UC-NRLF • B 3 GICAL SURVEY OF ALABAMA EUGENE ALLEN SMITH, State Geologist SPECIAL REPORT NO. 11. RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA A Statistical Guide for Investors and Settlers, with an Exposition of some of the General Principles of Economic Geography. By ROLAND M. HARPER UNIVERSITY, ALABAMA JULY, 1920 BERKELEY LIBRARY UNIVERSITY Of CALIFORNIA EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY '"I EXCHANGE ^GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF ALABAMA EUGENE ALLEN SMITH. State Geologist (SPECIAL REPORT NO. 11. RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA A Statistical Guide for Investors and Settlers, with an Exposition of some of the General Principles of Economic Geography. By ROLAND M. HARPER UNIVERSITY. ALABAMA JULY, 1920 EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY OFFICERS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Eugene A. Smith, Ph. D State Geologist Robert S. Hodges.... Chemist Roland M. Harper, Ph. D Geographer and Botanist Mrs. Herbert H. Smith Acting Curator of Museum Truman H. Aldrich Honorary Curator of Mollusca Rev. H. E. Wheeler Assistant in Paleontological Work George N. Brewer Field Geologist Miss A. T. Donoho , Secretary ASSISTANT GEOLOGISTS ON SPECIAL WORK. William F. Prouty, Ph. D. J. E. Brantly Douglas R. Semmes, Ph. D. Walter B. Jones •JTING CO. WON LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL To His Excellency, Governor Thomas E. Kilby, Montgomery, Alabama. DEAR SIR: — I have the honor to transmit herewith man- uscript of a report on the Resources of Southern Alabama, by Dr. Roland M. Harper, with the recommendation that it be printed as Special Report No. 11 of the Geological Survey of Alabama. The recent agitation for settling discharged United States soldiers on farms has suggested the advisability of presenting to the public some impartial, accurate and specific information about the agricultural and other natural re- sources of Alabama, in greater detail than has been at- tempted hitherto. This information should be of service not only to soldiers but also to any other prospective set- tlers and investors. To cover the whole State in as much detail as is under- taken in this report would have consumed more time and money than could be spared at present, and we therefore decided to make a beginning with the southern third, the section that has had the greatest agricultural development in recent decades and has been most extensively advertised in the last year or two. If there is sufficient demand for this sort of informa- tion, the other sections of the State may be treated in a similar manner in the near future. Although the report is based largely on census statistics, the latest of which are now ten years old, it may be two or three years before the complete agricultural returns from this year's census are available, and it seemed best not to wait for them but instead to estimate present conditions as closely as possible from past developments and from recent investigations in the field. Between 1905 and 1913 the author visited every county in the State and prepared a report on the Forests of Alabama, that was published in 1913 as Monograph 8 of this Survey. Since that time he has carried on similar investigations in northern Florida from the Geological Survey of that State, and spent about a year with the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Washing- ton, working on the Agricultural Atlas of the United States, 4 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. and devising new statistical methods of analyzing natural resources. He came to us again. in January, 1919, since which time he has revisited most of the counties of southern Alabama to study them from the most recent points of view. Some additional improvements in descriptive methods have been developed at the same time. This report follows approximately the plan of my report on the Agricultural Features of the State, published in 1883, but of course has three or four decades of subsequent history to record, and goes more extensively into history and statistics, the material for which have increased in num- ber and variety with each succeeding census. It seeks to represent not only present conditions, but also the progres- sive changes of past decades, thus supplying not only much additional detailed information but also the data for pre- dicting future developments. In my 1883 report the State was described both by re- gions and by counties, but in this report the county descrip- tions are omitted to save space, it being often possible to describe several contiguous counties in very similar terms. The statistical tables in the following pages contain about 2,000 different percentages and other ratios, the great majority of them never published before. These give in the compactest possible form a multitude of fundamental facts about the resources of the area treated and their utilization during the last hundred years. Although statistical tables make rather dry reading, to present the same facts in the form of sentences would probably take ten times as much space ; and besides, all the tables are accompanied by enough explanatory text to make their significant features apparent to any interested seeker for information. While a large part of this report is devoted to agricul- ture, because that is the leading industry in southern Ala- bama, it is by no means confined to that topic, but seeks to answer as many as possible of the questions that a prospec- tive settler might ask about this section. The subject is still further illustrated a number of judiciously selected photo- graphs, a few taken from earlier publications, but the ma- jority new. Very respectfully, EUGENE A. SMITH, University of Alabama, State Geologist. May, 1920. .AJ-. ..____ _,...., 910J TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 9-23 Widespread tendency of mankind to migrate. 9 Factors influencing distribution of population 9-11 Problem of fitting new settlers to their environment 11 Sources of information hitherto available 12-13 The area treated, and its diversity „ 14-15 Plan of regional descriptions, and methods of investigation 15-19 Choice of illustrations 19-20 Important recent literature relating to this area 20-23 THE REGIONS IN DETAIL (Description of each follows as far as possible the outline given below under general fea- tures) 24-91 Post oak flatwoods _ 24-26 Southern red hills, western division (including lime hills). (Tables 1-4) 26-39 Southern red hills, eastern division. (Tables 5-8) 40-51 Lime-sink region ("Wire-grass"). (Tables 9-12) 51-60 Southwestern pine hills. (Tables 13-16). 60-83 Mobile delta _ 84-86 Coast strip. ( Table 18 ) ....87-91 GENERAL FEATURES 92-139 Stratigraphy „ 92-93 Economic geology 93-94 Soils ( Tables 19, 20 ) „ 94-97 Topography, drainage, navigation, water-power (Table 21) 98-100 Climate 100-101 Vegetation (including census of timber trees, Table 22) 101-104 Population _ 105-116 Early settlements 105 Developments from 1850 to 1900 (density, racial composi- tion and interstate migrations). (Tables 23-24) 105-107 Conditions in 1910 (density, nativity, racial composition, illiteracy, etc.) (Table 25) 107-110 Indians ( Table 26 ) - 108-109 Illiteracy, 1910 (Table 25) : 109-110 Nativity, 1880 and 1910 110 Cities and towns (Tables 27, 28) 110-112 Religious denominations, 1906 and 1916 (Tables 29, 29 A ) _ - 1 12-115 Political parties, 1916 (Table 30) 115-116 6 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Agriculture J. 117-139 Farm equipment and operations 117-127 Conditions before the Civil War. (Percentage of farm land, average size of farms or plantations, and num- ber of animals of various kinds per farm, 1850 and 1860.) (Table 31) 117-118 Conditions in 1870 , 119 Conditions in 1880 and 1890. (Statistics similar to those of 1850 and 1860, with the addition of amount of woodland and pasture, number of poultry, expendi- ture for fertilizers, and value of products.) (Table 32) .' 120-121 Conditions in 1900. (Percentage of negro farmers, owners and tenants, value of farm buildings, and expenditure for labor now given for first time.) (Ta- bles 33-34) 121-123 Conditions in 1909-1910. (Expenditures for feed added. Separate statistics for owners and tenants, whites and negroes. Increase in apparent values explained.) (Tables 35-40) 123-139 Tenure of farms, 1900 and 1910. (Tables 34, 36) 123, 125, 127-129 Farmers classed by color. (Percentage of owners and tenants, size of farms, value of land, buildings, imple- ments and machinery, number of cows, horses and mules, and acreage and yield of cotton and corn, for both races, 1909-10) (Table 37) 126, 129-130 Variations in sizes of farms, 1910 (with graph) 130-132 Crops, 1909 _ 132-136 Relative importance (Table 38) 132-134 Average yields per acre (Table 39) 134-136 Animal products per farm, 1909 (Table 40) 136-139 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS 140 INDEX . .. 141 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. MAP. Page 1. Regional map of southern Alabama 14 WESTERN RED HILLS. 2. Old field with strongly calcareous soil, Wilcox County 27 3. Cedar Creek valley from the Ridge, Butler Co 28 4. View from Lookout Hill, Monroe Co 29 5. Tunnel through Buhrstone ridge, Monroe Co 30 6. Ravine in lime hills, Clarke Co 33 7. Planter's two-story residence, Butler Co 34 8. Mountaineer's home with Buhrstone chimneys, Choctaw Co.... 34 9. Negro houses with sandstone chimneys, Butler Co 36 EASTERN RED HILLS. 10. Cultivated red level uplands, Henry Co 40 11. White Pond, Barbour Co 41 12. Dam at power plant on Pea River, Coffee Co 42 13. Farm scene south of Luverne, Crenshaw Co 45 14. Farm house of the better class, Henry Co 46 15. Road through the Pocosin, Pike Co 47 LIME-SINK REGION. 16. Cut-over lands showing topography, Washington Co 52 17. Small new farms in southern part of Covington Co 56 18. White farmer's home near Dothan, Houston Co 57 SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 19. High ridge with steep slopes, northern Baldwin Co 61 20. Smooth graded road through cut-over land, Baldwin Co 62 21. Desolate cut-over land, southern Mobile Co „ 63 22. Savanna vegetation in southern Mobile Co 64 23. Farm house northwest of Bay Minette, Baldwin Co. 75 24. Stockton, an old settlement in northern Baldwin Co 76 25. Silver Hill, a Swedish settlement in southern Baldwin Co.... 77 STATISTICAL GRAPHS 26. Percentage of negroes and number of inhabitants per square mile, 1820 to 1910 108 27. Ratio of total and improved farm land to total area, 1850 to 1910 119 28. Farm size curves, white and colored, for southern Alabama and the whole State, 1910 131 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA INTRODUCTION VER since the dawn of history men have been migrat- ing from place to place with the hope of bettering their living conditions in one way or another. In the earliest stages they may have known little or nothing of the regions toward which they were traveling, but simply wanted to get away somewhere from overcrowd- ing or persecution. Later some who discovered promising sites in distant lands returned to impart the news to friends and relatives and invite them to share the new discovery. When postal service became established the pioneer settlers could write back to the folks at home without going all the way back themselves. At the present time home-seekers depend mainly on books, pamphlets, periodicals, etc., for information about distant regions that they have never seen, and this gives them a much wider choice than the more primitive means of communication just mentioned. In an area with absolutely equal advantages of soil, cli- mate, etc., throughout, the population would at first tend to concentrate in the more accessible portions, and would grad- ually spread from thickly to thinly settled areas until it be- came uniformly distributed. The earliest settlements in what is now the United States were along the Atlantic coast, because that was most accessible from Europe, and the movement of the center of population has always been west- ward, as the more remote portions gradually filled up. (It is thought, however, that this year's census will show the westward movement to have halted, indicating that a tem- porary equilibrium has been reached.) FACTORS INFLUENCING DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION. But every state or larger area exhibits considerable geographical diversity, and the distribution of the inhabit- ants tends to adjust itself to opportunities. A century or two ago, when agriculture was by far the most important industry, the density of population on the Atlantic slope was pretty closely correlated with soil fertility, except for (9) 10 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. an increased concentration in some places along the coast on account of fisheries and commerce. When deposits of valu- able minerals were opened up people flocked to them, and the invention of innumerable kinds of labor-saving machinery has caused the development of many large manufacturing centers, which import food and clothing materials from all over the country in exchange for factory products. The discovery of mineral fertilizers in various parts of the world since the middle of the last century has made agriculture profitable on many soils in the South once thought hope- lessly sterile, and thus profoundly affected the distribution of population (incidentally placing "the South in the saddle" in national politics in recent years) ; and the development of dry-farming and irrigation has had a similar effect in the arid regions of the West. After each new discovery or invention has had time to take effect the advantages of different parts of the earth are pretty nicely balanced ; otherwise the population of the less favored regions would be perpetually discontented, and trying to migrate to the more favored regions. But as a matter of fact there are multitudes of successful and con- tented people in practically every county in the United States, who would rather live in that particular spot than anywhere else. Where natural resources are few the popu- lation is usually sparse, but the very fact that the most fertile regions are thickly settled interferes with the fullest enjoyment of life and development of resourcefulness by the inhabitants thereof, and makes competition more in- tense. City dwellers have to live under all sorts of restraints to avoid conflict with their neighbors, have to take more pre- cautions against epidemics, and have to pay more rent and taxes than the country people. However, many persons have long been accustomed to that sort of life and would be lone- some and dissatisfied in a thinly settled region, and of course there are some at the other extreme and all grada- tions between. Almost every one has read ^Esop's fable about the city mouse and country mouse who exchanged visits and were each glad to get back home again, and heard of the pioneer settler who felt crowded when somebody else located within five miles of him, and thought it was time to pull up and move farther west. There is now no longer any geographical frontier of settlement in the United States, where any one so inclined INTRODUCTION. 11 can go and prosper by growing up with the country. New opportunities are likely to arise at any time and place; in the city by the building of a new automobile factory or something of the sort, and in the country by the discovery of a new ore deposit or a new use for a supposed worthless kind of tree, the invention of a machine for picking cotton or otherwise expediting agricultural operations, or the de- velopment of a more prolific strain of some staple crop. FITTING NEW SETTLERS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT. The degree of success attained by a person who moves to a new location depends mainly on his own efficiency and his ability to adapt himself to the new conditions. Indus- try and thrift will produce results almost anywhere, if the environment is not too different from what one has been accustomed to. A farmer who had been raising corn and oats on the prairies of Illinois, or wheat on a thousand-acre farm in North Dakota, where the value of crops in 1909-10 was only $8.80 per acre of improved land, would be likely to feel very much out of place among the mountains of Choc- taw County, or on a small sandy truck farm near Mobile, where crops are worth $41 per acre; and one who had been running a dairy in Wisconsin or among the rocky hills of New Hampshire would be equally at a loss among the cot- ton, corn and peanut fields of southeastern Alabama. As a rule a farmer or other person who moves from one state or region to another looks for conditions -similar to what he has been accustomed to,* and maintains about the same standard of living as before ; it is therefore very desir- able for one contemplating a change of location to know beforehand something of the conditions of living in the re- gion where he is going, especially as regards the soil, water supply, climate and timber, the price of land, the average size of farms and cost of buildings, the usual number per farm of domestic animals of various kinds, the principal crops and average yield of each, the prevailing religious denominations, the proportion of settlers from his own state or country, etc., etc. *This was noticed long ago by Sir Charles Lyell, an eminent English geologist who traveled extensively through the South in the second quarter of the last century. See especially his "Second Visit to the United States" (1849), vol. 2, p. 89. 12 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. The aim of this report is to describe conditions in south- ern Alabama so fully and impartially as to reduce the new- comer's chances of disappointment to a minimum ; and it is believed to be more complete than anything previously at- tempted for an area of that size. Although there is already a large amount of literature on the subject, some published by the State or Federal government and some by private individuals (in newspapers, magazines and elsewhere), rail- roads, and land companies, it is very scattered, and varies considerably in accuracy and up-to-dateness. Some of the most reliable publications deal only with some special sub- ject in a rather technical manner, and are rather inacces- sible and unintelligible to the general reader, while at the other extreme are pamphlets that expatiate with many glit- tering generalities on the advantages of Alabama or some county or city therein as a place to live, but do not help the home-seeker much in making a decision between Alabama and some other state, or between different sections of this very diversified State ; and besides the tone of this "booster" literature is usually so thoroughly optimistic that the cau- tious reader may become a little skeptical. The statements in this report are based wherever pos- sible on statistics, which even if not absolutely accurate are at least impartial ; and whatever errors may have occurred in gathering, digesting and printing the data are bound to counterbalance each other to some extent, and are not likely to give any one region an advantage over another. A large part of the statistical matter is devoted to showing the size, value, equipment, production, etc., of the average farm in each region ; and it is well for the prospective settler to bear in mind that even if the average standard of living in a region he is interested in is higher or lower than that to which he has been accustomed, in every community there are many people below the average in wealth, education, efficiency, etc., and a few far above the average, as will be shown graphically in a later chapter; so that one can find neighbors of his own station in life almost anywhere. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. The principal sources of information hitherto available for the various geographical features may now be indicated briefly. INTRODUCTION. 13 Most of the counties in Alabama are now covered by government soil survey reports, which give information about agricultural conditions that is usually impartial and reasonably accurate, but the earlier surveys (published 15- or more years ago) are naturally less satisfactory than the later ones, -and furthermore even if one had access to a complete set of them it would be too much of a task for most persons to wade through them all and weigh the advan- tages and disadvantages of each county. Government census reports contain a vast amount of valuable information about every county, arranged in such a way that comparisons between any two counties in any one particular can be quickly made, but comparatively few persons have the patience to read statistical tables or the skill to digest and interpret them properly, and the absolute figures of the census returns mean little until they are re- duced to ratios or percentages (such as inhabitants per square mile, percentage of whites, value of land per acre, percentage of owners and tenants, etc.). The previous publications of this office give pretty full information about the soils, mineral resources, underground waters, etc., of all parts of the State, but most of them spe- cialize on one topic, such as stratigraphy, gold, marble, iron, coal, or road materials, and thus do not give a good picture of any region or locality. One exception to this rule is Dr. Smith's agricultural report of 1883, prepared in connection with the Tenth Census of the United States. This, however, has long been out of print, and some of the economic condi- tions have of course changed considerably in four decades. Our present statistical information is not only more up-to- date but also more complete than that of 1883, for each suc- cessive census has given more details than its predecessors. And the invention of the half-tone process, about 1885, has made it possible to illustrate descriptive works much more satisfactorily than could be done at the time of the Tenth Census. The present publication is a sort of sequel to Dr. Smith's 1883 report, for a portion of the State, and at the same time an experiment in geographical description on a scale per- haps never before attempted. It seeks to answer as many as possible of the questions that a prospective settler might ask, with impartial information based on personal observa- tion in every county and much reading of current newspa- 14 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. pers and other publications, backed by trustworthy statis- tics from the census and other sources. It also brings out many significant correlations between soil, climate, vegeta- tion, population, agriculture, etc., that probably have not been pointed out before, but ought to hold good over much wider areas. GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA ROLAND M. H 1918 or METC.ICU FIG. 1. Map of southern Alabama, showing regions herein de- scribed and a few others farther inland. (The present report deals only with those south of the blue marl region.) Scale about 1 to 3,750,000, or 60 miles to the inch. The dotted areas in the western half represent the Buhrstone mountains. DIVERSITY OF THE AREA TREATED. .The area treated (shown on the accompanying map) is that part of Alabama underlaid by Tertiary strata, almost exactly a third of the State, or 17,000 square miles. Al- though it is a part of the coastal plain, it is very diversified, and to treat it as a unit for descriptive and statistical pur- poses would obscure some very significant facts. On the INTRODUCTION. 15 other hand, to describe each county separately, as in soil surveys and census reports, would involve tiresome repeti- tion, for adjoining counties are often very much alike. The area is therefore divided into seven or eight essentially homogeneous regions, each differing from its neighbors in one or more important particulars, such as soil or topog- raphy.* Four of these, however, are too narrow to include as much as half of any one county (Alabama counties being inconveniently large for statistical refinements), so that we can get little idea of conditions in them from census reports until the counties are made smaller or the census publishes agricultural returns for units smaller than counties.f The small size of such regions, however, does not interfere with getting information about their soils, topography, forests, etc., except that the writer's observations in some of the smallest regions have been too limited for the most accurate results. PLAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS. The descriptions of each of the larger regions follow ap- proximately the plan outlined for the whole area in the table of contents, while those of the smaller regions are neces- sarily less complete, on account of the lack of census statis- tics. The mineral resources and water supply are discussed rather briefly, for the former are not very important in this part of the State, and the latter is ample and easily acces- sible nearly throughout. The information about soils is chiefly confined to a study of the texture classification, for we have entirely too few chemical analyses to be representa- tive of any one region. For each region the principal tex- ture classes (such as coarse sand, fine sandy loam, etc.) are listed in order of area as determined from the government soil surveys; and a similar plan is followed with other fea- tures that will admit of such treatment, for example, the commonest trees, the leading foreign nationalities and re- ligious denominations, the principal crops, etc.J *For a discussion of the principles of geographical classification see Geol. Surv. Ala., Monograph 8, pp. 17-22. 1913. fThe census does give total population (not separated as to race, etc.) for each beat or precinct, but no information about the size or location of the precincts, so that such data are of very little use even for estimating the density of population in any region. JFor an exposition of the quantitative regional method of geo- graphical description see School Science and Mathematics (Chicago), 18:699-708. Nov., 1918. 16 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. The climate of any two adjacent regions as small and devoid of mountains as those here described naturally does :not differ very much, so that it is not worth while to say much about it in the regional descriptions. But some of the salient features of the climate of the whole area are outlined in the general discussion. Vegetation, like soils, is treated quantitatively as far as possible. For each region the commonest trees, shrubs and vines are listed in approximate order of abundance, as de- termined by counting them repeatedly in the forests. In the three or four northernmost regions here described, where the original forests were rather dense and shady, native herbs are mostly hidden among the trees where a traveler by rail hardly notices them, and they form such a very small fraction of the total bulk of vegetation that it does not seem worth while to list them. Weeds are common enough, but hardly important enough to justify taking up space with long lists of them. In the four southernmost regions, however, there is less cultivated land and conse- quently fewer weeds, and large areas of open pine forests, savannas, marshes, etc., where trees always have been wide- ly scattered or entirely absent, allowing the development of a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation with many showy flow- ers, and this vegetation is so characteristic of the several regions that the commoner species are listed after the woody plants. In the plant lists the technical names of evergreens are printed in heavier type (in the case of the few semi-ever- greens only the second half of the name is thus treated), and the percentage of evergreens, which varies considerably in different regions (being highest on the poorest soils) is estimated. Woody vines are listed with the shrubs, but dis- tinguished by prefixing the letter V. Weeds introduced by civilization from other states or countries are put in paren- theses. No satisfactory treatment of the animal life of the area is possible at this time. We know in a general way what mammals, birds and reptiles are common here, but most of them are found in all parts of the State, and we have no data on how much they vary in abundance in different re- gions, so that lists for the several regions, if reasonably complete as to species, would be very much alike. And the distribution of our fishes, insects, shells, and innumerable INTRODUCTION. 17 smaller animals has been so little studied that it does not seem worth while to mention them at all. The information about population and agriculture is based mostly on government census reports, which give no adequate data about the smaller regions, as already ex- plained, but for the larger ones are far more accurate than what might be gathered by one person in many years. The simplest statistical index of the resources of a region, and at the same time one that can be determined most accurate- ly, is density of population. In regions where there is little mining, manufacturing, fishing, or foreign commerce, and the population gets its living pretty directly from the soil, whether through lumbering, grazing, or raising crops, the number of inhabitants is pretty closely correlated with soil fertility.* In Alabama and other southeastern states the soil also influences the percentage of negroes and various other sociological features, as will be made evident farther on. Where possible the density and racial composition of the population are given all the way back to 1820 (the first census taken after Alabama was admitted to the Union), to show the changes that have taken place since then and give us some idea of what may be expected in the near future. The census of 1870 is disregarded, however, for that having been taken in the days of reconstruction is admittedly inac- curate for most of the southern states. The information obtainable about agricultural condi- tions and operations from recent censuses is pretty compre- hensive, though still leaving much to be desired. The most significant fact in this line about any region is probably the relative amount of "improved land," i. e., that which is cul- tivated, pastured (not counting free range and other wood- land pasture) , or occupied by farm buildings and lots. That has been returned for each county at every census from 1850 to 1910, and is of course a good indication of soil conditions. Every region exhibits some variations in soil fertility, and the richest usually have some spots too poor or wet or rocky to cultivate profitably, and the poorest a few rich spots ; so that at a given time the region with the *0f course in some parts of the world there are fertile soils that cannot support a large population because the climate is too cold or too dry; but there are no such hindrances in Alabama or within sev- eral hundred miles thereof. 18 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. largest proportion of improved land generally has the high- est average fertility. The ratio of improved land to population indicates rough- ly the relative importance of agriculture to other indus- tries in a given region, being of course low in newly settled regions where there is considerable hunting, lumbering, and grazing on open ranges, and also in old regions where most of the people get their living from manufactures or com- merce. The average size of farms, which is ascertainable for every census since 1850 by dividing the total farm area by the number of farms,* is correlated with the type of farm- ing that prevails, cotton plantations and stock farms being usually considerably larger than truck farms. The number of improved acres per farm is more significant, however, for some large farms, particularly in the southern tier of coun- ties and the long-leaf pine regions of other states, consist mostly of woodland on which little or no labor or money is expended and which serves mainly as pasturage. The values of land, buildings, implements, and live-stock (returned at each census since 1850, though land and build- ings were combined until 1900) per average farm, vary sig- nificantly in different regions, also largely on account of soil differences, and are very important as indicating to the new- comer how much capital he should have in order to start in on the same scale as his neighbors. The proportion of white and colored farmers and of owners and tenants, first re- turned in 1900, also reflects social and economic conditions. The values of land, buildings, etc., for the two races sepa- rately are given in a census volume published late in 1918, and it will be seen that there is a considerable difference in their standards of living. The number of farm animals of different kinds is given more or less completely by each census since 1850, and the expenditure for fertilizers was first returned in 1880, that for labor in 1890, and for feed in 1900. The yield of dif- ferent crops in each county has been returned ever since 1840, but usually without going into details of value for *The number of farms in each county in 1850 is not given in the large quarto volume issued in 1853, which was intended to contain all the published results of that census, but in the small octavo "Com- pendium," of 1854. For 1860 there are some discrepancies in the returns published in different tables, apparently chiefly because some included farms of less than three acres and some did not. INTRODUCTION. 19 areas smaller than states, so that it is necessary to do some estimating based on state averages to get the relative impor- tance of different crops in each region. The total value of crops in each county is given by the last census, and by comparing the average crop value per farm with the invest- ment in farm property, expenditures for fertilizers, labor and feed, and making allowance for some minor items not covered by the census, such as interest, taxes, depreciation, grocery bills, and the value of the farmer's own time, one can make a rough estimate of the average farmer's profits in a given region.* Our information about roads, telephones, schools, banks, lumbering, manufacturing, etc., is not as definite as might be wished, but those things usually develop in proportion to the density of population, and must be taken largely for granted by those who have no personal knowledge of the regions discussed. Those who live in the area treated will doubtless detect some omissions or even errors in the descriptions of their own neighborhoods, but at the same time they will almost surely discover many facts previously unknown to them, especially about parts of the area they are not familiar with ; and they should bear in mind that in trying to cover such a large area in a publication of this size perfection is impossible. Information about shortcomings will be grate- fully received, however. ILLUSTRATIONS. All but one of the half-tone illustrations are from photo- graphs by the author, and only two (Figs. 21 and 22) have been published before. If a larger number had been used the subject could of course have been illustrated more thoroughly, but it seemed best to restrict the number and also to print them in the text instead of plates, in order to save time and money, and give this preliminary report a wider circulation than it would have if more sumptuously gotten up. Some readers who have land to sell may be disappointed because the illustrations used to show agricultural conditions *It should be borne in mind that the prices of most commodities have about doubled since 1910, or in other words that money is now worth only about half as much as it was then, so that all 1910 values should be multiplied by two to approximate present conditions. 20 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. are not restricted to the finest houses, tallest crops, fattest hogs, etc., as is customary in "booster" literature. But the aim has been to show neither the best nor the worst, but typical average scenes. It cannot be claimed that an abso- lutely fair average has been struck in every case, however, for one traveler cannot see everything, and often when a most desirable scene is encountered it cannot be photo- graphed on account of weather conditions, or the position of the sun, or too many trees in the way, or the author being on a moving train, or having no more films on hand. And even when conditions are just right for photographing, accidents sometimes happen in developing, when it is too late to go back and take the picture over again. IMPORTANT RECENT LITERATURE. The most important works on the geography of the whole State or any part of it up to the beginning of 1913, as far as known to the writer at that time, were cited in our report on forests (Monograph 8 of this Survey), and do not need to be repeated here, as that publication is easily accessible. There are listed below two earlier publications that contain important information about southern Ala- bama, and several published since 1913. As in Mono- graph 8, the names of authors are arranged alphabetically, and the works of each (if more than one) chronologically. Earlier Works. Harris, G. D. The Midway stage. — Bulletins of American Paleontol- ogy, No. 4, 157 pp., 17 plates. Ithaca, N. Y., 1896. Contains valuable descriptions of several southern Ala- bama localities, particularly in Wilcox County, where the Midway beds are best exposed. (Waring, George E., Jr., compiler) (Social statistics of) Mobile. — Tenth Census U. S., 19:191-198, with two inserted single-page maps. 1887. Publications since 1913. (Allgood, M. C., Commissioner) Alabama hand book. Agricultural and industrial re- sources and opportunities. — 445 pp., numerous illustrations in text, and folded political map of the State. 1919. INTRODUCTION. 21 This contains chapters on a variety of topics by differ- ent contributors (not very logically arranged), and sketches of the counties (in alphabetical order) and principal cities, averaging about a page each, but no index. (Gist, F. W., compiler) Farm labor, livestock, and crop survey of Alabama. — Ala. Agric. & Industries Dept. Bull. 79. 75 pp. (mostly tables). 1918. (See comment on this farther on, under the head of crops.) Hager, Dorsey. Possible oil and gas fields in the Cretaceous beds of Ala- bama.—Bull. Am. Inst. Mining Engrs. 134 :469-476, fig. 1. Feb., 1918. Also in Trans. A. I. M. E. 59:424-431 (with discussion by E. DeGolyer and I. N. Knapp on pp. 431-434). 1918. This does not deal with the Cretaceous regions of Ala- bama so much as with the area covered by this report, where the Cretaceous strata are overlain by Eocene and later for- mations. Hall, B. M. & M. R. Second report on the water powers of Alabama. — Geol. Surv. Ala., Bull. 17. 448 pp., 4 figs., 19 plates. 1916. Harper, R. M. 1. The "Pocosin" of Pike County, Alabama, arid its bear- ing on certain problems of succession. — Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 41 :2C9-220, figs. 1-4. May, 1914. 2. The coniferous forests of eastern North America. — Pop. Sci. Monthly 85:338-361, with 16 half-tones in text. Oct., 1914. Discusses several of the important timber trees that grow in southern Alabama. 3. A forest census of Alabama by geographical divisions. — Proc. Soc. Am. Foresters 11:208-214, with outline map in text. (June) 1916. Also distributed by the Geological Survey of Alabama, with a special title-page. 4. Development of agriculture in the pine-barrens of the southeastern United States. — Jour. Geog. 15:42-48, with outline map in text. Oct., 1916. 5. Some movements of state centers of population and their significance. — Jour. Geog. 15:227-231. March, 1917. 22 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. 6. A preliminary soil census of Alabama and West Flor- ida.— Soil Science 4:91-107, fig. 1 (outline regional map). Aug., 1917. 7. Pronunciation of certain place-names. — Jour. Geog. 16:255-258. March, 1918. Includes a few cases in southern Alabama. 8. The American pitcher-plants. — Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 34:110-125, pi. 2-6. (Oct.) 1918. Includes two pictures taken in southern Alabama. 9. (Distribution of illiteracy in Alabama.) — Montgom- ery Advertiser, Vol. 90, No. 152. June 1, 1919. Reprinted privately as a 12-page octavo pamphlet, with the title, "Illit- eracy in Alabama : where and why?" Contains statistics of racial composition and illiteracy of the population in most of the regions here described. 10. (Some relations between) political parties and farm building values in Alabama. — Montgomery Advertiser, Vol. 90, No. 301, p. 4. Oct. 28, 1919. Also reprinted privately as a 4-page octavo leaflet. Contains a statistical table showing average value of buildings of white farmers in different regions, among other things. 11. A graphic method of measuring civilization, and some of its applications. — Scientific Monthly 10:292-305. March, 1920. Contains a graph with four occupation curves for dif- ferent population groups in Mobile, based on the 1913 direc- tory. Hodges, P. W. Alabama supplement (to Tarr & McMurry's World Geographies, second book) . — Small quarto, 64 pp., with col- ored map and numerous half-tone illustrations. New York (Macmillan Co.) 1918. The illustrations are excellent, but the text is marred by numerous misstatements, exaggerations, and conspicuous omissions. There is also a more elementary edition to go with the first book of geography, with a different set of illus- trations. Hopkins, Oliver B. Oil and gas possibilities of the Hatchetigbee anticline, Alabama.— U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 661:281-313, pi. 26-29. Dec., 1917. INTRODUCTION. 23 Matson, G. C., & Berry, E. W. The Pliocene Citronelle formation of the Gulf coastal plain and its flora.— U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 98:167- 208, figs. 15-17, plates 32-44. Sept., 1916. Smith, Eugene A. Concerning oil and gas in Alabama. — Geol. Surv. Ala., Circular 3. 18 pp., 8 text-figures, and 1 double-page insert- ed map. 1917. Contains maps of the Hatchetigbee and Jackson anti- clines and adjacent territory, on a larger scale than geologi- cal maps of the same area previously published. The U. S. Bureau of Soils has published surveys of sev- eral additional Alabama counties since 1913, so that all the counties in the area under consideration are now mapped except Choctaw, Crenshaw, Geneva, Houston, and Marengo ; and the field work on some of those is already done. 24 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS 1. The post oak flat woods. The northernmost of the regions to be described is a belt six or eight miles wide extending into Alabama from the west about fifty miles. It is more extensive in Mississippi, where it curves northward and nearly reaches the Tennes- see line, keeping approximately the same width all the way. It is underlaid by a non-calcareous stratified clay of Lower Eocene age, the Sucarnochee or Black Bluff formation, which commonly weathers into a stiff clayey soil. The to- pography is comparatively level, with gentle slopes near streams, a few shallow ponds, and almost no springs. Less than half the area is covered by recent soil surveys, so that accurate statistics of soils are not possible, but it appears that the principal texture classes are clay, fine sandy loam, loam, and silt loam. Chemically the soil seems to be moderately fertile, but it contains a rather excessive amount of magnesia, which is detrimental to some plants; and its stiffness in most places is an obstacle to profitable agricul- ture. The fine sandy loam areas, about one-third of the total, are relatively free from the latter drawback, how- ever. The average temperature is about 65°, with a growing season of about 240 days. The annual rainfall is about 50 inches, pretty evenly distributed through the year, except for a deficiency in late summer and fall. The whole area, as far as we know, was originally cov- ered with forests, mostly rather dry and open except along streams, and about three-fourths of it is still wooded, though a great deal of the best timber has been cut out. As long as so much remains uncultivated, however, the forests will renew themselves pretty rapidly, and the timber promises to remain an important resource of this region for a long time. The commonest woody plants are about as follows : POST-OAK FLATWOODS. 25 Commonest woody plants of post-oak flatwoods. TIMBER TREES. Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Liquidambar Styraci- .Various situations. Dry woods. flua.. Quercus stellata ...... Quercus falcata Pinus palustris Quercus nigra Quercus Phellos ..Various situations. >ry woods. . Dry woods. Sandy spots. .Low grounds. Sweet gum Post oak Red oak _., Long-leaf pine ... Water oak Willow oak _ Xow grounds. Quercus pagodaefolia Red oak (?) Bottoms. Pinus glabra Spruce pine Hammocks. Acer rubrum ,. Red maple _ _.....Branch-swamps. Fagus grandifolia ~.Beech Hammocks and bot- toms. Hicoria ovata .» ..Scaly-bark hickory Bottoms. Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia „ Hammocks and bot- toms. Quercus Michauxii Swamp chestnut oak....JBottoms. Populus deltoides Cottonwood River-banks and bot- toms. Liriodendron Tulipifera.Poplar ..Branch-swamps, etc. Platanus occidentalis Sycamore Betula nigra _ _ Birch Ulmus Americana Elm .. Quercus alba White oak Fraxinus Americana (White) ash Taxodium distichum Cypress Acer Negundp _ .Box elder Nyssa sylvatica Black gum SMALL TREES. Salix nigra Willow Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Morus rubra Mulberry Cornus florida Magnolia glauca Dogwood .... (White) bay ..Creek and river banks. ..Creek and river banks. ...Creek and river banks. .._ Hammocks and bot- toms. Bottoms, etc. Swamps and bottoms. River and creek banks. Upland woods. ....Along streams. .....Bottoms. Hammocks and bot- toms. Dry woods. .....Branch-swamps. SHRUBS AND VINES. Arundinaria macro- sper ma „ Reed _ Cephalanthus occiden- talis (Prunus angustifolia) Wild plum Aesculus Pavia Buckeye .... Phoradendron flaves- cens Mistletoe Sambucus Canadensis Elder V Bignonia crucigera Cross-vine Rhus copallina - Sumac V Brunnichia cirrhosa Adelia acuminata : V Tecoma radicans Cow-itch Along rivers and creeks. .....Low grounds. .....Roadsides and old fields. ..._Rich woods. . On deciduous trees. Low grounds. ......Woods. Dry woods, etc. Banks of creeks and rivers. ....River-banks. ....Various situations. 26 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. About 45 per cent of the trees and shrubs are evergreen, which is near the average for the State, but below the aver- age for southern Alabama. The pines are important sources of lumber, and the sweet gum and some of the oaks are also utilized. Lumbering is probably the most important indus- try, and in 1912 there were more sawmills in this region in proportion to its area than in almost any other part of the State. The region is too narrow for any statistics of population and agriculture, but the density of population and amount of improved land are evidently below the average, on ac- count of unfavorable soil conditions and scarcity of good wa- ter. The relative importance of the different crops is prob- ably much the same as in the region next to be described. There are no towns of any consequence in the flatwoods, but Livingston, York and Linden are close to its edges. The belt is crossed by five lines of railroad, namely, the A. T. & N., the L. & N., and three branches of the Southern (includ- ing the A. G. S.). 2. Southern red hills, western division. (Figures 2-9; tables 1-4.) The Eocene region of Alabama, extending all the way across the State, has hitherto commonly been treated as a geographical unit, except for the post-oak flatwoods on the north and the lime hills on the southwest. But recent sta- tistical studies have brought out striking differences in soil, climate, vegetation, population and agriculture between the western and eastern portions of this belt, which was desig- nated the southern red hills in Monograph 8. The transi- tion from one to the other is not abrupt, however, and the line between them on the map is located somewhat arbi- trarily. On the other hand, the lime hills, formerly separated on geological grounds, are so similar in soil, topography and vegetation to the western division of the red hills, which they closely adjoin, that they may for most purposes be combined therewith. If there are any noteworthy differ- ences in population and agriculture the census figures would not disclose them anyway, for the lime hills belt does not cover as much as half of any county, and most of the coun- ties traversed by it are among those used to illustrate the western red hills. WESTERN RED HILLS. 27 The area of the western division is about 4,400 square miles, or 5,700 with the lime hills. It continues into Missis- sippi for a considerable distance, with the soils gradually becoming more silty northwestward, but the lime hills sub- division at or about the State line passes into a sort of prairie region. GEOLOGY. The geological formations comprise several different horizons, most of them with no very striking lithological characteristics. There are some exceptions to the last state- FIG. 2. Old field or weedy pasture on strongly calcareous soil (Midway formation) near eastern edge of Wilcox County. Trees in background nearly all cedars. June 12, 1919. ment, however, the most notable of which is the Buhrstone or Tallahatta formation, a sort of sandstone which is quite resistant to erosion and forms some high ridges, known lo- cally as mountains. This crops out in a belt a little north of the center of the region (shown on the map), and again in a shorter parallel belt in the Hatchetigbee anticline,* in the midst of the lime hills. The underlying stratum of the lime hills, exposed in a number of bluffs and hillside ledges, is mainly a soft whitish limestone, easily cut with a saw *See chapter on stratigraphy, under General Features, farther on (page 93). 28 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. when freshly quarried, but hardening and turning gray on prolonged exposure. That and the Buhrstone are used ex- tensively for chimneys and pillars in the areas where they occur, as is a rock somewhat similar to the Buhrstone out- cropping a little farther north, for example near Greenville. Another mineral product, that seems to have become a source of considerable revenue in the last year or two, is a pyritous earth occurring in the Hatchetigbee and (less abundantly) in other formations, which has been made the basis of several patent medicines. There are several mineral springs of diverse composi- tion, particularly in the Hatchetigbee anticline, and some FIG. 3. Looking north across cultivated valley of Cedar Creek, from the Ridge, over 100 feet above it, between Manningham and Ridgeville, Butler County. June 11, 1919. of them have had considerable reputation as watering- places. Some of the underground water is decidedly briny, and where that comes to the surface in springs, as in south- ern Clarke County, salt was manufactured during the Civil War, the natural springs being supplemented by bored wells. In southern Choctaw County some of the water that seeps out in low places contains an alkali, sodium carbonate, which has a stunting effect on the surrounding vegetation. Some deep wells have yielded besides hot brine a little natural gas and some indications of oil. WESTERN RED HILLS. 29 SOILS. The soils seem to be mainly residual from the Eocene strata, and range from black sticky calcareous clay to sand and rocky slopes. Although few chemical analyses are avail- able, the fertility seems to be a little above the average, phosphorus for one thing being usually present in ample amounts. Some shade of red is the prevailing color. The predominating texture classes, in the western red hills and lime hills together, are fine sandy loam (making a little over half the total), clay, sandy loam, fine sand, sand, gravelly sandy loam, meadow, silt loam, and stony clay. FIG. 4. Looking about northeast from brow of Lookout Hill, one of the Buhrstone ridges, said to be the highest elevation in Monroe County. Horizon probably 10 or 12 miles away. Oct. 28, 1919. TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. The topography varies from rolling to almost moun- tainous, and in some portions is decidedly rugged as com- pared with most other parts of the coastal plain. The steep Buhrstone ridges attain a height of over 500 feet above sea- level, or perhaps 200 feet above the neighboring valleys, in Choctaw and Monroe Counties, and some of those in the Hatchetigbee anticline cannot be much lower. The only railroad tunnel in southern Alabama — and perhaps the southernmost one in the United States — pierces one of the Buhrstone ridges near Tunnel Springs in Monroe County. 30 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. (For many years this ridge and others near it formed a bar- rier between the Selma and Flomaton divisions of the L. & N. R. R., which terminated at Pine Apple and Repton re- spectively, and were not connected until about 25 years ago.) The two large muddy rivers, the Alabama especially, have steep banks and little or no swamp, meander through broad alluvial bottoms, and are navigable for steamboats most of the year. In the early history of the State, when their drainage basins were mostly heavily wooded, naviga- FlG. 5. South end of tunnel on L. & N. R. R., in a Buhrstone ridge about two miles north of Tunnel Springs, Monroe County. Photographed by Dr. Eugene A. Smith, July 21, 1905. tion was seldom interrupted, but the clearing of the land allows the rainfall to run off rapidly instead of soaking into the leaf -mold and soil to reappear later in springs, with the result that in the long dry spells of late summer and fall the volume of water in the rivers may be insufficient. With- in the last ten or twelve years this difficulty has been over- come on the Tombigbee by the construction of several locks and dams for slack-water navigation, which by the way are practically the only such structures in the whole coastal plain of the United States up to the present time. The WESTERN RED HILLS. 31 smaller streams are clear much of the time, and usually bordered by strips of swamp of varying width. The remarks on climate in the chapter on the post oak flatwoods will apply pretty well to this region also. The amount of summer rain increases a little toward the south- east, but fall is still the driest season. VEGETATION. The forests are mostly mixed pine and hardwoods, as in many other parts of the South. Some of the extreme types are rather open forests of long-leaf pine on the high Buhr- stone ridges, the usual bottom-land hardwoods on the rich flood-plains, and cedar, walnut, redbud, and other supposed lime-loving trees on and around the limestone outcrops. About 65 per cent of the area is wooded at the present time. The commonest woody plants are about as follows : Commonest woody plants of western red hills (including the Buhr- stone mountains and the lime hills). TIMBER TREES. Pinus Taeda ..Short-leaf pine Various situations. Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Uplands. Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Ridges and poor soils. Liquidambar Styraci- flua Sweet gum ....Various situations. Pinus glabra Spruce pine l.Hammocks, etc. Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks and bluffs. Fagus grandif olia _ Beech „ Ravines and .bluffs. Liriodendron Tulipif era. Poplar „ Ravines and branches. Quercus alba White oak Ravines and bluffs. Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds mostly. Quercus falcata Red oak Uplands. Quercus Marylandica Black-jack oak Dry ridges. Acer rubrum Red maple Branch-swamps. Nyssa biflora Black gum Branch-swamps, etc. Quercus laurifolia _ Hammocks. Quercus stellata Post oak _ Dry uplands. Quercus Michauxii Swamp chestnut oak ...Bottoms. Tilia heterophylla ? Lin Rich woods. Juniperus Virginiana Cedar Limestone otucrops. Populus deltoides Cottonwood _ River-banks. Platanus occidentalis Sycamore River-banks. Nyssa sylvatica _ Black gum _ Rich woods. Fraxinus Americana Ash _...._ Rich woods. Taxodium distichum Cypress — Swamps and sloughs. Betula nigra Birch _ _ Along rivers and creeks. Ulmus alata Elm Rich woods. Quercus Phellos Willow oak ^Bottoms, etc. Hicoria alba Hickory Rich woods. 32 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Acer saccharinum Silver maple River-banks. Acer Negundo Box elder River-banks, etc. (Diospyros Virginiana). .Persimmon Old fields, etc. Celtis occidentals ? .Hackberry Low grounds. Magnolia acuminata Cucumber tree Ravines and bluffs. Ulmus Americana Elm Rich woods. Castanea dentata Chestnut I High ridges. Quercus borealis max- ima? Cool rich woods. Quercus velutina Black oak Rich uplands. SMALL TREES. Salix nigra _ .Willow Along streams. Magnolia glauca _....Bay » Branch-swamps, etc. Cornus florida Dogwood Dry woods. Magnolia macrophylla Cucumber tree ...Rich slopes. Ilex opaca Holly Hammocks and ravines. Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood Bottoms. Oxydendrum arboreunu..Sourwood Hammocks, bluffs, etc. Morus rubra .._ Mulberry „ Rich woods. Cercis Canadensis ..Redbud JLimestone outcrops, etc. Ostrya Virginiana ~ _ _ Hammocks and bluffs. Quercus cinerea ..Turkey oak Dry ridges. Osmanthus Americana - _ Hammocks. Quercus Catesbaei .. Black-jack oak Dry ridges. Magnolia pyramidata Cucumber tree Ravines. Planera aquatica _ River-banks. SHRUBS AND VINES. Alnus rugosa Alder _ Along branches, etc. Myrica cerifera Myrtle _ Hammocks and bluffs. Illicium Floridanum Stink-bush Low hammocks. Rhus copallina ..(Black) sumac „ Dry woods, etc. Kalmia latifolia Ivy _ Ravines and bluffs. Sabal glabra Palmetto Swamps. V Bignonia crucigera Cross-vine _ „ Low woods. V Decumaria barbara.. _ Damp woods. V Rhus radicans -...Poison ivy „ Bottoms, etc. Phoradendron flaves- cens „ Mistletoe On deciduous trees. Aesculus Pavia ..Buckeye Rich woods. Aralia spinosa „ Prickly ash _Ravines and bluffs. V Berchemia scandens Rattan vine _ Bottoms, etc. V Parthenocissus quin- quefolia Virginia creeper ..Rich woods. Arundinaria tecta ..Reed Damp woods. Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty — Branch-swamps, etc. Rhus glabra (Red) sumac „ Roadsides, etc. Callicarpa Americana ..French mulberry Rich upland woods. Batodendron arboreum Sparkleberry Dry woods. Hamamelis Virginiana ..Witch-hazel _ Hammocks and bluffs. (Prunus angustifolia) Wild plum Roadsides and old fields. V Tecoma radicans - ..Cow-itch Various situations. Cephalanthus occiden- talis Low grounds. WESTERN RED HILLS. 33 Arundinaria macro- sperma Azalea nudiflora _ Rubus nigrobaccus? V Vitis rotundif olia .._ Sassafras variifolium Sambucus Canadensis ... Rubus cuneifolius _ Cornus stricta? _ V Gelsemium semper - virens _ V Smilax laurifolia .Reed River-banks, etc. .Honeysuckle Woods. .Blackberry _ ......Various situations. .Muscadine .Various situations. .Sassafras _ Old fields, etc. .Elder _ Low grounds. .Blackberry .Roadsides, etc. Swamps. .Yellow jessamine .Various situations. .Bamboo vine Branch-swamps. FiG. 6. Ravine in lime hills in Clarke County, about 7 miles northwest of Claiborne, with some of the dense forest recently dead- ened to make room for corn and cotton. Sept. 27, 1912. About 70 per cent of the trees are evergreen. Oaks are relatively scarce, the commonest one ranking ninth in the list if the above sequence is correct as far as that ; and hickories seem to be quite rare. Cedar, hackberry, post oak, black-jack oak and black oak are less abundant than one might expect from their occurrence in neighboring re- gions. The pines are important sources of lumber, and the long-leaf one is tapped for turpentine in many places. In 1912 there were 48 sawmills reported in this region, with an average capacity of 18,480 board feet a day. Gathering evergreens for decorative purposes is an important indus- try in Conecuh and Monroe Counties. 2— AR 34 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. FIG. 7. A planter's two-story residence at Mt. Moriah, near the northwestern corner of Butler County, about ten miles by road from the nearest railroad. June 12, 1919. Most of the houses in the vil- lage of Furman (Old Snow Hill), a few miles to the northwestward, are as good as this. (Compare with Figures 8, 9 and 14.) FIG. 8. Home of a white farmer, with Buhrstone chimneys, among the "mountains" about a mile north of Needham, Choctaw County. April 17, 1913. WESTERN RED HILLS. 35 POPULATION. In pre-historic times this region must have been the happy hunting-ground of the Choctaw Indians, as shown by the many geographical names of Choctaw origin (such as Bogue Loosa, Fluctabunna, Hatchetigbee, Kintabish, Naheola, Nanafalia, Pushmataha, Satilpa, Souwilpa, Tal- lahatta, Tickabum, Tombigbee, Tuscahoma, and Yantayab- ba) . The fertile soils, mild climate, and easy access by navi- gable rivers attracted white settlers early in the history of the United States. In 1820, when Alabama first appeared in the census returns, there were nearly five inhabitants per square mile in this -division. The salient features of the population are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1. Population statistics of western red hills. 1 1910 1900 1890 1880 1860 1850 1840 1880 1820 Inhabitants per sq. mi 29 27 23 21 17 12 10 8 5 Per cent white _ 37 37 39 38 45 47 50 56 63 Per cent negro 63 63 61 62 55 53 50 44 37 Only 2.4 per cent of the population is classed in the 1910 census as urban, i. e., living in cities with over 2,500 inhab- itants. It will be noticed that in 1820, when the land was mostly covered with primeval forest and agriculture was comparatively undeveloped, there were nearly twice as many whites as negroes ; but as the cotton planters gradually su- perseded the pioneer woodsmen the proportion of negroes steadily increased, up to 1880, since which time it has re- mained almost stationary. The number of foreign whites and of Indians is almost too small to count, only a fraction of one per cent. In 1880 the average resident of this region, counting all races and all ages, lived about 38 miles from his birthplace, and about nine-tenths of them were born in Alabama. Im- migration from outside the State had been principally from South Carolina, Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Missis- sippi, Florida, Tennessee and Maryland, in the order named. (No information of this sort is available from later cen- suses, the returns not having been published in sufficient detail.) 36 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. In 1906 the leading religious denominations among the white population were Baptist, M. E. South, Methodist Pro- testant, Presbyterian, Primitive Baptist, and Disciples of Christ ; and among the negroes, Baptist, African Methodist, A. M. E. Zion, Colored Methodist, Primitive Baptist, and Cumberland Presbyterian. The largest towns, with their population in 1910, are Greenville, with 3,377 inhabitants; Evergreen, with 1,582; FIG. 9. Group of negro farm houses, with sandstone chimneys, remote from any white man's house, on the Ridge a few miles east of Ridgeville, Butler County. June 11, 1919. Jackson, 1,379; Thomasville, 1,181; Georgiana, 999; York, 710, Cuba, 650; Camden, 648; Pineapple, 627; and Mon- roeville, 616. Together they increased in population about 30 per cent between 1900 and 1910, and it is safe to assume that this year's census will show a similar increase for most of them in the last ten years. Every county is served by one or more railroads^ though Choctaw had none up to about ten years ago, on account of its rather mountainous topography. The leading systems, in order of mileage, are the Louisville & Nashville; Ala- bama, Tennessee & Northern; Southern; Gulf, Florida & Alabama; and Alabama Great Southern. In 1910 the percentage of illiteracy among the white population over 10 years old was 7.6, and among the ne- groes of corresponding age 44.2. These figures, especially WESTERN RED HILLS. 37 the latter, are rather high, but easily explained by the sparse and predominantly rural population, which makes schools rather far apart. But educational conditions are better in the towns, and are improving steadily with the increase in population. In Greenville, the only city in the region for which such data are given by the last census, the illiteracy figures were 0.34 per cent for whites and 7.9 per cent for negroes, or 4.5 per cent for the total population, which is a better showing than that of New York City and almost equal to that of Boston. AGRICULTURE. Agriculture has long been the leading industry. In 1850, when the area of farm land was first returned by the cen- sus, nearly one-tenth of the land was in cultivation, and in the next decade the amount nearly doubled. The salient features of agriculture at the censuses of 1850, 1860, and 1880 to 1910 are shown in Tables 2 to 4. TABLE 2. Farm equipment in western red hills, 1850-1910. 1910 1900 1890 1880 1860 1850 Percentage of land in farms Percentage of land improved Improved acres per inhabitant Average number acres per farm... Average improved acres per farm Av. value of land per farm ($) Av. value of buildings per farm Av. value implem'ts & machinery Average value of livestock 64 26 5.8 84 34 613 248 53 223 67 24 5.6 105 38 351 141 33 151 66 22 6.1 131 44 [534 23 180 57 17 5.0 134 39 403 21 158 66 18 6.5 514 134 4480 173 996 36 10 5.4 415 113 1630 128 633 Number of slaves per farm _ : . , .- 11.3 10.8 Number of horses _ 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.7 2.5 3.4 Number of mules 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 2.7 1.7 Number of dairy cows Number of work oxen 1.7 1 1.3 f 0.5 1.9 0.7 2.0 0 7 5.6 21 7.7 2 1 Number of other cattle [ 2.8 2.2 . 3.7 3.8 12.7 18.1 Number of sheep • 03 0.7 1.6 1.5 7.4 122 Number of goats 0.4 0.7 Number of hogs _ 6.4 6.8 9.8 9.4 42 60 Number of chickens . . _ ] f 21 33 15 Number of other poultry n 1 2.4 3.3 3.0 Number of colonies of bees J 06 1 7! 38 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. TABLE 3. Farm expenditures, receipts, etc., in western red hills, 1880-1910. 1910 1900 1890 1880 Percentage of white farmers..... Percentage of negro farmers Percentage of farms operated by owners and part owners 37 63 36 - 39 61 38 44 Expenditure for fertilizers, per farm ($)... Expenditure for labor per farm 27 23 7 21 11 3 Expenditure for feed per farm _ 20 Expenditure for fertilizers, per acre im- proved . .... . _ .80 .20 .24 .07 Expenditure for labor, per acre improved Expenditure for feed, per acre improved- .68 .58 .56 Average annual value of crops per farm- Average annual value of animal products Value of crops per acre improved _..... Value of animal products per a. imp Value of farm land per acre 488 64 14.40 1.88 7.35 338 9.05 3.34 415 9.43 395 10.20 TABLE 4. Agricultural statistics of western red hills by race and tenure, 1910. Whites Negroes Owners Tenants Percentage of white farmers „ 66 20 Percentage of negro farmers ... 34 80 Percen'ge of owners and part owners Percentage of tenants 64 35 19 81 Average number of acres per farm Average improved acres per farm.._ Value of farm land per acre ($) Value of farm land per farm , Value of buildings per farm _ Value of implements and machinery... 152 47 6.95 1057 468 98 43 26 8.12 350 118 26 166 50 \ 1565 35 25 444 Number of dairy cows per farm Number of work horses per farm Number of work mules per farm.._ 2.5 0.8 0.9 1.2 0.4 0.5 •• : Acres of cotton per farm 13.5 148 Bales per acre 0.34 0.27 ""_ Acres of corn per farm Bushels per acre 9.7 11.1 5.8 11.3 WESTERN RED HILLS. 39 Most of these figures can be left to tell their own story, as it would take too much space to discuss each one. The increase in the magnitude of farming operations just be- fore the Civil War and the sudden decline at that period need no comment.* Since that time the average size of farms has gradually decreased with the increasing efficiency and specialization of the farmers, as has been the case in practically all the eastern states. The increases in apparent values between 1850 and 1860 and between 1900 and 1910 were due largely to discoveries of gold, in California in 1849 and in the Klondike, South Africa and elsewhere in 1896 and subsequent years, which affected the whole country in much the same way. The amount of improved land is slowly increasing here, as in most other parts of the world. The number of animals per farm has declined, but the number per acre has changed little in recent decades. But since the last census the boll- weevil has arrived and caused a reduction in cotton acreage, which is believed to have resulted in increased attention be- ing given to livestock. Negroes are in the majority as farmers, as in the total population, but the total area and value of farm property occupied by them is less than that belonging to the whites. About four-fifths of the negro and one-third of the white farmers are tenants. The expenditure for fertilizers in this fertile region is below the State average, but is increas- ing. The leading crops in 1909, in order of value, were cotton (over half the total), corn, "vegetables,"! sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, hay, oats, cowpeas, peanuts, Irish potatoes, and peaches. The indications are that cotton has declined in importance since then, though still leading, and that peanuts and other food crops have taken a higher rank. *It should be borne in mind that negroes did not become farm proprietors until after the war, and that alone would make a consid- erable difference in the average size of farms between 1860 and 1880. •(•"Vegetables" in the census reports means quite a variety of things. See chapter on crops, near the end of this report. Greenville is quite an important shipping point for radishes. 40 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. 3. Southern red hills, eastern division. (Figures 10-15; tables 5-8.) This type of country covers about 3,600 square miles in Alabama, and extends in a northeasterly direction across Georgia and South Carolina. It is nearly all underlaid by Eocene strata, mostly argillaceous or siliceous and not much indurated. At the northern edge, however, a strip a few miles wide mapped by geologists in recent years as "Provi- dence sand," and regarded as uppermost Cretaceous, resem- bles the neighboring blue marl region much less than it does the red hills, and is here treated as belonging to the latter. FIG. 10. Red level uplands about four miles north of Abbeville, Henry County, with peanuts, corn, and a patch of woods. July 26, 1919. Limestone is not a prominent constituent of the underlying strata, but there are small areas of it near Clayton and Rutledge, and a large limestone spring in the southern part of Barbour County, with some sinks and ponds near by, presumably indicates the same kind of rock not far below the surface. The f ossilif erous formations are in most places covered by a structureless red sandy clay several feet thick, which is remarkably uniform in appearance for hundreds of miles, and may be of Pliocene or later age, though the mod- ern tendency is to regard it as a mere product of weather- ing. That in turn is often overlaid by a few inches or feet of loose or somewhat loamy sand, particularly in the more level areas. EASTERN RED HILLS. 41 A yellowish siliceous rock (pseudo-buhrstone) is used locally for chimneys in Henry and Coffee Counties, and a limestone of uncertain age, scarcely distinguishable from that in the lime hills already mentioned, is used in a similar manner in Crenshaw County. The water supply is excel- lent. Pure water can be obtained from shallow wells al- most anywhere in the region, and a larger supply from artesian wells, which however do not overflow but have to be pumped. TOPOGRAPHY. The topography is nearly everywhere moderately hilly, with broad ridges and narrow valleys, so that roads and FIG. 11. White Pond, in southern part of Barbour County, July 25, 1919. railroads are located mostly on the uplands. The inland edge of the region is a northward-facing escarpment, from which extensive views may be had near Troy and Clayton and doubtless elsewhere. The highest uplands are about 600 feet above sea-level, but there is nothing corresponding to the mountains of the western division. The general ele- vation of the uplands slopes gently southward, at the rate of about ten feet per mile. Creeks, branches, and small springs are numerous. There is no large navigable river in this part of the State except the Chattahoochee on its east- ern border. That has high banks and practically no swamp, and the same is true of the Pea River, a much smaller 42 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. stream, for several miles near Elba at least. All the streams other than the Chattahoochee River rise in the coastal plain south of the black belt, and are not very muddy or cal- careous, and most of them are bordered by swamps. (The Chattahoochee passes considerably to the eastward of the black belt, and washes comparatively few calcareous strata.) There are a few small water-powers, chiefly grist-mills, and a large hydro-electric plant on the Pea River four or five miles below Elba. SOILS. The soils are more sandy than in the western division, partly on account of the nature of the strata and (probably) FIG. 12. Dam at hydro-electric plant on Pea River about four miles below Elba, Coffee County. Strata in foreground are of the Wood's Bluff formation. July 28, 1919. partly on account of a certain climatic difference mentioned below, and this causes important differences in vegetation, population and agriculture. The prevailing texture classes are sandy loam, sand, fine sandy loam, fine sand, loamy sand, meadow, swamp, and coarse sand. The average tex- ture is evidently coarser than in the western division, and there can be little doubt that representative chemu al an- alyses would show the fertility to be less eastward. CLIMATE. There are no weather stations in this region established long enough to give reliable records, but it is evident from EASTERN RED HILLS. 43 observations in neighboring regions that the principal cli- matic difference between this and the western division is that there is a little more rain in the hottest part of the year, late summer, which therefore has a greater leaching effect on the soil than the cooler rains of winter and spring. Tornadoes are probably less frequent than in the western division.* VEGETATION. The general aspect of the forests is much like that in the western division, except that there are more dry pine and oak woods and fewer rich ravines, hammocks and bluffs. The "pocosin" of Pike County (Fig. 15) is a forest composed mostly of evergreen hardwoods, unlike anything else known in Alabama, but not very different from many sandy hammocks in Florida.f The commonest woody plants in the region are about as follows : Commonest woody plants of eastern red hills. TIMBER TREES. Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Sandy uplands. Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine .Various situations. Pinus echinata ..Short-leaf pine Dry uplands. Quercus Marylandica — Black-jack oak Dry uplands. Quercus falcata Red oak Dry uplands. Liriodendron Tulipifera.-Poplar _ -Branch-swamps, etc. Liquidambar Styraci- flua _ ..Sweet gum -.Various situations. Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia _ Hammocks. Pinus glabra ..Spruce pine — -Hammocks. Nyssa biflora Black gum -Branch-swamps. Quercus laurifolia _ „ _. -Hammocks. Quercus alba White oak -Rich woods. Quercus nigra Water oak Low grounds. Quercus stellata ....„ Post oak _ Dry uplands. Acer rubrum ..Red maple Swamps. Fagus grandifolia Beech - Ravines and bottoms. Hicoria alba _»..Hickory Dry woods. Pinus Elliottii Slash pine Shallow ponds. (Melia Azedarach) Chinaberry _ Roadsides, etc. Betula nigra Birch „ River-banks. Tilia heterophylla ? Lin Rich woods. Quercus velutina — Black oak Uplands. Hicoria glabra (Pignut) hickory Hammocks, etc. Pinus serotina ....Black pine _ - Sandy swamps. *See Science II. 48:208-211, Aug. 30, 1918. fFor descriptions and illustrations of this interesting spot see Monograph 8, pp. 99-100, 160-161, and a botanical paper cited in the bibliography of the present report (page 21). 44 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. SMALL TREES. Magnolia glauca .....( White) bay „ Swamps. Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak Sandy uplands. Cornus florida _ Dogwood Dry woods. Salix nigra Willow Along streams. Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Sandy uplands. Osmanthus Americana _ Hammocks. Oxydendrum arboreunu.-Sourwood Hammocks, etc. Ilex opaca _... Holly Ravines and hammocks. Quercus Margaretta ..Post oak _ Sandy uplands. Crataegus Michauxii (Red) haw Sandy uplands. Ostrya Virginiana Ravines and hammocks. Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood _ .Bottoms. Persea Borbonia ..Red bay Hammocks and bot- toms. Symplocos tinctoria Sweet-leaf Hammocks. Magnolia pyramidata Cucumber tree Ravines. SHRUBS AND VINES. Alnus rugosa Alder Along streams. My rica cerif era Myrtle Hammocks, etc. (Prunus angustifolia) .....Wild plum Old fields and roadsides. (Rubus cuneifolius) Blackberry _ Old fields and roadsides. Batodendron arboreum Sparkleberry Dry woods and ham- mocks. V Smilax laurifolia ...Bamboo vine .Branch-swamps. Ilex vomitoria .....Yaupon Along Pea River mostly. Ilex glabra -..Gallberry Damp sand. Kalmia latifolia .--Ivy Hammocks and bluffs. V Vitis rotundifolia Muscadine _ Hammocks, etc. Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty :..Branch and creek V Gelsemium semper- swamps. virens Yellow jessamine Hammocks, roadsides, etc. (Sassafras variifolium).. Sassafras Old fields and roadsides. Arundinaria tecta Reed _ ...Damp woods. Ceanothus Americanus... Red-shank Dry woods. Callicarpa Americana .....French mulberry Hammocks, etc. (Sambucus Canadensis).. Elder _ _ Low grounds. Aralia spinosa Prickly ash Hammocks. Rhus copallina Sumac -Dry woods, etc. Hydrangea quercifolia Seven-bark _ Hammocks, etc. Asimina parviflora Pawpaw ...Hammocks. Phoradendron flaves- cens Mistletoe ...On "deciduous trees. Hamamelis Virginiana... .Witch-hazel ...Hammocks and ravines. V Vitis aestivalis Wild grape _ ...Roadsides, etc. V Smilax lanceolata Wild smilax ...Hammocks. Viburnum semitomen- tosum „ ..Edges of swamps. Illicium Floridanum Stink-bush _ Edges of swamps. V Bignonia crucigera..... Cross-vine ::.Woods. Clethra alnifolia Edges of swamps. Hypericum fascicula- tum „ .Shallow ponds. • EASTERN RED HILLS. 45 About 65 per cent of the forest is evergreen. If a cen- sus of the forests could have been taken before the country was settled, say 100 years ago, the differences in composi- tion between the eastern and western divisions would doubt- less have been greater than they are now, for the forests that have been destroyed to make room for crops in the western division are mostly those of fertile valleys, and in the eastern division those of dry uplands. So in listing the species in order of present abundance we are in a sense contrasting the rocky ridges of the western division with the valleys of the eastern. Herbs other than Spanish moss and weeds are rather inconspicuous, as explained in the introduction. Long-leaf FIG. 13. Typical rural scene about six miles south of Luverne, Crenshaw County, showing moderately hilly topography, cotton and corn, white farmer's home (unpainted, with the far end of logs) and barn. July 30, 1919. pine, poplar, black-jack oak, red oak, black gum and hick- ory are more abundant here than in the western division, while the reverse is true of sweet gum, spruce pine, beech, water oak, and most river-bank trees. The forest industries are much the same as in the western division. In 1912 there were 39 sawmills in this division, with an average capacity of 10,280 board feet per day. (But if similar data were obtainable for a generation ago, when the western division had more cleared land than the eastern, the mills of the eastern division would probably have shown up the larger.) The abundance of yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) along the Pea 46 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. River in Coffee County suggests the possibility of utilizing it as a source of caffeine (of which its leaves contain about half as much as the best tea). POPULATION. This region was settled up more slowly at first than the western division, on account of the less fertile soil and greater distance from markets, but overtook it in density of population about 1889. The principal changes in density and composition of population since 1820 are shown in Table 5. FIG. 14. One of the better class of farm houses in the eastern red hills, about three miles north of Capps, Henry County. July 26, 1919. TABLE 5. Population statistics of eastern red mils. 1910 1900 1890 1880 1860 1850 1840 1830 1820 Inhabitants per sq. mi Per cent white „ Per cent negro 38 68 32 33 71 29 24 74 26 18 75 25 13 79 21 8 83 17 7 84 16 5 76 24 1 76 24 The ratio of whites to negroes has varied from about 5 to 1 in 1840 and 1850 to 2 to 1 in 1910, indicating quite dif- ferent social and economic conditions from those in the EASTERN RED HILLS. 47 western division. An interesting feature of the rural popu- lation is that the two races tend to congregate in different neighborhoods in the same counties, without any noticeable differences in soil. Only 5.4 per cent of the population was FIG. 15. Road through the Pocosin, Pike County. Soil very sandy, and trees and shrubs mostly evergreen. March 27, 1913. classed as urban in 1910, and the proportion of foreigners was about 1 in 3, COO. In 1880 the immigration from other states had been mostly from Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolira, Flor- 48 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Ida, Virginia, Mississippi and Tennessee, in the order named, and the average resident lived about 49 miles from his birthplace. In 1906 the leading religious denominations among the white population were Baptist, M. E. South, Primitive Bap- tist, Church of Christ, and Methodist Protestant ; and among the negroes, Baptist, A. M. E., A. M. E. Zion, and Cumber- land Presbyterian. In 1910 the percentage of illiteracy for the whole popu- lation over 10 years old was 21.2, or a little less than the State average. The largest cities, with their population in 1910, are as follows. Troy, 4,961; Enterprise, 2,322; Ozark, 2,229; Lu- verne, 1,384; Abbeville, 1,141; Clayton, 1,130; Headland, 1,090; Elba, 1,079. All these have electric lights, water- works, newspaper, etc., and together they increased in pop- ulation over 50 per cent between 1900 and 1910. The leading railroad is the Atlantic Coast Line (for- merly Alabama Midland, Abbeville Southern, Southwest Alabama, etc.), and the only other of importance in this region is the Central of Georgia. At the present time there are several lines of automobiles making regular trips from Luverne, Elba and Dothan to other towns with which they are not directly connected by rail. AGRICULTURE. In ante-bellum days agriculture was comparatively un- developed here, as already shown by the sparse population and small proportion of negroes. In 1850 about 6 per cent of the area was under cultivation, but this more than dou- bled in the next decade, and reached 43 per cent in 1910. The progress of agriculture in 60 years and its status in 1910 are shown by Tables 6 to 8. As in the western division, the scale of farming opera- tions was increasing rapidly just before the Civil War, and since then the tendency has been in the opposite direction. The percentage of improved land in the total area (and therefore the number of farms) has increased more rapidly than in the western division, this increase being due largely to discoveries of fertilizing materials in Germany, Chile, South Carolina, Florida, etc., since the middle of the last century, as will be explained farther on. EASTERN RED HILLS. 49 TABLE 6. Farm equipment in eastern red hills, 1850—1910. 1910 1900 1890 1880 1860 1850 Percentage of land in farms Percentage of land improved Improved acres per inhabitant Average number acres per farm- Average improved acres per farm Ave'ge value of land per farm ($) Av. value buildings, per farm Av. value implements and mach'y Average value of livestock 83 43 7.2 89 45 850 272 63 237 81 35 6.7 109 47 371 136 38 151 78 26 6.8 149 49 Ul5 20 177 55 15 6.5 158 43 353 17 175 53 13 6.4 350 84 1620 80 554 16 6 5.2 153 57 571 77 366 Number of slaves per farm 2.7 1.8 Number of horses 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.7 2.1 Number of mules _ Number of dairy cows.._ 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.7 0.7 2.2 0.9 4.9 0.3 6.8 Number of work oxen ] r 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.1 1,3 Number of other cattle r 1.7 3.2 3.7 8.3 12.8 Number of sheep J ,03 0.3 1.8 3.5 5.6 5.8 Number of goats .05 0.4 Number of hogs 8 10 13 14 32 41 Number of chickens Number of other poultry },: I" 1 2.6 37 4.8 15 8.9 Number of colonies of bees _ 0.71 1.6 TABLE 7. Farm expenditures, receipts, etc., in eastern red hills, 1880-1910. 1910 1900 1890 1880 Percentage of white farmers Percentage of negro farmers 72 28 82 18 Percentage of farms operated by owners and part owners 41 53 70 Expenditure for fertilizers, per farm ($) 66 27 38 16 Expenditure for labor, per farm Expenditure for feed, per farm : 27 8 18 Expenditure for fertilizers, per acre improved 1.45 .58 .78 .39 Expenditure for labor, per acre imp. .59 .39 Expenditure for feed, per acre imp. .18 Average annual value of crops, per farm ($) _ 740 Average annual value of animal products, per farm 108 i 440 475 382 Value of crops per acre improved Value of animal products, per a. imp. Value of farm land per acre 16.30 2.40 9.62 9.50 3.44 9.72 8.95 50 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. TABLE 8. Agricultural statistics of eastern red hills by race and tenure, 1910. \ Whites •1 Negroes ! Owner s] Tenants 1 Percentage of white farmers 88 12 60 40 Percentage of negro farmers Percentage, owners and part owners- Percentage of tenants _ 50 49 16 84 .._ „ Average number of acres per farm Average improved acres per farm Value of farm land per acre ($) 99 46 9.45 933 322 74 62 43 10.21 636 141 33 137 54 54 39 Value of farm land per farm 1 1685 727 Value of buildings per farm Value of implements and machinery per farm _ _ Number of dairy cows per farm 1.2 0.2 1.1 16.9 0.37 14.4 11.5 0.8 0.1 1.0 21.2 0.34 12.4 10.0 Number of work horses per farm Number of work mules per farm Acres of cotton per farm Bales per acre Acres of corn per farm „ _ Bushels per acre The number of horses per farm, and per acre, has de- clined considerably, and that of mules has increased corre- spondingly. The number of sheep has declined rapidly with the increase of cultivated land and consequent passing away of the free range. In 1850 the average farm was a two- horse farm (as compared with the four-horse farms of the western division), and now it is a one-mule farm, although there are nearly three times as many white as negro farm- ers.* About half of the white farmers and five-sixths of the colored ones are tenants; and over seven-eighths of the owners and three-fifths of the tenants are white. The leading crops in 19C9, in order of value, were cotton, corn, peanuts, "vegetables," sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, oats, hay, cowpeas, and Irish potatoes. Peanuts, which ranked third then, have increased enormously since the boll- *This illustrates what seems to be a universal principle in the South; namely, in regions or counties where whites are in the major- ity the negroes tend to concentrate in the towns, and vice versa. Or in other words, the numbers of the two races, no matter which pre- dominates, are more nearly equal in any town than in the surrounding country. fin the amount of labor required per acre peanuts and cotton are almost exactly equal, which facilitates the change from one crop to the other. EASTERN RED HILLS. .V: 51 weevil came to interfere with the cotton crop,f and they may be first now ; and the raising of hogs has increased cor- respondingly. These changes have proved so profitable to the farmers that plans have been made to erect a monument to the boll-weevil in the town of Enterprise. 4. The lime-sink region. (Figures 16-18; tables 9-12.) The lime-sink region, which extends from Southwest Georgia to West Florida, covers about 1,300 square miles in Alabama, where its typical features are not so well dis- played as in the other two states, however. A small area in Washington County, extending westward into Mississippi, which cannot very well be combined with the regions north and south of it, is also referred to this region provisionally. The southeastern corner of Alabama is often called the "wire-grass country," from the fact that wire-grass is more abundant there than elsewhere in Alabama ; but this name cannot be appropriately used for the whole lime-sink region in three states, for wire-grass is still more abundant farther east in Georgia and farther south in Florida, in quite dif- ferent regions. GEOLOGY. The underlying strata are mostly of the Vicksburg for- mation (uppermost Eocene), probably chiefly limestone when first deposited, but now very largely silicified, per- haps on account of the overlying sandy soil and copious .summer rain. A reddish or yellowish, often mottled, sandy clay several or many feet thick usually overlies the rock, and is paler and sandier at the surface, making prevailingly acid soils, with very little indication of the limestone be- neath. The limestone contains many subterranean chan- nels into which a good deal of the surface water finds its way, so that running water is scarcer than in most other parts of Alabama, and in some places wells have to be dug fifty feet or more to reach water for domestic purposes. Good artesian water can be had almost anywhere from a depth of a few hundred feet, but the wells do not overflow. There are a few large limestone springs, and Healing Springs, a small spring in the western division, is noted for its supposed medicinal virtues. 52 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. TOPOGRAPHY. The topography is mostly gently undulating. The streams are small (except the Chattahoochee River) and usually sluggish, and there are many small shallow ponds, some of them with open water, but most of them full of cypress, black gum, May-haw, or various shrubs. Caves and lime-sinks occur in a few places, but less commonly than in the corresponding parts of the two adjoining states. Omussee Creek, which enters the Chattahoochee River a lit- tle below Columbia, is an exception to the general sluggish- ness of the streams, for it has some rocky shoals which have recently been dammed up to generate electricity for Dothan. FIG. 16. Scene in badly cut-over long-leaf pine forest about six miles west of Healing Springs, Washington County, with compara- tively 'level country in foreground and low .hills about half a mile away. July 20, 1911. SOILS. Exact information about the soils is rather meager, for the soil surveys of Geneva and Houston Counties are not published yet. But from the reports on Covington County and part of a county in West Florida it appears that the prevailing texture classes are fine sandy loam, sandy loam, swamp, sand, and fine sand. Generally speaking, there are LIME-SINK REGION. 53 two principal types of upland soil. One, which is wide- spread in eastern Geneva County, is a brownish sandy loam, passing into clay usually within a few inches of the sur- face, and it is quite fertile, so much so that over many square miles something like three-fourths of it is now culti- vated. The natural vegetation remaining on it is a moder- ately dense forest of pine and oak mixed. The other soil type, common in Covington County, is a paler and deeper sand, evidently less fertile, for it is hardly one-tenth culti- vated, and one can still find whole sections covered with unbroken long-leaf pine forests. Unimproved roads through this sand are rather "heavy" in dry weather, but it is a comparatively simple matter to dig down a few feet in suitable spots and get clay, which makes an excellent road- surfacing material when mixed with the proper amount of sand. CLIMATE. Although there are no weather stations in this region established long enough to give reliable records, it is evi- dent that the climate must be a little warmer than in the regions previously described, and the summers a little wet- ter, which accounts in large measure for the leached condi- tion of the soil. VEGETATION. Unlike most of the regions farther inland (but like most of Florida), the prevailing type of vegetation is, or was, open park-like forests o f long-leaf pine, with a great variety of narrow-leaved herbaceous undergrowth and many bright-colored flowers in summer, all subject to ground-fires every few years, which keep other trees from getting the best of the fire-resistant but sun-loving pine. On the richer soils the vegetation approaches that of the neigh- boring red hill belt, having many oaks and other hard- woods and short-leaf pines mixed with the long-leaf pine, and much less herbaceous undergrowth than in the pure pine forests. Such places are less subject to fire than the open pine woods, on account of having less grass and pine straw to carry the flames. There are also many ponds, swamps, and bays, with still denser vegetation, practically exempt from fire. About half the area is now cleared and cultivated. In the following list of plants the commoner herbs are includ- 54 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. ed, on account of being much more abundant and conspicu- ous than in the regions previously described, as explained in the introduction. Commonest plants of lime-sink region. TIMBER TREES. Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Sandy uplands. Pinus Elliottii Slash pine „ Ponds and swamps. Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Richer soils, especially near streams. Taxodium imbricarium...(Pond) cypress Ponds and swamps. Nyssa biflora ..Black gum _ Ponds and swamps. Quercus falcata Red oak Richer uplands. Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia „ .Hammocks. Pinus echinata ....Short-leaf pine Richer uplands. Liriodendron Tulipifera.-Poplar _ Branch-swamps. Liquidambar Styraci- flua _ _ Sweet gum _ Richer soils. Pinus glabra „ _ Spruce pine Hammocks. Quercus laurifolia Hammocks. Pinus serotina . Black pine _„ Sandy bogs. Hicoria alba Hickory Rich uplands. Quercus nigra Water oak -Low grounds. Taxodium distichum Cypress Swamps. Acer rubrum _....Red maple Swamps. SMALL TREES. Magnolia glauca Bay — — ....Swamps. Ilex myrtifolia .Yaupon Shallow ponds. Quercus Marylandica ..Black-jack oak Clayey uplands. Quercus cinerea Turkey oak _ Sandy uplands. Quercus Catesbaei Black-jack oak _ Sandy uplands. Cornus florida Dogwood Richer uplands. Crataegus aestivalis May haw Shallow ponds. Salix nigra _ _ Willow ..Along streams. Oxydendrum arboreum Sourwood Hammocks. SHRUBS AND VINES. Ilex glabra „ Gallberry _ Low pine lands. Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty Swamps. V Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine .._ Swamps. Myrica pumila Myrtle _ Pine woods. Hypericum fasciculatum ,_ Shallow ponds. Clethra alnifplia _ Edges of swamps. (Rubus cuneifolius) Blackberry „ Roadsides, etc. Myrica cerifera Myrtle _ Hammocks. Alnus rugosa — Alder Along branches and Phoradendron flaves- creeks. cens _ Mistletoe On black gum mostly. Pieris nitida Hurrah bush Swamps and bays. Ceanothus microphyllus _ High pine land. Chrysobalanus oblongi- folius „ „ _ » High pine land. (Diospyros Virginiana) ..Persimmon Various situations. LIME-SINK REGION. 55 Gaylussacia dumosa ~ — High pine land. Ceanothus Americanus....Red-shank Dry woods. V Bignonia crucigera Cross-vine _ Swamps and hammocks. Vaccinium nitidum Huckleberry Pine woods. (Helenium tenuifolium)... Bitter- weed ..Roadsides, etc. Campulosus aromaticus...(A grass) _ -...Low pine land. Eupatorium rotundifo- lium .. - Low pine land. Eriocaulon decangulare _ Low pine land. Vernonia angustifolia High pine land. Pteris aquilina (A fern) High pine land. Rhexia Alifanus _ Low pine land. Sarracenia flava Pitcher-plant _ Low pine land. (Acanthospermum aus- trale) - Running cocklebur Roadsides, etc. Helianthus Radula ..(A sunflower) Pine woods. Dichromena latifolia (A sedge) _ Wet pine land. Eupatorium composi- tifolium Dog-fennel Roadsides, old fields, etc. Rhynchospora axillaris....(A sedge) _.._jjow pine land. Sarracenia Drummondii. Pitcher-plant _ Low pine land. Stillingia sylvatica Queen's delight High pine land. Eryngium synchaetum _ „ _ Pine woods. Polygala cymcsa „ „ _ Ponds and swamps. ( Erigeron ramosus ) „ _ Roadsides, etc. Aristida stricta _ Wire-grass High pine land. (Ambrosia artemisiifo- iia) Ragweed Roadsides, etc. Chrysopsis graminifolia..Silver-grass High pine land. Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue ^Pine woods. Cracca Virginiana ..Devil's shoestring High pine land. Chondrophora nudata...... _ _ Low pine land. Eupatorium album _ _ High pine land. Eriogonum tomentosum _ High pine land. Rhexia lutea Low pine land. Tofieldia racemosa _ _ Low pine land. Chamaecrista fascicu- lata _ Partridge-pea High pine land. (Lepidium Virginicum)...Pepper-grass _ Roadsides, etc. Rhynchospora Grayii (A sedge) High pine land. Sabbatia decandra „ _ Shallow ponds. (Lespedeza striata) ..Japan clover .'Roadsides, etc. Osmunda cinnamomea (A fern) , Swamps. Polygala ramosa _ Low pine land. About three-fourths of the trees and shrubs are ever- green. Woody vines, being sensitive to fire, are relatively scarce and chiefly confined to swamps and hammocks. The two pines at the head of the list are important sources of lumber and turpentine, and until quite recently, say about 1900, a greater area was devoted to these industries than to agriculture. The rapid extension of farms has almost 56 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. put the lumbermen out of business in Houston County and the eastern part of Geneva, however. Some of the shrubs and herbs, such as the gallberry and tyty, are excellent honey plants. POPULATION. No accurate estimates of population previous t o the 1910 census are possible, because Houston County was not established until 1903, and it is difficult to identify in the reports of previous censuses the beats that lie in the lime-sink region, and especially to get any information FIG. 17. Small new farms in pine woods about 2% miles north of McRae, Covington County. June 10, 1919. about their areas, which the census does not attempt to give. It is very evident, though, that the increase in popu- lation in recent decades has been very rapid. In 1910 there were in the two counties used to typify this region — Geneva and Houston — over fifty inhabitants per square mile, a remarkable density for such a sandy region half covered with forest, and with little manufacturing; and this appar- ently indicates either pretty intensive farming or rather low standards of living among the rural population. The salient features of the 1910 population of the region and its largest city are shown in Table 9. LIME-SINK REGION. 57 TABLE 9. Population statistics of lime-sink region, 1910. 71 Total Native White Foreign White Negro Inhabitants per square mile Percentage of total _ 50.7 100.0 38.6 76.2 0.05 0.1 12.0 23.7 Same for Dothan. 100.0 49.8 0.5 49.6 Per cent urban 11.9 7.8 62.6 25.0 Per cent illiterate (over 10 years) Same for Dothan.._ _ _ 19.3 4.2 13.9 0.2 3.6 0 37.0 8.5 FIG. 18. White farmer's house and barn about three miles south of Dothan, Houston County. July 27, 1919. The metropolis of the Alabama wire-grass is Dothan, with 3,375 inhabitants in 1900, 7,016 in 1910, and prob- ably nearly twice as many now. Next in order are Hart- ford, with 1,159; Columbia, 1,122; Geneva, 969, and Slo- comb, 896. Together these trebled in population between 1890 and 1900 and doubled between 1900 and 1910,. and they have probably gained at least 50 per cent since then. The principal railroads are the Central of Georgia, At- lantic Coast Line, Atlanta & St. Andrew's Bay, and Ala- bama & Florida. The percentage of illiteracy in the aggregate population in 1910 was a little lower than in the regions previously described, probably mostfy because a large part of the popu- 58 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. lation has come in from other regions and states, and one has to have a little education in order to read real-estate advertisements and railroad time-tables preparatory to mov- ing to a new home. The illiteracy percentage for Dothan (total population over 10 years old, including nearly as many negroes as whites) is actually lower than in Boston, Mass., which was once regarded as the center of all culture in the western hemisphere. The leading white churches in 19 C 6 were Southern Bap- tist, Southern Methodist, Freewill Baptist, Methodist Pro- testant, Northern Methodist, and Primitive Baptist. The leading denominations among the negroes were Baptist, African Methodist, and A. M. E. Zion. AGRICULTURE. Information about farming operations in this region previous to 1910 is still harder to get than in the case of population, for the census does not return farm sta- tistics by beats as it does population. At that time "im- proved land in farms" constituted 42.7 of the total area of Geneva and Houston Counties (a little more than in any of the other regions), or 5.39 acres per inhabitant. The gen- eral conditions of agriculture in 1909-10 are shown in Tables 10 to 12, which are arranged differently from the others on account of being based on only one census. Table 10 gives certain statistics for the two races separately as well as combined, and Table 12 gives the value of animal products per farm and per acre in more detail than is at- tempted elsewhere in this report. The proportion of white farmers is a little larger than in any other region in southern Alabama. The number of owners and tenants, taking both races together, is almost exactly equal, but as usual there are more owners among the whites than among the negroes, and owners had con- siderably larger farms than tenants. The animals slaugh- tered were presumably mostly hogs, which are raised in large numbers here, as in other peanut-growing regions. The leading crops in 1909 were cotton, corn, peanuts, "vegetables" (probably meaning mostly watermelons in this case), sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, oats, hay, and Irish potatoes. Since the coming of the boll-weevil, about 1912, LIME-SINK REGION. 59 cotton has declined in importance and peanuts and hogs in- creased, as in the neighboring red hills. TABLE 10. Farm equipment in lime-sink region, 1910, by races. Total White Colored Percentage of farmers, white and colored . . 100 84 16 Percentage of owners and part owners Percentage of tenants _ Percentage of land in farms _ _ 49 50 82 93 74 7 26 Percentage of land improved 43 Improved acres per inhabitant _ _ Average number of acres per farm Average improved acres per farm Average value of farm land per acre ($) 5.4 78 42 12.90 6.1 83 43 12.80 3.3 53 38 13.81 Average value of farm land per farm Average value of buildings per farm.. 1011 302 1065 328 728 154 Average value of implements and machinery per farm . ... _ _ _ _ 71 77 40 Average value of livestock, poultry, etc 259 Number of horses (all ages) per farm Number of mules (all ages) per farm s... Number of work horses per farm . 0.3 1.0 ~ 6.3 ._._ Number of work mules per farm Number of dairy cows per farm..- Number of other cattle ._. 2.1 1.0 1.4 0.8 0.9 Number of sheep 0.5 Number of goats 0.3 Number of hogs 12.0 Number of poultry Number of colonies of bees..- _ 20 0.6 Acres of cotton per farm .._ _. _ . 16.3 16.1 18.1 Bales per acre 0.39 0.39 0.37 Acres of corn per farm .'... Bushels per acre 13.5 14.0 13.7 14.3 12.1 12.3 TABLE 11. Statistics of owner and tenant farmers in lime-sink region, 1910. Owners & part owners Tenants Whites per cent 54 45 Negroes, per cent . . - _ 21 79 Average number of acres per farm „ _ Average improved acres per farm..- Value of land and buildings per farm ($).._ 110 47 1750 47 36 856 60 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. TABLE 12. Miscellaneous farm expenditures and receipts in lime-sink region, 1909-1910. Per farm Per acre impr'd Expenditure for fertilizers _ ~ $ 69 $ 1.68 Expenditure for labor ~ 27 .66 Expenditure for feed 6 ,14 Value of all crops 800 19.30 Value of dairy products (excluding milk used at home) ...- - - 17 .40 Value of poultry and eggs produced 24 .58 Value of animals sold on the hoof 14 .34 Value of animals slaughtered _ 73 1.76 Value of all animal products 128 3.10 5. The southwestern pine hills. (Figures 19-25; tables 13-17.) This very distinct region extends with some variations and interruptions from Georgia to Louisiana, and includes about 5,000 square miles in Alabama. Besides the litera- ture previously cited, the soil survey of Baldwin County, by Tharp, Jennings and Waldrop, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and Lett, Avary and Cantrell representing the State, published in November, 1911, deserves special men- tion. It is a pamphlet of 74 pages, containing a large amount of useful and interesting information about the soils, topography and agriculture of this region, in much more detail than can be attempted in this report. GEOLOGY. It is underlaid throughout by nearly horizontal non-cal- careous strata of sand and clay in various mixtures, usually pinkish or yellowish in color, several hundred feet thick, and in age probably not older than Pliocene. On top of these in many places is a few feet of essentially homogen- eous brick-red or yellow loam, or loose grayish sand, or both (the sand always uppermost if both are present), and it is not yet settled whether these surface materials have been derived from the underlying strata by some process of weathering, or are water-laid deposits of later age. A coarse blackish ferruginous sandstone formed by local ce- SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 61 mentation of sand and pebbles by iron oxide is a character- istic feature of the more hilly portions, but is by no means confined to this region, as it occurs in many other non-cal- careous regions in the coastal plain from New Jersey to Florida, Arkansas and Texas. Quartz pebbles from the underlying strata or from more recent river terraces abound on some hillsides, especially in the neighborhood of rivers, and on the red loam uplands small ferruginous nodules usually half an inch or less in diameter may be strewn thickly over the surface, making what is commonly known as "pimply land." FIG. 19. Scene on top of high ridge with steep slopes (covered with ferruginous pebbles) about six miles northwest of Bay Minette, looking northeast through cut-over long-leaf pine forests and across valley of Rains Creek. October 31, 1919. The sandstone is used locally for pillars, chimneys, etc., the purer clay for bricks, the sandy clay and pebbles for road material, and the sand for various purposes. An abundance of pure soft water can be had without much trou- ble almost anywhere in the region, from either deep or shal- Tow wells and small streams. SOILS. The soils are prevailingly sandy, so that there is very little mud or dust at any season of the year. The principal soil texture classes, in order of area, are fine sandy loam, 62 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. sand, sandy loam, fine sand, loamy sand, swamp, gravelly sand, and gravelly sandy loam. Clay and silt loam (two of the best types of soil as far as texture is concerned) to- gether make up less than 1 per cent, and with few excep- tions the soils are below the average in fertility. This is partly compensated, however, by the fact that they can be plowed immediately after a rain, unlike the stiff er soils further inland, and they retain fertilizers well on account of the clayey subsoil not far from the surface. FIG. 20. Smooth graded road through almost uninhabited cut- over land on high uplands about 5^ miles northwest of Bay Minette, Baldwin County. October 31, 1919. TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE. The topography varies from quite hilly near streams and on narrow divides to nearly flat on the broader divides and near tide-water, particularly on the west side of Mobile Bay. On the average it is undulating, with well-developed valleys something like 25 feet deep and half a mile apart. Some of the 'smaller valleys are rather narrow and V-shaped, while another type, commonest in Washington County and southeastern Baldwin, is broad and savanna-like, with gentle slopes perpetually moist. The hills are smooth and rounded, except where rocks or pebbles occur, and the highest eleva- tions are at least 350, perhaps 400 feet above sea-level. In some places, perhaps not as much in Alabama as in other states, thougji, the inland edge of the region is SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 63 marked by a bold escarpment facing inland. (The outlying areas are higher than the surrounding country, too.) This is especially conspicuous about four miles southwest of Mon- roeville, where one journeying northward on the Gulf, Florida & Alabama Railway would pass suddenly out of a flattish piney woods country and descend into a hilly oak and short-leaf pine country, the railroad making a loop two miles long and only about a quarter of a mile across the neck to get down the slope 100 feet or so. (The gov- ernment soil survey of Monroe County, published in 1919, shows the location of this loop but gives very little idea of the topography.) FIG. 21. Desolate cut-over land with no young pines, about four miles southeast of Grand Bay, on road to Bayou La Batre, Mobile County. June 15, 1912. Much of the land sold to farmers in this region in recent years is in this condition, but it requires very little preparation for planting the first crop. From the point just mentioned one could follow the di- vide between the Escambia and Perdido Rivers on one side and the streams flowing into Mobile Bay on the other, south- west to Bay Minette and thence approximately south to the coast, and imagine himself in a level plain most of the way, so uniform is the seaward slope of this smooth divide, along which a part of the "Federal Road" was located about 100 years ago. This region is also remarkable for the high elevations close to tide-water. The steep bare bluffs facing the bays on both sides of Baldwin County are about 65 feet high in 64 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. places, and St. Elmo, in the southern part of Mobile County, is said to be 160 feet above sea-level. Along some of the rivers and especially on the west side of Mobile Bay there are extensive flat areas one to several miles wide, probably to be classed as river terraces. Both in these areas and on the level uplands there are many shal- low ponds much like those in the lime-sink region, except that they are less likely to hold water throughout the year or to be devoid of trees. FIG. 22. Flat wet savanna with scattered cypress and slash pine, innumerable pitcher-plants in foreground, and tyty bays in back- ground, about three miles north of Bayou La Batre, Mobile County. June 15, 1912. Excluding the large muddy rivers, the Alabama and Tom- bigbee and their distributaries, which hardly belong to this region at all, the streams may be divided into two or three classes. First, such rivers as the Conecuh, Yellow, Pea and Choctawhatchee, which rise in the red hills or farther in- land and always carry a little mud in suspension and lime in solution, and fluctuate a few feet with the rainfall. Sec- ond, the smaller streams, few of them large enough to be called rivers (e. g., the Escatawpa, Perdido and Escambia), which originate within the pine hills, and are usually coffee- colored from peaty matter in solution and suspension. These are practically free from lime, mud, and other mineral sub- SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 65 stances, and flow pretty steadily throughout the year. They might be again subdivided into creeks which run all the time, and small branches which go dry in early summer. The water of the smallest branches and a few of the creeks is almost as clear as crystal and perfectly good to drink. There are no large springs, most of the streams taking their rise in small swamps. Nearly all the streams are bordered by more or less swamp, the width of which is roughly pro- portional to the size of the stream. CLIMATE. This region has an average temperature of about 67° F. and a growing season of about 270 days, varying of course with altitude, distance from the coast, etc. In the extreme northern portion the rainfall is necessarily much like that in the western red hills near by, but toward the coast it is heavier than in other parts of Alabama, about 59 inches annually, and at the same time the greater part of the precipitation comes in the warmest months. This tends to balance the evaporation and keep the ground-water level and the flow of streams constant, but at the same time it leaches the soil and retards those processes of weathering that are expedited by alternate wet and dry conditions. VEGETATION. This is the principal pine region of Alabama. Half a century ago it was covered from end to end, except in swamps, with magnificent park-like forests of long- leaf pine, with very little shrubby undergrowth, and a carpet of grasses and other narrow-leaved herbs in great variety. On high rocky or sandy ridges the pines are some- what stunted, and accompanied by a few species of scrubby oaks, which become more abundant when the pines are cut off, allowing the soil to dry out a little more. In savannas and other damp soils the pines are likewise stunted and scattered, but unaccompanied by oaks. The swamps of all sizes are full of shrubs and vines and hardwood trees, and the slopes near the larger streams have hammock vegeta- tion, which owes its presence mainly to the protection from fire given by the swamp or water on one side and the down- ward slope on the other. For the pine forests are fre- 8— AR 66 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. quently swept by fire, as in the lime-sink region (and doubt- less have been for thousands of years), but fire does not run down hill readily, and a swamp or stream forms a pretty effective barrier on the other side.* At the present time the pine forests have been pretty thoroughly exploited for lumber and naval stores, and pres- ent in most places a scene of desolation, the so-called cut- over lands. But the long-leaf pine reproduces itself readily when given a chance, and millions of young trees are spring- ing up, to be ripe for the lumberman in another generation if farmers and turpentine men do not interfere too much, so that the complete exhaustion of the forests, which was looked for .by some prominent writers on forestry 25 or 30 years ago, is not yet in sight, and the supply of timber is still ample for local needs at least. The following list of the commoner plants is based on hundreds of miles of travel by rail and on foot, at all sea- sons of the year except spring, and the sequence ought to be reasonably accurate: Commonest plants in southwestern pine hills. TIMBER TREES. Pimis palustris Long-leaf pine Uplands mostly. Pinus Elliottii Slash pine Swamps, ponds, savan- nas, etc. Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps and ponds. Taxodium imbricarium (Pond) cypress _ Ponds and shallow swamps. Pinus Taeda .....Short-leaf pine Richer soils. Quercus falcata Red oak Loamy uplands. Liriodendron Tulipif era. .Poplar Branch-swamps. Acer rubrum _ ..Red maple j Swamps. Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia Hammocks. Chamaecyparis thy- oides Jumper Sour swamps. Liquidambar Styraci- flua Sweet gum Richer soils. Pinus echinata Short-leaf pine Richer soils. Quercus nigra Water oak Creek swamps, etc. Pinus glabra Spruce pine Hammocks. Pinus serotina -..Black pine _ Sandy bogs, eastward. Quercus laurifolia Hammocks. Taxodium distichum Cypress River swamps. Fagus grandifolia Beech Hammocks. Quercus stellata Post oak .'. Loamy uplands. *For a fuller discussion of this point see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 38:515-525. 1911. SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 67 SMALL TREES. Magnolia glauca (White) bay — Swamps. Quercus Marylandica...._..Blackjack oak Loamy uplands. Quercus cinerea Turkey oak Sandy uplands. Quercus Catesbaei ......Black-jack oak _ Sandy uplands. Cornus florida _ Dogwood Loamy uplands. Ilex myrtifolia .Yaupon .. Ponds. Ilex opaca ....Holly .Hammocks. Cliftonia monophylla Tyty .Sour swamps. Quercus Margaretta Post oak Sandy uplands. Persea pubescens Red bay Sour swamps. Osmanthus Americana - — Hammocks. SHRUBS AND VINES. Ilex glabra Gallberry Low pine land, etc. Cliftonia monophylla Tyty ~ Sour swamps and bays. Cyrilla racemiflora „ Tyty „ !....Branch and creek swamps. V Smilax laurifplia..... Bamboo vine Swamps and bays. Hypericum fasciculatum Shallow ponds, etc. Myrica pumila Myrtle _ „._ Pine forests. Myrica cerifera Myrtle Hammocks and swamps. Clethra alnifolia > Edges of swamps. Alnus rugosa Alder _ _ Loamy branch-swamps, etc. Phoradendron flaves- cens Mistletoe On black gum mostly. Arundinaria tecta Reed „ Edges of swamps. Chrysobalanus oblongi- f olius .... — _ _ _ High pine land. Myrica Carolinensis -....Myrtle Sour swamps. Viburnum nudum Possum haw (?) Branch-swamps, etc. Serenoa serrulata Saw palmetto _ Low pine land, etc. Ilex coriacea _ „ _ Sour swamps. Rhus Vernix ..Poison sumac Branch-swamps, etc. Batodendron arboreum Sparkleberry Sandy hammocks, etc. Myrica inodora _ _ Sour swamps. Gaylussacia dumosa Gopher-berry High pine land. Illicium Floridanum Stink-bush Edges of swamps. Ceanothus Americanus. ..Red-shank Uplands. Stillingia aquatica _ Shallow ponds near coast. V Smilax Walteri Bamboo vine Swamps. Magnolia glauca Bay _ Low pine land. Pieris nitida ..Hurrah bush Sour swamps, etc. HERBS. Eriocaulon decangulare. _ Low pine land. Sarracenia Drummondii.. Pitcher-plant Low pine land. Rhexia Alifanus „ _ Low pine land. Eupatorium rotundifo- lium _ _ Low pine land. (Eupatorium compositi- f olium ) „ Dog-fennel Roadsides, old fields etc. 68 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Campulosus aromaticus..(A grass) _ Low pine land. Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue Pine woods. Dichromena latifolia ..(A sedge) _ Low pine land. Lophiola aurea Low pine land. Helianthus Radula _ Pine woods. Vernonia angustifolia _ High pine land. (Helenium tenuifolium).. Bitter-weed Roadsides, etc. Tofieldia racemosa _ Low pine land. Aletris aurea Low pine land. Chondrophora nudata _ Low pine land. Polygala ramosa „ Low pine land. Helianthus angustifo- lius _ (A sunflower) Low pine land. Osmunda cinnamomea (A fern) Edges of swamps, etc. Aristida stricta Wire-grass High pine land.' Chrysopsis graminifolia High pine land. Oxypolis filiformis '. Low pine land. Sarracenia flava _ Pitcher-plant Low pine land. Sabbatia macrophylla Low pine land. Sarracenia Sledgei Pitcher-plant Low pine land. Orontium aquaticum „ _ Small creeks mostly. Polygala cymosa _ Ponds and swamps. Habenaria ciliaris (An orchid) Edges of swamps. Ludwigia yirgata _ _ Low pine land. Pteris aquilina (A fern) High pine land. Kuhnistera pinnata Summer farewell High pine land. Rhynchospora axillaris....(A sedge) Low pine land. Zygadenus glaberrimus _ _ Low pine land. Sorghastrum se.cundum ..Wild oats Low pine land. Cracca Virginiana Devil's shoe-string High pine land. About 75 per cent of the trees and still more of the shrubs are evergreen, presumably indicating soils low in available potassium. Woody vines are even scarcer than in the lime-sink region, for the same reason given under that head. Many of the herbs, especially in the low pine lands or savannas, have conspicuous white, yellow, or pink-purple flowers, and the leaves of the pitcher-plants (white with red veins in the commonest species, bright yellow in the next) add a dash of brilliant color to the summer landscape. Lumbering was for a long time, and may be yet, the lead- ing industry of this region, with naval stores second. Both reached their maximum probably about 25 years ago. In 1912 thero were about 60 sawmills in operation, with an average capacity of 37,000 feet of lumber a day. Pine wood is the universal domestic fuel, and it was used for motive power on some of the railroads until quite recently. It is still used at ice-factories, power-houses, etc., in the smaller cities. Near Mobile charcoal for domestic use in the city is still made from the smaller or defective pines, as it has been for generations. Several of the shrubs, particularly the SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 69 gallberry and the two kinds of tyty, are important sources of honey. The herbaceous vegetation furnishes pasturage most of the year for thousands of cattle, which have free range on all unfenced land. (The same is true also of the lime-sink region, but not now of many other places in Ala- bama.) ANIMALS. Two characteristic animals des.erve to be mentioned here. At many places in the long-leaf pine forests on the more sandy uplands, east of the Tombigbee River, one can see at any time of the year, but especially in early spring after the burning of the grass, small mounds of sand aver- aging a foot or two in diameter and a few inches high. These are made by the "salamander," a rodent, Geomys Tuza Mobiliensis, which travels underground, feeding on roots, and gets rid of the sand excavated from its tunnels by pushing it out from below without leaving an opening. In areas where it is abundant it keeps the soil pretty well stirred up and must counteract the leaching effect of the summer rain to a considerable extent. It ranges eastward with some variations to the Savannah River, but has never managed to cross the Tombigbee. It is rare in the red hills and unknown in the black belt, but reappears on the pine hills in the central part of the State. Open burrows with mounds of sand of about the same size at their mouths are made in the same general region by a turtle known as the gopher, Testudo or Gopherus Polyphemus, but that is much less abundant in Alabama. POPULATION. On account of the sandy soil not being very favor- able to agriculture by the older methods, this region has always been sparsely settled. Previous to the Civil War the settlements were practically all either on the edges of the alluvial bottoms of the Mobile delta, where there were a number of large plantations, or along the shores of Mobile Bay, where fishing and commerce furnished a livelihood. The building of railroads, beginning shortly before the war, stimulated the lumber industry, which brought consider- able wealth to some sections and some persons ; and as the timber was removed, ways for making the soil more pro- 70 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. ductive were developed, so that farmers took possession of the cut-over lands quite rapidly. Mobile was founded about 200 years ago, and has long been an important seaport, being at the mouth of a system of several hundred miles of navigable rivers traversing some very fertile territory ; and it would probably be nearly as large as it is even if the country within fifty miles of it was an absolute desert. For this reason Mobile County is treated separately in most of the tables that follow, for to include it with the others in the region in computing the density of population would give very misleading results. And in some of the population tables separate calculations have been made for the city of Mobile and the rest of the county, which it will be seen does not differ much from Bald- win and Escambia; the other two counties used in the sta- tistics of the southwestern pine hills.* Table 13 shows the development of population in this region in somewhat more detail than was done for previous regions, mainly by adding two classes that are negligible in the other regions, namely, free negroes (up to 1860, soon after which all slaves became free) and foreign-born whites (first returned in 1850). For most of the census periods separate figures for the city of Mobile are available, and those have been utilized in the manner indicated. (The apparent decrease in population of the city between 1860 and 1880 is due to a reduction of its area in 1870.) The large percentage of negroes in Baldwin County in ante-bellum days (there was no Escambia County until 1868) is doubtless due to the fact that the population was then largely concentrated on plantations situated on the edge of the Mobile River bottoms (which belong more prop- erly to the region next to be described). Since the Civil War white farmers have steadily invaded the once despised sandy pine lands, cultivating the soil on a small scale with little or no hired labor, and the proportion of negroes has decreased considerably, as shown in Table 13 and also in Fig. 26. The percentage of foreigners in this region is and always has been far above the State average, probably main- ly on account of its nearness to our principal seaport. *Although the greater part of the area of Washington County is in this region, the population and agriculture are chiefly concentrated in the more fertile regions in the northern and eastern portions, so that census returns for the whole county tell us very little about con- ditions in either part. SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 71 00 t- ?O OS : i o (M OSTH : 1 1 o CO • 50 1-1 I 1 I £ N TH rH TjJ TH *^* 10 i 1 o 10* 1O f£ CO r!< OS rH 00 TH i CO i 10 rH OS 00 00 co N-io OS i **4* O*l (^3 CC ^H CO .! CC ^ 00 rH i S I i • • i ; g coio oqo o 10 ^ CO^ CQ "* OOrj«Tj« ^^ tf CO00 1O CO 1O CO g ° co co 00 i-H 0 i ^^ CO t"" ^^ O5 rjJ "* 10 oi ^ 1O 1O CQ C<1 rH 00 rH 10 t- CO O5 0004 t> 00 o 10 o to (M 00 1O rH CO O5 rH r-i t- O t- rH rH 00 % 8 |g-i ~ CO i « S i O5CO O5 t> CO (M* (MOOOOCNiO^O O O5 O O5 «D (M rH »OO OO O5 O CO"* ^ r-i r-iio' 05 MS i O O5 (M rH i 00 00 loo IO O 00 O5 t- O ' CO (M O CO CO (N rH T=i 00 *° CO CO O O O r-i ON O5 00 ^ ^05 Tj^CO SOUTHWESTERN PINE HILLS. 81 ^s Ol 00 OS oi»OrH IO t- OrH i ! ! ! a t- Ol CO i j i i r* EH 1 ! X B 10 os co OO 00 Ol CO 01 CO CO rH rH Eo t- a ! Ml i i I 8 1 1 i l a • rH 0- 0100 CO CO Ol Ol O lO lO 1C Tj< 00 00 Ol Ol 1C rH Tt ,,•- OOr- 00 r- rH O O O ^ Ol t- 0 rH o w &/D 3 0 Z * 1 CO Ov. coo; 00 r- 00 O 0101 " IO rH O OS rH CO rH rH ^ O OS rH rH iO "^ 00 Ol O rH Tj< rH O O ^ U5 rH 0 C Tj< -^ <"^ ^""^ Q ^" _M f^ ^^ rH O O 10' W. Tf rH • ^ ^ C*' Q rH 0 rH CO *^* ^ C ") M T— 1 a s HH 8 1 1 Q 03 1 00 O 00 CO o t- oo 01 of t~ oo 00 O^ O^ OS CO Ol rH O CO °^ CO* CO 0 rH *si •w PQ p so 1 i I j I • • I O CO II 1 1 '' • ! | CO 5 4 g fli B 1 II Agricultura f native white farm ' foreign white far] 1 negro farmers f owners and part f tenants 03 £ :<2 H « § S fel 02 OJ C3 t* fli ? JH ^«H 2£ ' - - k 0 0 0 0 0 g £ ^O ^ ^ "*-* i S 0> 0) 0) O> 0) 2 S be &JD &fl &JO be G -^ c3 «s 3 g «H«H ,0-rH 'o'o'o 8 M Sl3 ;. . .; Illlill T3 -3-S &i ^'S'S > CO O OS CO O OS^ O O OrH COCO O . OSrHOOOOO(MCOOO(M 00 j^ rH O O t-co"oooooc!H 8.0 £2 Ji 11 ,5 IS 1 13 Lime-sink region. J2 2 * £ 3 1 4J I j Percentage of forest 75 65 50 60 58 91 96 75 Percentage of evergreens 45 70 65 70 75 78 10 95 SPECIES Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine 0 A A A A A • 0 Elliottii Slash pine • 0 0 • A A • A Taeda „.. Short-leaf pine A A A A C 0 A serotina .. Black pine • R F 0 echinata Short-leaf pine A C C C 0 R • • glabra Spruce pine 0 C C C F 0 • • clausa Spruce pine F Taxodium distichum Cypress 0 0 0 0 0 0 A imbricarium ( Pond ) cypress • • • • C C • 0 Cha m aecy paris thy oides.... Juniper • • • • • C • • Juniperus Virginiana Cedar. R 0 R 0 0 R • F Juglans nigra Black walnut _ • R • R • • • • Hicoria aquatica JSwamp hickory • R • 0 • • ? • ovata Scalv-hRTlc HiolcoTv F R alba (White) hickory. 0 R 0 0 R R • • glabra (Pignut) hickory. • ? 0 ? ? R • R Populus deltoides Cottonwood _ F 0 R F • • ? • Betula nigra .Birch 0 F 0 0 ? R ? • Fagus grandifolia ...Beech F C 0 C 0 0 ? • Castanea dentata Chestnut. • R R ? • • • • Quercus alba White oak _ F F F F ? ? ? • stellata Post oak C 0 0 0 ? 0 • • Durandii • R • 0 • • • • lyrata - Swamp post oak • R ? • • R ? • Muhlenbergii -Chinquapin oak • 0 • R R • • • Michauxii Swamp chesn't oak. 0 0 R 0 ? ? ? • Virginiana _ Live oak • • • • 0 R • C f alcata Red oak _ C F C F F F • • pagodaefolia (Swamp) red oak... F R • • • • ? • velutina Black oak R ? 0 104 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. TABLE 22 — Continued. Post-oak flat woods. II Is R IS V J C "li it 8 £ 1 1 Quercus borealis maxima (North'n) red oak Schneckii 0 R ?. R . . coccinea .Spanish oak Marylandica Black-jack oak nitrra Water oak R R R 0 R C F F R 0 laurifolia _ R! Phellos Willow oak Ulmus Americana Elm C 0 0 R ? alata „ Elm • f\ * • • Celtis occidentalis ? Hackberry. Magnolia grandiflora Magnolia acuminata Cucumber tree Liriodendron Tulipifera Poplar 0 0 R C R C }|O|0|O C C F { C Liquidambar Styracif lua...Sweet gum Platanus occidentalis ...Sycamore. Acer Floridanum -Sugar maple saccharinum Silver maple rubrum Red maple C F 0 C 0 0 0 C R R R o C F 0 F R F R R C 0 Negundo _ -Box elder Tilia heterophylla ? .Lin Nyssa sylvatica .Black gum biflora . Black gum R 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 R uniflora.. -Tupelo gum Fraxinus Americana ....Ash sp.* _ Ash _ .... Catalpa bignonioides .Catalpa R 0 R 0 0 R 0 0 0 R R C 0 • • • • » *Probably more than one species. The ashes are rather difficult to distinguish without close examination. The small trees, shrubs, vines and herbs which have been listed in the regional descriptions have not been tabulated here, because it is impracticable to compare their bulk with that of the timber trees, and being less conspicuous their relative abundance cannot be determined so accurately. POPULATION EARLY SETTLEMENTS. The first permanent white settlement in the area under consideration was made by the French at Mobile in 1711. At that time most of the country was occupied by the Choc- taw Indians, who seem to have been chiefly concentrated in the most fertile portion, the western division of the red hills, if we may judge by the frequency of Indian geographi- cal names there. The Indians made comparatively little use of the soil, however, and in any whole county there was probably never more than one Indian to the square mile. Later in the same century, while the population of Euro- pean origin was still very sparse, Mobile and vicinity were successively under the jurisdiction of England and Spain. About the time of the Revolution settlers pushed inland along the rivers, and gradually took possession of the lands in approximate order of fertility, combined with accessi- bility to navigable waters. Others came overland a little later from Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia, some set- tling in the black belt to the north and some gradually push- ing southward into the less fertile regions. In 1820, when the first United States census subsequent to Alabama's admission to the Union was taken, the western division of the red hills had about four inhabitants per square mile and the other regions about one. As the forests were cleared away and agriculture followed the pioneer hunting stage the population increased rapidly, and like- wise the proportion of slaves. DEVELOPMENTS FROM 1850 TO 1900. The status of the population in 1850 and 1860 is shown by Table 23, in which the post-oak flatwoods, lime-sink region, Mobile delta and coast strip are omitted for lack of data (these regions not covering as much as half of any one county) , the lime hills combined with the western red hills for a similar reason, and Baldwin and Mobile Counties sep- arated (there was no Escambia County then) to show the influence of the seaport. A column for the whole State is added for comparison. (105) 106 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. TABLE 23. Population statistics of southern Alabama, 1850 and 1860. Western red hills. Eastern red hills. Baldwin County. Mobile County. 0) . •33 Acs ^OQ 1850 Inhabitants per square mile Per cent white Per cent free colored Per cent slaves 12 47 0.1 52 8 83 0 17 2.3 47 2.0 50 22 62 3.4 34 15.0 55.3 0.23 44.4 1860 Inhabitants per square mile Per cent white 17 45 13 79 4.0 49 33 69 18.8 54.8 Per cent free colored Per cent slaves 0.2 55 0.1 21 2.0 49 2.9 28 0.28 45.2 As already pointed out in the description of the south- western pine hills, the percentage of white and colored in Baldwin County in the early days is by no means representa- tive of that region, for the population was then chiefly in and near the alluvial bottoms of the Mobile delta. Bearing this in mind, and also the concentration of population at Mobile on account of the shipping interests, it will be seen that the densest population and largest proportion of ne- groes generally went with the most fertile soils, and vice versa. The census of 1870 is not considered very reliable, for obvious reasons, and we may pass next to that of 1880. By that time Escambia County had been established, and that is combined with Baldwin in the statistics. And separate figures for the city of Mobile are available for that date, so that statistics for Mobile County both with and without the city are given in Table 24, which covers three census periods, 1880 to 1900. For 1880 it is possible to give the approximate average migration distance of the population in each region, obtained by multiplying the number of na- tives of each state by the distance between its center of population and Alabama's, adding the products, and dividing by the total population. Unfortunately no such data are available at later censuses for areas smaller than states, ex- cept a few of the larger cities. POPULATION. 107 TABLE 24. Population statistics of southern Alabama, 1880-1900. ^2 . Mobile Co. Ss ^£3 £18 * o S'So 32 Baldwin & Escambia. •g« £l 5^ OS 50 10 iH •** iH OS oo 10 os os 10 CO OS ^ co «O «O OS C CO W cgiHcooqcoooco csi o «o TH c<5 to AGRICULTURE. 119 The Civil War broke up many of the old plantations, and left the owners "land poor." (Compare the farm land values of 1880 with those of 1860.) The former slaves gen- erally remained where they were, but their social and eco- nomic status having been changed, it was difficult for the census enumerators in 1870 to determine which ones were farm owners or tenants and which were hired laborers, and 1850 1860 1880 1890 1900 1910 FIG. 27. Graph showing ratios of total and improved farm land to the total area of each region large enough to get statistics for, and the same for the whole State; 1850 to 1910. The numbers at the sides are percentages. 120 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. •SHIM 110 Tt» TH CO OS CO Oi 10 jo g ,i|-»«~ OOOOCOOJrHlOrHCOCNl 0 00 *O ^ °°^8 lod^oo CO IO t- O (Mi>t>ooqiOTtiOo dddcMCOrHOS^CO o> ^ TS X o ej i' g 5 00 00 10 CM CO C- C-C- T3 BJ73 ctf w *§ § -fits ^ S H £? MW §O ^02 Owners and part owners 38.5 53.6 86.5 89.0 41.5 Per cent white 71 91 82 89 85 •Per cent colored 29 9 18 11 15 Tenants (cash and share) 60.9 45.9 13.1 9.9 57.7 Per cent white 20 72 70 90 38 Per cent colored 80 28 30 10 62 WHITE FARMERS 39 82 80 89 57.9 Owners and part owners _ 68.6 59.2 88.0 88.7 60.7 Cash tenants _ _ 20.7 12.7 7.9 6.8 14.0 Share tenants 9.6 27.3 3.5 3.1 23.8 COLORED FARMERS 61 18 20 11 42.1 Owners and part owners _ 18.6 26.7 79.8 88.7 14.8 Cash tenants 60.4 25.3 10.6 9.3 59.3 Share tenants _ 19.7 48.0 9.6 0 25.3 The information given by the 1910 census is sufficient to justify three tables, one of a general nature as before, one for owners and tenants separately, and one for white and negro farmers separately, besides those for crops and animal products which appear farther on. 124 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. TABLE 35. Agricultural statistics of southern Alabama, 1909-1910. BS 12 11 Eg 3 3 11 Lime-sink region. Baldwin & Escambia. Mobile County. £ o> 5| ^w Per cent of land in forest Per cent of land in farms Per cent of land improved... Improved acres per inhab- itant _ 70 64 26 5.8 50 83 43 7.2 53 82 43 5.4 91 17 4.6 2.0 92 18 2.8 0.3 65 63.1 29.5 4.5 Av. number acres per farm Av. improv. acres per farm 84 34 89 45 78 42 80 22 113 17 79.0 36.8 Value farm land per acre- Value farm land per farm- Value of buildg's per farm Value implm'ts and mach'y Value of livestock, poultry and bees 7.35 613 248 53 223 9.62 850 272 63 237 12.90 1011 302 71 259 13.80 1109 436 74 312 15.40 1745 763 101 449 10.50 826 271 62 250 No. dairy cows per farm No. other cattle per farm... Number horses per farm Number mules per farm...... Number sheep per farm Number goats per farm Number hogs per farm Number poultry per farm- Number colonies of bees 1.7 2.8 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.4 6.4 17 0.6 1.1 1.4 0.2 1.1 .02 .05 8.0 19 0.7 1 3 2.1 0.3 1.0 0.5 0.3 12.0 20 0.6 2.7 6.8 1.0 0.4 7.2 1.7 10.9 24 0.8 3.6 13.0 1.4 0.3 8.4 3.7 8.2 33 0.9 1.6 2.1 0.5 1.0 0.6 0.3 5.0 19.9 0.5 Expenditure for fertilizers per farm 27 66 69 45 102 29 Expenditure for labor, per farm 23 27 27 30 98 23 Expenditure for feed, per farm . 20 8 6 28 108 15 Annual value of products, per farm 552 848 929 522 905 649 Expenditure for fertilizers per acre „ 0.80 1.45 1.68 2.09 5.92 0.79 Expenditure for labor, per acre .68 .59 .66 1.37 5.65 0.62 Expenditure for feed, per acre .58 .18 .14 1.30 6.24 0.42 Annual value of products, per acre 16.28 18.70 22.40 24.10 52.30 17.59 AGRICULTURE. 125 TABLE 36. Farm tenure statistics for southern Alabama, 1910. S3 %* £1 c£ 2* 11 Lime-sink region. Baldwin & Escambia. Mobile County. • 11 ££ Cotton (bales) . „ .295 .373 .389 .339 .420 .300 Corn (bushels) .. 11.2 11.1 14.0 12.9 20.7 11.9 Oats (bushels) 12.5 12.8 14.8 16.5 19.4 12.6 Rice (bushels) 18.9 18.5 Dry peas (cowpeas?) (bushels) Dry (velvet9) beans (bushels) 5.95 5.65 9.65 7.50 5.90 6.72 9.20 4.91 9.80 Irish potatoes (bushels) 60.0 81.8 100.5 84.7 107.9 78.0 Sweet potatoes (bushels) Hay and forage (tons) 70.7 1.22 89.6 0.89 97.2 0.82 96.9 1.11 101.8 1.19 79.8 1.05 Sugar cane (tons) Cane syrup (gallons) Sorghum cane (tons) Sorghum syrup (gallons) 8.53 102 5.42 35.0 9.55 125 6.05 44.4 11.55 158 10.60 181 10.20 230 8.33 113 4.06 45.3 Strawberries (quarts) 1080 1230 1973 1580 is likely to have an average yield of any crop much below the State average, for obviously where the crop in question does not do well it is not likely to be raised in measurable quantities, and other crops better adapted to the locality will be raised instead. And although the yield may fluctuate from year to year with the weather, prevalence of certain insect pests, etc., there is probably little change from one decade to another, except a gradual upward tendency as the population be- comes denser and farming more intensive. The differences that exist between different regions in this respect can be correlated with density of population about as well as any- thing else. (That in turn indeed depends somewhat on soil fertility, but not as much now as it did before commercial fertilizers came into use.) For example, the natural fer- tility of the soil is unquestionably greater on the average in the red hills than in the lime-sink region, and yet the latter has higher yields of most crops; which harmonizes very well with what was said on page 56 about its densed popu- lation indicating intensive farming. And Mobile County, which has some of the poorest soil in the State, has the highest yield of most crops, even cotton. 136 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. The simplest explanation of the correlation of high crop yields with dense population is that (other things being equal) land in a thickly settled region is worth more than where people are fewer, and farmers working such land, in order to pay the higher taxes or rent, naturally have to produce more per acre, by selecting prolific varieties or spending more for labor or fertilizers, or both. In any part of the United States the yield of any common crop, such as corn, can easily be ascertained from census reports to be generally greater in thickly settled regions than else- where, though of course there are other factors that enter into the problem, such as its relative importance compared with other crops; and soil fertility is not without some influence. (Many or most crops that are raised in both hemispheres have a larger yield in Europe than with us, for similar reasons.) The race of the farmer seems to have little to do with crop yields, as can be seen in the case of cotton and corn in Table 37. But it should be borne in mind that for any given crop the yield per acre probably varies much like the size of farms discussed a few pages back ; namely, in every region there must be many farmers whose yield is below the average, and a few far above. However, those who get the largest yields do not necessarily make the most profit, for according to the economic law of diminishing returns there is always a point beyond which further efforts or ex- penditures do not pay. ANIMAL PRODUCTS. In the foregoing regional descriptions and general agri- cultural tables there has been given the number of useful animals of various kinds per farm, but nothing about the meat, milk, eggs, wool, honey, etc., produced by them, except for the lime-sink region. Such information is needed to com- plete the account of agricultural operations. It was gath- ered more completely by the 13th census (1910) than by any previous one, but that still leaves much to be desired. In the case of crops the aim seems to have been to return the total yield, without deducting the portion consumed on the farms, but for animal products sometimes the total produc- tion, sometimes the surplus sold, and sometimes both are given. AGRICULTURE. 137 Table 40 shows for the average farm in each region for which we have statistics (separating Mobile County from Baldwin and Escambia as before) for 1909 the number of cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, etc., sold or slaughtered, the number of chickens and eggs produced and sold, the amount of wool, milk, butter and honey produced, and the value of each, with certain additions and limitations as indicated. The total value of animal products cannot be given very exactly, for the census does not give the value of milk and cream consumed on farms ; but probably most of that either reappears as butter or is fed to live-stock, so that the omis- sion does not make much difference. The census makes no returns of hides and feathers, or of fish, rabbits and other game occasionally sold by farmers, and apparently none of animals killed and paid for by railroads, automobilists, etc., but those items are relatively insignificant in this part of the country. The data in the table are given per farm, but not per acre, for most of the animals are raised on free range or in woodland pastures, so that they bear little relation either to the amount of improved land or to the total farm acreage. The difference between the quantity produced and the quan- tity sold, where both figures are given, gives some idea of how much of that particular kind of food the average farm family consumes in a year, and some interesting differences between different regions in that respect can be noted. The total value of animal products in any region is roughly proportional to the urban population, for milk and butter, chickens and eggs — especially milk — are marketed chiefly in near-by cities. For this reason Mobile County is far ahead of other parts of southern Alabama in most ani- mal products ; and in amount of milk sold per farm its aver- age is over twenty times the State average. The animal products also vary inversely with the degree of specializa- tion in cotton, the western red hills and the southwestern pine hills representing nearly the two extremes within the area treated. There is abundant testimony — which will doubtless be corroborated when the agricultural results of this year's census are published — to the effect that cotton has declined in importance in the last decade and live-stock in- creased correspondingly; and this has led to the establish- ment of a meat-packing plant at Andalusia. The lime-sink region leads in the production of pork, and in animals 6 AR 138 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. TABLE 40. Selected animal products per farm, in southern Alabama, 1909. QUANTITIES. Z£ 52 03 O> "C II g^ £5 11 x d '? d « 0 g'So 38 Baldwin & Escan bia. Mobile County. o> . o£ X OS ££ Animals sold or slaughtered: Cattle (including calves) Horses, mules, etc. 0.96 .04 0.76 .07 0.71 .06 1.17 .04 1.53 .03 1.06 .08 Hogs .; 2.06 5.20 8.26 3.17 2.40 2.80 Sheep and goats Wool, fleeces shorn .06 .15 .01 0 .06 .33 .27 5.82 .72 2.38 .15 .33 Gallons of milk produced 197 213 202 294 547 300 Gallons of milk sold 0.85 2.36 4.18 7.36 266 12.9 Pounds of butter produced Pounds of butter sold 64.2 2.8 83.5 4.1 76.5 4.8 76.4 9.1 57.8 13.9 112.4 10.7 Number of poultry raised Number of poultry sold . ... • 34.5 5.7 39.6 6.5 41.8 8.3 44.8 12.6 50.4 15.6! 42.1 10.2 Dozens of eggs produced Dozens of eggs sold _ 52.0 12.1 71.0 18.7 74.5 23.4 96.2 31.4 140.5 67.6 74.7 29.2 Pounds of honey produced 3.9 3.9 3.3 5.3 7.3 3.4 VALUES (in dollars) Animals sold on the hoof Animals slaughtered 13.72 19.55 17.37 51.10 14.15 72.80 17.15 26.80 21.35 16.20 21.04 29.00 Wool and mohair produced Dairy products (excluding home milk and cream) „ . .10 13.50 0 17.70 .17 16.87 5.05 22.95 1.91 99.55 0.23 24.30 Dairy products sold Poultry and eggs produced .73 16.44 1.35 21.12 1.73 23.96 5.64 33.40 88.00 54.65 5.16 23.33 Poultry and eggs sold 3.46 4.62 6.18 10.51 23.75 7.67 Honey and beeswax produced .42 .40 .35 .65 .95 .38 All animal products listed 64 108 128 106 195 98 slaughtered (which are doubtless mostly hogs), evidently on account of its large peanut crop, as already pointed out. In horses and mules and butter no region in southern Alabama comes up to the State average. By comparing the number of animals of various kinds raised in a year with the number living on the average farm at the time of the census, as shown in Table 35, we can get the approximate birth and death rate for each species. As- suming that all animals were raised on the farms where found, and none bought, and that all animals raised are ulti- mately sold or slaughtered, (which of course is a rather faulty assumption), the average annual birth-rate for the AGRICULTURE. 139 whole State ranges from about 5% for horses and mules and 29% for cattle to 56% for hogs and 110% for poultry. The amount of milk, butter, poultry and eggs consumed by the average farm family in a year, obtainable by sub- tracting the amount sold from the amount produced, is a crude index of the standard of living, and is roughly pro- portional to the value of farm buildings. Eggs are perhaps the most reliable indicator for this purpose, though of course it would be easy to point out discrepancies when dif- ferent states or regions are compared. The average farm family in the eastern division of the red hills consumes more of all these things than in the western division, but that difference is probably due almost entirely to the different racial composition of the population, and if separate data for the two races were available the whites in the western division would doubtless be found to rank higher than in the eastern in this respect, as they do in literacy, value of farm buildings, etc. The consumption of butter on farms in all parts of southern Alabama is below the State average, which suggests a temperature relation, for dwellers in the tropics eat much less fat than the Eskimos do. (The aver- age consumption of butter per farm in 1909 was nearly 102 pounds in Alabama, 115 in Kentucky, 28 in Florida, and less than 4 in Bade County, one of the southernmost counties in Florida.) 140 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS Page 14. The initials L.-S. and P. H. on the map indicate small discon- nected areas of the lime-sink region and southwestern pine hills. 18 (and 121). The fact that the number of farm owners and tenants was given by the census of 1890 was overlooked when these pages were written, though taken advantage of in Tables 3, 7 and 15. 19. In line 33, before plates read on. 22. A paper on the relations of soil, climate and civilization in the southern red hills of Alabama is being published in the South Atlantic Quarterly (Durham, N. C.), vol. 19, no. 3, almost simultaneously with this report. 48. In line 16, for newspaper read newspapers. 51. The boll-weevil monument in Enterprise is said to have been unveiled on Dec. 11, 1919. 57. The 1920 population of Dothan was announced on June 10 as 10,034. 63. Fig. 21 is from the same photograph used in Monograph 8, fig. 47. 64. Fig. 22 is from a photograph previously published in the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society (Chapel Hill, N. C.), October, 1918. (See title no. 8, page 22 of this work.) 69. For notes on the distribution of the southeastern "salamanders" see Science II. 35:115-119. Jan. 19, 1912. (To this day the writer has never seen one of the animals.) 72. The "Creoles" of Mobile are said to differ from the better-known ones of New Orleans and vicinity in having a perceptible amount of negro blood. 74. Revised figures for the 1920 population of Mobile issued by the Census Bureau on June 15 place the total at 60,151. 93. Some of the Eocene formations of Alabama, particularly the Claiborne at the bluff of that name on the Alabama River in Monroe County, are noted for the abundance and variety and excellent state of preservation of their fossil shells. 99. Electricity from the Pea River power plant is said to be used also at Enterprise. INDEX This index includes both plant names and miscellaneous subjects, with a number of synonyms and cross-references for the benefit of persons who may know some of the plants or other things better under different names from those used herein. Where a given item, like negroes, foreigners, farms, tenants, horses, or value of buildings, is treated in the same way in each of several regional descriptions or statistical tables references to such places are usually omitted. Num- bers in parentheses refer to pages where the items in question are mentioned indirectly or under different names. Technical names are italicized and common names of plants put in quotations, to facilitate the finding of names belonging to either of these classes. In cases where a genus of plants is represented by only one species in southern Alabama the specific name is usually omitted in the index to save space. Abandoned farms 86, fields 121 Abbeville (Henry Co.) 40, 112 Acanthospermum australe 55 Acer dasycarpum (see A. saccha- rinum) ; Floridanum 104; Ne- gundo 25, 32, 104; rubrum 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 85, 88, 104; sac- charinum 32, 104 Acorns for hogs 86 Actinospermum 90 Adelia acuminata 25 Aesculns Pavia 25, 32 Aesop's Fables 10 Africa, gold in 39, (127) African Methodists 36, 48, 58, 74, 113, 114 Alabama & Florida R. R. 57 Alabama Great Southern R. R. 26, 36 Alabama Midland R. R. 48 Alabama River $0, 64, 84, 91, 93, 95, 98, 140 Ala., Tenn. & Northern R. R. 26, 36, 76 "Alder" 32, 44, 54, 67, 89 Aletris aurea 68 Alkali (in water) 28 Allgood, M. C. 20 Alluvial soils (69), 84, 86, 92 Alnus 32, 44, 54, 67, 89 Alum in Tertiary strata 94 Alumina in soils 96 Ambrosia artemisii folia 55 Ampelopsis arborea 85 Andalusia (Covington Co.) 74, 97, 112, 137 Animal products on farms 136-139 Animals, on farms 18, 77, 127, 131 (see also Live-stock) ; wild 16-17, 6'9 Ante-bellum agriculture 48, 78, 117 (see also Civil War) Anticlines 22, 23, 27, 29, 93, 94 Appalachian Valley 98 Apples 133 Aralia spinosa 32, 44 Aristida stricta 55, 68 Arkansas, sandstone in 61 Artesian wells 41, 51, 94 Arundinaria macrosperma 25, 33; tecta 32, 44, 67 "Ash" 25, 31, 85, 95, 104; prickly 32, 44 Asimina parviflora 44 Asparagus 83 Atlanta & St. Andrews Bay Ry. 57 Atlantic Coast Line R. R. 48, 57 Atmore (Escambia Co.) 74, 112 Austrian immigrants 74, 110 Automobiles 11, 48, 127, 137 Avary, P. H., work of 60 Azalea nudiflora 33 B Baccharis angiistifolia 89 Bakeries 83, 84 Baldwin County 60-62, 70, 72-78, 82, 83, 86, 88, 98, 105, 106, 109, 115, 117 (See also Bay Minette, Bon Secour, Daphne, Elberta, Fairhope, Perdido, Point Clear, Silver Hill, Stock- ton, Tensaw) (141) 142 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. "Bamboo vine''' 33, 44, 54, 67, 85, 89 Banks 19, 75, 112 Baptists 36, 48, 58, 74, 112, 114 Barbour County 40, 41, 95 (See also Clayton) Batis 89 Batodendron 32, 44, 67, 89 "Bay" 25, 32, 44, 54, 67, 85, 88; red (sweet) 44, 67, 89; white 25, (32), 44, (54), 67, (85), 88 Bay Minette (Baldwin Co.) 61-63, 72, 74-76 Bayou la Batre (Mobile Co.) 63, 64 Bays (vegetation) 53, 64 Beaches 87 Beans 83, 134 "Beech" 25, 31, 43, 45, 66, 95, 103 Berchemia 32 Berry, E. W., paper by, 23 Betula nigra ("Birch") 25, 31, 43, 103 Bignonia cmcigera 25, 32, 44, 55 Birth-rates of farm animals 138 "Bitter-weed" 55, 68 Black belt 98, 99, 105, 131 Black Bluff formation '24, 92 "Black gum" 25, 31, 43, 45, 52, 54, 66, 85, 86, 88, (95), 97, 104 "Black haw" 89 "Black oak" 32, 33, 43, 95, 103 "Black pine" 43, 54, 66, 103 "Black sumac" (25), 32, (44, 89) "Blackberry" 33, 44, 54 "Black-jack oak" 31-33, 43-45, 54, 67, 95, 97, 104 Bladen Springs (Choctaw Co.) 94 Blue marl region 14, 40, 99 Blue Ridge 98 Bluffs 43, 63, 75, (98) Boat building 83 Boat knees 90 Boehmeria cylindrica 86 Boll-weevil 39, 50-51, 58, 140 Bon Secour (Baldwin Co.) 72 "Bonnets" 85 Booster literature 12, 20 Boston, Mass., illiteracy in, 37, 58 Bottling plants 83 "Box elder" 25, 32, 104 Brewton (Escambia Co.) 74, 75, 112 Brick, materials for, 93 Brine 28, 94 Brunnichia 25 "Buckeye" 25, 32 Buhrstone 14, 27-29, 31, 34, 92, 94, 98 Buildings on farms, value of, 18, 22,78, (128, 129), 131 "Bullace" (See muscadine) "Bulrush" 85, 89 Bung factory 86 Butler County 28, 34, 36 (See also Georgiana, Greenville, Man- ningham, Ridgeville) Butter 78, 137-139 Cabbage 83, 132 Caffeine, in yaupon leaves, 46 Calcareous soils 27, 29 California 39, 117 Callicarpa 32, 44, 89 Camden (Wilcox Co.) 36 Campulosus 55, 68 Canadians 74, 76, 110 Cane, sugar, 39, 50, 58, 134 Cantaloupes 83 Cantrell, L., work of, 60 Carpinus 25, 32, 44 Carriage mfg. 83 Castanea dentata 32, (97), 103 Castleberry (Conecuh Co.) 134 "Catalpa" 104 Cat-fish 91 Catholics 74, 113, 114 "Cat-tail" 85, 89 Cattle 77, 90, 137, 139 Caves 52, 98 Ceanothus Americanus 44, 55, 67; microphyllus 54 "Cedar" 27, 31, 33, 88, 103 Cedar Creek (Butler Co.) 28 Celtis 32, 104 Cenchrus 90 Census reports, use of, 3, 13, 15, 17, 18, 35, 39, 56, 58, 70, 72, 91 Centers of population, movements of, 9, 21 Central of Georgia Ry. 48, 57 Cephalanthus 25, 32, 85 Ceratiola 89 Cercis (31), 32 Chamaecrista 55 Chamaecyparis 66, 103 Channel bass 91 Charcoal 68 Chattahoochee River 41, 42, 52, 98 Chemical analyses of soils 15, 29, 94-97 "Chestnut" 32, 97, 103 Chickens 121, 137 Chile, fertilizers from, 48, 78 Chimneys (rock) 28, 34, 36 41 61, 93, 94 "Chinaberry" 43 Chinese in Alabama 107 INDEX. 143 "Chinquapin oak" 103 Choctaw County 11, 28, 29, 34, 36, 94, 100 (See also Bladen and Cullom Springs) Choctaw Indians 35, 105 Choctawhatchee River 64 Chondrophora, nudata 55, 68 Chrysobalanus 54, 67 Chrysoma, 89 Chrysopsis gramini folia 55, 68 Chunnennuggee Ridge 99 Church of Christ 48, 74, 114 Cicuta 86 Cities and towns 110-112 Citronelle (Mobile Co.) 74 Citronelle formation 23, 92, 93 City life, disadvantages of, 10 Civil War 28, 39, 48, 69, 70, 94, 117, 119, 121 Civilization, measuring, 22 Cladium 85, 89 Claiborne group 92, 94, 140 Clarke County 28, 33, 82, 86, 94, 95, 108,109 (See also Jackson, Thomasville) Clay 24, 29, 40, 51, 53, 60-62, 85, 93, 97 Clayton (Barbour Co.) 40, 41, 48, 95, 112 Clayton formation 92 Clethra 44, 54, 67 Cliffs 98 (See also Bluffs) Cliftonia (64), 67, (69), 89 Clinopodium coccineum 89 Clover, Japanese, 55 Coal fields 98 Coast strip 72, 87-91 "Cocklebur," running, 55 Coffee-colored water 64 Coffee County 41, 42, 46, 99 (See also Elba, Enterprise) Coffee roasting 83 Colonies, colonization in southern Alabama 72, 75 Color of farmers 18, (50), 129 Colored Methodists 36, 74, 113, 114 Columbia (Houston Co.) 52, 57, 99, 112 Columbia formation 93 Commelina hirtella 86 Commerce 10, 17, 69 Concrete, materials for, 93 Conecuh County 33, 95 (See also Castleberry, Evergreen, Rep- ton) Conecuh River 64, 99 Confectionery mfg. 83 Conifers 21, (103) Conradina 89 Corn 11, 33, 39, 40, 45, 50, 51, 58, 82, 83, 130, 133-135 Cornus florida 25, 32, 44, 54, 67, 89, (95), stricta 33 Correlations 14, 17, 135, 136 Cotton 11, 33, 35, 39, 45, 50, 58, 59, 82, 83, 130, 133-135, 137 Cotton belt, political parties in, 116 Cotton-picking machine 11 "Cottonwood" 25, 31, 85, 103 Covington County 52, 53, 56, 82, (97), 98, 109 (See also Anda- lusia, Florala, Opp, River Falls) "Cow-itch" 25, 32 Cowpeas 78 Cows 129 (see Cattle) Crabs 91 Cracca Virginiana 55, 68 Crataegus aestivalis (52), 54; Michauxii 44 Creameries 83 Crenshaw County 41, 45, 109 (See also Luverne, Rutledge) Creoles 72, 140 Cretaceous strata 40, 92, 94 Croatians 76 Crooked trees, indicating slow growth 86, 90 Crops 18-19, 39, 132-136 "Cross-vine" 25, 32, 44, 55 Cuba (Sumter Co.) 36 Cucumbers 132 "Cucumber tree" 32, 44, 104 Cuestas 98 (see Escarpments) Cullom Springs (Choctaw Co.) 94 Cumberland Presbyterians ( Col- bred) 36, 48, 114 Curiosities, geological, 93 Cut-over land 62, 63, 66, 102 Cyperus dentatus 89 "Cypress" 25, 31, 52, 54, 64, 66, 85, 86, 88, 103 Cryilla 32, 44, 54, (56), 67, (69), 89 Dairying 11, 82, (137) Dale County (see Ozark) Dams, 30, 42, 99, 100 Danes, Danish settlers 74, 110 Daphne (Baldwin Co.) 76 Decumaria, 32 "Deer-tongue" 55, 68 DeGolyer, E. 21 Democrats 115, 116 Density of population, signifi- cance of, 17 144 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. "Devil's shoe-string" 55, 68 Dichromena latifolia 55, 68 Diodia teres 89 Diospyros 32, 54 Dip of strata 92, 98 Disciples of Christ 36, 74, 114 "Dog-fennel" 55, 67 "Dogwood" 25, 32, 44, 54, 67, 89, 95 Dothan 48, 52, 57, 58, 99, 111, 140 Doukhobors 76 Dry farming 10 Dryopteris Thelypteris 86 Dunes 87, 88, 92, 98 Dust 61 Dutch immigrants 110 Economic law 136 Eggs 136-139 Elba (Coffee Co.) 42, 48, 99, 112 Elberta (Baldwin Co.) 76 "Elder" 25, 33, 44 Electric lights or power 48, 75, 99, 112, 140 Elephantopus 90 "Elm" 25, 31, 32, 104 England 105 English immigrants 74, 110 Enterprise (Coffee Co.) 48, 51, 112, 140 Episcopalians 74, 113, 114 Erigeron ramosus 55 Eriocaulon decangulare 55, 67 Eriogonum 55 Erosion 98 Eryngium synchaetum 55; Vir- ginianum 86; yucci folium &9 Escambia County 70, 72-74, 78, 82, 106, 109 (See also Atmore, Brewton, Flomaton, Pollard) Escambia River 63, 64 Escarpments 41, 63, 98 Escatawpa River 64 Eskimos 139 Eufaula, rainfall at, 100 Eupatorium album 55; compositi- folium 55, 67; purpureum 86; rotundifolium 55, 67 Europe 9, 113, 136 Europeans 105, 128 Evergreen (Conecuh Co.) 36, 95, 112 Evergreens for decorations 33 Evergreens, percentage or signifi- cance of, 16, 26, 68, 84, 90, 101, 103 Exhaustion of forests 66; of soils 78, 121 Fagus 25, 31, 43, (45), 66, 103 Fairhope (Baldwin Co.) 74, 75, 83, 115 Farm managers 127-128 Farms, variations in size of, 130- 131 Feathers 137 Federal Road, old, 63 Feed, expenditures for, 18, 19, 121 "Ferns" 55, 68, 86, 90 Ferraline (28, 94) Ferric oxide (61), 96 Ferruginous nodules 61, sand- stone (36), 60, 93 Fertilizers, use or effects of, 10, 78, 107, 121, 134 Figs 83, 133 Fimbristylis spadicea 90 Fire, effects on vegetation, 53, 55, 65-66, 88 Fish, fisheries, fishing, 10, 16, 17, 69, 72, 77, 90, 91, 137 Flomaton (Escambia Co.) 74 Floods 101 Florala (Covington «Co.) 74, 112 Florida 3, 22, 35, 43, 47-48, 51, 52, 61, 73, 75, 78, 82, 87, 101, 110, 139 Flowing wells 94 Fluctuation of water 64, 84 Folds in strata 93 Foreigners 33, 47, 70, 73-75, 78, 82, 107, 110, 114, 128 Forest census 102-104 Fossils 93, 140 Foundries in Mobile 83 Fraxinus Americana 25, 31, 104; sp. 85, 104 Free negroes 70, 106 Free range 17, 50, 82, (117), 137 Freewill Baptists 58, 113, 114 "French mulberry" 32, 44, 89 French settlers 105, 110 Frontier of settlement 10 Furman (Wilcox Co.) 34 G "Gallberry" 44, 54, 56, 67, 69, 89 Game 137 Gaylussacia dumosa 55, 67 Gelsemium 33, 44 Geneva 57 Geneva County 53, 56, 58 Geomys Tuza 69 Georgia 35, 40, 47, 51, 60, 73, 74, 105, 110 Georgiana (Butler Co.) 36, 112 German immigrants 74, 76, 110 INDEX. 145 Germany, fertilizers from, 48, 78 Gist, F. W., work of, 21, 132 Gold, discoveries 39, 117, 127 Gopher, Gopherus 69 "Gopher-berry" (55), 67 Gosport (Clarke Co.) 92, 95 Grand Bay (Mobile Co.) 63 Grand Gulf formation 92 "Grape," wild 44 Grapes (cultivated) 133 Gravel beds 98 Grazing 17, 77, 90 Greek Orthodox (Catholics) 74 Greeks 74, 76, 110 Green peas 83 Greensand 94 Greenville (Butler Co.) 28, 36, 37, 39, 111, 134 Grist mills 42, 99 Gulf, Fla. & Ala. Ry. 36, 63, 76 Gulf, Mobile & Northern R. R. 76 Gulf of Mexico 84, 87, 91, 98 "Gum," black 25, 31, 43, 45, 52, 54, 66, 85, 86, 88, (95), 97, 104; red (see Sweet gum) ; sour 95 (see Black gu-m) ; sweet 25, 26, 31, 43, 45, 54, 66, 85, 88, 95, 104; tupelo 85, 104 H Habenaria ciliaris 68 "Hackleberry" 32, 33, 95, 104 Hager, Dorsey, paper by, 21 Half-tones, invention of, 13 Hall, B. M. & M. R., work of, 21, 99 Hal's Lake (Clarke Co.) 86 Hamamelis 32, 44, 89 Hammocks 43, 65, 88 Hardshell Baptists (see Primitive; Hardwood trees 65 Harris, G. D., paper by, 20 Hartford (Geneva Co.) 57, 112 Hatchetigbee anticline 22, 23, 27, 29, 93, 94; Bluff 94; formation I 92-94 "Haw" 95; black 89; May 54; possum 67; red 44 Hay 39, 50, 58, 82, 83, 133, 135 Headland (Henry Co.) 48, 112 Healing Springs (Washington Co.) 51, 52, 94 Helenmm tenmfolium 55, 68 Helianthus angustifolius 68; Rad- ula 55, 68 Henry County 40, 41, 46, 95 (See also Abbeville, Headland, Law- renceville) Hides 137 "Hickory" 31, 43, 45, 54, 88, 95, 97, 103; pignut 43, (88), 103; scaly-bark 25, 103 ; swamp 103 ; white 103 Hicoria alba 31, 43, 54, 103; aqua- tica 103; glabra 43, 88, 103; ovata 25, 103 Hilgard, E. W. 95 Hodges, P. W. 22; R. S. 2 Hogs, 20, 51, 58, 59, 86, 117, 127, 137-139 "Holly" 32, 44, 67, 89 Holmes, H. H., information from (73, footnote) Honey 56, 69, 78, 90, 136, 137 "Honeysuckle" 33 Hopkins, O. B., paper by, 22 Horses 50, 82, 117, 127, 129, 137, 139 Houston County 56-58, 121, 132 (See also Columbia, Dothan) Huckleberries as a possible crop 78 "Huckleberry" (wild) 55, 89 Hungarian immigrants 74, 110 "Hurrah bush" 54, 67 Hurricanes 101 Hydrangea querci folia 44 Hydrocotyle 90 Hydro-electric plants 42, 52, 99 Hypericum aspalathoides 89; fas- ciculatum 44, 54, 67 I Ice factories 68, 83 Ilex coriacea 67; Cassine (see 7. vomitoria) ; glabra 44, 54, (56), 67, (69), 89; myrtifolia 54, 67; opaca 32, 44, 67, 89; vomitoria 44, 45, 89 Illicium 32, 44, 67 Illinois 11, 73, 110 Illiteracy 22, 36-37, 57-58, 109, 114 Immigrants (see Foreigners, In- terstate migration) Impoverishment of soils (78), 121 Improved land, definition and sig- nificance of, 17, 18 Indiana, settlers from, 73 Indians 35, 72, 82, 105, 107-109, 128, 130 Inflated currency (19), 121, 127 Influence of a city on farming 129 Insects 16, 134 Intensive farming 56, 77, 72, 121, 128, 135, (136) Interstate migrations 35, 106, 107 110 146 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Inventions, effects of, 10, 11, 13 Iowa, settlers from, 75 Irish immigrants 74, 110 Irish potatoes 39, 50, 58, 82, 83, 133-135 Iron compounds in soil, etc. (60, 61), 93, 94, 96 "Ironweed" (see Vernonia) "Irpnwpod" 25, 32, 44 Irrigation (in the West) 10 Islands along coast 87 Italian immigrants 74, 76, 110 Itea 85 "Ivy" (Kalmia) 32, 44 Jackson (Clarke Co.) 36, 112 Jackson anticline 23, 93; forma- tion 92 "Japan 'clover" 55 Japanese in Alabama 107 Jennings, H., work of, 60 "Jessamine," yellow 33, 44 Jews 72, 74, 76, (110), 113, 114 Juglans nigra (31), 103 Juncus Roemerianus 89 "Juniper" 66, 103 Juniperus Virginiana (27), 31, (33), 88, 103 K Kalmia latifolia 32, 44 Kansas, climate of, 101 Kentucky 73, 139 Kitchen middens 87 Klondike, gold discoveries 39, 127 Knapp, I. N., 21 Kuhnistera 68 Labor, expenditures for, 18, 19, 82, 121; required for peanuts and cotton 50 Lafayette formation 93 Land, value of, 18 Law of diminishing returns 136 Lawrenceville (Henry Co.) 95 Leaching of soils 43, 65, 69, 87, 101 Leguminous plants 88, 97 Lepidium Virginicum 55 Lespedeza striata 55 Lett, W. L., work of, 60 Lettuce 132 Lignite 94 Lignitic strata 92 Lime 96, 97 Lime hills 14, 26, 27, 29, 31, 95, 97, 103-104 Lime-sink region 51-60 Lime-sinks (40), 52, 98 Limestone 27, 31, 40, 51, 94, 98 "Lin" 31, 43, 104 Linden (Marengo Co.) 26, 95 Liquidambar 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 85, 88, (95), 104 Liriodendron 25, 31, 43, (45), 54, 66, (95), 104 "Live oak" 88-90, 103 Live-stock on farms 18, (50), 82, 117, 121 (See also Animals, Cattle) Livingston (Sumter Co.) 26, 95 "Lizard's tail" 86 Locks and dams 30 "Long moss" 97 (see Spanish moss) Long-leaf pine 25, 31, 33, 43, 45, 52-54, 61, 65, 66, (68), 95, 97. 101, 103 Lookout Hill (Monroe Co.) 29 Lophiola 68 Louisiana 60, 73, 110 L. & N. R. R. 26, 30, 36, 76, 85 Lower Peach Tree (Wilcox Co.) 93, 95 Ludwigia virgata 68 Lumbering 17, 19, 25, 55, 66, 68, 75, 77, 78, 83, 86, 101 Lutherans 74, 114 Luverne(Crenshaw Co.) 45, 48, 112 Lyell, Charles, observations of, 11 M Machine shops 83 Magnesia in soils 24, 96 "Magnolia" 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 88, 95, 104 Magnolia acuminata 32, 104; glance 25, 44, 54, 67, 85, 88; grandiflora 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 88, (95), 104; macrophylla 32; pyramidata 32, 44; Virginiana (see M. glauca) Managers of farms 127 Manganese in soils 96 Manningham (Butler Co.) 28 Manufacturing 19, 56, 83, 84, 110 Manure 78 "Maple," red 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 85, 104; silver 32, 104; sugar 104 Marble and stone works 83 Marengo County 23, 95 Marl 94 Marshes 16, 85-87, 92 Maryland, settlers from 35, 73 Matson, G. C., paper by, 23 "May haw" 52, 54 INDEX. 147 Meat 136 Medicinal springs 28 (93, 94) Medicines from strata 28, 94 Melia 43 Mesosphaerum rugosum 86 Methodists 36, 48, 58, 74, 112-115 Michigan, settlers from, 73, 110 Midway formation 27, 92 Migrations of population 9, 10, 106, 107 Mikania 86 Milk 83, 136-139 Mineral deposits, influence of, 10, (11) Mineral springs 28, 93, 94 Miocene strata 92 Mississippi 24, 27, 35, 48, 51, 73, 87, 110 Missouri, settlers from, 73 '"Mistletoe" 25, 32, 44, 54, 67, 85 Mobile (city) 11, 20, 70, 72, 74, 75, 83, 84, 86, 94, 100, 105, 106, 111, 140 Mobile & Ohio R. R. 76 . Mobile Bay 62-64, 69, 75, 72, 87, 90, 91, 98 Mobile County 63, 64, 70, 72, 73, 78, 83, 105, 106, 109, 117, 121, 127, 129, 135, 137 (See also Bayou la Batre, Citronelle, Grand Bay, St. Elmo) Mobile delta 69, 84-86, (98), 106 M. J. & K. C. R. R. 76 Mobile River 70, 84, 98 Mongolians in Ala. (107), 128 Monroe County 29, 33, 63, 72, 82, 101, 108, 109, 140 Monroeville 36, 63 Montgomery Advertiser 22, 115 Mormons 114 Mortar, materials for, 93 Mortis rubra 25, 32 "Moss," Spanish, 44, 85, 89, 97 Mt. Moriah (Butler Co.) 34 Mountains of southern Ala. 14, 27, 29, 34, 36, 93, (98), 129 Muck 84 Mud 61, 64 Muddy rivers 30, 64, 84, 99 "Mulberry" 25, 32 Mules 50, 82, 117, 127, 129, 139 Mullet 91 "Muscadine" 33, 44, 89 Myrica, Carolinensis 67 ; cerifera 32, 44, 54, 67, 85, 89; inodora 67; pumila 54, 67 "Myrtle" 32, 44, 54, 67, 85, 89 N Nanafalia formation 92, 94 Nautilus rock 92 Naval stores 66 (see Turpentine) Navigation 30, 35, 70, 84, 99 Negroes, percentage of, 17, 18, 35, 39, 46, 70, 82, 106-109 Negundo (see Acer Negundo} New England, increase of forest area in, 102 New Hampshire, farming in, 11 New Jersey 61, 129 N. 0., M. & C. R. R. 76 Newspapers in southern Ala. 48, 75, 111, 112 New York (city), illiteracy in, 37 New York (state), settlers from, 73 Nitrates (for fertilizer) 121 North Carolina 35, 47, 73, 74, 110 North Dakota, farming in, 11 Northern Methodists 58, 74, 114, 115 Norwegian immigrants 74, 110 Nymphaea fluviatilis 85 Nyssa aquatica (see N. uniflora) ; biflora, 31, 43, 54, 66, 85, 88, 104; sylvatica 25, 31, 104; uni- flora 85, 104 "Oak," black 32, 33, 43, 95, 103; black-jack 31-33, 43-45, 54, 67, 95, 97, 104; chinquapin 103; live 88-90, 103; post 24, 25, 31, 33, 43, 44, 66, 67, 95, 97, 103; red 25, 31, 43, 45, 66, 95, 97, 103; scrub 89, scrub live 89; Spanish 95, 97, 104; swamp chestnut 25, 31, 103; swamp post 103; turkey 32, 44, 54, 67; water 25, 43, 45, 54, 66, 88, 95, 104; white 25, 31, 43, 95, 103; willow 25, 31, 104 Oaks (not specified) 33, 76, 103. 104 Oats (cultivated) 39, 50, 58, 82, 133, 135 "Oats," sea 89; wild 68 Oenothera humifusa 89 Ohio, settlers from, 73 Oil and gas 21-23, 28, 93 Old fields 121 Oligocene strata 92 Omussee Creek 52, 99 One-horse farmers 129 Onions 83, 132 Onoclea 86 Opp (Covington Co.) 74 148 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Opuntia 90 Oranges 83, 133 Orchards 121 "Orchids" 68 Orontium 68 Osmanthus 32, 44, 67, 89 Osmunda cinnamomea 55, 68; re- galis 86, 90 Ostrya 32, 44 Oxydendrum 32, 44, 54 Oxy polls filiformis 68, 85 Oysters 87, 90, 91 Ozark (Dale Co.) 48, 112 Packing plant, Andalusia 137 "Palmetto" 32, 67, 85, 89 Panicum gymnocarpon 86; virga- tum 85 Parthenocissus 32 "Partridge pea" 55 Pastures 17, 121, 137 Patsaliga Creek 99 "Pawpaw" 44 Pea River 41, 42, 45-46, 64, 99, 140 Peaches 83, 133 Peanuts 39, 40, 50, 58, 59, 83, 127, 133, 134 Pears 83, 133 Peas, green 83 (See also Cowpeas) Pebbles 61, 62, 93 Pecans 83, 133, 134 Pennsylvania, settlers from, 73 "Pepper-grass" 55 Perdido (Baldwin Co.) 76 Perdido River 63, 64 Persea Borbonia 44; pubescens 67, 89 "Persimmon" 32, 54 Phoradendron 25, 32, 44, 54, 67, 85 Phosphate, phosphorus, etc. 29, 78, 96, 97, (121) Phragmites 85 Piedmont region 98 Pieris nitida 54, 67, 89 "Pignut hickory" 43 (88), 103 Pike County 21, 43, 47, 97 (See also Troy) Pimply land 61 "Pine," black 43, 54, 66, 103; long- leaf 25, 31, 33, 43, 45, 52-54, 61, 65, 66, (68), 95, 97, 101, 103; short-leaf 25, 31, 43, 53, 54, 66, 88, 95, 97, 103; slash 43, 54, 64, 66, 88, 103; spruce 25, 31, 43, 45, 54, 66, 88, 103. Pines (not specified) 26, 31, 33, 55, 103 Pinus Caribaea 88; clausa 88, 103; echinata 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 103; Elliottii 43, 54, (64), 66, 88, 103; glabra 25, 31, (33), 43, (45), 54, 66, 103; palustris 25, 31, 43, (45, 52, 53), 54, (56, 61-63, 65), 66, (68, 95, 97), 103; serotina, 43, 54, 66, 103; Taeda 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 88, 103 Pine Apple (Wilcox Co.) 30, 36 "Pitcher plants" 22, 55, 67, 68 Planera 32 Plantations 18, 69, 70, 117, 119 Planter's home 34 Platanus 25, 31, 104 Pleistocene strata 92, 93 Pliocene strata 23, 92, 94 "Plum," wild 25, 32, 44 Pocosin of Pike Co. 21, 43, 47 Point Clear (Baldwin Co.) 87 "Poison ivy" 32 "'Poison sumac" 67 Poles, Polish immigrants 110 Political parties 22, 115-116 Pollard (Escambia Co.) 74 Poly gali cymosa 55, 68; ramosa 55, 68 Polygonella sp. 89 Polypodium polypodioides 90 Ponds 24, 40, 53, 64, 98 Pontederia 85 "Poor Joe" 89 "Poplar" 25, 31, 43, 45, 54, 66, 95, 104 Population density, significance of, 17 Pcpulus delioides 25, 31, 103; I^cierophylla 85 Pork 137 "Possum haw" 67 "Post rak" 24, 25, 31, 33, 43, 44, 66, 67, 95, 97, 103 Post-oak flatwpods 24-26, 95 Potash, potassium 68, 78, 85, 96, 97, 121 Potatoes (see Irish and Sweet po- tatoes) Poultry (121), 139 Power-houses (42), 68, (99), 140 Prairies 27, 76, 95, 101 Presbyterians 36, 48, 74, 113, 114 Prices, rise of 19, (39, 127) 'Prickly ash" 32, 44 "Prickly pear" 90 Primitive Baptists 36, 48, 58, 74 113, 114 Printing and publishing 83, 84 Prohibitionists 115 INDEX. 149 Providence sand 40, 92 Pminus angustifolia 25, 32, 44 Pseudo-buhrstone (28), 41 Petei-is 55, 68 Pushmataha (Choctaw Co.) 35, 100 Pyr.te (28), 94 Q Quartz pebbles 61, sand 87 Quaternary strata 92 "Queen's delight" 55 Quercus alba 25, 31, 43, 103; aquatlca (see Q. nigra) ; b ore- alls maxima 32, 104; Castes- baei 32, 44, 54, 67; cinerea 32, 44, 54, 67 (97); coccinea 104; digitata (see Q. falcata) ; Du- randii 103; Jalcata 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 103; 'geminata 89; lauri- folia 31, 43, (47, fig. 15), 54, 66, 88, 104 ; lyrata 103 ; Marga- retta 44, 67; Marylandica 31, 43, 54, 67, 104; Michauxii 25, 31, 103; minor (see Q. stel- lata) , Muhlenbergll 103; myrtl- folia 89; .nigra 25, 43, 54, 66, 88, 104; pagodaefolia 25, 103; Phellos 25, 31, 104; rubra (see Q. borealls maxima} ; Schneckii 104; stellata 25, 31, 43, 66, 103; velutlna 32, 43, 103 -, Virginiana 88, 103. R Rabbits 137 Radishes 39, 134 "Ragweed" 55 Railroads 69, 72, 111, 112, 137 Rainfall, seasonal distribution of, 43, 65, 100 "Rattan vine" 32 Ravines 33, 43 Recent formations 92, 93 "Red bay" 44, 67, 89 "Red gum" (see Sweet gum) "Red haw" 44 Red level upland 40 "Red maple" 25, 31, 43, 54, 66, 85, 88, 104 "Red oak" 25, 31, (32), 43, 45, 54, 66, 95, 97, 103 Red snapper (fish) 91 Red soils 29, 40, (60, 61) "Red sumac" 32 "Redbud" 31, 32 "Red-shank" 44, 55; 67 "Reed" 25, 32, 33, 44, 67 "Reed-grass" 85 Religious denominations 11, 36, 48, 58, 74, 112-115 Rent 10, 136 Repton (Conecuh Co.) 30 Republicans 115, 116 Residual soils 29, 93 Revolution (American) 105 Rhexla Allfanus (R. glabella) 55, 67; lutea 55 Rhus copallina 25, 32, 44, 89; gla- bra 32 ; radicans 32 ; Vernlx 67 Rhynchospora axillarls 55, 68; dodecandra 90 ; Grayii 55 Rice 133-135 Ridge, Ridgeville (Butler Co.) 28, 36 River Falls (Covington Co.) 74 River terraces 61, 64, 92, 98 Rivers, muddy, 30, 64, 84, 99 Road materials 93, 94 Roads 19, 53, 62, 76, 77 Rodents 69 "Rosemary" 89 "Round rush" 89 Rubus cunelfollus 33, 44, 54 "Running cocklebur" 55 "Rushes" 88, 89 Russian immigrants 72, 74, 76, 110 Rutledge (Crenshaw Co.) 40 Sabal glabra 32, 85, 89 Sabbatia decandra 55; macro- phylla 68 Saglttarla lanclfolla 86, 89; latl- folia 85 St. Elmo (Mobile Co.) 64 St. Stephens formation 92, 94 Salamander (Geomys) 69, 140 Sallx nigra 25, 32, 44, 54, 85 Salt marshes 87 Salt springs and wells 28, 93, 94 Sambucus 25, 33, 44 Samson (Geneva Co.) 74 •"Sand-spur" 90 Sandstone 36, 60-61, 93 Sarracenla Drummondii 55, (64), 67; flava 55, 68; Sledgei 68 "Sassafras" 33, 44 Satsuma oranges 83 Saururus 86, 90 Savannas 16, 62, 64, 65, 68 "Saw-grass" 85, 89 Sawmills 26, 33, 45, 68, (83), 86 "Saw-palmetto" 67, 89 "Scaly-bark hickory" 25, 103 Schools 19, 37, 109 150 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Scirpus Eriophorum 86; (lacus- tris) validus 85, 89; virens 86 Scotch immigrants 74, 110 "Scrub live oak" 89 "Scrub oak" 89 "Sea-oats" 89 Seaports 75, 105, 110 Second bottoms 92, 93, 95 "Sedges" 55, 68, 88-90 Semitic races 110 (See Jews) "Seven-bark" 44 Sheep, 50, 77, 137 Shell mounds 87, 88 Shell prairie 95 Shells (mollusks) 16, 87, 140 Shipbuilding 75, 83, 84, 90 Shoals 52 "Short-leaf pine" (2 species) 25, 31, 43, 53, 54, 63, 66, 88, 95, 97, 103 Shrimp 91 Shrinkage of money values 127 Silica in soils 96 "Silver-grass" 55 (68) Silver Hill (Baldwin Co.) 76, 77 "Silver maple". 32, 104 Single-taxers 75 Sinks 40, 52 (see Lime-sinks) Sirup (see Syrup) Sium 85 Size of farms 18, 130-131 "Slash pine" 43, 54, 64, 66, 88, 103 Slaves 37, 49, 70, 71, 86, 117-119 Slavonic races 110 Slocomb (Geneva Co.) 57 "Smilax," wild, 44 Smilax auriculata, 89; lanceolata 44; laurifolia 33, 44, 54, 67, 85, 89; Walteri 67, 85 Smith, Eugene A., 1, 2, 4, 13, 23, 30, 95 Snow Hill, Old (Wilcox Co.) 34 Socialists 75, 115 Sociological features or problems 17, 76 Sodium compounds in soil and wa- ter 28, 78, 96 Soil analyses 15, 94-96 Soil fertility, influence of, 9, 17, 134-136 Soil surveys 13, 15, 23, 60, 62, 97 Soldiers on farms 3 Solid South 116 Solution of limestone 98 Sorghastrum secundum 68 Sorghum 133, 134 "Sour gum" 95 (see Black gum) "Sourwood" 32, 44, 54 South Carolina 35, 40, 47, 48, 73, 74, 78, 110 Southern Ry. 26, 36, 76 Spain 105 "Spanish moss" 44, 85, 89, 97 "Spanish oak" 95, 97, 104 "Sparkleberry" 32, 44, 67, 89 Spartina polystachya 85, 89 Springs 24, 28, 40, 51, 65, 94, 98, 99 "Spruce pine" (2 species) 25, 31, 43, 45, 54, 66, 88, 103 Squeteague (sea trout) 91 Standards of living 11, 12, 56, 139 Statistical tables, use of, 4, 13 Statistics, value of, 4, 12 Steamboat navigation 30, 84 Stillingia aquatica 67; sylvatica 55 "Stink-bush" 32, 44, 67 Stock farms 18, 77 Stock feed (see Feed) Stockton (Baldwin Co.) 76, 77, 86 Strawberries 82, 83, 132-135 Subterranean channels 51 Sucarnochee formation 24, 92 Sugar 78 Sugar-cane 39, 50, 58, 83, 133, 134 "Sugar maple" 104 Sulphur in soils 96, 97 "Sumac" 25, 37, 44, 89; poison 67 "Summer farewell" 68 Summer resorts 75, 90 Sumter County 95 (See also Cuba, York) "Sunflower" 55, (68) "Swamp hickory" 103 "Swamp chestnut oak" 23, 51, 103 "Swamp post oak" 103 "Swamp red oak" 103 Swamps 30, 31, 53, 65, 66, 84, 86 Swedes, Swedish 74, 76, 77, 110 "Sweet bay" (see Red bay) Sweet corn 83, 132 "Sweet gum" 25, 26, 31, 43, 45, 54, 66, 85, 88, 95, 104 Sweet potatoes 39, 50, 58, 82, 83, 133, 135 "Sweet-leaf" 44 Swiss immigrants 110 "Sycamore" 25, 31, 104 Symplocos 44 Syrians 74, 110 Syrup 133-135 Tallahatta formation 27, 92 (see Buhrstone) Taxes 10, 19, 136 INDEX. 151 Taxodium ascendens (see T. im- bficarium) ; distichum 25, 31, 54, 66, 85, (86), 88, 103; imbri- carium 54, (64), 66, 88, 103 Tea 46 Tecoma 25, 32 Telephones 19 Tenants 18, 39, 50, 58, 119, 123 (See also Tenure) Tennessee 35, 48, 73, 78, 110 Tensaw (Baldwin Co:) 86 Tensaw River 76, 84 Tenure of farms 121-123, 125, 127, 129 Terraces 61, 64, 92, 98 TesLudo Polyphemus 69 Texas 61, 73 Tharp, W. E., work of, 60 Thomasville (Clarke Co.) 36, 112 Tides 84 Tilia 31, 43, 104 Tillandsia (44), 85, 89 Tinsmiths in Mobile 83 Tofieldia 55, 68 Tomatoes 83, 132 Tombigbee River 30, 64, 69, 84, 91, 93, 94, 98 Tornadoes 43, 101 Tractors 127 Triadenum petiolatum 86 Trilisa odoratissima, 55, 68 Troy (Pike Co.) 41, 48, 97, 99, 111 Truck farming 11, 82, 128, 129 Tunnel Springs (Monroe Co.), tunnel near, 29, 30 "Tupelo gum" 85, 104 "Turkey oak" 32, 44, 54, 67, (97) Turks, Turkish immigrants 74, 110 Turpentine 33, 55, 78 Turritella rock 92 Turtles 69, 91 Typha latifolia 85, 89 "Tyty" (2 genera) 32, 44, 54, 56, 64, 67, 69, 88, 89 U Ulmus alata 31, 104; Americana 25, 32, 104 Unearned increment 127 Unicla, paniculata 89 "Upland willow oak" 97 (see Tur- key oak) Vaccinium nitidum 55, 89; vir- gatum 89 Values of crops 19, 132; of farm land and buildings 18, 128, 129, 131 (See also Buildings) Variations in size of farms 130- 131 Vegetables 39, 50, 58, 82, 83, 132, 134 Vegetation, treatment of, 16, 101- 104 Velvet beans 134, 135 Veneer mill near Stockton 86 Vernonia angustifolia, 55, 68 Viburnum nudum 67 ; rufidulum 89 ; semitomentosum 44 Vicksburg formation 51 Vigna luteola 86 Vines 16, 55, 65, 68, 86; effects of fire on, 55, 65, 68 Virginia 35, 48, 73, 105, 110 "Virginia creeper" 32 Vitis aestivalis 44; rotundifolia 33, 44, 89 W Wagon mfg. in Mobile 83 Waldrop, C. S., work of, 60 "Walnut" (black) 31, 103 "Wampee" 85 Waring, G. E., Jr., work of, 20 Washington County 51, 52, 62, 70, 82, 94, 95, 109 (See also Heal- ing Springs, St. Stephens) "Water oak" 25, 43, 45, 54, 66, 88, 95, 104 Watermelons 58, 83, 132 Water-powers 21, 42, 99-101 . Waterworks 75, (94), 112 Wave work (87), 98 Weathering of soils 65, 93 (see Residual soils) Weeds 16, 45 Weeks's Bay (Baldwin Co.) 72 "White ash" (31), 103 "White bay" 25 (32), 44, 67, (85), 88 "White oak" 25, 31, 43, 95, 103 White Pond (Barbour Co.) 41 "Wild grape" 44 "Wild oats" 68 "Wild plum" 25, 32, 44 "Wild rice" 85 "Wild smilax" 44 Wilcox County 20, 27, 95, 100 (See also Camden, Furman, Lower Peach Tree, Pine Apple, Snow Hill) "Willow" 25, 32, 44, 54, 85 "Willow oak" 25, 31, 104 152 RESOURCES OF SOUTHERN ALABAMA. Wind 87, 88, 98 Winter resorts 75, (90) "Wire-grass" 51, 55, 68 Wire-grass country 51, 57 Wisconsin 11, 73 "Witch-hazel" 32, 44, 89 Wood fuel 68 Wood's Bluff formation 42, 92 Wool 136, 137 World war (1914-18) 78, 127 "Yaupon" (yupon) 44, 45, 54, 67, 89 "Yellow jessamine" 33, 44 Yellow River 64 Yield of crops 134-136 York (Sumter Co.) 26, 36 Zizania 85 Zygadenus 68 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. LD 21-40m-l,'68 (H7452slO)476 General Library University of California Berkeley