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Ven a ae ee 1 : : ‘a yi ire ., - : ' « : Ny rm io n ae ne THE COMMON VIPER Vipera berus REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS BY E. G. BOULENGER, F.Z.S. CURATOR OF LOWER VERTEBRATES IN THE GARDENS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY - \ Lis RAN ~~ Z WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS SMITH , MONEE, t ) ¢ Ny LIBRARIES Sau, enveememeneeee any EONDON: J.’ M. DENT & SONS, LTD; NEW YORK ih. PDUTTON & CO: ) ? ; A G 7 AL se Hy PREFACE In the following pages an attempt has been made to refer to the classification and systematic position of the animals with which this volume deals, without entering very fully into details, and as much space as possible has been devoted to their life histories and habits. The numerous photographs which illustrate this book have all been taken by Mr. W. S. Berridge, F.Z.S., mostly from living specimens in the Zoological Gardens, and those who are cognizant of the art of photography will fully appreciate the skill and patience involved in their production. Many of the text figures are reproduced from the works published by the Trustees of the British Museum and by the Council of the Ray Society, with their kind permission. E. G. BouLencer. Zoological Scciety, Regent's Park, October 1014. it ; feat wi ial Ns ny ea) u II Ill IV II III CONTENTS PART I.—REPTILES INTRODUCTION . RHYNCHOCEPHALIA CHELONIA— T'uRTLEs, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES CrocopiILIA—CRocoDILEs, ALLIGATORS, ETC. LaceRTILIA—LIzarRDs OpHIDIA—SNAKES PART II.—BATRACHIANS INTRODUCTION . ANURA—TAILLEss BATRACHIANS UropELta—TalLED BaATRACHIANS Apopa—LIMBLEss BATRACHIANS INDEX 200 i oe a i i i ¥e ‘jhe ars JOR Da mh Or ay f Ki i" hata , ae alk i" vl hi . Hl : oy “at ; ‘ Os hi ‘ ete - : i ny" ; me , . Us eh Ai le i ae wes iy es en an a) i) eo a a nae AY igi hia ae ee ew ue Be an ee nn as OOS Sie rn AIS rae) Fe : ~~ ene LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Common Viper, Vipera berus Tuatera Lizard, Sphenodon punctatus Skulls of Sphenodon and Lizard (Uromastix) Snapping Turtle, Chelydra serpentina Three-keeled Terrapin, Staurotypus triporcatus Maw’s Terrapin, Dermatemys mawti Mud Terrapin, Cinosternum cruentatum . Plastron of Cinosternum cruentatum, showing hinges Painted Terrapin, Chrysemys picta Adorned Terrapin, Chrysemys ornata European Pond Terrapin, Emys orbicularts Box Tortoise, Cistudo carolina Plastron of Cistudo carolina, showing hinges The Eroded Cinixys, Cinixys erosa Algerian Tortoise, Testudo ibera The Star Tortoise, Testudo elegans The South American Tortoise, Testudo ee Phayre’s Tortoise, Testudo emys The Elephant Tortoise, Testudo BineLiine The South Albemarle Tortoise, Testudo vicina The Hawksbill Turtle, Chelone imbricata The Green Turtle, Chelone mydas . The African Terrapin, Pelomedusa galeata The Matamata Terrapin, Chelys fimbriata The Long-necked Terrapin, Chelodina longicollis The Nile Trionyx, Trionyx niloticus The Ganges Trionyx, Lrionyx gangeticus American Alligators, Alligator mississippiensis . Egg of Alligator . To face page Frontispiece x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Chinese Alligator, Alligator sinensis West African Crocodile, Osteolemus tetraspis . The African Crocodile, Crocodilus niloticus Gharial, Gavialis gangeticus . Verticillated Gecko, Gecko verticillatus Verticillated Gecko, ventral view . Fringed Gecko, Uroplates fimbriatus Scale-footed Lizard, Pygopus lepidopus Fat-tailed Gecko, Gymnodactylus milutsit The Bloodsucker, Calotes verstcolor . Bearded Lizard, Amphibolurus barbatus Frilled Lizard, Chlamydosaurus kingt Lesueur’s Water Lizard, Physignathus lesueurt . The Egyptian Mastigure, Uromastix spinipes Moloch Lizard, Moloch horridus American Basilisk, Basiliscus americanus . Carolina Anolis, Anolis carolinensis Undulated Lizard, Sceloporus undulatus Tuberculated Iguana, Iguana tuberculata Spiny-tailed Iguana, Ctenosaura erythromelas Horned Lizard, Phrynosoma cornutum Giant Zonure, with young, Zonurus giganteus . Smooth-backed Zonure, Pseudocordylus microlepidotus Slow-worm, Anguis fragilis Glass-snake, Ophisaurus apus . The Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum . Grey Monitor, Varanus griseus The Banded Monitor, Varanus salvator . Bengal Monitor, Varanus bengalensis Lace Monitor, Varanus varius : White-throated Monitor, V aranus ipapalees : Green Lizard, Lacerta viridis Eyed Lizard, Lacerta ocellata Sand Lizard, Lacerta agilis Wall Lizards, Lacerta muralis Canary Island Lizard, Lacerta galloti The Plated Lizard, Gerrhosaurus major To face page 48 48 48 49 52 52 53 a5 53 60 60 61 64 64 64 65 65 65 79 7O 70 7p 74 74 74 75 78 78 78 79 79 84 84 84 85 85 85 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS x1 To face page Red Teguexin, Tupinambis rufescens Sooty Amphisbaena, Amphisbaena fuliginosa Common Skink, Scincus officinalis Eyed Skink, Chalcides ocellatus Blue-tongued Skink, Tiliqua scincoides Cunningham’s Skink, Egernia cunninghami Stump-tailed Lizard, Trachysaurus rugosus Common Chameleon, Chameleon vulgaris Lobed Chameleon feeding, Chameleon parvilobus Warty Chameleon, Chameleon verrucosus Dwarf Chameleon, Chameleon pumilus Head of Puff Adder, Bitts artetans, showing fangs : Cast “skin” of Puff Adder, Bitis artetans, showing the eye-scales Part of Indian Python (Python molurus), showing rudimentary hind- limbs Complete Bones of the Hinder Limb-girdle of Python (From Gutde to the Reptile Gallery of the B.M.) West African Typhlops, Typhlops punctatus Reticulated Python, Python reticulatus Reticulated Python, constricting a kid Indian Python, Python molurus Royal Python, Python regius Diamond Python, Python spilotes . Carpet Python, Python spilotes, var. variegata . Anaconda, Eunectes murinus . Common Boa, Boa constrictor Rainbow Boa, Epticrates cenchris Madagascar Tree Boa, Corallus madagascariensis Indian Eryx, Eryx johnit African Burrowing Boa, Calabaria reinhardtii Elephant-trunk Snake, Acrochordus javanicus Sharp-nosed Snake, Lioheterodon madagascariensts Common Grass Snake, Tropidonotus natrix Grass snakes emerging from their eggs ; The False Mocassin, Tropidonotus fasciatus, var. rhombifer . Garter Snake, Tropidonotus ordinatus 86 86 87 87 87 90 go 92 92 g2 93 112 112 113 113 113 114 114 115 118 119 11g 122 122 123 E23 126 126 127 127 128 128 129 129 xil LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Dark Green Snake, Zamenis gemonensis . Rat Snake, Zamenis mucosus . /Esculapian Snake, Coluber longissimus Leopard Snake, Coluber leopardinus Four-lined Snake, Coluber quatuorlineatus Chicken Snakes, Coluber obsoletus Pine Snake, Coluber melanoleucus Egg-eating Snake, Dasypeltis scabra King Snake, Coronella getula . Smooth Snake, Coronella austriaca . Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon platyrhinus Hog-nosed Snake, expanding hood . Cat Snake, Tarbophis fallax . Kirtland’s Tree Snake, Thelotornis birtlandit Long-snouted Tree Snake, Dryophis mycterizans Banded Krait, Bungarus fasciatus . Hamadryad, Nata bungarus . Indian Cobra, Nata tripudians Indian Cobra, Nata tripudtans, var. fasctata Black and White Cobra, Nata melanoleuca The Ringhals, Sepedon hamachates . Green Mamba, Dendraspis viridis . Night Adder, Causus rhombeatus Russell’s Viper, Vipera russellt Some tame British Adders, Vipera berus Nose-horned Viper, Bitts nastcornts Gaboon Viper, Bitis gabonica Puff Adder, Bitis arietans Carpet Viper, Echis carinata . Cerastes Viper, Cerastes cornuta Green Tree Viper, Atherts chlorechts Mocassin, Anctistrodon piscivorus Copper-head, Anctstrodon contortrix Bushmaster, Lachests mutus . “ Rattle ” of Rattlesnake Texas Rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox . To face page t+ 144 145 145 145 148 148 148 149 149 156 156 157 160 160 161 161 164. 164. 165 172 172 173 173 173 176 176 176 182 182 182 183 183 183 186 186 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Pigmy Rattlesnake, Sistrurus miliarius, with young . Common Frogs, Rana temporaria . Edible Frog, Rana esculenta . American Bull Frog, Rana catesbiana Indian Bull Frog, Rana tigrina African Bull Frog, Rana adspersa . Gopher Frog, Rana capito Darwin’s Frog, Rhinoderma darwintt Argentine Dwarf Toad, Phryniscus nigricans South African Burrowing Toad, Breviceps gibbosus Ornamented Ceratophrys, Ceratophrys ornata . Horned Ceratophrys, Ceratophrys cornuta Common Toad, Bufo vulgarts Natterjack Toad, Bufo calamita Green Toad, Bufo viridis Cameroon Toad, Bufo superciliarts Giant Toad, Bufo marinus European Tree Frog, Hyla a Golden Tree Frog, Hyla aurea White’s Tree Frog, Hyla cerulea European Burrowing Toad, Pelobates fuscus Horned Toad, Megalophrys cornuta Fire-bellied Toad, Bominator igneus, caer an Midwife Toad, Alytes obstetricans, with eggs Clawed Frog, Xenopus levis, dorsal aspect Clawed Frog, ventral aspect : Spotted Salamander, Salamandra maculosa Black Salamander, Salamandra atra Crested Newts, Molge cristata, male and oon Marbled Newt, Molge marmorata, male . Marbled Newt, female Pleurodele Newt, Molge waltlii Burmese Newt, Tylotriton verrucosus Axolotl, Amblystoma tigrinum Axolotl (albino), intermediate stage Transformed Axolotl xii To face page 186 202 202 203 214 214 214 215 215 215 218 218 219 219 219 224 224 225 225 225 240 240 241 241 244 244 245 245 245 252 252 260 260 261 261 261 XIV List; OF TLLUSPRATIONS To face page Giant Salamander, Megalobatrachus maximus . é ‘ , - 8268 Eggs of Giant Salamander 268 Amphiuma, Amphiuma meaus ; ‘ : : : ‘ as 209 Proteus, Proteus anguinus : : ‘ : 5 2 269 Menobranch, Necturus maculatus . , ‘ : : : . 269 PART (I REPTILES i i vy ma" ‘ J ike) Pay a! i ' PCa ae eet) MRE WP R a Rab ee ry INTRODUCTION Repti.es, as well as Batrachians and Fishes, are cold- blooded vertebrate animals, the temperature of their bodies, unlike as in the case of Mammals and Birds, rising and falling according to their surroundings. From Batrachians, Reptiles differ in breathing by lungs during the whole of their existence, and not by gills as do the former during at least part of their life, and by the fact that the skull, which in Batrachians, as in Mammals, articulates with the vertebral column by two rounded knobs or condyles, is in Reptiles attached as in Birds by a single condyle. Unlike Batrachians, they undergo no metamorphosis, being born in the condition which they will retain for the whole of their life. In the majority of Reptiles the skin is covered with scales or shields, while in Batrachians it is, with a few exceptions, naked. The living representatives of the class Reptilia, the majority of which occur in the tropical and semi-tropical parts of the world, are divided up into the following five orders— I. The RHYNCHOCEPHALIA:—The Tuatera Lizarp of New Zealand, the survivor of an order of which numerous fossil representatives are known. 3 4 INTRODUCTION II. The CHELONIA:— Turtists, Terrapins, and Tor ToIsEs. III. The CROCODILIA :—Crocopitss, ALLIGaATors, etc. IV. The LACERTILIA :—Lizarps and CuaMELeons. V. The OPHIDIA :—Snaxes. Although in past geological ages Reptiles were the preponderating type of the vertebrates, at the present day there are in all but 4000 different species, a very low number when compared to Fishes and Birds, the representatives of which each number over 10,000. CHAPTER I THE RAYNCHOCEPHALIA Sphenodon punctatus, the Tuatera Lizard of the Maoris, is, as mentioned in the Introduction, the only living member of a group of Reptiles otherwise known from fossil repre- sentatives only, and there can be no doubt as to its being the oldest living reptilian type. In spite of its lizard-like form it is perhaps almost as closely related to the Tortoises as to the Lizards, and in fact many authorities regard the order into which this creature falls as having directly given rise to the Tortoises and the Crocodiles. Externally the Tuatera resembles those lizards known as Agamas and Igu- anas, and was in fact originally referred to the former of these families. It differs, however, from true lizards in many anatomical features, the principal of these residing in the fact that the temporal region is bridged over by two bony arches, the lower of which is absent in lizards, and that, in addition to the sternal apparatus, a supplementary system of numerous bones, so-called “‘ abdominal ribs,” fore- shadows the plastron of Chelonians. A feature of Spheno- don is its possession of the vestigial structure known as the “ pineal eye,” an apparently functionless organ situated on the top of the head, believed to represent the remains of a once functional eye. 6 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS The body is stoutly built, being only slightly compressed on the sides; it possesses a series of spine-like lobes ex- tending, but for a small interruption on the nape, from behind the head to the end of the tail. The latter organ, which is comparatively short, is very thick and somewhat compressed, and is capable of regeneration as in lizards. The limbs are well-developed, the fore limbs being a little shorter than the hind ones ; the digits, five in number on both hand and foot, are webbed at the base and Ng Dif AYY ooh aon Mad 4 CAE Abe” a Sie MALU IY ne Fic. 1.—Lower jaws, showing the acrodont dentition (a), and pleurodont dentition (4). (From B, M. Guide to Reptile Gallery.) provided with strong claws; the eye is rather large, brown in colour, with a vertical pupil; the tongue is short, thick and not very protrusible; the nostrils are small and lateral ; the ear is absent, as in snakes ; the teeth, which seem to form part of the jaw itself, so completely are their bases fused with the bone, belong to the so-called acrodont type, being inserted on the edge of the jaw, in opposition to the dentition known as pleurodont, in which they are applied to the inner side; those in front are incisor-like and form a sort of beak, whence the name Rhynchocephalia. The scales on the upper parts are granular, intermixed with Tuatera Lizard, Sphenodon punctatus. Skulls of Sphenodon and Lizard (Uromastix). (4) (¢) (2) Snapping Turtle, Chelydra serpentina. (6) Three-keeled Terrapin, Staurotypus triporcatus. (c) Maw’s Terrapin, Dermatemys mawt. POU ee Wet eo Hata, THE. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA 7 small scattered tubercles ; those on the ventral surface are large and squarish, and arranged in transverse series. The colour is usually olive-grey with a few yellow dots ; in a few cases it is nearly black ; the lobes of the dorsal crest are whitish or yellowish. ‘The males are no brighter than the females, and have no other secondary sexual characters than a somewhat bigger head, a higher dorsal crest, and a somewhat larger size. Until fairly recently, Sphenodon was quite abundant in many parts of South Island, but on the larger islands it 1s now all but extinct, its extermination being due to coloni- zation and the advent of domestic and commensal animals such as pigs and rats; it is now only to be found in the smaller islands of the Bay of Plenty, where, after having been much hunted for by zoological collectors and dealers, it now fortunately enjoys Government protection. A good illustration of the rapid extermination of this creature lies in the fact that whereas twenty-five years ago a living specimen could be purchased from almost any dealer for twenty to thirty shillings, at the present time about fifteen pounds represents its market value. The Tuatera lives in deep holes, which it generally digs out itself, and in which it sleeps during the day, coming out in search of food at dusk. These holes it often shares with various kinds of Petrels, the Tuatera and the Petrel building their nests separately, the former almost invariably taking the right side of the chamber and the latter the left. The chambers measure about two feet in length, one foot in width, and six inches in depth, the entrance being only about four inches in diameter. The creature always lies in such a position that its head faces the entrance to the 8 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS chamber, ready to defend its home from intruders, biting and making use of its claws for the purpose. According to A. Reischek, who has made numerous observations on the natural history of Chicken Island, and has devoted much attention to the habits of the Tuatera, it is not uncommon to find two petrels inhabiting one side, but never two tuateras sharing the same chamber. ‘This observer is of the opinion that in a few instances the holes are dug out by the birds, the two habitations being distinguishable through the fact that the birds dig in solid and hard earth, while the reptiles only excavate where the soil is soft and loose. The Tuatera is oviparous, laying from eight to a dozen tough but not hard-shelled white eggs, nearly an inch in length, in the months of December and January. ‘These take an extraordinary long time to hatch, the young only appearing about thirteen months after the egg has been laid. In captivity, although they do well, Tuateras are rather dull and uninteresting, as most of the day is spent in the retreat provided for them, or in the holes they burrow; the latter are usually dug out at dusk, the creatures making use of their long claws for this operation. ‘They are first- class swimmers, and, therefore, a large tank of water should be provided for bathing purposes. Their favourite food consists of earthworms, slugs, frogs, and small lizards. Contrary to the experience of Dr. Gadow, who kept numbers for many years, those at the Zoological Gardens were all fond of meat. Mice were also regarded by them asa delicacy. ‘These specimens were always silent, although other individuals have been known to utter, especially at dusk, sounds somewhat resembling the THE RHYNCHOCEPHALIA 9 croaking of a frog. Very few specimens ever become at all tame, and they can never be handled without the risk of a rather painful bite, for although their teeth are not particularly sharp, their jaws are endowed with very great muscular power. Cuapter II CHELONIA—TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TOR- TOISES Tue members of this order may be entirely aquatic, only partly so, or entirely terrestrial, with paddle-shaped limbs in the case of the first, with club-shaped limbs in the case of the last, and intermediate in structure in the second category. In this book the forms living entirely on land are designated under the name of Tortoises, those living both on land and in water as Terrapins, and the exclusively aquatic forms as Turtles; the last mentioned are further divisible into fresh-water and marine. The body of these animals is protected by a bony shell, usually covered with horny shields, into which the head, neck, limbs, and tail may be retracted. This shell is composed of numerous bones, the principal being expan- sions of the vertebre and ribs, forming the carapace, or dorsal buckler, the neck and tail being the only movable portions of the spinal column, and clavicles and abdominal bones forming the plastron or ventral buckler. The carapace and plastron are usually connected by a lateral part known as the bridge. Both the bony plates and the horny shields on the shell afford excellent characters for the purpose of classification, but as the shields only are Io Mud Terrapin, Cinosternum cruentatum. Plastron of Cinosternum cruentatum, showing hinges. (a) Painted Terrapin, Chrysemys picta. (6) Adorned Terrapin, Chrysemys ornata. (c) European Pond Terrapin, Emys orbicularts. TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 11 available for examination in the case of living specimens, we shall confine ourselves to the disposition and nomen- clature of the latter, for which the reader is referred to fig. 2. In some tortoises and terrapins perfect hinges of elastic Fic. 2.—Shell of Chelone mydas. A. Carapace, B, Plastron. a. Abdominal, fh. WHumeral. n. Nuchal. an, Anal, ig. Intergular, p- Pectoral. c. Costal. im. Inframarginal, sc. Supracaudal. jf. Femoral. m, Marginal, v. Vertebral, g. Gular, (After Boulenger. ) ligament are formed across the plastron, as in the so-called Box Tortoises, and either the anterior or the posterior lobes, or both, as the case may be, are movable and close up the shell. In the genus Cimzxys a similar hinge is situated across the carapace, the hinder part of which is movable. 12 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS Regeneration of lost parts does not take place, although, as Gadow has shown, the injuries to the shell are made good by new growth of bony and horny tissue, after the necrotic portion has been cast off. A tail is always present, but differs much both in length and structure, according to genera and species, this organ being sometimes covered with horny or bony tubercles, while in many the tip is provided with a sharp, nail-like spur. ‘The toothless jaws are covered with cutting horny sheaths, which may be serrated and constitute false teeth. The neck, which varies much in length, may be either completely or only partly withdrawn into the shell, in some forms simply sideways (Pleurodira), or by a sigmoid curve in a vertical plane (Cryptodira). ‘The eye is rather small and protected by an upper and a lower lid, anda transparent membrane (the nictitating membrane), which moves horizontally ; the pupil is always round. ‘The sight and senses of taste and touch are well developed, that of hearing, however, is very imperfect, especially among aquatic forms, some of which are devoid of an exposed tympanum or ear-drum. All tortoises, terrapins, and turtles are oviparous, laying eggs which may be round, oval, or elliptical, and as a rule hard-shelled : marine turtles, however, produce eggs, the shell of which is imperfectly calcified: they are invariably buried in the ground and hatched by the heat of the sun. Hibernation takes place in the temperate zones, the period varying in length according to the climate. Aquatic species do so generally at the bottom of the ponds or rivers they live in, or in the mud on the banks, while the land forms secrete themselves in the earth and sand, a TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 13 few constructing regular burrows which may extend to a depth of several feet. The food varies according to the structure and the mode of life. Land forms are vegetarians, those fre- quenting the water are either carnivorous or herbivorous, a few only living on a mixed diet. Tortoises are remarkably long-lived, the giant forms of the Aldabra and Galapagos Islands attaining an age un- paralleled by any other animal. The order is not a very large one, the number of species of Chelonians amounting to only just over 200. Sub-order ATHECZ :—Vertebre and ribs free, within the carapace. The Leatuery Turtie, Dermochelys coriacea, of the family SpHarcIpA, is the only representative of the sub- order. It is the largest of living chelonians, and differs from all other turtles, terrapins, and tortoises in its vertebre and ribs being entirely free, and not fused with the cara- pace. The body is protected by a shield of small mosaic- like bony plates, covered with a very thick layer of leathery skin, which, except for the presence of a number of longitudinal ridges, is in adult specimens perfectly smooth ; in the young it appears rather tuberculate. The limbs are paddle-shaped flippers, devoid of claws, giving the creature great swimming powers, and enabling it to ven- ture far out tosea. Incolour it is dark brown, often more or less distinctly spotted with yellow, or as if splashed with whitewash. This creature has been considered to represent, so far as its vertebral column is concerned, the primitive type 14 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS out of which the ordinary tortoise has been evolved, it being believed that the ossifications underlying the skin have gradually become fused with the bones of the skeleton to form the shell of tortoises and turtles proper. Others believe the Sphargide to represent an ultra-specialized type evolved out of the turtles. The Leathery Turtle has a world-wide distribution, and is, in fact, a pelagic animal, straying to very distant localities, occasionally visiting the coast of Great Britain. In spite of its wide range it is by no means common. Numbers have been seen, however, off the coast of Tenas- serim, and at the entrance to the Klang Straits, where they congregate in order to deposit their eggs, each female depositing some three or four hundred. The strength of the creature may be fully realized by the following interesting account, which has been given by G. W. Gourley, of the capture of a specimen at Santa Barbara in the year 1905. “The turtle was first seen swimming on the surface about two miles off shore. I went after it, accompanied by a boy, in an eighteen-foot sailing boat. On approaching the turtle I dropped the tiller and got forward with the gaff hook, swung over the side, and got the hook fast in the leathery part of his neck. He immediately sounded, and ran out the full length of the line—about two hundred feet—towing the boat about half a mile further out to sea. He then came to the surface and we pulled up close to him again. When he caught sight of the boat he turned and came towards us and threw his flippers over the gunwale of the boat, nearly capsizing her. I climbed up on the upper side, and shoved him off with an oar, the end TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 15 of which he grabbed and bit off like a piece of cheese. His movements were very swift; using his fore-flipper he could turn almost instantly from one side to the other, and his head would project about eighteen inches from the body. I succeeded at last in throwing a noose over his head, and later, by attracting his attention in the opposite direction, got ropes round both flippers, finally having five lines on him, and started to tow him towards the shore. We were from 11.30 a.m. until 4 p.m. in finally landing him. When about half-way to shore he suddenly turned, and made a break out to sea, towing the boat stern first, with all sail drawing full, for several hundred yards, with little effort. He emitted at intervals a noise some- what resembling the grunt of a wild boar.” The largest specimen on record is over eight feet in length and weighs just over 1,500 pounds. Sub-order 'THECOPHORA :—Dorsai vertebre and ribs united to form the carapace. The sub-order is divided into two super-families, namely, the Crypropira, in which the neck bends in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane, and the PLeuropira, in which it bends merely sideways. Some of the most curious members of the CryPpTopiRA belong to the family Curtyprip#&, which is represented by three genera and four species, namely, by Chelydra serpentina, Chelydra rossignoni, and Macroclemmys tem- mincki in America, and by Devisia mythodes recently discovered in New Guinea. These turtles, known as Snappinc TurTLes or ALLIGA- Tor Turties, are characterized by an enormous head, a 16 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS thick neck, strongly hooked jaws, a long tail, a chin provided with fleshy appendages, and a very small cross-shaped plastron. Chelydra serpentina reaches a total length of about three feet, Macroclemmys to almost twice that size. The tail accounts for more than a quarter of the total length. The colour in all species is dull olive above, yellow inferiorly. Chelydra serpentina is distributed throughout the United States and extends into Mexico, while Macroclem- mys, although occasionally found in the Southern States, is most abundant in the Mississippi and its tributaries. The second species of Chelydra, Ch. rossignoni, which is rather rare, is found in Central America and Ecuador. In Macroclemmys a number of white fleshy appendages of the mucous membrane are situated just in front of the tongue, which, the mouth of the creature being kept open, when in the water, are moved in such a manner as to simulate living worms, with the evident object of attracting the fish it lives on. All these turtles are notorious on account of their savage dispositions. When annoyed they elevate them- selves on their hind limbs and turn almost complete somersaults in their efforts to bite. According to Holbrook they live at the bottom of stagnant pools or rivers of sluggish motion, occasionally coming to the surface with the tip of their snouts elevated, the other parts concealed, and in this manner float about aimlessly, descending to the bottom again when disturbed. ‘They are occasionally said to leave the rivers and to roam about on land, some distance from the water. "They are much esteemed as an article of food, and large quantities, at least in North TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 17 America, are brought to market. ‘They do exceedingly well in captivity, two “ Snappers” in the collection of the Zoological Society, received nearly fourteen years ago, are almost as ferocious as on arrival, and will still occasionally seize upon walking-sticks and such articles as may be offered them for the purpose of inducing them to show off their uncontrollable tempers. ‘These specimens are fed exclusively on meat. In their native land they feed principally on fish and small waterfowl. The turtles of the family Dermatemyp#, which includes three genera, Dermatemys, Staurotypus, and Claudius, all represented by a single species, are restricted to Central America. But for the PLatysTernip#, characterized by a very long tail, and the Marine Turtles, the possession of a series of shields on the bridge separates this family from all others. Maw’s Turtle, Dermatemys mawi, which grows to a very large size, the shell alone often exceeding two feet in length, lives in the running waters of Honduras, where it forms an important article of food for the colonists. It feeds exclusively on vegetable matter. The plastron of this turtle, unlike that of the other two genera, is large and not cross-shaped. The Three-Keeled Turtle, Staurotypus triporcatus, 1s characterized by three very pronounced keels on the carapace. ‘The plastron is remarkably small and cruciform, as in the Snapping Turtles, which, but for the extremely short tail, it resembles in general appearance, and also in being of a similarly fierce disposition. In the family Cinosternip#&, popularly known as Mup c 18 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS TERRAPINS, the anterior and posterior lobes of the plastron are movable and connected with the central part by hinges, so that their oval-shaped shell can be partly or completely closed. The mobility of the plastron varies considerably according to species and with age, for, as in the case of all Terrapins with hinged plastrons, the mobility is not so marked in the young. ‘The species most fre- quently seen in captivity are the Pennsytvanian Mup TERRAPIN, C. pennsylvanicum; the Stinx-pot Mup TerRAPIN, C. odoratum ; and the Bioop-sTainep Mup TERRAPIN, C. cruentatum. ‘The two former are distributed throughout the Eastern States of North America, while the latter is confined to Central America. In C. pennsylvanicum and C. cruentatum the plastral lobes are freely movable; the plastron, however, in the former species, is small, and consequently does not close up com- pletely against the rim of the carapace, as in the case of the latter. The end of the tail is provided with a horny, nail-like appendage in both sexes in C. pennsylvanicum, it is present only in the female in C. cruentatum, and is absent in both sexes in C. odoratum. In the latter species the plastron is considerably narrower and smaller than in the two preceding, and the lobes are only feebly movable. This terrapin derives its name from the fact that on being alarmed it emits from certain glands a remarkably pungent and most disagreeable odour of musk. The members of this family, none of which exceed a shell length of six inches, are found in muddy ponds or ditches, feeding on small fish and tadpoles. ‘They are very treacherous creatures; when handled they immedi- ately withdraw into their shells, firmly closing them; they TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 19 do not remain inside for long, however, for after a few seconds they dart out with unexpected rapidity, their mouths wide open, ready to inflict a severe bite with their cutting jaws. The back of the legs of the males in some of the species bears two patches of horny tubercles, and by rubbing these against one another stridulating sounds are produced very similar to those so well known in grass- hoppers. The widely distributed family Trstupinip@, which embraces some 130 species, includes a number of strictly aquatic genera, as well as all the land tortoises, the passage from the one form to the other being so gradual as to preclude any sharp definition. With the exception of Australia and Papuasia its representatives are distributed throughout the greater part of the world. Batagur and Hardella are two closely related aquatic genera, represented each by a single species; the former, inhabiting Bengal, Burma, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula, is to be distinguished from the latter, which is confined to Northern India, by its front limbs being provided with only four claws, instead of the usual five. ‘The limbs are very broadly webbed, somewhat approaching the paddle- shape. ‘The tail is short. The Basxa Turtie, Batagur baska, abounds in the Ganges and its tributaries, and is occasionally caught out at sea in fishing nets. Although purely a vegetable feeder in its native waters, specimens in our Zoological Gardens all develop a taste for the bread, biscuits, and buns thrown into their tank by visitors. The eggs of this species, the collecting of which is a royal prerogative 20 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS in Siam, resemble both in size and shape those of a domestic fowl. Hardella thurgi, which likewise feeds solely on aquatic plants, is, according to Anderson, brought to Calcutta in large numbers during the cold months and sold to a low caste of Hindoos, who keep them alive in tanks, selling and eating them themselves. He gives the following account of the extraordinary manner in which they are captured : ‘“* A number of men, all but naked, collect together, each man being provided with a large bundle of green marsh grass neatly tied up in the form of a cylinder, measuring about two feet long. ‘These men enter the water, throwing the bundles before them, which act as floats, and on which each man rests his chest as he gets beyond his depth. Then, one after another, they push away these floats, dive to the bottom of the river, and reappear generally with an example of Hardella obtained in the mud.” Chrysemys is a large genus distributed throughout North and Central America. The carapace is feebly convex, the plastron is immovable. Although eminently aquatic, frequenting rivers and ponds, and ditches in the case of C’. picta, these terrapins often leave the water, and are most active on land. ‘The soft parts as well as the shields are in most species most beautifully marked. In C. ornata, for instance, the head and neck are streaked with orange, while each costal and marginal shield is provided with a large yellow or orange ocellar spot. ‘These markings are brighter and much better defined in the young than in the adult, where, in a good many cases, they disappear almost entirely. In C. scripta the sides of the head are ornamented with bright yellow, or yellow and pink bands. Box Tortoise, C7studo carolina. Plastron of Cistudo carolina, showing hinges. ‘vso4a skx1utry “ShxIUID papory ou], TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 21 Mr. Hugh Smith has given an interesting account of the breeding habits of this species. “The egg-laying season, it appears, is in June and July, and the eggs are laid in some cultivated tract, usually a cornfield adjoining water, the nests being made some distance away from the water, sometimes more than a hundred feet. The nest, which is shaped like a bottle, is made usually in a sandy clay, above high-water mark, the hole being dug out by the female with her fore-legs. ‘The size of the nest depends on the size of the animal, an average nest being four inches deep and four inches wide. ‘The eggs, up to thirty-five in number, are laid at one time, and when the laying is completed, earth is scraped into and over the hole and packed lightly. The packing is accomplished by the terrapin raising herself as high as possible on her hind legs, and then dropping heavily. As soon as the nest is covered over the terrapin withdraws to the water. If a terrapin is disturbed while making a nest or laying, she will abandon the nest. ‘The young hatch in the autumn, but remain in the nest, where they hibernate until the following spring. On emerging they are about the size of atwo-shilling piece. ‘This terrapin formerly supported a profitable fishing industry, but of late years has become rather scarce, those caught being accidentally taken in fishing nets. The Paintep TERRAPIN, C’. picta, is perhaps the most attractive representative of the genus. The carapace is dark olive or blackish, with often a yellow vertebral stripe, while the marginal shields are scarlet; the yellow bands of the neck usually form three forks, one in the middle, with the base on the chin, and one on each side, the upper 22 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS branch of which extends to the eye. These terrapins, especially the young, make most attractive pets, becoming very tame; care, however, has to be taken in the handling of freshly captured specimens, for they are occasionally disposed to bite. Their food is said to consist chiefly of small fish and tadpoles; in captivity, however, they may be fed exclusively on insects and meat; some individuals are herbivorous as well. In Emys the plastron, which is large and united to the carapace by ligament, is divided in the adult into two lobes, more or less movable upon a middle transverse hinge. The head is covered with smooth, undivided skin. The limbs, which are extensively webbed, are provided with long claws. The genus is represented by two species only, the range being restricted to the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere. In prehistoric days its distribution was more extensive, Emys orbicularis being found in England and other parts of Northern Europe, from which it is now absent. Its members are more or less aquatic, passing most of their existence in the water, occasionally taking to land to bask in the sun. The European Ponp Torroise, Emys orbicularis, is distributed throughout the greater part of Southern Europe, Algeria, Tunisia, and South-West Asia. In Central Europe it extends locally as far north as Central France, Holland, Prussia, and Poland. ‘The coloration of the shell is subject to much variation ; it is usually dark brown or black with numerous yellow radiating lines, or spots ; the plastron is yellow and brown, occasionally entirely TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 23 blackish brown. ‘The head is black, with lighter dots, which are usually yellow, and in some males of a pale brown. The shell, which is oval in the adult, round in the young, is smooth, with a few well-marked ridges on each shield. ‘The tail is as long as the shell in the quite young, two-thirds that length in adult males, and about one half in the females. This tortoise generally hibernates in the mud at the bottom of the pond or river towards the end of October. The lethargy, especially of those hibernating in shallow waters, is not very profound, and a little sunshine, even in mid-winter, issufficient to awaken them from their slumbers. They resume their activity towards the middle of March, pairing in April, and depositing up to a dozen oblong eggs in May and June. Adult specimens do well in captivity ; they feed both on land and in the water, usually only upon meat or fish; I have known specimens, however, to accept lettuce. ‘The quite young, of which such large numbers are annually imported and sold in this country, are, however, exceedingly delicate, and generally succumb to pneumonia after a very few months of captivity. The flesh of this species is said to be moderately good eating, and was formerly appreciated as a delicacy for “ fish days ” in the Roman Catholic parts of Germany. Branpinc’s Terrapin, Emys blandingi, is a North American species, closely resembling the European Pond Terrapin. ‘The carapace, which is slightly more convex than in the latter species, is jet black, spotted with bright yellow. The plastron is yellow and black. ‘The head is brown above, yellow beneath. Like its European ally it is easily domesticated. It takes to land frequently in 24 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS search of a change of diet, feeding on insects and berries. In Clemmys the plastron is united to the carapace by bone and not by ligament as in Emys, from which it does not otherwise differ. ‘The genus is represented in Europe, Africa, South-Western Asia, China, Japan, and North America. ‘Iwo species are found in Europe, the Iberian Terrapin, Cl. leprosa, which inhabits the Spanish Peninsula, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, and the Caspian Terrapin, Cl. caspica, restricted to South-Eastern Europe and Asia, from the borders of the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf. In Cl. leprosa the carapace is dark olive; the plastron yellow. ‘The head is olive, the sides being streaked with yellow, while an orange spot is situated between the orbit and the ear. A number of yellow bands extend along each side of the neck. ‘The shell seldom exceeds six inches in length. Its specific name is derived from the fact that the creature is subject to a gangrenous disease, when living in not sufficiently aerated waters, which gives the shell a leprous appearance. Cl. caspica is more handsome, the carapace being elegantly marked with black-edged yellow, wavy markings. This and the preceding species are far more aquatic in their habits than Emys orbicularis, and, unlike the latter terrapin, never feed out of water. Freshly captured specimens of the Caspian Terrapin emit, when handled, a disagreeable odour, which is due, as in Cinosternum, to the secretion of a pair of inguinal glands. When kept for some time in confinement, however, they lose this ob- jectionable habit. Although reaching a length of about TURTLES, “TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 25 five inches, imported specimens rarely measure more than two, and, like most quite young terrapins, seldom thrive for any considerable time under captive conditions. The Scutprurep Terrapin, Cl. insculpta, and the SPECKLED TERRAPIN, Cl. guttata, are two common North American species. ‘The carapace of both is blackish, that of the former with radiating lines, the latter with numerous perfectly round yellow spots. They are both much more terrestrial in their habits than the European species, wandering many miles from the water, and during the period of spring fires large numbers are burned in the woods. Cl. insculpta is herbivorous, feeding mainly on sorrel and berries, while Cl. guttata is mainly insectivorous. In Cistudo, the representatives of which are the true Box Tortoises, the plastron is connected with the carapace simply by ligament, and is divided into two movable lobes, enabling the creature, after withdrawing its head, neck, limbs, and tail into the shell, to close it hermetically like a box. The digits are almost entirely free, being provided, at most, with only a very short web. The Common Box Tortoise, Cistudo carolina, is found in the United States and Mexico. The shell is very con- vex and nearly round in shape. The tail is quite short. The head is small, and the upper jaw is strongly, the lower jaw feebly, hooked. ‘The variation in colour is very great, no two specimens being quite alike. The most normal coloration of the shell is yellow, with dark brown mark- ings, disposed without any symmetry. The plastron also varies considerably; it is usually yellow with black or brown blotches. The Box Tortoise, although closely related to the aquatic forms by the structure of its feet, 26 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS seldom enters the water, but, on the contrary, frequents very dry places, such as the pine forests of the Southern States, where it is particularly abundant. Wild and freshly captured specimens are usually very shy, re- treating into their shells, when approached, firmly closing them, and refusing to come out until they fancy all danger has disappeared. ‘They take kindly to captivity, however, and often become so tame that they cannot be induced to close their shells. ‘Their diet is a mixed one, consisting of vegetables, small frogs, and earth-worms, the latter especially being highly appreciated. With the genus Cimiwys begins the series of entirely terrestrial types—the true tortoises, which are provided with club-shaped feet and webless digits, and in which the plastron is always united to the carapace by a broad bridge. In this genus a remarkable modification of the shell takes place, the posterior portion of the dorsal buckler being hinged and movable. The Eropep Cinixys, Cinixys erosa, is a curious form from Western Africa. ‘The anterior and posterior margins of the carapace are serrated and strongly reverted, especi- ally in the young, while the plastron is forked in front, and projects considerably beyond the anterior border of the carapace, giving the creature a somewhat grotesque appearance; the length of this projection equals about one-fifth the total length of the plastron in the female, and somewhat more in the male. These tortoises are abnormally shy and stupid, and of the numerous specimens which I have had from time to time, none have ever become at all tame, but when approached hiss loudly, TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 27 withdrawing immediately into their shells. Large speci- _ mens measure about a foot in length. Testudo, the most comprehensive genus of the order, is represented by some fifty species, all terrestrial forms, and includes the three kinds of European Land Tortoises, namely, the Iberian Tortoise, the Greek Tortoise, and the Margined Tortoise. The Isertan Torrotse, L. tbera, which is so commonly kept in captivity in this country, is found in North Africa, from Morocco to Tunisia, in Southern Spain, Turkey, Roumania, and South-West Asia. The shell is usually pale, dirty yellow, sometimes brown, with a number of black blotches. A diagnostic point distinguishing it from the other two European species, lies in the presence of a large, conical, bony tubercle, covered by a horny sheath, situated on the back of the thigh. Adult specimens may attain nine inches in length. Although the maximum age that this species may attain is quite unknown, many have been kept in captivity for very lengthy periods. Gilbert White’s famous tortoise, which belonged to this species, lived nearly sixty years, while a specimen that died only last year, belonging to Miss Jenkins, of Trewergie, in Cornwall, had been kept in the family for ninety-six years. Only a year before its death its owner wrote that in the hot weather the creature would pursue the gardener with such determination, biting his trousers, and butting at his feet, that he was unable to get on with his work, until it had been shut up in the house. The Greex Torrorsz, 7. greca, restricted to the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, the Balkan Peninsula, the Greek Archipelago, and Syria, is often 28 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS confounded with J. zbera, which it greatly resembles, but from which it may easily be distinguished by the absence of the tubercle at the back of the thigh, and by the supracaudal shield being divided into two, instead of single; the shell is also of a brighter yellow, and the black markings are more sharply defined. The Marcinep Tortoise, 2. marginata, is confined to Greece and Sardinia. It has an elongated shell, the posterior margin of which is strongly expanded, and more or less serrated. Black or dark brown is the ground colour of the carapace, each shield bearing a yellow spot. The plastron is yellow, with black blotches. The habits of the three European species do not differ ; their pairing season begins in April or May, and lasts throughout thesummer. At this period the male becomes very active and excitable, and goes through various antics, repeatedly knocking his shell against that of the female, the latter scratching a hole in the ground, in which she lays three or four hard-shelled, shortly oblong eggs. Adult specimens do well in this climate if given the run of a garden, feeding mainly on grass and dandelion leaves ; they hibernate towards the beginning of October, burying themselves a foot or so into the ground, reappearing the following spring. The Strarrep Torrotsz, 7. elegans, is a very common species in India and Ceylon, but is not frequently seen in captivity, as difficulty, it appears, is experienced in procuring specimens, owing to the fact that the colour blends to a great extent with the rocky nature of the ground upon which it isfound. ‘The shell, which measures up to eight inches in length, is very high, with the (a) Algerian Tortoise, Testudo tbera. (6) The Star Tortoise, Testudo elegans. (c) The South American Tortoise, Testudo tabulata. (d) Phayre’s Tortoise, Testudo emys. MY & Og th gs | yldes a gg oes ft as Nan is he if es aE The South Albemarle Tortoise, Testudo vicina. PURTiLES, TERRAPINS, AND’ TORTOISES. 29 lateral margins almost vertical. he ground colour 1s black, from which numerous yellow lines radiate. ‘The plastron is likewise black, with yellow radiating streaks. According to Hutton, the eggs, four in number, are deposited in a hole in the mud, about six inches deep. This being accomplished, the hole is filled up again with the mud previously scraped out, whereupon the female stamps upon it with her hind feet, until filled to the surface, when she beats it down with the whole weight of her body, raising herself on her hind limbs and suddenly withdrawing them, thus allowing herself to drop heavily on the earth; by these means it is so effectually beaten down that the spot where the eggs have been deposited is quite undetectable. The Rapriatep Tortorse, 7. radiata, of Madagascar, which attains a shell-length of a foot, is black, with large yellow spots, from which numerous bands radiate, a pattern superficially resembling that of the Star Tortoise; the radiating lines, however, are much broader. ‘This harmless creature is much feared by the natives, who regard it as possessing the “evil eye,” and nothing on earth would induce them to touch one, or even its eggs. Puayre’s Tortotsz, 7. emys, of the dry forest districts of Siam, Burma, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula, is characterized by a depressed shell, the depth of which is less than half its length; the posterior margins are reverted and somewhat serrated. The limbs are provided with very large, spur-like tubercles, and hence the tortoise is called by the natives of Borneo Kura anam kaki, which means six-footed, referring to these spurs. ‘The species teaches a large size, the shell of a specimen which has 30 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS lived at the Zoological Gardens for the past eight years measuring two and a half feet in length. This specimen feeds almost exclusively on carrots and bananas, and, unlike all the other tortoises in the collection, does not hibernate, but remains active throughout the winter. The Gopuer Torrtoiszt, TZ. polyphemus, of Florida, is remarkable inasmuch as it lives in burrows, which it only leaves on very hot days. The burrows are excavated in the sandy soil by means of its front limbs, which are armed with abnormally long claws, with the help of the plastron, which is provided with a small spade-like projection. According to H. J. Hubbard the galleries descend at an angle of 35°, and reach a vertical depth of about nine feet from the surface of the ground, measuring often as much as eighteen feet in length. ‘The temperature at the lower end does not vary much throughout the year, not falling below 70° in winter nor rising above 80° in the summer. Once the tortoise has established itself in one of these burrows, it cannot be made to vacate or excavate a new home, but settles down for long periods, some of the burrows being known to have been inhabited by the same individual for as much as twenty-five years. ‘The galleries, if abandoned, immediately become filled up with the shifting sand; they afford a refuge for various other animals, including opossums, racoons, and owls. ‘The Gopher Tortoise does not survive many months of captivity, making no attempt to burrow. The Tasutatep Tortoise, 7. tabulata, is very abundant all over ‘Tropical South America, and is imported in large numbers to Europe. The shell, which is very elongate, especially in old specimens, attains a length of nearly TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 31 three feet; it is often uniform dark brown in colour, sometimes black, with a yellow blotch on each shield. Although in captivity it does well on cabbage and lettuce, this species, a forest dweller, in the wild state is said to live almost exclusively on rotten fruit. The Giant Tortoises :—Although at no very remote period in the past, tortoises of gigantic size were distributed over many islands, both in the Old World (Mascarenes, Madagascar, Aldabra, Seychelles) and the New (Galapagos), at the present day they are much restricted in their range, and occur, as indigenous forms, in two groups of islands only, namely, the Galapagos, off the coast of Ecuador, and Aldabra, near Madagascar, where it is believed only a small number of individuals remain. As explained by Gunther, these islands were, until the sixteenth century, uninhabited by man, or, in fact, any large animals, with the result that these tortoises, endowed with a remarkable degree of longevity, living unmolested amongst luxurious vegetation and equable temperature, were to be found in enormous quantities. Leguat, for instance, who visited Rodriguez in 1691, reported that they were to be seen in flocks of two or three thousand. With the advent of man, however, who found them good to eat, they were used for provisioning passing vessels, a few being specially appointed for the purpose, each of these boats carrying some six thousand tortoises on board. The late Prof. Milne Edwards, quoting from official reports, states that in 1759-1760 altogether 30,000 were exported from Rodri- guez to Mauritius within eighteen months. In the Galapagos thus the numbers were already greatly dimin- ished at the time of Darwin’s visit in 1835. Zoological 32 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS collectors are, however, responsible for their practical extinction at the present day. These tortoises are remarkably long-lived. A specimen which was quite recently living in the compound of the Royal Artillery Mess at Port Louis, Mauritius, was taken from the French in 1810, and was at the time of the same size as at the present day. ‘The history of another that died at Colombo in 1898 dated back over two hundred years. The two forms which we find represented in most of the important Zoological Gardens are the Elephantine Tor- toise of Aldabra, and the South Albermarle Tortoise. The Exepuantine Tortoise, I. elephantina, is now nearing extinction in its native home, Aldabra, but of late years it has been introduced in the Seychelles, where it is now fortunately thriving under Government pro- tection. The shell of large specimens measures five feet in length. The Soutn ALBERMARLE TortTo!sE, 7. vicina, grows to an even larger size, its shell reaching over five and a half feet in length, such specimens weighing at least five hun- dred pounds. It may be distinguished from T. elephantina by the absence of the nuchal shield. Some interesting notes have recently been published by the Governor of the Seychelles regarding the con- servation of land tortoises in the island. The largest specimen of the herd measures four feet nine inches over the surface of the carapace, and is probably the largest living specimen at the present day. ‘‘ Gordon,” as the creature is called, shows likes and dislikes, and is very combative, having bitten many visitors who presumed TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 33 on his apparent lethargy. The breeding season in the Seychelles extends from January to April, when the females lay their eggs in holes dug out by their hind limbs, and then covered over. ‘The eggs, which are white, round, and the size of a tennis ball, vary in number from nine to twenty-five. The young hatch out in from 120 to 130 days, and work their way out of the ground; half the eggs are usually infertile, but in some years of great drought very few young appear, being apparently unable to reach the surface. ‘Their rate of growth is exceedingly fast, measuring, when four years old, nearly two feet in length. When twenty-five years they are said to attain full growth. These tortoises at our Zoological Gardens. hibernate from the end of October to the beginning of March. They are fed chiefly on cabbage, of which they consume, during the hot weather, almost a bushel a week each. One large Elephantine Tortoise is peculiarly untortoiselike in his taste, being extremely fond of the bread and buns which he receives from the visitors, whom, if provided with these dainties, he will follow round his enclosure, often attracting their attention by butting against the railing of his paddock. The members of the family CurLonip#, represented by the genera Chelone and Thalassochelys, being adapted to marine life, are provided with large paddle-shaped limbs, provided with only one or two claws. ‘The shell is covered with horny shields. The Green Turtre, Chelone mydas, enjoys world-wide fame, for it is from the flesh of this creature that the D 34 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS famous “turtle soup” is obtained. The heart-shaped shell is smooth, polished, and slightly notched and serrated behind. The head is large, somewhat compressed at the sides. ‘The jaws are provided with very much serrated cutting edges at the sides, the lower being hooked in front. ‘The shell attains a length of about four feet, such specimens weighing about four hundred pounds. Although fairly abundant in all the tropical seas, the great bulk of those received in this country are obtained from the West Indies. The eggs are deposited on the sandy shores of unin- habited islands. Before embarking on her parental duties, the female makes a thorough inspection of the beach where she has the intention of laying. Satisfied that the situation is appropriate, she digs a hole, nearly three feet deep, with her flippers, and therein deposits some two hundred eggs. These holes are then covered over with sand and levelled down by means of the flippers, in such a manner that it is only with the greatest difficulty that their place of concealment can be discovered. The whole operation of digging, laying, and filling up lasts about a couple of hours, when the turtle once more returns to the sea, leaving the eggs to be hatched by the heat of the sun. After a few weeks the young turtles break through their egg-shells, lift up the sand, and, without the slightest hesitation, make straight for the sea. Although man is perhaps their chief enemy, enormous quantities of young turtles are devoured by large fish, and only a very small percentage reach maturity. The food of the Green Turtle consists almost entirely of fish and marine plants. TURTLES, TERRAPINS, AND TORTOISES 35 The Hawxssitt Turtie, Chelone imbricata, also a powerful swimmer, inhabiting all the tropical and sub- tropical seas, only coming to shore at the breeding season, derives its English name from its prolonged hooked snout. The carapace, the shields of which are more or less imbri- cate, is marbled yellow and dark brown. It is a somewhat smaller species than the Green Turtle, the shell of adult specimens rarely measuring more than three feet in length. Although not edible, this animal is highly esteemed on account of its horny shields affording the substance known as ‘‘ tortoise-shell.”” According to Sir Edward ‘Tennent, the cruel method is employed in Ceylon of suspending the living turtle over fires, until the heat detaches the plates from the bone of the carapace, after which the creature is put back in the water, it being erroneously believed to return again with a regenerated shell. It appears that if the latter be removed after death the colour becomes cloudy and milky, and therefore useless from a commercial point of view. An interesting account of the fishery resources of the Philippine Islands, which contains some interesting in- formation on this turtle, has been given recently by Mr. Alvin Seale. During the year 1909 there were exported from the Philippines 2,040 kilograms of tortoise-shell. While a small number of turtles are caught with hook, net, spear, or trap, by far the greater number are captured when they come to shore in order to deposit their eggs, the animals being killed without being given a chance to lay, a short-sighted policy, which, unless the turtles are protected during the breeding season, which is from May 36 REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS to August, will eventually result in the destruction of the fisheries. In the Philippine Islands, it is satisfactory to learn that the method of removing the tortoise-shell from the animal’s back, described by Tennent, is not resorted to, the shell in most of the islands being removed after the turtle has been killed, by immersing the carapace in boiling water until the shields loosen; another method is to bury the body in the sand for about a week, when the shields become detached. The quantities of tortoise- shell obtained from a single adult specimen varies in weight from five to ten pounds. The Loccrrueap Turtie, Thalassochelys caretta, is characterized by an enormous head. The carapace, which is very strongly arched, is uniform dark brown or black. The lower jaw is slightly hooked. Its range is even wider than that of either the Green or Hawksbill Turtles, being found much further north, and is, in fact, not uncommon in the Mediterranean and neighbouring parts of the Atlantic. It is of little value from a commercial point of view, its flesh, although not absolutely inedible being far inferior to that of the Green Turtle. Although in fresh-water aquaria all these marine forms refuse to feed, and die of starvation in a very short time, they will live for many years under captive conditions if provided with sea-water, even in quite small tanks. Super-family Pievropira :—In these Chelonians, all more or less aquatic forms, the neck, when retracted, bends sideways. In the family PrLtomepusip@ the neck is completely The Hawksbill Turtle, Chelone imbricata. mydas. The Green Turtle, Chelone