‘ ‘ — « ris Odeo . ‘ a a) “at - ‘“~er “ ” e « ' “|. em e om + . we -*- . ’ , 2 ‘\ . ‘ bard _ ‘ ’ ‘ ~ Prag - 4 - »’ . ot : : sea . a: © oi Ae mt ‘ ae p 2 lan ae 48 ‘ : ma iteln 7 4° Westy). * ” a? > ‘ , < arr - fork HUD tenentas pret Vee Ae at a went, hs sles Wy be ‘ ‘ Se ee eT tee ae Wel pp olme -teserareys rrr treme Sri bere ate ate : she wesw Ht pers ew eenior ettaost etttenel beget : Se PTI a Peat 40050 om pre v : : ‘ A “he ; 7 i PR eet BAIR ee elet thea a ee ee il ale abi Dosh sents Ne Ties FO ¢ a lee aa meaty are tete” Comper) ( we ‘ - , 7 i“ - 7 ‘ ‘ a 5 ' > ‘ : Hae Soe neat ewe : ie i 7 ‘ Lo pheprsy-ehywaph> ba aipinghy tre prey epanant : Cid ! j 4 vee, wey Trt nasi eiestiice ce yr aets red puseee : 7 é ww hel bebe anyone | ry 1 rg iy bape - oa . . rare ’ 4 7 ’ ree ‘ ar dese ee i POO | ooh ba ELAS IR # % f : 7 : ‘ sine fi i he Citta a eee " Hy oe 4. ar, ve Pe for gent irs ” 7 { ‘ orn ; i ' re ee . , = Pa Reale MEESTER at 1 of ee = H +} { vent a eit te oh we be wu ite ‘ Priitas oy ivy * 4 i = Z ; oben ' an we re nef Pil heti al ote i erie Rebatt t Sr Mente fi erat wie Msg bord ge une yi ees ‘ FOR THEMPEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY aR ey, rane one eh REPTILES OF THE WORLD TORTOISES AND TURTLES, CROCODILIANS, LIZARDS AND SNAKES OF THE EASTERN AND WESTERN HEMISPHERES fq wf. * ‘ BY RAYMOND L. DITMARS Curator of Reptiles and Assistant Curator of Mammals, in the New York Zoological Park, Life Member of the New York Zoological Society; Author of ‘‘ Reptiles of America”’ With a frontispiece in color, and nearly 200 illustrations, from photographs taken by the author Rew Work STURGIS & WALTON COMPANY 1910 All rights reserved SEN NS SUC O8 WN 046 CG. Copyright 1910 [pent By STURGIS & WALTON COMPANY ie Dit Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 19100 Ws Why 80, ety 1S : were st " => REPTILES OF THE WORLD as TO MY DAUGHTERS Ore AM i 1 PREFACE In the present work the author has aimed to give in a popular manner a general survey of the reptiles of the world. While the manner aims to be popular, and while the purpose has been to make the book inter- esting reading, it is at the same time, the writer hopes, everywhere in accord with the latest results of the scien- tific study of the subject; and he believes the special student may find scattered through the volume new information drawn from the author’s long and syste- matic observation of the various orders of reptiles, their habits, etc.—a course pursued both among the homes and haunts of these creatures in many parts of the world, and in the New York Zoological Park. The scope of the book prevents it from being, as a previous book by the same author was, primarily a volume in- tended to be used for identification purposes: it is here designed to consider the class of reptiles as a whole and in a general way. But for purposes of identification the profuse illustrations cannot fail to be serviceable in a high degree. It is not unlikely that the quest of specimens, and the methods employed in capturing them, of which much is said here and there in the text, will prove both entertaining to the layman and helpful to curators, to the collectors and students, amateur or professional. And the same may be said of what is written regarding the feeding and general care and treatment of reptiles in captivity. iii iv PREFACE Handling the entire class—the crocodilians, turtles and tortoises, lizards and snakes of both the New and the Old World—elaborate description is necessarily lim- ited to growps, and says little of individual species. The method here has been to select representative types, treating them according to their importance as to ana- tomical characteristics and habits. The North American reptiles have, however, received considerable attention, as they naturally attract our special interest, while their habits and structure must be compared with their Old World allies, if a general idea of the Class Reptilia is to be acquired. But among the illustrations the South American and the Old World reptiles predominate, for here is a field quite neglected from a photographic stand- point, and demanding much space. ‘Thus, to make room for the great array of foreign reptiles, the illustrations of the North American species have been limited to a condensed but representative series. ‘To thoroughly round up the subject the author has prepared detailed charts showing the classification and approximate num- ber of species among all the genera of reptiles found in all parts of the world. Such will impress upon the student the full scope of the subject, though references to numerous genera in the text must be omitted. The author may be permitted to say, without being accused of immodesty, that, however the text of this volume may be received, its illustrations make it of high value, and indeed unique among books on the same sub- ject. The plates from photographs taken from life will be useful to the student and interesting to the gen- eral reader. ‘They are not merely pictures “snapped” at the most convenient moment, but life studies from poses displaying distinguishing characteristics, and .in- volving work on many of the negatives requiring the 7 PREFACE Vv use of restraining dyes to produce effects of coloration beyond the power of lens and color-sensitive plates. The results exceed in value the familiar pen drawings of reptiles ordinarily employed in popular works. Among the latter a snake is merely a scaled creature, and, unless exhibiting some striking development, produces no last- ing impression in the mind of the student. It may tally with every word of an attending description, but would probably not be identified with an actual specimen seen soon after. Expert photography imparts, in a work like this, a strong individuality to each species, positively branding the various forms and capable of imitation only by such exceedingly painstaking draftsmen as are em- ployed to illustrate the highly expensive monographs of the great museums—institutions having the means to pay for the labor of drawing a reptile scale by scale, each minute part of the integument receiving its share of work according to color value or shading and intricate structure. The cost of such labor would be enormous in a work like this, placing it beyond the reach of most popular readers. It is such illustrative work the author has tried, as far as possible, to approach in value in the pages following. The several hundred illustrations are the result of his personal endeavors. A number of the specimens photographed have been exhibited in the Rep- tile House of the New York Zoological Park. For the encouragement and suggestions of Director William T. Hornaday, of the New York Zoological Park, the author wishes to express his hearty apprecia- tion and esteem. In the pages that follow the author has drawn freely from observations made in the splendid Reptile House erected by the New York Zoological Society, whom he has the honor of serving. Throughout this work the classification of Dr. George Vi PREFACE Albert Boulenger has been generally adopted. Dr. Boulenger’s monumental series, The Catalogue of the Chelonians, Lizards and Snakes of the British Museum, stands as the only complete technical work on the rep- tiles of the world. From its pages the author has de- rived valuable assistance in treating the Old World rep- tiles and in the lists showing classification. R. L.-B: New York ZooLoGIcaL Park, 1910. INTRODUCTION Before commencing an examination of the array of scaled and plated forms described in text and picture in the pages that follow, it may be well to say a few words by way of concise introduction. Compared with the ages that are gone the reptile life upon our globe has decreased, in the dimensions and bulk of its representatives, to mere parasitic proportions. There was a time when a bird’s-eye view of the earth’s surface would have revealed varied, monstrous forms lumbering here and there, reveling in an atmosphere reeking with humidity; some browsing in giraffe-like fashion among high branches, others churning through the sea in pursuit of their prey; even in the murky atmos- phere itself cold-blooded creatures flapped their way like gigantic bats in search of equally gigantic insects. At the present day a comprehensive view of the globe’s surface would show no trace of reptile life. We might make clear by an illustration the size of reptiles of the past as compared with those of the present. The gaudy butterflies, the clumsy June “bugs,” and “darning- needles” are forms apparent to the eyes of a man in a walking posture. Suppose they were all extinct; the tiny ants, the microscopic beetles, and the gnats forming the major part of our insect life would be insignificant and unseen; their presence would be apparent only to the interested observer crouching to look for them. And we can well compare the reptiles of the present with the legions of tiny insects, after we have examined the rock- vil viii INTRODUCTION imprisoned giants of the past. Moreover, a great num- ber of the living reptiles are degenerating—adopting subterraneous habits with a consequent loss of eyes and ears. Others have become greatly specialized in the de- velopment of adhesive digits with which to climb, or wonderful instruments for the injection of a deadly virus. Then, in the zenith of their perfection, some of them have gradually swung into secretive habits pro- ducing an incongruous mixture of degenerating form attended by various highly specialized processes. As our living reptiles stand, the classification may be outlined as follows:— Class REPTILIA. Order Rhynchocephalia. Represented by a single species inhabiting New. Zealand. Lizard-like in form but differing in skeleton and anatomy from all living reptiles. It is the sole remnant of an Order long extinct. | Order Chelonia. The Turtles (semi-aquatic and marine) and Tortoises (terrestrial). Over two hundred and twenty-five species are recognized. They are gen- erally distributed throughout temperate and tropical parts of the world. Order Crocodilia. 'The Crocodilians—Crocodiles and Alligators. About twenty-three species. Tropical and semi-tropical parts of the world. All are semi-aquatic. They attain the greatest size and bulk among living reptiles. Order Lacertilia. The Lizards; nearly two thou- sand species. The distribution is general throughout tropical and semi-tropical parts of the world—quite sparing in the temperate regions. The habits may be terrestrial, subterraneous, arboreal, or semi-aquatic. The 7 INTRODUCTION ix typical lizard, scaly-coated with four legs and tapering tail, is familiar, but many forms are limbless, moving about like snakes; as a rule, the serpentine forms may be distinguished from the snakes by the presence with the former, of functional eyelids. ! Order Ophidia. The Snakes. Over one thousand, seven hundred species are recognized. The distribution embraces tropical, semi-tropical and temperate parts of the globe; they are more abundant in the temperate regions than the lizards. Snakes have no functional eyelids—the eyes being always open. The greater number of species are terrestrial; many are arboreal, sub- terraneous, semi-aquatic, or marine. The poisonous species are in the minority. It is wrong to imagine a poisonous snake may be told from the harmless species by a thick body and flattened, distinct head. Thus we have a general idea of the Class Reptilia. In each of the four Parts of this work the classification of the respective Orders is treated in detail. In compiling his descriptions the author has sought to employ the most simple phraseology possible, for his endeavor has been to create a book that may be readily comprehended by the beginner. Part IV, dealing with the snakes, is the most elaborate, both in description of structure and habits, as well as in illustrations. As in other works the serpents have received the least atten- tion, the author has decided to give them here a generous share. Of serpents there are many important things to be told. Some of them are beneficial to man; others dangerous or fatal, and these latter it is well to recog- nize when encountered. The series of illustrations of the poisonous serpents is thoroughly complete; it will be noted that their variety of form—some of them grace- fully slender—at once shatters many fallacious theories. x INTRODUCTION Before concluding his introduction the author would say a word regarding the Order Rhynchocephala, only one species of which has survived to the present, the Tuatera of New Zealand; the technical name is S pheno- don punctatus. ‘The author has removed this strange creature from the body of the work to follow, as it would appear incongruous to place a lizard-like form before the turtles and tortoises—where it actually belongs. It is literally a ghost of the past, the oldest surviving type of reptile. According to Boulenger, it is possible that the common ancestors of the turtles and tortoises, the Plesiosauria (now extinct) and the lizards would fall in the Order to which this reptile belongs—an Order of fossils, rock-bound for ages, that have in turn given rise and brought extinction to other Orders—yet per- mitted one remnant to survive, apparently immune to the dominant sway of evolution. The Tuatera resembles in form stout-bodied modern lizards which we call iguanas; this resemblance is further intensified by a row of spines upon the back. It is dark olive, the sides sprinkled with pale dots. The eye has a cat-like pupil. Large specimens are two and a half feet long. While a superficial resemblance might tend to group this reptile with the lizards, its skeleton and anatomy show it to belong to a different part of tech- nical classification. And now, as the author completes this work, it seems possible the Order Rhynchocephalia will soon have to be stricken from our lists of living rep- tiles. In comparatively recent years, the Tuatera was abundant on the larger islands of New Zealand, but the cultivation of land, the introduction of swine, and many other causes emanating from the all-powerful advance of civilization have annihilated the reptile from all but INTRODUCTION xi the smaller, uninhabited islands. Here they are dili- gently hunted for scientific institutions, and not many years will pass before the last Tuatera to remain in the flesh will repose within a museum jar. 4+ CONTENTS PART T PAGE THE ORDER CHELONIA—TURTLES AND TOR- TIGISES © os. lie ya ia -oy aeNlaa ree eae Se Mater Ra Nee PART. It THE ORDER CROCODILIA—CROCODILES AND BELIGATORS fie ooh ee Oaks ere es) ae PART Til THE ORDER LACERTILIA—THE LIZARDS... 91 PART JV. THE ORDER OPHIDIA—THE SNAKES. . .. . 195 or Shine Ke tees 17h ra es Sin pine 2, ee di LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TURTLES AND TORTOISES. Rhinoceros Viper, Musk or Mud Turtle, Common Mud Turtle, Mexican Mud Turtle, Arizona Mud Turtle, European Pond Turtle, Algerian Turtle, Painted Terrapin; Painted Turtle, Yellow-Bellied Terrapin, Cumberland Terrapin, Geographic Terrapin, Spotted Turtle, Muhlenberg’s Turtle, Wood Turtle, Box Turtle, Reeve’s Turtle, Hinged-Back Tortoise, Iberian Tortoise, South American Tortoise, Leopard Tortoise, Desert Tortoise, Radiated Tortoise, Star Tortoise, Giant Tortoise, Elephant Tortoise, Young Loggerhead Turtles, Hawk’s-Bill Turtle, African Mud Turtle, Australian Snake-Necked Turtle, African Mud Turtle, Australian Snake-Necked Turtle, South American Snake-Necked Tur- tle, Australian Snake-Necked Turtle. Matamata, Spiny Soft-Shelled Turtle, Southern Soft-Shelled Turtle, Bitis nasicornis.......... Frontispiece FACING PAGE Aromochelys odoratus........... 9 Cinosternum pennsylvanicum.... 9 Cinosternum integrum.......... 9 Cinosternum henrici............. 9 Emys orbicularis........2...00. 15 Clemmys leprosd......eceeecceee 15 Chrysemys picta. ......0.60..08. 18 Chrysemys scabra...scccccesseee 18 Chrysemys elegans..... Ts ee 18 Malacoclemmys geographica..... 18 Chelopus guttatus.............4. 24, Chelopus muhlenbergii.......... 94, Chelopus insculptus............. 24 Ovstudo carolina. «.2 +: isntee acest 2A, Damonia reevesi..........02000% QT Cinieys. erates vials meacintvbhe Q7 Lestudo: beri ss bee eee Sok QY Testudo .tabulata.2..0.50. 022. 31 Testudo pardalis.............04. 31 Testudo berlandieri............. 3A, Testudo radiata............0.6. 34 Testudo elegans... .0cce i.e esse 38 Lestnd CWANG i 6ntios bcos vcs son Al Testudo elephantina............+ Al Thalassochelys caretta........... 45 Chelonia imbricata.............. 45 Sternotherus derbianus......... 52 Chelodina longicollis............ 52 (Showing under-shell).......... 56 (Showing. under-shell).......... 56 Hydromedusa tectifera.......... 56 Chelodina longicollis............ 59 Chelya fimbriata.. acu ceceswcnes 63 DIUORY Se | DPINMTET dn Sanaa. owalacdgaale 66 LPCONUD: [OVO s afas,clele sioeteratedera oe LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS CROCODILIANS. Head of American Alligator, Head of American Crocodile, Head of Indian Crocodile, Nile Crocodile, West African Crocodile, ' Salt Water Crocodile, Broad-Nosed Crocodile, Broad-Nosed Caiman, Spectacled Caiman, White-Spotted Gecko, Banded Gecko, Spiny-Tailed Lizard, Spiny-Tailed Lizard, Flying “Dragon,” North American Chameleon, West Indian Chameleon, Routh-Scaled Lizard, Tree Runner, Crested Basilisk, Head of Banded Basilisk, Banded Basilisk, Rhinoceros Iguana, Head of Rhinoceros Iguana, Head of Bahaman Iguana, Common Iguana, Head of Common Iguana, Head of Mexican Iguana, Turks Island Iguana, Spiny-Tailed Iguana, Chuckawalla, Collared Lizard, Mexican Horned “Toad,” Spiny Lizard, Sheltopusic, Glass “Snake,” Slow “Worm,” Gila Monster, Mexican Beaded Lizard, African Monitor, Indian Monitor, Tegu, Black Tegu, Whip-Tailed Lizard, Ground Lizard, LIZARDS. FACING PAGE Alligator mississippiensis........ 70 Crocodilus americanus.........++ 710 Crocodilus porosus........62.0+- 70 Crocodilus niloticus............. 13 Crocodilus cataphractus........+ 73 Crocodilus porosus.........+.+ o« | Ga Osteolemus tetraspis...........- 74 Carman latirostris.s. 21). «iss 2101s» «0 "9 Caiman eclerope.. 0.00: ceeicle os "9 Tarentola annularis.........ee0s 82 Eublepharis variegatus.........+ 82 Uromastix acanthinurus......... 91 Uromastix spinipes.......sceeree 91 Draco Golanss. ots asneee eee eee 95 Anolis carolinensis..........0.+ 95 A NOUS SAGTOE. rere s cele eteloleie/elaele (eieis 95 Liocephalus carinatus........... 98 Uraniscodon plicd.......+.++++ 98 Basiliscus americanus..........+. 102 Basiliscus vittatus...........+-. 102 Basiliscus vittatus.....6.5c0000¢ 109 Cyclura COTMULA....0.reseeceees 116 Cyclura COTNUEG ss 6.5 xis eee Hab ol a\ 116 Cyclura bealopha...........0++. 116 Iguana tuberculata...........44- 123 Iguana tuberculata.......++++6+- 123 Iguana tuberculata rhinolopha... 123 Cyclura carinata......6.-60-+0-- 127 Ctenosaura acanthura...........- 127 Sauromalus ater.....-.eeeseeeee 130 Crotaphytus collaris.......+.++-- 130 Phrynosoma orbiculare.......... 134 Zonurus giganteus..........0+0+ 134 Ophisaurus Apus......eeeceeeves 139 Ophisaurus ventralis..........+.- 139 Anguis fragilis... .cccceccsseres 139 Heloderma suspectum.........+.+ 141 Heloderma horridum.......+...++ 141 Varanus niloticuts. ..0cleises> 22% 144 Varanus salvator.......+..- te. 144 Tupinambis tequixin........-..- 148 Tupinambis nigropunctatus...... 148 Cnemidophorus bocourti......... 153 Scolecosaurus cuvieri........e00s 153 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Two-Footed Worm Lizard, European Worm Lizard, Sand Lizard, Red Lizard, Viviparous Lizard, Wall Lizard, Blue Lizard, Green Lizard, Sand Lizard, Desert Skink, Sand Skink, Three-Toed Skink, Ocellated Skink, Giant Skink, Cunningham’s Skink, Chameleon, Yellow-Headed Worm Snake, Spurs of Indian Python, Regal Python, Indian Python, ‘African Rock Python, Royal Python, Diamond Python, Carpet Python, Anaconda, Yellow Anaconda, South American Boa, Central American Boa, Cuban Boa, Bahama Boa, Head of Tree Boa, Madagascar Tree Boa, Rough-Scaled Sand Boa, Brown Sand Boa, Egyptian Sand Boa, Rubber Boa, Common Garigz Snake, Banded Waigr Suake, Common Giuass Snake, Tessellated Water Snake, Black Swamp Snake, Short-Tailed Snake, Diamond-Backed Snake, Indian Rat Snake, Black Snake, a FACING PAGE SNAKES. Bipes caniculatus............0. 157 Blanus cinereus 0.6.06 cee eeens 157 WACEVEA AGUAS or siieiesiskeiicete estan 164 Lacerta agilis rubra............ 164 Lacerta vivimara. sas ce vas cides 164 Dacerta muralis....c.cscccc cscs 164 Lacerta muralis cerulea......... 164 PiQCeTtG: WivTIdid: NAL ee Sc eioeienee > 168 Acanthodactylus boskianus...... 168 Scineus officinalis............00 173 Chalcides sepoides.............. 173 Chalcides tridactylus............ 176 Chalcides ocellatus.............. 176 Tiligua scincoides.............4 176 Egernia cunninghami........... 176 Chameleon vulgaris..........+.. 185 Glauconia albifrons............. 196 PYythote MOVIpUs soc scic ss sreieigids)so'e 196 Python reticulatus.............- 201 Python molurus,.... cic caesescs oe 201 Python SEO so ic chen Leleriaia viel ay 203 PYLROM FEQMG sx'sigresini se ataiorases - 203 Python spilotes...i....0.00 ASAHI Python variegata.......sssecees - 207 Eunectes murinus............0. - 210 Eunectes not@us.......e.se0e Bek) Boa CONStMCLOR Ad. ose eens else 214 BOG WMip erator wares). /wkys.acaia <0 - 214 Epicrates angulifer........... oo 216 Epicrates. striatus. .......0.se06 - 216 Corvallis: cOOKiW. Jook sheen bie osc peed Corallus madagascariensis...... - 221 PPR \COMGUR. oslo sa a hieisasa aie, - 223 D OTERO) OC OER, cone ci Oe OPO AOE 993 EVP IC" -G CCUM Ne Rates s) -:a)01«, halen eceieiels 226 Chahine DObi@ ae sides tis six,celgin coe eo PEUCHUAG (SITE GURR aiviela aie « ceiayats ainialnie 228 Tropidonotus fasciatus sipedon., 237 Tropidonotus natriv.....+e.cceee 237 Tropidonotus tessellatus......... 237 Seminatria pyg@a.........s.0.00 244 Stilosoma extenuatum.........++ 244 Zamenis diadema.........seee0- 249 AaMOnis! MOTTO slic sie wie oho: cieeraisi« 249 Zamenis constrictor.........+++ 251 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Blue Racer, Green Spotted Snake, Indigo Snake, Pilot Black Snake, Four-Lined Snake, King Snake, Grass Snake, South American Water Snake, Swamp Snake, Hog-Nosed Snake and Eggs, Texas Hog-Nosed Snake, Blunt-Headed Snake, Long-Nosed Tree Snake, Long-Headed Tree Snake, Yellow-Bellied Sea Snake, Ringed Sea Snake, Florida Coral Snake, South American Coral Snake, South American Coral Snake (Head), Tiger Snake, Australian Black Snake, Two Phases of the Cobra, Skeleton Hood of Cobra, Head of Egyptian Cobra, Head of King Cobra, Egyptian Cobra or Asp, South African Cobra; Ringhals, Hood of the Ringhals, Hindoo Snake-Charmer’s Outfit, Head of True Viper, Head of Pit Viper, Cape Viper, Head of the Cape Viper, Common Viper, Tic Polonga; Russell’s Viper, Gaboon Viper, Rhinoceros Viper, Puff Adder, Horned Viper, Horned Viper, Common Sand Viper, Skulls of Pit Vipers, Head of Water Moccasin, Head of Mexican Moccasin, Head of Palm Viper, Water Moccasin, FACING PAGE Zamenis constrictor flaviventris.. 951 Drymobius margaritiferus...... + 253 Spilotes corais couperi........4+ 253 Coluber obsoletus.......cccessee 255 Coluber quatuorlineatus....... +2 955 Ophibolus getulus.......esc00 ++ 258 Dromicus angulifer............. 258 Helicops angulatus............ - 260 Liophis cobella.......... sisiale + 260 Heterodon platyrhinus......... + 262 Heterodon nasicus.......0.020+ + 262 Leptognathus catesbyi.........+0 Q64 Dryophis mycterizans.......... - 269 Oxybelis acuminatus.........+0 269 Hydrus platurus.......cceesee's - 271 Platurus shistorhynchus........ - 271 Blaps fulwwis...vcccccvesciases + QT4 Elaps marcgravii.......0...0208 QTA Elaps marcgravit.......6...0 » 274 Brachyaspis curtus........... +» 276 Pseudechis porphyriacus......... 276 Naja tripudians......c.scsee00 281 Naja tripudians...........0.0+ 281 WG GUGGO. » aie ee vie aabeln nie tale we ore 285 Naja bungarus.........ss.s000- 285 POE D COL RS EENE LA Sonning SOc 292 Sepedon haemachates.......+..++ 296 Sepedon hemachates.........+++ 296 Naja and Vipera.........+.++ -- 299 Cerastes vupera...c..2.2a5+ +--+ 301 Crotalus adamanteus......... o-+ SOL Causus rhombeatus.......2.eeeee 303 Causus rhombeatus.........eee0e 303 Vipera Derue. ..ccscccveseicncces 306 Vipera russellit.....2..scccccces 306 Bitte “QGDONACG: <= -s o1 ee l0lo = eiels'n ein 308 Bits SBC OTMAR. sie nos aie 6 os 2 sore 308 Buia, Grielansr ic vsicsee se viesc0s . 310 Cerastes cornutus........0.++00% 310 Cerastes cOrnutus.......0-s,00 317 Cerastes Viperd.......esseee Sek ees, Lachesis and Crotalus........... 319 Ancistrodon piscivorus........++ 322 Ancistrodon bilineatus........ «+ 322 Lachesis schlegelii...........+++- 322 Ancistrodon piscivorus.........+ 324 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Mexican Moccasin, Copperhead Snake, Head of Bushmaster, Head of Fer-de-Lance, Bushmaster, Fer-de-Lance, Bushmaster and Eggs, Horned Viper, South American Rattlesnake, Gray Rattlesnake, Diamond-Back Rattlesnake, Timber Rattlesnake, Horned Rattlesnake, In The Jungle. FACING PAGE Ancistrodon bilineatus.......... 329 Ancistrodon contortrivz........+. 329 Lachesis mutus.......... a edewer Soe Lachesis lanceolatus..........00. 333 Lachesis mutus...... ate dietwlsea & tote 336 Lachesis lanceolatus.......++++++ 340 Lachesis mutus........ eters oa - 344 Lachesis schlegelii...... alot halsieels 344 Crotabus Wurissus.....iseces cece 347 Crotalus pulvis.....csssecccees - 347 Crotalus adamanteus........... Fyteal Crotalus horridus......... aie leteiep oom Crotalus cérastes...cccccscese eee O04 pie aisletejule/ele's) clu avalaleia(wiata'etaluleiaiaieieis cialeiaiaissac ‘ Le 3 ee ‘ CAPT HOC Cet,” AAT ae ee Atog eR a its LER oy. : PART I THE TURTLES AND TORTOISES ORDER CHELONIA Pee Ba Wee baits = “ 2 " : 4 * ‘ou o. sete hy ee ca HA EOE, 1H Bote A ASe og ely * LANG aeh @ Mises. tks aa) ESN ak a9 wo rd . H Bie es P48 } ’ Pt MITA BS i> ; AS cee er 4 bAIN i y "\4 an eG ie: hy pet Speke eat $ree3 . 7 r * j baa . : | ’ + — S ; j ay a : j « ve. : , : 4 zy ‘ ¢ oy i “Md ay ‘ te A p ¥ \ » ‘ e, | bid a; : ’ ‘A i C ay REPTILES OF THE WORLD PART I THE ORDER CHELONIA—TURTLES AND TORTOISES From all other reptiles the Chelonians may be imme- diately recognized by the “shell’—this forming a bony fortress, from which are thrust the head and the limbs. The words tortoise, turtle and terrapin, have been used indiscriminately. Some writers embrace both the terrestrial and semi-aquatic species under the term tor- toise, thus :—land tortoises and water tortoises, while they apply the name turtle ,to the marine species only. Oth- ers designate semi-aquatic and marine species as turtles, and place the strictly terrestrial chelonians under the head of tortoises. Terrapin is a term that has been applied at one time or another, among all of the groups. At the beginning, it is best to straighten this tangle and the writer proposes to popularly divide the chelonians, thus:. Tortoises—The strictly terrestrial species. TurtLEs—The semi-aquatic and marine species. TrrraPIns—Those hard-shelled, fresh-water species that are edible and have a recognized market value. Before going into structural details, it is necessary to have a bird’s-eye view of the classification ; over two hun- dred species are recognized.’ 1It is from Dr. G. A. Boulengers admirable system of classification that the writer has based his arrangement of the list given. 3 4 REPTILES OF THE WORLD Classification of the Order Chelonia. Suborder Athece. Family Sphargide; represented by a single species—The Leathery Turtle or Trunk Turtle. Genus Sphargis........eeeeeeeeeeeeee++ Lropical and semi-tropical seas Suborder Thecophora. Superfamily Cryptodira, Family Chelydride. Snapping Turtles; North and Central America. Genus Chelydra; 2 species; semi-aquatic; No. Am., and Central Am. Genus Macrochelys; 1 species; semi-aquatic; No. Am. Family Dermatemydide. Fresh-water Turtles. Genus Dermatemys; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Central America. Genus Staurotypus; 2 species; semi-aquatic; Central America. Genus Claudius; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Mexico. Family Cinosternide. The Musk and Mud Turtles. Genus Aromochelys; 3 species; semi-aquatic; North America. Genus Cinosternum; 11 species; semi-aquatic; No. Am.; Mex. and Central Am. Family Platysternide. Genus Platysternum; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Southern Asia. a. Family Testudinide. Largest family of the Chelonia; embraces the greater number of the turtles (and terrapins) and all of the terrestrial species—the tortoises. Represented in the Old and New World. Genus Kachuga; 7 species; semi-aquatic; India. Genus Callagur; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Malay Pn.; Borneo. Genus Batagur; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Malay Pn.; India, Genus Hardella; 1 species; semi-aquatic; India. Genus Morenia; 2 species; semi-aquatic; India. eeGenus Chrysemys; 15 species; semi-aquatic; North and South Am. Genus Ocadia; 1 species; semi-aquatic; China, Genus Malacoclemmys; 6 species; semi-aquatic; North America. Genus Damonia; 5 species; semi-aquatic; East Indies; Japan. Genus Bellia; 2 species; semi-aquatic; Malaysia. Genus Clemmys; 5 species; semi-aquatic; So. Europe to Japan. Genus Chelopus; 4 species; semi-aquatic; North America. Genus Emys; 2 species; semi-aquatic; No. Am.; Europe. Genus Cistudo; 6 species; terrestrial; No. Am.; Mexico. Genus Wicoria; 6 species; terrestrial; Cent. and So. Am.; East Indies, Genus Cyclemmys; 6 species; semi-aquatic; East Indies. Genus Geoemyda; 3 species; semi-aquatic; Malay Archipelago. Genus Chaibassia; 2 species; terrestrial; India. Genus Cinixys; 3 species; terrestrial; Africa. Genus Pyzis; 1 species; terrestrial; Madagascar. Genus Homopus; 4 species; terrestrial; Africa. eeGenus Testudo; 50 species; terrestrial; Old and New World. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 5 Family Chelonide. Sea Turtles. Genus Chelonia; 2 species; tropical and semi-tropical seas. Genus Thalassochelys; 2 species; tropical and semi-tropical seas. Superfamily Pleurodira. Family Pelomeduside. Fresh-water Turtles. Old and New World. Genus Sternotherus; 6 species; semi-aquatic; Africa. Genus Pelomedusa; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Africa. Genus Podocnemis; 7 species; semi-aquatic; South America—6; Madagascar—l. Family Chelydide. Fresh-water Turtles. Old and New World. «Genus Hydromedusa; 2 species; semi-aquatic; South America. Genus Chelodina; 4 species; semi-aquatic; Australia; New Guinea. —<« Genus Rhinemys; 1 species; semi-aquatic; South America. «« Genus Hydraspis; 7 species; semi-aquatic; South America. wehsenus Platemys; 2 species; semi-aquatic; South America. Genus Emydura; 7 species; semi-aquatic; Australia; New Guinea. Genus Elyseya; 1 species; semi-aquatic; Australia. Family Carettochelydide. Genus Carettochelys; 1 species; thoroughly aquatic; New Guinea. Superfamily Trionychoidea. The Soft-shelled Turtles. Old and New World. Family Trionychide. All of the species are persistently aquatic. Genus Trionyz; 15 species; No. America; Africa and Asia. Genus Pelochelys; 1 species; East Indies. Genus Chitra; 1 species; East Indies. Genus Cycloderma; 2 species; Africa. Genus Emyda; 3 species; East Indies. Genus Cyclanorbis; 2 species; Africa. Resumé: Number of Families ..... rs Pea Number of Genera .......... 52 Number of Species ......... 224, Family Sphargide: The sole representative of this family, the LeEatuEry Turti.e, Lutu, or TRuNK Tur- TLE, Sphargis coriacea, a strictly marine animal, seems to be the survivor of an ancient group. Externally, it differs from the few other marine turtles by the tough, leathery covering of the carapace and plastron in place of horny shields; from this fleshy integument rise seven heavy and bony keels (on the carapace). The reason 6 REPTILES OF THE WORLD for placing this turtle in a suborder by itself is because the vertebre and ribs are not rigidly attached to the carapace as with all other chelonians. The carapace and plastron are actually composed of a large number of irregularly-shaped plates; except where these protrude —on the upper shell—in the shape of keels, or heavy ridges, they are imbedded in the oily, fatty substance, like whale blubber, that externally presents a leathery appearance and suggests a popular name for the ani- mal. Like the other marine turtles, the present reptile dif- fers from other chelonians—the fresh-water species— in having the limbs developed into huge, seal-like “flip- pers” or paddles. Yet the appearance of the limbs and head is quite different from corresponding parts of the structure of the well-known Green Turtle and the Log- gerhead Turtle: for with the present reptile these mem- bers are not, on mature individuals, covered with shields or plates; the dark, smooth skin of the head and the enormous bare flippers are characters strikingly sug- gestive of a seal. If this turtle is to be compared with the four species that make up the family Chelonide—the Green Turtle, Hawk’s-Bill Turtle, and two species of Loggerhead Turtle, gross examination might point to a general simi- larity of structure. It is true that the Leathery Turtle and the other sea turtles have much the same paddle- like limbs, but this similarity in development merely sig- nifies the process of evolution along similar lines in two widely-separated groups; it is an admirable example of adaptation. Incidentally, it might be explained that the species composing the Chelonide appear to be highly specialized forms that have originated from the Testu- dinide, while the Leathery Turtle represents ancestral 7 TURTLES AND TORTOISES 7 forms that have, decades since, joined the army of fos- sils. Inhabiting tropical and semi-tropical seas of both hemispheres, attaining a length of shell of four feet, or a total length from snout to the tip of tail, of over six feet, this sea giant reaches a weight of a thousand pounds. On a large example, the powerful forelimbs have a stretch of ten feet and, in spite of the creature’s great weight, carry it through the water in a graceful fashion that recalls the flight of a hawk. In the New World, it is sometimes lured northward in the fickle current of the Gulf Stream, when, coming in contact with colder waters, it flounders aimlessly and is either harpooned by fishermen, or battered to death and cast on the beaches of Long Island or Massachusetts during the northeast storms. The Leathery Turtle never comes to the shore except to deposit its eggs. The food consists of mollusks and sea-weeds. Its flesh is of no market value. Suborder T'hecophora: The second suborder of the chelonians is separated from the preceding one—A thece —owing to the rigid attachment of the vertebra and ribs to the bony plates composing the carapace. With the exception of the Leathery Turtle, all of the chelonians are embraced within this second suborder. Superfamily Cryptodira: The technical definition of this group relates partly to the method of bending the neck when the head is drawn back, and in certain osteo- logical characters. When the head is retracted the neck bends in an S-shaped, vertical curve.’ The pelvis is not fused to the shell. Carapace (upper shell) and plastron (lower shell) are coated with horny shields. 1 If not actually, at least within a decided vertical plane. 8 REPTILES OF THE WORLD Family Chelydride; the SNappinc TurTLEs: Three species compose this family; two inhabit North America; the other is a native of Mexico and Guatemala. From the other New World turtles, these formidable brutes are strikingly distinct. Their huge head, alligator-lhke tail, the flabby, projecting folds of skins about the limbs and the ridiculously small, cross-shaped plastron are striking features of the structure; add to these the rough carapace and the somber coloration, nowhere relieved by a bright streak or spot, and the general aspect is so sin- ister that it imparts more of the feeling inspired by a thick-bodied, poisonous serpent than that of a turtle. Though the much aborted plastron is of absolutely no protection to the fleshy parts, these strong-jawed crea- tures are by no means handicapped. Their vicious, beady eyes are ever alert and their motions in biting are lightning quick. The jaws of a full-grown individual of the Common Snapping Turtle could readily sever a man’s finger and the big Alligator Turtle could as easily amputate a hand. It is from their darting motion in biting, fully as quick as a serpent’s stroke, that the species of this family have acquired the name of Snapping Turtles. They are per- sistently aquatic and usually haunt fair-sized bodies of muddy water. In keeping with the habits, the feet are broadly webbed; they are provided with very stout, blunt nails. The Common Snaprine Turtie, Chelydra serpen- tina, is one of the smaller representatives of the family, yet it grows to a weight of forty pounds and is ponder- ous as compared with the greater number of American fresh-water turtles. The carapace of a large example is about fourteen inches long. On the rear margin, the upper shell is coarsely serrated; it has three blunt, broken 7 Plate 2 FAMILY CINOSTERNIDA — | = Saale & ee ; oti , ; ae: ee sinmannadtinde ARM RR AAR Tn crn 3 4 NEW WORLD MUD TURTLE 1. Musk or Mud Turtle. Aromochelys odoratus. Eastern No. America. Gries 2. Common Mud Turtle. Cinosternum pennsylvanicum. East- ern No. America. ; 3. Cinosternum integrum. Mexico. a 4. Cinosternum henrici. Southwest U. S. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 9 keels, their height varying according to age. Old speci- mens are comparatively smooth, while the young are so rough as to look quite grotesque. On the under surface, the tail is covered with broad plates; this appendage is almost as long as the carapace. Above, the color is dull brown; the plastron is dingy yellow. RossicNon’s SNAPPING TURTLE, C. rossignonit, of Mexico and Gua- temala, differs from its North American ally in having a much broader plastral bridge. The Common Snapping Turtle is abundant over an extensive area. It is found in southern Canada and throughout the United States generally east of the Rockies, thence southward, through Mexico, to Ecuador. It is a bold and aggressive animal, not hesitating to attack water fowl, which it drags beneath the surface to drown, when it tears up the prey by means of the combined efforts of strong mandibles and forefeet— often assisted by several members of its kind that are continually roaming over the river-bottom in search of plunder. Occasionally it takes the bait of a fisherman, when its prodigious struggles to free itself from the hook lead the excited sportsman to believe that he has made a finny capture beyond all power of imagination. Prompted by a continually hungry stomach this reptilian terror resorts to various devices in the capture of prey. Often it half imbeds itself in the mud, in a lane traversed by schools of fishes, and here it darts at the ill-fated victims as they approach without suspicion an object that looks exactly like a muddy rock, streaked here and there with moss; another device is to prowl along the edge of a pond or stream in search of frogs, which, in turn are squatting, snout toward the bank, on the watch for insect prey. During June or in July, the female Snapping Turtle 10 REPTILES OF THE WORLD leaves the water in search of a place to deposit her eggs. She often wanders a considerable distance, sometimes a mile or more from the larger stream or pond, but at last selecting a soft, muddy place, she commences to wallow and dig and does not stop until all but buried. The process of depositing the eggs is performed in a leisurely fashion. It may consume a week. The eggs, to the number of several dozen, are perfectly spherical with a very thin, though hard and brittle shell. After the eggs have been deposited, the turtle rears herself upon the front feet, when the mud and debris slide from her carapace, leaving the eggs covered. In wallowing fashion she emerges from the burrow and trudges clum- sily back to the water. Stories are frequent about Snap- ping Turtles evincing a liking for terrestrial wander- ings but these actually relate to the definite purpose of the female in constructing a nest for the young. The ALLIGATOR SNAPPING TuRTLE, Macrochelys la- certina, is distinguished from the common species by its greater size, the high and decidedly tubercular keels of the carapace, the yellowish hue of the upper shell and head, and the absence of large plates under the tail. Among the American fresh-water turtles, it is a veri- table giant, as it attains a weight of considerably over a hundred pounds; a large specimen will have a head twenty-five inches in circumference. The habitat em- braces those rivers that empty into the Gulf of Mexico from western Texas to western Florida; northward, the species ranges to Missouri. With a head as large as that of a bull-terrier and jaws that can chop up an ordinary broom handle, the danger- ous nature of this enormously strong and vicious brute may be imagined. Its temper is quite in keeping with its looks. In all of his attempts at photographing the TURTLES AND TORTOISES 11 species the writer has failed to secure a picture unless confronted by a pair of widely-gaping jaws. On one occasion, a leg of the tripod was bitten off clean and always were the diminutive but bright, sunken eyes watching the movements of the writer’s feet with an intensity of purpose that inspired caution. The dull, yellow shells of these big turtles exactly match the coffee-colored waters of the lower Mississippi, where they are common. Lying motionless upon the oozy bottom they are approached by unwary fishes, when a dart of the head procures the prey. Captive speci- mens do not feed well unless provided with means of hiding; from such the head is frequently protruded, when the tip of the conical snout barely touches the sur- face of the water in a search for air. If a large fish— like a shad—is thrown into the tank, it is devoured by a series of clean-cut bites that match the conformation of the turtle’s jaws. Family Dermatemydide: 'The fresh-water turtles composing this small family are restricted to southern Mexico and Central America. Their structure shows them to be intermediate between the Chelydride and the Cinosternide. 'They are characterized by their very short tails. Dermatemys has a wide plastron connected with the upper shell by a broad bridge. The single species, D. mawii, has a shell about a foot long, when adult; it is olive above and yellowish beneath; the sides of the head are speckled. Staurotypus has the carapace much flattened, with three, faint keels; the plastron is narrow and cross-shaped like that of the snapping tur- tles, while the front lobe is hinged. Shells of adult specimens are about a foot long. Claudius differs from the preceding genus in having the front lobe of the plastron rigidly attached. 12 REPTILES OF THE WORLD Family Cinosternide; the Musk anp Mup TuRTLEs: This is a small family of rather diminutive turtles, con- fined to the New World. It is composed of two genera —Aromochelys and Cinosternwm; the former is repre- sented by three species, which, by their aborted plastron, large head and pugnacious disposition appear like minia- ture snapping turtles; they are usually called Musk Turtles. Eleven species, called Mud Turtles, form the genus Cinosternum; from the members of the former genus they may be told at a glance by their wide plastron. With both genera the structure of the plas- tron is peculiar; the central portion or “bridge” is broad and firmly united to the upper shell, while the front and rear portions—the lobes—are hinged and movable; these lobes afford little or no protection to the species of Aromochelys, but with some of the species of Cinosterwm fold up tightly against the carapace in a fashion that has caused the name of “box” turtles to be applied to some of these reptiles. It should be understood, how- ever, that the box turtles proper are the species of Cis- tudo, belonging to the family Testudinide, and the structure of their plastron is altogether different; the lower shell is divided by a central hinge and attached to the carapace by elastic cartilage. The Musk and Mud Turtles are denizens of muddy rivers and lakes. All are of dull colors. The general hue of the upper shell is olive or brown, the shields narrowly and obscurely margined with black. The upper shell of all of the species is bluntly oval and exhibits no traces of the flaring or serrated margin of many turtles. To the novice the various species might look very similar and be exceedingly difficult to tell apart. Among the Mud Turtles, the structure of the plastron is the most important feature for identification. 7 TURTLES AND TORTOISES 13 Genus Aromochelys; the Musk Turtires: If the carapace were not so smooth and oval the species might easily be mistaken for young snapping turtles. The head is proportionately very large, with tapering, conical snout. In accordance with the aquatic habits, the feet are broadly webbed. ‘The shell of a large specimen is not over four inches long. The Common Musk Turtte, Aromochelys odoratus, is abundant in the eastern states, from southern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico; in the northern portion of the range it occurs as far westward as Illinois; southward it ranges into Texas. A mature specimen has a carapace three or four inches long; the plastron is much shorter than the upper shell. A specimen with a shell four inches long would have a head an inch broad. The young have a pyramidal shell that is very sharply keeled on the rear of the back; as the turtle matures the shell becomes globular and perfectly smooth. This species may be told by the bright yellow lines on each side of the head; both of these begin at the snout; one passes over and the other beneath the eye. The SoutHERN Musk Tur 14, A. tristycha, looks much like the preceding reptile, but the head bands are broader and broken. It is found in the southeastern part of the United States. The KrEeLtep Musk Turt te, A. carinatus, by its spot- ted head differs from the northern species, though it evinces a stronger characteristic in the sharp keel on the upper shell, which is retained through life. The head is very large and broad. Some specimens are of a uni- form brown, while many display bold, black markings on the upper shell. From Georgia to the Gulf States and westward to Arizona, this turtle is fairly common. Musk Turtles are persistently aquatic, agile swim- 14 REPTILES OF THE WORLD mers, pugnacious, ever hungry and thus a terror to small fishes. Much to the disgust of fresh-water fishermen, _ they have a habit of greedily swallowing a hook and when brought struggling to the surface exude such a foul, musky odor that the sportsman’s orily thought is to quickly cut the line and drop the snapping, disagree- able little animal back into the water. In muddy streams, from which the country lad has practically exterminated the frogs, the spotted turtles and the “ter- rapins,” Musk Turtles may abound and yet seldom be seen. Unlike the familiar, yellow-spotted turtles (Che- lopus) that bask upon derelict timber, or along the bank, the reptiles under consideration keep to the water and either prowl along the soft bottom or hide in the shadows of roots or projecting edges of the shore. A dart of the powerful head means the immediate finish of an unwary “pollywog,” fish or insect larva. Genus CINOSTERNUM; the Mup TurtTLEs: From the species of Aromochelys the present turtles are told by the broad plastron, the front and rear lobes of which are so well hinged and adjusted that they close well up against the upper shell, affording great protection to the fleshy parts. Eleven species are recognized; six are found in the United States. It is owing to their habit of frequenting streams of very muddy water they have received their popular name. Like the musk tur- tles, they exude a strong, musky odor when first handled. The Mexican and Central American species have a shell six inches long. A widely distributed example and one common in many portions of the eastern United States is the’Com- MON Mup Turt te, Cinosternwm pennsylvanicum, hav- ing a shell four inches long when fully adult;-the head is about three-quarters of an inch broad. This species , Plate 3 FAMILY TESTUDINIDZA EUROPEAN POND TURTLE = Emys orbicularis. Distribution: Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. Length of shell, three to five inches. ALGERIAN TURTLE = Clemmys leprosa. Distribution: S. W. Europe; northern Africa. - Length of shell, four to six inches. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 15 ranges from southern New York to the Gulf of Mexico and westward to the Mississippi Valley. The upper shell is broader and more flattened than that of the musk turtles; with the latter this species might be confused, but the wide plastron forms an unfailing mark for dis- tinction. On the carapace of the young are three faint keels; adults show no traces of any but an obscure cen- tral keel. Above, the color is dull olive or brown, the shields narrowly margined with black. Most specimens have the head speckled. The Louistana Mup Turtte, C. louisiane, appears to be closely allied to the preceding. Distinguishing marks are the more elongated shell and the arrangement of the colors on the head in broad, orange bands. In the lower Mississippi Valley it is a common turtle. Baur’s Mup Twurttez, C. bauri, inhabits the southeastern portion of the United States and is unique in having three yellow bands on the upper shell. The YELLow- Neckxep Mup Twurtte, C. flavescens, looks much like C. pennsylvanicum and differs from that species in the structure of the plastron. The sides of the neck are generally bright lemon-yellow and the carapace ruddy brown or dull yellowish. The range is from Arkansas and Texas to Arizona. The Arizona Mup Turttez, Cinosternum henrict, has a shell six inches long when adult. It is the largest of those species found in the United States. By the very flat bridge of the plastron, the under shell looking as if it had been crushed in, this turtle appeals strongly to the Mexican and Central American species. Both lobes of the plastron close tightly, affording complete protec- tion to the fleshy parts. In the red, muddy waters of the Colorado River this turtle is common enough; in currents that are swift and 16 REPTILES OF THE WORLD practically opaque with thick deposits of silt, it would seem that the animal would choke and require no eyes for its strictly aquatic existence. Arizona and New Mexico form the habitat. Southward, in Old Mexico, is found a closely related species known technically as Cinosternum integrum, with a flat, crushed-in plastron and lobes that close as perfectly as do those of the true box turtles—Cistudo. So thoroughly at home in the water are the species of Cinosternum they may be kept in deep tanks, without any means of resting above or near the surface, yet under such conditions will flourish for years. Their swimming movements are graceful and deliberate. Much of the time is spent in crawling over the bottom. In coming to the surface for air there is no apparent hurry, but a slow, treading motion of the limbs, with webs widely extended. Captive Mud Turtles will eat chopped fish, earthworms and raw beef. In a wild state they are veritable scavengers. A single species represents the family Platysternide. It inhabits southern China, Burma and Siam. The pro- portionately very large head with hooked mandibles and the long tail, cause this animal to resemble the New World snapping turtles—Chelydride; it really stands intermediate between that family and the T'estudinide. The carapace is much flattened; the plastron is broad and possesses a square front lobe. Ina peculiar structure of the skull—‘‘the temporal region completely roofed over” —the species is, from a technical point of view, abso- lutely unique among chelonians. A large example has a carapace five inches long; with head and tail out- stretched the turtle will measure fourteen inches. — Family Testudinide; Turtirs, “TERRAPINS” and Tortoises: This large family is represented in all tem- LS TURTLES AND TORTOISES 17 perate and tropical parts of the globe except Australia and Papuasia. Its great variety of species range from the persistently aquatic with their broadly webbed feet, to the marsh-loving turtles, with which the webs are imperfectly developed and finally to the tortoises—che- lonians with club-shaped feet; all tortoises are strictly terrestrial, some of them inhabiting the deserts. On all the species the shell is covered with horny shields. With the majority the head may be completely withdrawn into the shell. There are nine plastral bones. Two North American genera stand as typical in rep- resenting the structure and habits of the semi-aquatic species. ‘These are:— Chrysemys and Malacoclemmys; the AMERICAN TER- RAPINS: We will adopt the general title of Terrapins for the species of these genera, as many of the members involved are sold in large numbers in the markets, where they bring from moderate to very high prices, according to their kind. All of the terrapins grow to a fair size, having a shell from eight to fourteen inches long. Many have the upper shell attractively marked while the head and neck are vividly striped with yellow—or red. Of all the North American terrapins the best known is the Diamond-Back Terrapin, Malacoclemmys palustris, which is a favorite and costly article of food. Genus Chrysemys: A great majority of the species inhabit North America; the remainder occur in Mexico and Central America. Of the fifteen North American members of the genus, the PAINTED TERRAPIN, C. picta, is thoroughly familiar. There can be no doubt about the identity of this pretty creature: for the blackish or olive upper shell with its yellow-bordered shields and the striking vermilion bars and crescents on both upper and lower series of marginal shields are strong distinguish- 18 REPTILES OF THE WORLD ing characters; the plastron is immaculate yellow. Head and neck are brightly striped; the former with yellow, the latter with red and yellow. This is one of the smallest of the terrapins; a fully grown adult has a shell six inches long. The carapace is perfectly smooth. Eastern North America generally is inhabited by this attractive reptile. Closely related to it is the WESTERN PAINTED TERRAPIN, C. marginata, charac- terized by the narrow yellow margins of the larger shields and an elongated, blackish patch on the central portion of the plastron. The habitat embraces the Cen- tral States—LTllinois, Ohio, Indiana and Iowa, and south- ward in the Mississippi Valley. Brtu’s Trerrarin, C. belli, occurs west of the Mississippi Valley. It has vein- like markings on the carapace and less red on the mar- ginal shields; on the plastron is a curious, scribbled, blackish pattern. Another of the smaller species is the CHICKEN TERRAPIN, C. reticulata, having rather an elongate carapace marked with a network of fine yellow lines; there are no red markings on the marginal shields. A large shell is eight inches long. This species has a very long, snake-like neck. It inhabits the southeastern portion of the United States. These smaller terrapins are generally familiar. They are often called “pond turtles” and may be seen sunning themselves in rows on derelict timber, from which they tumble clumsily when frightened. Once in the water their broadly-webbed feet take instant hold and they scurry to the bottom where they hide in the aquatic vege- tation. When they again approach the surface, it is with the greatest caution. Only the snout and eyes are thrust above the water. In this position they paddle about inspecting the outlook until thoroughly - satisfied that all danger has gone when, one after another, they Py ‘BOLIOWY “ON ULajseq “vorydvsF0ad shwwapoovpyy *(uideatay,) ofan, orydeiSoan “F ‘BOLOWLY “ON Udosey ‘suvdaja shwashay) *(uideasay, ) aN], puejrsquing -¢g BOMOUW “ON Udoyseq ‘vuqvos shwashiyg ‘urdersay, part[aq-Molpax *Z “BOMIOULY “ON Udoysey “vjord shwashuyQ *(utdeasay, 410) aN, peyureg ‘T SHTLLYOL NVOIWUNV WdUINICQLSOL A TUNV el TURTLES AND TORTOISES 19 clamber on their favorite roosts for another sun-bath. Omnivorous in their feeding, they chase small fishes, tadpoles, frogs and the larve of aquatic insects; the tender shoots of water plants are also eaten. Among the larger species of Chrysemys we note a tendency of the shell to be higher, besides deeply fur- rowed with numerous parallel grooves. ‘The greater number of the larger terrapins inhabit the southeastern portion of the United States. In the markets, where they are kept in cold vats to keep them from running down in flesh, they are to be seen in large numbers; here a mixture of species may often be observed, yet commercially they are considered under a general title— Slider Terrapins. This is supposed to distinguish them from the more valuable Diamond-Back Terrapin. A “Slider” weighing three or four pounds will bring from seventy-five cents to one dollar in the eastern markets during the proper season—the fall and winter months. Of these large species, Troost’s TERRAPIN, C. troosti, may be commonly seen. Owing to its somber coloration it is unique among the members of its genus. The carapace is flattened, smooth and of a dull olive, irreg- ularly blotched with black. On most individuals the head and neck are uniform blackish, which absence of bright stripes is an important point to be considered in identification. An adult shell is from eight to ten inches long and three inches high; a nine-inch example will weigh 334 pounds. ‘Troost’s Terrapin is found in Illinois, Missouri, Tennessee and Mississippi. Like all of the terrapins, the preceding species grows very long claws; on frequent male individuals these are three-quarters of an inch long and terminate in such sharp points that a vigorously kicking animal requires some care in handling. Moreover, these reptiles are not 20 REPTILES OF THE WORLD to be trusted, though they seldom actually dart at one’s finger like the snapping turtles. When alarmed they completely withdraw the head and limbs, but a spirit of curiosity soon prompts the head to peep a short distance from the protective armor; then it is that the razor-like mandibles spring open at a slight movement on the part of an observer and close in lightning fashion upon any object that may touch them. The writer has seen a nervous turtle cleanly amputate a chunk of its own fore- limb as it felt that member come in contact with the jaws; if the mandibles miss the intended object they come together with a snap that intimates unpleasant possibilities for the unwary. The Coorer, C. concinna, of the southeastern United States, is a large, handsome terrapin, with olive, yellow- barred carapace; each of the marginal shields contains a yellow, vertical line; pale, crescentic markings cross from one of these shields into another. The head is striped with orange and red. A near relation is the FLorma TERRAPIN, C. floridana, at once distinct by the very high, dome-like shell and the diminutive head. Apparently restricted to southern Georgia and Florida, this fine ter- rapin attains a length of shell of fourteen inches and a weight of fourteen pounds. The YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN, C. scabra, and the MositE TErraPin, C. elegans, are showy creatures, com- monly seen in the markets. The former shows a decided wrinkled (rugose) formation on the upper shell; the latter is characterized in having a broad, scarlet band on each side of the head. Each reaches a length of shell of ten inches. The Yellow-Bellied Terrapin seems to be restricted to the coast region of the eastern United States, from Virginia to Georgia, while its near ally ranges over a wide area—Ohio to Kansas, southward to Fa TURTLES AND TORTOISES 21 the Gulf States and westward in the southern portion of the range, to the lower Rio Grande. The several Central American terrapins are attrac- tively marked. C. ornata has a pale olive carapace, barred with pale green and yellow; the head is vividly striped. One terrapin ranges into South America, as far south as Argentina. Very young terrapins are beautifully marked and col- ored. On most of them the pattern of the adult is inten- sified to such a degree that they look like strange little flowers or variegated leaves. For the aquarium they are attractive additions, though unpleasant companions for the fishes, as between feeding times they bite off fins or tails, or do not hesitate to commit murder among the more diminutive finny inmates of the tank. ‘These quarrelsome youngsters are fond of earthworms and chopped raw beef. Adult terrapins (representing the larger species) are practically omnivorous. They will eat snails, young crawfish, minnows or sections of larger fishes, tadpoles and frogs, while they frequently browse on the leaves of aquatic vegetation. When captive, they will greedily devour lettuce leaves if such be thrown upon the surface of the tank. All of the terrapins are semi-aquatic. The extensively webbed hind feet form powerful swimming organs. Some of the species frequent swift, clear rivers with rocky beds; others, the slower and muddy streams; a few prefer the still waters of extensive, marshy areas. In the winter they dig into the mud under shallow water and undergo a period of stupor as long as the water remains icy. Occasionally, during pronounced thaws when the ice temporarily disappears, a venturesome rep- tile emerges from the mud and, with motions so slow and 22 REPTILES OF THE WORLD benumbed as to suggest a run-down automaton, crawls to the water’s edge and employs the long dormant lungs. But these February thaws, with their fleeting, fickle hints of Spring, are generally fatal to the deluded crea- ture. Too stupefied to again imbed itself in the mud, it dumbly wanders along the margin, its movements becoming slower as night comes on with a falling tem- perature; then the wind sets in from the north, bringing heavy ice in which the animal is imbedded. In the spring a few shells are to be found floating along the river bank. They tell a mute story of impatient turtles that the sun has enticed from their hibernating quarters. Genus Malacoclemmys: From Chrysemys the six species composing this genus are technically separated by the structure—with the present genus—of the inner, margin of the jaws. Behind the sharp edges of the mandibles the jaws are provided with very broad and flat crushing surfaces; scientifically these processes are known as the alveolar surfaces of the jaws, This indi- cates a food involving mollusks; and such is actually the case. All of the species feed more or less upon snails. The species are also characterized by a strong keel on the carapace. With several, this is so high and tubercular as to produce a strongly serrated outline to the curve of the back; otherwise, the shell is quite smooth, except with one species—the “Diamond-Back” Terrapin. Like the members of Chrysemys, these turtles grow to a fair size—eight to twelve inches long, in shell. Like the for- mer terrapins, they are sold regularly, cheaply and in large numbers in the markets under the general title of “Sliders.” One of them is a strong exception. “A fa- vorite of epicures, the “Diamond-Back” brings four times the price of its near relations and is unique in inhabiting the salt marshes of the eastern coastal region. 2 TURTLES AND TORTOISES 23 Female examples of Malacoclemmys are considerably larger than the other sex and have proportionately much broader heads. , One of the requisites in making up a champagne din- ner and consequently a valuable and well-known market delicacy, the Diamonp-Backx Terrapin, Malacoclem- mys palustris, ranks first in importance among the mem- bers of its genus. Large specimens have a shell nine inches long. Each of the larger shields of the carapace contains a number of coarse, concentric grooves, their angular outlines being responsible for the popular name. The upper shell is dull brown or olive; the plastron is orange yellow, often blotched with gray or showing concentric rings of this color. From the other species of Malacoclemmys the Diamond-Back Terrapin differs materially in the head markings; there are no traces of stripes; the head is pale gray profusely sprinkled with black dots, while the mandibles are flesh color. Contrary to the habits of the other terrapins, the “Diamond-Back” is found only in the vicinity of salt or brackish water; it inhabits the salt marshes of the ‘Atlantic Coast from Massachusetts to Florida and the southern borders of the Gulf States to Texas. Occa- sional examples are found well up the larger rivers though always within tide line. This terrapin seems to be most abundant along the coasts of North and South Carolina. The market demand for the Diamond-Back Terrapin threatens early extinction. Prices have steadily risen. As a consequence a number of terrapin “farms” have been established. Five years ago “Diamond-Backs” were expensive enough, but the price for eight-inch ter- — rapins was about sixty dollars per dozen. A dozen terrapins of this size are now worth about seventy-five 24 REPTILES OF THE WORLD dollars—sometimes more; terrapins of this size weigh barely three pounds each. If a specimen has a shell five inches long, or under, it is of little market value and may be bought for about $1.50; however, for every half inch above the five-inch limit, the price is laid on with an energy that staggers any but the connoisseur. If kept in a tank of fresh water, the Diamond-Back Terrapin does not thrive, as its fleshy parts are soon attacked by a fungus, which soon kills the reptile. The infection may be killed by placing the terrapin in a bath of strong salt-water and keeping it there for forty-eight hours. Yet it seems to be more susceptible to the growth when placed back in the fresh-water, than before; a con- dition probably owing to the weakened and softened skin. Captive individuals will thrive if enough salt is stirred into the water of the tank to give it a slightly brackish taste; the food should be chopped clams and oysters, shrimps, small crabs and fish; most captives are fond of the small “periwinkle” snails that abound on the mud flats. The food is always eaten under the water. From the Diamond-Back Terrapin the other species of Malacoclemmys appear quite different, owing to their comparatively smooth shells. Following is a tabulated list of the remaining species of the genus:— A. Keel on the carapace moderately developed. Upper shell olive, with a net-work of fine yellow lines, GerograrHic TrerraPin, M. geographica. Habitat: Mississippi Valley and western portions of the Atlan- tic States. B. Keel rising in the form of tubercles, causing the outline of the back to appear strongly serrated. Olive, with large black blotches. A few narrow yellow- lines on head; a yellow crescent behind each eye. LesvEeuR’s TERRAPIN, M. lesueurii. Habitat: Valley of the Mississippi. Pa 3 Plate 5 FAMILY TESTUDINIDZ AMERICAN TURTLES 1. Spotted Turtle. Chelopus guttatus. Eastern No. America. 2. Muhlenberg’s Turtle. Chelopus muhlenbergii. Eastern No. America. 3. Wood Turtle. Chelopus insculptus. Eastern No. America. 4. Box Turtle. Cistudo carolina. Eastern No. America. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 25 Shell colored like preceding. Narrow yellow lines on head; a yellow spot behind each eye. Koun’s TerraPin, M. kohnii, Habitat: Lower Mississippi Valley. Olive; no blotches. Yellow markings on the marginal shields. A broad yellow figure between the eyes, forking into bands at the rear of the head. Bavn’s Terrarin, M, pulchra, Habitat: Alabama River. Olive; each of the shields encloses a yellow ring that is bordered internally and externally with dark brown. OcELLaTeD TERRAPIN, M. oculifera. Habitat: Lower Mississippi Valley. Of the above species, M. geographica and M. lesueurn are abundant terrapins and sold commonly in the markets. Damonia is a small genus made up of rather diminu- tive, semi-aquatic turtles inhabiting the East Indies, China and Japan. ‘The shell is high and narrow; most of the species have three sharp keels on the back. REEVE’s TurTLE, Damonia reevesi, of China and Japan, will thrive for years in captivity. Few of these turtles have a shell over four inches long; above, the shell is dull uniform brown; the color beneath is dark yellow. Many specimens have silvery white eyes, which appear very sharp and cunning. Reeve’s Turtle will eat worms, raw meat, fish and tender leaves. It is an agile swimmer and when frightened will dive beneath the shadow of a log or rock. The approach to the sur- face is slow and cautious; the snout is barely poked out of the water while the animal supports itself by a slow, treading motion of the hind feet; at such a mo- ment a slight commotion will cause the turtle to hysterically reverse its position, frantically paddle to the bottom and remain there for a longer period than before. While captives become tame enough to scramble from the water and take food from the hand, they are naturally timid; if handled they exude such a foul and disagreeable odor from special glands near 26 REPTILES OF THE WORLD the base of the tail that one does not feel inclined to again become familiar. Clemmys is another genus embracing semi-aquatic species—four in number, that inhabit southern Europe, Asia, China and Japan. The Iser1an TurtLe, Clemmys leprosa, occurs in southern Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Algeria and well into northwestern Africa. Old turtles have a smooth, flattened shell. Their colors are somber—olive above, greenish-yellow beneath. The carapace is about eight inches long. Gadow explains that the specific name—leprosa—has been inspired by a disease that attacks many specimens, giving them a leprous appearance. They abound in streams and pools that partially evaporate during the hot season, then become very stagnant. Wallowing in the unwholesome waters the shell becomes attacked with a fresh-water alga. The infection makes its way through cracks and sutures of the shields, resulting in gangrenous spots and patches. As a captive, the species is hardy. A half dozen ex- amples have lived for over five years in the reptile house of the New York Zoological Park. Fish, raw beef, earthworms and lettuce leaves form the greater part of the food, which is always consumed under water. Clemmys caspica, found from the southern borders of the Caspian Sea southward through Persia, is a near relative of the preceding turtle. One of the distinguish- ing features consists of yellow streaks on the shields of the upper shell. Following the rules of technical classification, we find the genus Chelopus to be next in order. Only four species are known. All of these are North American. In our progress toward the terrestrial chelonians, we Zz Plate 6 FAMILY TESTUDINIDA REEVE’S TURTLE Damonia reevesi. China and Japan. Length of upper shell, 4—5 inches. Cinixys erosa. Tropical Africa. Length of upper shell, 10 inches. ee Ee IBERIAN TORTOISE Testudo iberia. Morocco and Asia Minor. Length of shell, six to eight inches. TURTLES AND TORTOISES 27 find among the members of the present genus certain traits that call for a halt, that we may note the first in- dications of habits that relate to those of the true tortoises. T'wo of the species of Chelopus are able to swallow their food while out of the water. Right in line with this characteristic we find that the same species wander away from the pool or stream in search of tender shoots and berries. In conformity with such habits we also observe a considerable reduction of the webbed formation of the feet. With Chelopus the shell is flattened; the shields may be smooth or contain coarse, concentric grooves. Largest of the species is the Woop TuRTLE, or Woop TERRAPIN, C. insculptus, inhabiting eastern North America. Jn each shield of the carapace a series of concentric grooves rise in pyramidal fashion; at the rear margin the shell flares upward and is strongly serrated. Above the color is dull brown, with obscure yellow mark- ings; the plastron is yellow, with a large, dark blotch in most of the shields. Most characteristic is the coloration of the limbs and neck, which are brick red. An eight- inch shell signifies the maximum growth. Here we find a turtle that seems to be in the midst of the process of adopting terrestrial habits. It often wanders into swampy woods, feeding on berries, tender vegetation and insect larve; thus it may leave the water for the greater part of the summer. Yet it is an ad- mirable swimmer. Many individuals persistently haunt the borders of streams and ponds like the typical, semi- aquatic turtles and terrapins. The Wood Terrapin is edible and was once collected in such quantities it was threatened with speedy extinc- tion. Through the efforts of Madison Grant, Secretary of the New York Zoological Society, a bill was passed 28 REPTILES OF THE WORLD in the state of New York, prohibiting the collecting, for market purposes, of this species and the box turtle (Cistudo carolina). Considerably smaller, MUHLENBERG’s TURTLE, C. muhlenber gii, is distinct in being blackish, with a vivid orange patch on each side of the head. Few specimens have a shell longer than three and a half inches. Marked with faint concentric grooves, the general effect of the upper shell is black. Closely examined, it may appear marked with obscure, reddish, radiating blotches. Restricted in its habitat to southern New York, New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania, this singular little turtle is comparatively rare; nor is it generally dis- tributed over the small area it inhabits. Most of the writer’s specimens have been caught on Staten Island, N.Y. They were found along marshy borders of small, clear streams. In captivity the species displays an ability to feed while out of the water, eating different kinds of fruit; it is also carnivorous. Owing to its black shell and head, the Common SporreD Turtie, C. guttatus, bears a superficial re- semblance to Muhlenberg’s Turtle. It will be seen, however, to lack the large and brilliant orange spot on each side of the head, while the back is generously sprinkled with round, yellow spots. The upper shell is quite smooth; when the turtle is fully mature the shell is about four inches long. Ranging from southern Canada to South Carolina and westward to Ohio this abundant species is generally familiar. In fresh-water bogs it exhibits a seemingly social spirit. Certain miniature islands of bunclr grass are matted down by clusters of turtles that go there regularly to bask and an old log may be so thickly covered that several turtles have been forced to roost , TURTLES AND TORTOISES 29 on the shells of those having secured favorite spots. Thus the little colony takes a bath in the life-giving sun, with limbs sprawled out in comical fashion and ever- attentive eyes on the lookout for danger. Lwudicrous re- sults follow the approach of the human observer, as there is a panicky scramble for the water, a series of splashes, then a desolate log without sign of life. Unlike the two preceding species the Spotted Turtle does not seem to be able to eat while out of the water, so its habits are strictly in accord with the typical fresh- water turtles and terrapins. Similar in its habits is the Californian species, C. marmoratus; the carapace is blackish, decorated with numerous yellow specks or radiating lines; there is a decided similarity in the mark- ings of some specimens to the European Pond Turtle, Emys orbicularis. As we consider the genus E'mys we have advanced another step nearer the terrestrial chelonians: for the present species feed while out of the water and are quite at home on land—but they never leave damp places and their feet are sufficiently webbed to make them agile swimmers. ‘Two species are known. Strange to ex- plain, they are remarkably alike in structure and colora- tion, yet one inhabits the New World while the habitat of the other is across the seas—in Europe and Africa. Here we must note a peculiar structure of the under shell—the plastron, which is attached to the upper shell by elastic cartilage and divided near the center by a cartilaginous hinge; thus the lobes are movable. ‘The structure shows a near relationship with the true box turtles, of Cistudo—the succeeding genus. However, the ability to close the lobes against the carapace is not nearly so well developed as with Cistudo. In fact, it principally involves the anterior lobe. Hence the origin 30 REPTILES OF THE WORLD of a popular name often applied to the American species —the Semi-Box Turtles. BLANDING’s TURTLE or the Semi-Box Turtie, E'mys blandingii, inhabits southern Canada and the north- eastern portion of the United States. By its form alone it differs from other turtles of the United States: for the shell is elongated, high and globular. Most of these turtles are black above, thickly speckled with yellow. Narrow and not wider than the long, snake-like neck, the head is black above and vivid lemon yellow beneath. In Ohio and Illinois, Blanding’s Turtle is a very com- mon reptile. The shell of an adult is about eight inches long. After observing a large series of specimens the writer is led to believe that Blanding’s Turtle is erratic in habits. Some specimens refuse to leave the immediate vicinity of a pond or stream, where they crawl out on logs and rocks to sun and tumble into the water when frightened; such examples feed on fishes, tadpoles and frogs. Others wander into damp woods, where they lead a practically terrestrial life, feeding on tender veg- etation, berries and insects. Captive examples will take their food from a tray like true tortoises, eating raw beef, lettuce and celery. Incidentally, they are as quick in the water as the flat-shelled terrapins and perfectly at ease in swallowing their food beneath the surface. The European Ponp Turtite, Emys orbicularis, occurs abundantly in central and southern Europe, Asia Minor and extreme northern Africa. Of lesser propor- tions, it also has a proportionately flatter shell than the American ally. Above, the color is brownish, or black thickly speckled with yellow—sometimes marked with radiating lines of the pale hue. On very old turtles, the yellow markings fade until the shell is uniform brown or blackish. The average length of a fully-grown shell Sw i o g - . - “ we — ed — 7 am , ~ a Plate 7 FAMILY TESTUDINIDA SOUTH AMERICAN TORTOISE = Testudo tabulata. Large shells are eighteen inches long. LEOPARD TORTOISE Testudo pardalis. Tropical Africa. Attains a weight of seventy-five pounds. TURTLES AND TORTOISES ~ 31 is about five inches. In habits this species seems to be more persistently aquatic than the American turtle. Another step-up the scale of evolution! We are con- fronted by strictly terrestrial chelonians, but are still considering the turtles. The genus Cistudo is com- posed of six American turtles that have forever left the water; they lead the same life as the true tortoises. We cannot call them tortoises as they yet have well-defined traces of webs on the hind feet. Their race will ulti- mately develop into tortoises; at this stage of their de- velopment we must at once note the high, globular shell, the thick and stubby front feet, and the slow gait, like that of the species of T'estudo. The Box Tur tes are rightly named. Attached to the carapace by elastic cartilage, the plastron is divided by a-cartilaginous hinge. We find practically the same structure as observed with Emys, but so perfectly devel- oped that the animal is encased in a veritable, tightly- closed box in time of danger. In most cases the plastral lobes close so tightly against the lower margin of the carapace that it is impossible to insert a broom-straw at any part of the union. Moreover, the strength of the muscles that draw up the divisions of the plastron is astonishing. Ingenuous, indeed, has been Nature in protecting these creatures. Five of the Box Turtles inhabit the central and eastern portions of North America; one occurs in Mexico. The maximum length of shell is about seven inches. The Common Box TurttE, Cistudo carolina, has a moderately oval shell with a distinct though flattened keel. There are four claws on the hind foot. While the markings are extremely variable, they are always thick and blotchy, often forming broad yellow E’s on the side of the shell. Most of the males have bright red 32 REPTILES OF THE WORLD eyes and a concave area on the central portion of the lower shell. This species inhabits the northeastern United States, east of the Mississippi River and as far south as South Carolina. An average-sized specimen has a shell 534 inches long, 414 inches wide and 8 inches high. From the cultivated areas the Box Turtle is rapidly disappearing. It inhabits dry woods, hiding under low, thick bushes at night or during rainy weather. When abroad it hunts for berries, tender shoots, earthworms and insects. During the blackberry season the man- dibles and front feet of most specimens are much stained with the juices. Wild turtles are very timid. When picked up they close the lobes of the plastron tightly. Thus securely encased the reptile remains as long as disturbed and if carried about by the collector will show little signs of life for hours, except a slight release of the front plastral lobe to facilitate breathing. . Kept as pets, Box Turtles become so tame they will take food from the hand and it is hard to induce them to close the box-like shell; in many instances they get so fat it would be impossible for them to do so. In this condition a turtle may become frightened and in closing one-half of the plastron forces the fleshy parts from the other, and vice versa, with ludicrous results in the case with a. timid specimen. ‘The writer’s turtles would take a variety of food. All were particularly fond of earth- worms. Raw meat, lettuce, celery, and the leaves of clover as well as the blossoms, were also eaten—besides various kinds of fruit. Frogs and salamanders were not safe in the vivarium, as they were invariably attacked and partially eaten. One turtle was seen to eat a slug, which slimy creature caused the reptile considerable trouble, causing it to rub its smeared mandibles on the i TURTLES AND TORTOISES 33 ground and against its paws for a full half hour after. If a Box Turtle is thrown into the water it floats like a miniature buoy, but is decidedly awkward and hys- terical in gaining the shore. The stubby limbs work spasmodically and progress is usually erratic. As the fall approaches, the Box Turtle selects soft ground and commences to burrow. The progress is not hurried; the reptile may dig but six or eight inches in a week. It literally grovels into the ground, which closes over the back when the animal is but three or four inches down. After the first light frost—barely tinging the surface—the ground becomes chilled and the reptile partly benumbed; the noon-day sun warms it back to life and with a warning; then it burrows with more energy, sinking to a depth of fourteen to sixteen inches, when the winter sleep begins. The eggs of the Box Turtle are oval, with an exceed- ingly thin though brittle shell. Curiously enough, the young are seldom seen; they are quite flat, with a broad and decided keel. The Larce Box Turt tz, C. major, is another of the species having four claws on the hind foot. The habitat appears to be restricted to Florida. As examples of this kind have a shell seven inches long, the present species is the largest of the genus. The yellow markings are quite narrow, regular and radiating from the top of the shell. The ParnteD Box TurtT 1x, C. ornata, may be told by the absence of a keel on the carapace. In the shape of bright yellow bars the markings radiate from the cen- ter of the shell. The scales on the limbs are generally tinged with pink. This reptile is found from Indiana to the Rocky Mountains and southward into Mexico; it has four toes on the, hind foot. 34 REPTILES OF THE WORLD The Turee-Torp Box Turt1e, C. triunguis, has a keel on the carapace and the shell is shaped like that of C. carolina. Little or no traces of yellow markings are visible on the upper shell. which is dull brown or olive. From Missouri to Georgia and southward to the Gulf States the species is fairly common. In southern Georgia and Florida is another species with three claws on the hind foot. This is Baur’s Box TuRTLE, C. bauri, having a higher, narrower and more globular shell than those species described. Nor does the upper shell agree with the other box turtles in flaring sharply upward at the rear margin; there being only a slight intimation of this. Besides the structural differ- ences stated, a glance at the coloration will show it to be strongly characteristic. It is regular and composed of close-set, narrow greenish lines radiating from the center of the shell. In the dry and sandy pine woods the writer has found many turtles of this kind; they may often be found hiding under the leaves of the dwarf palmetto. The single species of Box Turtle found in Mexico— C. mexicana—has three claws on the hind foot. In the lists of scientific classification there exist several genera between Cistudo and those land chelonians called tortoises, the latter distinguished by their dome-like shells and stubby feet, without vestiges of webs that resemble, in miniature, the feet of an elephant—the resemblance relating principally to the hind feet. Among the sev- eral genera placed immediately before the tortoises— these mostly Oriental—we find species that are semi- aquatic, though few of them are dependent upon the water for obtaining their food, as are the typical: flat- shelled turtles and terrapins. With the tortoises we arrive at chelonians so removed in structure and habits from the turtles that there comes Fe Plate 8 FAMILY TESTUDINIDAE DESERT TORTOISE = Testudo berlandieri. Distribution: Deserts of N. E. Mexico and Texas. Length of shell, ten inches. RADIATED TORTOISE § Testudo radiata. Distribution: Madagascar. Length of shell, twelve to fourteen inches. eee ~ - " ‘ * rt oS 7 s s ; ‘o 5 K - J if 4 - a . bs - . ot TURTLES AND TORTOISES 35 a temptation to place them in a family by themselves. This step would be necessary if a few of the preceding genera were unknown. As matters stand, a technical arrangement of the chelonians shows us, step by step, the relationship of the high-shelled tortoise of the deserts to the depressed, persistently aquatic turtle with its broadly webbed feet. The Trur TorrotsEs: True tortoises are embraced within four genera. These are Cinivys, Pyxis, Homo- pus and Testudo. The latter is the most extensive genus, containing about forty-five species; Ciniwys con- tains three species; Pyais is represented by a single tor- toise and Homopus by four species. To these mostly slow-moving and—in the human eye —ungainly creatures, we must award the standard for the highest degree of intelligence among reptiles. Tor- toises appear to exhibit reasoning powers equal to the warm-blooded animals. Their wanderings are often ex- tensive, but they are not vagrant prowlers like the greater number of snakes and lizards. They have a dwelling place—a burrow, or hollowed-out spot among rocks or bushes; to this they return after their explora- tions with a regularity rivaling the “instinct” of the fox and other den-dwelling mammals. Some tortoises in- habit desert areas under a sun almost unendurable to the human; these desert species live in long burrows from which they prow] by night or during the dawn to clusters of cacti and other sparse vegetation of such regions, where they browse. All tortoises inhabit areas that are at least comparatively dry. Many are so grotesquely marked as to suggest weird coffers that might hold the jewels of some princess of the past. New World species are few. Africa is the home of the greater number. Genus Cinixvys; the H1ncE-Backep Tortoises: Trop- 36 REPTILES OF THE WORLD ical Africa is inhabited by three of the most grotesque members among tortoises; their shells suggest an attempt of Nature to construct something unique with a some- what overdone result. The rear portion of the upper shell is hinged and can be drawn down tightly against the plastron, which, in front, projects forward like a battering ram. About the margin the upper shell flares upward. Altogether the effect is irregular. A roman- tic observer might be led to believe that these tortoises are ashamed of their make-up, as they snap the limbs and head inward at the least intimation of a shadow or vibration, when the hinged part of the upper shell is pulled downward; the forearms are so bony and fit so tightly together, the protection they afford is complete, unless the enemy be a long-clawed cat or an iron-jawed hyeena. The species of the genus Pyzis, P. arachnoides, inhab- iting Madagascar, has the front lobe of the plastron hinged. Genus Testudo: All portions of the shell are rigid. A few representatives are the only New World tortoises. The NortH AMERICAN TorTOIsES are three in num- ber. ‘They may be concisely defined, thus:— I. Carapace considerably longer than wide. Several much-enlarged, bony plates on inner surface of forearm. GorHer Tortoise, T. polyphemus, Habitat: South Carolina and Florida to western Texas, No enlarged bony plates on forearm. Acassiz’s Tortoise, T'. agassizii. Habitat: Deserts of the southwest United States. II. Carapace nearly as wide as long. Bertanpier’s Tortoise, 7’. berlandiert. Habitat: So. Texas; Mexico. Bs Adult examples of all these species are of a dull, uniform brown above. Young and half-grown individ- TURTLES AND TORTOISES 37 uals have a dull yellowish blotch in the center of each shield. Most generally known is the dingy GoPHER TorRTOISE, Testudo poly phemus, of the southeastern United States. Rather flattened on the top, the shell of old tortoises is perfectly smooth; on the young the shields are marked with concentric grooves. Over the entire forelimb is an armor of bony and protruding plates that assume the formation of conical shields on the inner surface— or, more properly, the inner margin, as the forelimbs are much flattened for the purpose of digging. ore Fee y \a 3 rn - a ap - a i sf i ve j i By y ne oe ; eB p _ ., 4 4 = -_ si 7. . F rie Sw s : ; 4 "* } : oa 7 + : i a hit vd : “yy : fi y — ‘ : o4t : ! : ; ne ‘= : . i = = i ~ ss i ~ - =" , . re) . oe ; ; ae , ; ie, ‘ ” : Me . A : + i« | ‘ ra nd *. 6 = 3 = . > THE SNAKES 309 life. T'hey are remarkable for the development of the venom-secreting glands, which, instead of being con- jined to the temporal region of the head, extend a third the length of the body, terminating in club-shaped tips. Owing to this incomprehensible development, the heart has actually been pushed farther down the body than with any other serpent. New World Elapine Snakes. A single genus, Elaps, represents the Elapine in the New World. About twenty-six species are known. Two occur in the southern United States. The others are distributed throughout Mexico, Central America and tropical South America. Owing to their brilliant colors, a rich red nearly always figuring in the pattern, we will call these reptiles the Conran SnNaxeEs. They are not so highly organized as the cobras, being rather addicted to a burrowing life. ‘The form is cylindrical, with small, blunt head. The usual markings consist of red, black and yellow disposed in rings, a pattern rendering the species generally distinguishable, though various harm- less snakes evince striking similarities of pattern. In Mexico is a variety of Elaps fulvius, with narrow black rings separated by very wide red spaces, the black nar- rowly and obscurely bordered with yellow; it is wonder- fully like a non-venomous snake known technically as Ophibolus micropholis and closely related to the little red king snake of the southern United States, O. dolia- tus. The harmless serpent in question has the narrow black rings separated by wide red spaces, but close exam- ination will show a faint and very narrow yellow ring within the black. Hurriedly examined, the poisonous and harmles snakes might be pronounced identical. To add to the deception, the head of each is black with a yel- 310 REPTILES OF THE WORLD low band crossing the temples. Such conditions point to some definite provision of Nature, but it would be a bold assertion and mere theory to declare that the harmless snake has acquired the coloration of the poisonous reptile in order to inspire respect among its several enemies. It appears certain, though, that this similarity of pat- tern, color and form, between creatures widely separated in classification, indicates no uncertain process of evolu- tion, but one which is governed by conditions as yet unknown to Science. Despite emphatic assertions to the contrary, the spe- cies of Elaps are highly venomous. In proportion to the reptiles’ size, their fangs are capable of inflicting damage equal to the Old World allies. Few of the Coral Snakes, however, attain a length of more than a yard. LElaps corallinus, E. lemniscatus and E. marc- gravu, of tropical South America, cause frequent loss of human life. These species reach a length of three and a half or four feet. Occasional examples of Elaps lemniscatus, the SourH AMERICAN CorAL SNAKE, are four feet long. It is common on the mainland and occurs in several of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. This is a gorgeous snake, the pattern consisting of glaring brick-red rings sep- arated by very wide rings of purplish black, each of the black areas containing two narrow rings of yellowish- white. The polished scales are highly opalescent. ‘The tip of the snout is dull red; behind this is a black band followed by a red band as broad as those on the body. The measurements of a fine specimen from Trinidad are :— 2 PRotallerpy thts clcveletaleistsisielersisie/niata odstatst stele savers 3 feet, 1014 inches. Diameter Of ody. 0 vivw:c' + vine /omvne ine wali 1 inch. Width of ‘head: i.3)s..s5 das cemiser saws sarees %, of an inch, f late 76 POISONOUS SNAKES PUFF ADDER | Bitis arietans. Distribution: Greater portion of Africa; Arabia. Attains a length of four feet. HORNED VIPER Cerastes cornutus. Egypt. Showing this reptile’s resemblance to the desert sands. THE SNAKES 311 But two species of Hlaps occur in the United States. Their red, yellow and black-ringed coloration causing them to look rather alike. There is also a strong resem- blance to several harmless snakes, particularly the follow- ing species: Arizona King Snake, Ophibolus zonatus; Western Milk Snake, O. doliatus gentilis; Scarlet King Snake, O. doliatus and the Scarlet Snake, Cemophora coccinea. Careful examination will demonstrate a val- uable character that may be generally employed in dis- tinguishing the venomous from the harmless reptiles. It will be noted in the case of the poisonous snake that the black rings are single and bordered with a pair of yellow rings. With the harmless species the yellow rings are single and bordered with a pair of black rings. The species of Coral Snakes found in the United States may be easily separated, as follows:— Snout black; a yellow band across the head, followed by a black ring. HarLequin SNAKE; Corat Snake, Elaps fulvius, Habitat: Southeastern United States into Mexico. Snout black; a yellow band across head, followed by a red ring. Sonoran Corat Snake, Elaps euryxanthus. Habitat: Arizona and northern Mexico. The HarLeQquin SNAKE or CoRAL SNAKE, of the southeastern part of the United States, is a common reptile in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, where it is dug up in sweet potato fields during ploughing. Specimens are found wandering about, after heavy rains. The scales are highly-polished and opalescent; the pat- tern consists of regularly-disposed, broad scarlet and black rings, separated by narrow rings of yellow. The snout is black; a wide orange band crosses the head. It is not unusual to find specimens with the scarlet much obscured by a scattering of black spots; on the abdomen the coloration is more brilliant. A big example is a yard long and three-quarters of an inch in diameter at the 312 REPTILES OF THE WORLD thickest part of the body. The head is blunt and flat- tened, but little distinct from the neck and has minute, beady eyes. Ranging into Mexico, the Coral Snake undergoes a considerable variation in pattern. One phase of E. ful- vius shows the red rings of great breadth, a constriction of the black ones and almost total obliteration of the yellow. Among the species of Elaps generally, the blunt head, — minute eyes, absence of the loreal plate, cylindrical form and brightly ringed pattern are strong distinguishing features. The species of Elaps rank rather low in mental pow- ers. They appear stupefied by captivity. The pre- vailing idea is to avoid the light and observation, and this they do, if there are any facilities for burrowing or coiling beneath some object. Once secreted, all ideas of food seem to vanish among the majority of specimens. Like many of the Elapine snakes addicted to burrowing habits, the Coral Snakes are cannibalistic, feeding upon other species of snakes and lizards. ‘The method of feed- ing is similar to that of the king cobra, though these smaller serpents display less ingenuity in overpowering the prey. It is quickly grasped and worked along in the jaws until the head points down the throat, when swallowing commences. Upon the cold-blooded prey the poison is slow in taking effect; and, while the fangs are observed to be repeatedly employed, the subtle fluid seems to aid the snake but little in subduing the quarry, which usually struggles vigorously during the entire swallowing process. ‘The Coral Snakes consume ser- pents of surprising proportions in comparison to their own bulk and length. Several times the writer has ob- served Elaps fulvius eating snakes that were but a few THE SNAKES 313 inches shorter than the feeding reptile and of greater thickness of body. After engulfing a meal of this size, the gorged snake is rendered too rigid to properly coil. The scales are so widely separated as to appear like well- separated rows of shining spots. All the species of Elaps show a liking for lizards, especially such smooth-scaled species as the Scincide. A big example of Elaps coral- linus swallowed a stout-bodied, red-headed lizard (Hume- ces quinquelineatus), that was fully nine inches long. Lizards are more susceptible to the action of the poison than the smaller harmless snakes. It is fortunate, though, if one succeeds in inducing a single specimen of Elaps fulvius out of a dozen to take food. The food may be regularly placed in the cage or left with the specimens, yet in the midst of plenty, after fasts lasting from six to ten months, they slowly but deliberately starve. While utterly disregarding the presence of food, they exhibit an interesting desire for water. For this they regularly search their cage and, when it is found, drink long and copiously. It has been stubbornly alleged that the species of Hlaps _ are mild in disposition, seldom attempting to bite. Such assertions are not only fallacious, but dangerously mis- leading. They tend to invite accidents from reptiles that are highly formidable. Observed closely and sym- pathetically, the Coral Snakes will be found to exhibit habits that are unique in comparison with the other poi- sonous snakes. They do not “strike” at an offending object, but twist and snap from side to side with the rapidity of motion of a well-tempered steel spring sud- denly released from tension. So energetic are these actions that some species, touched lightly with a stick, will instantly turn and grasp their own body. They bite, as do the cobras, when once they have seized the 314 REPTILES OF THE WORLD offending object, advancing the fangs in a series of chewing motions and producing four or five separate wounds with each. The truth is that occasional speci- mens appear to be quite gentle, if handled. The writer has experimented with such examples, protecting his hands with heavy buckskin gloves. The results were interesting, as they showed with what degree of safety a reckless person might handle these apparently quiet : and pretty, though poisonous reptiles. An example may be handled for some time without a show of temper on the serpent’s part—providing the operator employs no resisting motions. A slight pres- sure of the fingers may cause the snake to turn without warning, seize a finger and chew viciously, staining the glove with venom. The larger, tropical species are much more “touchy” than the common species of the United States. Yet they never “strike” unless pursuing their prey. A child running about bare-footed would cer- tainly be bitten if treading upon a snake of this kind, but we may remove the Coral Snakes from the more dangerous class—those serpents that strike at a passing object. The writer has never observed a specimen of Elaps to bite unless actually touched on the body. Especially nervous specimens will thrash from side to side, but do not attempt to seize an object nearby, even though it should be in motion. Their fangs are so short that ordinary clothing would insure good protection—a pair of canvas leggings over thin clothing producing perfect immunity from the largest specimens. The breeding habits of the Coral Snakes seem to be comparatively unknown. Until two years before the time of writing, the author’s efforts to note.definite results were unavailing. A specimen of Elaps fulvius finally deposited eleven eggs, which were placed in THE SNAKES 315 finely-ground wood pulp. Though these eggs were kept moist and warm, they required the lengthy period of thirteen weeks for incubation. The young were marked like the parent, but the scarlet, yellow and black rings were in more vivid contrast. In form they were proportionately more slender and dug like earthworms into the hatchng medium. Compared with the dark hue of the latter, they were in brilliant contrast, their lustrous, beautiful hues causing them to appear as if freshly squeezed from a paint tube. Family Amblycephalide: Five genera, with about three dozen species, form the present family of harmless snakes; they inhabit Central and South America and southeastern Asia. ‘The members are sometimes called the CHUNK-HEADED SNAKES, as nearly all of them have a lumpy head with very large eyes (pupil elliptical), mounted on an extremely slender neck. 'The body is moderately or extremely slender, generally compressed, with a long, gradually-tapering tail. Some of the spe- cies have a single row of much-enlarged scales on the back. The snakes of this family are most closely related to the Colubride, looking much like the Dipsades of the O pisthogly pha, but may be recognized by the absence of a longitudinal groove in the center of the chin, as pos- sessed by members of the Colubride. Their jaws are capable of but slight distension. ‘They climb through brushy places; though agile and graceful, they are not very active. The VIPERINE SNAKES; family Viperide: We now arrive at the family of long-fanged venomous serpents, the most specialized among snakes in the development of the poison apparatus. In place of the elongate and horizontal maxillary bone, existing with the snakes we 316 REPTILES OF THE WORLD have examined, the maxillary of the present reptile is reduced to a small, vertical, movable bone on each side of the anterior part of the head and bearing an enor- mously elongated, caniculated fang, provided with a narrow orifice at the tip like a hypodermic needle. Con- necting with each maxillary is a bone extending from the rear of the head, its function lever-like in rais- ing or lowering the fang at the will of the snake. Here we find several differences from the formidable elapine snakes, thus:—(1) There are no teeth in the upper “jaw,” except the two rows of palatine teeth and the pair of huge, venom-conducting fangs; most of the elapine snakes have a short row of small teeth behind each fang. (2) The fangs of the Vipers, rigidly attached to movable bones, fold flat against the roof of the mouth when the jaws are closed. By far the greater number of Viperine snakes are thick-bodied, with a distinct flattened head, while the eyes have a cat-like pupil. They exhibit the outlines popularly accredited to poisonous snakes and are mark- edly slower in their motions—except in striking—than the elapine snakes. As a great number of the species have the head covered with small scales in place of reg- ularly-arranged shields, they may be told almost at a glance. Still there is considerable variation in form from the slender tree vipers to the hideous-looking adders of Africa. A certain proportion of the species have a comparatively slender body and a head provided with regularly-arranged shields, as noted among the in- nocuous and the venomous Colubride. 'There is no pos- sibility of constructing a popular chart key that will ena- ble the student to distinguish such species. Locality is a factor of great importance and the writer has endeav- Plate 77 POISONOUS SNAKES HORNED VIPER ~ Cerastes cornutus. Distribution: Northern border of the Sahara from Algeria to Egypt and Nubia; also found in Arabia and southern Palestine. Total length about a yard. COMMON SAND VIPER _ Cerastes vipera. Distribution: Northern Africa, from Algeria to Egypt. Total length about two and one-half feet. THE SNAKES 317 ored to impart a clear idea of the general distribution of well-defined groups. A glance over the thoroughly representative series of illustrations showing the Viper- ine forms will do more for the student than a long description in print. Vipers have either keeled. or smooth scales—mostly the former; the plates under the tail may be in one or two rows—the former the com- moner character. The family Viperide is divided into two subfamilies, thus :— No head pits. Examples, Subfamily Viperine. The True VIPERs. European Viper. Distribution: Confined to the Old Sand Natter. World. Tic Polonga. Rhinoceros Viper. Puff Adder. A deep pit between the eye and nostril The Rattlesnakes. New World. —on each side of head. Copperhead Snake. New World. Water Moccasin. New World. Subfamily Crotaline. Fer-de-lance. New World. The Pir Vrieers, Bushmaster. New World. Distribution: New and Old World. Tree Vipers. Old World. In the United States and in Europe the poisonous snakes belong to the Viperide,’ those in the former country representatives of the Crotaline; the Kuropean poisonous snakes represent the subfamily Viperine. Rattlesnakes abound in many parts of the United States, while frequenting the swamps of the southeastern por- tion is a semi-aquatic Crotaline snake that is highly dangerous; northward, the place of the latter reptile is taken by the formidable copperhead snake. The Euro- » pean poisonous snakes are not nearly so large or dan- 1 Except two small Elapine snakes in the United States, 318 REPTILES OF THE WORLD gerous; nevertheless they are poisonous enough to cause occasional loss of human life; among them are the com- mon viper and the sand natter. Popularly described, the venom of the Viperine snakes plays most of its havoc in the blood. The bitten arm or leg swells greatly and becomes much discolored; within the injured member the blood actually oozes from the vessels, producing a remarkable state of internal hemorrhage, this bringing great danger of attendant septacemia from germ infection and necessitating heroic drainage. The bites of elapine snakes produce little of these local effects. The poison appears to attack the nerve centers, particularly that system controlling the muscles of the chest, and the victim meets death from an inability to breathe. It is in such cases that strych- nine is a valuable alternative. The TRvuE Virers; subfamily Viperine: Among the members of the Viperine are some of the most villainous- looking of all snakes; for the most part the head is flattened and heart-shaped, the body short and thick, but there are strange exceptions to the general form, as will be found in all families of snakes. In tropical and South Africa is a genus of vipers forming the most deceptive series of snakes the writer has ever examined. They are moderately slender with gradually-tapering tail, have a very ordinary head bearing large, sym- metrical shields, while the eye has a round pupil; to add to the deception, there is a loreal plate (between the eye and the nostril) , as seen with the typical harmless snakes. The Care Virer, Causus rhombeatus, may be taken as a good example of this colubrine-like series. The scales are keeled. Above, the color is grayish with dark and angular, sometimes rhomb-shaped markings, these often margined with white. If the mouth is examined, Plate 78 POISONOUS SNAKES SKULLS OF THREE SPECIES OF PIT VIPERS Bushmaster. Lachesis mutus. South America. Fer-de-lance. Lachesis lanceolatus. South America. Diamond-back Rattlesnake. Crotalus adamanteus. United States. The upper skull has been mounted with all its reserve fangs — these normally carried by every poisonous snake. The fangs are being constantly renewed; if the main pair is accidentally broken an auxiliary pair at once grows into place. THE SNAKES 319 the fangs will be found proportionately very small, look- ing like those of an elapine snake, but they may be raised and lowered at will and fold against the roof of the mouth when the jaws are closed, in true Viperine fashion. An adult Cape Viper is barely a yard in length. ‘The species is common throughout southern Africa. In its habits the Cape Viper about reverses every characteristic attributed to the subfamily. While the vipers produce living young, this is an egg-laying spe- cies. It is quick in its motions, gliding away as fast as a colubrine snake, while it has failed to keep up the dignified habits of vipers generally, of preying upon warm-blooded animals; it feeds mostly upon frogs, sud- denly grasping a specimen and swallowing it amid a series of struggles, as if forgetting for the moment the existence and use of the fangs. One of the writer’s specimens deposited ten eggs on the first of September. These were creamy-white, with a tough leathery shell, adhesive in a cluster and each contained a thread-like embryo coiled like the hair- spring of a watch. A measurement of one of the eggs showed it to be one and one-quarter inches long, and seven-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. Another snake laid twelve eggs on the twentieth of the same month. Vipera, containing ten species, large and small, is represented in Europe, Asia, northern and_ tropical Africa. The Common Viper, V. berus, the only poi- sonous snake occurring in the British Isles, is one of the smaller species. The forward portion of the head is covered with fairly regular shields, though these look more crowded than with colubrine snakes; the eye has 1 Another genus, Atractaspis, composed of small, burrowing species comes under this head. 320 REPTILES OF THE.WORLD an elliptical pupil. As a rule, the pattern is strong and characteristic, consisting of a dark, continuous zigzag band down the back; this may be sooty black on an olive or dark brown ground color, or dark brown on a grayish hue. ‘There is a row of ill-defined blotches on each side and a dark bar from the eye to the neck; the abdomen is usually black. A not uncommon variety is uniform, velvety black. Following are the dimensions of an adult female specimen: ROCAL TEMBER: y..c ieee «eine sine a ie Bipasha 20 inches. Rene Gl taw™ 2.04; 6 aden caw scales 214, inches. Greatest diameter’ |. 2.49. cbst. tt ee IS eee De ~ — = x >