yt- ! EEPTILES AND BIBDS. HAWKING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. Fronti."-j>it REPTILES AND BIRDS. A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE VARIOUS ORDERS ; WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE Habits and Economy of the Most Interesting. LOUIS FIGUIER. EDITED IlV PARKER GILL MO RE Author of " Gun, Roil, and Saddle," &v. WITH 307 ILLUSTRATIONS. \V. J. HOLLAND & CO., SUBSCRIPTION BOOK PUBLISHERS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 50 PREFACE. IN presenting to the public this English version of Louis FIGUIER'S interesting work on Reptiles and Birds, I beg to state that where alterations and additions have been made, my object has been that the style and matter should be suited to the present state of general knowledge, and that all classes should be able to obtain useful information and amusement from the pages which I have now the honour and pleasure of presenting to them. On commencing my undertaking I was not aware of the immensity of the labour to be done, and fear that I must have relinquished my arduous task but for the kind encouragement of FRANK BUCKLAND, Esq., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries, and HENRY LEE, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c., to both of whom I take this oppor- tunity of returning my sincere thanks. PARKER GILLMORE ("UBIQUE"). December, 1809. CONTENTS. EEPTILES. PAGE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER . 1 CHAPTER I. AMPHIBIA, OR BATRACHIANS. PAGE PAGE Structural Distinctions 8 Toads 25 Intelligence 13 Natterjack 26 Characteristics 15 Surinam 28 Historical Antiquity 18 Land Salamanders 31 Distribution 19 Spotted 32 Frogs 19 Black 33 Habits of Life 21 Aquatic Salamanders 33 Development of Young .... 22 Crested 34 Green 23 Gigantic 34 Common 23 Transformations and Reproduction 35 Green Tree 24 CHAPTER II. OPHIDIAN REPTILES, OR TRUE SXAK.ES. Snakes 38 Snakes — Burrowing 42 Rock 61 Ground 43 Natal Rock 61 Tree 43 Guinea Rock 61 Fresh-water 43 Royal Rock 61 Sea 43 Aboma 62 Innocuous 46 Anaconda 65 Blind 46 Cobra 70 Shield-tail 47 Asp 75 Black 49 Bungarus 76 Rat 49 Pit Vipers 78 Ringed 49 Fer-de-lance 79 Green and Yellow 52 Jararaca 80 Viperine 52 Trimeresurus 80 Desert 53 Rattle 82 Whip 54 Copperhead 82 Blunt-heads 56 Tic-polonga 88 Boas 56 Puff Adders 89 Diamond 59 Common Adder 92 Carpet 59 Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. Lizards, Distribution and Division . 99 Grey 109 Green 110 Ocellated 110 Ameivas 112 Iguanas 117 Basilisk 127 Anoles 129 Flying 132 THE ORDER OF LIZARDS — SAURIANS. PAGE PAGE Lizards — Gecko 134 Chameleons 136 Crocodiles 141 Jacares 145 Alligators 145 Caiman 147 True 149 Gavials 153 CHAPTEE IV. CHELONIANS, OR SHIELDED REPTILES. Formation 155 Distribution and Classification . . . 157 Tortoises 158 Land 158 Margined 159 Moorish 159 Greek 160 Elephantine 160 Genus Pyxis 161 Ditto Kinixys 161 Homopodes 161 Elodiansy or Marsh Tortoises : Mud 162 Emydes 163 Pleuroderes 164 Potamians, or River Tortoises : Trionyx 164 Thalassians, or Sea Tortoises : Green 177 Hawk's-bill 177 Loggerhead 178 Leather-back . .178 BIEDS. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. Anatomy 181 Nests 197 Plumage 184 Reproduction ........ 201 Beaks 189 Longevity 203 Digestive Organs 191 Utility 205 Powers of Sight 193 Classification 207 Vocal Organs 195 CHAPTER I. THE NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS. Divers 212 Penguins 218 Great Northern 213 Manchots 219 Imbrine 216 Grebes 221 Arctic 216 Black- throated , .216 Castanean 222 Crested .223 Red-throated 217 Guillemots .. 224 CONTENTS. ix CHAPTER II. Mallard 232 Golden-eyed Garret 242 Poachard 243 Shoveller 244 Shieldrake 246 Eider Duck 2*7 Common Teal 250 Velvet Duck 253 Scoter, Black 253 Great-billed 258 Goosander 259 Smew 260 Goose 261 Wild 262 Bean 266 Domestic 266 Bernicle . 269 DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS. PAGE PAGE Goose — White-fronted Bernicle . . . .269 Swan 270 Whooping- 273 Black 277 Frigate Bird 277 Tropic Bird 279 Darter 281 Gannet 283 Cormorant 285 Shag 289 Pelicans 291 White 294 Crested 295 Brown 296 Spectacled 297 CHAPTER III. THE LARUX£. Tern 299 Little 301 Noddy 302 Silver- winged 302 Arctic 302 Whiskered . 303 Gull-billed 303 Roseate 303 Sandwich 303 Caspian 303 Scissors-bills 303 Black 304 Gulls 304 Large White- winged 306 Great Black-backed 306 Herring 306 Sea Mews 304 White, or Senator 307 Brown-masked 307 Laughing 307 Grey 308 Skua 308 Parasite 309 Richardson's 309 Pomerine 309 Common 310 Petrels 310 Giant 311 Chequered 311 Fulmar 311 Stormy 311 Blue 312 Puffins' 312 Grey 312 English 312 Brown 312 Albatross 312 Common 314 Black-browed 314 Brown 314 Yellow and Black-beaked. . . .314 CHAPTER IV. GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS. ralmidactyles : Flamingo 317 Avocet 320 Stilt Bird 321 Macrodactyles : Water Hens 322 Common 323 Purple, or Sultana Fowl .... 324 Rails 325 Coots 326 Bald 328 Crested 328 Blue 328 Glareola 328 Jacana 328 Kamichi 330 Horned 332 Faithful , . .332 CONTENTS. Longirostres : Sandpipers 332 Brown 334 Greenshank 334 Redshank 334 Pond 334 Wood 334 Green 334 Common 334 Turnstone 334 Ruff 336 Knot 338 Sanderlings 339 Woodcock 339 Snipe 343 Common 344 Great 345 Jack 345 Wilson's 345 Godwit . . 345 Curlew ..." 346 Ibis 348 Sacred 348 Green 351 Scarlet 351 Cultrirostres : Spoonbills 352 White 352 Rose-coloured 352 Storks 353 White 353 Black 357 Argala 357 Jabiru 359 Ombrette 359 Bec-ouvert 359 Drome . . 359 PAGK Tantalus 360 Boatbill 360 Herons 361 Common 362 Purple 364 White 364 Bitterns 366 Crane 366 Ash-coloured 366 Demoiselle 371 Crested 371 Hooping 371 Caurale 373 Pressirostres : Cariama 373 Oyster-catchers 373 Runners 376 Lapwings 376 Plovers 378 Great Land 379 Doterel 379 Ringed 379 Kentish 380 Golden 380 Pluvian 381 Bustard 381 Great 381 Brempennw : Ostrich . , .... 383 Rhea 390 Cassowary 392 Emu 393 Apteryx 395 Extinct Brevipenn& : Dodo 397 Epiornis 397 Dinornis 397 CHAPTER V. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. Habits, origin, &c 399 Tetraonidce : Capercailzie 401 Grouse, Black 402 Pinnated 402 Ruffed 403 Cock of the Plains 402 Gelinotte 403 Ptarmigans 404 Common 404 Red Grouse 405 Perdicides : Gangas 405 Pin-tailed S and Grouse 406 Heteroclites 406 Quails 406 Partridges 410 Grey 415 Partridges, Red-legged 417 Gambra 417 Colin, Virginian 417 Californian 41 Solitary 41 Francolins 41 Chinese 41 European 42 African and Indian 42 Coturnix 42 Turnix tachydroma 42 Tinamides 42 Chionidse 42 Megapodidse 42 PhasianidcG : Pheasants 42 Common 42 Golden ... .42 CONTENTS. PAGE Pheasants — Silver 425 Ring-necked 427 Reeves's 427 Lady Amherst's 427 Argus 427 Gallus 427 Common 427 Bankiva 429 Jungle-fowl 429 Bionzed 429 Fork-tailed 429 Kulm 429 Negro 429 Tragopans 435 Pintados 435 Turkeys 437 Wild 437 Domestic 440 Ocellated 441 Peacocks 441 Domestic 442 Wild 444 Polyplectrons 444 Impeyan Pheasants 444 Alectors 444 Hocco, or Curassow 444 Pauxis 446 Penelopes, or Guans 446 Hoazins 446 Columbidee : Colombi-Gallines 447 Pigeons (Colombes) 448 King or Wood 450 Wild Rock 450 Common Domestic 450 Pouter 451 Roman 451 Swift 452 Carrier 452 Tumbler 452 Wheeling 452 Nun 452 Fan-tailed 452 Turtle Dove -. . . 453 Ring Dove 453 Passenger i . . 453 Columbars 456 CHAPTER VI. SCANSORES, OR CLIMBERS. Parrots 457 Cuckoos — Macaw 464 Grey 469 Parrakeets 465 Indicators 472 Tabuan 465 Anis 473 Parrot, Grey 466 Barbets 474 Green 466 Trogons 475 Cockatoos 466 Resplendent 476 Toucans 467 Mexican 476 Proper 468 Woodpeckers 476 Aracaris • . . 469 Wry-necks 479 Cuckoos 469 Jacainars 480 CHAPTER VII. PASSERINES. Syndacti/les : Hornbills 482 Rhinoceros 483 Fly-catchers 483 King-fishers 484 Ceyx Meninting 486 Bee-eaters 486 Common 488 Momots 487 Tai/iirotitres : Hoopoes . 488 Epimachus 490 Promerops 490 Colibri 491 Proper 491 Humming-birds 491 Creepers 495 Picumnus 496 Furnarius 496 Sucriers 497 Soui-mangas 497 Nuthatches 498 Conirostres : Birds of Paradise 499 Great Emerald 500 King Bird 500 Superb 500 Sifilets 501 Crows 502 Raven 502 Carrion 502 Royston 502 XII CONTENTS. Crows — Eook 502 Jackdaw 502 Magpies 507 Common 508 Brazilian 509 Chinese 509 Jays * 509 Nut-cracker 510 Rollers 511 Starlings 512 Common 513 Sardinian 513 Baltimore Oriole 514 Beef-eater 514 Crossbill 515 Grosbeak 516 Bullfinch 517 Siskin 517 House Sparrow 518 Goldfinch 519 Linnets 519 Chaffinch 520 Canary 521 Widow Bird . . • 523 Java Sparrow 523 Weaver Birds 523 Republican 524 Buntings 524 Reed 525 CM 526 Ortolan 526 Snow 527 Tits 527 Great 528 Long-tailed 528 Larks 529 Crested Lark 531 Fissirostres : Swallow 531 Salangane 537 Goatsuckers 538 Night-jar 540 Guacharos 541 PAGE Dentirostres : Manakins 542 Cock of the Rock 542 Warblers 542 Nightingale 543 Sedge Warbler 545 Night Warbler 545 La Fauvette Couturiere . . . .546 Garden 547 Robin 547 Wrens 547 Golden-crested 548 European 548 Wood 548 Stone Chat 549 Wagtails 550 Pied 551 Quaketail 551 Pipits 552 Lyretail 552 Orioles 553 Golden 553 Mino 554 Honey-sucker 555 Ouzel, Rose-coloured 555 Water 556 Solitary Thrush 556 Blackbird, Common 557 Ringed 559 Solitary 559 Thrush, Polyglot 559 Song 560 Redwing 561 Tanagers 561 Drongos 562 Cotingas 563 Caterpillar-eater 563 Chatterers 564 Fly-catchers 565 Tyrants 567 Cephalopterus ornatus 567 Shrikes 568 Vangas 571 Cassicus . - 571 CHAPTER VIII. RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY. Nocturnal : Horned Owls 576 Great 576 Virginian 579 Short-eared 579 Ketupu 581 Scops 581 Hornless Owls 583 Sparrow 583 Small Sparrow 584 Hornless Owls — Pampas Sparrow 584 Burrowing 585 Tawny 585 Barn 585 Canada 588 Hawk 589 White 589 Caparacoch 590 Harfang 590 CONTENTS. xm Hornless Owls — Lapland . . 591 Ural 591 Diurnal : Eagles 592 Koyul 602 Imperial 602 Bonelli's 602 Tawny 602 Booted 602 Reinwardt's 602 Vulturine 602 Sea Eagles 602 European 603 American 604 Marine 604 Piscivorous 604 Caffir 604 Mace's 604 Pondicherry 604 Indian 604 Osprey 605 Huppart 606 Falco urubitinga 606 Harpy 606 White-bellied Eagle . • . . .607 Falcons 608 Gyrfalcons 608 White 609 Iceland 609 Norway 609 Falcons 610 Lanier 610 Sultan 610 Peregrine 610 Hobby 613 Merlin 613 Kestrel 613 Bengal 613 Goshawk 622 yarrow-hawks 623 Common 623 Dwarf 623 Sparrow-hawks — Chanting Falcon . . ... . . 624 Kites 624 Common 624 Black 625 Parasite 625 American 625 Buzzards 626 Common 627 Honey 627 Eough-legged 627 Harriers 627 Hen 628 Moor 628 Frog-eating 628 Pale-chested 629 Jardine's 629 Ash-coloured 629 Caracaras 629 Brazilian 629 Chimango 629 Long-winged 629 Chimachima 629 Funebris 631 Vultures 631 Griffons 632 Bearded 632 Sarcoramphi 634 Condor 634 King Vulture 638 Cathartes 639 Urubu 639 Turkey Buzzard 641 Common Vulture 642 Percnopterus 644 Vulture, Pondicherry 642 Kolbe's 642 Yellow 642 Sociable 645 Chinese 646 Oricou 646 Serpent-eaters 646 Secretary Bird 646 REPTILES ANfo BIRDS, INTRODUCTORY. THERE is little apparent resemblance between the elegant feathered warbler which makes the woods re-echo to its cheerful song, and the crawling reptile which is apt to inspire feelings of disgust when the more potent sensation of terror is absent — between the familiar Swallow, which builds its house of clay under the eaves of your roof,- or the warbler whose nest, with its young progeny, care- fully watched by the father of the brood in the silent watches of the night, is now threatened by the Serpent which has glided so silently into the bush, its huge mouth already open to swallow the whole family, while the despairing and fascinated parents have nothing but their slender bills to oppose to their formid- able foe. " Placed side by side," says Professor Huxley, "a Humming-bird and a Tortoise, or an Ostrich and a Crocodile, offer the strongest contrast ; and a Stork seems to have little but its animality in common with the Snake which it swallows." Nevertheless, unlike as they are in outward appearance, there is sufficient resemblance in their internal economy to bring them together in most attempts at a classification of the Animal King- dom. The air-bladder which exists between the digestive canal and kidneys in some fishes, becomes vascular with the form and cellular structure of lungs in reptiles ; the heart has two auricles, the ventricle in most is imperfectly divided, and more or less of the venous blood is mixed with the arterial which circulates over the body ; but retaining their gills and being therefore transitional in structure, they are also cold-blooded. In 2 INTRODUCTORY. birds, the lungs are spongy, the cavity of the air-bags becoming obliterated by the multiplication of vascular cellules; the heart is four- chambered, transmitting venous blood to the lungs, and pure arterial blood to the body; the temperature is raised and maintained at 90° to 100° Fahr. Thus Reptiles, like Birds, breathe the common air by means of their lungs, but respiration is much less active. "Although/' remarks Professor Owen, " the heart of Birds resembles in some particulars that of Reptiles, the four cavities are as distinct as in the Mammalia, but they are relatively stronger, their valvular mechanism is more perfect, and the contractions of this organ are more forcible and frequent in birds, in accordance with their more extended respiration and their more energetic mus- cular action/' It is true, as Professor Huxley informs us, that the pinion of a bird, which corresponds with the human hand or the fore paw of a reptile, has three points representing three fingers : no reptile has so few.* The breast-bone of a bird is converted into membrane-bone : no such conversion takes place in reptiles. The sacrum is formed by a number of caudal and dorsal vertebrae. In reptiles the organ is constituted by one or two sacral vertebrae. In other respects the two classes present many obvious dif- ferences, but these are more superficial than would be suspected at first glance. And Professor Huxley believes that, structurally, "reptiles and birds do really agree much more closely than birds with mammals, or reptiles with amphibians." While most existing birds differ thus widely from existing rep- tiles, the cursorial or struthious genera, comprising the Ostrich, Nandou, Emu, Cassowary, Apteryx, and the recently extinct Dinornis of New Zealand, come nearer to the reptiles in structure than any others. All of these birds are remarkable for the short- ness of their wings, the absence of a crest or keel upon the breast- bone, and some peculiarities of the skull, which render them more peculiarly reptilian. But the gap between reptiles and birds is only slightly narrowed by their existence, and is somewhat unsatis- factory to those who advocate the development theory, which asserts that all animals have proceeded, by gradual modification, from a common stock. * Vide, however, p. 8.— ED. CONNECTING LINKS IN CLASSIFICATION. 3 Traces had been discovered in the Mesozoic formations of certain Ornitholites, which were too imperfect to determine the affinities of the bird. But the calcareous mud of the ancient sea-bottom, which has hardened into the famous lithographic slate of Solen- hofen, revealed to Hermann von Meyer, in 1861, first the impression of a feather, and, in the same year, the independent discovery of the skeleton of the bird itself, which Yon Meyer had named Archteopteryx lithographicus. This relic of a far-distant age now adorns the British Museum. The skull of the Archeeopteryx is almost lost, but the leg, the foot, \ Fig. 1. — Archseopteryx lithographicus. the pelvis, the shoulder- girdle, and the feathers, as far as their struc- ture can be made out, are completely those of existing birds. On the other hand, the tail is very long. Two digits of the manus have curved claws, and, to all appearance, the metacarpal bones are quite free and disunited, exhibiting, according to Professor Huxley, closer approximation to the reptilian structure than any existing bird. Mr. Evans has even detected that the mandibles were pro- vided with a few slender teeth. On the other hand, the same writer points out certain peculiari- ties in the single reptile found also among the Solenhofen slates, which has been described and named Compsognathus longipes by the B2 4 INTEODUCTOEY. late Andreas Wagner. This reptile he declares "to be a still nearer approximation to the missing link between reptiles and birds," thus narrowing the gap between the two classes. While we think it proper to point to these structural resem- blances of one class of the animal creation to others very different in their external appearance, it is necessary to guard ourselves and our readers from adopting the inferences sometimes deduced from them ; that " these infinitely diversified forms are merely the final terms in an immense series of changes which have been brought about in the course of immeasurable time, by the operation of causes more or less similar to those which are at work at the present day." Domestication and other causes have no doubt produced changes in the form of many animals ; but none from which this inference can be drawn, except in the imagination of ingenious men who strain the facts to support a preconceived hypothesis. In spite of the innumerable forms which the pigeon assumes by cross-breeding and domestication, it still remains a pigeon ; the dog is still a dog, and so with other animals. Nor does it seem to us to be necessary, or calculated to advance our knowledge in natural history, to form theories which can only disturb our existing systems without supplying a better. Systems are necessary for the purpose of arrangement and identification ; but it should never be forgotten that all classifications are artificial — a framework or cabinet, into the partitions of which many facts may be stowed away, carefully docketed for future use. " Theories," says Le Yaillant, "are more easily made and more brilliant probably than observations ; but it is by observation alone that science can be enriched." A bountiful Creator appears to have adopted one general plan in the organization of all the vertebrate creation ; and, in order to facilitate their study, naturalists have divided them into classes, orders, and genera, formed on the differences which exist in the structure of their vital functions. The advan- tages of this are obvious, but it does not involve the necessity of fathoming what is unfathomable, of explaining what is to man inexplicable in the works of GOD.* * This, however, is a subject upon which naturalists of the highest rank hold different opinions, many of those most highly qualified to form a correct judgment advocating the tenets propounded "by Mr. Charles Darwin. — ED. CONNECTING LINKS IN CLASSIFICATION. 5 In previous volumes of this series* we have endeavoured to give the reader some general notions of the form, life, and manners of the branches of the animal kingdom known as Zoophytes, Mollusca, Articulata, and Pisces. We now continue the superior sub- kingdom (to which the fishes also belong) of the Yertebrated Animals, so tailed from the osseous skeleton which encircles their bodies, in which the vertebral column, surmounted by the cranium, its appendage, forms the principal part. The presence of a solid frame in this series of animals admits of their attaining a size which is denied to any of the others. The skeleton being organized in such a manner as to give remarkable vigour and precision to all their movements. In the vertebrated animals the nervous system is also more developed. There is, consequently, a more exquisite sensibility in them than in the classes whose history we have hitherto discussed. They possess five senses, more or less fully developed, a heart, a circulation, and their blood is red. We have now to deal with a class advanced above that of fishes, that of Reptilia, which is divided as follows : — AMPHIBIA — (BATRACHIA, Cuv.) Animals having ribs or processes, or short, slight, and free ver- tebrae, forming a series of separate centrums, deeply cupped at both ends, one of which is converted by ossification in the mature animal into a ball, which may be the front one, as in the Surinam Toad, Pipa, or the hind ones in the Frogs and Toads, liana. The skin is nude, limbs digitate, gills embryonal, — permanent in some, in most lost in metamorphosis, — to be succeeded by pulmonary respiration, — or both ; a heart with one ventricle and two auricles. They consist of : — I. OPHIOMORPHA. Cseciliadae or Ophiosomse. II. ICTHYOMOKPIIA. Proteidse or Sirens, Proteus, Newts, and Salamanders. * " The Ocean World," from the French of Louis Figuier. " The Insect World," from the French of the same author. 6 INTEODUCTOEY. III. THERIOMOKPHA. Aglossa . . . Pipa or Surinam Toads. Eanidce . . . Frogs. HylidcB . . . Tree Frogs. Bufonidce . . Toads. CHELONIA, OR TURTLES. Distinguished by the double shield in which their bodies are enclosed, whether they are terrestrial, fresh- water, or marine. The Turtles, Chelonia, have the limbs natatory. Mud Turtles, Triom/x, } . 5 limbs amphibious. Terrapens, .bmys, Tortoises, Testudo, limbs terrestrial. LACERTILIA. Having a single transverse process on each side, single-headed ribs, two external nostrils, eyes with movable lids ; body covered with horny, sometimes bony, scales. Lacerta — the Monitors, Crocodiles, Lizards ; having ambulatory limbs. Anguis — Ophisaurus, Bimanus, Chalcides, Seps ; limbs abortive ; no sacrum. OPHIDIA. Having numerous vertebrae with single-headed hollow ribs, no visible limbs, eyelids covered by an immovable transparent lid ; body covered by horny scales. It includes : — Viperince — the Vipers and Crotalidae. Colulrincc — the Colubers, Hydridae, and Boidse. CROCODILIA. Teeth in a single row, implanted in distinct sockets ; body de- pressed, elongated, protected on the back by solid shield ; tail longer than the trunk, compressed laterally, and furnished with crests above. The several families are : — Crocodilida — the Gavials, Mecistops, Crocodiles. Alligatoridce — Jacares, Alligators, Caiman.* * By some naturalists the Amphibia are considered as a distinct class, by other as a sub-class either of Reptilia or of Pisces. Of the reptiles proper (at present existing), the arrangement into the orders Testudinata (or Tortoises), Sauria (or Lizards), and Ophidia (or Snakes), is the one most generally adopted; but De Blain- ville elevates the Loricata (or Crocodiles) to the rank of an order, and others have adopted a division of corresponding rank, Saurophidia, for the Anguis series above referred to ; but the latter are merely limbless Lizards (or with abortive limbs) akin to the Scinques. — ED. CHAPTEE I. AMPHIBIA, OR BATEACHIANS. THOSE geographers who divide the world into land and sea over- look in their nomenclature the extensive geographical areas which belong permanently to neither section— namely, the vast marshy regions on the margins of lakes, rivers, and ponds, which are alternately deluged with the overflow of the adjacent waters, and parched and withering under the exhalations of a summer heat ; regions which could only be inhabited by beings capable of living on land or in water; beings having both gills through which they may breathe in water, and lungs through which they may respire the common air. The first order of reptiles possesses this character, and hence its name of Amphibia, from afjifapios, having a double life. The transition from fishes to reptiles is described by Professor Owen, with that wonderful power of condensation which he possesses, in the following terms : — " All vertebrates during more or less of their developmental life- period float in a liquid of similar specific gravity to themselves. A large proportion, constituting the lowest organised and first developed forms of this province, exist and breathe in water, and are called fishes. Of these a few retain the primitive vermiform condition, and develop no limbs ; in the rest they are ' fins' of simple form, moving by one joint upon the body, rarely adapted for any other function than the impulse or guidance of the body through the water. The shape of the body is usually adapted for moving with least resistance through the liquid medium. The surface of the body is either smooth and lubricous or it is smoothly covered with overlapping scales ; it is rarely defended by bony plates, or roughened by tubercles. 8 BATEACHIANS. Still more rarely it is armed with spines." Passing over the general economy of fishes we come to the heart. " The heart," he tells us, "" consists of one auricle receiving the venous blood, and one ventricle propelling it to the gills or organs submitting that blood in a state of minute subdivisions to the action of aerated water. From the gills the aerated blood is carried over the entire body by vessels, the circulation being aided by the contraction of the surrounding muscles." The functions of gills are described by the Professor with great minuteness. " The main purpose of the gills of fishes," he says, " being to expose the venous blood in this state of minute sub- division to streams of water, the branchial arteries rapidly divide and sub-divide until they resolve themselves into microscopic capillaries, constituting a network in one plane or layer, supported by an elastic plate, covered by a tesselated and non-ciliated epithe- lium. This covering and the tunics of the capillaries are so thin as to allow chemical interchange and decomposition to take place between the carbonated blood and the oxygenated water. The requisite extent of the respiratory field of capillaries is gained by various modes of multiplying the surface within a limited space." " Each pair of processes," he adds, " has its flat side turned towards contiguous pairs, and the two processes of each pair stand edgeway to each other, being commonly united for a greater or less extent from their base; hence Cuvier describes each pair as a single bifurcated plate, or ' feuillet.' ' The modification which takes place in the respiratory and other organs in Eeptilia, is described in a few words. " Many fishes have a bladder of air between the digestive canal and the kidneys, which in some communicate with an air-duct and the gullet ; but its office is chiefly hydrostatic. When on the rise of structure this air-bladder begins to assume the vascular and pharyngeal relations with the form and cellular structure of lungs, the limbs acquire the character of feet : at first thread- like and many jointed, as in the Lepidosiren ; then bifurcate, or two-fingered, with the elbow and wrist joints of land animals, as in Amphiuma ; next, three-fingered, as in Proteus, or four- fingered, but reduced to the pectoral pair, as in Siren." In all reptiles the blood is conveyed from the ventricular part STEUCTUKAL DISTINCTIONS. 9 of the heart, really or apparently, by a single trunk. In Lepi- dosiren the veins from the lung-like air-bladders traverse the auricle which opens directly into the ventricle. In some the vein dilates before communicating with the ventricle into a small auricle, which is not outwardly distinct from the much larger auricle receiving the veins of the body. In Proteus the auricular system is incomplete. In Amphiuma the auricle is smaller and less fringed than in the Sirens, the ventricle being connected to the pericardium by the apex as well as the artery. This forms a half spiral turn at its origin, and dilates into a broader and shorter bulb than in the Sirens. " The pulmonic auricle," continues the learned Professor, "thus augments in size with the more exclusive share taken by the lungs in respiration ; but the auricular part of the heart shows hardly any outward sign of its diversion in the Batrachians. It is small and smooth, and situated on the left, and in advance of the ventricle in Newts and Salamanders. In Frogs and Toads the auricle is applied to the base of the ventricle, and to the back and side of the aorta and its bulb." In the lower members of the order, the single artery from the ventricle sends, as in fishes, the whole of the blood primarily to the branchial organs, during life, and in all Batrachians at the earlier aquatic periods of existence. In the Newt three pairs of external gills are developed at first as simple filaments, each with its capillary loop, but speedily expanding, lengthening, and branching into lateral processes, with corresponding looplets ; those blood- channels intercommunicating by a capillary network. The gill is covered by ciliated scales, which change into non- cilia ted cuticle shortly before the gills are absorbed. In the Proteus anguinus, three parts only of branchial and vascular arches are developed, corresponding with the number of external gills. In Siren lacertina the gills are in three pairs of branchial arches, the first and fourth fixed, the second and third free, increasing in size according to their condition. The AMPHIBIA, then, have all, at some stage of their existence, both gills and lungs co- existent : respiring by means of branchiae or gills while in the water, and by lungs on emerging into the open air. 10 BATEACHIANS. All these creatures seem to have been well known to the ancients. The monuments of the Egyptians abound in represen- tations of Frogs, Toads, Tortoises, and Serpents. Aristotle was well acquainted with their form, structure, and habits, even to their reproduction. Pliny's description presents his usual amount of error and exaggeration. Darkness envelops their history during the middle ages, from which it gradually emerges in the early part of the sixteenth century, when Belon and Rondi- letius in France, Salviani in Italy, and Conrad Gesner in Switzer- land, devoted themselves to the study of Natural History with great success. In the latter part of the same century Aldrovandi appeared. During fifty years he was engaged in collecting objects and making drawings, which were published after his death, in 1640, edited by Professor Ambrossini, of Bologna, the Reptiles forming two volumes. In these volumes, twenty -two chapters are occupied by the Serpents. But the first arrange- ment which can be called systematic was that produced by John Hay. This system was based upon the mode of respiration, the volume of the eggs, and their colour. Numerous systems have since appeared in France, Germany, and England ; but we shall best consult our readers' interest by briefly describing the classification adopted by Professor Owen, the learned Principal of the British Museum, in his great work on the Yertebrata. The two great classes Batrachians and Reptiles, include a number of animals which are neither clothed with hair, like the Mammalia, covered with feathers like the birds, nor furnished with swimming fins like fishes. The essential character of rep- tiles is, that they are either entirely or partially covered with scales. Some of them — for instance, Serpents — move along the ground with a gliding motion, produced by the simple contact and adhesion of the ventral scales with the ground. Others, such as the Tortoises, the Crocodiles, and the Lizards, move by means of their feet ; but these, again, are so short, that the animals almost appear to crawl on the ground — however swiftly, in some instances. The locomotive organs in Serpents are the vertebral column, with its muscles, and the stiff epidermal scutes crossing the under surface of the body. " A Serpent may, however, be TADPOLE LIFE. 11 seen to progress," says Professor Owen, " without any inflection, gliding slowly and with a ghost-like movement in a straight line, and if the observer have the nerve to lay his hand flat in the reptile's course, he will feel, as the body glides over the palm, the surface pressed as it were by the edges of a close- set series of paper knives, successively falling flat after each application." Others of the class, such as the Tortoises, Crocodiles, and Lizards, move by the help of feet, which are generally small and feeble — in a few species being limited to the pectoral region, while in most both pairs are present. In some, as in various Lizards, the limbs acquire considerable strength. There is one genus of small Lizards, known as the Dragons, Draco, whose movements present an exception to the general rule. Besides their four feet, these animals are furnished with a delicate mem- branous parachute, formed by a prolongation of the skin on the flanks and sustained by the long slender ribs, which permits of their dropping from a considerable height upon their prey. Batrachians, again, differ from most other Reptilia by being naked : moreover, most of them undergo certain metamorphoses ; in the first stage of their existence they lead a purely aquatic life, and breathe by means of gills, after the manner of fishes. Young Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders, which are then called tad- poles, have, in short, no resemblance whatever to their parents in the first stage of their existence. They are little creatures with slender, elongated bodies, destitute of feet and fins, but with large heads, which may be seen swimming about in great numbers in stagnant ponds, where they live and breathe after the manner of fishes. By degrees, however, they are transformed: their limbs and air-breathing lungs are gradually developed, then they slowly disappear, and a day arrives when they find themselves conveniently organized for another kind of existence ; they burst from their humid retreat, and betake themselves to dry land. '' The tadpole meanwhile being subject to a series of changes in every system of organs concerned in the daily needs of the coming aerial and terrestrial existence, still passes more or less time in water, and supplements the early attempt at respiration by pullu- lating loops and looplets of capillaries from the branchial vessels." (Owen.) 12 BATEACHIANS. Nevertheless, they do not altogether forget their native element ; thanks to 'their webbed feet, they can still traverse the waters which sheltered their infancy ; and when alarmed by any unusual noise, they rush into the water as a place of safety, where they swim about in apparent enjoyment. In some of them, as Proteus and the amphibious Sirens, where the limbs are confined to the pectoral region, swimming seems to be the state most natural to them. They are truly amphibious, and they owe this double existence to the persistence of their gills ; for in these perenni- branchiate Batrachians, arteries are developed from the last pair of branchial arches which convey blood to the lungs : while, in those having external deciduous gills, the office being dis- charged, they lose their ciliate and vascular structure and disap- pear altogether. The skull in Reptiles generally consists of the same parts as in the Mammalia, though the proportions are dif- ferent. The skull is flat, and the cerebral cavity, small as it is, is not filled with brain. The vertebral column commences at the posterior part of the head, two condyles occupying each side of the vertebral hole (Fig. 2). The anterior limbs are mostly shorter than the posterior, as might be expected of animals whose progression is effected by leaps. Ribs there are none. The sternum is highly developed, and a large portion of it is cartilaginous ; it moves in its mesial portions the two clavicles and two coracoid bones, which fit on to the scapula, the whole making a sort of hand which supports the anterior extremities, and an elongated disk which supports the throat, and assists in deglutition and respiration. The bone of the arm (humerus) is single, and long in proportion to the fore arm. In the Frogs (Rana), the ilic bone is much elongated, and is articulated in a movable manner on the sacrum, so that the two heads of the thigh bones seem to be in contact. The femur, or thigh, is much lengthened and slightly curved, and the bones of the leg so soldered together as to form a single much elongated bone. The respiration of Reptiles and some of the Batrachians, like that of Birds and Mammals, is aerial and pulmonary, but it is much less active. Batrachians have, in addition, a very considerable cutaneous respiration. Some of them, such as Toads, absorb more oxygen through the skin than by the lungs. Their circulation is INTELLIGENCE OF BATEACHIANS. 13 imperfect, the structure of the heart only presenting one ventricle ; the blood, returning after a partial regeneration in the lungs, mingles with that which is not yet revivified: this mixed fluid is launched out into the economic system of the animal. Thus Reptiles and Ba- trachians are said to be cold-blooded animals, more es- pecially the for- mer, in which the respiratory organs, which are a con- stant source of in- terior heat, are only exercised very feebly. Owing to this low temperature of their bodies, reptiles affect warm climates, where the sun exercises its power with an intensity unknown in tem- perate regions ; hence it is that they abound in the warm lati- tudes of Asia, Africa, and America, whilst comparatively few are found in Europe. This is also the cause of their becoming torpid during the winter of our latitudes : not having sufficient heat in themselves to produce reaction against the external cold, they fall asleep for many months, awakening only when the temperature permits of their activity. Serpents, Lizards, Tortoises, Frogs, are all subjected to this law of their being. Some hybernate upon the earth, under heaps of stones, or in holes ; others in mud at the bottom of ponds. The senses are very slightly developed in these animals ; those of touch, taste, and smell, are very imperfect ; that of hearing, though less obtuse, leaves much to be desired ; but sight in them is very suitably exercised by the large eyes, with contractile eyeballs, which enables certain reptiles — such, for instance, as the Geckos, to distinguish objects in the dark. Most Reptiles and Batrachians are almost devoid of voice : Serpents, 14 BATEACHIANS. however, utter a sharp hissing noise, some species of Crocodiles howl energetically, the Geckos are particularly noisy, and Frogs have a well-known croak. In Reptiles and Batrachians the brain is small, a peculiarity which explains their slight intelligence and the almost entire impossibility of teaching them anything. They can, it is true, be tamed ; but although they seem to know indi- viduals, they do not seem to be susceptible of affection : the slight compass of their brain renders them very insensible, and this insen- sibility to pain enables them to support mutilations which would prove immediately fatal to most other animals. For instance, the Common Lizard frequently breaks its tail in its abrupt movements. Does this disturb him ? Not at all ! This curtailment of his being does not seem to affect him ; he awaits patiently for the return of the organ, which complaisant nature renews as often as it becomes necessary. In the Crocodiles and Monitor Lizards, however, a muti- lated part is not renewed, and the renovated tails of other Lizards do not develop bone. In some instances, the eyes may be put out with impunity^ or part of the head may be cut off; these organs will be replaced or made whole in a certain time with- out the animal having ceased to perform any of the functions which are still permitted to him in his mutilated state. A Tortoise will continue to live and walk for six months after it is deprived of its brain, and a Salamander has been seen in a very satisfactory state although its head was, so to speak, isolated from the trunk by a ligature tied tightly close round the neck. There is another curious peculiarity in the history of Reptiles and Batra- chians : each year as they awake from their state of torpor, they slough their old covering, and thus each year renew their youth ; so far as the skin is concerned, it is certain that they retain their youth a very long time. Their growth is slow, and continues almost through the whole duration of their existence ; they are, moreover, endowed with remarkable longevity. This is not very astonishing, if we consider that (at least in our latitudes) they remain torpid for several months yearly ; thus using up less of the materials of life than most animals, they ought, consequently, to attain a more advanced age. The activity of organization in Reptiles and Batrachians is so slight that their stomachs feel less of the exi- gencies of hunger; hence they rarely take nourishment ; they digest CHAEACTEEISTICS OF EEPTILES. 15 their food with equal deliberation. "With the exception of the Land Tortoises, whose regimen is herbivorous, most reptiles feed on living prey. Some, such as Lizards, Frogs, and Toads, prey on worms, insects, small terrestrial or aquatic Molluscs ; others, such as Ophidians and Crocodiles, attack Birds, and even Mammalia. Large Serpents, owing to the distensibility of their oesophagus, swallow animals much larger than themselves. The Boa-con- strictor darts upon the Deer, binds him in its snaky coils, breaks his bones, and little by little swallows him entirely. Heptiles, whether Batrachians, Ophidians, or Chelonians, are mostly oviparous, sometimes ovo-viviparous, and some of them are very prolific. The eggs of some are covered with a cal- careous envelope, as in the Turtle. Sometimes they are soft, and analogous to the spawn of fish, as in the Batrachians. They do not hatch their eggs by sitting upon them, but bury them in the sand, and take no further care of them, trusting to the heat of the sun, which hatches them in due course. To this the Pythons form a partial exception. Batrachians content them- selves with diffusing their spawn or eggs in the marshy waters or ponds, or they bear them on their backs until the time of hatching approaches. On leaving the egg the young Tor- toises have to provide immediately for their own wants, for the parents are not present to bring them their nourishment or to defend them against their enemies. This parental protection, so manifest among the superior animals, does not exist in ovi- parous species ; that is, in those whose eggs are not hatched in the body of the mother. The young are, so to speak, produced in a living state, and fully prepared for the battle of life. The loves of these animals present none of that character of mutual affection and tender sympathy which distinguishes the Mammalia and Birds.* When they have ensured the perpetuity of their species, they separate, and betake themselves again to their solitary existence. Some reptiles attain dimensions truly extraordinary, which render them at times very formidable. Turtles are met with which weigh as much as sixteen hundred pounds, and the carapace * Birds, however, are oviparous, and nevertheless manifest the strongest parental affection. — ED. 16 BATEACHIANS. of one of these measured as much as six feet in length. The size of an ordinary Crocodile is from eight to nine feet, but they have been seen twenty-four and even thirty feet long, with a mouth opening from six to eight feet wide. In Ohelonians the surface of the skull is continuous without movable articulations. The head is oval in the Land Tortoises, the interval between the eyes large and convex, the opening of the .Fig. 3.— Skeleton of a Turtle nostrils large, the orbits round. The general distinguishing characteristic of Tortoises is the external position of the bones of the thorax, at once enveloping with a cuirass or buckler the muscular portion of the frame, and protecting the pelvis and shoulder bones. The ribs are inserted by means of sutures into these plates, and united with each other. A three-branched shoulder and cylindrical shoulder-blade are characteristic of the Tortoises. CIIAEACTEEISTICS OF EEPTILES. 17 In tropical regions enormous Serpents are found, which are as bulky as a man's thigh, and are said to be not less than forty feet in length. Roman annals mention one forty feet long, which Regulus encountered in Africa during the Punic wars, and which is fabu- lously said to have arrested the march of his army. These gigantic reptiles are not, however, the enemies which man has most cause to fear ; their very size draws attention to them in such a, manner that it is easy to avoid them. It is quite otherwise with Vipers twenty or thirty inches long ; they glide after their prey without being seen, strike it cruelly with their fangs, leaving in the wound a venom which produces death with startling rapidity. Doubtless this fatal power was the origin of the worship which was ren- dered to certain reptiles by barbarous nations of old, and these animals are indeed still venerated by many savage races. The whole class of Reptiles are, for the most part, calculated to inspire feelings of disgust, and such has been the sentiment in all ages. Few people can suppress a movement of fright at the sight of an ordinary Snake, Lizard, or Frog, notwithstanding that they are most inoffensive animals. Several causes concur to this aversion. In the first place the low temperature of their bodies, contact with which communicates an involuntary shudder in the person who tries to touch one of them ; then the moisture which exudes from the skins of Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders ; their fixed and strong gaze, again, impresses one painfully in thinking of them ; the odour which some of them exhale is so disgusting, that it alone sometimes causes fainting ; add to this the fear of a real or often exaggerated danger, and we shall have the secret of the sort of instinctive horror which is felt by many people at the sight of most reptiles. Nevertheless, the injurious species are ex- ceptional amongst reptiles, and there are not any amongst the Batrachians, for it is altogether a mistake to take for venom the fluid which the toad discharges.* It is true that these animals are repulsive in appearance, we can nevertheless recognise their services in the economy of nature. Inhabitants of slimy mud and * The Necturus, a Siren-like animal inhabiting the lakes of North America, has series of small, fang-like teeth abo\«) and below, which are stated to give an envenomed bite. — "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1857, p. 61. For poison-organs in certain fishes, vide the same publication for 1861, p. 155. — ED. C 18 BATEACHIANS. impure swamps, they make incessant war upon the worms and insects which abound in those localities. In their turn they find implacable enemies in the birds of the marshes, which check their prodigious multiplication. In this manner equilibrium is main- tained. Some of the animals which now occupy our attention render more direct service to man by the part which they fulfil at his table. Frogs are eaten in the south of France, Italy, and many other countries ; and in some parts of the south of France, Adders are eaten under the name of Hedge-eels. We know the favour in which Turtles are held in England, where turtle- soup is considered a dish only fit for merchant princes. In some countries Iguanas, Crocodiles, and even Serpents are eaten. Yiper-broth, which was known to Hippocrates, is discontinued as an article of food. As we have already remarked, the peculiar nature of their organization leads Reptiles and Batrachians to seek the warmer regions of the earth. It is in those regions that they attain the enormous dimensions which distinguish certain Serpents ; there, too, they secrete their most subtle poisons, and display the most lively colours — which, if less rich than those of Birds and Fishes, are not less startling in effect. Many Serpents and Lizards glitter with radiant metallic reflections, and some of them present ex- tremely varied combinations of colour. Chameleons are found in the same localities, but in the Old World only ; these and some other Lizards are remarkable for changing their colour, a pheno- menon which is also seen among the Frogs, but in a smaller degree. Reptiles and Batrachians were numerous in the early ages of our globe. It was then that those monstrous Saurians lived, whose dimensions even are startling to our imagination. The> forms of the Reptiles and Batrachians of the early ages of the earth were much more numerous, their dimensions much greater, and their means of existence more varied than those of the present time. Our existent Reptiles are very degenerate descen- dants of those of the great geological periods, unless we except the Crocodiles and the gigantic Boas and Pythons. Whilst the Reptiles of former ages disported their gigantic masses, and spread terror amongst other living creatures, alike by their for- midable armature and their prodigious numbers, they are now FEOGS. 19 reduced to a much lower number of species. There are now but little more than 1,500 species of Reptiles and Batrachians described, and only 100 of those belong to Europe.* I. BATRACIIIA. Animals which compose this class have long been confounded with reptiles, from which they differ in one fundamental pecu- liarity in their organization. At their birth they respire by means of gills, and consequently resemble fishes. In a physio- logical point of view, at a certain time in their lives, these animals are fishes in form as well as in their habits and orga- nization. As age progresses, they undergo permanent meta- morphosis — they acquire lungs, and thenceforth an aerial respiration. It is, then, easy to understand that these animals hold a doubtful rank, as they have long done, amongst Reptiles, which are animals with an aerial respiration ; they ought to, form a separate class of Vertebrates, f Batrachians establish a transitional link between Fishes and Reptiles — they are, as it were, a bond of union between those two groups of animals. In the adult state Batrachians are cold-blooded animals with incomplete circulation, inactive respiration, and the skin is bare. In the introductory section to this chapter we have given the general characteristics which belong to them. The Frogs — Tree Frogs, Toads, Surinam Toads, Salamanders, and Newts — are the representatives of the principal families of Batrachians of which we propose giving the history. The Frogs, Rana, have been irreparably injured by their resem- blance to the Toads. This circumstance has given rise to an unfa- vourable prejudice against these innocent little Batrachians. Had the Toad not existed, the Frog would appear to us as an animal of a curious form, and would interest us by the phenomena of transformation which it undergoes in the different epochs of its development. We should see in it a useful inoffensive animal of slender form, with delicate and supple limbs, arrayed in that * Vide subsequent notes on this subject, in p. 31, &c. t They are regarded by some naturalists as a sub-class of Fishes rather than of Reptiles, as piscine forms certain of which develop to a parallelism with the ordinary reptilian condition of advancement ; their reproduction especially favouring this view or idea. — ED. c2 20 BATBACHIANS. green colour which is so pleasant to the eye, and which mingles so harmoniously with the carpeting of our fields. The body of the Edible Frog, liana esculenta (Fig. 4), some- times attains from six to eight inches in length, from the ex- tremity of the muzzle to the end of the hind feet. The muzzle terminates in a point ; the eyes are large, brilliant, and sur- rounded with a circle of gold colour. The mouth is large ; the body, which is contracted behind, presents a tubercular and rugged back. It is of a more or less decided green colour on the upper, and whitish on the under parts. These two colours, I'ig. 4. -The Edible Frog (liana esculenta). which harmonize well, are relieved by three yellow lines, which extend the whole length of the back, and by scattered black marbling. It is, therefore, much to be regretted that prejudice should cause some at least of us to turn awav from this pretty little hopping animal; when met with in the country ; with its slight dimensions, quick movements, and graceful attitudes. For FROGS. 21 ourselves, we cannot see the banks of our streams embellished by the colours and animated with the gambols of these little animals without pleasure. Why should we not follow with our eyes their movements in our ponds, where they enliven the solitude without disturbing its tranquillity. Frogs often leave the water, not only to seek their nourishment, but to warm themselves in the sun. When they repose thus, with the head lifted up, the body raised in front and supported upon the hind feet, the attitude is more that of an animal of higher organization than that of a mean and humble Batrachian. Frogs feed on larvae, aquatic insects, worms, and small mollusks. They choose their prey from living and moving creatures ; for they set a watch, and when they perceive it, they spring on it with great vivacity. A large Indian species (R. tigrina) has been seen to prey occasionally upon young Spar- rows. Far from being dumb, like many oviparous quadrupeds, Frogs have the gift of voice. The females only make a pecu- liar low growl, produced by the air which vibrates in the interior of two vocal pouches placed on the sides of the neck ; but the cry of the male is sonorous, and heard at a great distance : it is a croak which the Greek poet, Aristophanes, endeavoured to imitate by the inharmonic consonants, brekekurkoax, coax! It is principally during rain, or in the evenings and mornings of hot days, that Frogs utter their confused sounds. Their chant- ing in monotonous chorus makes this sad melody very tiresome. Under the feudal system, during the "good old times" of the middle ages, which some people would like to bring back again, the country seats of many of the nobility and country squires were surrounded by ditches half full of water, all inhabited by a popu- lation of croaking Frogs. Yassals and villains were ordered to beat the water in these ditches morning and evening in order to keep off the Frogs which troubled the sleep of the lords and masters of the houses. Independent of the resounding and pro- longed cries of which we have spoken, at certain times the male Frog calls the female in a dull voice, so plaintive that the Romans described it by the words "ololo," or "ololygo." "Truly," says Lacepede, " the accent of love is always mingled with some sweetness." When autumn arrives Frogs cease from their habitual voracity, 22 BATEACHIANS. and no longer eat. To protect themselves from the cold, they bury themselves deeply in the mud : troops of them joining together in the same place. Thus hidden, they pass the winter in a state of torpor ; sometimes the cold freezes their bodies without killing them. This state of torpor gives way in the first days of spring. During the month of March, Frogs begin to awake and to move them- selves ; this is their breeding season. Their race is so prolific that MM Fig. 5. — Development of the Tadpole. 1. Egg of the Frog. 2. The Egg fecundated, and surrounded by its visicule. 3. First state of the Tadpole. 4. Appearance of the breathing gills. 5. Their development. 6. Formation of the hind feet. 7. Formation of the fore feet, and decay of the gills. 8. Development of the lungs, and reduction of the tail. 9. The perfect Frog. a female can produce from six to twelve hundred eggs annually. These eggs are globular, and are in form a glutinous and trans- parent spheroid, at the centre of which is a little blackish globule ; the eggs float, and form like chaplets on the surface of the water. All who have observed the small ponds and ditches in the country at this season, will have seen these light and elegant TADPOLE OF THE FROG. 2? crafts swimming on the surface of the water. After a few days, more or less according to the temperature, the little black spot which is the embryo of the egg, and which has developed itself in the interior of the glairy mass which envelops it, disengages itself and shoots forth into the water : this is the tadpole of the Frog. The body of the tadpole is oval in shape, and terminates in a long flat tail, which forms a true fin ; on each side of the neck are two large gills, in shape like a plume of feathers ; the tadpole has no legs. These gills soon begin to wither, without aquatic respiration ceasing, however ; for, besides these, the tadpole pos- sesses interior gills like fishes. Soon after, the legs begin to show themselves, the hind legs appearing first; they acquire a con- siderable length before the fore feet begin to show themselves. These develop themselves under the skin, which they presently pierce through. When the legs have appeared, the tail begins to fade, and, little by little, withers away, until in the perfect animal it entirely disappears. About the same time the lungs become developed, and assume their functions. In Fig. 5 may be traced the successive phases of its transformation from the egg to the tadpole, till we finally reach the perfect Batrachian. Through these admirable modifications we see the Fish, little by little, become a Batrachian. In order to follow this strange metamorphosis, it suffices to gather some Frog's eggs, and to place them with some aquatic herbs in an aquarium, or in a globe with Gold and Silver Fish ; it there constitutes a most interesting spec- tacle, and we advise our readers to give themselves this instructive and easy lesson in natural history. At present, there exist two species of Frog in Europe: the Green or Edible Frog, and the Common Frog. The Green Frog is that which we have described, and of which we have given a representation in Fig. 4. They are found in running streams and stagnant waters. It is this species to which La Fontaine alludes in one of his fables. Common Frogs are smaller than the preceding : they inhabit damp places in fields and vineyards, and only return to the water to breed or to winter. The flesh of the Edible Frog is very tender, white, and delicate. As an article of food, it is lightly esteemed by some, but unde- 24 BATKACHIANS. servedly so. Prepared in tlie same manner, Green Frogs closely resemble very young fowls in taste. In almost all parts of France Frogs are disdained as articles of food ; it is only in the south that a taste for them is openly avowed, and there Frogs are sought for and brought to market. Therefore, I never could comprehend how the notion popular in England, when it is wished to express contempt for Frenchmen, should be to call them Frog- eaters. It is a reproach which might be addressed to Provencals and Lan- guedocians like the author of this work, but not at all to the majority of Frenchmen. The Green Tree Frog is easily distinguished by having little plates under its toes. These organs are a species of sucker, by means of Fig. 6. -Green Tree Frog (Hyia). which the animal is enabled, like the house-fly, to cling strongly to any surface, however smooth and polished it may be. The smoothest branch, even the lower surface of a leaf, forms a sufficient hold and support to these delicate organs. The upper part of the body is of a beautiful green, the lower part, where little tuberculi are visible, is white. A yellow line, lightly bordered with violet, extends on each side of the head and back, from the muzzle to the hind legs. A similar line runs from the jaw to the front legs. The head is short, the mouth round, and the eyes raised. Much smaller than the ordinary Frog, GREEN TREE FROG. 25 they are far more graceful. During the summer they live upon the leaves of trees in damp woods, and pass the winter at the bottom of some pond, which they do not leave till the month of May, after having deposited their eggs. They feed on small insects, worms, and mollusks ; and in order to catch them, they will remain in the same place an entire day. During the glare of the sun, they remain hidden amongst the leaves ; but when twilight approaches, they move about and climb up the trees. We must repeat of these Green Tree Frogs what we have already said of Frogs. Get rid of all prejudice towards their kind, and then you will examine with pleasure their lively colours, which harmonize so well with the green leaves ; remark their tricks and ambus- cades : follow them in their little hunting excursions ; see them suspended upside down upon the leaves in .a manner which appears marvellous to those who are not aware of the organs which have been given to enable them to attach themselves to the smoothest bodies : and it will give as much pleasure as can be derived from the consideration of the plumage, habits, and flight of birds. The croak of the Green Tree Frogs is like that of other Frogs, although less sharp and sometimes stronger in the males ; it can be pretty well translated by the syllables caraccarac, pro- nounced from the throat. This cry is principally heard in the morning and evening ; then, when one Frog begins to utter its croak, all the others imitate it. In the quiet night the voice of a troop of these little Batrachians sometimes reaches to an enor- mous distance. Toads, B-ufo, are squat and disagreeable in shape : it is difficult to comprehend why nature, which has bestowed elegance and a kind of grace upon Frogs and Tree Frogs, has stamp 3d the Toad with so repulsive a form. These much despised beings occupy a large place in the order of nature : they are distributed with pro- fusion, but one cannot say exactly to what end ; their movements are heavy and sluggish. In colour they are usually of a livid grey, spotted with brown and yellow, and disfigured by a number of pus- tules or warts. A thick and hard skin covers a flat back; its large belly always appears to be swollen ; the head a little broader than the rest of its body ; the mouth and the eyes are large and pro- minent. It lives chiefly at the bottom of ditches, especially those 26 BATEACHIANS. where stagnant and corrupt water has lain a long time. It is found in dung heaps, caves, and in dark and damp parts of woods. One has often been disagreeably surprised on raising some great stone to discover a Toad cowering against the earth, frightful to see, but timorous, seeking to avoid the notice of strangers. It is in these different obscure and sometimes foetid places of refuge that the Toad shuts itself up during the day ; going out in the evening, when our common species moves by slight hops ; whilst another, the Natterjack Toad, Bufo calamita, only crawls, though some- what fastly. When seized, it voids into the hand a quantity of limpid water imbibed through the pores of its skin ; but if more Fig. 7. — The Common Toad (Uufo vulgar is). irritated, a milky and venemous humour issues from the glands of its back. One peculiarity of its structure offers a defence from outward attacks. Its very extensible skin adheres feebly to the muscles, and at the will of the animal a large- quantity of air enters between this integument and the flesh, which distends the body, and fills the vacant space with an elastic bed of gas, by means of which it is less sensible to blows. Toads feed upon insects, worms, and small mollusks. In fine evenings, at certain seasons especially, they may be heard uttering a plaintive monotonous sound. They assemble in ponds, or even in simple puddles of water, where they TOADS. 27 breed and deposit their eggs. When hatched, the young Toads go through the same metamorphosis as do the tadpoles of the Frogs. Their simple lives, though very inactive, are nevertheless very enduring ; they respire little, are susceptible of hibernation, and can remain for a considerable time shut up in a very confined place. It is proper, however, to. caution the reader against believing all that has been written about the longevity of Toads. Neither must implicit faith be given to the discovery of the living animal (Fig. 7) in the centre of stones. " That Toads, Frogs, and Newts, occasionally issue from stones broken in a quarry or in sinking wells, and even from coal- strata at the bottom of a mine," is true enough; but, as Dr. Buckland observes, "the evidence is never perfect to show that these Amphibians were entirely enclosed in a solid rock; no examination is made until the creature is dis- covered by the breaking of the mass in which it was contained, and then it is too late to ascertain whether there was any hole or crevice by which it might have entered." These considerations led Dr. Buckland to undertake certain experiments to test the fact. He caused blocks of coarse oolitic limestone and sandstone to be prepared with cells of various sizes, in which he enclosed Toads of different ages. The small Toads enclosed in the sandstone were found to die at the end of thirteen months ; the same fate befell the larger ones during the second year : they were watched through the glass covers of their cells, and were never seen in a state of torpor, but at each successive examination they had become more meagre, until at last they were found dead. This was probably too severe a test for the poor creatures, the glass cover implying a degree of hardness and dryness not natural to half amphibious Toads. More- over, it is certain that both Toads and Frogs possess a singular faci- lity for concealing themselves in the smallest crevices of the earth, or in the smallest anfractuosities of stones placed in dark places. This animal, so repulsive in form, has been furnished by nature with a most efficient defensive armature; namely, an acrid secretion which will be described farther on. It is a bad leaper, an obscure and solitary creature, which shuns the sight of man, as if it comprehended the blot it is on the fair face of creation. It is, nevertheless, susceptible of education, and 28 BATEACHIANS. has occasionally been tamed ; but these occasions have been rare. Pennant, the zoologist, relates some curious details respecting a poor Toad, which took refuge under the staircase of a house. It was accustomed to come every evening into a dining-room near to the place of its retreat. When it saw the light it allowed itself to be placed on a table, where they gave it worms, wood-lice, and various insects. As no attempt was made to injure it, there were no signs of irritation when it was touched, and it soon became, from its gentleness (the gentleness of a Toad !), the object of Fig. 8. — Surinam Toad (Pipa monstrosa). general curiosity ; even ladies stopped to see this strange animal. The poor Batrachian lived thus for six and thirty years ; and it would probably have lived much longer had not a Crow, tamed, and, like it, a guest in the house, attacked him at the entrance of his hole, and put out one of his eyes. From that time he languished, and died at the end of a year. Nearly allied to the Toads, Bufo, the Surinam Toad, Pipa, holds its place. Its physiognomy is at once hideous and peculiarly SUEINAM TOAD. 29 odd : the head is flat and triangular, a very short neck sepa- rates it from the trunk, which is itself depressed and flattened. Its eyes are extremely small, of an olive, more or less bright, dashed with small reddish spots. It has no tongue. There is only one species of Pipa, viz. the American Pipa (Fig. 8), which inhabits Guiana arid several provinces of Brazil. The most remarkable feature in this Batrachian is its manner of reproduction. It is oviparous, and when the female has laid her eggs, the male takes them, and piles upon the back of his companion these, his hopes of posterity. The female, bearing the fertilized eggs upon her back, reaches the marshes, and there immerses herself ; but the skin of the back which supports the eggs soon becomes inflamed, erysipelatous inflammation follows, causing an irritation, produced by the presence of eggs, which are then absorbed into the skin, and disappear in the integument until hatched. The young Pipa Toads are rapidly developed in these dorsal cells, but they are extricated at a less advanced stage than almost any other vertebrate animal. After extrication, the tadpole grows rapidly, and the chief change of form is witnessed in the gills. As to the mother Batrachian, it is only after she has got rid of her progeny that she abandons her aquatic residence.* The Batrachians differ essentially from all other orders of HEP- TILIA. They have no ribs ; their skin is naked, being without scales. The young, or tadpoles, when first hatched, breathe by means of gills, being at this stage quite unlike their parents. These gills, or branchiae, disappear in the tailless Batrachians, as the Frogs and Toads, in which the tail disappears, are called. In the tadpoles the mouth is destitute of a tongue, this organ only making its appear- ance when the fore limbs are evolved. The habits also change. The tadpole no longer feeds on decomposing substances, and cannot live long immersed in water. The branchise disappear one after the other, by absorption, giving place to pulmonary vessels. The prin- cipal vascular arches are converted into the pulmonary artery, and the blood is diverted from the largest of the branchiae to the lungs. * The same phenomena occur, with certain variations, in some other American Batrachians, as the Nototrema marsupiatum of Mexico, and the Notode'pliys ovifera of Venezuela. In the Alytcs obstetricans of France, Switzerland, and the Rhine district, the ova (about sixty in number) adhere to the hind-legs of the male parent ! —ED. 30 BATEACHIANS. In the meantime the respiratory cavity is formed, the communicat- ing duct advances with the elongation of the oesophagus, and at the point of communication the larynx is ultimately developed. The lungs themselves extend as simple elongated sacs, slightly re- ticulated on the inner surface backwards into the abdominal cavity. These receptacles being formed, air passes into and expands the cavity, and respiration is commenced, the fore limbs are liberated from the branchial chambers, and the first transformation is accomplished. The alleged venemous character of the Common Toad has been altogether rejected by many naturalists ; but Dr. Davy found that venemous matter was really contained in follicles in the true skin, and chiefly about the head and shoulders, but also distributed generally over the body, and on the extremities in considerable quantities. Dr. Davy found it extremely acrid, but innocuous when introduced into the circulation. A chicken inoculated with it was unaffected, and Dr. Davy conjectures that this acrid liquid is the animal's defence against carnivorous Mammalia. A dog when urged to attack one will drop it from its mouth in a manner which leaves no doubt that it had felt the effects of the secretion. In opposition to these opinions the story of a lad in France is told, who had thrust his slightly wounded hand into a hole, intend- ing to seize a Lizard which he had seen enter. In place of the Lizard he brought out a large Toad. While holding the animal, it discharged a milky yellowish white fluid which introduced itself into the wound in his hand, and this poison occasioned his death ; but then it is not stated that the boy was previously healthy. Warm and temperate regions with abundant moisture are the localities favourable to all the Batrachians. Extreme cold, as well as dry heat, and all sudden changes are alike unfavourable to them. In temperate climates, where the winters are severe, they bury themselves under the earth, or in the mud at the bottom of pools and ponds, and there pass the season without air or food, till returning spring calls them forth. The species of this family are very numerous. MM. Dumeril and Bibron state that the Frogs, Rana, number fifty-one species ; the Tree Frogs, Hyla, sixty-four ; and the Toads, Bufo, thirty-five. SALAMANDEES. 31 They are found in all parts of the world, the smallest portion being found in Europe, and the largest in America. Oceania is chiefly supplied with the Tree Frogs. There are several curious forms in Australia, and one species only is known to inhabit New Zealand. The enormous fossil Labyrinthodon, of a remote geo- logical era, is believed to have been nearly related to these comparatively very diminutive Batrachians.* TAILED BATRACHIANS, Sometimes called Urodeles, from oupa, " tail," 817X05, " manifest." The constant external character which distinguishes these Amphi- bians in a general manner is the presence of a tail during the whole stage of their existence. Nevertheless they are subject to the metamorphoses to which all the Amphibians submit. " The division, therefore, of reptiles," says Professor Rymer Jones, "into such as undergo metamorphoses and such as do not, is by no means philosophical although convenient to the zoologist, for all reptiles undergo a metamorphosis although not to the same extent. In the one the change from the aquatic to the air-breathing animal is never fully accomplished; in the tailed Amphibian the change is accomplished after the embryo has escaped from the ovum." Salamanders have had the honour of appearing prominently in fabulous narrative. The Greeks believed that they could live in fire, and this error obtained credence so long, that even now it has not been entirely dissipated. Many people are simple enough to believe from the Greek tradition that these innocent animals are incombustible. The love of the marvellous, fostered and excited by ignorant appeals to superstition, has gone even further than this ; it has been asserted that the most violent fire becomes extin- guished when a Salamander is thrown into it. In the middle ages this notion was held by most people, and it would have been dan- gerous to gainsay it. Salamanders were necessary animals in the conjurations of sorcerers and witches; accordingly painters among their symbolical emblems represented Salamanders as capable of * In Dr. Giinther's Catalogue of the Batrachia Salientia (as Dr. Gray terms them) in the collection of the British Museum, published in 1858, and which includes all the ascertained species up to the time of publication, as many as 282 are enumerated, which are arranged under twenty-five groups holding the rank of families. — ED. 32 BATBACHIANS. resisting the most violent action of live coal. It was found neces- sary, however, that physicians and philosophers should take the trouble to prove by experiment the absurdity of these tales. The skull of the Land or Spotted Salamander, Salamandra maculosa, is well described by Cuvier as being nearly cylindrical, wider in front so as to form the semi- circular face, and also behind for the crucial branches, containing the internal ears. The cranium of the aquatic Salamander differs from the terrestrial in having the entire head more oblong, and they differ also among themselves. In the Land Salamander the body is black and warty Fig. 9. — Land Salamander. with large irregular yellow spots distributed over the head, back, sides, feet, and tail. They affect obscure and moist places, and only issue from their retreat in the night or morning, walking slowly, and dragging themselves with ' difficulty along the surface of the ground. They live upon flies, beetles, snails, and earth worms. They remain in the water to deposit their eggs ; the young are born alive, and furnished with fully- developed gills. Moreover Salamanders are gifted with a power which causes them to be much dreaded by other animals: it has the power of discharging an acrid and milky humour, with a very strong odour, from the surface of its body, which serves as a defence against many animals which would otherwise attack it. It has been proved by experiment that this liquid, when intro- NEWTS. 33 duced into the circulatory system by a small wound is a very active poison, and causes certain death to the smaller animals. This species is found in most parts of Europe, but not in the British Islands. The Black Salamander, Triton alpestris, has no spots ; it is found on the highest European mountains, in the regions of snow, and principally on the highest Alps. Newts, or Aquatic Salamanders, have not a round conical tail like the terrestrial species, but have that appendage compressed or flattened laterally. The males (during the breeding season only) are Fig. 10.— Newts, or Aquatic Salamanders. recognised chiefly by the membranous serrated ridge or crest which extends along the whole length of the back, from the head to the extremity of the tail, as represented in Fig. 10. Newts are highly aquatic ; they are found in ditches, marshes, and ponds, which after the breeding season they leave for moist places on land, often then finding their way into drains and cellars. They are carnivorous, feeding upon different insects and on the spawn of Frogs, not even sparing individuals of their own species. The females deposit their eggs singly, fixing them on the under sur- face of the leaves of aquatic plants. " Some Newts/' says Pro- fessor Owen, " deposit their eggs upon aquatic plants, such as Polygonum persicaria, folding the leaf by means of the hind feet D 34 BATRACHIANS. • in such a way that its under surface is turned inwards and the fold made to stick by the adhesive coating of the egg, which she inserts in the fold." The young are hatched fifteen days after. These animals give utterance to a very peculiar noise, and when touched emit an odour quite characteristic. It has been ascertained that Newts can live for a long time, not only in very cold water, but even in the midst of ice, being some- times taken in blocks of ice which are formed in the ditches and ponds which they inhabit. When the ice-flakes melt they seem to awaken from their torpor, and betake themselves to their accus- tomed movements with their recovered liberty. Lacepede states that he found Aquatic Salamanders even during summer in pieces of ice obtained from the ice- dealers, where they had remained without movement or nourishment from the time when the ice had been gathered from the marshes. Newts present another remarkable feature in the facility with which they repair any mutilations they may have undergone. Not only do their tails grow again when broken off, but even their feet are reproduced in the same manner, and the process may be many times repeated. The Crested Newt, Triton cristatus, is frequently found in the neighbourhood of Paris ; the skin of its back is rough and warty, of a brownish colour, with large black spots and white projecting points ; the belly has black spots upon an orange ground. The Dutch traveller, Sieboldt, has introduced a species of Aquatic Salamander, which inhabits the mountain lakes and marshes of Japan. This species is remarkable for its gigantic growth. Instead of being the size of a finger, as is the case with those indigenous to Europe, this Batrachian is four feet and a half in length, and weighs fifty pounds. •Magnificent specimens of this gigantic Salamander, the Sie- boldtia maxima, may be seen by the visitors to the London Zoological Gardens. The largest of them measured and weighed as above (March 3rd, 1869). An analogous large fossil species was described as the Homo diluvii testis ! The transformation of the tailed Batrachians, from the tadpole condition to the air-breathing and four-footed state, is one of the most interesting exhibitions of Nature, and one which everyone TRANSFORMATION OF NEWTS. . 35 may verify for himself. "We cannot in our brief description have a more trustworthy guide than Professor Rymer Jones, who selects the Water Newt, Triton cristatus, as an example : — " Immediately before leaving the egg," he says, "this tadpole presents both the outward form and internal structure of a fish. The flattened and vertical tail, fringed with a broad dorsal and oval fin ; the shape of the body and gills, appended to the side of the neck, are all apparent ; so that wrere the creature to preserve this form throughout its life the naturalist would scarcely hesitate in classing it with fishes, properly so called. "When first hatched it presents the same fish-like body, and rows itself through the water by the lateral movement of the caudal fin. The only appearance of legs as yet visible consists in two minute tubercles, which seem to be sprouting out from the skin imme- diately behind the branchial tufts, and which are, in fact, the first buddings of anterior extremities. Nevertheless, to compensate to a certain extent for the total want of prehensile limbs, which afterwards become developed, two supernumerary organs are pro- visionally furnished in the shape of two minute claspers on each side of the mouth ; by means of these the little creature holds on to the leaves which are under water. " Twelve days after issuing from the egg, the two fore-legs, which at first resembled two little nipples, have become much elongated, and are divided at their extremity into two or three rudiments of fingers. The eyes, which were before scarcely visible, being covered by a membrane, distinctly appear. The branchiae, at first simple, are divided into fringes, wherein red blood now circulates ; the mouth has grown very large, and the whole body is so transparent as to reveal the position of the viscera within. Its activity is likewise much increased ; it swims with rapidity, and darts upon minute aquatic insects, which it seizes and devours. " About the twenty- second day the tadpole for the first time begins to emit air from the mouth, showing that the lungs have begun to be developed. The branchiae are still large. The fingers upon the fore-legs are completely formed. The hind- legs begin to sprout beneath the skin, and the creature presents, in a transitory condition, the same external form as that which the Siren lacertina permanently exhibits. 36 0 BATBACHIANS. "By the thirty- sixth day the young Salamander has arrived at the development of the Proteus anguinus ; its hind-legs are nearly completed ; its lungs have become half as long as the trunk of the body, and its branchiae more complicated in structure. " At about the forty-second day the tadpole begins to assume the form of an adult Newt. The body becomes shorter, the fringes of the branchise are rapidly obliterated, so that in five days they are reduced to simple prominences covered by the skin of the head ; and the gills opening at the sides of the neck, which allowed the water to escape from the mouth as in fishes, and were, like them, covered with an operculum formed by a fold of the integument, are gradually closed ; the membranous fin of the' tail contracts, the skin becomes thicker and more deeply coloured, and the creature ultimately assumes the form and habits of the perfect Newt, no longer possessing branchise, but breathing air, and in every particular the Heptile." But however curious the phenomena attending the development of the tadpoles of the Amphibian Reptiles may be to the observer who merely watches the changes perceptible from day to day in their external form, they acquire tenfold interest to the physiologist who traces the progressive evolution of their internal viscera ; more especially when he finds that in these creatures he has an opportunity afforded him of contemplating, displayed before his eyes, as it were, upon an enlarged scale, those phases of develop- ment through which the embryo of every air-breathing vertebrate animal must pass while concealed within the egg, or yet unborn.* * In the British Museum Catalogue (1850) these Amphibians are styled Batra- chia Gradientia, and are distributed under three families, comprising fifty-two recog- nised species. The class Amphibia is divided by Dr. Gray into five orders — viz. Batrachia, Pseudosauria, Pseudophidia, Pseudichthyes, and Meantia. Of these the first, or the Batrachia, are divided into the sub-orders Salientia and Gradientia, the latter consisting of three families, Salamandridce, Molgidce, and PletUodontidce. The second order, Pseudosauria, comprises the families Protonopsidce (which contains the Sieboldtia maxima) and Amphiumidce. The third order, Pseudophidia, consists of only one family, CcEciliidce. The fourth order, Pseudichthyes, also contains one family only, the Lepidosirenida. The fifth order, Meantia, comprises the two families Proteida and Sirenida. Twenty-four ascertained species are distributed amongst the last four of these orders ; but the limits of this work do not permit of a more detailed notice of these various groups of Batrachia Gradientia. More recently, Dr. Giinther, in his work on the reptiles of the Indian region, has pointed out certain structural characters connected with the generative system which show that the Pseudophidia BATKACHIANS. 37 do not properly belong to the Batrachia ; nor is their place in the system as yet quite satisfactorily determined. They seem rather to be a very humble form of reptile ; while the Pscudichthyes should rather be subordinated to the class Pisces : though, as we have seen, there are naturalists who would refer all of the Batrachia to the fish class, certain forms amongst them rising to a parallelism of development with Reptilia, but still not constituting true reptiles. The mode of reproduction especially is in favour of this view. Both Pseudophidia, and Pseudichthyes are inter- tropical or subtropical animals, whereas the rest of the Batrachia Gradientia belong almost exclusively to the northern temperate zone ; any exceptional case occurring probably in very elevated regions. Of sixty-six ascertained species, forty-nine are American, and there are five from Japan, inclusive of the Sieboldtia maxima. But more species have been discovered since the catalogue cited has been drawn up, and of course there must be many yet to be discovered. Five species are referred to the Pseudophidia^ and three only to the Pseudichthyes. — ED. CHAPTER IL OPHIDIAN REPTILES, OR TRUE SNAKES. REPTILES are, as has been said in the preceding chapter, Yerte- brated Animals, breathing by lungs, having red and cold blood ; that is to say, not producing sufficient heat to render their tem- perature superior to that of the atmosphere. Destitute of hairs, of feathers, of mammary glands, and having bodies covered with scales. Snakes, properly so called, have the tympanic bone, or pedicle of the lower jaw, movable, and nearly always suspended to another bone, analogous to the mastoid bone, which is attached to the cra- nium by muscles and ligaments, a conformation which gives to these animals the vast power of distension they possess. Their trachea is long, their hearts placed far back, and the greater number have one very long lung and vestiges of a second. They are divided into non-venemous and venemous ; and the latter are sub-divided into venemous with maxillary teeth, and venemous with isolated fangs. The Snakes prey almost exclusively on animals of their own killing ; the more typical species attacking such as are frequently larger than themselves : and the maxillary apparatus is, as we have seen, modified so as to permit of the requisite distension. According to Professor Owen's clear and intelligible descrip- tion, the two superior maxillary bones have their anterior extremities joined by an elastic and yielding fibrous tissue with the small and single intermaxillary bone ; the lower maxil- lary rarni are similarly connected. The opposite extremity of each ramus is articulated to a long and movable vertical pedicle formed by the tympanic bone, which is itself attached to the OPHIDIANS. 30 extremity of a horizontal pedicle formed by the mastoid bone, so connected as to" allow of a certain yielding movement upon the cranium. The other bones have similar loose movable articu- lations, which concur in yielding to the pressure of large bodies with which the teeth have grappled. The class of Reptiles is divided into three orders : — the OPHI- DIANS, comprehending the Snakes ; the SAURIANS, the Lizards and Crocodiles ; and the CHELONIANS, the Turtles and Tortoises. OPHIDIANS. In Ophidians, commonly known under the name of Snakes, the body is long, round, and straight. They have neither feet, fins, nor other locomotive extremities. Their mouths are furnished with pointed hooked teeth. In the Boas and Pythons the teeth are slender, curved, bending backwards and inwards above their base of attachment. In others each maxillary bone has a row of larger ones, which gradually decrease in size as they are placed further back. These teeth are not contiguous, being separated by considerable intervals. The smaller non-venemous Serpents, such as the Colubridtf, have two rows of teeth in the roof of the mouth. Each maxillary and mandibular bone includes from twenty to twenty-five teeth. In the Rattlesnakes and some other typical genera of poisonous Snakes, the short maxillary bone only sup- ports a single perforated fang. Their lower jaw is highly distensible ; the opening being longer than the skull. They have no neck ; their eyelids are immovable ; their skin is coriaceous, highly extensible, and scaly or granulous, covered with a thin caducous epidermis, which detaches itself in one entire piece, and is reproduced several times in one year. Their movements are supple and varied. In consequence of the sinuosity of their bodies, — for, though scale- clad, Snakes are without apparent means of progression, — they make their way with the utmost facility, by walking, leaping, climbing, or swimming. According to the genus chiefly, the very numerous species inhabit either arid or moist places, the ground, or bushes and trees. Some pass much of their time in the water, and one family (that of the HydTOphiddfy is exclusively aquatic — even 40 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. pelagic in the instance of one very widely diffused species, the Pelamis bicolor. In the Arboreal Snakes the tail is very long, and highly prehensile ; in others, as the Yipers, it is short and without any prehensility. In the Sea Snakes (Hydrophidce), it is laterally much compressed. Like other true reptiles, Snakes abound more especially in warm climates, and there are many kinds of them in Australia ; but the order has not a single representative in JNew Zealand. Most of the Snakes feed on living animals, only a few on birds' eggs. Several kinds of them prey habitually on other Snakes, as the genera Hamadryas, Bungarus, and Elaps, even Psammophis occasionally ; and there are rare instances of non-venemous Snakes preying upon poisonous ones. The venemous kinds first kill their victim by poisoning it ; various others by smothering it between the coils of their body. As they do not possess organs for tearing the prey to pieces, nor a dentition fit for mastication, the prey is swallowed entire ; and in consequence of the great width of the mouth, and of the extraordinary extensibility of the skin of the gullet, they are able to swallow animals of which the girth much exceeds their own. The Sea Snakes prey mostly upon fishes, and the ordinary Water Snakes (Homolopsidce, &c.) on frogs and other Batrachians. Certain swallowers of birds' eggs have peculiar spinous processes proceeding from the vertebrae of the neck, the object of which is to fracture the shell of an egg during the process of deglutition. Most of the Ophidian Reptiles are oviparous, but many are ovo-viviparous. The Pythons alone (so far as ascertained) perform a sort of incubation, which has been repeatedly observed of captive specimens of these huge Serpents. Many Snakes are remarkable for their great beauty of colouring, or of the pattern of their markings ; but on account of the poisonous property of so many of them, the whole order is popularly regarded with horror and apprehension, and the most foolish tales are current respecting various species of them. Thus many people suppose that there are Snakes which rob cows of their milk ; and the skeleton of a child being found in the same hollow with a number of harmless Snakes (the North American Coryphodon constrictor], it was concluded, as a matter of course, ERRONEOUS NOTIONS CONCERNING SNAKES. 41 that the Serpents must have both killed the child and Gripped off its flesh, which latter is what no Snake could possibly do. People are prone to exaggerate, and commonly evince a fondness for the marvellous, which induce those of hot countries more especially, where the species of Ophidians are numerous, to declare every Snake met with as usually the most venomous one in their country ; and thus travellers often come away with exceedingly erroneous impressions on the subject. The Indian region surpasses every other part of the globe in the number and variety of its Ophidians, and almost every investigation of a limited but previously unex- plored district, is tolerably sure to add largely to our previous know- ledge of them. What, however, the late Sir J. Emerson Tennent asserts of those inhabiting Ceylon, is equally applicable to other parts of the Indian region. " During my residence in Ceylon," he remarks, " I never heard of the death of an European which was caused by the bite of a Snake ; and in the returns of coroners' inquests made officially to my department, such accidents to the natives appear chiefly to have happened at night, when the reptiles, having been surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in self- defence. For these reasons the Cingalese, when obliged to leave their houses in the dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the noise of which, as they strike it on the ground, is sufficient to warn the Snakes to leave their path." In some parts of the vast Indian region the natives regard the innocuous Chameleon as venemous ; in other parts various Geckos, or other Lizards. In Bengal there is a current notion regarding a terrifically poisonous Lizard, which is termed the Bis-cobra, but which has no existence except in the imagination of the natives — who bring the young of the Monitors and occasionally other well- known Lizards as exemplifying the object of their dread. Again, the little harmless Burrowing Snakes (Typhlops), which, superfi- cially, have much the appearance of earth-worms, are there popularly regarded as highly poisonous, though not only are they harmless, but physically incapable of wounding the human skin. Strangers who are little versed in zoology are commonly led astray by such errors on the part of natives of those countries, and, unfortunately, there is a number of stock vernacular names which are applied to very different species in different localities. Thus Europeans 42 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. in India are familiar with the appellation " Carpet Snake," as denoting a very deadly reptile, but nobody can there point out what the Carpet Snake really is ; and the one most generally supposed to bear that name is a small innocuous Snake (Lycodon aulicus), which is common about human dwellings. In the Australian colony of Victoria, however, the appellation Carpet Snake is bestowed upon a terribly venemous species (Hoplo- cephalus curtus) ; while in the neighbouring colony of New South Wales, a harmless and even useful creature (Morelia spilotes) is habitually known as the Carpet Snake. With regard to the poison of Yenemous Snakes, attention has lately been directed to the virtue of ammonia or volatile alkali. This should be administered internally, mixed with alcoholic spirit and water, in repeated doses ; and it should also be injected into a vein — about one drachm of the liquor ammonia of the shops being mixed with two or three times that quantity of water. The patient should be kept moving as much as possible, and the effects of a galvanic battery should also be tried in cases where animation is nearly or quite suspended. By these means it is asserted that quite recently, in Australia, some very remarkable cures have been effected. The Ophidia have many enemies, as the well-known Mungoose among mammalia, also Swine, and various ruminating quadrupeds, as Deer and Goats. In the bird class, the famous Serpent- eater, or Secretary-bird of South Africa, is one of their chief destroyers ; and there are various other Snake-devouring birds of prey, besides the great African Ground Hornbill,— even the Peafowl and sundry Storks and other waders. Comparatively large birds of the King- fisher family prey chiefly upon Snakes and Lizards in Australia ; and of reptiles, besides those Snakes which prey upon other Snakes, the Monitor Lizards frequently seize and devour them. The series of Ophidians is arranged by our most eminent herpe- tologist, Dr. A. Giinther, into five subordinate groups, which he characterises as follows : — I. Burrowing Snakes, living under ground, only occasionally appearing above the surface. They are distinguished by a rigid cylindrical body, short tail, narrow mouth, small head not distinct from the neck, little teeth in small number, and by the SNAKES. 43 absence or feeble development of the ventral shields. They feed chiefly on small invertebrate animals. Not any of them are venemous. II. Ground Snakes, or species which live above ground, and only occasionally climb bushes or enter the water ; their body is more or less cylindrical, very flexible in every part, and of mode- rate proportions. Their ventral shields are broad. They feed chiefly on terrestrial vertebrate animals. By far the greater number of Snakes belong to this category, and it is represented by many variations in all of the three sub- orders to be noticed presently. III. Tree Snakes, or species passing the greater part of their life on bushes and trees, which they traverse with the utmost facility. They are distinguished either by an exceedingly slender body, with broad, sometimes carinated, ventral shields, or by a prehensile tail. Many of the species are characterised by their vivid coloration, of which green forms the principal part. We shall see, in the sequel, that the first and third sub-orders offer numerous instances of Tree Snakes ; the Tree Snakes of the second sub-order being confined to Tropical Africa. They feed on animals which have a mode of life similar to their own ; only a few species on eggs. IV. Fresh-nater Snakes, distinguished by the position of the nostrils, which are placed on the top of the snout, and by a taper- ing tail. They inhabit fresh- waters, and are, therefore, excellent swimmers and divers ; only a few species (which also in external characters approach the following group, that of the true Sea Snakes) venture out to sea. They feed on fishes, frogs, crustaceans, and other water animals, and are viviparous. Not any of them are venemous. Y. Sea Snakes, distinguished by a strongly compressed tail, and by the position of the nostrils, which are placed as in the last group. They live in the sea, only occasionally approaching the land, feed on marine fishes, are viviparous and venemous. One genus only (Platurus) has the ventral shields so much developed as to be able to move on land. No Oceanic Serpent is known of gigantic dimensions, such as is currently alleged to have been seen by unscientific observers. 44 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. " Although these five groups/' remarks Dr. Giinther, " are not separated from each other by defined lines of demarcation, and frequently pass into one another by intermediate forms, yet a family and genus which should be composed of species of several of these groups would be a very unnatural assemblage of hetero- geneous forms." It is also remarked by the same naturalist that there is no sharp boundary line between the order of Snakes and that of Lizards. There are various limbless Saurians of Ophidian appearance, but the systematic position of which is decided by the structure of their jaws. The Common Orvet, or Slow -worm, is a familiar instance. On the other hand, certain Ophidians remind us, by several characters, of the Saurian type, — as the Snakes constituting the families Typhlopida, Tortricidce, Xenopeltida, and Uropeltida, which are distinguished by polished, closely adherent, rounded, sub-equal scales, much resembling the smooth scales of various Scincoid Lizards ; most of them have a very narrow mouth, un- like the enormous gape of the typical Serpents, and some are without that longitudinal fold in the median line of the chin which is so characteristic of most Ophidians ; moreover, most of them have rudiments of the bones of a pelvic arch. " The reason," alleges Dr. Giinther, " why we adopt the view of those systematists who refer such reptiles to the Ophidians, instead of associating them with the limbless Scincoid Lizards, is the loose connection of the jaw-bones, a character which must be con- sidered as peculiar to the Ophidians, and which is only somewhat less developed in the families mentioned than in the typical forms. The two halves of the lower jaw in Ophidians, namely, are not united by a bony symphysis, but by an elastic ligament. The peculiar mobility of the jaw bones enables the Snakes to extend the gape in an extraordinary degree, and to work their prey down through the collapsed pharynx." The same naturalist classifies the Ophidia into three sub- orders, in which the venemous Snakes are separated from the others ; but to some herpetologists this arrangement must appear rather forced, as his Venemous Colubrine Snakes have certainly a much nearer re- semblance in other respects to the Colubrida than they have to the Viperine Snakes. For the most part, these reptiles are provided VENEMOUS SNAKES. 45 with numerous teeth, which are lengthened, conical, thin and pointed like a needle, and more or less bent backwards. In Dr. Giinther's first sub-order, that of Non-venemous Snakes, the teeth are either entirely smooth, or only the last of the maxillary series is provided with a faint longitudinal groove, which is not intended to convey a virus into the wound, the groove appearing rather to increase the strength of the tooth. Many of them have long teeth in front of the jaws or of the palate, but these are never grooved or perforated, and only serve to afford a firmer hold on the living and struggling prey. '' The structure of the venom-tooth is not the same in all poisonous Snakes : in some it is fixed to the maxillary bone, which is as long or nearly as long as in the non-venemous Snakes, and gene- rally bears one or more ordinary teeth on its hinder portion. The venom-tooth is fixed more or less erect, not very long, and its channel is generally visible as an external groove. The poisonous Snakes with such a dentition have externally a more or less striking resemblance to the non-venemous Serpents, and on this account they are designated as Venemous Colubrine Snakes, form- ing our second sub-order" Two very distinct families are here brought together — viz. the Elapidce (which comprises the Cobras1 and many others), and the Hydrophida (or Sea Snakes). " In the other venemous Snakes, composing the third sub-order, the maxillary bone is extremely short, and does not bear any teeth except an exceedingly long fang, with a perfectly closed externally invisible channel in its interior. Although this tooth also is fixed to the bone, the bone itself is very mobile, so that the tooth, which is laid backwards when 'at rest, can be erected the moment the animal prepares to strike. This tooth or fang, like all the other teeth, is not only occasionally lost, but appears to be shed at regular intervals. From two to four other venom-fangs in different stages of development, destined to replace the one in action, exist between the folds of the gum, and are not anchylosed to the bone." The more characteristic venemous Snakes apper- tain to this sub-order — viz. the two families Crotalidce (compre- hending the Rattlesnakes, the Fer-de-lance, &c.) and Viperida (comprising the Yipers, Puff-adders, &c.). Let it be particularly borne in mind that the supposed distin- 46 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. guishing characters of all poisonous Snakes, as assigned by sundry mischievously ignorant writers, are those of the third of the fore- going sub- orders almost exclusively. Even the broad, flat, and lanceolate form of head is exemplified in certain Tree Snakes of the non-venemous genus Dipsas, and not in the Cobras and others that are quite as deadly — e.g. Hoplocephalus, Bungarus, Naja, Elaps, and others constituting the Colubriform family Elapidce. FIRST SUB-ORDER. OpMdii Coluber if ormes (Giinther), Innocuous Snakes. These are distributed by Dr. Giinther under numerous families, of which we can only notice the more prominent, and some of the more conspicuous species, in a popular exposition. The Typhlopidte, or Blind Snakes, comprise forms which are the most remote from the true Ophidian type. They live under ground, their rigid body and short curved tail being adapted for burrowing. After showers of rain they occasionally appear above ground, and then they are tolerably agile in their serpentine movements. The eye, which is scarcely visible in many species; can give to them only a general perception of light. They feed on worms and small insects, the tongue being forked, and, as in other Snakes, frequently exserted. They are oviparous. The smallest species of Snakes belong to this family, some of them being only half the size of a common earth-worm, to which they bear a superficial resemblance. Such, indeed, are the small vermiform Snakes already referred to, as being foolishly con- sidered venemous by most natives of India. Species of this family inhabit almost every country within and near the tropics. The Tortricidce are akin to the Typhlopida, and have rudiments of hind limbs hidden in a small groove on each side of the vent, also a longitudinal fold at the chin. The " Coral Snake " of Demarara (Tortrix scytale) appertains to this family; and the genus Cylindrophis, different species of which inhabit the great Asiatic archipelago, with the island of Ceylon, The family Xenopeltidtf consists of a single species only, so far as hitherto known, the Xenopeltis unicolor, which is common in the Indo-Chinese and Malayan countries. It grows to three or four feet in length, and when alive is uniformly steel-blue, FIRST SUB-OEDEE. 47 most beautifully iridescent, beneath white ; but the blue fades to brown after long immersion in spirits. Young examples have a white collar. Mr. W. 'Theobald remarks of it that " this Snake is common in Lower Pegu and the Tenasserim provinces, and is very malignly beautiful, though of repulsive physiognomy. The skin is loose and thick, and its habits are nocturnal. The following illustrates its ferocious nature : — I once remarked a Colubrine Snake (Ptyas mucosa), some five feet in length, in the hedge of the Circuit-house of Bassein. On running downstairs, the Snake had vanished, but on searching for it I saw its tail sticking out of a hole beneath a wooden plant-case. Do what I might I could not drag it out, as it seemed held fast within. I therefore, with some trouble, overturned the plant- case, and then saw that the unlucky Colubrine Snake was firmly pinned by a large Xenopeltis, into whose hole it had unwittingly entered. The Xenopeltis seemed about four feet in length ; but, on perceiving itself uncovered, released its hold of the Ptyas and made its escape." The Xenopeltis 'preys chiefly on small mammalia, which it hunts for in their subter- ranean holes ; and in some respects it approximates the Pythonidce. The Uropelticlce, or Shield-tails, constitute a very curious family of Burrowing Snakes, which bear considerable resemblance to the Typhlopidce, but have a very peculiar, short, strong, posteriorly shielded tail, adapted for working their way below the surface. The species are mostly small, and hitherto they have been found chiefly in Ceylon, but a few also in the peninsula of India. They are by no means scarce, but escape observation from their peculiar mode of life. Dr. Kelaart remarks that " they are timid creatures, seldom making their appearance above ground ; living chiefly in anthills or dunghills, sometimes also several feet deep in rich loamy soil. They feed on ants, small earth-worms, and the larvae of insects, and at least one species has been ascertained to be vivi- parous. Five genera and eighteen species of them are recognised. The Calamaridce form an extensive family of diminutive slender Snakes, from one to two feet in length, many species of which inhabit both the Old World and the New, though the same kinds are not found both East and West. They keep to the ground, beneath stones, fallen trees, &c. ; and their food appears to consist chiefly of insects. They are gentle, and never attempt 48 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. to bite, and themselves very commonly become the prey of the smaller Elapidae, certain of which indeed bear considerable resemblance in appearance to the Calamaridce, but are readily distinguished by possessing the poison-fangs. The Oligodontida are another extensive family of small ground Snakes, which are peculiar to South-eastern Asia and its great archipelago. They conduct to the terrene genera of the great family Colubridce, The Colubrid(E are divided by Dr. Giinther into ground Colu- brines (Coronellina), true Oolubrines (Colubrince), bush Colu- brines (Dryadince), and fresh-water Colubrines (Natricince) ; and he remarks that " they are found in every part of the temperate and tropical regions, but are only scantily represented in Australia and in the islands of the Pacific. The species are so numerous and show such a gradual passage between extreme forms, that, although genera can be easily characterized, it is almost im- possible to distinguish wider groups by definite characters." Among them the Coronellince approximate the immediately pre- ceding families, and, like them, live on the ground, and are not generally of brilliant colouring, though a few species which frequent grassy plains are of a bright green colour. The Colu- brince " form, as it were," writes Dr. Giinther, " the nucleus of the whole sub- order of innocuous Snakes : they are typical forms, not characterized by the excessive development of some particular organ, but by the fairness of the proportions of all parts. Yet some of them have a more slender body than others which always live on the ground ; they are land Snakes, but swim well when driven into the water, or climb when in search of food. They are of moderate or rather large size." In the Dryadince the form is elongate and somewhat compressed, indicating their climbing propensities ; they have the body not so excessively slender as in the true Tree Snakes, to which they lead off. They are much more numerous in the New World than in the Old, and their ground-colour is very commonly green. The Natricince are gene- rally not very elongate or compressed, and most of them have keeled scales. They freely enter the water in pursuit of their food, which consists chiefly of frogs and fishes. All the Snakes of the preceding three sub- families overpower their prey by throwing COLUBEID^. 49 some coils of the body round or over it, and commence to swallow it only after it has been smothered, or at least exhausted ; but the Natricince swallow their prey immediately after they have seized it. Of the sub-family Coronellince, one species of the typical genus Coronella is widely diffused over Europe, and has only of late years been recognised as an inhabitant of the British Islands, the Coronella austriaca. Another, C. girondica, occurs in Italy. Others are found in Africa, America, and Australia. The C. austriaca has somewhat the appearance of the common Adder, for which it is often mistaken ; but it is non-venemous, though rather a fierce reptile, which bites and holds on ; and as it occurs in Malta (where no venemous species is known to exist), it is doubtless the supposed Viper which seized upon the apostle Paul. Several other genera are recognised. Of the Colubrince, Rhinechis scalaris, Coluber cescidapii, C. qua- drilineatus, Elaphis quater-radiatus, and three species of Zamenis inhabit Europe : there are five of Coluber in North America, and the well-known " Black Snake " of the Anglo-Americans is the Corypkodon constrictor. Other species of Coryphodon or Ptyas inhabit South-eastern Asia, as the different " Eat Snakes " of Anglo-Indians, of which Ptyas mucosus is particularly common in India, where it is encouraged by reasonable people as a destroyer of the far more troublesome Brown Rat (Mus decumanus). The Dryadintie are chiefly American, and do not call for par- ticular further remark ; but the Natritince are very numerous, and there are three species in Europe of its most prominent genus, Tropidonotus — viz. T. natrix, T. hydrus, and T. viperinus. Dr. Gvinther gives as many as twenty-one species of this genus as in- habitants of the Indian region alone, and there is reason to believe that that number is far from being complete. Others inhabit North America and North-western Australia, and some generic groups have been detached that are not very conspicuously separable.] The Ringed Snake, Tropidonotus natrix, is often found in fine seasons near human habitations. It deposits its eggs, which are fifteen to twenty in number, commonly in dunghills, in one agglu- tinated mass. Exposed to the air, these eggs soon shrivel and dry, and the embryos within them perish. The Ringed Snakes are also found near rivers and meadows, by the side of water- courses, into £ 50 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. which they love to plunge ; hence they are sometimes called Water Serpents, Swimming Serpents, Hedge Eels, and other provincial synonyms. They sometimes attain to as much as and more than a yard in length. The summit of their head is covered with nine large scales, disposed in four rings. The upper part of the body is of a more or less darkish grey colour, marked on each side with irregular black spots. Between the two rows of spots are two other longitudinal rows, which extend from the head to the tail. The belly varies from black to a bluish white. Upon the neck are two whitish or pale yellowish spots, which form a kind of half collar or ring, from which its name is derived ; these two spots Tig. 11.— Kinged Snake (Tropidonotus natrix). become much more apparent from being contrasted with two other very dark triangular spots placed near them. They prey upon lizards, frogs, and mice, and they even surprise young birds, and devour the eggs in their nests, for they climb trees with facility. Towards the end of the autumn they seek the warmest places, approaching near to houses ; or they retire into subter- ranean holes, often at the bottom of some hedge, which is almost always in an elevated place, secure from inundations. The Ringed Snake is found in nearly all European countries, and can be handled without danger. Lacepede gives some interesting details, showing the gentleness of its habits. They THE EINGED SNAKE. 51 are easily tamed, and can be kept in bouses, where they soon accustom themselves to those who have the care of them. At a sign from their keeper, they will twist themselves round his fingers, arms, and neck, insinuate their heads between his lips to drink his saliva, and to hide and warm themselves they creep under his clothes. In their wild state, the adult Ringed Snake lives in the fields ; and, when full-grown, shows great irritation when attacked. When exasperated, they move their tongues, erect themselves with great vivacity, and even bite the hand which tries to seize them ; but their bite is quite harmless. [This Hinged Snake is the Natrix torquatus of Ray, well known to naturalists. The female is larger than the male. Its food con- sists a good deal of frogs, which are generally caught by the leg, and swallowed alive, in spite of resistance and very distressing cries. When the skin has just been cast, the Ringed Snake presents beautiful markings, especially when, seen swimming across some clear running stream, its head and neck raised above the limpid water, and the sun shining on its bright enamelled skin. It has been supposed, not unnaturally, that the Snake casts its skin at fixed intervals ; this, Mr. Bell considers to be a mistake. He has always found that it depended on the temperature of the atmo- sphere and on their state of health and feeding. " I have known the skin thrown off/' he adds, " four or five times during the year. It is always thrown off by reversing it, so that the transparent covering of the eyes and that of the scales are always found in the exuviae. Previous to this curious phenomenon, the whole cuticle becomes somewhat opaque, the eyes dim, and the animal is evi- dently blind. It also becomes more or less inactive, until at length, when the skin is ready for removal and the new skin perfectly hard underneath, the animal bursts it at the neck, and creeping through some dense herbage or low brushwood, leaves it detached, and comes forth in brighter and clearer colours than before." The Ringed Snake begins to hybernate, in some warm hedge or under the root of some tree, or other sheltered situation, about the end of autumn ; and there they coil themselves up, sometimes in numbers, till the spring again calls them forth. Many instances are told of this Snake being tamed. Mr. Bell had one which knew him from all other persons ; it would come to him when let out of E2 52 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. its box, and crawl under the sleeve of his coat, and every morning come to him for its draught of milk.] The Green and Yellow Snake is also about a yard in length, and is common in the south and west of France ; they have been taken in the forest of Fontainebleau. The beautiful colours in which they are clothed causes them to be easily distinguished from the Yiper. The eyes are edged with golden- coloured scales ; the upper part of the body is of a very dark greenish colour, upon which is extended a large number of radiating lines, com- posed of small yellowish spots of different shapes, some long, others lozenge shape, giving it a chequered appearance. These Fig. 12.— Tropidonotus viperinus. chequers extend from the head to the tail. The belly is yel- lowish ; the large plates which cover it have a black spot at each end, and are bordered with a very thin black line. This inoffen- sive reptile is extremely timid, and generally hides itself from observation, taking to flight at the least alarm. They are said to be easily tamed. The Yiperine Snake (Fig. 12) has the body of a greyish or dirty yellow colour, having on the 'middle of the back a series of blackish spots so close to each other as to give the idea of one small continuous wavy line from head to tail. The sides are covered with isolated spots, forming lozenge-like figures, the centres of which are of a greenish tint. This is the smallest of all DESEKT SNAKES. 53 the European Colubridce, and, like the others, it is found in most parts of Europe. [The Psammophidce, or Desert Snakes, are akin both to the ColubridfB and to the Tree Snakes of the next family ; but the latter, remarks Dr. Giinther, may always be distinguished either by their green coloration, by the horizontal pupil to the eye, or the absence of a long, anterior, maxillary tooth. In the Psammo- phidce the pupil of the eye is round or vertical. Most of the species of this family belong to the fauna of tropical Africa, which also produces a slender form (in Psammophis elegans). The other species are of a stouter habit, frequenting plains, or at all events living on the ground. Of the Indian Psammophis condanarus, Dr. Jerdon procured one which had killed and was swallowing a small Yiper (Echis carinata), this being one of the few instances in which a non-venemous Snake has been known to overpower a poisonous one. We have heard the same of a small Boa-like Serpent ( Chilabothrus ?) in the West Indies, which is said to prey upon the formidable Crotalidce. The P sammodynastes pulverulentus has a wide geographical range over South-eastern Asia and its islands. Although innocuous, it has the aspect of a venemous species. In a kindred African family, the Rachiodontidas, the species of Dasypeltis have the maxillary teeth minute and few in number (four to seven) ; but they have also some remarkable gular teeth, which are formed by the elongated inferior spinous processes of the hinder cervical vertebrae. The object of the latter is to crush the shells of birds' eggs, upon which the Snakes in question habitually feed. Of the more characteristic Tree Snakes, the Dendrophidae have the body and tail much compressed, or very slender and elongated ; the head generally lengthened, narrow, flat, and distinct from the slender neck ; the snout rather long, obtuse or rounded in front ; cleft of the mouth wide ; and the eye of moderate size, or large, with round pupil. These are Diurnal Snakes, which live entirely upon trees, where they prey chiefly on arboreal lizards and frogs. Species of them inhabit all tropical countries. They are mostly of great beauty, and the Indian Chrysopelea ornata is excessively so, being variegated with yellow and crimson upon a black ground ; 54 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. but the crimson soon fading when a specimen is immersed in spirit. Others are very variable in their colouring, as the African Bucephalus capensis and the Indian Dendrophis picta. The next family of Dryiophidce, or the Whip Snakes, have a still more slender and elongated body, which has been aptly compared to the thong of a whip. The head is very narrow and long, with ta-pering snout, ending in a protruded rostral shield, which is some- times modified into a flexible appendage ; eyes of moderate size, and all the Asiatic species h&ve the pupil of the eye horizontally linear, and a long fang-like tooth in the middle of the maxil- lary. The whole of this group are provided with a posterior grooved tooth. They are chiefly nocturnal, and their movements are won- derfully rapid and graceful among the branches of trees. They are numerous almost everywhere in tropical countries. In general the various Whip Snakes are of a bright leaf-green colour, with two white stripes on the belly, so that they are difficult to discern .among the foliage. In the genus Lang aha, which is peculiar to Madagascar, the muzzle is elongated into a fleshy appendage, which is covered with small scales, constituting about one-third of the total length of the head. This appendage is dentated in one species (L. crista-galli), and not so in another (L. nasuta). In the Indian genus Passerita the snout is long and pointed, termi- nating in a flexible appendage. The name of Whip Snake is applied by Anglo-Indians to all of the species of Dendrophidce and of Dryiophidcz, and the erroneous notion prevails that they are highly venemous, and that they spurt venom into people's eyes. The same .is believed in South Africa of the Bucephalus capensis. Even ; or Blunt-heads, comprise a few species of moderate or small size, akin to the Dipsadidce, but the narrow mouth of which necessitates their feeding on insects, and they live on trees and bushes, or under the roofs of huts. Of the Indo-Chinese and Malayan Amblycephalus boa, Dr. Giinther remarks that " the head of this most singular Snake resembles much that of a mastiff, the lips being arched and tumid. It climbs with great facility, frequenting the roofs of the natives' huts in pursuit of its insect food. It attains to a length of three feet, the tail being a third." Of a second genus, P areas, three species inhabit the same region. The Pythonidce, or Pythons, and Boas, are celebrated for the enormous magnitude to which some of the species attain. These are emphatically the great constrictor Serpents, to all of which the name of Boa-constrictor is popularly applied, although this appellation refers properly to one only of them which is peculiar to South America. Various genera of them inhabit Africa, South-eastern Asia and its islands, Australia, and South America, with the West Indies.] The Pythons are large Serpents of Asia and Africa. They live in marshy places, and near the margins of rivers. They are non- venemous, but possessed of immense muscular power, which enables some of the species to kill, by constriction, animals of much larger circumference than themselves. Aristotle tells us of immense Lybian Serpents, so large that they pursued and upset some of the triremes of voyagers visiting that coast. Virgil's Laocoon, so vividly represented in the well-known marble group, owes its origin, no doubt, to the descriptions current of constricting Serpents. Quoting Livy, Valerius Maximus relates the alarm into which the Eoman army, under Eegulus, was thrown by an enormous Serpent, having its lair on the banks of the Bagradus, near Utica. This Serpent Pliny speaks of as being a hundred and twenty feet long. But, without multiplying instances to which time has lent its fabulous aid, and coming to more modern times, Bontius speaks of Serpents in the Asiatic PYTHON. 57 islands as being so various that he despairs of even enume- rating them all. "The great ones," he says, " sometimes exceed thirty-six feet, and have such capacity of throat and stomach, that they swallow entire Boars." Adding that he knew persons who had partaken of a Hog cut out of the stomach of a Serpent of this kind. "They are not poisonous," he adds, "but they strangle by powerfully applying their folds round the body of their prey." Mr. M'Leod, in his interesting voyage of the Alceste, states that during a captivity of some months at Whidah, on the coast of Africa, he had opportunities of observing Serpents double this length, one of which engaged a negro servant of the governor of Fort William in its coil, and very nearly succeeded in crushing him to death. There can be no doubt that the length is here much exaggerated. About thirty feet is the utmost length attained by the most gigantic Serpents of which we possess accurate know- ledge. The body of the PYTHON is large and round. They live on trees in warm damp places, on the banks of streams or water- courses, and attack the animals which come there to slake their thirst. Hanging by the tail to the trunk of a tree they remain immovable in their ambush until their opportunity comes, when they dart upon their prey, fold their bodies round it with amazing rapidity, and crush it in their monstrous folds. Animals as large as Gazelles, and even larger, thus become their victims. Their jaws are extremely distensible, as we have seen ; for, having neither breast-bone nor false sides, they can easily increase the diameter of the opening, so as to swallow the most voluminous prey. The Ophidians (as we have seen) surpass all other Reptiles in the number of their vertebra), with incomplete haemal arches ; these constitute the skeleton of the long, slender, limbless trunk. All these vertebrae coalesce with one another, and are articulated together by ball-and-socket joints. Besides this articulation to the centrum, the vertebrae of Ophidians articulate with each other by means of joints which interlock by parts reciprocally receiving and entering one another, like the tenon-and-inortise joint in carpentry. "The vertebral ribs have an oblong articular surface, concave above and almost flat below, in the Python. They have a large medullary cavity, with dense but thin walls, with a fine 58 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. cancellated structure at their articular ends. Their lower end supports a short cartilaginous membrane, closing the haemal arch, which is attached to the broad and stiff abdominal scute. These scutes, alternately raised and depressed by muscles attached to the ribs and integuments, aid in the gliding movement of serpents." The peculiar motion of Snakes was first noted by Sir Joseph Banks, and commented on by Sir Everard Home. Sir Joseph was observing a Coluber of unusual size, and thought he saw its ribs come forward in succession, like the feet of a caterpillar. To test this, he placed his hand under the animal, the ends of the ribs were distinctly felt pressing upon the surface in regular succession, leaving no doubt that the ribs formed so many pairs of levers, by means of which it moves its body from place to place. The muscles which bring forward these ribs, according to Sir Everard, consists of five sets. One from the transverse process of each vertebra and the rib immediately behind it, which rib is attached to the next vertebra. The next set goes from the rib near the spine, and passes over two ribs, sending a slip to each, and is inserted into a third, a slip connecting it with the next muscle in succession. Under this is a third set, issuing from the posterior side of each rib, passing over two ribs, and send- ing a lateral slip to the next muscle, and is also inserted in the third rib behind. And so on throughout the h' ve sets of muscles. On the inside of the chest there is a strong set of muscles attached to the anterior surface of each vertebra, and passing obliquely forward over four ribs is inserted into the fifth one only in the centre. From this part of each rib a strong flat muscle comes forward on each side, before the viscera, forming the abdominal muscles and uniting in a middle tendon, so that the lower half of each rib which is beyond the origin of this muscle, and which is only laterally connected to it by a loose cellular membrane, is external to the belly of the animal, and is used for the pur- pose of progressive motion, while that half of each rib which is next the spine, as far as the lungs extend, is employed in respiration. These observations of Sir Everard Home apply to all Snakes ; but the muscles were compared with a skeleton of the Boa- 59 constrictor in the Hunterian Museum, which is thirteen feet nine inches in length. The habit of attaching themselves to trees, and holding on by the tail, their heads and bodies floating listlessly on some sedgy river, is explained by the structure of the tail. Dr. Meyer has minutely described the manner in which they hook themselves on to a tree, which gives them the power of a double fulcrum. The apparatus which gives this power is a spur or nail on each side of the vent in the Pythonida, in which the anatomist discovered the elements of an unguinal phalanx articu- lated with another bone much stronger, which is concealed under the skin. Following the arrangement of the Pythowdce, adopted by Dr. J. E. Gray in the Catalogue of the British Museum, we find : — I. Morelia, having a strong prehensile tail, distinct head, truncate muzzle, crown of the head with small shield-like plates. Of this genus there are two species. The Diamond Snake (M. spilotes), a native of Australia, and .of .a bluish-black colour; and the Carpet Snake (M. variegccta), from Port Essington and Swan River. It is whitish, with irregular black-edged olive spots, and an olive head, with two or three .white spots in the centre of the crown, II. Python, having the crown shielded to behind the eyes. Of this genus there are two species, which have sometimes been referred to the Boas. The Pythons bear the same general appearance. Upon their bodies is traced a sort of blackish- brown chain, presenting nearly quadrangular links upon a clear yellowish ground, extending from the nape of the neck to the extremity of the tail. The suscephalous region is partly covered by a large brownish-black spot. Upon each side of the head is a black band, which frequently extends from the nostril, passing by the eye, as far as, and up to, the commissures or corners of the lips. P. reticulatus, the Ular Sawad of the Malay countries, found also in Burmah and Siam, has the four front upper labial plates pitted ; the frontal plate simple ; the head has a narrow, longi- tudinal, brown stripe. This is one of the most handsomely marked species of the whole family, its body being covered with a gay lacing of black and golden yellow. It is said to attain the great length of thirty feet, and is stout in proportion. In its native wilds 60 OPHIDIAN KEPTILES. Fig. 13.-Natal Eock Snake (Hortulia natalensi*). the powers of this gigantic reptile are said to be enor- mous, being able to subdue a full-grown Buffalo ; and even a Man has been said to fall a prey to its fury. A Malay prao had anchored for the night under an island of the Celebes. One of the crew had gone ashore in search of the favourite betel nut, and is supposed on his return to the beach to have fallen asleep. In the dead of the night his comrades were roused by his screams ; they pulled ashore with all expe- dition, but came too late; the cries had ceased, and the wretched man had breathed his last in the folds of one of these enormous Serpents. They killed the creature, cut off the head, and carried it, together with the lifeless body of their comrade, to the vessel. The right wrist of the corpse bore the mark of the Serpent's teeth, and the disfigured body showed that the man had been crushed by the constrictive folds of the reptile round the head, breast, and thighs. The Ular Sawad arranges its eggs by placing them in a group, which is covered by the body. This statement, first made by Mr. Bennett, has been confirmed b the observations of M. EOCK SNAKE. 61 Lamare Picquot, and by observations on other species of Python in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and in the London Zoological Gardens. The Hock Snake of India and Ceylon (P. mohtrus) is another species to which the name of Boa-constrictor has been given. It has the two pairs of front upper, and three hind lower labial shields pitted, and the frontal plates double. Of this gigantic Serpent several specimens are generally to be seen in the Zoological Gardens. III. Hortulia, having the upper and lower labial shields deeply pitted; muzzle and forehead with symmetrical shield; nostrils lateral. They are natives of Africa, and three species are known, namely, the Natal Rock Snake, having the lower labial shields deeply pitted, the muzzle and forehead with symmetrical shields, the nostrils lateral ; the Guinea Rock or Fetish Snake (H. Seba), closely resembling the last in many structural points ; and the Royal Rock Snake (H. regid), having the four pairs of the upper front labials pitted, the upper ocular plate single, the lower labial shields four in number and broad. The Royal Rock Snake inhabits Western Africa. It is black in colour, marked on the middle of the back with a series of oblong white spots, the sides being marked by another series of large white spots, with one or two black spots in the upper part ; the head black, with a streak over the nostrils and the top of the eyes, another from the lower edge of the eye, the lips and chin beneath are white. The Natal Rock Snake (H. natalensis, Fig. 13) is described by Sir Andrew Smith as being gigantic in size, he having seen a skin measuring twenty-five feet, although part of the tail was absent. " It feeds/7 he says, "on small quadrupeds; and for some days after swallowing one it remains in a torpid state, when it may be easily destroyed." Of this opportunity, however, the South Africans never avail themselves ; they have a horror of the reptile, but believe that it has an influence over their destinies, and affirm that no one has ever been known to kill one and prosper. The Guinea Rock or Fetish Snake (//. Sela, Fig. 14) is typical of the genus, and has also been referred to the Boa- constrictor, and closely resembles the Natal Rock Snake. It is 62 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. a native of the warmer parts of Africa. A living specimen at the Zoological Gardens is estimated to weigh a hundredweight. Of the genera Liasis and Nardoa there are five species, very imperfectly known. Fig. 14.— Guinea Rock Snake (H. Sebce). IV. Epicrates, an American and West Indian species, having the crown scaly ; the forehead with symmetrical shields. The Aboma (E. cenchria) is one of the largest of the group, sometimes attaining dimensions quite gigantic. It is yellowish in colour, with a row of large brown rings running the whole ABOMA. 63 length of the back, and variable spots on the sides ; these are generally dark, with a whitish semi-lunar mark. This formidable Reptile has all the habits of its congeners ; it is found in the marshy swamps of tropical America, and near the rivers, where it lies in wait for its prey. The Boas, pro- perly so called, have the scales smooth ; labial shields smooth, not pitted ; the body compressed, taper- ing to the tail, which is long and prehensile; the head is compara- tively small, being enlarged behind, and contracted towards the muzzle, which is rather short. The crown is covered with scales; the nostrils lateral, between two plates. Four spe- cies of this genus are recognised by naturalists, all of which have been described by travellers as the true Boiguacu, or Boa- constrictor of Linnaeus. This species has the scaly circle of the orbit separated from the upper labial plates by one or two series of scales. A large chain consisting of blackish hexagonal spots, alternating pale oval stains, notched and jagged, extending the whole length of the back, and forming a very elegant design. This species seems to be strictly confined to tropical America. Humboldt found it in Guiana, and the 64 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. Prince de Wied observed it in Brazil. All the specimens in the British Museum are from that part of the New World. This is sup- posed to be the Tlicoatl and Temacuilcahuilia (the words meaning " fighting with five men "), described by Hernandez, the latter name being derived from its size and strength. " It attacks/' he says, " those it meets, and overpowers them with such force, that if it once coils itself round their necks, it strangles and kills them, unless it bursts itself by the violence of its own efforts." The same author states that he has seen Serpents as thick as a man's thigh, which had been taken when young by Indians and tamed. That this Boa attains an immense size is a well-established fact. Shaw mentions a skin in the British Museum, in one of his lectures, which measured thirty-five feet in length. Three other species — the Lamanda (B. diviniloqua} , from Santa Lucia; the Emperor (B. imperator), a native of Mexico; and B. eques, the Chevalier Boa of Peru — are all to be occasionally seen in the Zoological Gardens. The Boa anaconda, more properly Eunectes murinus, is also a native of tropical America. The name of Anaconda has become well known through Mr. Lewis's celebrated tale, so called, in which its predatory habits are displayed in such a manner as to enthral and fascinate the reader, as the author makes the reptile fascinate its victim. The name, Mr. Bennett tells us, is of Cinghalese origin, and is popularly applied to all very large Serpents. This species is of a brownish tint, with a double series of colours extending from head to tail ; the sides are covered with annular spots with white disks surrounded by blackish rings. Seba has represented this creature lying in wait for Mice ; but this is probably the prey of the young Anaconda. Another provincial name, "El Troga Yenado" (the Deer Swallower), is probably applied to the matured Reptile. The following description of the actions of one of these large non-venemous Serpents, which accompanied a specimen sent to the United Service Museum, by Sir Robert Ker Porter, is pro- bably a fair description of the habits of all the large Pythonida : — " This species is not venemous, nor is it known to injure man (at least not in this part of the New World) ; however, the natives of the plain stand in great fear of it, never bathing ANACONDA. in waters where it is known to exist. Its common haunt, or rather domicile, is invariably near lakes, swamps, and rivers ; likewise close and wet ravines produced by inundations of the periodical rains. Fishes, as well as other animals which repair- there to drink, are its prey. The creature lurks watchfully under cover of the water, and, while the unsuspecting ani- mal is drinking, suddenly makes a dash at its nose, and with a grip of its back- reclining range of teeth, never fails to se- cure the terrified beast beyond the power of escape. In an instant the slusrerish waters O£3 are in turbulence and foam. The whole form of the Serpent is in mo- tion ; its huge and rapid coilings soon encircle the strug- i . ... j Fjg. 16. — Aiiacouda (h'u/tectes murinus). glmg victim, aiia but a short interval elapses ere every bone in the body of the expiring prey is broken." Sir Robert then describes the manner in which the prey is swallowed, being previously lubri- cated by the Serpent's saliva ; but Professor T. Bell, after carefully watching the constricting Serpent's mode of swallowing its prey, asserts that this is a delusion. " The mucus is not poured F (56 OPHIDIAN REPTILES. out till it is required to lubricate the dilated jaws and throat for the seemingly disproportionate feat." [The small, but very distinct family of Erycidce have the body of moderate length, cylindrical, covered with small and short scales ; the tail very short, with only a single series of subcaudal scales ; head somewhat elongate ; eye rather small, with vertical pupil. Adult individuals have,, like the Pythons, a short conical prominence in a groove on each side of the vent ; this being the extremity of a rudimentary hind limb. " The Snakes of this family," remarks Dr. Giinther, "shew great similarity to the Pythons and Boas, with regard to their internal structure as well as to their external characters. But their tail is very short, not flexible, and much less prehensile ; and whilst the Serpents just mentioned are more or less arboreal, frequenting marshy places with luxuriant vegetation, the ErytidtB inhabit dry, sandy, or stony plains, burrowing with the greatest facility below the surface, and entering crevices and holes in search of their prey, which consists of Mice, Lizards, and other burrowing Snakes. Probably they are semi-nocturnal, and able to see in dark places as well as in the night. They are found in Northern Africa, in the islands of the Mediterranean, in the arid parts of India, and probably in Arabia ; two species are known to have been brought from Sikhim." The Cursoria elegans is said to be from Afghanistan ; Eryx iaculus inhabits Greece and Egypt ; and there is also E. tkebaicus in the latter country, and E. Johnii in India. Another Indian species is the Gonyylophis conicus, which the natives erroneously persist in declaring to be venemous. The Eryx Johnii is fre- quently found in the possession of the serpent-charmers of its native country, who mutilate the end of its short, thick tail in such a manner that the scarred extremity somewhat resembles the form of the head. Such specimens are shewn as deadly Two-headed Snakes, and, as such, are occasionally brought alive to Europe. An example of this species lived in the London Zoological Gardens for about eight years, and fed regularly on young Mice. The keeper assured Dr. Giinther that it frequently covered its prey with saliva. It always kept itself hidden below the gravel ACKOCHORDID^E. 67 at the bottom of its cage. This species attains to a length of nearly four feet, the tail measuring but four inches. The Acrockordida constitute a very remarkable small family, of which one genus is terrene, and another highly aquatic in its habits. Whether a third genus, the Javanese Xenodermus, should be referred to it, is doubtful in the opinion of Dr. Giinther. These Snakes have the body of moderate length, rounded, or slightly com- pressed, and covered with small wart-like, not imbricate, tubercular or spiny scales ; tail rather short, prehensile ; head rather small, not distinctly separated from the neck, and covered with scales like those of the body ; nostrils close together, at the top of the snout ; teeth short, but strong, of nearly equal size, and situate both in the jaws and on the palate. These serpents are viviparous. One of them, Acrockordus javamcus, inhabits Java and the Malayan peninsula, where it is considered rare. It grows to a length of eight feet, and its habits are terrene. The late Dr. Cantor justly compares its physiognomy to that of a thorough-bred bull-dog ; a female in his possession brought forth no fewer than twenty- seven young in the course of about twenty-five minutes; they were active, and bit fiercely. Hornstedt found a quantity of undigested fruits in the stomach of this Serpent ! Upon which Dr. Giinther remarks that no opportunity of making further observations on the habits of this remarkable Snake should be lost. The aquatic member of this family, Chersydrus gramdatus, in- habits from the coasts of India to those of New Guinea and the Philippine Islands. Sometimes it is met with at a distance of three or four miles from the shore. Mr. W. Theobald remarks that it is plentiful in the Bassein River (in British Burmah), in salt water below Gnaputau, and, with various other Sea Snakes, is frequently swept by the tide into the fishing baskets of the natives. The ebb-tide, running like a sluice, sweeps various Fishes, Crustaceans, Snakes, and even Porpoises occasionally, into the broad mouths of those baskets, where they are at once jammed into a mass at the narrow end of the creel. " The Chersydrus" he adds, " is more nearly connected with the Hydrophidce than with the next family, being as essentially aquatic as any of the former, to which, save from its wanting the poison-gland, it might be appro- F2 63 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. priately referred. Indeed, it has been erroneously asserted by some authors to be venernous." The Homalopsida are an extensive family of Snakes, of tho- roughly aquatic habits, which are only occasionally found on the margins of rivers ; several of them enter the sea, and in some parts of their organization they approximate to the true marine Snakes. They may be easily recognised by the position of the nostrils on the top of the snout, which enables them to breathe by raising only a very small portion of the head out of the water ; an arrangement which is likewise seen in the Hippopotamus, the Crocodile, the Sea Snakes, and other aquatic animals. Many of them have a distinctly prehensile tail, by means of which they hold on to projecting objects. Their food consists either entirely of Fishes, or, in some species, of Crustaceans also. All appear to be viviparous, and the act of parturition is performed in the water. Not any of them attain a large size — about three or four feet in length, or considerably less; and in captivity they refuse to feed. All the Asiatic species of this family have a grooved fang at the hinder extremity of the maxillary bone. The species are numerous, and are arranged into many generic divisions. The majority are from the grand Indian region, extending to China and to Australia, but there are also several from the JNew World. The Herpeton tentaculatum, of Siam, is very remarkable from its snout terminating in two flexible, cylindrical, scaly tubercles, which are supposed to be employed as organs of touch under water — perhaps to discern its food, which as yet has not been ascertained. The largest known example of this curious Snake is only twenty- five inches long, of which the tail measures six inches. We now proceed to the first family of Poisonous Snakes, that of THE SEA SNAKES (Hydropkida), Which are very distinct from all that follow, though less so from certain of the harmless species appertaining to the two families last treated of. Some of their distinctions have been already noticed (p. 45), but they are especially characterised by their highly compressed tail, indicative of their thoroughly aquatic habits. According to Dr. Giinther, there is no other group of SEA SNAKES. 69 Reptiles the species of which are so little known, and the synonymy of which is so much confused, as that of the Sea Snakes. Most naturalists who have worked at them have been misled by the idea that the species were not nearly so numerous as they actually are. Mr. W. Theobald makes out as many as twenty-five inhabiting the Bay of Bengal and the adjacent seas, to which area this group of Reptiles is mainly confined, a few species extending to northern Aus- tralia, and one, the most emphatically pelagic, the P elands bicolor, even to the Pacific Ocean. One genus only, Platurus, approaches the Land Snakes in several of its characters ; having much the physiognomy of an Elaps, with the cleft of the mouth not turned upwards behind, as in other Sea Snakes ; the eye also is rather small, nor is the tail at all prehensile. There are two species of this particular form, one of which, P. scutatm, is rather common, and its geographic range extends from the Bay of Bengal and the China seas to the coasts of New Zealand ; the distribution of the other, P. Fischeri, being nearly as extensive. The great genus Hydrophis has the posterior part of the body highly compressed, and most of the species are more or less of a bluish lead -colour, like that of the sea, or black, banded with white or yellowish white. They are so abundant in the Indian seas that some of them are taken with every haul of a fishing-net, and they are helpless and seemingly blind when out of the water ; the fisher- men commonly seizing them, one after the other, by the nape and throwing them back into the sea. Some of them (Micro- cephalophis of Lesson) have the head very small and the neck ex- ceedingly slender, while the compressed body is large and thick. THE COLUBRINE YENEMOUS SNAKES, These are comprised under the one family, Elapida, all of which have an erect, immovable, grooved, or perforated fang in the fore- part of the maxillary bone. There is little in their external appearance to distinguish them from the harmless Colubrine Snakes, to which they are more nearly akin, in all but their poison-fangs, than they are to the Rattlesnakes and Vipers ; yet some of the most poisonous of Ophidians appertain to this family, as exemplified by the well-known Cobras of the Indian region and 70 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. of Africa, and also by some of the worst Snakes that inhabit Australia. In the colony of Victoria alone as many as ten species of Snakes are known, one only of which, Morelia variegata, is harmless ; and one only of them, the formidable Death-adder (Acanthopis antarctica}^ belongs to the sub-order of the Yiperine Snakes. The rest are included among the Colubriform Yenemous Snakes, and most of the accidents from poisonous Snakes in that colony are due to what is there known as the Carpet Snake, Hoplocephalus curtus, while the Snake that bears the same name in the adjacent colony of ]NTew South Wales is the innocuous Morelia spilotes, which is a small Serpent of the fa\m\yo£Pythonidce. Of the total number of Snakes known in all Australia, by far the greater number are veneraous, which is the reverse of what occurs elsewhere. Only about five species, however, are really dangerous throughout the .great island-continent, for in many of them the poison is by no means virulent. Thus, of Diemamia psammophis, which sometimes exceeds four feet in length, Mr. Krelft remarks that " its bite does not cause any more irritation than the sting of a bee." Also, that "the bite of Hoplocephalus variegatus is not sufficiently strong to endanger the life of a man. I have been wounded by it several times, " writes Mr. Krefft, " and experienced no bad symptoms beyond u slight headache ; the spot where the fang entered turning blue to about the size of a shilling for a few days." Again, of Brachysoma diadema, " this very handsome little Snake is venemous, but never offers to bite, and may be handled with impunity." Far otherwise, however, is the venom of Hoplocephalus curtus, and also of some others. II. curtus is one of the worst Snakes of Australia, where it inhabits the more temperate parts of the country from east to west Its bite is almost as deadly as that of the Indian Cobra, to which it is, indeed, considerably allied. " A good-sized Dog bitten became paralyzed within three minutes, and was dead in fifty minutes afterwards ; a Goat died in thirty-five minutes ; a Porcupine Ant-eater (Echidna hystrix] lived six hours ; and a common Tortoise, an animal which will live a day with its head cut off, died in five hours after being bitten." The H. superbus replaces it in Tasmania. The Cobras (Naja) are widely known, alike from the virulence of their poison, and for their remarkable dilatable disk or COLUBEINE SXAKES. 71 " hood " on the nape, the ribs which support this hood being much elongated. Two species are commonly recognised, the Cobra di capella of Southern Asia (Naja tripudians), and the Asp (N. hoje) of Africa ; but there are marked local varieties of both species, and the N. sputatrix of the Malay countries should probably be recognised as a third species. Those of India, with Ceylon, have a mark like a pair of spectacles upon the hood, while those of Burmah and the neighbouring countries eastward have only an oval black spot upon it. In India the commonest colour of this formidable reptile is uniform brown, though many are of a pale yellowish straw colour, and there are others of every shade between that and black. It grows to a length of about five feet, seldom more. " Almost every writer on the natural productions of the East Indies," remarks Dr. Gimther, " has contributed to the natural history of this Snake, which has been surrounded by such a number of fabulous stories, that their repetition and contradiction would fill a volume.'7 It is very generally diffused over the Indian region, though, as Mr. Theobald notices, from its nocturnal habits it is less often seen than many harmless species. " This Snake is, I believe," he adds, "of inoffensive habits, unless irritated, but is, of course, a dangerous neighbour to have in a house.* Not only in Burmah, where the respect for animal life is greatest, but in India also I have known a Cobra enticed or forced into an earthen jar, and then carried by two men across a river, or some distance from the village, and liberated. Dr. Giinther remarks that, ' singularly enough, it has never been obtained in the valley of Nepal/ This is very easily accounted for," con- tinues Mr. Theobald, " since few would venture to kill a Cobra, oven for scientific purposes, in the rigorously Hindu state of Nepal. In British India, decent Hindus wrill not kill a Cobra ; and if one has taken up his abode in a house, he is permitted to remain, or else carefully inveigled into an earthen-pot, and carried away as described. Of course only the orthodox Hindu is so careful to abstain from injuring the Cobra, and their reverential * Although the Cobra di capella is so plentiful in India, we could never hear of one instance of a European being stung by one during a residence of more than twenty-one years in that country. They prey chiefly on Eats, the presence of which is the attraction which brings them about human habitations ; and they also prey occasionally upon young chickens, and commonly upon Toads. — ED. 72 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. feeling is now perhaps rather the exception than the rule, though probably as strong as ever in Nepal." A fine example of the still more formidable gigantic Cobra (Ilamadryas elaps), to be noticed presently, was obtained from an earthen pot which had floated out to sea. The late Sir J. Emerson Tennent mentions that " the Cingha- lese remark that if one Cobra be destroyed near a house, its com- panion is almost certain to be discovered immediately after — a popular belief which I had an opportunity of verifying on more than one occasion. Once, when a Snake of this description was killed in a bath of the Government House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot the day after ; and again, at my own stables, a Cobra of five feet long having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its escape, its companion, of the same size, was found the same morning in an adjoining drain.* On this occasion the Snake, which had been several hours in the well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood above water ; and instances have repeatedly occurred of the Cobra di capella volun- tarily taking considerable excursions by sea" (or by rivers, as the writer has personally witnessed).] Cobras are much dreaded, for they instil the most subtle poison into their bites. Their manners are very singular. When at rest the neck of the animal is no larger in diameter than the head; but when under the influence of passion and irritation the neck swells at the same time that the animal raises the front part of his body vertically, holding this part straight and rigid as an iron bar. The lower part of the body rests upon the ground, and serves as a support to the upper part, which is movable and capable of locomotion. This faculty of dilating the neck is as striking a trait n the organization of the Cobras, as the rattle is in Crotatus. The ancient inhabitants of Egypt adored them ; they attributed to their protection the preservation of grain, and allowed them to live in the midst of their cultivated fields. The Cobra is no longer an object of adoration in the East, but is held sacred by many people, and it serves in nearly every country of Asia as a very * " Pliny," remarks Sir J. E. Tennent, " notices the affection that subsists between the male and female Asp (or African Cobra) ; and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other seeks to avenge its death "—lib. viii. c. 37. .big. 17.— Snake-charmers. 74 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. curious spectacle ; being the Serpent "chiefly used by snake- charmers in these countries, terrible as it seems to us. The action of the snake-charmer is as follows : he takes in his hand a root, the virtue of which is supposed to preserve him from the venemous effects of the bite of the Cobra. Drawing the reptile from the cage in which he keeps it confined, he irritates it by presenting a stick to it ; the animal immediately erects the fore part of its body, swells its neck, opens its jaws, ex- tends its forked tongue, its eyes glitter, and it begins to hiss. Then a sort of battle commences between the Serpent and the Fig. 18.— Hooded Snake. charmer; the latter, striking up a monotonous sort of song, opposes his closed fist to his enemy, sometimes using his right hand and sometimes his left. The animal fixes its eyes upon the fist which threatens it, follows all its movements, balances ,its head and body, and thus simulates a kind of dance. Other charmers obtain from the Cobra an alternating and cadenced movement of the neck by the help of sounds which are drawn SNAKE-CHARMING. 75 from a whistle or small flute. It is said that these mysterious jugglers are able, by some sympathetic action they possess, to plunge these dangerous enemies into a sort of lethargy and death-like rigidity, and to bring them at will out of this mo- mentary torpor. It is certain, at any rate, that they handle these animals, whose bite is extremely dangerous, with consider- able impunity, and without having in any way neutralized or intercepted the venom. It is supposed by some that these charmers take the precaution of exhausting the venom of the Cobra every day by forcing it to bite something several times before exhibiting it. It is also certain that they more frequently draw the poison fangs — a wound from which can kill in the course of two or three hours. The Asp (Naja haje) has a less dilatable neck ; it is of a greenish colour, and marked with brownish spots. It is smaller than the former ; is found in the west and south of Africa ; and is espe- cially common in Egypt. It was said to have been this Reptile which caused the death of Cleopatra. [The genus Hamadryas of Cantor (Ophiophagus of Giinther) differs very little from the true Cobras, but has a less developed hood, and a single small tooth placed at some distance behind the fang. The only species, II. elaps, attains to thirteen feet in length, and is proportionately formidable, being much less timid and retiring in its habits than the Cobras of the genus JWaja. it preys Habitually oil other Snakes, and seems to be more plentiful eastward of the Bay of Bengal than it is in India. In Burmah it is styled the Gnan, and Mr. Theobald tells us that its venom is fatal in a few minutes. " One of these Snakes," he adds, " was brought in alive, and a snake-charmer came up to display his command over the animal. At first (as I am told) the Snake seemed cowed by the authoritative ' Hah ' of the man ; but sud- denly, through some carelessness on his part, the Snake struck him on the wrist. The poor fellow at once ran off home to get an antidote, but fell down before reaching his own door, and died in a few minutes. When at Tongku," continues Mr. Theobald, " I heard a case of an Elephant being killed by one of these Snakes, which I have no reason for doubting. The Elephant was a fine powerful male, and was pulling down with his trunk some creepers 76 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. or boughs, when a large ' Griian/ which was disturbed in the tree, struck the Elephant on the trunk between the eyes. The Elephant at once retreated, became faint, and died in about three hours." This terrible Snake would appear to be not uncommon in the Andaman Islands, and its range of distribution extends through the Malay countries to the Philippines and to New Guinea. The genus Bungarus is so called from the vernacular appellation of Bungarum, which is applied to one of the species on the Coro- mandel coast. Some of them are very like Cobras without the hood, as the " Kerait " (B. c&ruleus), which is a much-dreaded Snake in India, but the geographic range of which extends neither to the countries eastward nor to Ceylon, The Snakes of this genus have a row of broad hexagonal scales along the middle of the back. The Kerait grows to four feet and a half in length, and has the upper parts of a bluish or brownish black, either uniform or more generally marked with numerous narrow white cross-lines, which mostly radiate from a white vertebral spot. In its habits it resembles the Cobra, preying on small Mammalia, Lizards, Toads, and probably other Snakes occasionally. The "Raj-samp" (lite- rally Lord Snake) is a larger and thicker species than the Kerait, beautifully marked throughout with alternate broad rings of black and golden-yellow. This one is found almost generally through- out the Indian region, and would seem to prey entirely on other Snakes, especially of the Tropidonotus genus. It is of verv sluggish habits, and frequents moist places and the vicinity of water. A species, or local variety (B. ceylonicus), takes its place in Ceylon, and there is also a kindred species (B. semifasciatus) in China and Formosa. According to Cantor, the Bungarums are capable of darting nearly the anterior half of the body. Their bite is very dangerous ; but " the magnitude of the danger," remarks Dr. Giinther,, " depends, as in other venemous Snakes, on many circumstances — chiefly on the size and energy of the indi- vidual Snake and on the place of the wound. As the fangs of the Bungarums are comparatively short, the wound is always super- ficial, and can be easily excised and cauterised ; also, experiments made on some of the lower animals show that the general effect on the whole system becomes visible only after a lapse of time." Of poisonous Snakes akin to the Bungarums, there are the POISONOUS SNAKES. 77 Xenurelaps bung ar aides, founded on a single specimen received from the Khasya hills (north of Sylhet) ; and the Meg&rophis Jlaviceps, which inhabits the Indo-Chinese and the Malayan countries, but not India. The latter attains to more than six feet in length, and when alive or fresh the head and neck are vivid blood-red, which soon fades to a pale buff' hue in specimens im- mersed in spirit, and hence the faulty name of jtaviceps. As many as seven genera — GlypJwdon, with two ascertained species ; Diemansia, with four ; Hoploc-ephalus, with eight ; Pseudechis, with one ; Pseudo-naja, with one ; Brachysoma, with three ; and Ver- micalla, with one — are peculiar to Australia with Tasmania, making twenty known species of Colubriform Yenemous Snakes in that range of territory, where others doubtless remain to be discovered ; and there is one described as Pseudo-elaps superciliaris, which is suspected to be a second species of Pseudo-naja. The Cyrtophis scutatus of South Africa is a sort of hoodless Cobra, without any small teeth behind its fangs. In America there is only the genus Elaps, with numerous species, which are mostly of small size, and in some instances are very brightly coloured, as one of the Coral Snakes* of Brazil (E. corallinus), which is beautiful coral- red, with the body encircled by equidistant black rings. The genus Elaps in America is represented in Africa by Homorelaps, in the Indian region by Callophis, and in Australia by Vermicalla. In general, these are small and slender Snakes, too much so to be held in much dread. What Dr. Gunther remarks of the species of Callophis will apply, as we believe, equally to the others : — " They appear to prefer hilly countries to the plains, live con- stantly on the ground, and are slow in their movements. In their habits, in their form, and in their powerless muscular organization, they show the greatest similarity to the Calamarice ; and this is why the Callop hides feed almost entirely on the latter, the venemous Snake being able to overpower the non- venemous. Both of these genera have also the same geographical distribution ; and Ceylon, where we do not find the Calamarice, is not inhabited by a single Callophis. If we are allowed to judge from the number of indi- viduals of both genera brought to Europe in collections, the Calamarice are about twice as numerous as the Callophide*." * This name being also applied to the harmless Tortrix scytak (vide p. 46.) 78 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. Cantor, who had opportunities of observing them, states that they are generally seen lying motionless, with the body thrown into many irregular folds, but not coiled. Although they are diurnal, their sight, from the minuteness of the pupil, appears to be as defective as their sense of hearing, and they may be closely approached without apparently being aware of danger. He never observed them to strike voluntarily, even when provoked, and he had difficulty in making an adult C. gracilis bite a Fowl ; although, of course, the venom of these Snakes is as virulent as that of a Viper, the animals used for the experiments having died in the course of from one to three hours after they had been wounded. Therefore the greatest caution should be observed in catching or handling these Snakes. The shortness of their fangs and the small quantity of their poisonous fluid, however, will always give a very fair chance of recovery if the proper remedies be applied, should an accident occur. Two or three species of this genus inhabit India, and the rest are found in the Indo- Chinese and Malayan countries, one of the most common of them ( C. intestinalis) having likewise been received from the Philippines. The C. nigrescens of the mountains of southern India attain to four feet in length, but they are mostly about half of that size, or even smaller. Lastly, we arrive at THE VIPERINE SNAKES, Which have a long, perforated, erectile fang on the maxillary bone, which is extremely short and bears no other teeth. This is described in greater detail subsequently (pp. 93, 94). They are arranged under the two families Croialidce and Viperidce. The Crotalidft, or Pit Vipers, have the body robust, the tail of moderate length, or rather short, sometimes prehensile; head broad, sub- triangular, frequently scaly above or imperfectly shielded ; a deep pit on the side of the snout, between the eye and nostril ; the eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil. They are viviparous. The Pit Vipers are found only in Asia and America ; those of the New "World surpassing the Asiatic species in size, and therefore they are much more dangerous. Some live in bushes, others FER-DE-LANCE. 79 on the ground. A rudiment of the curious caudal appendage of the American Rattlesnakes is found as a simple spine-like scale in the Asiatic species, constituting the genus Halys. Some have the head covered with scales, having small shields on the edge of the forehead and brows ; the cheeks are scaly, and the tail ends in a spine. Of these, the American genus Craspe- docephalus and the Asiatic genus Trimeresurus have the sub-caudal plates two-rowed to the tip. The genus Craspedocephalus comprises the terrible Fer- de-lance of certain islands in the West Indies, which occurs on the main- land of South America, where four other species are recognised — one of them being found as far north as Mexico.] The Fer-de-lance (<7. lanceolatus) is met with in Martinique, r- iftfeA Fig. 19.— Fer-de-lance (Trigonocnphala mycalcE}, Santa Lucia, and in the little island of Boquin, near St. Vincent. It attains to a length of nearly six feet ; its colour is not always yellow, sometimes it is greyish, and even marbled with brown ; the 80 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. head, which is large, is remarkable for a triangular space, the three angles of which are occupied by the muzzle and the two eyes. This space, raised at its front edge, represents the head of a lance, large at its base and slightly rounded at the summit. On each side of the upper jaw, one, sometimes two, and even three, fangs are visible ; all of which the animal makes use of for the purpose of wounding and discharging his venom. Of the poison fangs of the Fer-de-lance, Professor Owen remarks, " that they (in common with the Rattlesnake and Yiper) are coated with a thin layer of a sub-transparent and minutely cellular cement. This disposition of the dentinal tubes is obedient to the general law of vertically , and the external surface of the tooth can be exposed to no other pressure than that of the turgescent duct with which it is in contact." It feeds on Lizards and the smaller Mammals, especially Rats, but it is capable of killing large animals, such as Oxen. The Negroes working among the sugar-cane, and soldiers in the Martinique service, often become victims to the Fer-de-lance. This Snake is, unfor- tunately, very prolific, and its venom is so subtle, that animals stung by it die three hours, twelve hours, one day, or several after the accident ; but their death is certain. The wound pro- duces extreme pain, and is immediately followed by more or less livid swelling; the body becomes cold and insensible, the pulse and respiration become slower, the head becomes confused, coma appears, and the skin turns bluish ; sometimes extreme thirst and spitting of blood are experienced, and paralysis attacks the whole system. Another species is known in Brazil as the " Jararaca " (C. brasi- liensis), and there is a third in the same country, the C. bilineatus ; a fourth, C. elegans, is believed to be from the west coast of South America ; and a fifth, C. atrox, inhabits from Demerara to Mexico. All of them are most highly formidable and dangerous Snakes, which are held in especial dread. The ten or more species of Trimeresurus occupy their place in the woodland districts of tropical Asia and its islands. In them the hinder labial shields are the smallest. The head is triangular, covered above with small scales, except the foremost part of the snout and the superciliary region, which generally are shielded ; VIPERINE SNAKES. 81 body with more or less distinctly keeled scales, in from seventeen to twenty-five series. Body and tail of moderate length, prehensile. These reptiles are more or less arboreal, as is indicated by their prehensile tail, and by their green or varied coloration. " In general," remarks Dr. Giinther, " they are sluggish, not attempting to move out of the way, and as they very closely resemble the branch on which they rest, they are frequently not perceived until they prepare to dart, vibrating the tail, and uttering a faint hissing sound, or until they have struck the disturber of their rest. Accidents caused by them, therefore, are not of uncommon occur- rence, and it is a fortunate circumstance that comparatively few of them attain to a size of more than two feet, so that the conse- quences of their bite are less to be dreaded than that of various other poisonous Snakes. Indeed, numerous cases are on record which show that the symptoms indicating a general effect on the system were of short duration, extending only over from two to forty-eight hours, and confined to vomiting, retching, and fever. After the pain and swelling of the bitten member or spot have subsided, the- vicinity round the wound becomes discoloured, mortifies, and is finally thrown off as a black, circular slough, after which health is speedily restored. The bite of larger speci- mens, from two to three feet long, is more dangerous, and has occasionally proved fatal ; so that the greatest care should always be observed in the immediate treatment of the patient. When roused, these Snakes are extremely fierce, striking at everything within their reach ; and Cantor states that in the extreme of fury they will fix their fangs in their own bodies. Frogs, small mam- malia, and birds form their food, and I have never found a Lizard or Snake in their stomach." Three or more of the species inhabiting India and Burmah are of a beautiful leaf- green colour, which changes to dull blue after long immersion in spirit. The commonest of them, T. carinatus, varies remarkably in colouring, however, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands ; if, indeed, the species be quite the same. These grow to over three feet in length, of which size they are sufficiently formidable. The kindred genus,. Peltopelor, is founded on a single species inhabiting the mountains of Southern India, P. macrolepis, which is remarkable for the- very large scales with which its head G 82 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. and body are covered. Lachesis, with two species, is another kindred genus in South America, in which the end of the tail has four rows of scales underneath. The Calloselasma rkodostoma is a very formidable reptile of this same series, which inhabits the Malay countries. It has a remarkably broad head, and grows to three feet or more in length. Dr. Giinther states that " it is one of the most beautiful and most dangerous of venemous Snakes. Feeding on frogs, it frequents grassy plains, and approaches gardens and human dwellings. Kuhl was eye-witness to a case where two Men, bitten by one and the same Snake, expired five minutes after." Another Malayan species is known as the Atropos acouba. The genus Halomys is characteristic of the fauna of Central Asia, the species being found in Tartary, on the northern side of the Himalayas, in China, in Japan, and in Formosa. One of them occurs in the Western Himalaya, at an altitude of 9,000 feet, and another has been referred to this genus from the moun- tains of Southern India. The " carawalla " of Ceylon (Hypnale nepa) is likewise found on the mountains of Southern India. It is a small species, but a good deal dreaded, although, remarks Dr. Giinther, " its bite is but exceptionally fatal to Man, and in such cases death does not occur before the lapse of some days. There is always every hope of restoring the patient by a timely applica- tion of the proper remedies." Its crown is more shielded than is usual with Snakes of this family, and it varies much in colouring. The rest of the Crotalidw are American, and consist of the famous Rattlesnakes and their immediate kindred. In the genus Cenchris the tail ends with a spine, and the tip of the tail has several rows of scales beneath. The well-known " Copperhead " (C. contortrix) belongs to this genus, and the black "Water Yiper " ( C. piscworus). Tlje last has bred repeatedly in the London Zoological Gardens, and is rather a large species, of very aquatic propensities. " The Copperhead," according to Dekay, " is a vicious reptile, and its 'venom is justly dreaded, being considered as deadly as that of the Rattlesnake ; and an instance is recorded in which a Horse, struck by one of these reptiles, died in a few hours. Its motions are sluggish, and when approached it assumes a threatening aspect, raising its head and darting out its tongue. It chiefly occurs in pastures and low meadow grounds, feeding on KATTLESNAKES. 83 Field-mice, Frogs, and the smaller disabled birds." The poison of the black Water Viper is equally to be dreaded. The true Rattlesnakes have the tail furnished with the extraor- dinary appendages at its tip which will be described presently. According to differences in the shields and scales covering the head, Dr. Gray arranged them into three genera — Crotalophorus, with three species ; Uropsophus, with one ; and Crotalus also with one, C. horridus, which appears to be the only one known in South America. Of the common Northern Rattlesnake (Urop- sophus durissus), Dekay remarks that, "although furnished with such deadly weapons, the Rattlesnake can scarcely be termed a vicious animal, for he rarely strikes unless almost trodden upon. When suddenly disturbed, he throws himself into a coil, and warns the aggressor by rapidly vibrating his rattles, which, however, can scarcely be heard beyond the distance of a few yards. This is most usually the case, but they occasionally strike without the slightest warning. At the moment the Snake strikes, he ejects the venom forcibly into the wound. In an instance of a very large Rattle- snake from Florida (C. horridus}, which was irritated, he struck violently against the iron wire on the side of the cage, and spurted the venom to the distance of three feet." * The fibulae, or rattles, seldom exceed fifteen in number, and are rarely so many.] The common Northern Rattlesnake sometimes attains to six feet in length, the middle being about the size of a man's leg ; the colour of the back is grey, mixed with yellow. Upon this foun- dation extends a longitudinal row of black spots, bordered with white ; towards the muzzle the flat head is covered with six scales larger than the others, and disposed in three transverse rows, each formed of two scales. The males are smaller, much more brightly and less darkly coloured than the other sex. The very long and visible fangs are situated in front of the upper jaw. The scales on the back are oval, and raised in the middle by a bone which extends in the direction of their greatest diameter. The underpart of the body is furnished with a single row of large plates. The Rattlesnake owes its name to a remarkable peculiarity in its struc- ture ; the extremity of the tail is furnished with small horny cells, * We have seen a Cobra thus spurt its venom against the plate-glass corer of the box in which it was kept. — ED. G2 84 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. articulated one into the other. When the animal advances these little capsules resound slightly, like the dry husks of beans which still retain their seeds, thus giving notice of the approach of this terrible enemy. The sibilant rattle of these appendages is not very loud, but it may be heard about thirty paces off, aind announces the approach of the reptile while it is still at that distance. Fig. 20. — Northern Eattlesnake ( Uropsophus durissus). Rattlesnakes feed on small mammals and upon other reptiles, wait- ing patiently for their approach ; when close to them, the Rattle- snake throws itself upon them. They are oviparous ; and for some time after they are hatched, the young are said to seek a refuge in the mouth of their mother. During summer Rattlesnakes remain in the midst of stony mountains, uncultivated places, or places covered with wild wood ; they generally choose those parts most exposed to the heat, — the sunny shores of a fountain or stream where small animals come to drink. They like also to place thmeselves under the shadow of an old fallen tree. Audubon, the celebrated ornitho- logist, says that he has often met with Rattlesnakes rolled up in a FASCINATING A SNAKE. 85 slate of torpor when the temperature was low. Rattlesnakes are revered by some of the American natives, who know how to lure them from their houses without killing them ; for it is a singular fact that this terrible animal is not insensible to the sound of music. Chateaubriand's remarks will be read with interest : " In the month of July, 1791," says this celebrated writer, " we were travelling in Upper Canada with some savage families of the Ounoutagnes. One day, when we had stopped in a plain on the banks of the river Genedie, a Rattlesnake entered our camp, W e had a Canadian amongst us who played on the flute ; wishing to amuse us, he approached the animal with this new kind of weapon. At the approach of his enemy, the splendid reptile at once coiled itself up spirally, flattened its head, puffed out its cheeks, con- tracted its ears, and showed its envenomed fangs, while its forked tongue moved rapidly, and its eyes burned like red-hot coals ; its body became inflated with rage, rose and fell like a pair of bellows ; its dilated skin bristled with scales ; and its tail, which produced a sinister sound, oscillated with lightning rapidity. The Canadian now began to play upon his flute. The Snake made a movement expressive of surprise, gradually drew its head backwards, closed its inflamed mouth, and, as the musical sounds struck it, the eyes lost their sharpness, the vibration of its tail relaxed, and the noise which it made became weaker, and finally died away altogether ; the coiled-up line became less perpendicular, the orbs of the changed Snake opened, and in their turn rested in wider concentric circles on the ground. The scales of the skin were also lowered, and immediately recovered their wonted brilliancy, and, turning its head slowly towards the musician, it remained immovable in an attitude of pleased attention. At this moment the Canadian walked away a few steps, drawing low and monotonous tones from his flute ; the reptile lowered his neck, opened a way among the fine grass with its head, and crawled in the steps of the musician who thus fascinated him, stopping when he stopped and following him when he began to move away. The Snake was thus con- ducted from our camp in the midst of a throng of spectators — as many Red-skins as Europeans — who could hardly believe their eyes.'* It is generally agreed that Rattlesnakes only attack Men in self- 86 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. defence, but it is at all times a dangerous neighbour, and it is im- portant to know how to keep them at a distance in countries where they abound. The Pig is an excellent auxiliary in obtaining this result. In the west and south of America, when a field or farm is infested by these ferocious reptiles, it is usual to put a Sow with its young brood there, and the Snakes, it is said, will soon be eaten up. It appears that owing to the fatty matter which envelopes the body of this animal, it is safe from the venemous bite. Besides, it likes the flesh of the Snakes, and eagerly pursues them. Accord- ing to Dr. Franklin, when a Pig sees a Rattlesnake, it smacks its jaws, and its hairs bristle up ; the Snake coils itself up to strike his enemy ; the Pig approaches fearlessly, and receives the blow in the fold of fat which hangs upon the side of its jaw. Then he places a foot on the tail of the Snake, and with his teeth he begins to pull the flesh of his enemy to pieces, and eats it with evident enjoyment.* The Pig is not the only animal employed to destroy Rattle- snakes. Dr. Rufz de Lavison, who has long resided in the French Antilles, and who has since been manager of the Jardin d' Acclima- tation, of Paris, has published a highly interesting work, in which he relates the very important services which certain birds, especially the Secretary-bird, or Serpent- eater (imported from South Africa), render by destroying Rattlesnakes in the West Indies. We have said that the Crotalidce are some of the most dangerous of any Snakes ; let us mention some facts which show the frightful power of their venom. A Crotalus, about three feet in length, killed a Dog in about fifteen minutes, a second in two hours, and a third in about four hours. Four days after he bit another Dog, which only survived thirty seconds ; and another, which only struggled four minutes. Three days afterwards it bit a Frog, which died at the end of two seconds ; and a Chicken, which perished at the end of eight minutes. An American, named Drake, arrived at Rouen with three live Rattlesnakes. In spite of the care which he had taken to preserve them from cold, one of them died. He put the cage which con- * Dekay, in his " Natural History of New York, "remarks that it is a popular belief that 'Hogs are particularly destructive to Rattlesnakes ; but neither their bristly hide nor their thick teguments afford them perfect immunity from the stroke of this reptile. I was informed by a respectable farmer that he lost three Hogs in one season by the poison either of the Copperhead or Rattlesnake. — ED. EXPEEIMENTS WITH RATTLESNAKES. 87 tained the other two near to a stove, and excited them with a small stick, to assure himself that they were alive and in health. As one of the Snakes made no movement, Drake took it by the head and tail and approached a window to see if it was dead ; the animal turned its head quickly, and bit the unfortunate man on the back of his left hand ; as he replaced it in the cage he was bitten anew in the palm of the same hand. " A doctor ! a doctor ! " cried the unhappy man. He rubbed his hand upon some ice which was close by, and two minutes after, he bound the wrist tightly with a cord. Four hours later a doctor arrived, and cauterized the wound, but alarming symptoms soon appeared. Syncope, noisy respiration, scarcely any pulsation, and involuntary evacuations followed ; the eyes closed, their pupils contracted ; the limbs became paralyzed, and the body cold. Drake died at the end of nine hours. Some experiments made by a friend of Dr. Bell seem to present different results. This gentleman had received a living Rattle- snake from America, intending to try the successive effects of its bite upon some Rats. He introduced one into the cage with the Snake : it immediately struck the Rat, and the latter died in two minutes. Another that was placed in the cage ran to the farthest corner, uttering cries of distress. The Snake did not attack it immediately ; but after about half an hour, on being irritated, it struck the Rat, which, however, exhibited no signs of being poisoned for several minutes ; nor did it die for about twenty minutes after the bite had been inflicted. A third Rat, remarkably large, was then introduced into the cage, and exhibited no signs of terror, nor did it seem to be noticed by its dangerous companion : after watching some time, the gentleman retired to bed, leaving the Rattlesnake and Rat in the cage together. In the morning the Snake lay dead, and the Rat had supped on the muscular part of its backbone. Unfortunately, Dr. Bell does not remember at what season this experiment took place, but thinks it was not in very warm weather. The climate of France differing only slightly from that of the United States, it is consequently well adapted for the production of Rattlesnakes. If a living male and female of these dangerous Crotalidce, were to escape from a menagerie, they would soon 88 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. infest the country with their 'terrible progeny. It is for this decisive reason that public exhibitions of Rattlesnakes are for- bidden in France. Nevertheless, two or three may be seen in the collection of the Museum of Natural History at Paris, miserably installed in a chest, which is quite unworthy of this establishment. The Rattlesnakes are enclosed in a double cage, and every measure of precaution is taken which prudence demands. It is a remarkable fact that the poison is secreted after death. Dr. Bell, in his " Hi-story of British Reptiles/' adduces the follow- ing as evidence of the facts : — He was dissecting very carefully and minutely the poison apparatus of a large Rattlesnake, which had been dead some hours ; the head had been taken off immediately after death; yet, as Dr. Bell continued his dissection, the poison continued to be secreted so fast as to require to be dried up occasionally with a sponge or rag : and his belief is, that there could not be less than six or eight drops of the poison. It is obvious that such experiments require the utmost caution, seeing that preparations are not without danger. [The family of the Viperidce, or true Vipers, are peculiar to the Old World, inclusive of Australia, with the sole known exception of one species in Peru. They have generally a robust bodjr, with non-prehensile tail ; the head broad or thick, generally scaly above or incompletely shielded ; the eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil, and they are at once distinguished from the Crotcdidce, by the absence of the pit below the eye. The scales are keeled except in one genus (Acanthopis). For the most part, these reptiles inhabit exposed and arid situations, though perhaps all of them will take to the water on occasions, as does the common British Adder. They are divided, firstly, into those which have a depressed head, rounded on the sides, and covered with acutely-keeled scales. Some of these have large nostrils in the centre of a ring- like shield, edged with a large scale above. Such are the genera Daboia in the warmer parts of Asia, and Clotho, which is peculiar to Africa — both genera are terrifically venemous. The famous Tic-polonga of Ceylon (Daboia elegans) is also widely diffused over India and Burmah. It is beautifully marked with three rows of white-edged, oblong, brown spots. Occa- PUFF-ADDERS. 89 sionally the spots forming the middle row are connected like the beads of a necklace, whence the name Cobra monil (literally Coluber moniliger), applied to the young of this Viper by the Indo- Portuguese, and now corrupted into " Cobra de Manilla/' which bears the reputation of being a highly poisonous Snake of diminu- tive size ; it attains, however, to a length of nearly five feet, the tail then measuring about eight inches, with considerable thick- ness of body. It is nocturnal, and preys chiefly on Mice. In Burmah this ^formidable Yiper is dreaded almost as much as the Hama- dryas. It has been obtained in the Himalayas at an elevation of 5,500 feet, at Almorah, and elsewhere. Mr. Theobald has known one to kill a Bull-terrier in twenty minutes. The D. xanthina is a second species of this form inhabiting Asia Minor. The genus Clotho consists of the terrible Puff-adders of Africa, of which there are at least four or five species. Among the best known of them are the ordinary Puff-adder (C. arietans), and the Berg-adder (C. atropos), of the Cape colonists. The Rhinoceros Puff-adder, C. na- sicornis, of Guinea, has the scales over the nostrils of the male produced into a long recurved spine ; and in the Horned Puff-ad- der, C. cornuta, of South Africa, there * is a group of small horn - like scales over each eye. Examples of the Common and of the Rhinoceros Puff-adders may generally be seen in the reptile house of the London Zoological Gardens. The last mentioned is a huge Yiper of wondrous beauty, both of colouring and in the complex pattern of its markings, especially Fig. 21.— The Horned Puff-adder (Clotho cornuta). 90 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. as seen when it has newly shed its epidermis ; but the aspect of its surprisingly broad, flat, and triangular- shaped head unmistakably betokens its terrific powers. Its head is remarkably massive. One peculiarity of the Puff-adders is that they sometimes hold on to their victim by their long fangs. Thus, of the common C. arietans Sir A. Smith remarks that " although generally inactive, it is by no means so when attacked — its movements are then bold and energetic, and when once it seizes the obnoxious object, it retains its hold with great determination, and some considerable exertion is often necessary to detach it." * The traveller Burchell remarks of this Snake that " its venom is said to be most fatal, taking effect so rapidly as to leave the person who has the mis- fortune to be bit! en no chance of savi n :» his life, but by in- stantly cutting out the flesh surround- ing the wound. Although I have often met with this Fig. 22.— The Unadorned Puff-adder (Clothoinornata). Snake," he adds, " yet, happily, no opportunity occurred of witnessing the effects of its poison ; but, from the universal dread in which it is held, I have no doubt of its being one of the most venemous species of Southern Africa. There is a peculiarity which renders it more dangerous, and which ought to be known to every person liable to fall in with it. Unlike the generality of Snakes, which make a spring or dart forward when irritated, the Puff-adder, it is said, throws itself backwards, so that those who should be ignorant of this fact would place themselves in the very direction of death, while imagining that by so doing they were escaping the danger. The natives, by keeping always in front, are en- * In Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa" (vol. ii. p. 59), we read — " May 19th. I lost my "best Dog, Caesar. He had seized a large Puff-adder "by the tail, and shook it. When the Snake was released it darted at the Dog's face, and having fixed its fangs in its cheek, stuck there like a Bull-dog until it was killed. The Dog only survived ten minutes." — ED. CERASTES AND ECHIS. 91 abled to destroy it without much risk. The Snakes of South Africa, as of Europe, lie concealed in their holes in a torpid state during the colder part of the year. It is, therefore, only in the hottest summer months that the traveller is exposed to the danger of being bitten." Dr. Gray refers doubtfully to this genus both the Echidna inornata of Sir A. Smith, and the E. mauritanica of Dumeril and Bibron, from Algeria ; likewise a Peruvian species named Echidna ocellata by Tschudi, which is the only known instance of a member of this family inhabiting the New World. The appellation Echidna, however, belongs properly to the Porcu- pine Ant-eaters of the class Mammalia. The species of Cerastes and of Echis have the nostrils much smaller than the preceding, and are Yipers of less formidable size. In the two species of Cerastes, or Horned Yiper, the eyebrows of the male bear commonly a sort of horn. C. Hasselquistii is com- mon in Egypt, and the other, C. Richii, inhabits Tripoli. Of Echis there is one species in Egypt and North Africa — E. arenicola, and another in India — E. carinata. The latter grows to about twenty inches long, of which the tail measures two inches and a third. These Yipers commonly lie half-buried in the sand, which they much resemble in colour. They feed upon Centipedes (Scolopendra) , and no case is known of their bite having proved fatal. The remaining Viperidce have the head more or less shielded. They are divided by Dr. Gray into Vipera (with two European species, not found in Britain — F. aspis from the Alps, and F. ammodytes from the countries bordering on the Mediterranean) ; — Pelias, which contains only the Common British Adder, P. berus ; Sepedon, with one species only, from South Africa, S. h&machates ; Causus, with also only one African species, C. rhombeatus ; and finally, Acanthopis, founded on the Death-adder of the Aus- tralian colonists, A. antarctica, which is the only member of the family Viperidce known to inhabit Australia, where the Poisonous Colubrine Snakes are so numerous. It is also the only known species the scales of which are smooth or not keeled. It seldom exceeds thirty inches in length, and varies a good deal in colour. Like other Viperidce it is sluggish in its movements, but when irritated it flattens itself out generally in the form of the letter S, 92 OPHIDIAN EEPTILES. turning round to one side or the other with astonishing rapidity, but never jumping at its enemy or throwing itself backward, as the Puff-adders are described to do. The Death-adder is found in almost every part of Australia northward of the thirty-sixth parallel of south latitude.] The Common Adder (Pelias berus), is not improbably the E^is of Aristotle, and the Viper a of Yirgil, as it is the Manasso of the Italians, the Adder of the country-people in England and Scotland, and the Yipere of France. It is found in all these countries, and in Europe generally. The Common Adder varies in length, from thirteen or fourteen Fig. 23.— The Common Adder (Pelias berus). inches to double that length ; and from two to three or even four inches in girth. Its general colour varies considerably : in some it is olive, in others reddish^brown, varying sometimes to an ashy- grey ; at other times it is greyish-black. A waving brown or blackish line runs along the back. A row of unequal spots of the same colour is observable on the flanks ; the belly is slate-coloured ; the head nearly triangular, a little larger than the neck, obtuse and trun- cated in front, and covered with granulated scales. Six small plates cover the muzzle, two -of which are perforated for the nostrils, which are lateral, forming a blackish spot. Above is a sort of Y sha