our common woods may be safely recognized from their
structure alone. The key and some of the tables in this bulletin have been reproduced in an
earlier part of this report. By this time, when the work was interrupted by superior orders, there
were brought together the strength values for the wood of 32 species, of which 26 were represented
by more than 200 tests each (the longleaf pine by over 6,000), 17 of them by over 400 tests per
species, and seven by over 1,000 tests. These results were published in full in Circular No. 15 of
the Division, from which the following extract is here repeated:

SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL TESTS ON THIRTY-TWO SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.

GENERAL REMARKS.

The chief points of superiority of the data obtained in these investigations lie in, (1) Correct identification of
the material, it being collected by a competent botanist in the woods; (2) selection of representative trees with
record of age, development, place and soil where grown, etc.; (3) determination of moisture conditions and specific
gravity and record of position in the tree of the test pieces; (4) large number of trees and of test pieces from each
tree; (5) employment of large and small-sized test material from the same trees; (6) uniformity of method for an
unusally large number of tests.

The entire work of the mechanical test series, carried on through nearly six years intermittently as funds

TIMBER PHYSICS—-STRENGTH OF SPECIES.

363

were available, comprises so far 32 species with 308 test trees, furnishing over 6,000 test pieces, supplying material

for 45,336 tests in all, of which 16,767 were moisture and specific gravity determinations on the test material.

In addition to the material for mechanical tests, about 20,000 pieces have been collected from 780 trees (including
the 308 trees used in mechanical tests) for physical examination to determine structure, character of growth, specific
gravity of green and dry wood, shrinkage, moisture conditions, and other properties and behavior.

In addition to the regular series of tests, the results of which are recorded in the subjoined tables, special
series, to determine certain questions were planned and carried out in part or to finish, adding 4,325 tests to the
above number.

Account of test material.

Average
Num- omber specific
No. Name of species. ber of | chanical | gravity Localities and number of trees from each.
trees. ee of dry
tests. wood.
1 | Longleaf pine --.--......-.--. 68 6, 478 0.61 | Alabama, coast plain (22) a; uplands (6); hill district (6); Georgia, undulat-
(Pinus palustris.) ing uplands (6); South Carolina, coast plain (7); Mississippi, low coast
plain (2); Louisiana, low coast plain, gravelly soil (7); sandy loam (6);
Texas, low coast plain (6).
2) | Cuban\pine...5--2----- 22... 12 2,113 -63 | Alabama, coast plain (6); Georgia, uplands (1); South Carolina, coast (5).
(Pinus heterophylla.)
3 | Shortleaf pine-.-......--.-.-.. 22 1, 831 -51 | Alabama, uplands (4); Missouri, low hilly uplands (6); Arkansas, low hilly
(Pinus echinata.) uplands (6); Texas, uplands (6).
4 | Loblolly pine. ------.-.------- 32 38, 335 -53 | Alabama, mountainous plateau (8); low coast plain (6); Arkansas, level flood
(Pinus tieda.) plain (5); Georgia, level coast plain (6); South Carolina, low coast plain (7).
5 | White pine-.--..----.--...... 17 540 .38 | Wisconsin, clay uplands (5); sandy soils (4); sandy loam (5); Michigan, level
(Pinus strobus.) drift lands (3).
GhieRedipineeess------ ===> -—— 8 412 -50 | Wisconsin, drift (5); Michigan (3).
(Pinus resinosa.)
Walt PLUCO DIN Gee esis lalallala 4 696 -44 | Alabama, low coast plain.
(Pinus glabra.)
8 | Bald cypress 20 3, 396 -46 | South Caroiina, pine barren (6); river bottom (4); Louisiana, coast plain,
(Laxodium distichum. border of lake (4); Mississippi, Yazoo bottom (8); upland (3).
OV iWihite ced arse- ese ese ase 4 354 .387 | Mississippi, low plain.
(Chamecy paris thyoides.)
10 | Douglas spruce..--.-...-.-.-.|.-...--. 225 51 | (From lumber yard.)
(Pseudotsuga taxifolia.) 8
Til || WMO Ce Soacssercepeuccasca 12 1, 009 -80 | Alabama, ridges of Tennessee Valley (5); Mississippi, low plain (7).
(Quercus alba.)
12 | Overcup oak..-...-......-.---. 10 911 -74 | Mississippi, low plain (7); Arkansas, Mississippi bottoms (3).
(Quercus lyrata.)
13) | Postioake. 9-222 — nae. sseta 8 256 -80 | Alabama, Tennessee Valley (5); Arkansas, Mississippi bottom (3).
(Quercus minor.)
14) |) Cowloak = ose on 11 935 -74 | Alabama, Tennessee Valley (4); Arkansas, Mississippi bottoms (3); Missis-
(Quercus michauxii.) sippi, low plain (4).
1 |) ING (EUS -o0cos6 cesccnasescseo ia 299 -73 | Alabama, Tennessee Valley (5); Arkansas, Mississippi bottom (2).b /
(Quercus rubra.)
15) Ge ysen OF) ee Speccnc Gacmoncoseca 3 479 73 | Arkansas, Mississippi bottom.
(Quercus texana.)
17 | Yellow oak-.-.--.---.....---- 5 222, .72 | Alabama, Tennessee Valley (5).
(Quercus velutina.)
18) | Water/oak -2--2-- 2-22 ------- 4 132 .73 | Mississippi, low plain (4).
(Quercus nigra.)
HOR Wallowa oases eerie eal 12 649 72 | Alabama, Tennessee Valley (5); Arkansas, Mississippi bottom (8); Missis-
(Quercus phellos.) sippi, low plain (4).
20 | Spanish oak =.-..-2....--.-.- 11 1, 035 .73 | Alabama, Tennessee Valley (5); Arkansas, Mississippi bottom (3); Missis-
: (Quercus digitata.) sippi, low plain (3).
21 | Shagbark hickory-...-.------- 6 794 -81 | Mississippi, alluvial plain (3); limestone (3).
(Hicoria ovata.)
22 | Mockernut hickory .--------- 4 300 -85 | Mississippi, low plain.
(Hicoria alba.) |
23 | Water hickory...-..-..-----. 2 197 ores) Do.
(Hicoria aquatica.)
24 | Bitternut hickory-..-.------- 4 100 77 | Do.
(Hicoria minima.) |
25 | Nutmeg hickory -..--.------- 3 294 -78 | Do.
(Hicoria myristicweformis.)
26 | Pecan hickory ..........----- 2 172 -78 Do.
(Hicoria pecan.)
27 | Pignut hickory ---..--.------ 3 84 89 Do.
(Hicoria glabra.) |
28) eWabitele Meee e= eaten 2 91 54 | Mississippi, bottom.
(Ulmus americana.)
29) | Cedarielm=s.="--2-2-----.---- 3 201 .74 | Arkansas, bottom.
(Ulmus crassifolia.)
30] White ash ---2---------...-.- 3 476 -62 Mississippi, bottom.
(Fraxinus americana.)
Gil || CnC COM ecesosecaceosescoase 1 45 - 62 Do.
(Fraxinus lanceolata.)
32|| Sweet gum-.--------..-...-.- 7 508 .59 | Arkansas, bottom (3); Mississippi, low plain (4).

(Liquidambar styraciflua.)

a Sixteen of these were bled trees to study the effects of boxing. ‘
b These two should probably be classed as Southern red oak. They were collected before the distinction was finally decided upon. )
Nore.—The values for specific gravity here given refer to ‘‘dry’’ wood of test material—i. e., wood containing variable: amounts of

moisture below 15 per cent; the moisture effect ‘has therefore not been taken into account, but more careful experiments indicate that its
nfluence on specific gravity at such low per cent is so small that it may be neglected for practical purposes.

on these (which have been published more in detail in Circular No. 12) may be taken as authoritative.

As will be observed, some species, notably the Southern pines, have been more fully investigated, and the results

With those

species of which only a small number of trees have been tested this can be claimed only within limits and in
proportion to the number of tests.

364 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The great variation in strength which is noticeable in timber of the same species makes it necessary to accept
with caution the result of a limited number of tests as representing the average for the species, for it may have
happened that only all superior or all inferior material has been used in the tests. Hence we would not be entitled
to conclude, for instance, that pignut hickory is 14 per cent stronger than shagbark, as it would appear in the table,
for the 30 test pieces of the former may easily have been superior material. Only a detailed examination of the test
pieces or a fuller series of tests would enlighten us as to the comparative value of the results.

The following data, therefore, are not to be considered as in any sense final values for the species, except where
the number of trees and tests is very large:

Results of tests in compression endwise.

[Pounds per square inch.]

| Proportion | Proportion
Average | Average
No Saawics Number} Highest Lowest | highest10 | lowest 10 | Average oe eete oes
Oe P a of tests. | single test.| single test.| percent | percent | ofall tests. n f NED
| of tests. of tests. per cent of | per cent of
average. average.
Reduced to 15 per cent moisture.
| Per cent. | Per cent.
1 | Longleaf pine----------- =e | 1, 230 11. 900 3, 400 8, 600 5, 700 6, 900 53
2 | Cuban pine ---.- - 410 10, 600 2, 800 9, 500 6,500 7, 900 61 93
3 | Shortleaf pine- q| 330 8, 500 4,500 7, 600 4, 800 5, 900 47 90
4 | Loblolly pine. --.---.---.-.......----__- | 660 11, 200 3, 900 8, 700 5, 400 6, 500 49 84
|
Reduced to 12 per cent moisture.
By || WANE) WO ccconascosssooposooemencesen 130 8, 500 38, 200 6, 800 4, 000 5, 400 49 93
6 | Red pine- sod 100 8, 200 | 4, 300 8, 100 4, 900 6, 700 54 96
7 | Spruce pine. ooo 170 10, 000 | 4, 400 8, 800 5, 600 7, 300 66 95
8 | Bald cypress-- sie 655 9,900 | 2, 900 8, 500 4, 200 6, 000 31 74
9 | White cedar.------ 3 87 6, 200 3, 200 6, 000 4, 400 5, 200 79 99
10 | Douglas spruce a aoe 41 | 8, 900 4,100 8,100 4, 200 5, 700 28 65
11 | White oak .---.-. -- 218 12, 500 5, 100 11, 300 6, 300 8, 500 40 81
12 | Overcup oak S 216 9,100 3, 700 8, 600 6, 000 7, 300 70 95
13 | Post oak - 49 8, 200 | 5, 900 8, 100 6, 000 7, 100 58 100
14 | Cow oak 256 11, 560 | 4, 600 9, 800 5, 600 7, 400 51 89
15 | Red oak.- <= 57 9, 700 | 5, 400 9, 200 5, 500 7, 200 36 94
16 | Texan oak -- = 117 11, 300 | 5, 800 9, 800 6, 900 8, 100 62 98
17 | Yellow oak =: 40 8, 600 5, 500 8, 300 5, 800 7, 300 58 100
18 | Water oak... 31 9, 200 6, 200 9, 000 6, 300 7, 800 75 100
19 | Willow oak. 153 11, 000 4,200 8, 700 5, 500 7, 200 51 88
20 | Spanish oak --. 251 10, 600 3, 700 9,500 5,100 7, 700 61 94
21 | Shagbark hickory. 137 13, 700 5, 800 10, 900 7, 500 9, 500 79 97
22 | Mockernut hickory~ 2s: 75 12, 200 | 6, 200 11, 600 8, 000 1¢, 100 65 99
23 | Water hickory-.-- ae 14 10, 000 6, 700 9, 600 7, 000 8, 400 71 100
24 | Bitternut hickory- = 25 11, 500 7, 300 11, 200 7, 800 9, 600 60 100
25 | Nutmeg hickory ae 12, 12, 300 6, 400 11, 000 7,100 8, 800 79 97
26 | Pecan hickory. - z 37 10, 500 5, 800 10, 400 7, 300 9, 100 51 95
27 | Pignut hickory. - oe 30 13, 000 8, 700 12, 700 8, 900 10, 900 12 100
28 | Whiteelm...-- ass 18 8, 800 4,900 8, 800 5, 000 6, 500 a 88
29 | Cedar elm. = 44 10, 600 6, 200 10, 100 6, 500 8, 000 66 95
30 | White ash. 260 87 9, 600 5, 000 8, 700 5,700 7. 200 48 96
31 | Green ash. sec 10 9, 800 6, 600 9, 800 6, 600 8, 000 29 100
32 | Sweet gum 118 8, 900 4, 600 8, 500 5, 600 7, 100 60 97

a Actual tests on ‘‘dry’’ material not reduced for moisture.

The variation in strength in wood of the virgin forest, as will be seen from the tables, is in some species so
great that by proper inspection and selection values differing by 25 to 50 per cent may be obtained from different
parts of the same tree, and values differing 100 to 200 per cent within the same species. These differences have all
their definite recognizable causes, to find and formulate which is the final aim of these investigations.

The tests are intentionally not made on selected material (except to discard absolutely defective pieces), but on
material as it comes from the trees, so as to arrive at an average statement for the species, when a sufficient number
of trees has beer tested. How urgent is the need for data of inspection as above indicated will appear from the
wide range of results recorded.

To enable any engineer to use the data here given with due caution and judgment, not only the ranges of values
and the average of all values obtained, but also the proportion of tests which came near the average values, have
been stated, as well as the average results of the highest and lowest values of 10 per cent of the tests. With this
information and a statement of the actual number of tests involved, the comparative merit of the stated values can
be judged. With a large number of tests, to be sure, it is more likely that an average value of the species has been
found. The actual test results have been rounded off to even hundreds in the tables.

FACTORS OF SAFETY.

With such lowest standard values, also lowest factors of safety could be employed. As to factors of safety, it
may be proper to state that the final aims of the present investigations may be summed up in one proposition,
namely, to establish rational factors of safety. It will be admitted by all engineers that the factors of safety as used
at present can hardly be claimed to be more than guesswork. There is not an engineer who could give account as
to the basis upon which numerically the factors of safety for wood have been established as ‘‘8 for steady stress;
10 for varying stress; 15 for shocks” (see Merriman’s Testbook on the Mechanics of Materials); or as 4 to 5 for
“dead” load and 5 to 10 for “live” load (see Rankine’s Handbook of Civil Engineering).

TIMBER PHYSICS—FACTOR OF SAFETY. 365

The directions for using these indeterminate factors of safety given in the text-books would imply that the
student or engineer is, after all, to rely on his judgment as to the modification of the factor, i. e., he is to add to this
general guess his own particular guess. The factor of safety is in the main an expression of ignorance or lack of
confidence in the reliability of values of strength, upon which the designing proceeds, together with an absence of
data upon which to inspect the material. With a larger number of well-conducted tests, coupled with a knowledge
of the quantitative as well as qualitative influences of various factors upon strength, and with definite data of
inspection which allow ready sorting of material, the factor of safety, as far as it denotes the residuum of ignorance
which may be assumed to remain, as to the character and behavior of the material, may be reduced to a minimum,
restricting itself mainly to the consideration of the indeterminable variation in the actual and legitimate application
of load.

Results of tests in compression endwise on green wood (above 40 per cent moisture, not reduced).

[Pounds per square inch.]

ar | Highest | Lowest | Average
No.) Species. Number single single of all
; *| test. test. tests.
Ae ongleafipines.s-ncc.cestces-s eons ste eases eeaem ser oee veces coseent a tee we suune ees etek hse 86 7,300} 2, 800 4,300
2 | Cuban pine -- a 38 6, 100 3, 500 4, 800
3 | Shortleaf pine. . 8 4, 000 3, 000 3, 300
4 | Loblolly pine 69 | 5, 500 | 2, 600 4,100
7 | Spruce pine -- 71 | 4,700 | 2, 800 3, 900
8 | Bald cypress. 280 8, 200 1, 800 4, 200
9 | White cedar. - 34 | 3, 400 2,300 2, 900
11 | White oak - 25 7, 000 3, 200 5, 300
12 | Overcup oak - 45 4, 900 2, 800 3, 800
14 | Cow oak --- 58 4,900 2, 300 3, 800
16 | Texan oak ..- 39 6, 000 3,100 5, 200
19 | Willow oak .- 49 5, 500 2, 300 3, 800
20 | Spanish oak---- 52 | 5, 100 2,500 3, 900
21 | Shagbark hickory. -- 22 | 6, 900 3,500 5, 700
22 | Mockernut hickory- 18 ! 7, 200 | 4,500 6, 100
23 | Water hickory. .---- 4 | 5, 600 4, 700 5, 200
25 | Nutmeg hickory 26 | 5, 500 3, 700 4, 500
26 | Pecan hickory. -- 4) 3, 800 3, 300 3, 600
27 | Pignut hickory - zs 5 | 6, 200 4, 700 5, 400
Dy || Shiai fabbisoseon vbacoonodocsoddasscosnoSaS BoodaboaaSoAde aueeSnScooRsuESbEeoooS agsboqassosce sane 6 | 3, 600 3, 000 3, 300
| ! |

While the values given in these tables may claim to contain more elements of reliability than most of those
published hitherto, much more work will have to be done before the above-stated aim will be satisfied.

In explanation of the table recording tests in bending at relative clastic limits it should be stated that since
an elastic limit in the sense in which the term is used for metals, namely, as a point at which distortion becomes
disproportionate to load and a permanent injury and set results, can not be readily determined for wood, Prof. J. B.
Johnson has proposed to utilize a point where the rate of distortion becomes 50 per cent greater for the amount of
load than it was for the initial’ load, which point can be tolerably accurately determined (see Bull. 8, p. 9). This
point he has called the ‘‘relative elastic limit.” The assumption is that such a point would be near the limit to
which the material can he strained without permanent injury, and the strength values obtained at that point would
serve for indications of safe loads.

The practical utility of determining this point and the strength values relating to it remains, however, still
open for discussion. A comparison of the values obtained for the strength at rupture and at relative elastic limit
shows a parallelism which would make it questionable whether much is gained by the use of that point, which in
reality lies beyond the limit where practical injury has begun, as indicated by the increased distortion.

We would be inclined to consider that point more serviceable where the curve begins to deviate from the straight
line, at which point we may assume no permanent injury has as yet been experienced. This point we may call
provisionally the ‘‘safe limit.”

Objection has been made to utilizing this point because it can not be located with as much nicety and mathe-
matical precision as the point of ‘relative elastic limit.” But even this point is only approximately definable; and
since no strength values can claim to be more than approximately correct, it would suffice to determine the safe-
limit point and the correspondent strength values also only approximately. This point has the advantage that it
lies on the safe side.

Special series of tests to investigate the legitimacy of the use of any of these limits for practical purposes
were designed, but have as yet not been taken up, and hence the values in the table on p. 367 are given only as
suggestions for what they are worth.

366, FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Results of tests in bending, at rupture.

[Pounds per square inch.]

| Gi R
Number Highest Lowest pas 10 ee A f vo tests eee
Seas er Hig es highes owes verage 0: Pyene Chater
No. Species. of tests. | single test. | single test. per cent of | per centof| all feats Rhian Ue:
| WEEMS Gae8: average. | average. ©
Reduced to 15 per cent moisture. )
A! Per cent. | Per cent.

16 one leatipinese= === a= see =H eee 1, 160 | 17, 800 3, 300 14, 200 8, 800 10, 900 41
2 | Cuban pine. _.-- 390 17, 000 2,900 14, 600 8, 800 11, 900 46 83
3 | Shortleaf pine-- 5 330 15, 300 5, 000 12, 400 7, 000 9, 200 40 79
20 Swoblollyipines= sees ==se—e tee eee 650 14, 800 3, 900 13, 100 8, 100 10, 100 44 84

Reduced to 12 per cent moisture.

Gy AMMEN oes eseeoonaesecoesbesces se 120 11, 100 4, 600 10, 100 5, 000 7, 900 43 81
6 | Red pine --- ¢ 95 12, 900 3, 100 12, 300 4, 900 9, 100 28 60
7 | Spruce pine -- 170 16, 300 3, 100 13, 600 5, 800 10, 000 43 81
8 | Bald cypress - 655 14, 800 | 2, 300 11, 700 5, 000 7, 900 25 69
9 | White cedar.----- 87 9,100 | 3,500 8, 400 4, 000 6, 300 32 78
10 | Douglas spruce a - 3 41 13, 000 38, 800 12, 000 4,100 7, 900 22 58
11 | White oak. ------- ae) 218 20, 300 5, 700 18, 500 7, 600 13, 100 39 75
12 | Overcup oak - || 216 19, 600 | 4,900 |_ 14, 900 6, 300 11, 300 AT 81
13 | Post oak -- a 49 16, 400 | 5, 100 15, 300 7, 400 12, 300 AT 92
14 | Cow oak. 4 256 23, 000 | 3, 300 12, 500 6, 500 11, 500 32, 68
15 | Red oak - 57 16, 500 5, 700 15, 400 9,100 11, 400 46 84
16 | Texan 0a. 117 19, 500 8, 200 16, 900 10, 000 13, 100 64 86
17 | Yellow oak 40 15, 000 5, 100 14, 600 5,700 10, 800 28 65
18 | Water oak. =e 31 16, 000 5, 800 15, 700 7, 200 12, 400 40 76
19 | Willow oak eel) 153 16, 000 3, 200 18, 800 5, 400 10, 400 33 70
20 | Spanish oak-.-.-- | 257 17, 300 5, 000 15, 600 6, 900 12, 000 40 72
21 | Shagbark hickory 187 23, 300 5, 700 20, 300 9, 400 16, 000 46 84
22 | Mockernut hickory 1D 20, 700 5, 300 19, 700 7, 900 15, 200 45 78
23 | Water hickory --- 14 18, 000 5, 300 17, 800 5, 400 12, 500 21 64
24 | Bitternut hickory 2! 19, 500 7, 000 19, 300 8, 700 15, 000 28 60
25 | Nutmeg hickory - 72 16, 600 6, 700 15, 600 8, 100 12, 500 40 88
26 | Pecan hickory---- 37 18, 300 5, 600 18, 100 10, 300 15, 300 38 95
27 | Pignut hickory- a 30 25, 000 11, 100 24,300} , 11,500 18, 700 43 W7
98 | White elm------ 18 14, 000 7, 200 13, 600 7, 300 10, 300 44 72
29 | Cedar elm - d4 19, 200 6, 600 17, 300 8, 500 138, 500 50 86
30 | White ash.- 87 15, 000 5, 000 14, 200 6, 300 10, 800 37 G7
31 | Green ash -- 10 16, 000 5, 100 16, 000 5, 100 11, 600 20 60
SP) || SGC SIN S525 ss Sass assccsaSssoasacad 118 14, 400 5, 100 12, 700 6, 000 9,500 39 719

a Actual tests on ‘‘dry”’ material not reduced for moisture. .

RELATIONS OF WEIGHT AND STRENGTH.

That within the same species the strength of wood varied with the dry weight (specific gravity), i. e., that
the heavier stick is the stronger, has been known for some time. That this law of variation held good not only for
a given species, but irrespective of species for the four principal pines of our Southern States was indicated in
Cireular 12 of this Division. This fact becomes the more important in practical application, as the wood of these
species of pines so far can not be distinguished at all by its anatomical structure and only with difficulty and
uncertainty by other appearances, while in the lumber market substitution is not infrequent. It will therefore be
best with these pines, where strength alone is desired, to inspect the material by weight (specific), other things
being equal, disregarding species determination.

While this result of the exhaustive series of tests reasonably well demonstrated for these pines may be
considered of great practical value, we can now extend the application of the law of relation between weight and
streneth a step farther, and state as an indication of our tests that probably in woods of uniform structure strength
increases with specific weight, independently of species and genus distinction, i. e., other things being equal, the
heavier wood is the stronger. We are at present inclined to state this important result with caution, only as a
probability or indication, until either the test material and tests can be more closely scanned, or more carefully
planned and minutely executed series of detail tests can be carried on to confirm the truth of what the wholesale
tests seem to have developed. ;

In the following two diagrams the average strength of the different species in compression endwise and
bending, as found in the preceding tables, has been plotted with reference to the dry weight as given in preceding
table.

Considering that these tests and weight determinations (especially the latter) were not carried on with that
finesse which would be required for a scientific demonstration of a natural law, that other influences, as crossgrain,
unknown defects, and moisture conditions may cloud the results, and that in the averaging of results undue consid-
eration may have been given to weaker or stronger, heavier or lighter, material, the relaxation is exhibited even by
this wholesale method with a remarkable degree of uniformity borderirg on demonstration.

An exception is apparent in the oaks in that they do not exhibit this relation of weight and strength with
reference to other species, and also with less definiteness among the various species of oak in themselves. The
structure of oak wood being exceedingly complicated and essentially different from that of the wood of all other
species under consideration, it may reasonably be expected that it will not range itself with these.

TIMBER PHYSICS—STRENGTH AND WEIGHT.

Results of tests in bending, at relative elastic limit.

[Pounds per square inch.]

367

Average | Average Proportion ; Proportion >
: iNamaee Highest | Lowest | of high- |of lowest) Average| of tests of tests any of
No Species. mptonte single single |est10per| 10 per of all within 10 | within 25 (auetacoe
R test. test. cent of | cent of tests. | per cent of | per cent of all Peat
tests. tests. average. average. be Bs)
Reduced to 15 per cent moisture. Pericents mericents
Longleaf pine------.----------------- 1, 160 13, 500 2, 400 11, 100 5, 400 8, 500 43 81 1, 890, 000
2 | Cuban pine ---- 390 12, 900 2, 200 11, 500 5, 600 9, 500 42 83 2, 300, 000
3 | Shortleaf pine - 330_ 11, 900 2, 900 9, 700 4, 800 7, 200 48 81 1, 600, 000
4 | Loblolly pine 650 12, 700 3, 100 10, 800 5, 400 8, 200 46 85 1, 950, 000
Reduced to 12 per cent moisture. |
5 | White pine -- 000 130 10, 000 4, 100 8, 200 4, 500 6, 400 58 85 1, 390, 000
6 | Red pine-- 95 11, 300 3, 100 10, 300 4, 500 7, 700 38 73 1, 620, 000
7 | Spruce pine-- 170 13, 700 3, 000 11, 200 5, 000 8, 400 51 82 1, 640, 000
8 | Bald cypress- 655 12, 000 2, 200 9, 900 4, 200 6, 600 25 66 1, 290, 000
9 | White cedar ----- 87 |. 8, 200 3.400 7,390 4, 000 5, 800 44 86 910, 000
10 | Douglas sprucea 41 13, 700 2, 800 9, 600 3, 400 6, 400 32 56 1, 680, 000
11 | White oak.-.----- 218 15, 700 4,400 14, 100 6, 100 9, 600 37 73 2, 090, 000
12 | Overcup oak - 216 11, 600 4,000 9,500 5, 400 7,500 47 91 1, 620, 000
13 | Postoak..-..- 49 10, 600 5, 100 9, 600 6, 000 8, 400 Bd 76 2, 030, 000
14 | Cow oak - 256 14, 200 3,400 11, 600 5, 000 7, 600 50 95 1, 610, 000
15 | Red oak .- 57 14, 500 5, 100 13, 600 5, 600 9, 200 15 49 1, 970, 000
16 | Texan oak - 117 12, v00 5, 900 11, 400 7, 800 9, 400 62 94 1, 860, 000
17 | Yellow oaik -- 40 11, 800 4,900 11, 100 5, 100 8, 100 39 75 1, 740, 000
18 | Water vak .- 31 11, 800 4, 500 11, 400 5, 500 8, 800 40 84 2, 000, 000
19 | Willow oak. - 153 13, 100 2,700 10, 000 4,300 7,400 42 81 1, 750, 000
20 | Spanish oak -...---. 257 18, 500 5, 100 11, 600 6, 600 8, 600 41 80 1, 930, 000
21 | Shagbark hickory -- 187 16, 100 5, 400 14, 200 7, 700 1), 200 50 89 2, 390, 000
22 | Mockernut hickory - 75 15, 400 4, 300 14, 600 7, 800 11, 700 39 83 2, 320, 000
23 | Water hickory ---.- 14 11, 900 4,100 11, 800 4, 800 9, 800 21 86 2, 080, 000
24 | Bitternut hickory 25, 14, 300 7, 500 14, 000 7, 600 11, 100 44 84 2, 280, 000
25 | Nutmeg hickory 72 12, 200 4, 200 11, 200 6, 400 9, 300 46 93 1, 940, 000
26 | Pecan hickory. - 37 15, 000 5, 800 14, 400 7, 900 11, 500 65 89 2,536, 900
27 | Pignut hickory - 30 17, 500 7, 400 16, 400 8, 300 12, 600 40 88 2, 730, 000
28 | White elm--- 5 18 9, 700 5, 300 9, 600 5, 400 7, 300 33 71 1, 540, 000
29 | Cedar elm - 3 44 10, 700 4,700 10, 100 5, 800 8, 000 57 91 1, 700, 000
30 | White ash . F 87 14, 500 3, 600 10, 400 5, 200 7, 900 43 83 1, 640, v00
31 | Green ash ~ < 10 13, 200 3, 200 13, 200 3, 200 8, 900 40 70 2, 050, 000
32 | Sweet gum ...---.--.-------.-------- 118 11, 000 3,500 10, 100 | 5, 100 7, 800 46 82 1, 700, 000
a Actual tests on ‘‘ dry” material not reduced for moisture.
1000
O

NN
SS
S

~

3000

Compression endwise; pounds per square inch.

8000 |
7000
6000
eae dO GS 40 45 30 ID 60

Weight per cubic foot in pounds.

Fic. 95.—Relation of strength in compression endwise to weight of material. The figure at each point indicates the species

thereby represented.

368 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

/9000
18000

/7000

1G000

$000

14000

13000

7

12000

H000

Bending strength at rupture in pounds per square inch.

/Q000

9000

8000

7000

6000
ZO JO BS 40 45 32 IS 60

Weight per cubic foot in pounds.

Fic. 96.—Relation of weight to bending strength at rupture. The figure at each point indicates the species thereby
represented.

TIMBER PHYSICS—UNIFORMITY OF STRENGTH. 369

In addition, the difficulty of seasoning oak without defects or even securing perfect material may have influenced
the results of tests so as to cloud the relationship with the genus.

If further close study, supplemented by additional series of tests carefully devised to investigate this relation-
ship, should uphold the truth of it, this result may be set down as the most important practical one that could be
reached by these tests, for it would at once give into the hands of the wood consumer a means of determining the
relative value of his material as to strength and all allied properties by a simple process of weighing the dry material;
of course with due regard to the other disturbing factors like crossgrain, defects, coarseness of grain, ete.

Results of tests in compression across grain (a) and shearing with grain.

{Pounds per square inch. ]

a | SETS | Shearing
Num- | OLNEY | wit \| Monn Compres-|} with
a tes sion | grain not es sion grain not
No. Species. Det of ACrOsei imedinced po: Species. der of aCLOSaMlinaduced
ests. sai oan tests. Hi
grain. for | grain. for

moisture. || moisture.

| |.

|

|

Reduced to 15 per cent moisture. | Reduced to 12 per cent moisture—
Continued.

1 | Longleaf pine 1, 000 700 |)
2 || Cuban'pine. --------.--.- 50 1, 000 700 || 16 | Southern red oak...-.--.-...--.---- 117 2,000 900
3 | Shortleaf pine ao 3 900 AND) Wee || IE GA. Sos cnescerosconenosesnad 40 1, 800 1, 100
AS PMoblollivapineaseser eset eraser ae 1, 000 OOH! el Sk MWiateroalkweeaassscee ee eemen ase 30 2, 000 1, 100
(el 9) |PSWallowAoa kee ss eee name aerate cient 153 1, 600 900
Reduced to 12 per cent moisture | 20 | Spanish oak... a5¢ 255 1, 800 900
21 | Shagback hick 135 2,700 1, 100
5 | White pine 130 700 400 || 22 | White hickory 75 | 3, 100 1,100
6 | Red piue -- 100 1, 000 500 || 23 | Water hickory -- 14 | 2, 400 1, 000
7 | Spruce pin 175 1, 200 800 || 24 | Bitternut hickor: 25 2, 200 1, 000
8 | Bald cypress 650 800 500 |! 25 | Nutmeg hickory 72 2, 700 1,100
9 | White cedar... 87 700 400 || 26 | Pecan hickory..- 37 2, 800 1, 200
10 | Douglas spruce b. - 41 800 500 || 27 | Pignut hickory 3 30 3, 200 1, 200
US Wabi teloa eee eee eee see as 218 2, 200 OOO N||h28h |imvvaliterel names eeeer tee nemeen esa} 1S 1, 200 800
12 | Overcup oak -.--..---. 216 1, 900 MO008) 29) Cedarielmeessssee conten eeseeeee 44 2, 100 1,300
116} |) TRUE OHS oe ceesoo5 49 3, 000 1631) |) 80] WANUOP Ne oo osacedocdasosossocse $7 1, 900 1, 100
WAS RC Oa Of keeeensee ee aaets =e 256 1,900 S00} |eoile | Greentasha=ssesee see een ease eae 10 1, 700 1, 000
16) |) INCRL CH koeconcicssonssgaconcawanccaos 57 2, 300 Te TON) |B 1) NEG SU a ccecenocHsenneosson[s 118 1, 400 800

aTo an indentation of 3 per cent of the height of the specimen. b Actual tests on ‘‘dry ”’ material not reduced for moisture.

Having fully established the great influence of moisture on the strength of wood, the practi-
tioner still needed information as to the rate and manner of drying and as to the way in which
moisture is distributed during seasoning. Several thousand moisture determinations were made
and it was established beyond doubt that moisture is generally least abundant at the ends, is

quite evenly distributed throughout the length, but is not always uniform in different parts of the -

same cross section, often varying in this respect within astonishing ranges, so that the use of
timber in a half-seasoned condition, and where uniform seasoning can not be obtained by the
material, requires that these facts be duly considered in designing.

TESTS OF MAximum UNIFORMITY.

Both in this country and abroad small differences in strength values were often interpreted
as deciding for or against any given material. This same problem arose also in every case where
many results were to be compiled, and it seemed especially desirable once for all to find just how
much uniformity could be expected of wood materials. From a large series of well-selected
quarter-sawed pieces representing several kinds of pine, cypress, and hardwoods it was found
that even contiguous blocks, 24 inches long, may differ by as much aS 2 to 4 per cent in conifers
and as much as 13 per cent in oak, and that in a scantling only 6 feet long the butt might differ from
the top by 10 to 20 per cent in conifers and over 35 per cent in oak. This extremely valuable set
of results throws much light upon discussions of the past, and is well suited to show that many
boastful claims rested on very flimsy and entirely unreliable differences, such as might well be
accounted for by a little more extended examination of materials. It will also assist in judging
test results in the future and help to avoid useless controversy and prejudice. The following
more fully illustrates the results of this series:

Scantlings of air-dry material, 6 to 10 feet Jong, of white pine, longleaf pine, tuliptree (poplar), and white oak,
and of perfectly green material of loblolly pine and cypress, fresh from the saw, were cut partly into blocks 2 by 2
by 22 inches, but mostly into cubes of 2% inches. All material was quarter sawed, carefully prepared, and in all
cases treated alike, either perfectly green or dried together at the same temperature. Altogether 529 tests in
endwise compression were made, namely, 100 on white pine, 72 on longleaf pine, 99 on loblolly pine, 40 on white
oak, 115 on tuliptree (poplar), 103 on cypress.

H. Doe. 181——24

370 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

From these tests the following table of averages is derived, together with fig. 97:

Average of tests for maximum wniformity.

Greatest dif-

Average Greatest difference in| ference in en-

Name. Moisture. strength of strength between adjoin. | tire scantling,

all pieces. ing pieces. i.e., 6-10 foot

piece.
Per cent. Lbs. per sq.in. | Lbs. per sq.in.| Per cent. Per cent.

White pine (Pinus strobus) -.--------------++-eeeeeesanenccenn ee 8 4,900 190 3.8 18
Longleaf pine (Pious palustris) - Bes Sop 7.8 10, 800 380 335) 10
Tuliptree (poplar) (iiriogendren tulipi € a). 8 6, 010 480 8.3 20
White oak (Quercus alba) - Yard dry. 8, 300 1,110 13.4 87
Loblolly pine (Pinus treda).. 125+ (green). 2, 670 130 4.8 20
Cypress (Taxodium distichum 125 + (green). 4, 090 70 1.8 15

It will be observed that green cypress excelled in its uniformity; that green loblolly proves not more uniform
than dry white and longleaf pine; that wood of the conifers far excel even the tuliptree (poplar) with its uniform
grain and texture; and that oak, as might be expected, is the least uniform. It will also be noticed that even in
one and the same short scantling (6 to 10 feet) of select quarter-sawed longleaf pine differences of 10 per cent may
occur, and that in all others these differences were even greater.

Incidentally in this and the following experiment a small number of the blocks were thoroughly oven-dried
(to about 2 per cent moisture), and it was found that the strength of both cypress and loblolly was increased by
about 150 per cent during drying, so that wood at 2 per cent is about two and one-half times as strong as perfectly
green or soaked material; and also that drying from 8 to 10 per cent to the lowest attainable moisture condition
(1 to 2 per cent) still adds about 25 per cent to the strength of the wood.

In the following diagram and table a part of the results are presented in detail:

ZO00
BLOCH NUMBER S os Va g // 13 VE UG 42 EL REV AS

Fia. 97.—Strength of contiguous blocks, showing maximum uniformity of select quarter-sawed material in compression endwise.

TIMBER PHYSICS—VARIATION IN STRENGTH. 371

Strength of contiguous blocks of the same scantling, select material, in compression endwise.

[Dimensions generally, 2.76 by 2.76 by 2.76 inches. ]

Kind of wood.
White |Longleaf Ta Tulip: |
pine (8 | pine (8 5 tree (8 a
Number of blocks. per cent | per cent a5 oper Cypress Oe Ney per cent| (yard
mois- mois- aOR ; mois- dry). S
ture). ture). ture) ture).

Pounds per square inch.

|
4, 850 11, 580 2, 330 2, 720 4,170 5, 740
4, 860 11, 530 2, 380 2, 700 4,190 5, 700
4, 690 11, 310 2, 380 2.720 4,170 5, 770.
4, 840 11, 060 2, 450 2, 680 4,180 5, 700
4, 760 8, 250 a5, 700 2, 680 4, 200 5, 4380

4,720 | 10,740 2, 600
4,730 | 11, 180 2, 680
4,760 | 11, 220 2, 640
4,750 | 10, 980 2,720
4,770 | 11,130 | @6,970
4,730 | 11,510 2,770
4,760 | 11,490 2,730 3, 070 4,180 6, 030
4,770 | 11,320 2,780 3, 099 4, 130 6,170
4,670 | 11, 220 2) 800 3, 120 4, 160 5, 840
4,600 | 11,320) @5,840 3, 170 4, 160 5, 440

4, 660 11, 340 2, 880 3,140 4,160 5, 360
4,590 11, 470 2, 870 3, 090 EE IND |joesesosose

4,600 | 10,790 OF GD \lsaooaecaes 4,090 5, 530
4,610 | 10,740 2, 860 3, 120 4, 070 5, 530
ZAC) TORO || @BA30 |loocen-B sae] bosnSeccce a6, 880
4,920 | 11, 110 2, 760 ahi 0)) | Seen 5, 920
4,870 | 11, 450 2, 760 Fh PPD |lscoccossce 5, 930
4,970 | 12, 250 2,720 Eur (ilseeccsanes 5, 770
4,940 | 12, 760 2, 640 By Spi) |losacnesaoe 5, 780

Raia ao 10,740 | a@7,050 BOTW |esnccosol| GE
5,070 | 10, 350 PACH) | Stoceeaees beoeresaae 6, 480
4,940 | 10, 280 2, 650 8) BM) Ilsenousaece 6, 310
5,020 | 10, 150 2) 650 BL STAD |oocacocese 6, 220
5, 110 9, 860 2,780 3, 420

5, 020 10, 900 OU AM |sacsss-305
4,950 | 10,120 2, 730
4, 820 10, 370 2, 780
4,950 10, 320 2; 720
4,900 10, 250 2, 660
5, 040 10, 400 a5, 360
5, 160 10, 050 PBN ocncce
5,120 10, 050 2, 560 |---
5, 100 10, 350 2, 580 |-
5, 230 10, 100 2, 580 |--
5, 280 10, 030 @5, 220 |--
5, 260 9, 970 2, 620 |.--
5, 280 9, 880 2, 600 |.
5, 300 10. 050 2,640 |.-
5, 310 10, 220 2,610 |-
5,300 | 10,470 | a@6, 440 |.
5, 350 10, 860 2, 620

5, 400 10, 590 2, 620 |--
5, 360 10, 350 2, 600 |.
5, 360 11, 150 2; 680 |--
5, 510 10,970 | a6, 440 |.-
5,070 10, 890 2,710 |.-
5, 150 10, 790 2,750 | 22
5, 020 10, 970 2, 760

4,770 11, 040 2,720 |.
4,770 10,940 | @6,850 |.-
4,920 | 10,970 2,710. |.
4, 950 10, 840 2, 680 |_-
4, 840 10,710 2, 660 |.
4,860 | 10, 890 2, 660 |.

a6,460 | 10,710 27,030 |---------.

- a Dried to about 2 per cent moisture before testing.

As was indicated at the outset and is fully explained in Bulletins 6 and 8, the plan of this
investigation also included among the objects to be sought the establishment of the following:

(1) The relative value of each species.

(2) The outward signs or physical and structural properties, easily used in inspection.

(3) The relation of the properties among themselves; and

(4) Their relation to the conditions under which the wood is formed, such, for instance, as the
age of the tree when wood is laid on, influences of soil, climate, ete.

As has been explained, some of these relations were more or less fully determined, at least,
qualitatively; nevertheless, the relation of the several forms of resistance, as well as the mutual
relations of the properties in general, seemed to escape observation in the manner of inquiry
generally pursued. It became clear before long that these laws must be established by special
series, planned each to seek answer to some specific question. Several of these were carried out,

372 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

and, thougn little more was accomplished than to find proper ways, the study of these results,
amplified by the large ordinary series, led to several interesting discoveries, the most important
of which is the discovery of the relation between the strength in cross bending at elastic limit
and the compression endwise, this latter being equal to the fiber stress of the former. Though
still requiring special experiments to become convincing, it is fair to state at this point that a
great deal of useless testing will be saved in the future, since the test in compression is by all
means the simplest, the selection and treatment of the material for it the easiest, and the result
the most satisfactory. The importance of this discovery by Mr. 8. T. Neely is such that a reprint
of Mr. Neely’s discussion here will be found justified.

RELATION OF COMPRESSION-ENDWISE STRENGTH TO BREAKING LOAD OF BEAM.

In testing timber to obtain its various coefficients of strength, the test which is at once the simplest, most
expedient, satisfactory, and reliable is the ‘‘compression-endwise test,” which is made by crushing a specimen
parallel to the fibers. All other tests are either mechanically less easily performed, or else, as in the case of cross-
bending, the stresses are complex, and the unit coefficient can be expressed only by reliance upon a theoretical
formula, the correctness of which is in doubt. It would, therefore, be of great practical value to find a relation
between the cross-bending strength, the most important coefficient for the practitioner, and the compression strength,
when the study of wood would not only be greatly simplified and cheapened, but the data could be applied with
much greater satisfaction and safety.

The consideration of such a relation resolves itself naturally into two parts, namely, a study of the relation of
the internal stresses in a beam to the external load which produces them, and a study of the relation of the internal
stresses in a beam to the compression-endwise strength of the material of which the beam is made.

The first relationhas been a subject of study for more than two centuries, and from the time of Galileo down to
the present day the theory of beams has been gradually evolved. Within recent years several eminent physicists
and engineers have given a true analysis of both the elastic and ultimate strength of a beam, a clear exposition of
which is made by Prof. J. B. Johnson in his work on Modern Framed Structures. He points out that the “ordinary
equation” for obtaining the extreme fiber stresses, when the external load and dimensions of the beam are given, is
not applicable to a beam strained beyond its elastic limit; and he follows this statement with a discussion of the true
distribution of internal stresses in a beam at time of rupture, and with a ‘‘ Rational equation for the moment of
resistance at rupture,” devised by M. Saint-Venant, which really does connect the extreme fiber stress in a bent beam
with the compression-endwise strength and also with the tension strength. Professor Johnson’s final conclusion,
however, is that for practical use the “‘ ordinary formula” may be applied to a beam at rupture, providing the fiber
stress involved is obtained from cross-bending tests; and this is the present practice among engineers.

RELATION OF INTERNAL STRESSES.

Assume for the discussion of the relation of internal stresses to external load the simple conditions of a beam
of rectangular cross section loaded at the middle.

Regarding the distribution of, internal stresses, it must be agreed that the neutral plane lies in the center of the
beam so long as the beam is loaded within the elastic limit; this follows from the fact that the modulus of elasticity
is the same whether derived from compression tests or from tension tests (i. e., H.—= Et), a8 proved by experiments
of Nérdlinger, Bauschinger, Tetmayer, and others.

Since the distortion of any given fiber in the beam is proportional to its distance from the neutral plane, the
distribution of stresses in a longitudinal section of a beam loaded up to its elastic limit may be represented by the
following diagram, in which the vertical scale represents increments of distortion and the horizontal scale the fiber
stresses. :

In this diagram the angle a = angle b, since E, = Hy; and furthermore, since these latter quantities are each
equal to the modulus of elasticity obtained from cross-bending tests (according to the same authorities), this angle
a (or b) can be obtained by platting the results of the cross-bending test itself. 5 -

It is a well-established fact that the tension strength of wood is much greater than the compression strength,
and also, as shown by the German experimenters quoted, that the elastic limit in either case is not reached until
shortly bofore the ultimate strength. Furthermore, it seems reasonable to suppose, and is essential to the construc-
tion of the above diagram, that the true elastic limit of the beam (shown on the strain diagram of a beam at the
point where it ceases to be a straight line) is reached at the same instant that the elastic limit of the extreme com-
pression fiber is reached; for when the loading is continued beyond this latter condition the line OC must begin to
curye upward (since the proportion of load to distortion on that side begins to increase more rapidly), while the line
OT continues in its original direction. Therefore, in order to maintain the equilibrium, the whole distribution of
stresses will necessarily be changed, the position of the neutral axis will be lowered, and these changes will, of
course, show an effect on the deflection of the beam.

Now, even at rupture the proportionality of fiber distortion to distance from neutral axis is maintained (because
a plane cross section will always remain a plane), and therefore the distribution of internal stresses just at the point
of rupture can be represented by a diagram similar to fig. 99, in which, as before, the vertical scale represents incre.
ments of distortion and the horizontal scale fiber stresses. The fibers on either side of the neutral plane are under
stresses which vary from zero at the neutral plane to the maximum stress in the extreme fiber, changing in proportion

TIMBER PHYSICS—RELATION OF CRUSHING TO BENDING. 373

as the increments of load in the test machine vary. Therefore, the distribution of stresses on the compression side
of the neutral plane will be shown by an ordinary strain diagram for compression, and on the tension side by a
similar tension-strain diagram. Unfortunately there are no reliable diagrams of these kinds now on record. The
compression pieces tested have usually been too short to afford reliable measurements of distortion, and, owing to
structural and mechanical difficulties, satisfactory tension tests seem to be impossible.

STHESSES /NV (000 LBS. STHESSES, IM KIBO
Wp ti Bs AGS BE BYE AE FO TGS!

LBS.
L, 9 JO

_/0 H/2
<2) Yy
8 LO
SG ©
- Se
y Se
~
Q QF
SS
Si =
Z, - NEUTRAL _AX/S
= = O A
LS 4 S
iS SB
&
S) @) S a
WW
58 %
S “a
70 Q ™
LU BVT E SVE 6 BS ZS CGT ya
Fic. 98.—Relation of fiber stresses and distortions. Fig. 99.—Distribution of internal stresses ina beam at rupture.

Experience in testing, however, has taught that when a piece of green wood is tested in sompression it will
undergo a great distortion after the maximum load has been applied without actually breaking down—in fact, while
sustaining the sameload. A piece tested in tension, on the other hand, breaks suddenly as 3oon 1s the maximum
load is applied. A beam in failing may, therefore, sustain an increasing load long after the extreme compression
fiber has been loaded to its ultimate strength; the fibers on the compression side continue to be mashed down,
while the neutral plane is lowered and the stress in the tension fiber increases until, very oftenin practice, the beam
“fails in tension.” With these facts and
observations before us it is possible to con- FORCES
struct a diagram so that it will represent, VIA RD ANTE 5 Gi
approximately, at least, the distribution of
internal stresses in a beam at rupture. (See
fig. 100.)

In this figure OA represents the position
of neutral plane at time of rupture, OU the
distortion in the extreme compression fiber,
UC the stress on same fiber, OL the distor-
tion in extreme tension fiber, and LT the
stress on that fiber.

It can readily be seen that the manner
of breaking will influence slightly the form
of this diagram. If the beam fails in com-
pression before the tension fiber reaches its
elastic limit the line OT will be straight as
shown, otherwise the line will assume some
such position as O1,T, (diagram 99), in which
J, is the elastic limit in tension.

From the approximate distribution of
internal stresses their relation to the external

load may be determined. The two funda- UB EA EO FE OVD Ue

mental equations—(1) that the sum of inter- Fig. 100.—Position of neutral axis and internal stresses at rupture of beam.
nal stresses on the tension side equals the sum

of internal stresses on the compression side, and (2) that the sum of the external moments equals the sum of the inter-
nal moments—apply at the time of rupture as well as at the elastic limit. From (1) it follows that area OUCI— area
OLT, and the position of the neutral plane at rupture is thereby fixed. If now the line LU be assumed to represent
the depth of the beam in inches instead of indicating the distortion of the fibers, the sum of the internal moments
about the point O is found by multiplying the area of either the compression or tension diagram by the sum of the
distances of their respective centers of gravity from the neutral plane. By putting this sum equal to the moment
of the external load about the same point O the first relation is established.

4M 4000 LBS,
Seep ©). MW se

0

INCHES.
® §

4
7000
KR OD

DISTORTION 1
% A} S

374 : FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

RELATION OF CRUSHING-ENDWISE STRENGTH.

The second relation (that of crushing-endwise strength to internal stresses) was touched upon in discussing the
first, when it was stated: (1) That the true elastic limit of the beam is probably reached at the same instant that
the extreme fibers on the compression side reach their elastic limit in compression. (2) That this latter limit lies
close to the ultimate compression-end wise strength (so close that former experimenters have been unable satisfactorily
to separate them). (3) That a piece of green wood will stand a great deal of distortion after the ultimate load is
applied before actually failing. And to these statements may be added the evident fact (4) that the stress on any
fiber on the compression side can not exceed the compression-endwise strength of the material. (5) Finally and
most important it appears from (1) and (2), but especially from an examination of the several thousand test results
on the several species of conifers made by the Division of Forestry, that the extreme fiber stress at the true elastic
limit of a beam is practically identical with the compression-endwise strength of the material. (This last observa-
tion, which was forced upon the writer by its continual repetition in the large series of tests under review, lies at
the basis of this discussion.) The obseryation of this identity makes the distribution of internal stresses appear
more simple than was hitherto assumed, and the desired relation between compression and cross-bending strength
capable of mathematical expression.

DEVELOPMENT OF FORMULA.

From these considerations the distance UC in fig. 100, which represents the ultimate compression-endwise
strength of the material, becomes practically equal to the distance el, which represents the compression strength at
the true elastic limit, and hence the line IC straight and vertical; and if OT is taken as straight, the diagram will
be made up of simple geometric figures, as in fig. 100.

The line LU will represent the total fiber distortion at time of rupture, and is equal to the sum of the amounts
by which the extreme compression fibers shorten and the extreme tension fibers elongate.

Let a test in which the following quantities have been observed and recorded be considered:

Let P,—the external load at rupture (pounds).

A,=the corresponding deflection of the beam (inches).
C=compression-endwise strength of the material (pounds).
E=modulus of elasticity (pounds).
d—depth of beam (inches).

b=breadth of beam (inches).
1—length of beam (inches).

A.= deflection at true elastic limit.

Then, based upon the above statements, by means of formulas derived from the geometric relations of the diagram
and the fundamental equations of equilibrium, the following quantities can be calculated:

Let E.—total fiber distortion due to bending at true elastic limit (inches).
E,= total fiber distortion due to bending at rupture = LU (inches).
d, = distortion in extreme tension fiber at rupture— LO (inches); also the ieopantional dis-
tance of neutral plane from tension side of beam.
d,—real distance of neutral plane at rupture trom tension side of beam (inches).
de—real distance of neutral plane at rupture from that fiber on compression side which has
just reached the elastic limit, in inches = Oe.
T =stress in extreme tension fiber (pounds).
T,—=sum of forces on tension side—=area OLT (pounds).
C,—sum of forces on compression side = area OUC/ (pounds).
d,= distance of center of gravity of tension area from neutral plane (inches).
d-—= distance of center of gravity of compression area from neutral plane (inches).
M,—=sum of the internal moments about the point O (inch-pounds).

The formulas connecting these quantities are derived as follows:
To find EF, let fig. 101 represent a portion of the beam one unit in length bent to its elastic
limit; then,

Fie. 10].—Fiber dis- 1
tortion in unit e Me eae,
‘length of beam, at where r is the radius of curvature, but from fundamental formulas true at elastic limit

elastic limit. A i
; ik Pl 1124. E __ 124d
=a Rlngs SET eyo) oe

Since this involves only geometric relations, it is true also at rupture (since the beam preserves its original form).
_ 124,d
(2) Ey= Ee:

To find d, and T:
Since the sum of stresses on the tension side —sum of stresses on compression side,

d d,C
the area OLT = area OUCI.-. 3g T=(E;—4) C= — Seri T=3R,

TIMBER PHYSICS—-RELATION OF CRUSHING TO BENDING. 375

from the similar triangle OLT and Oel (fig. 100),

dg Ee
x ve =E,— dy) C— "20,

whence,
: SE ial
(3) dp=V ELX oF Gy?
and after d, is found, T can be obtained :
aC
Fee
Now, when the vertical line LU is assumed to represent the real depth of the beam in inches= d, every verti-

4 T=

d :
cal measure will be changed in the ratio E (see fig. 102); whence,
hy!

@ a=2a, Yh iS

EY

(real distance of neutral plane from tension side).
d
(6) d= + ie E,

(4 because E. total distortion, while d, is the distance
on one side of the neutral plane).
The area OLT would then become:

r
T

d,
(7) eee and the area OUCl—=

- QR www eee ee

C WEY TRAL PLANE

i
(8) Ca=(d—d,) C—(F x €) O
(Ca must equal T,).
The distance of centers of gravity would be:
(9) d&=3 dr,

d—d, , de
(10) dd=—g—+ 4)

es iv--=-

and the sum of internal moments. é Fig. 102.—Position of neutral plane at rupture.
(11) M.= (Cade + Tadi)b, and since C,=T,, hence M,;=C,(de-+ dt)b.
But since the sum of internal moments equals the sum of external moments:
Pr
fp —=M—=Ca(d-+ ayo.
And since P, is the breaking load of the beam, and C, involves only the compression end wise strength and lineal
dimensions, we have a formula directly connecting the breaking load of a beam with the compression strength.!
Application of these formule.—Unfortunately no tests have been made to study the application of these formule
directly and in particular. The tests on beams published in this circular were made for a different purpose. For
the purpose of ascertaining the correctness of the formule only the tests made on large beams have been utilized,
since in these the deflections were specially accurately measured. In addition to the quantities to be calculated
already given in this discussion, the fiber stress at the true elastic limit is also calculated, and called &, to be
compared with C, and the load producing it, Pe, is also set down as an observed quantity. If the modulus of
. P ny fo 112
rupture, R, has already been calculated by the ‘ordinary formula,” S. can be obtained from the relation =p- and
dy
‘ Pe
(12) S.=p_k.
The modulus of elasticity at true elastic limit E. is recomputed as a check, and of course is:

» _ Se
(13) Bey,"
Since P, is an arbitrary quantity within certain limits, and can not be determined with any degree of accuracy,
S. will be found to differ more or less from C. For these reasons, however, C is a more reliable value for the true
elastic limit than §, itself, and in the formul is used as such; for instance, H/, is the fiber distortion produced by the
same load which produces a fiber stress—C, not by the load which produces &..

The following table exhibits the results of applying the formulx to the data from these tests:

['The factors d-+d;, within such limits as the cross-bending strength is constant, are constants; they will have
to be ascertained by actual experiment for each species and quality, and might then be expressed as a proportion of
the depth. In the material used, pine as well as oak, it appears to be about 3/5. The material on which this rela-
tionship has been mainly studied was green wood, and it may be questioned whether the factors d, and d; would
remain the same in material of all moisture conditions, There is no logic which would lead us to expect a difference
greater than the limits of “‘maximum uniformity,” i. e., 10 per cent, A few comparisons of data obtained from
material of other species with varying moisture percentage indicate that a difference does not exist,—B, E, F.]

“191130.0T1} TTA OO poavdutoo or oF od.A9 OAOUTYSIP OUIES UT seANSY Jo summlog—aLON

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

376

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TIMBER PHYSICS—METHODS. 377

Tn order to see how far the formule may be applicable to beams of the same material the data obtained on the
small beams cut from one of the large beams were subjected to scrutiny, basing the calculations on the data from
the adjoining compression block. The calculated result compared with the actual breaking load showed a most
convincing similarity, as will be apparent from the table herewith presented:

Strength of small beams, calculated by Neely’s formule from compression strength, on the assumption that the relative
position of the neutral plane at rupture is the same as found in large beams.

{Shortleaf pine, large beam No. 13, special series.]

Data observed in testing. | Results calculated by Neely’s formulx.
el ma RQ Bs Real dis- a F Distance is)
omen ae a od 7” tance of oA Sums of forces | from neu- o=)
pumensions O! 3 bp p # neutral a for unit width | tral plane 4
. ; as ag bey plane at a) of beam. of center of) 3,
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5 Inches. Lbs. per sq. in. Lbs ae a Inches. ae Lbs. Lbs. Inches. Laasasl Lbs. | Inch
2! 50 | 3.51 | 3.56! 7,350 | 4,480 | 4,300 || 4,708 ' 3,760 ' 1.46 | 1.23 | 10,517 | 7,677! 7,719 | 0.97 | 1.18 | 58,760 2,200 | 0. 296
3 | 50 | 3.75 | 3.37 | 7,910 | 4,610 | 5,000 || 5,390 | 4,430 | 1.56 | 1.31 | 10,979 | 8,564 | 8,552 | 1.04 | 1.26 | 66,380 | 2,800 | 0.391
4 | 50 | 3.55 | 3.60) 7,790 | 4,560 | 4,710 | 5,057 3,969 | 1.48 | 1.24 | 10,885} 8,055 | 8,026 | 0.99 | 1.19 | 63,216 | 2,400 |} 0.413
5 | 50 | 3.49 | 2.50) 8,230 | 4,070 | 4,680 || 4,203 | 4,220 | 1.45 | 1.22) 9,675) 7,014) 7,061 | 0.97 | 1.17 | 52,535 | 2,400 | 0.345
6 | 50 | 3.58 | 3.54) 7,750 | 4,150 | 4,690 4,570 | 4,296 | 1.49 | 1.25) 9,894] 7,371 7,376 | 0.99 | 1.20 | 57,144 | 2,600 | 0.356
7 | 50) 3.53 | 3.50 | 7,810 | 4,160 | 4,540 | 4,420 4,129 | 1.47 | 1.23 | 9,943 |} 7,308 | 7,290 | 0.98 | 1.18 |) 55,248 | 2,400 | 0.431
8 | 50 | 3.56 | 3.54) 7,470 | 3,870 | 4,470 | 4,6 7S | 4,178 | 1.48 | 1.25 | 9,164] 7,381 | 6,840 | 0.99 | 1.20 | 57,222 | 2,500 | 0. 440

a9 | 50 | 3.52 | 3.54 |) 5,130 | 3,880 | 3,000 | 4,169 | 3,078 | 1.47 | 1.23 | 9,274 | 6,816 | 6,751 | 0.98 | 1.18 | 52,118 | 1,800 | 0.328

10 | 50 | 3.52 | 3.45 | 7,510 | 3,680 | 4,280 | 3,854 | 3,860 | 1.47 | 1.23 | 8,796 | 6,465 | 6,403 | 0.98 | 1.18 | 48,177 | 2,200 | 0.387

11 | 50 | 3.47 | 3.52 | 6,370 | 3,750 | 3,600 | 3,342 | 3,893 | 1.44 | 1.21) 8,926) 6,427) 6,485 | 0.96 | 0.87 | 41,400 | 2,200 | 0.372

12 | 50 | 3.48 | 3.54 | 6,580 | 3,540 | 3,760 | 3,697 | 3,395 | 1.45 | 1.22 | 8,415} 6,101 | 6,124 | 0.97 | 1.17 | 46,219 | 1,940 | 0.300

) i

a Failed, due to knot.
Nore.—Columns of figures in same distinctive type to be compared one with the other.

On the whole, it is in no way boastful to assert that this work has already furnished prac-
tical data enough to more than pay the expenses incurred ten times over; that its fruits are not,
half gathered, and that for more than a quarter of a century its results will serve as a basis for
the user of wood and as the guide to the teacher and experimenter.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE OF TIMBER PHYSICS AND METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE
INVESTIGATION. ;

Since the elaborate plan and methods of this study of our woods denotes an entirely new
departure in timber investigations, at least in our country, it is only fitting to place the credit for
its conception, for the elaboration of the plan, the organization of the work, and the persistent
prosecution of the same in spite of many drawbacks and lack of support. This credit belongs to
Dr. B. E. Fernow, chief of the Division of Forestry. The plan was first foreshadowed in his second
report (1887, p. 37) as chief of that division, and the word “timber physics” was there used for
the first time, and the essentials of the future plan were there discussed. In asmall tentative
manner the first steps to put it in operation were made in 1888. In.the report for 1889 we read:

The investigations into the technology of our timbers and especially into the conditions upon which the qual-
ities of our timbers depend—for which Mr. Roth of Ann Arbor has begun preliminary studies—has also made but
slow progress for lack of means.

In the report for 1890 we find, besides an account of the tests on Northern and Southern oaks
referred to before, the statement that ‘‘by the increase of appropriations the forest technological
investigations referred to in former reports have become possible on a scale which was hitherto
unattainable,” and a description of the plans is given. But the first fuller statement of the

378 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

development of the investigation and its methods was not published until 1892, in Bulletin 6, in
which Mr. Fernow described the aims, objects, and methods at length.
In the report for 1890 the following language is used:

TIMBER TESTS.

While the use of wood pulp and other substitutes may displace in many ways the use of wood in its natura)
state, there will always be desirable qualities inherent in the latter that make its use indispensable. Hence the
desirability of knowing the qualities of our timbers and, if possible, of knowing the conditions under which the
wood crop will develop the desirable qualities.

Much work and useful work is done in the world by the rule of thumb. All such work is not reliable and
certainly not economical. With the need of greater economy in production, the need of more accurate measuring
arises, and with that the need of more specific knowledge of the materials to be measured.

Wood is one of the materials which has been measured by the rule of thumb longer than others. Iron and
other metals used in the arts have their properties much more accurately determined than wood material. Especially
in the United States, when we speak of quality of our timbers, it can only be in general terms; we lack definite data.

One difficulty in determining reliably the qualities of our timbers lies in the fact that living things are rarely
precisely alike. Lvery tree differs from every other tree, and the material taken from the one has a different value
from that taken from the other of the same species. Yet every tree has some characteristics in common with all
those grown under similar conditions. But even these common properties differ in degree in different individuals.
Individual variation tends to obscure relationship.

The factors which determine the quality of timbers are found directly in the structure of the wood, and it is
possible from a mere ocular examination to judge to some extent what qualities may be expected from a given piece
of timber, although even in this direction our knowledge is very incomplete, and but few definite relations between
structure and quality, or between physical and mechanical properties, are established. We know that the width of
the annual rings, their even growth, the closeness of grain, the length, number, thickness, and distribution of the
various cell elements, the weight, and many other physical appearances and properties of the wood influence its
quality, yet the exact relation of these is but little studied. Conjectures more or less plausible, suppositions, and a
few practical experiences preponderate over positive knowledge and results of experiments. Again we know, ina
general way, that structure and composition of the wood must depend upon the conditions of soil, climate, and
surroundings under which the tree is grown, but there are only few definite relations established. We are largely
ignorant as to the nature of our wood crop, and still more so as to the conditions necessary to produce desirable
qualities, and since forestry is not so much concerned in producing trees as in producing quality in trees, to acquire
or at least enlarge this knowledge must be one of the first and most desirable undertakings in which this Division
can engage.

Accordingly a comprehensive plan has been put into operation to study systematically our more important
timber trees.

It will at once be understood that as long as the qualities are to be referred to the conditions under which the
tree is grown, the collection of the study material must be made with the greatest care, and the material must be
accompanied with an exhaustive description of these conditions. Since, further, so much individual variation seems
to exist in trees grown under seemingly the same conditions, a large number must be studied in order to arrive at
reliable average values. For the present it has been decided to study the pines, especially the white pine and the
three Southern lumber pines.

In selecting localities for collecting specimens, a distinction is made between station and site.

By station is understood a section of country (or any places within that section) which is characterized in a
general way by similar climatic conditions and geological formation. Station, then, refers mainly to the general
geographical situation. Site refers to the local conditions and surroundings within the station, such as difference of
elevation, of exposure, of physical properties and depth of the soil, nature of subsoil, and forest conditions, such as
mixed or pure growth, open or close stand, ete.

The selection of characteristic sites in each station requires considerable judgment.

On each site five full-grown trees are to be taken, four of which are to be representative average trees; the
fifth or “check” tree, however, should be the best developed tree that can be found on the site. Some additional
test trees will be taken from the open and also a few younger trees. The trees are cut into varying lengths, and from
each log a disk of 6-inch height is secured, after having marked the north and south sides and noted the position of
the log in the tree.

The disks are sent for examination of the physical and physiological features to the Michigan University, while
the logs, and later_on special parts of the disks are to be sent to the test laboratory of the Washington University
of St.Louis. Here, for the first time, a systematic series of beam tests will be made and compared with the tests on
the usual small laboratory test pieces. Such tests with full-length beams in comparison with tests on small speci-
mens promise important practical results, for a few tests have lately developed that large timbers seem to have but
little more than one-half the strength they were credited with by standard authorities, who relied upon the tests on
small specimens.

From the “check” tree mentioned before only clear timber is to be chosen, in order to ascertain the possibilities
of the species and also to establish, if possible, a relation between such clear timber and that used in general
practice, where elements of weakness are introduced by knots and other blemishes,

TIMBER PHYSICS—-METHODS AND AIMS,” _ 379

An authority on engineering matters writes regarding this work:

“Tnasmuch as what passes current among engineers and architects as information on the strength of timber is
really misinformation, and that no rational designing in timber can be done until something more reliable is furnished
in this direction, the necessity for making a competent and trustworthy series of such tests is apparent. This isa
work which the Government should undertake if it is to be impartial and general.”

A careful record of all that pertains to the history and conditions of the growth from which the test pieces
come, and of their minute physical examination, will distinguish these tests from any hitherto undertaken on
American timbers. ,

The disk pieces will be studied to ascertain the form and dimensions of the trunk, the rate and mode of its
growth, the density of the wood, the amount of water in the fresh wood, the shrinkage consequent upon drying, the
structure of the wood in greatest detail, the strength, resistance, and working qualities of the wood, and lastly, its
chemical constituents, fuel value, and composition of the ash.

In Bulletin 6 we are introduced to the science of ‘‘timber physics” in the following language:

Whenever human knowledge in any particular direction has grown to such an extent and complexity as to make
it desirable for greater convenience and better comprehension to group it, correlate its parts, and organize it into
asystematic whole, we may dignify such knowledge by a collective name as a new science or branch of science.
The need of such organization is especially felt when a more systematic progress in accumulating new knowledge is
contemplated. In devising, therefore, the plans for a systematic and comprehensive examination of our woods it has
appeared desirable to establish a system under which is to be organized all the knowledge we have or may acquire
of the nature and behavior of wood.

To this new branch of natural science I propose to give the name of “timber physics,” a term which I have
used first in my report for 1887, when, in devising a systematic plan of forestry science the absence of a collective
name for this class of knowledge became apparent.

While forest biology contemplates the forest and its components in their living condition, we comprise in timber
physics all phenomena exhibited in the dead material of forest production.

The practical application of timber or wood for human use, its technology, is based upon the knowledge of
timber physics, and under this term we comprise not only the anatomy, the chemical composition, the physical and
mechanical properties of wood, but also its diseases and defects, and a knowledge of the influences and conditions
which determine structure, physical, chemical, mechanical, or technical properties and defects. This comprehensive
science, conceived under the name here chosen, although developed more or less in some of its parts, has never yet
been dignified by a special name, nor has asystematic arrangement of its parts been attempted before. It comprises
various groups of knowledge derived from other sections of science, which are neither in themselves nor in their
relations to each other fully developed.

While plant physiology, biology, chemistry, anatomy, and especially xylotomy, or the science of wood structure,
are more or less developed and contribute toward building up this new branch of science, but little knowledge exists
in regard to the interrelation between the properties of wood on one side and the modifications in “its composition
and structure on the other. Even the relation of tbe properties of various woods, as compared with each other, and
their distinct specitic peculiarities are but little explored and established. Less knowledge still exists as to the
relation of the conditions which surround the living tree to the properties which are exhibited in its wood as a result
of its life functions. Suppositions and conjectures more or less plausible preponderate over positive knowledge
derived from exact observation and from the results of experiments. Still less complete is our knowledge in regard
to the relation of properties and the methods and means used for shaping or working the wood.

The close interrelation of all branches of natural science is now so well recognized that I need not remind my
readers that hard and fast lines can not be drawn whereby each field of inquiry is confined and limited; there must
necessarily be an overlapping from one to the other. Any system, therefore, of dividing a larger field of inquiry
into parts is only a matter of convenience; its divisions and correlations must be tosome extent arbitrary and varied
according to the point of view from which we proceed to divide and cerrelate.

There are two definite and separate directions in which this branch of natural science needs to be developed,
and the knowledge comprised in it may be divided accordingly. On one side it draws its substance largely from the
more comprehensive fields of botany, molecular physics, and chemistry, and on the other side it rests upon investi-
gations of the wood material from the point of view of mechanics or dynamies. In the first direction we are led to
deal with the wood material as it is, its nature or appearance and conditions; in the second direction we consider
the wood material in relation to external mechanical forces, its behavior under stress.

The first part is largely descriptive, concerned in examining gross and minute structures, physical and chemical
conditions and properties, and ultimately attempting to explain these by referring to causes and conditions which
produce them. This is a field for investigation and research by the plant physiologist in the laboratory in connec-
tion with studies of environment in the forest. The second part, which relies for its deyelopment mainly upon
experiment by the engineer, deals with the properties which are a natural consequence of the structure, physical
condition, and chemical composition of the wood as exhibited under the application of external mechanical forces.
It comprises, therefore, those studies which contemplate the wood substance, with special reference to the uses of
man, and forms ultimately the basis for the mechanical technology of wood or the methods of its use in the arts.

The correlation of the results of these two directious of study as cause and effect is the highest aim and
ultimate goal, the philosophy of the science of timber physics. Timber physics, in short, is to furnish all necessary
knowledge of the rational application of wood in the arts, and at the same time, by retrospection, such knowledge
will enable us to produce in our own forest growth qualities of given character,

380 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Conceived in this manner it becomes the pivotal science of the art of forestry, around which the practice both
of the consumer and producer of forest growth moves.

The first part of our science would require a study into gross and minute anatomy, the structure of the wood,
form, dimensions, distribution, and arrangement of its cell elements and of groups of structural parts, not only in
order to distinguish the different woods, but also to furnish the basis for an explanation of their physical and
mechanical properties. We next would class here all investigations into the physical nature or properties of the
wood material, which necessarily also involves an investigation into the change of these properties under varying
conditions and influences. A third chapter would occupy itself with the chemical composition and properties of
woods and their changes in the natural process of life, which predicate the fuel value and durability as well as the
use of the wood in chemical technology.

Although, philosophically speaking, it would hardly seem admissible to distinguish between physical and
mechanical properties or to speak of ‘‘mechanical” forces, for the sake of convenience and practical purposes it is
desirable to make the distinction and to classify all phenomena and changes of nonliving bodies, or bodies without
reference to life functions, into chemical, physical, and mechanical phenomena and changes. As chemical phenomena
or changes, and therefore also conditions or properties, we class, then, those which have reference to atomic struc-
ture; as physical phenomena, changes, and properties those which refer to and depend on molecular arrangement,
and as mechanical (molar) changes and properties those which concern the masses of bodies, as exhibited under the
influence of external forces, without altering their physical or chemical constitution.

There is no doubt that this division is somewhat forced, since not only most or all mechanical (as here ecneesvenn
changes are accompanied or preceded by certain alterations of the interior molecular arrangement of the mass, but
also many physical phenomena or properties, like density, weight, shrinkage, having reference to the mass, might
be classed as mechanical; yet if we conceive that physical phenomena are always concerned with the ‘‘quantity of
matter in molecular arrangement” and with the changes produced by interior forces, while the latter are concerned
rather with the “position of matter in molecular arrangement” and with changes under application of exterior
forces, the distinction assumes a practical value.

Our conception of these distinctions will be aided if we refer to the physical laboratory as furnishing the
evidence of physical phenomena and to the mechanical laboratory as furnishing evidence of mechanical phenomena.

These latter, then, form the subject of our second or dynamic part of timber physics, which concerns itself to
ascertain mainly by experiment, called tests, under application of the laws of elasticity, the strength of the material
and other properties which are exhibited as reactions to the influence of applied stresses, and those which need
consideration in the mechanical use of the material in the various arts.

Having investigated the material in its normal condition, we would necessarily come to a consideration of

_ such physical and chemical conditions of the material as are abnormal and known as disease, decay, or defects.

Finally, having determined the properties and their changes as exhibited in material produced under changing
conditions or differing in physical and structural respects, it would remain the crowning success and goal of this
science to relate mechanical and physical properties with anatomical and physiological development of the wood
substance.

The subject-matter comprised in this branch of applied natural science, then, may be brought into the following
schematic view :

TIMBER PHYSICS, OR THE SCIENCE OF WOOD.

I.—Wo0oD STRUCTURE OR XYLOTOMY.
(a) Exterior form.

Here would be described the form development of timber in the standing tree, differentiated into root

system, root collar, bole or trunk crown, branches, twigs; relative amounts of material furnished by each.
(b) Interior structural appearance; differentiation and arrangement of groups of structural elements.

Here would he described the gross structural features of the wood, the distribution and size of medul-
lary rays, vessels, fibro-vascular bundles, as exhibited to the naked eye or under the magnifying glass on
tangential, radial, and transverse sections; the appearance of the annual rings, their size, regularity, dif-
ferentiation into summer and spring wood, and all distinguishing features due to the arrangement and
proportion of the tissues composing the wood.

(c) Minute anatomy or histology; differentiation and arrangement of structural elements.
Here the revelations of the microscope are recorded, especially the form, dimensions, and structure of
the different kinds of cells, their arrangement, proportion, and relative importance in the resulting tissues.
(d) Comparative classification of woods, according to structural features.
(é) Laws of wood growth with reference to structural results.
Discussion of the factors that influence the formation of wood in the standing tree.
(f) Abnormal formations.
Burls, bird’s eye, curly, wavy, and other structural abnormities and their causes.
II._PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, i. e., properties based on molecular (physical) constitution.
(a) Exterior appearance.

Such properties as can be observed through the unaided senses, as color, gloss, grain, texture, smell,
resonance.

(6) Material condition.

Such properties or changes as are determined by measurements, as density or weight, water contents
and their distribution, volume, and its changes by shrinkage and swelling.

TIMBER PHYSICS—EARLIER WORK. 381

(ce) Classification of woods according to physico-technical properties, i. e., such physical properties as determine
their application in the arts.
III.—CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, i. e., properties based on atomic (chemical) constitution.

(a) General chemical analysis of wood (qualitative and quantitative).

Here would be discussed the chemical constitution of different woods and different parts of trees and
their changes due to physiological processes, age, conditions of growth, etc.

(b) Carbohydrates of the wood.

Here would be more specially discussed cellulose and lignin, cork formations, organic contents and their
changes, and such properties as predicate the fuel value of woods, their manufacture into charcoal, their
food value, pulping qualities, etc.

(ce) Extractive materials.

A knowledge of these underlies the application of wood in the manufacture of tan extracts, resin, and
turpentine, tar, gas, alcohol, acids, vanillin, etc.

(d) Antiseptic materials.

A knowledge of those chemical properties which predicate durability and underlie processes of increasing
the same.

(e) Mineral constituents.

A knowledge of these in particular will establish the relation of wood growth to mineral constituents

of the soil and also serve as basis for certain technical uses (potash).
IV.—MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, i. e., properties based on elastic conditions exhibited by the aggregate mass under
influence of exterior (mechanical) forces.
(a) Form changes without destruction of cohesion, commonly called elasticity, flexibility, toughness.
(b) Form changes with destruction of cohesion, commonly called strength (tensile, compressive, torsional, shearing),
cleavability, hardness.
V.—TECHNICAL PROPERTIES, i. e., properties in combination.

Here would be considered the woods with reference to their technical use, their application in the arts,

which is invariably based upon a combination of several physical or mechanical properties.
VI.—DISEASES AND FAULTS.

Here would be treated the changes in structure and properties from the normal to abnormal conditions,

due to influences acting upon the tree during its life or upon the timber during its use.
VII.—RELATION OF PROPERTIES TO EACH OTHER.

Here would be discussed the connection which may be established between structure, physical, chemical,
and mechanical properties, and also between these and the conditions of growth under which the material
was produced. The philosophy of the entire preceding knowledge would here be brought together.

To contribute toward this important branch of human knowledge and to help in the building of its foundation,
the work undertaken by the Division of Forestry described in this bulletin was designed by the writer; and, in
order to build with a knowledge of what has been done before on this structure, a brief review of the progress in
the development of timber physics seemed advisable. :

This historical review is then given. From this we deem it appropriate to quote the portion
which refers to efforts in the United States up to the time of the writing to establish data
regarding the mechanical properties of our timber:

AMERICAN WORK.

‘While it may be possible to work out the general laws of relation between physical and mechanical properties
on material of European origin, for practical purposes we can not rely upon any other data than those ascertained
from American timbers, and so far as dependence of quality on conditions of growth are concerned this truth is just
as patent. Although in the United States probably more timber has been and is being used than in any other
country, but little work has been done in the domain of timber physics.

Among the earliest American experiments falling in the domain of timber physics may be cited those of
Marcus Bull to determine ‘‘the comparative quantities of heat evolved in the combustion of the principal varieties
of wood and coal used in the United States for fuel,” made in the years 1823 to 1825 and published in 1826. Here
the experiments of Lavoisier, Crawford and Dalton, and Count Rumford on similar lines are discussed and followed
by. an able series of experiments and discussion on American woods and coals.

The only comprehensive work in timber physics ever undertaken on American timbers is that of Mr. T. P.
Sharples, in connection with the Tenth Census, and published in 1884, Vol. IX, on the Forests of North America.
Comprehensiveness, however, has been sought rather in trying to bring under examination all the arborescent species
than in furnishing fuller data of practical applicability on those from which the bulk of our useful material is
derived. ‘The results obtained,” the author says, ‘‘are highly suggestive; they must not, however, be considered
conclusive, but rather valuable as indicating what lines of research should be followed in a more thorough study of
this subject.”

Not less than 412 species were examined in over 1,200 specimens. The results are given in five tables, besides
four comparative tables of range, relative values, averages, etc. The specimens were taken ‘in most cases from
the butt cut and free from sap and knots;” the locality and soil from which the tree came are given in most cases,
and in some its diameter and layers of heart and sapwood; determinations were made of specific gravity, mineral
ash per cent, and from these data fuel values were calculated.

(Se)
()
i)

FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

The specimens tested were ‘carefully seasoned.” For transverse strain they were made 4 centimeters (1.57
inches) square, and a few of double these dimensions, with 1 meter (3.28 feet) span.

One table illustrates ‘‘the relation between the specific gravity and the transverse strength of the wood of
species, upon which a sufficient number of tests has been made to render such a comparison valuable.” This table
seems to show that in perfect specimens weight and strength stand in close relation. A few tanning determinations
on the bark of a few species are also given.

The object of the work as stated, namely, to be suggestive of a more thorough study of the subject, has
certainly been fully and creditably attained. Of compilatory works, for use in practice and for reference, the
following, published in the United States, may be cited:

De Volson Wood: Resistance of Materials (1871), containing rather scanty references to the work of Chevandier
and Wertheim.

R. G. Hatfield: Theory of Transverse Strain (1877), which, besides other references, contains also twenty-three
tables of the author's own test on white pine, Georgia pine, hemlock, spruce, white ash, and black locust, on sticks
1 by 1 inch by 1.6 feet in length.

William H. Burr: The Elasticity and Resistance of Materials of Engineering, third edition, 1890, a compre-
hensive work, in which many references are made to the work of various American experimenters.

Gaetano Lanza, in Applied Mechanies, 1885, lays especial stress on the fact that tests on small select pieces
give too high values, and quotes the following experiments on long pieces. He refers to the work of Capt. T. J.
Rodman, United States Army, published in Ordnance Manual, who used test pieces 24 by 5} inches and 5 feet length,
without giving any reference to density or other facts concerning the wood; and to Col. Laidley’s United States
Navy test (Senate Ex. Doe. 12, Forty-seventh Congress, first session, 1881), who conducted a series of experiments on
Pacifie slope timbers, ewphite and yellow pine,” 12 eet long and 4 to 5 by 11 to 12 inches square, giving also
account of density and average width of rings.

Lastly, the author’s own experiments, made at the Watertown Arsenal for the Boston Manufacturers’ Mutual
Fire Insurance Company, on the columnar strength of ‘ yellow pine” and white oak, 12 feet long and 6 to 10 inches
thick, are brought in support of the claim that such tests show less than half the unit strength of those on small
pieces. Data as to density, moisture, or life history of the specimens are everywhere lacking.

R. H. Thurston, Materials of Engineering, 1882, contains, perhaps, more than any other American work on the
snbject, devoting, in Chapters II and III, 117 pages to timber and its strength, and in the chapter on Fuel several
pages to wood and charcoal, and the products of distillation. It also gives a description of some twenty-five kinds
of American and of a few foreign timber trees, with a description of the structure and their wood in general;
directions for felling and seasoning; discusses briefly shrinkage, characteristics of good timber, the influence of
soil and climate on trees and their wood, and of the various forms of decay of timber, methods of preservation and
adaptation of various woods for various uses, much in the same manner as Rankine’s Manual of Civil Engineering,
from which many conclusions are adopted. The author refers, besides foreign authorities, to the following
American investigators :

G. H. Corliss (unpublished?) is quoted as claiming that proper seasoning of hickory wood increases its strength
by 15 per cent.

R. G. Hatfield is credited with some of the best experiments on shearing strength, published in the American
House Carpenter.

Prof. G. Lanza’s experiments are lemaeily reproduced, also Trautwine’s on shearing, and some of the author’s
own work on California spruce, Oregon pine, and others, especially in torsion, with a specially constructed machine,
an interesting plate of strain diagrams accompanying the discussion.

In connection with the discussion by the author on the influence of prolonged stress, there is quoted as one
of the older investigators, Herman Haupt, whose results on yellow pine were published in 1871 (Bridge
Construction).

Experiments at the Stevens Institute of Technology are related, with the important conclusion that a load
of 60.per cent of the ultimate strength will break a stick if left loaded (one small test piece having been left loaded
fifteen months with this result).

in addition the following list of references to American work in timber physics is here inserted, with a regret
that it has not been possible to include all the stray notes which may be in existence but were not accessible. Those
able to add further notes are invited to aid in making this reference list complete:

Abbott, Arthur V. Testing machines, their history, construction, and use. With illustrations of machines, includ-
ing that at Watertown Arsenal. Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 1883, vol. 30, pp. 204, 325, 382, 477.

Day, Frank M., University of Pennsylvania. The microscopic examination of timber with regard to its strength.
Read before American Philosophical Society, 1883.

Estrada, KE. D. Hxperiments on the strength and other properties of Cuban woods. Investigations carried on in
the laboratory of the Stevens Institute. Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 1885, vol. 29, pp. 417, 441.

Flint, ——. Report of tests of Nicaraguan woods. Journal of Franklin Institute, October, 1887, pp. 289-315.

Goodale, Prof. George L., Harvard University. Physiological Botany, 1885, chapters 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 11, and 12.

Thlseng, Magnus C., Ph. D. On the modulus of elasticity in some American woods, determined by vibration. Van
Nostrand’s Magazine, 1878, 19.

On a mode of measuring the velocity of sounds in woods. Read before the National Academy of Science,
1877; published in American Journal of Science and Arts, 1879, vol. 17.

Johnson, Thomas H. On the strength of columns. Paper read at annual convention of American Society of Civil
Engineers, 1885. Transactions of the Society, vol. 15.

TIMBER PHYSICS—EARLIER WORK. 383

Kidder, F.E. Experiments at Maine State College on transverse strength of southern and white pine. Van Nostrand’s
Magazine, 1879, vol. 22.

Experiments with yellow and white pine. Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 1880, vol. 23.

Experiments on the strength and stiffness of small spruce beams. Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 1880, vol. 24.

Influence of time on bending ae and elasticity. Journal of Franklin Institute, 1882. Proceedings
Institute of Civil Engineering, vol. 7

Lanza, Gaetano, professor ieee ae of Technology. Address before American Society of Mec Hensel
Engineers, describing the 50,000-pound testing machine at Watertown Arsenal and tests of strength of large
spruce beams. Journal of Franklin Institute, 1883.

teport of Boston Manufacturers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company of tests made with Watertown machine
on columns of pine, whitewood, and oak of dimensions used in cotton and woolen mills. See summary and
tables of same in Burr’s Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering, p. 480.

Macdonald, Charles. Necessity of government aid in making tests of materials for structural purposes. Paper read
before the American Institute of Mining Engineers. Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 1882, vol. 27, p. 177.

Norton, Prof. W. A., Yale College. Results of experiments on the set of bars of wood, iron, and steel after a
transverse set. Experiments discussed in two papers read before the National Academy of Science, 1874 and
1875. Published in Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 1887, vol. 17, p. 531.

Description of machine used is given in proceedings of the A-A. A.S., eighteenth meeting, 1869.

Parker, Lieut. Col. I’. H., United States Ordnance Department. Report of tests of American crete by the testing
machine, United States Arsenal, Watertown, under supervision of Prof.C.S.Sargent, for the Census Report,
1880. Senate Ex. Doc. No.5, Forty-eighth Congress, first session, 1882-83.

Report of experiments on the adhesion of nails, spikes, and screws in various woods, as made at Watertown

Arsenal. Senate Ex. Doc. No. 35, Forty-ninth Congress, first session, 1883-84, and in report on tests of metals

and other materials for industrial purposes at Watertown Arsenal, 1888-89.

Also in report on tests of iron, steel, and other materials for industrial purposes at Watertown Arsenal,

1886-87, pp. 188, 189.

Report on cubie compression of various woods, as shown by tests at Watertown Arsenal, 1885-86, in report
on tests of metals, etc., for industrial purposes.

Philbrick, Professor, lowa University. New practical formulas for the resistance of solid and built beams, girders,
ete., with problems and designs. Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 1886, vol. 35.

Pike, Prof. W. A. Tests of white pine, made in the testing laboratory of the University of Minnesota. Van Nos-
trand’s Magazine, 1885, vol. 34, p. 472.

Rothrock, Prof. J. T., University of Pennsylvania. Some microscopic distinctions between good and bad timber of
the same species. Read before American Philosophie Society.

Smith, C. Shaler, C. E. Summary of results of 1,200 tests of full-size yellow-pine columns. See W. I. Burr’s
Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering, pp. 485-490.

Thurston, Prof. R. H., Cornell University. The torsional resistance of materials. Journal of Franklin Institute,
1873, vol. 65.

Experiments on torsion. Van Nostrand’s Magazine, July, 1873.

Experiments on the strength, elasticity, ductility, etc., of materials, as shown by a new testing machine.

Van Nostrand’s Magazine, 1874, vol. 10.

The relation of ultimate resistance to tension and torsion. Proceedings of Institute of Civil Engineers,

vol. 7, 1878.

The strength of American timber. Experiments at Stevens Institute. Paper before A. A. A. S., 1879.

Journal of Franklin Institute, vol. 78, 1879.

Effect of prolonged stress upon the strength and elasticity of pine timber. Journal of Franklin Institute.

vol. 80, 1880. |

Influence of time on bending strength and elasticity. Proceedings A. A. A. S., 1881. Proceedings Institute
of Civil Engineers, vol. 71.

Watertown Arsenal. Summary of results of tests of timber at, in Ex. Doc, No. 1, Forty-seventh Congress, second
session. See Burr’s Elasticity and Resistance of Materials of Engineering, pp. 486 and 535.

Wellington, A. M., c. =. Experiments on impregnated timber. Railroad Gazette, 1880.

ORGANIZATION AND METHODS.

Although in the course of the investigations many minor and some more important changes
in methods became necessary, the general plan was in the main adhered to. We consider it,
therefore, desirable to restate from the same bulletin such portions as will explain the methods
pursued. The work at the test laboratory at St. Louis, Mo., was described in full by Prof. J. B.
Johnson, in charge, and the methods in the examination of the physical properties of the test
material by the writer.

There are four departments necessary to carry on the work as at present organized, namely:

(1) The collecting department.

(2) The department of mechanical tests.

384 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(3) The department of physical and microscopic examination of the test material.

(4) The department of compilation and final discussion of results.

The region of botanical distribution of any one species that is to be investigated is divided
into as many stations as there seem to be widely different climatic or geological differences in its
habitat. In each station are selected as many sites as there seem widely different soils, elevations,
exposures, or other striking conditions oceupied by the species. An expert collector describes
carefully the conditions of station and site, under instructions and on blanks appended to this
report. From each site five mature trees of any one species are chosen, four of which are average
representatives of the general growth, the fifth, or “check” tree, the best developed that can be
found. The trees are felled and cut into logs of merchantable size, and from the butt end of each
log a disk 6 inches in height is sawed. Logs and disks are marked with numbers to indicate
number of tree and number of log or disk, and their north and south sides are marked; their height
in the tree from the ground is noted in the record. The disks are also weighed immediately, then
wrapped in oiled paper and packing paper, and sent by mail or express to the laboratory, to serve
the purpose of physical and structural examination. Some disks of the limbwood and of younger
trees are also collected for other physical and physiological investigations, and to serve with the
disks of the older trees in studying the rate of growth and other problems.

The logs are shipped to the test laboratory, there sawed and prepared for testing, carefully
marked, and tested for strength.

The fact that tests on large pieces give. inten values from those obtained from small pieces
being fully established, a number of large sticks of each species and site will be tested full length
in order to establish a ratio between the values obtained from the different sizes. Part of the
material is tested. green, another part when seasoned by various methods. Finally, tests which
are to determine other working qualities of the various timbers, such as adapt them to various
uses, are contemplated,

The disks cut from each log and correspondingly marked are examined at the botanical labora-
tory. An endless amount of weighings, measurings, countings, computings, microscopic examina-
tions, and drawings is required here, and recording of the observed facts in such a manner that
they can be handled. Chemical investigations have also been begun in the Division of Chemistry
of the Department of Agriculture, the tannic contents of the woods, their distribution through the
tree and their relation to the conditions of growth forming the first series of these investigations.

It is evident that in these investigations, carried on by competent observers, besides the main
object of the work, much new and valuable knowledge unsought for must come to light if the
investigations are carried on systematically and in the comprehensive plan laid out. Since every
stick and every disk is marked in such a manner that its absolute position in the tree and almost
the absolute position of the tree itself or at least its general condition and surroundings are known
and recorded, this collection will be one of the most valuable working collections ever made, allow-
ing later investigators to verify or extend the studies.

This significant prophetic language also occurs in this connection, which has finally been
realized by the discovery of the relation between compression and beam strength:

By and by it is expected that the number of tests necessary may be reduced considerably, when for each species

the relation of the different exhibitions of strength can be sufficiently established, and perhaps a test for compres-
sion alone furnish sufficient data to compute the strength in other directions.

WORK AT THE TEST LABORATORY AT ST. LOUIS, MO.

SAWING, STORING, AND SEASONING.

On arrival of the logs in St. Louis they are sent to a sawmill and cut into sticks, as shown in fig. 103.

In all cases the arrangements shown in Nos. 1 and 2 are used, except when a detailed study of the timber in all
parts of the cross section of the log is intended. A few of the most perfect logs of each species are cut up into small
sticks, as shown in Nos. 3and4, The logs tested for determining the effects of extracting the turpentine from the
Southern pitch pines were all cut into small sticks.

In all cases a ‘small stick” is nominally 4 inches square, but when dressed down for testing may be as small as
3h inches square. The “large sticks” vary from 6 by 12 to 8 by 16 inches in cross section.

All logs vary from 12 to 18 feet in length. They all have a north and south diametral line, together with the
number of the tree and of the log plainly marked on their larger or lower ends. The stenciled lines for sawing are

TIMBER PHYSICS—TESTING. 385

adjusted to this north and south line, as shown in the figures. Each space is then branded by deep dies with three

25
numbers, as, for instance, thus: 2, which signifies that this stick was number 4, in log 2, of tree 25. A facsimile of
4

the stenciling is recorded in the log book, and the sticks there numbered to correspond with the numbering on the
logs. After sawing, each stick can be identified and its exact origin determined. These three numbers, then, become
the identification marks for all speciniens cut from this stick, and they accompany the results of tests in all the
records.

The methods of sawing shown in Nos. 2 and 4 are called “boxing the heart;” that is, all the heart portion is
thrown into one small stick, which in practice may be thrown away or put into a lower grade without serious loss.
In important bridge, floor, or roof timbers, the heart should always he either excluded or “boxed” in this way, since
its presence leads to checking and impairs the strength of the stick.

After sawing, the timbers are stored in the laboratory until they are tested. The ‘‘green tests” are made
usually within two months after sawing, while the “dry tests” are made at various subsequent times. One end
(60 inches) of each small stick is tested green, and the other end reserved and tested after seasoning. The seasoning
is hastened in some cases by means of a drying box. The temperature of the inflowing air in this drying box is
kept at about 100° F., with suitable precaution against checking of the wood, and the air is exhausted by means of
a fan. The air is, therefore, somewhat rarefied in the box. The temperature is at all times under control. It
operates whei the fan is running, and this is only during working hours.

The mechanical and moisture test are then made according to known methods.

°

Ss

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.
Fie. 103.—Method of sawing test logs.

EXAMINATION INTO THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TEST MA'TERIAL.

The physical examination consists in ascertaining the specific weight of the dried material,
and incidentally the progress and amount of shrinkage due to seasoning; the counting and
measuring of the annual rings, and noting other microscopic appearances in the growth; the
microscopi¢e investigation into the relation of spring and summer wood from ring to ring; the
frequency and size of medullary rays; the number of cells and thickness of their walls; and, in
short, the consideration of any and all elements which may elucidate the structure and may have
influence upon the properties of the test piece. The rate of growth and other biological facts

which may lead to the finding of relation between physical appearance, conditions of growth, and

mechanical properties are also studied incidentally.
SHAPING AND MARKING OF THE MATERIAL,

The object of this work being in part the discovery of the differences that exist in the wood, not
only in trees of different species or of the same species from various localities, but even in the wood
of the same tree and from the same cross section, a careful marking of each piece is necessary. The
disks are split, first into a north and south piece, and each of these into smaller pieces of variable
size. In one tree all pieces were made but 3 em. thick radially, in another 4 ¢m., in still others 5 em.,
while in some trees, especially wide-ringed oaks, the pieces were ieft still larger. In the conifers
the outer or first piece was nade to contain only sapwood. Desirable as it appeared to have each
piece contain a certain number of rings, and thus to represent a fixed period of growth, it proved
impracticable, at least in the very narrow-ringed disks of the pines, where sometimes the width of
a ring is less than 5 mm. (0.2 inch).

H. Doce. 181——25

386 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

Some of the disks were split to a wedge shape from center to periphery, so that each smaller
piece not only represents a certain period of growth in quality, but also in quantity, thus simplify-
ing the calculations for the entire piece or disk. Other pieces were left in their prismatic form,
when to calculate the average density of the entire piece the density of each smaller piece is
multiplied by the mean distance of this smaller piece from the center, and the sum of the products
divided by the sum of the distances.

_ Hach piece is marked, first by the number of the tree, in Arabic; second, by the number of
the disk, in Roman numbers; and if split into small pieces, each smaller piece by a letter of the
alphabet, the piece at the periphery in all cases bearing the letter a. Besides the number and
letters mentioned, each piece bears either the letter N or S, to indicate its orientation on the north
or south side of the tree. To illustrate: 5—vyr1 N a means that the piece bearing the label
belongs to tree 5 and disk vir comes from the north side of the tree, and is the peripheral part of
this disk piece. From the collector’s notes the exact position of this piece in the tree can readily
be ascertained.

The entire prisms sent by freight are left in the original form, unless used for special purposes,
and are stored in a dry room for future use.

WEIGHING AND MEASURING.

The weighing is done on an apothecary’s balance, readily sensitive to 0.1 gram with a load of
more than 200 grams. Dealing with pieces of 200 to 1,000 grams in weight, the accuracy of weigh-
ing is always within 1 gram.

The measuring is done by immersion in an instrument illustrated in the following design: Vis
a vessel of iron; S represents one of two iron standards attached to the vessel and projecting

Fia. 104.—Apparatus for determining specific gravity.

above its top; B is a metal bar fastened to the cup A, which serves as guard to the cup and pre-
vents it going down farther at one time than another by coming to rest on the standards S. The
cup A dips down one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch below the edge of the knee-like spout. In
working, the cup is lifted out by the handle which the bar B forms, water is poured into the vessel
until it overflows through the spout, then the cup is set down, replacing the mobile and fickle
natural water level by a constant artificial one. Now the instrument is set, the pan P is placed
under the spout, the cup is lifted out and held over the vessel, so that the drippings fall back into
the latter, the piece of wood to be measured is put into the vessel and the cup replaced, and pressed
down until the bar B rests on the standards §. This is done gently to prevent the water from rising
above the rim of the vessel. This latter precaution is superfluo us where the cup fits closely, as it

TIMBER PHYSICS—PHYSICAL EXAMINATION. 387

does in one of the instruments thus far used. ‘Che pan with water is then weighed, the pan itself
being tared by a bag of shot. ‘The water is poured out, the pan wiped dry, and the process begins
anew. ‘To work well it takes two persons, one to weigh and record. The water pan is a seamless
tin pan, holding about 1,500 cc. of water and weighing only 144 grams. The temperature as well
as density of the water are ascertained, the latter, of course, omitted when distilled water is used.
To maintain the water at the same temperature it requires frequent changing.

DRYING.

After marking, the pieces are left to dry at ordinary temperature. Then they are placed in a
dry kiln and dried at 100° C.

The drying box used is a double-walled sheet-iron case, lined with asbestus paper, and heated
with gasoline. The air enters below and has two outlets on top. The temperature is indicated by
a thermometer and maintained fairly constant. ~

After being dried, the pieces of wood are weighed and measured, in the same way as described
for the fresh wood, and from the data thus gathered the density, shrinkage, and moisture per cent
are derived in the usual manner.

The formule employed are:

(1) Density ef fresh wood— Vcisht oF uesin Weal,

Volume of fresh wood.

5) : oe _ Weight of dry wood. ,

Cy CIS IYy OIL Ygioed vc trrafor dry wood.
Fresh volume—dry volume.
: Fresh volume.

Fresh weight—dry weight.
Fresh weight.

In presenting these values they are always multiplied by 100, so that the density expresses
the weight of 100 em.’ of wood; thus the shrinkage and the amount of moisture become the
shrinkage and moisture per cent.

(3) Shrinkage=

(4) Moisture in wood=

SHRINKAGE EXPERIMENTS.

To discover more fully the relations of weight, humidity, and shrinkage, as well as “checking”
or cracking of the wood, a number of separate experiments were made. A number of the fresh
specimens were weighed and measured at variable intervals until perfectly dry. Some dry pieces
were placed in water and kept immersed until the maximum volume was attained. Without
describing more in detail these tests and their results, it may be mentioned that in the immersed
pieces studied the final maximum volume differed very little, in some cases not at all, from the
original volume of the wood when fresh; and also that in a piece of white pine only 15 em. long
and weighing but 97 gs. when dry, it required a week before the swelling ceased.

To determine the shrinkage in different directions a number of measurements are made in
pieces of various sizes and shapes. In most cases pins were driven into the wood to furnish a firm
metal point of contact for the caliper. A number of pieces of oak were cut in various ways to
study the effect of size, form, and relative position of the grain on checking.

WOOD STRUCTURE.

The most time-robbing, but also the most fascinating, part of the work consists in the
study of the wood as an important tissue of a living organism; a tissue where all favorable and
unfavorable changes experienced by the tree during its long lifetime find a permanent record.

GENERAL APPEARANCE.

For this study all the specimens from one tree are brought together and arranged in the same
order in which they occurred in the tree. This furnishes a general view of the appearance of the
stem; any striking peculiarities, such as great eccentricity of growth, unusual color, abundance
of resin in any part of the stem, are seen at a glance and are noted down.

A table is prepared with separate columns, indicating—

(1) Height of the disk in the tree (this being furnished by the collector’s notes) ;

(2) Radius of the section;

388 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

(3) Number of rings from periphery to center;

(4) Number of rings in the sapwood ;

(5) Width of the sapwood; and

(6) Remarks on color, grain, ete.

The results from each disk oceupy two lines, one for the pieces from the.north side and one
for those of the south side. The radius is measured correct to one-half millimeter (0.02 inch), and
the figures refer to the air-dry wood.

To count the rings, the piece is smoothed with a sharp knife or plane, the cut being made :
oblique, i.e., not quite across the grain, nor yet longitudinal. Beginning at the periphery, each ring
is marked with a dot of ink, and each tenth one with a line to distinguish it from the rest. After
counting, the rings are measured in groups of ten, twenty, thirty, rarely more, and these meas-
urements entered in separate subcolumns. In this way the rate of growth of the last ten, twenty,
or thirty years throughout the tree is found, also that of similar periods previous to the last; in
short, a fairly complete history of the rate of growth of the tree from the time when it had reached
the height of the stump to the day when felled is thus obtained. Not only do these rings furnish
information concerning the growth in thickness, but indicating the age of the tree when it had
grown to the height, from which the second, third, etc., disks were taken, the rate of growth in
height, as well as that of thickness, is determined, any unfavorable season of growth or any series
of such seasons are found faithfully recorded in these rings, and the influence of such seasons,
whatever their cause, both on the quantity and on the quality or properties of the wood, can thus
be ascertained. 3

In many cases, especially in the specimens from the longleaf pine, and from the limbs of all
pines, the study of these rings is somewhat difficult. Zones of a centimeter and more exist where
the width of the rings is such that the magnifier has to be used to distinguish them. In some cases
this difficulty is increased by the fact that the last cells of one year’s growth differ from the first
cells of the next year’s ring: only in form and not in the thickness of their walls, and therefore
produce the same color effect. Such cases frequently occur in the wood of the upper half of the
disks from limbs (the limb supported horizontally and in its natural position), and often the magnifier
has to be reenforced by the microscope to furnish the desired information. For this purpose the
wood is treated as in all microscopic work, being first soaked in water and then sectioned with a
sharp knife or razor and examined on the usual slide in water or glycerin.

The reason for beginning the counting of rings at the periphery is the same which suggested
the marking of all peripheral pieces by the letter a. It is convenient, almost essential, to have,
for instance, the thirty-fifth ring in Section II represent the same year’s growth as the thirty-fifth
ring in Section X. The width of the sapwood, the number of annual rings composing it, as well
as the clearness and uniformity of the line separating the sapwood from the heartwood, are
carefully recorded. In the columns of “remarks” any peculiarities which distinguish the particular
piece of wood, such as defects of any kind, the presence of knots, abundance of resin, nature of
the grain, etc., are set down.

When finished, a variable number, commonly 3 to 6 small pieces, fairly representing the wood
of the tree, are split off, marked with the numbers of their respective disks, and set aside for the
microscopic study, which is to tell us of the cell itself, the very element of structure, and of its
share in all the properties of wood.

The small pieces are soaked in water, cut with a sharp knife or razor, and examined in water,
glycerin, or chloriodide of zinc. The relative amount of the thick-walled, dark-colored bands of
summer wood, the resin ducts, the dimensions of the common tracheids and their walls, both in
spring and summer wood, the medullary rays, their distribution and their elements, are the
principal subjects in dealing with coniferous woods; the quantitative distribution of tissues, or
how much space is occupied by the thick-walled bast, how much by vessels, how much by thin-
walled, pitted tracheids and parenchyma, and how much by the medullary rays; what is the
relative value of each as a strength-giving element; what is the space occupied by the lumina,
what by the cell walls,in each of these tissues—these are among the important points in the study
of the oaks.

Continued sections from center to periphery, magnified 25 diameters, are employed in finding
the relative amount of the summer wood; the limits of the entire ring and that of spring and

TIMBER PHYSICS

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RWS ger, \Ie45%
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RW..721.™m.

D..52 |87 105mm\D..57

W. 447) FT. WW. 38 %
S.8% Shy eth iS. 8%
‘VIL
D..49 {108 _ 145 mm.\D..64
W397 7) (WHER
S. 9.3% 94%
*
VI
D..52_ |98 __|_ _2mm.|D..51
W. 30% 179 Rincs |\W.337
S. 8.4% S.8.6%
RW.54 W..84mm.

v.49 |127_ _V|_152mm.|D..53

WAGES! ~~ Tatlin WE GIO
S.10% S.9.2%

D..57 [156 WL) 175mm. |D..59
W. 35% inte hora WW. 33%
11% 12%

W. 34% W. 3025
8.127, 16)GT. S.12%

4 D..64.
W3sz186_ DISKI | _zo7mm|% 30%
ULL 3)FT. 229 RINGS\BW..9m.m.

RW.8, SW.43%

STATEMENT OF RESULTS. 389

I
D..37 _Vullginas\ D.. 34
W. 402/87 90\FT. 67\W.39.%

S.7.67, MIMS. 6.2%
RW.7 B.W..59m.m.
D.36 | _ VIN/46Rines\D...38
W. 38% 117 78\FT. 115 \W.40%
S.7.2% mm. \5.7.3%
RW.79 R.W..79m.m-
D.37 | _ NT 74Rines \D..36
W.4A5% |133 -135mam\" 38%
S.7% OB)FT. 135mm) 6%
RW.77 FLW. 77mm.
D..36| ___V|_ 189 Rincs \D..36
WA52|q4p SB/FT, 155 mm. |W 40%
S.817, S.7.9%
RWATS R.W..82m.m.
D..38 | __ __ __—AY| 205 RINGS _|D..37
W.46% |175 . 170mm. \W. 34%
3.8% BOL G SOO NS os
RW.85 B.W..83 mam.
D..38| ____4l| _ 2/8 kines \p..39
B.W..80)176 207m: WW. 41%
31) FT. O07 mam. S Oye
; RW. 957M.
D.41|_____U| _222Res__\p.43
W. 51% 170 25/FT. 217mm. |W 39%
S. 8.8%, S.9.4%
ELW..76 RW. 97mm,
D.41 | __ DISK I) _197Rines_|p..44
WAS 2/195 \2|FT. 1807h.m. \B-W. 91mm.

S.107,

Tia. 105.—Result of physical examination. (Sample.)

LONGLEAF PINE (P. palustris), tree 3.
Locality: Wallace, Ala.
Site: Upland forest, quite dense.
Soil: Sandy.

WHITE PINE (P. Strobus), tree 116.
Locality: Marathon County, Wis.
Site: Grown in dense mixed forest.
Soil: Sandy, with sandy subsoil.

Legend.

D. Denotes density or specific gravity of the dry wood.

W. Denotes percentage of water in the fresh wood, related to its
weight.

S. Denotes percentage of shrinkage in kiln drying.

R. W. Denotes width of ring (average) in millimeters (25 mm.—1 inch).

S. W. Denotes percentage of summer wood as related to total wood.

Roman numbers refer to number of disk, placed in position of disk.

Height is given in feet from the ground; scale, 10 feet — 2 inches.

Radius, north and south (dotted line), in millimeters; scale, 10 mm.—
0.1 inch.

Median line represents the pith.

Right-hand numbers relate to north side, left-hand numbers to south
side.

Outer lines represent outlines of trees,

a pe SRE SN MP SS NEE ESI ACOA

390 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

summer wood are marked on paper with the aid of the camera, and thus a panorama of the entire
section is brought before the eye. The histology of the wood, the resin ducts, the tracheids and
medullary rays, their form and dimensions, are studied in thin sections magnified 580 diameters
and even more. Any peculiarity in form or arrangement is drawn with the camera and thus
graphically recorded; the dimensions are measured in the manner described for the measurement
of the summer wood, or with the ocular micrometer. In measuring cell walls the entire distance
between two neighboring lumina is taken as a “double wall,” the thickness of the wall of either of
the two cells being one-half of this. The advantage of this way of measuring is apparent, since
the two points to be marked are in all cases perfectly clear and no arbitrary positions involved.
The length of the cells is found in the usual way by separating the elements with Schultze’s
solution (nitric acid, chlorate of potassium). All results tabulated are averages of not less than
ten, often of more than one hundred, measurements.

In the attempt to find the quantitative relations of the different tissues, as well as the density
of each tissue, various ways have been followed. In some cases drawings of magnified sections
were made on good, even paper, the different parts cut out, and the paper weighed. In other cases
numerous measurements and computations were resorted to. Though none of the results of these
attempts can be regarded as perfectly reliable, they have done much to point out the relative
importance of different constituents of the wood structure, and also the possibility and practica-
bility, and even the necessity, of this line of investigation.

INSTRUCTIONS AND BLANK FORMS, WITH ILLUSTRATIVE RECORDS.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE COLLECTION OF TEST PIncES OF PINES FOR TIMBER INVESTIGATIONS.

A.—OBJECT OF WORK.

The collector chould understand that the ultimate object of these investigations is, if possible, to establish the
relation of quality of timber to the conditions under which it is grown. To accomplish this object he is expected
to furnish a very careful description of the conditions under which the test trees have grown, from which test pieces
are taken. Care in ascertaining these and minuteness and accuracy of description are all-important in assuring
proper results. It is also necessary to select and prepare the test pieces exactly as described and to make the records
perfect as nearly as possible, since the history of the material is of as much importance as the determination in the
laboratory.

B.—LOCALITIES FOR COLLECTING.

As to the locality from which test trees are to be taken, a distinction is made into station and site.

By station is to be understood a section of country (or any places within that section) which is charactorized
in a general way by similar climatic conditions and geological formation. ‘‘Station,” then, refers to the general
geographical situation. ‘‘Site” refers to the local conditions and surroundings within the station from which test .
trees are selected.

For example, the drift deposits of the Gulf Coast plain may be taken for one station; the limestone country of
northern Alabama for a second. But a limestone formation in West-Virginia, which differs climatically, would
necessitate another station. Within the first station a rich, moist hummock may furnish one site, a sandy piece of
upland another, and a wet savannah a third. Within the second or third station a valley might furnish one site,
the top of a hill another, a different exposure may call for a third, a drift-capped ledge with deeper soil may warrant
the selection of another.

Choice of stations.—F or each species a special selection of stations from which test pieces are to be collected is
necessary. These will be determined, in each case separately as to number and location, from this office. It is
proposed to cover the field of geographical distribution of a given species in such a manner as to take in stations
of climatic difference and different geological horizon, neglecting, however, for the present, stations from extreme
limits of distribution. Another factor which will determine choice is character of soil, as dependent upon geological
formations. Stations which promise a variety of sites will be preferably chosen.

Choice of site.—Such sites will be chosen at each station as are usually occupied by the species at any one of
the stations. If unusual sites are found occupied by the species at any one of the stations it will be determined by
special correspondence whether test pieces are to be collected from it. The determination of the number of sites at
each station must be left to the judgment of the collector after inspection of the localities; but before determining
the number of sites the reasons for their selection must be reported to this office. The sites are characterized and
selected by differences of elevation, exposure, soil conditions, and forest conditions. The difference of elevation
which may distinguish a site is provisionally set at 500 feet; that is, with elevation as the criterion for choice of
stations the difference must be at least 500 feet. Where differences of exposure occur a site should be chosen on
each of the exposures present, keeping as much as possible at the same elevation and under other similar conditions.
Soil conditions may vary in a number of directions, in mineral composition, physical properties, depth, and nature
of the subsoil. For the present, only extreme differences in depth or in moisture conditions (drainage) and decided
difference in mineral composition will be considered in making selection of sites,

TIMBER PHYSICS—COLLECTING MATERIAL. Big)

Forest conditions refer, in the first place, te mixed or pure forest, open or close stand, and should be chosen as
near as possible to the normal character prevailing in the region. If what, in the judgment of the collector, consti-
tutes normal conditions are not found, the history of the forest and the points wherein it differs from normai
conditions must be specially noted.

C.—CHOICE OF TREES.

On each site five trees are to be taken, one of which is to serve as ‘‘check tree.” None of these trees are to be
taken from the roadside or open field, nor from the outskirts, but all from the interior of the forest. They are to be
representative average trees—neither the largest or best nor the smallest or worst, preferably old trees and such as
are not overtopped by neighbors.

The ‘‘check tree,” however, should be selected with special care, and should represent the best-developed tree
that can be found, judged by relative height and diameter development and perfect crown.

The distance between the selected trees is to be not less than 100 feet or thereabout, yet care must be exercised
that all are found under precisely the same conditions for which the site was chosen.

There are also to be taken six young trees as prescribed under E.

If to be had within the station, select two trees from 30 to 60 years old or older, which are known to have
grown up inthe open, and two trees which are known to have grown up in the forest, but have been isolated for a
known time of ten to twenty years.

D.—PROCEDURE AND OUTFIT.

The station determined upon, the collector will proceed to examine it for the selection of sites. After having
selected the sites, he will at once communicate the selection, with description and justification, to this office,
negotiate with the owners of the timber (which might be done conditionally during the first examination) for the
purchase or donation of test trees; and the latter arrangements completed, without waiting reply from this office,
he will at once proceed to collect test pieces on one of the sites in regard to the selection of which he is not in doubt.

To properly carry out the instructions, the following assistants and outfit may be required:

(1) Two men! with ax and saw; a boy also may be of use.

(2) Team, wagon, and log trucks for moving test pieces and logs to station.

(3) Frow or sharp hacking knife for splitting disks. Heavy mallet or medium-sized “‘maul” to be used with
frow.

(4) A handsaw.

(5) Red chalk for marking. (A special marking hammer will be substituted. )

(6) Tape line and 2-foot rule or calipers.

(7) Tags (specially furnished).

(8) Tacks (12-ounce) to fasten tags.

(9) Wrapping paper and twine. 2

(10) Franks for mailing test pieces (specially furnished).

(11) Shipping tags for logs.

(12) Seales, with weight power not less than 30 pounds.

(13) Barometer for ascertaining elevations.

(14) Compass to ascertain exposures.

(15) Spade and pick to ascertain soil conditions.

(16) Bags for shipping disks.

E.—METHOD OF MAKING TEST PIECES.

(a) Mature trees.

(1) Before felling the tree, blaze and mark the north side.

(2) Fell tree with the saw as near the ground as practicable, avoiding the flare of the butt and making the
usual kerf with the ax opposite to the saw, if possible, so as to avoid north and south side. If necessary, square
off the butt end.

(8) Before cutting off the butt log mark the north side on the second, third, and further log lengths.

(4) Measure off and cut logs of merchantable length and diameters, beginning from the butt, noting the length
and diameters in the record.

Should knots or other imperfections, externally visible, oceur within 8 inches of the log mark, make the cut
lower down or higher up to avoid the imperfection.

(5) Continue measuring the full length of the tree and record its ila. Note also distance from the ground
and position on the tree (whether to the north, south, west, cast) of one large sound limb. Mark its lower side and
saw it off close to the trunk and measure its length and record it, the limb to be utilized as described later.

If the tree after felling prove unsound at the butt, it will be permissible to cut off as much or as little as
necessary within the first log length. If sound timber is not found in the first log, the tree must be discarded.
Only sound timber must be shipped. Any logs showing imperfections may be shortened. Be careful to note change
in position of test pieces.

(6) Mark butt end of each log with a large N on north side. Saw off squarely from the bottom end of each log
a disk 6 inches long, and beyond the log measure cut off disks every 10 feet up to 2-inch diameter. Place eack disk

1 Only men familiar with felling and cutting timber should be chosen,

392 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

on its bottom end, and after having ascertained and marked the north and south line on top end. Split the disk
with a sharp hacking knife and mallet along this line. Split from outside of the west half of the disk enough wood
to leave a prism4 inches thick. Split from the east half two wedges with one plane in the south-north line and with
their wedge line through the heart of the disk; the outer are to be about 4 inches.

Mark each piece as split off on top side with number of the tree (Arabic), the serial number (Roman) of the
disk in the tree, beginning with No. 1 at butt log, and with a distinct N orS, the north or south position of the
piece as in the tree.

Write the same data on a card and tack it to the piece to which they belong. Whenever disk pieces are small
enough for mailing, leave them entire. Whenever they can not be shipped by mail, Tee disks entire, wrap in paper,
and ship by express.

(7). Weigh each piece and record weight in notebook, using the same marks as 5 appear on the pieces.

(8) Wrap each piece in two sheets of heavy wrapping paper and tie securely.

(9) Mark on the newly cut bottom end of each log with a heavy pencil a north and south line, writing N on
the north and § on the south side of the log, large and distinct. Also mark centrally with an Arabic number on
each log the number of the tree in the series, and with a distinct Roman number the serial number of the log in the
tree, counting the butt log as first.

Tack to the butt end of each log securely a card (centrally), on which is written name of tree, species, locality
from which tree is taken, denoted by the letter corresponding to that used in the notebook, number of tree, and
section. This card or oe is intended to insure a record of each log in addition to the marking already made.

(10) Limb wood.—Having, as before noted, selected a limb, measured and recorded its distance from the butt
and position on the trunk, and marked its lower side and sawed it off close to the latter, now take a disk 6 inches
long from the butt end and others every 5 feet up to 2-inch diameter at-the top. Number these consecutively with
Roman number, calling the butt disk No, 1. Note by letters L and U the lower and upper side, as the limb appeared
on the tree, and place the (Arabic) number of tree from which the limb came on each. Enforce the record by cards
containing the same information, as done in case of other disk pieces. 0

Weigh and wrap and mail in the same manner as the other pieces.

(11) Check trees.—From the “check tree,” which is to be the very best to be found, only three disks or three
logs are to be secured, from the butt, middle, and top part of the tree Absolutely clear timber, free from all knots
and blemishes, is to be chosen. The disk pieces are to be of the same size, and to be secured in the same manner as
those described before; the logs to be not necessarily more than 6 feet; less if not enough clear timber can be found.

Note the position of each piece
din, in the tree by measuring from the butt
— cut to the butt end of the piece.

Prepare and mark all pieces in
the same manner as those from other
trees, adding, however, to each piece
a X mark to denote it as coming from
the ‘‘ check tree.”

(12) Young trees.—Select six trees
from each site approximately of fol-
lowing sizes: Two, 6-inch diameter,
breast high; two, 4-inch diameter,
breast high; two, 2-inch diameter,
breast high. Mark north and south
sides and chop or saw all close to the
ground and cut each tree into following lengths: First stick, 2 feet long; second stick, 4 feet long; the remaining
cuts 4 feet long up to a top end diameter of about 1 inch. Cut from the basal end of each log a disk 6 inches long.
Mark and ticket butt end of each log as in case of large trees. Mark a north and south line on top end of each
disk, with N and § at extremities to denote north and south sides; and also ticket with same data as given on
large disk pieces. Weigh and wrap as before. Of these trees only the disk pieces are to be mailed.

a il, —— es i

6in.

6in.

¥.—SHIPPING TEST PIECES.

Ship all pieces without delay. To each log tack securely a shipping card (furnished), so as to cover the marking
tag. The logs will go to J.B. Johnson, St. Louis, Mo. The disks and other pieces are to be mailed to F. Roth, Ann
Arbor, Mich., using franks, securely pasted, for mailing, unless, as noted before, they must be sent by express.

Mail at once to the above addresses notice of each shipment, and a transcript of notes and full description to
this office, from which copies will be forwarded to the recipients of the test pieces.

If free transportation is obtained from the railroad companies, special additional instructions will be given
under this head.

G.—RECORDS.

Careful and accurate records are most essential to secure the success of this work. A set of specially prepared
record sheets will be furnished, with instructions for their use. A transcript of the record must be sent to this office
at the time of making shipment; also such notes as may seem desirable to complete the record and to give additional
explanations in regard to the record and suggestions respecting the work of collecting. Original records and notes
must be preserved, to avoid loss in transmission by mail.

TIMBER PHYSICS—COLLECTING MATERIAL. 393

FORM OF FIELD RECORD.

?

(Folder.)
Name of collector: (Charles Mohr.) Species: Pinus palustris.

STATION (denoted by capital letter): A.
State: Alabama. County: Escambia. Town: Wallace.
Longitude: 86° 12’. Latitude: 31915’. Average altitude: 75 to 100 feet.
General configuration: Plain—hills—plateau—mountainous. General trend of valleys or hills. .-..........--
Climatic features: Subtropical; mean annual temperature, 65°; mean annual rainfall, 62 inches.
SiTE (denoted by small letter): a.
Aspect: Leyel—ravine—cove—bench—slope (angle approximately).
Wxip OSUTC CN ee seas cee eee eis eer Elevation (above average station altitude): 125 feet.
Soil conditions:
(1) Geological formation (if known): Southern stratified drift.
(2) Mineral composition: Clay—limestone—loam—marl—sandy loam—loamy sand—sand.
(38) Surface cover: Bare—grassy—mossy. Leaf cover: Abundant—scanty—lacking.
(4) Depth of vegetable mold (humus): Absent—moderate—plenty—or give depth in inches.
(5) Grain, consistency, and admixtures: Very fine—fine—medium—coarse—p or ous—light—loose—

moderately loose—compact—binding—stones or rock, size of. ....-.-.--..---.--------------------
(6) Moisture conditions: Wet—moist—fresh—dry—arid—well drained—liable to overflow—swampy—near

Sireamonisprincionotner kind ot water SUpplysesss sees ee eee eae eee sei e eae ee
(7) Color: Ashy-gray.

(8) Depth to subsoil (if known): Shallow, 3 to 4 inches to 1 foot—1 foot to 4 feet, deep—over 4 feet, very ©

deep—shifting.
(9) Nature of subsoil (if ascertainable): Red, ferruginous sandy loam; moderately loose, or rather slightly
binding; always of some degree of dampness; of great depth.
Forest conditions: Mixed timber—pure—dense growth—moderately dense to open.......-......--...--.--...
Associated species: None.

Proportionsrofiuhesessseentcesete erecta seein Sg eodo cons Sede socoSs coos sosS Dass cons bocD CEES OSes ,

Average height: 90 feet.
Undergrowth: Scanty; in the original forest often none.
Conditions in the open: Field—pasture—lawn—clearing (how long cleared): In natural clearings untouched
by fire, dense groves of second growth of the species. ‘
Nature of soil cover (if any): Weeds—brush—sod.

(Inside of folder.)
STATION: A. SITE: a. Species: P. palustris. TrEE No. 3.

POSITION of tree (if any special point notable not appearing in general description of site, exceptional exposure to
light or dense position, etc., protected by buildings, note on back of sheet): In rather dense position.
ORIGIN of tree (if ascertainable): Natural seedling, sprout from stump, artificial planting.

DIAMETER breast high: 16 inches. HeErGur of stump: 20 inches.
HEIGHT to first limb: 53 feet. LenetH of felled tree: 110 feet 4 inches.
AGE (annual rings on stump): 183. Tora. height: 111 feet 8 inches.
. Weight of : Ae
7 cae Distance i 7 : r ~ | Distance | Length of | Diameter,
Noxofidisls. from butt. onbace Remarks: No. of log. | som butt. log. | butt end.
Feet. Pounds. | Ft. In. Ft. In. | Inches.
0 27 | Crown touching those Weesone 8 0 12 4 163
13 20 of nearest trees to the Messe 13 8 5 4 144
19 20 N. and NE. Open || M1...... 19 8 12 4 14
32 18 toward SW. INV eccooe 32 8 14 4 134
47 16 Wieceeee 47 8 9 4 124
57 14 Wileccads 57 8 9 4 11}
67 17 WANE, ae 67 8 9 4 92
17 14 WiGB cece id 9 4 8%
87 94
97 6
LIMBWoopD: .
DISTANCE from butt: POSITION on trunk: Tora length:

NUMBER of disks taken:

Nore.—As much as possible make description by underscoring terms used above, Add other descriptive terms
if necessary.

394 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

SAMPLE RECORDS OF TESTS.
CROSS BREAKING TEST.
Strength of extreme fiber,

116.
Mark, a White pine. where f=5 > 7—5,660 pounds per squareinch. |

Length, 60.0 inches. Modulus of elasticity =1,320,000 pounds per square inch.
Height, 3.74 inches. Total resilience =3,460 inch-pounds. El. Res., 550.
Breadth, 3.75 inches. Resilience, per cubic inch =4.11 inch-pounds. EI. Res., 0.65.

(Number annual rings per inch =19.]

ouly As, Load. Deflection. | Micrometer. Remarks.
h. m.
4 24 200 042 0.757 |
25 1, 000 211 0. 926
26 1, 600 - 300 1. 065 G
27 2, 000 454 1.169
28 2, 200 511 1. 226
29 2, 400 595, 1.310
31 2, 600 690 1.405 Ye
33 2, 800 853 1.568 Z|
35 3, 000 1.015 1.730 a
37 3, 200 1.276 1.991
40 3, 300 1.521 2.236 | Maximum load.

i
'
|
(
|
{
|
'
|
|
|
|
{
|

O'S
|

Deflection in inches.

LY

S

Nae eens Soe ea eee eee
|S

(3.
Mark, +3.
li.
Length, 60.0 inches.
Height, 3.50 inches.
Breadth, 3.72 inches.

Longleaf pine.

[Number annual rings per inch =23.]

TIMBER PHYSICS—-METHODS.

CROSS BREAKING TEST.

6000

Strength of extreme fiber,

Modulus of elasticity

Wt

BU
where f=9> P= 10,230 pounds per square inch,

Total resilience

| Resilience, per cubic inch =6.54 inch-pounds.

bh

=1,760,000 pounds per square inch.
=5,110inch-pounds. El. Res., 1,780.

El. Res., 2.28.

July | Deflec- | Micro- r :
20,1891. Load.| tion. | meter.) Remarks.
h. m. |
2 58; 200 - 042 | 0.958
3 0 /| 1,000 .208 | 1.124 nl
1 1,600 -324 | 1.240
2) 2, 000 -404 | 1.320
3) 2,400 -481 | 1.397
4 | 2,800 -058 | 1.474
5 | 3, 200 - 640} 1.556
6 | 3, 600 -721 | 1.637
7 | 4,000 -815 | 1.731
8 4,400 -926 | 1.842
9 | 4,800 | 1.074] 1.990
13 | 5,180 | 1.544] 2.460 | Maximumload i
Ry
Oo
i)
8
8
Q
Deflection in inches.
FINAL RECORD OF TIMBER TESTS.
Cross bending test.
Percent- Dimensions. | Resilience
Mark. age of le A Strength | ytodulus | in inch-
moisture. ; . Time. | Load. Amal nea of elas- | poundsper
Length. | Height. | Breadth. inch. (f) | ety: (@) ; ae
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Min. |Pounds.| Inches.| Pounds. | Pounds.
16.8 60.0 3.50 3.72 15 | 5,180] 1,544 10, 230 | 1, 760, 000 6.54
ING. ssscocomsosoonsSsossosorccaesooess
| 54.3 60.0 3.74 3.75 16} 3,300} 1,521 5, 660 | 1, 320, 000 4.11
Crushing endwise. Crushing across grain.
Mark. Dimensions. ¢ Strength Dimensions. i Strength
Area. Crushing per ¢ Area, Crushing per square
Height. Cross Eto square | Height. TORR aC. inch.
= section. inch. section.
Inches.| Inches. | Sq.in.| Pounds.| Pownds. | Inches. | Inches. | Sq.inch.| Pownds.| Pounds.
f 3. 46 on 3.47
B1\{ 37 \ 12.87 | 77,700} 6, 040 3.73 { nica } 13.63 | 10, 400 760
Hii coccesssoceansesnoanmyessaecan99s0 f 3.73 |\ 3.72 5 3
| 7.6|{ 3-45 |) 13.91 | 48,400 | 3, 480 372 3°93 \ 14.62) 5,200 60
‘Tension tests. Shearing tests.
Mark. Size of re- | P Strength | Total | . Sheari
duced sec- Area. Breaking per square shearing B reaing: Seeewath
tion. . inch. area.
Sq.inch. | Sq. inch. Pounds. Pounds. | Sq.tnch. Pounds. Pounds.
2.38 f 4.14 2, 280 551
i Fay Ene 11, 400 11,680 /{ 397 2580 650
2 6 1, 700 409
222 1134 |) 1, 200 95880) Miz eGs ech aa

J—METAL TIES FOR RAILWAYS AND ECONOMIES IN Orie ask
OF WOODEN TIES.

E. E. RussELL TRATMAN, C. E.
2

Assoc. Mem. Am. Soc. Civ. Yngs.—Mem. Am. Inst. Min. Engs.

The use of metal ties as a substitute for wooden ties in railway track has been practiced in
foreign countries for many years on a very extensive scale and with great success, but though the
matter has been given some attention in this country, very little has been done except in the way
of a few small experiments. This is due in part to the general, though erroneous, idea that our
still abundant timber resources are inexhaustible; and also to the comparatively high first cost of
metal ties (the possible future economy resulting from their use being frequently overlooked). In
fact the matter is, on the whole, regarded with indifference. Another reason for this is, perhaps,
a tendency to question the application of foreign experience to American railways. There is,
too, a wide impression that the use of metal ties in other countries is merely experimental and on
a small scale, whereas in point of fact they have been extensively adopted for main lines carrying
heavy traffic, as well as for lighter lines, and they have certainly long since passed the experi-
mental stage. Nearly 35,000 miles of track are now laid with metal ties.

The writer has given the subject considerable attention for several years past, and in 1887
was requested by Mr. B. KH. Fernow, then chief of the Division of Forestry, to make a special
investigation and report thereon to the Division in the interests of the preservation of the timber
resources of the country. Three reports have since been made, forming Bulletins No. 3, No. 4,
and No. 9 of the Division of Forestry. The first, in 1889, was a preliminary report of progress.
The second and third, issued in 1890 and 1894, were comprehensive reports, giving full particulars
of foreign practice and discussing the entire subject. In both of these reports very full details
were given of: (1) various forms of metal ties and their fastenings, as well as of the track of
which they form a part; (2) the character of the rolling stock and traffic; (3) the results obtained
from their use. As there was then no comprehensive work on the subject, special attention was
given to describing the ties, fastenings, etc., in detail. The third report (1894) had a somewhat
wider scope and included the use of metal tie-plates and preservative processes for increasing the
life and efficiency of wooden ties.

On foreign railways the many improvements in shape, material, and manufacture of steel ties
and their fastenings, and the careful investigation as to the work of maintenance, particularly
since 1880, are now showing results in decidedly favorable estimates as to maintenance and
renewals on railways where steel ties have been extensively and intelligently used. A large
number of the important patents on steel ties have now expired and have no longer an influence
on the cost of manufacture, so that the various systems can be considered purely on their merits.
The consideration of the respective merits of metal and wooden ties is a very important matter
in many European and other countries, where, owing to conditions of climate or to the relative
cost of timber and steel, the use of metal ties may effect a direct financial economy as well as a
general improvement in the track.

The subject is, perhaps, not of such immediate interest or importance in this country, where
timber is still comparatively plentiful. The use of protective steel tie-plates has made the cheaper
and inferior qualities of timber largely available for railway service, while the use of preservative

396

METAL RAILWAY TIES. 397

processes of chemical treatment has not yet been developed to any great extent. Nevertheless,
in view of the great and steady demand for timber for railway and other purposes, and in view
also of the steady reduction in the timber resources by legitimate consumption and various
destructive agencies, it seems inevitable that the price of wooden ties will continue to increase.
Such an increase in the price of timber, with a reduction in the price of steel, may introduce in
this country conditious approximately similar to those which have led to the extensive introduction
of steel ties in other countries.

The relation of this question to the forestry interests, however,is not the only one to be
considered. In many instances the use of metal ties may effect a decided improvement in the
track and an economy in the expenses for track maintenance. In fact there are probably many
places in this country now where metal ties might be used with advantage. For these reasons
therefore it may be said that it will be well for progressive railway men to begin to consider the
conditions under which metal ties have been used abroad and the results of experience with these
ties, with a view to the possibilities of their introduction upon American railways.

‘ In discussions upon the metal-tie question two extreme arguments are frequently put forward,

One of these is to the effect that the use of such ties is merely a fad and an unsuccessful experi-
ment, while the other is to the effect that metal ties are essential for a safe and substantial track.
The abandonment of some experiments on the Pennsylvania Railroad a few years ago was made
the basis of conclusions, which were widely circulated, to the effect that metal ties as a whole were
a complete failure. As a matter of fact the very limited trials on that road and the styles of ties
used did not warrant any general conclusions; on the other hand, legislative action to compel the
use of metal ties has even been advocated.

The introduction of good metal ties, however, is a matter of development and not of arbitrary
action; of evolution rather than of revolution. It must be remembered also that while innumer-
able forms and modifications of metal ties have been devised only a very limited proportion of
these are such as to warrant trial, while the ties which have been most extensively and successfully
used comprise but a very few general types. Among the 750 patents taken out in this country
and recorded in my reports very few are at all practicable or, show ‘any qualifications on the part
of the inventor for designing such an article as a railway tie. The same remarks apply to the
fastenings of the rails to metal ties.

The necessity for economy in the use of our timber resources is due to the fact that the con-
sumption has for a long time been excessive as compared with reproduction, and that ties are
largely obtained from young trees, thereby reducing the supplies needful for the future. Taking
the low average of 2,500 ties per mile, the 240,000 miles of railway track represent 600,000,000 ties
in service. The average life is but seven years, and renewals require at least 85,000,000 ties per
annum, while about 7,500,000 are required for new construction. The 16,500 miles of street railway
represent about 33,000,000 ties, and require about 4,000,000 per year for renewals and 2,500,000 for
new construction. This gives a total annual consumption of about 100,000,000 ties, equivalent to
500,000,000 cubic feet of forest timber.

_ A very serious natter is that the proper consumption of timber represents but a part of the
total amount of standing timber removed. The constant troubles from reckless and wasteful
methods of cutting, the wholesale illegal cutting of timber on Government and private lands, and
the destruction due to forest fires, sheep herding, ete., point to the necessity of protecting the
timber resources and economizing in the use of timber. The treatment of these resources in other
countries as a source of revenue to the government, by placing them in charge of skilied men
under a government department, has been so markedly successful that I have been impelled to
strongly support the movement in favor of a similar system of forest regulation and administration
by the Government of the United States.

Apart from the desirability of obtaining a substitute for wooden ties, in the interests of forest
preservation, there is another very important point, and one which is really of more direct
importance to American raiiways. This is the reduction in annual renewals of ties, due to the
longer life of metal ties, and this again effects a consequent reduction in labor expenses. It also
results in a better and more permanent condition of the track, due to the less frequent disturbance

of the ballast and roadbed. The general experience is that while the expense of maintenance of

track with metal ties is at first equal to, or even greater than, that for track with wooden ties,

398 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

yet that after three or four years the cost becomes rapidly less, while for wooden ties the expense
increases year by year until renewals are necessary.

As a result of the investigations, the following general conclusions may be presented:

First. Métal ties are used very extensively, and their use is being continually extended.

Second. While different results are reported, the experience is usually favorable, particularly
where well-designed ties have been used.

Third. The introduction of metal ties effects an appreciable economy in timber, and may lead
to an important development of the iron and steel industries.

Fourth. Among the advantages of metal ties over wooden ties the following may be noted:

(a) Reduction in the annual consumption of timber.

(b) Greater length of life, with consequent saving in renewal expenses, and a general economy
in track work.

(¢) Maintaining a better and more uniform track for a longer time and with less work upon
the track.

(d) Reduced expenses for maintenance and renewals, owing to the greater durability of
the track.

(e) Increased safety, owing to the more efficient fastenings and the more permanent character
of the ties.

In view of the durability of the track and the economy in track work which result from the
use of an efficient system of metal ties, it would seem that there are already many special locations
in this country where such ties might now be used with financial and practical advantage. This
is particularly the case on busy main lines near large cities and terminals, where the continued
traffic not only makes constant work necessary, but makes it difficult and expensive to carry on
the work.

For street railway track metal ties are particularly well adapted. They are extensively used
for this purpose abroad, and in this country they are used much more for such track than for
steam-railway track.

The following tabular summary, which is condensed from tables given in my report of 1894,
shows what an important extent of the railway’s throughout the world is laid with metal ties.
Such ties were then in use on 35,000 miles of track, or nearly 10 per cent of the total railway
mileage, or on nearly 20 per cent, if we exclude the mileage of the United States and Canada,
whose railways have but an infinitesimal percentage of metal track. At the present time the
percentage is probably about the same or even somewhat higher, the use of metal ties having
increased more rapidly than the construction of new railways.

Statistics of metal track.

SECTION NO. 1.—EUROPE.

Miles. Miles.
Wingdeyil so6550 can aasoone sso aseoooenedes 78) || Sywedlem Gingl MOM iVosco sss cossossagce 2
WAN COjst Aweleicae ose Soees Ses Sao eee 128) (| Denmarkhs. -2syatesias cnaeeeeee as ee ree 18
Holand iss coc cssseecssesee ste sec eee S22! || RUSsiaies.c28 Sid se ehescw ces eneeseee cus 9
BeloiumMi so jess oceecicae eee seeeeeee 16) ehorkeya(HuTrope) passes ee eee eee 71
Germamyeet ose Ste ee see eee eee AISIGO5) a) Mur keyg (Asa) ae eee eee eee eee eee 309
Austria and Hungary..--..---.---.---- 21645 || Greece ese aae ee eee erase eee eee 28
IBOSNIT a) oa re aja == Satersis a ts Biss ia teat nce 12 —_——-
Swiozerlandiets js: - suc c\ss Saou cease ee 480 Total metal track -22-2----2-.s2--" 13, 404
S Paine se ae eae See oe ee cisemaset ieee 264 Totalltrack, 225. eee secon ae ee 137, 000
Portugal se Js occ Spence ce oeceeceeses 1

SECTION NO. 2.—AFRICA.

BS Shy Dip annem ee meee ae ciaenie ele ae 866 | South Africa (Portuguese)....-..-.----- 48
{MG TROVE A oo sae sociodo Acc see ARS 1649 |(@ape Colony sass sea OED. oO 906
AND VSS TDM Aaa. lege ete a ee ere ck o' Sr 14 |) Mast: Coast. 5-240 .52 2 554.035. eee ease 125
Sudanss 22ers ee eee eee eaeeror aes 5 2) PREUDIONE eee cea eee ae eee eee 62
Senepall es! ee neesae cee see ccersce eo =e 30 —_—
Kono (Rotinsuese) sees eres asennioe ae 5 Total metal track................ 2,401
INGE) (TINGE) SEE) oo 455 sssemsche case 64 Dota ttrackyeaesesseesee eee ena 5, 675

South African Republic. -..-.--.---.---- 115

METAL RAILWAY TIES. 399

Statistics of metal track—Continued.

SECTION NO. 3.—AUSTRALASIA.

Miles.

Q@ueensland sa -2. 5-2 a aa a= oe iw ee a en menm onlin mesic anim ane ei nin 82

Ran ARMIN 5. ooS0 oooene peceon e550 650609 6o6665 8505" SsudSs SAEs S00gCe SanodSCRSaecsoEceS 55 152

Aa RETA! IMAM. cgoone ce zesc GoQaeS S050be e905 os0s seSS Saboss Sooace oseSed cpeSaE csosc6 234

Taal tA (Y COMMIS) = .cosss 625565 865550 co5es5 os suns euseSs SeO5E0 SsaceSoSscEoN SSBESS 12, 000

SECTION NO. 4.—ASTA.

Miles Miles.

TEAMS TENGE. an conesosocoag seen sae Sce0 1B} GSS |) VERE. cece ssadco cones osedsoocceseseoNs0 5

Sumatraies soos eee eicceeemecbeseeecerines 90) AsiarMinor 225.22 2os5scoecene ce see nce 309
PAV ae oo satoeecere earns ey eeta oars ete 500 -

Straits Settlements..-...-.----.--.------ 25 Total metal track -...-.-.........- 14, 586

ClO). cogdno cdados soeoes SooscoSesScesseC 2 ANOUOU MEO consceosaotoncess ended] 22, 000

SECTION NO. 5._SOUTH AMERICA, ETC.

Argentine Republic.......-.----.-- ne Ese 3, (Gis) |) WMIGMNOD ot ose nese nden ces aoococd ooSHes seea 220

Ohi ete eee = sols seeeie ete eect 1 =

Brazileyecn: Sass sebei so-so osceeecereaces 135 Motalimetalairac kiss een eee 4,416

WGG@RTOIE) cooose cose caso osc0 sacs cecones¢ 218 DOE UREA. Ss nocca5 sce0 scan esos nace 21, 500

Wiestiln dieses eneeee eee eine eeeeiene 204
SECTION NO. 6.—NORTH AMERICA.

Wont SERIE Baseeeclocdoodcoosos ca celoc. cooddo ogenad cousde coonenddanepceps GoubSo DsGaGE BsaBane 12

CRAG s seco. cece dodecdec aonoos G606 sdodec eabGEe SsoncHSoRoaa coSSoy BoSpeese EecOSHSEDSEs sacoes 0

“TRE L WAU TREO ex Soadeo Geao eases doocas Saas Onn eecs mNbS C00 SuODCODSLO Sse eeseeSacus 12

Total track (United! Statesyands © anada) sees elaine alae eee eee eee 190, 000

Percentage of metal track mileage.

P Per cent of
Metal track. | Total track. aaGHieNl Gwe.
Miles. Miles.
Seema INOS le opeesorenscoossooecnscns 18, 404 137, 000 10
Section No. 2....--.--- 30 2, 326 5, 600 40
Section No.3...----.-- 234 12, 000 2
Section No. 4..-..--... 14, 586 22,000 66.3
Section No. 5........-- aS 4,416 21, 500 21
Section No.6......--.- oa 12 190, 000 0
DM <- cecenacmosedosascncsssos 34, 863 388, 100 9
Total mileage of railways with metal track .........---.----.------ miles.. 34, 863
Total mileage of railways of the world (exclusive of United States and
CORMAGE)) --cccscoccccsséso ons oos cos Seonanancascoatanonasoacsssenas miles.. 198, 000
Percentage of railways with metal track (exclusive of United States and
(CRIN HVE) ~ Snoin enccoric enon Stee se nosoocsaSSsecaseesccocasncseces per cent. - 17.6

It is not necessary in this general review of the subject to go into the details of the practice
and experience of foreign railways, as such details have been given very fully in the reports
already referred to. As the latest examples of this experience, however, it will be of interest to
present some particulars from reports recently made by Mr. Renson, resident engineer of the
Netherlands State railways (Holland), and Mr. Schrafl, engineer of the Gotthard Railway
(Switzerland). On both of these lines metal ties have been in use for several years, and have been
improved upon from time to time in the light of practical experience, while very careful investi-
gations have been made as to their efficiency and economy.

On the Netherlands State railways the first metal ties were laid in 1865, and are still in good
condition. They are, in fact, expected to last from three to eight years more. In 1880, however,
Mr. J. W. Post was commissioned to make an investigation of the subject. This resulted in a
series of extensive and practical tests on main lines, the design of the ties being modified and
improved from time to time. The first ties of this series (1881) were the lightest and least
successful, but they lasted longer than good oak ties, while the annual charge for their renewal
was only half that for the oak ties. The maintenance expenses were higher, but, on allowing for

400 FORESTRY INVESTIGATIONS U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

the difference in the renewal charges, there was actually a balance of about $43 per mile of track
per year in favor of the metal ties. With the later forms of ties the maintenance expenses were
steadily reduced, and with the latest forms now in use these expenses are less than for oak ties.
Rusting and wear of the bolt holes have been insignificant, and it has been found that, by inserting
renewable tie plates between the rail and the tie, the life of the latter can be extended almost
indefinitely. The results of the seventeen years’ experience have been entirely satisfactory, and
Mr. Renson closes his report with the following statement:

Iam glad to state that the result of our seventeen years’ work fully confirms the favorable opinion of many
engineers who have specially studied the metal-track question, particularly Messrs. Ch. Bricka, J. W. Post, A. M.
Kowalski, E. E. Russell Tratman, Ch. Lebon, and Dietler. Our results quite agree also with the favorable results
onsome of those railways on which the question has been investigated extensively and with perseverance, by giving
different systems a fair trial, uninfluenced by preconceived ideas.

On the Gotthard Railway metal ties have been in use since 1882, and the experience with them
has been such as to lead the road to introduce them very extensively. They now represent 70 per
cent of the ties in main track and 359 per cent of those on sidings, or 65 per cent for the entire line.
The cost at the present time is $1.72 per tie, as against $1.20 for oak. If the fastenings are
included, the costs are $1.96 and $1.61 respectively. Adding the cost of laying, however, and then
deducting the value of the old material, the net result shows only $1.60 for the steel tie, as
compared with $1.66 for the oak tie. For the first year or two the expenses for ordinary main-
tenance of track are about the same for both steel and wooden ties, but after that period the
expenses become materially lower for the metal track.

This railway has 43 per cent of its length on curves and has grades of 2.7 per cent, while the
traffic is heavy and includes express trains running at 40 to 53 miles per hour. In the numerous
long tunnels the ties are subject to rust, and last only eight to ten years, which is about the same
life as that of the oak ties. Elsewhere, however, the rusting and wear of the ties are so slight
that the ties are expected to last as long as the rails. The general result, in point of durability,
is that the steel ties have proved to be more economical than the oak ties. The report further
states that even if they were less economical, the railway would still feel obliged to use the steel
ties on account of the greater safety and security of the track.

One other case may be cited as an example of the common use of metal ties on foreign railways.
During the years 1895-1898, about 160 miles of metal track on the Wurttemberg State railways
were renewed at a reported cost of about $1,750,000, in order to provide for increased weight and
amount of traffic. The old track consisted of 66-pound rails, 29 feet 6 inches long, with 10 or 12 ties
per rail, the ties weighing 114 pounds each, and being spaced 30 and 36 inches center to center.
The new track consists of 87-pound rails, 39 feet 4 inches long, with 16 or 17 ties per rail, the weight
of the ties being 155 pounds, and the spacing 28 and 30 inches. The old track weighed 266 to 278
pounds per yard, while the new track weighs 408 to 422 pounds per yard.

This report would not be complete without some reference to means of effecting economies in
the use of wooden ties, as this is a matter of immediate importance to American railways. Wooden
ties will undoubtedly continue to be generally used in this country for many years to come, and itis
important that railway officers shouid without delay give attention to the advantages of increasing
the efficiency and economy of such ties by protecting them from decay and wear. The use of
preservative processes to prevent decay and the use of protective metal tie plates to prevent wear
and disintegration under the rails may be made to effect a marked economy in the track work by
increasing the life of the ties, reducing the expense of renewals, and enabling the cheaper and
inferior timbers to be effectively used for ties. The ties so treated and protected also make a better
track and one which requires less work for maintenance.

The renewing of ties is too often considered as a comparatively unimportant item in the
maintenance expenses, but in point of fact the average cost of tie renewals very frequently
exceeds that of rail renewals, and the cost also has a-continual tendency to increase. The cost
may often be materially reduced by careful methods of checking to prevent the premature remoyal
of comparatively sound ties and by the more general use of preservative treatment and metal tie
plates. It must be remembered that a road which has to renew its ties in six years is at a great
disadvantage as compared with another whose ties last twelve years. The former must figure into

METAL RAILWAY TIES. AOL

its expense account almost double the cost for material, besides the additional track labor required
to do the work, while during the interval it can not have as good a track as the latter.

Although the practical economies resulting from the use of preservative processes have been
amply proved, both in this country and abroad, and although such processes are very extensively
employed abroad, they have been but indifferently regarded here by railway officers, with some
important exceptions: The economy results not only from the increased life of the ties and the
possibility of making cheaper and inferior timber give as good service as the higher grades of
timber, but also from the reduced labor and cost of maintenance and the improved surface of
track due to reduction in tie renewals. Under ordinary conditions the track has hardly been got
into good surface on a settled roadbed before it is disturbed again by renewing ties. In view of
these facts, and of the further fact that so many important railways are now spending enormous
sums of money in the improvement of their lines, it is strange that so few railways have taken up
this matter on a large scale.

One of the most important and practical of modern improvemeuts in American railway track
has been the wide introduction of metal tie plates, which are placed between the rail and the tie.
Their purpose is to prevent the cutting and wearing of the tie, which frequently necessitate the
removal of sound ties from the track. The small cost of these plates and the undoubted advan-
tages which they insure in economy in ties and in track work have led to their use on many
hundreds of miles of track. They not only lengthen the life of the ties, but also give a better and
more permanent bearing for the rails: Similar plates, but of much heavier construction and
secured by bolts or spikes, have for many years been used in EHurope. The special feature of the
small and light American plates is that they have ribs or points which are pressed into the wood,
so that the plate becomes practically a part of the tie, independent of the rail fastenings.

The greatest economy in track with wooden ties will in general be insured by protecting the
ties from (lecay by means of a chemical treatment, and protecting them from abrasion or wear by
means of the application of metal tie plates.

In conclusion, two. statements may be presented, based upon the information given in my
reports and upon the present review of the situation.

First. The advantages and economies resulting from the use of metal ties are such as to make
it advisable to consider their application to American railways (in special cases, at least) in the
near future.

Second. The advantages and economies which may be obtained by the application of tie
plates and preservative processes to wooden ties are so great that the use of such methods should
be considered as a matter of immediate importance.

H. Doe. 181-——26
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