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UNIVERSITY

OF PITTSBURGH

LIBRARY

RIDPATH'S

UNIVERSAL HISTORY

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN, PRIMITIVE CONDITION AND ETHNIC DEVELOPMENT

OF THE GREAT RACES OF MANKIND, AND OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE

EVOLUTION AND PROGRESS OF THE CIVILIZED LIFE AMONG MEN

AND NATIONS, FROM RECENT AND AUTHENTIC SOURCES.

WITH A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY ON THE TIME. PLACE AND MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.

By JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D.,

AUTHOR OF A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC.

Complete in Sixteen Volumes

A NARRATIVE OF MORE THAN SIX THOUSAND PAGES, PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH

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VOLUME XII.

CINCINNATI: THE JONES BROTHERS PUBLISHING COMPANY.

Ibi ilonos In-ollvr? Pufli.'Hng £oiih\

so/n /? )• srnsrR/rrro.y ox/, v.

. RIDPATH^S UNIVERSAL HISTORY

VOLUME XIL

BOOK XI. —BARBARIAN ASCENDENCY BOOK XII. —THE MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDENCY BOOK Xm. —THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE BOOK XIV.— THE FEUDAL ASCENDENCY BOOK XV. —THE CRUSADES

mjnijhlcd by .lunts lirulhirtf Pub. Co. 1S8'

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JBonk Jirucnlh.

Barbariax Ascexdexcy,

CHARTER LXXTII— TKIBES OK THE NOKTH.

HE opening paragrai^hs of Modern History relate to the Barbarian Nations. The 'warlike tribes that for several centuries had beaten against the north- eastern frontiers of the Knnian l^iiiiiie at last burst through the bar- riers which the Ctesars had set against them and swept the Old Civilization into ruins.

Peninsular Euroije became the sjioil of the invaders. The immense populations of bar- barism, long heaped up on the further banks of the Ehine and the Danube, suddenly dif- fused themselves as a spreading flood over all the better 25ai"ts of the West. It may prove of interest to take at least a cursory survey of the barbarians, as it respects their ethnology, institutions, and general history.

The warlike peojiles by whom the Empire of the Eomans was subverted behinged to three different races: the Germanic, the Slavic, and the ScytJiic. Whether the first two groups may be traced to a common Teutonic origin is a question belonging to the ethnologist rather than to the historian. It is suflicient to note

ly of a distinct mis, whom they cmitines of the

family belonged isiims of Visi- or ■rn Goths; the insisting of sev-

the chief; the

the fact that in the fifth century the Germanic and Slavic tribes were already so clearly dis- criminated as to constitute ditierent groups of population. As to tlie Scythic or Asiatic invaders they were manifc stock from the Teutonic lui drove before them into thi Empire.

1. The Gerjians. To th the Goths, with their twd di Western, and Ostro- or Ea- Allemannian confederal imi, eral tribes, the Suevi bciii Marcomanni, the Quad!, the Hormunduri, the Heruli, the Gcpidie, the Vandals, the Lom- bards, the Franks, the Angles, the Saxons, the Burgundians, and the Bavarians.

Of these many and jiopulims tiibus, among the most important were the Gotiis. Their origin has never been definitely ascertained. The first historical contact between them and the Romans was in the year A. D. 250, when the Emperor Decius was called to confront them on the Danube. Thev liad, however, been previously mentioned Imth liv I'liii\- and Ptolemy. By some authors ihtv have been

388

UyiVEHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

coufouodLcl with t fusion tluH 1- II > . HMoiualU, tin the V.ukIiI- iii'l t deed, leuaid- tin il ions of tilt ^.imc n i pact with the Eom in the region noitli

, Ih- .iu a-Kut.d «ith ■ 1 lud.e. I'lotopiu-, m- lubc^ a^ meiL tuljduis-

1 Bttdie theu hrst im- thi (r(.th> wcic located

till LiiMiii A (intuiv

with the Lmpue betrau. In the mean time they became di\ided into the two gieat fam- ilies of \'i'-i- 01 We-teiu, and O-tio- oi Eastern Goth--. The latter occupied the teiiitoiy l}iug between the Danube and the Caqiathian mountains, and stretching fiom the boideis of HuuLfaiy to Bessarabia. The foimer ■nere loiatdl in Southern Ru-^ia hetween the Don

later, ahout A. D. 2ri(). on the Lower Daiiubc. had made an iniui-'Hin vasted a considerablr di the year 2(52 they were J^milianus, and seven years later by Clau- dius. Near the close of the third century thcv obtained jwissessioii nf the province of Daria, and I'mm this region their struggle

the^	• were c	stabl	shed
Bet	ire t	lat	time	they
inti	Th	•ar	" am	,k-
-trie	t of		nlry.	In
defeated	in	bat'tl	e In-

and the Dniester. Fi>r a while the two races were ruled by a common king. When the Iluiinish invasions began the Visigoths put tbcnistlves under the protection of the Empire and were first assigned a district in Thrace, but afterwards came into possession of Moesia. From the times of Theodosius the Goths became einistantly more aggressive, and it was evident that they contemplated no less than

BARBARIAX ASCKXliKXcV. — TlUIlKS OF THE XnUTIL

the subversion of the Empire. ]\Ieaii\vhilr, they were presseil forward by the Hiiiiiiisli hordes that raiiie iioLirina- in from Asia. Tin y were tlius i.ncii>itated into Italy. Led on l.y Ahirie, they weiv, lii-t in the year 40.s, l,,,nuli't ofl" witli an enormous ransom. A second and a third time the Gothic king returned to the siege of tlie city, and in August of 410 Rome ■was taken and pillaged. Called, however, to other fields of conquest, the Goths left the crippled Empire for a season to the successors of Honorius. In the middle of the century they joined the Romans in a combined attack upon the half-million of Huns whom Attila had led into Gaul. In the years that followed the countries of Spain and Southern France ■were completely dominated liy the < Jothir laer, and in A. D." 476 the nation of the lleruli, led by their king Odoacer, overthrew what remained of the Western Empire, and estab- lished the OsTROGOTHic KiNGDOM of Italy.

Of the two Gothic peoples, the Visigoths, if not the more powerful, were the more en- lightened. Having first established themselves in South-western France, they gradually made their way through the Pyrenees and spread as far as the river Ebro. Under the leadership of their king, Wallia, they overthrew the king- dom of the Silingi, a trilie of Vandal origin, and thus secured a tdotlidld in Spain. The Vandals, under the lead of (ienseric, retired into Northern Africa, and the Visigoths soon overran the whole of the Spanish peninsula. Only a small district in the north-west re- mained under the dominion of the Suevi. Even this province, after maintaining its in- dependence till the year 585, was reduced to submission and added to the Visigoteiic Kingdom.

In A. D. 471 King Enric, the most distin- guished sovereign of the Visigoths, put an end to Roman authority in Spain, and established a new constitution. By the close of the sixth century a fusion had been effected of the na- tive Spanish, Latin, and Gothic elements of pop- ulation, and the Kixgdo5I of the Visigoths became the sole political power in the pen- insula.

In a jiaragrajih above mention was made of the persistent stand of the Suevi in North- western Spain. This tribe of Germans had its native seat in ITpper Saxony, beyond the

There in ancient times, in a sacred

were erected the altars of their sujjer-

This forest, called the Sonnenwald,

Thr S	uevi were anidug the- nm-t warlike and
pnwrl	t'ul of the Teutonic triljes. Tiiey sjn-ead
IVnlu	the banks of the Oder to the Danube.
Siieh	was their prowess that the Gaulish na-
tioll>	hvhired to Ca-sar bv tlicir ambassadors
that t	ny regarded it as n,. dis,,,ae.. t.> have
llr,l 1,	•fiire the Suevi, against whcjui not even
thr il	nu.irtal gods might stand in battle. It
was i	1 tlie reign of the Emperor CaracaUa
that t	lit' Suevi were first felt on the borders
of i;,,	111'. The legionaries of the Empire were
stunnt	d bv the fierce blows of the Germanic

In the distui-bed period following the reign of Uecius the Suevi made their way into Gaul, and thence proceeded by way of Ravenna till their savage banners were seen almost as far south as Rome. The Senate, in the ab- sence of the Emperors, spurred into activity by the imminent peril of the state, raised a large army of pra}torians and conscripts, and the Suevi, not without an immense collection of spoils, fell back into Germany. Soon after- wards, however, an army of three hundred tlmusand Allemauni was again in Italy, but wa- ili'fiated liy (iallieiiu,- in a liattle near :Milan. In order to stay the inroads of the barbarians, the Emperor then espoused Pipa, the daughter of the king of the Suevi, and gave to her father as the jn'ice of ]^)eace the jirovince of Pannonia. After many vicLssi- tudes the Suevi became established on the banks of the Neekar, and, as already men- tioned, in the ijrovime of <.iallicia, in Spain. In the former ]in,-iiion tiny laid the founda- tions of the KiNGlH.M (IF SuEViA, which is only a variation of the original name of the tribe ; and from the latter they were expelled by the Visigoths in the year 5<S5.

Our first notices of the Marcomanni are derived from Strabo and Tacitus. The native seats of this strong tribe were in Bohemia and IMoravia. Here, under their great king ]\Iaro- boibius, they established a powerful monarchy, and became a terror to the surrounding na- tions. The name Marcomanni signifies Mirch- meii or borderers, and was, no doubt. a]i])lied to several neighboring tribes in the confines of

392

uyi\-i:h'sAL nisTonv.-TiiE M()I>i:i:.x world.

Germany. In tli

( 'jL-sar, the .Marco- tlie army of Ario- Miit of their kin-

eeanie involve.l ill 1 MH.ii afterwanls i~ -tatione.l nil the

.Ml

.Ala

■us A Il-

ls-Da

hnal

pniviiiees ■comauni,

a perma- ■euturies, ion grew ireil fr(jm

coiilroiitrd I Dauubian h

In the V

relius, the .Ahii- aiiiii h, lele.l a e..iifeder-

ation (if (ieriiiaii tiilus a;jaiii>l lii<' Romans.

Aurelius ilie.l uhil.' . iii;aiie.l in tlie attempt to

break u

son ComiiuHhis w

peace which he

German ailvei>ai

fourth eeiituiies

were seyera! time;

but they ilid n.it

where, in hiyim;-

nent state. In t

the relative imp

less and k'ss, unt

history.

The QuADi were kinsmen of the Sueyi, having their original homes in South-eastern Germany. One of their principal haunts was the celebrated Hercyniau Forest, nf which so graphic an account has been iireserved in the Sixth Book of CVsar's GalUc War. Their ter- ritories had joined iIki-c oi' the raunonians and the Marcomamii, with whom they were generally in alliance. At the time of the es- tablishment of the Koman Empire the Quadi were among the most jiowerful of the German nation.s. In the time (if the Kmperer Tiberius their government was a iik diarchy, a certain Vannius occuiiyiiig the throne. DuriiiL' the reign of ^lareiis Aiireliii>, the (^uadi became

against the Romans, and he great battle of A. D. destroy the imperial le- liiiiate occurrence of a ■ and i;aye the victory to

a member of tin which was ori^aiii/.i it was they whd, ii 174, were alxait t gions, when the storm turned the t: Rome.

During the yea posed provinces of harrassed by tliis ■ liance with the Sai tier posts, and mat

•s A. D. :;.'i7-o.")l», the ex- die i-:m|iirc were dreadfully arlike people, wlio, in ai- maliaiis, captured the fron- e it necessary for Coustan- tius to exert himself to the utmost to stay their ravages. They were, however, speedily

subdued, and the cliiefs of the nation, even from beyond the ( aipaiiiian mountains, were glad to -ave tli(iii-(lve> liy making their sub- mi>>ioii and Liiviiig hostages to the Emperor. The nation maiiitaiued its independence until near the close of the following century when thev were ali-orbcd by the more powerful (niths, and ceax'd to be a separate people.

Tlie nation of the Hekuli were destined to establish tiic tii>i barbarian kingdom in Italy. These were the iiKJst migratory of all the Ger- man tl■ib(^^, inxmiiich that their original seats have iviuaiiied a matter of conjecture. At diflerent times they ajipearcd on the Dniester and the Rhine; in Greece and Italy; in Spain and Scandinavia. In the third century of our era, (kiriiii;- the rei-ii,~ of Claudius and (ialli- enus, the lleruli joined the (ioths on their ex- pedition against the countries of the Euxiue. In war they were among the bravest of the brave, disdaining the use of defensive armor and coiideiuiiiiig the widows and infirm of the tribe to peri>li iiecause they were of no further service to the nation. After uniting their forces with those of the (ioths in various invasions of the Dauubian provinces of the Empire, they were c(iii(|ii( red by their allies, and re-

4.")1, they joined Attila on his march into Gaul, ami after the death of that savage chief- tain were united with the other German na- tions in the final expedition against Rome. With the capture of the city, in the year 476, Gdoacer assumed the title of king of Italy, ami, tliouLih by no means the greatest of the bai'liariaii leaders, became the founder of the first kingdom establi-licd by the invaders on the ruins of Rome. About the same time the lleruli succeeded in establishing a second kingdom in the central part of Hungary, where they maintained themselves until they were overpowered by the Lombards.

The native haunts of the Gepid.'e appear to have been on the Vistula, near the Baltic. It is from this position that their first move- ments were directed against the civilized states of the South. At the first they were associ- ated with the Vandals, and were afterwards leagued with the (Jothsof the Mi(hlle Danube. At the time of the inva.sion of Attila they were obliged to follow the standard of that imperial savage, but after his death they re-

BAHBAIUAX A.SCKSDKycV. — TmBES OF THE yoimi. 393

394

rXIVKL'SAL lllSTi>l:Y. — THK M<iDi:i:X WOULD.

gaiued tlifir iiiil<ii.iiiliiii-.-. L'ndci- tliclr kiii-- Adaric. lluy l»at ba<-k tl,.' Ihui- In.!,, lli.ir territdi-ifs ..n llu' L..\\.t Danul..-, aii.l iHcain.- one of the nin^t |.n.-|Mi-..ii- ,-lal.>. Twilvc years att.r ilu- dnuiifall mI' ilu- WrMmi Ku.- pire, Tluudoric, kiiiu of ili.- (»-iioi:ntl,~, dr- feated llii' (icjiida' in a -r.at Kaitlc mar Sir- mium. AftiTward.-, in 'i<;ri, tin- iiaiinii .MitH-rcd a secoial .A-.Ttlnnw at \\u- l.ai.d- nf Allu.iii, king of the Li.inl.anl~, an.l In.n. that linic- the

S(.rlHMl l,v the dumiiiant i.opahiti..n.< ar..und them.

Next to the Goths in inii...rtaure \vas tlie great race of the Vam.ai.>. It appeals that they, like the AUenianni, e.,iiH-t.d at th.- )ii>t of a coufederatiou of tril»> l...nii.l t..-vtli.f l.y a commuiuty of inter. '~t> ami iii-iitiiti..iis. Their native seats were in the matiieru parts of Germany, whence at an earlj- period they migrated into the country of the Riesongeltirge and subsequently into Pauii..nia ami llacia. Some eminent authors hav.' .ia— ili.'.l the 11. r- uli, Burgundiaus, au.l L..inl.ar.l~ a- .litli iviit branches' ..f the Van.lal race. In tiie l..gin- uiug ..f the tiftli c.-ntiiry tlii.- great pi-..ple began its movement westward thmugli (Ger- many into Gaul and .Spain. Having ci-..ss((l the Pyrenees they estaiilished thenisi-lv.< al.out the y.'-ar 41il in tlie .■..miiry ea.t aii.l s..nth ..f the "kiiig.l..in ..f til.- Spauidi Su.vi. A >li..rt time sulise.pieiitly ili. y pr.>-.-.l tli.ir way southward into tlu' am'i.-iit provincf ..f I'.atica, where they foun.le.l tlie still ni..i-,- e.-l. l.iat.'d kiiiL'.l..ni ..f Vaxdalvsia, still known as Anda- lii-ia. At tlie close of the first quarter of the tittli ceiiturv the «;-reat Geuseric became king of the Van.lal, an.l .liirim; lii> L.ng ivign coutriliut..! l.y his g.>iiiii> ami l.iav.ry to establish and exteii.l lli.- .lnniiiii..n ..f hi- p.-..- ple. In the year 42:i. ul.il.' tli.' iml....Ml.. an.l profligate Valentinian ill. ...-.•upi.-.l \\u- all. ii..l throne of the W.-t.in I'aiipii.', < m-ii-. ri.-. a~ already rclate.l in th.- pi..'. .liiiL;' \'..lniii.,' was invitci by ?,..nii;i.'.-, ;j.,v.rn..r ..f AlVi.'a. t.. cross ovi-r an.l ~iipp.iit lii> eaii-i-. l"a-ilv \va> the Van.lal kin- p. i-na.l.-.l measure which pr.nni-. .1 -m-l: pensive results. A\'iili an an

i-lan.l> ..f Siri lialeaivs uviv , i,.ns. In th.'

I.itak.' an.l ill. iftv th.

sand men he siib.lii.Ml tlie wide cast .>f Northern Africa as far s.mth as Tunis. The '.See Volume II., i.. :M4.

anliiiia, Ci-.-iea, and the i.l.l.-il to ( ieiiseric's domiu- 4:.:. an army of Vandals retiiriie.l int.* Italy ami captured the city of Koine. In matters of religious faith they were f..ll.iwers ..f Ariii-, and this brought them into coiilli.-t with th.- ..nli...l..x CliiiMiaii- of Italy, against whom ih.y wag.-.l a li. ive p.a>eeiiti./n. I'liiis were laid the foundations of the KiNc;- ]M .M ( .1- THE Vaxuals. For more than a ceu- luiy the state grew and flourished. The wh".le ..f Spain, ^ll,■ W.-st.rn .M.-.lit..iTanean i.-iaii.l. ami .\..rtlieni AtViea were inclmle.l witiiiu the limits . f X'andal .luiuiniou. :Not until lieli.-ariii-, tli.- gi'eat general of Justinian, lift. .1 aLiain the l.anmr of the Empire in the W.'.t .lid ih.- kiii-.h.m of the Vamlals receive a slagg.riiig 1.1. .w. In the year o:;4 Gelimer, the la,>t ..f th.ir king., was" .l.^leated and de- throm-.l by th.- le.nian arm.. The Vandals never r.cov.-r.-.l fi-..ni the .-hock, but at once eea.-eil I.. I..- the ruling people in the vast domain^ which Geuseric had conquered. It is li. ri.\f.l that in the Berber islands their de.-cemlaiits aiv still t<. be recognized by the blue eyes an.l fair c..iiiplexi..n peculiar to the

N.'Xt ill influence among the liarbariau iiati..ii.- w.r.' the LoMBARD.s or Long Beards, an ancient Teutonic tribe, kin.snien of the .•^u.vi. Their lii>t lii.-t..rical appearance was ..11 th.' bank- of th.' river Lll.e. In this region ih. y l...gaii t.. iiiaiiit;..t their a.-livities as early

a. till- reign of Augustus, F.ir a while they were leagued with Armiiiius, prince of the Cherusci, whom tli.y as.isti-d in destroying the legions of Varus. In the palmy times of

,-i-ii ..f h..stility to civilizali..ii, but in the

b. -iiiiiiii- ..f ihi- liflh c.ntniy they sml.leidy ivapp.an.l in llum^ary ami ..11 the n..rtliern l.aiik.- ..f th.' Daiiiil..-. It app.-ars that in tin-.' districts th.y were f..r a while hehl in Milij,-,.ti..n by the Ileruli; but in the sixth .iiituiy they reversed their relations with this p. ..pi.- an.l waged against them an externii- iiatiii- warfar.-. They then crossed the Danube ami 111a. le an expedition into the Panuouian kiii',;i|..iii ..t' tlii> Gepidse. At a later period tiny tiav.i-c.l the Julian Alps, led by their gr.at kin- Alb.iin, and debouched into the vall..y of the Po. Here, in tlic year .568, they

BAHBAIIIAX ASCEXDKXCV. — TRIBES OF THE XORTH.

otto

laid the foundatious of the Kingdom of Lom- BAEDY, which continued for more than two hundred years to be one of the leadinji' liarha- rian states of the West.

The great race of the Franks, like the Al- lemanni and the Suevi, first apjiear as a cuni- federatiou of tribes. The old names of the Sigambri, Chamavi, Amisrivarii, Bructeri, and Catti are thought to have designated those early tribal divisions. The native seats of the race were on the Lower Rhine, where they re- mained until the thu-d century, when large bodies of the Fraukish warriors began to make incursions into Gaul. As early as the times of the Emperor Probus they became a menace to Roman authority in the North. When Carausius, who had beeu sent to defend the Gallic states against the barbarians, turned traitor to his master, he made an alliauce with the Franks, to whom in recompense for their services he gave the country on the Scheldt.

This region they continued to hold till the reign of Coustantine the Great, when they were repressed by that sovereign, and cun- iined to their original settlements. In the times of Julian the Apostate, however, tjiey regained the countries confcircd l)y Carau- sius, and continued to hold thcni until the overthrow of the Empire. They beeaiue di- vided into two nations, known as the Salian and the Ripuariau Franks. It was the fVirnier division which during the fifth century con- tinued to assail the tribes of Gaul, and pres- ently afterwards, under the chieftain Clovis, laid the foundations of the Kingdom of the Franks, or France. The Ripuariau Franks spread southward, occupying bnth banks lA' the Rhine, extending their borders westward U> the Meuse and eastward to the ^lain. In the latter region they established the head-quarters of their dominion in the country named Fran- conia. Both divisions of the nation have con- tributed largely to the modern populations of France and the adjacent parts of Germany.

We now come to two barbarian peoples, who were properly the progenitors of the English-speaking race — the Angles and the Saxons. The first were an ancient German tribe of the North. Though migratory in their habits, they seem to have found a per- manent footing in the Danish islands, where they multiplied and lieeame a jiowerful budy

of warriors and pirates, l-'rnni Denmark west- ward they iui'ested the -eas, braving the open oceau in two-uared biial.-. and fiiiJitiiig a con- stant Ijattle with tlie temeity ef nature. They made their way to Britain, invaded the island under the lead of their elii< Itain-, and eluini;ed the name of the conijui'icil einintiv tn Anole- Laud, or England. The name <,t' the race is also preserved in the distiiet cif Aii;;eln in Schleswig, but their tiime is instihir rather than continental.

The more powerful ami noted iiatii)iis were the Saxons, whose ori-inal seats weic in the

the Lower Elbe. Th,' nam,, of the 'race hal

beeu variously derived fr ^nhx. nnaning a

knife or short sword, and liom Siibii.^iiii'i, or sous of the Sakai, or Scythians. In the earli- est times the Saxous were the head of a low- land league, embracing the tribis between the Skager Rack and the country of the Franks. The beginning of the iifth eentnry founil them

in alliance with the I! ans. A little later

they were the leaders of the barljarians by whom Britain was wrested trom the Celts. In this great movement they were so closely united with the Angles that tlie two jieoples — having no 2)articular disdimiiiatioii from each other in race, institutions, or hiiimiaei — became known as Anglo-Saxons. Tlie.-e liardy war- riors were, if the tradition of the times may be accredited, at the tir>t invited by \'ortigern, king of the Briti>h Celt.-, to eome over to the i.slaud and aid him in rejieiling the Picts and Scots, who, after the withdrawal of the Roman legions, had lu'oken over the northern border, and were threatening the (Vhie tribes with destrn.'ti.m. No >o.,ner, however, had the Saxons landed in the idan.l tjian tlieir cupid- ity was aroused, ami seniliuL;- for reenforce- ments of their eoiiiitiytneii they swept the Celts befoi-e tlH'in, and seized the better part of Britain for themselves. The whole south- eastern part of tlie island jiasscd under the dominion of the invach-rs, and the foundations)^ were presently laiil of the petty Saxon king- doms of Kent, Sussex, A\'i:ss]:x, East Anglia, Meecta, Essex, Bkrnicia, and Deira, which by their meirement in the eii^hth century were destined to constitute the lia>is of the greatness of IhiL:land.

Next in order niav be mentioned the Bur-

390

r.\n-i:i:sAi. nisTnuv.-riii-: moi^khx world.

BARBAJRIAX ASCEXDEyCY.—TBIBES OF THE NORTH.

GUSDIANS, whn iu their origin are tlnmi^lit to have been of the same stock with the (intiis. Their primitive seats lay between the ( >clir anil the \'istula, from which po.^itinn tliey were ixiicllcil at an early period by the (.ie- piihe. Thiv then settled in the region between the ?i[aiu :'m.l the Xeckar, and in the begin- ning of thi' tiftli century ji)iued the Su^'vi a)id the Vandals in their initial ineiir-inns into Gaul. In the country bounded by the Al[)s, the !-^aone and the Rhone, the Burgundians establislied themselves, fixing their capital first at (iencva, and afterwards at Lycms. Here they remained until the year 534, when their king, Guudeniar, was conquered and killed in a battle with the Franks, who thereupon be- came masters of Burgundy. Having lost their political piiwer by this catastroiihc, tiie ]5ur-

the coU(piering pieople, and ceased tn lie an independent race.

Among the Teutonic tribes swejit westward by the invasion of Attila should be mentioned the Bavarians. The first references to this nation discover their presence in Pannonia and Noricum. A little later, however, when The- odosius had purchased an ignominious peace of the Huns, the Bavarians revolted from At- tila, and, being supported by the Eomans, succeeded in maintaining their independence. The nation became influential in Rhetia, Yin- delicia, and Norieum, where the Bavarians were governed \>\ tiieir own kings botli liefore and after the downfall of the West. From the middle of the sixth to the middle of the seventh century, the Franks by continued ag- gressions gradually curtailed the Bavarian do- minions and finally incorporated the state with their own, leaving the government, however, to be administered by native dukes. These rulers tVciiucntly revolted against their mas- ters, and wfv,- as many times suppressed, until finally, in 777, an insurrection, headed by Thassilo II., was put down by the strong hand of Charlemagne. The government of Bavaria then remained to the Carlovingian House un- til the same became extinct in A. D. 911.

Of these barbarian nations, and many other petty tribes of the same race, the most power- ful were, as already said, the Goths, the Van- dals, and the Franks. It was among the first of these, perhaps, that the barbarian character

displayed itself in its best estate. Especially were the Visigoths conspicuous among the Teu- tonic peoples for the character and extent of their culture. The language of this peojile was more highly (lfvcl()|i(d than those of tlie other Teutonic trilics. 'Hicir cimtact with the Romans, csperiallv aflir thiir settlement in hither Dacia, was'mnre ,v-ular and benelieial than that between the Empire and any „ther State. The Christianization of the Goths, also, falling as the new faith did ujiou the conscience of a people just awaking from the slumbers of barbarism, .showed better results so far as the development of moral character was concerned tlian had ever lieeii .'xhibited iu Rome. To the-e eh.vMiing iufiuenees sli.iuld be added the spe.-ial fa.'t of the early translation of the Bi- l)Ie into the Gothic language — a circumstance so remarkable in its nature and ultimate re- sults as to merit a particular notice iu this place.

In the year A. D. L'lw, in the course of a war with the Eastern Ivnpire, an army of Goths was sent into Asia .Minor, where the in- vaders laid waste the province of Cappadocia, and carried back to the Danube a large num- ber of prisoners, among whom were many per- sons of culture and many Clu-istians. In the year 311, there was Ixirn in a Gothic home in Dacia, of one of the t'a]ipailocian mothers whom a Gothic chief had taken to wife, a chiLl who received from his parents the name of Ulfila-S. From his Ixpylidod he was taught the doctrines of Christianity, and early became a zealous adherent of that faith. He studied Cxreek and Latin, going [<> ('oiistantinople for that purjmse, thus familiarizing himself with the New Testament in the original. About this time, the Christian Goths fell under the displeasure of their pagan neighbors, and were subjected 1iy them t" severe jiersecutions. In order to save hi< brethren from martyrdom, the young Ulfilas conceived the design of em- igrating with his people to the hither side of the Danube. He accordingly went as ambas- sador to Constautine, and obtained from that sovereign the privilege of bringing a Christian colony into the province of hither Dacia.

Wliile the youthful apostle was in Constan- tiuoiile he became acquainted with the re- nowned Eusebius, then bisliop of the Eastern Church, and bv him was liiniself consecrated

UM\i:i:sAi. iiisTonv.—Tiii-: moI'Ku.x whuld

(le.s

Nvars niila< lal-n-l avM.limn.ly at tin- ,-ivat ta.-k whirl, !„■ Iia.l un,l, rlakrn. At tl,- .rnl of that tillU' th.' xvhnh. liihlr, with 111- -xrrp- tiou iii-rhap- ..f ihr I'.n-k nf Kin-, ha.l h.-en tniilsiatr.l ill thr v.na.-ular. Tla- lai,i:uai:v. thoildi -till half l.ail.aniii-, -In.wr,! itM-lf fl.llv

:\Iax MiilkT wrll -av. uf the work acr.nu- lili-luMl hv rhila>: •■it iv,,„i,v,l a i.n.phrtic insight anil a fiiih in th.-.h-tiny ..f the.-e half- savage ti-ihr- an. I a CDiiviclidn ak-^o uf the utter etR-trn( " of the llmnan l>vzantiiie cm- liiivs hcf..iv a hi-hop .M,nl,| have h|-niiglit iiini-clf f. tian>lat.' th<' ISihh- int.. the vnl-ar diaWt ..f his l.arhan.ns ....nnt, yn,.n." Th,-

achieveni.'iit ..f I'lHla^ i-.-.|uir.- a c cspcrial

attention for th- r-a-..n that th.' (n.thie Bil.l- thus pro(_hu-ed was tlu' tir.-l l.o..k cv.r written in a Teutonic lauguagr, an.l f..r the a.l.liti..iial reason that tlie suhH'.pi.'nt I.-i-lati..n ami social status <.f th.' \'i-ii:..lli.- in Spain were tracealih- in a l'oo.I nu'a>nr.' t.. th.' Scriptures

imp.

of a paragraph on the charact.iistic-

Gothic language. The chaia.'t.is ii

this rough but vigorous spc.i'h was

are said to have been inv.nt.'.l by 1'

conformity to the Greek alphabet. Th.

verb has two voices, an active an.l a

two tenses, a present an.l a pa>I ; thr.i

the indicative, the (.ptativ.-. an.l th.'

tiv.-, be-i.l.s an infinitive ami a pr.Miit an.l a

the language are the same as those of Anglo- Saxon, German, and English. Gothic nouns have three genders, two numbers an.l five cases. Adjectives are inll.'.-te.l in tw.i f.irnis. Prepositions precede tie- m.un-, whi.li tli.y govern in the genitive, .lalixc ..r accn-ative ease. The language ha- m. in.lelinite ai'li.'le. the place of the deflnit.- arti.l.' Ii.ing -npplie.l with Ae pronoun. The entire literature of the Gothic language consists of three or four frag- mentary manuscrii)ts, the lir.st and most im- portant of which is the iiarcliment containing what has been ])r(-ervc(l e

L-|,sala

hi- parchment also, consi.st- h.-.is, contains fragments of Hint. A third manuscript, ';„■„/;»».-, diMv.v.T.Ml in 175(;,

. VerM> .,f the eleventh to the ef Paul's letter to the Ko- th.r fragments of Gothic are ■tei- with those here described.

u-d

habit-, an.l p.

of the wo.„l>. aus care fm- I the civilize.l si most stalwart i presence wa> ;

Li

capable definite

k's New Tes-

mn.i- and customs of

I. rally to those of the

i..ii.-. The people of

in.in tyjie, and strongly

T. . ( a.sar and Tacitus

knowledge of the lives,

aring of the Germans

Thov were a people

li.l till'' har.ly barbari-

h,' ci.nitorts and di.-cemforts of

at.-. In person they were the

if all the ancient peoples. Their

tern ir even to the veteran le-

;.iine. They are described as

vhit.' li.iili.>; l.ing, yellow hair ;

>; biaxMiy jnuscles; florid com-

irc blue eyes that gleamed un-

with the lightnings of animosity

In III i ml they were daring to

War was their profession.

Iters .if men as well as of wild

the strongest attachment for

loliiity, they were nevertheless

.rniimible expeditions and in-

liii'j- in the forest. Ariovistus,

n'j-, t.il.l C'le.sar to his face that

lie I.I lin.l out what the inviu-

wh.i f.ir f.iurteen years had not

nil if. w I mill lie able to accom-

val.ir; and though the pro-

a- unfulfilled for five centuries,

mis nf the barbaric chieftain

.1 in the siiliver-iou of Rome.

II- Were an a— einblage of tribes.

iiiimm tra.liti.in and a common

Tlnv .Iwelt in towns and

BABBAIilAN ASCP:Xf)E^'CY.—TEIBES OF THE XOBTH.

villages, and their days were spent in the vi- cissitudes of the chase and war. In their personal habits they were coarse, heavy, glut- tonous. They filled their capacious stomachs with meat and cheese. They heated them- selves with strong drinks. When excitement failed, they would lie tor \vh..lc days in half- stupor in the ashes of their heart h-sKmes, un- kempt, and indiflerent to all surroundings. Very different, however, was their mood when aroused by the summons of war. In battle their onset was terrible. They fought both on foot and on horseback — the footman run- ning by the side of the cavalryman and sup- porting himself by the horse's mane. If the horseman fell in the fight, the footman bore away his body and took his place in the next onset. The intrepidity of these barliarian warriors was such as to challenge the admira- tion as well as excite the terror of their enemies.

The government of the German trilies was a kind of military monarchy ; but the chief- tain was elected by the warriors of his nation, whose custom it was to raise their leader on their shields and thus proclaim him king. Between the various tribes there was a strong bond of sympathy, and frequent alliances were made, embracing many peoples and kin- dreds in different parts of Germany. Such leagues, hmvever, were generally formed for a specific purpose, and when this end had once been attained the confederation ceased, and the tribes resumed their independent station.

The nations of the North had their own superstitions and system of religion. The great gods of the race were Odin and Thor — the former being the supreme deity of the Teu- tonic pantheon, and the latter having some of the attributes of Hercules and others of Jove. The goddess Freya, or Frigga was also wor- shiped as a favorite divinity, as the mistress of nature and the guardian of the dead. The superstitions of the race were peculiarly dark and doleful, but the Germanic mythology was far more rational than that of the Celts. In general, the Teutones rejected the notion of sacrifice. Thev refused to recognize as gods any beings whom they could not gee. Only the obvious was worshiped. A deity by whose assistance they were not manifestly benefited

they rejected as worse than useless. Tliev adored the sun, the moon, and tire; Imt the unseen deities of the Greeks and Koniaio thev regarded as inane abstractions, unworthy of adoration. With the infinitely inflected mvth- ological systems of the >South the (iernians were unacquainted, even by common report. Their worship consisted mostly of prayers, supplications, and fervid hymns chanted in praise of the somber deities of the North.

Among the Teutonic nations the family tie was especially strong and abiding:'. That uliieh the modern world defines as virtue appears to have been an inherent quality of the (-ierman

nature. A common sentiment or instinct, rather than positive enactments of law n])held the monogamie relation, and insured a chastity which, if not universal, was the prevailing rule of conduct. The German youth of both sexes were reared in the utmost freedom ; but such was the force of public opinion among the tribes that lapses from the established standard of morality were almost unknown. No young man might marry until he had passed his twentieth year, and the preserva- tion of continence to a still later period of life was regarded as highly honorable. " For," says Ciesar, "it is held among the Germans that by this reservation of the bodily powers

i^ I* %'..*

I'-X*^

^\.-- »v- *% «^

m^

o!IS

Uyj\'KJiSAL lUSTony. — THK M()I)Ki:X WOULD.

as l)i.hup of the Goths, de.sijfu of turiiiug the Scri guage of his jjuoj.l,-. 'J

ycai- niila- lal.oiv,! a-i, ia.k uhirh hr ha.l ini.l.n of that time the whnU- Hil tioii ii(.'rha|i.< of tlic I'mt.k

;„/,,• Tnn

of Upsal: kiinwn a

«a. cli.coveiv.l l,y I'llit- \\v. ill lM;r,. Tlii. ],aivhnieut also, cousist- iiii;- >i{ liui I'liiir .-lii'fis, coutaiiis fragmeuts of the -Nrw 'I'l -laimiil. A third mauiiscript, caUcl tin. (_\hI,x (\i,:r,„u.<, ,li>.-nv,iT.l in 175(i, contains forty-two vitm- >,\' ih.- clrMuth to the tiftrcntli duipter of i'aiilV Inur to thr Ro- man-. All thr nth. I- fra-nirnt- of (Jnilii.^ are

Max -Mulh-r w.ll	-av- Mf the work	accnni-
plishcl l.y ritila-:	-It r,.,p,in.d a p.	ophetic
insight ami a faitli	n ll.edr>tiny nf tlu	.-e half-
•savage triJM- aii.l	a cnnvi.-linii al>..	nf the
utter effetenc-> .,t'	lir l;..nian Bv/.ant	ne em-
pires lifforc a hi	hop cniild have	.nainht.
himself \n translate	th- IJihlr into th,	viil-ar
dialect of hi.- harl	aron- (■(.uiitiy ni.n.	■ The
achievement of Ulti	a^ rcpiirr- a ni..rc	-pecial
attention for the re		• P.il.le
thus produced was	he lir,-t l"M,k .-ver	written
in a Teutonic langu	i-v. and I'nr the ad	liti..iial
rea.<on that the .-	lhH-.|Uent legislati.	„ an.l
social stattts of tin	Vi>i-.lh,- in Spai	1 were
traceable in a good	inea-nre tu the Se	iptures
as a sort of fundai	leiital con.-tituti'iu	in the
State.
This episode lea(	s iiaturallv to the a	Iditiou
of a ]iaragraiih on	the characteristics	of the
Gdthir language.	The characters in	which
this rough l)ut vig	)rous speech was \	■ritti'U,
are .^aid to have been invented by I'ltilas in
conformity to the Gi	cek ali)hal)et. The	(iothic
verb has two voices	an active and a i	liddle ;
two tenses, a pi'c-rn	and a pa>t ; three	moods,
the indi.'ative. the	.ptative, and the impera-
live, li.M.l.san inti.	itive and a jiresent	and a
pa-t parti.i,,!.-. Th	• general characteri	=tics of
	■ .^ame as those of	Anglo- 1
Saxon, (Jem. an, an	1 Kn-lish. Gcthi.	ii.iuns
have tlii-ce -,nd.i>	, tw,. numbers ai	d five
cases. Adjective.- :	IV inlleet,.l ill two	f.rms.
Prepositions preccd	■ the m.iin-, whi(
govern in the gern	ive. dativ. or ae(	ii-ative
case. The lauL'-ua-i	ha- im in<lefinite	article.
the place of th.- d.t	nile article being s	tpplied
with the pronoun.	riie entire literature of the
Gothic language consists of three or foi	r fra--
mentary manuscript	*, tlie first and m	.st im-
portant of which is	the iiarehment containing
what has been l>n-.	rv.'d of L'ltilas's X	w Tes-

will 1,.

sufficient

thi-

piiniitive Teutnnl,. natinns" The people of this raei- weiv ,,1' a i-niiim<in tyi)e, and strongly marked c-liaiaeteii-tie-. To ( ';esar and Tacitus we are indrlited f.,r mir knowledge of the lives, habit-, and per.-onal hearing of the Germans in their native haunts. They were a j'eople of the woods. Little did the hardy barbari- ans care for the c'oinf.irts and discomforts of the civilized state. In person they were the most stalwart of all the ancient peoples. Their presence was a terror even to the veteran li> gionaries of Home. They are described as having huge, white bodii,- ; long, j'ellow hair; broad shoulders; brawny muscles; florid com-

jjlexion, and tierce blue eyes that gleamed un- <ler excitement with the lightnings of animosity and jia-si.in. In mind they were daring to the last .legiM'c. War was their ]irnfis>ion. Th.'y were hunter- of men as well a- ..f wild beasts. With the strongest attachment for home anil ilomestieity, they were nevertheless cajiable of inti rminalile expeditions and in- deliiiite m.animling- in tlie forest. Ariovistns,

■ of ihrir kin--, told (War t.i his face that

he Would lie alile to liiiil out what the inviu- eilile (leniians, who for fourteen years had not slept lii'iiiath a roof, would be able to accom- ]>li-li liv their valor; and though the pro- phetie threat wa- unfulfilled for five centuries, at la-t th.- words of the barbaric chieftain Were made i^ood in the subversion of Koine.

Were an assemblage of tribes.

inon tradition and a common

Thev dwelt in towns and

The (;

r , • *'r»'

t f * §■ «> X r » ''^- ^w. -

BABBAIilAN ASCKXDEyCY.— TRIBES OF THE yoUTIL

villages, and their days were spent in thf vi- cissitudes of tlie cliase and war. In tlieir personal habits they were coarse, heavy, Lilut- tonous. They filled their eajiaeiniis stimiarlis with meat and cheese. They heated them- selves with strong drinks. When excitement failed, they would lie for whole days in half- stupor in the ashes of their hearth-.stones, un- kempt, and indifferent to all surroundings. Very different, however, was their modd when aroused by the summons of war. In battle their onset was terrible. They fought both on foot and on horseback — the footman run- ning by the side of the cavalryman and sitp- porting himself by the horse's mane. If the horseman fell in the fight, the footniin bou away his bod_y and took his place in tin next onset. The intrepidity of these buhunn ■warriors was such as to challenge tin nlmiia tion as well as excite the terroi < t then enemies.

The government of the (xermau tiibt^ w i^ a kind of military monarchy; but tin thiet tain was elected by the warriors of his mtiim whose custom it was to raise theii leadei im their shields and thus proclaim him king Between the various tribes there wis i stiou^, bond of sympathy, and frequent alhuiLts were made, embracing many peoples and km dreds in different parts of German} Such leagues, however, were generally foinied hn a specific purpo.se, and when this end had once been attained the confederation (eased and the tribes resumed their indi p< ndent station.

The nations of the North had tluii own superstitions and system of religion. The gieat gods of the race were Odin and Tlior — the former being the supreme deity of the Teu- tonic pantheon, and the latter having some of the attributes of Hercules and others of Jove. The goddess Freya, or Frigga was also wor- shiped as a favorite divinity, as the mistress of nature and the guardian of the dead. The superstitions of the race were peculiarly dark and doleful, but the Germanic mythology was far more rational than that of the Celts. In general, the Teutones rejected the notion of sacrifice. They refused to recognize as gods any beings whom they could not see. Only the obvious was worshiped. A deity by whose assistance they were not manifestly benefited

they rejected as adored the sun, unseen deities of

Kn

ological systems of the South the Germans were unacquainted, even by common report. Their worship consisted mostly of prayers, supplications, and fervid hymns chanted in praise of the somber deities of the North.

Am(jn-- the Teutonic nations the family tie was especially >tioii- and abiding. That which the modern woild defines as virtue a]i}iears to have been an inherent (lualitv of the German

nature. A common sentiment or instinct, rather than positive enactments of law ui)held the monogamic relation, and insured a chastity which, if not universal, was the prevailing rule of conduct. The German youth of both sexes were reared in the utmost freedom; but such was the force of public opinion among the tribes that lapses from the established standard of morality were almost unknown. No voung man might marry until he had passed his twentieth year, and the preserva- tion of continence to a still later period of life was regarded as highly honoralde. " F(jr," savs Ctesar, "it is held among the Germans that by this reservation of the bodily powers

'♦V.

'.YVll

m

•v.*=

« •>

*X«>'**:f\'rf **•*-*>

*>.".!

L

tlir stature	is ilUTra-.'.l, tl	e streiiLfth au,u'-	Tlie l,ee.	iiar	ISl-e of s,-|f-e	eetion t,, lead-
nH-ntr.l, ;u,.l	llu- xvliol,. l,M,h	nei-ve,l'«iili ail-	e.-slnj, i. e,	te.i	pv the lioma	1 historian as
<liliu,K,I .Mn. lillK- ran- u	i:tli." Ill tlu- ' l- taken 1.. eu,	.ari.arian >..eietv eeal the |,e,>en".		anv	f (o-nnan jh, cliief >ittin,L:-	ilieal lite. It in the eouncil
aii.l iin -haul	■ wa- felt on a.	eount of til., ex-	of tlie tlihe	nii.L	ht i.roelain. 1	ini>elf a leader
l,n-un-. Tlu	men and wn	len of tlie iril.e	an,l eall nj,	m tl	o,e who ,|,M1-,	<1 to follow his
l.atlHMl |,n,i,i	>eunu.lv. 1.1,1 1	lV>erve,l tile Ut-	lorlmies to	exp,	.s their pre	efeiiee by an-
lUn^t |V.|„vt.	Fm-elothin-, >	kin>of,leer vveiv	nonnein- tli		nil,-. AVlien	siieh a choice

m.l tho-,. XV ho had elili-ted and th. ■oilow the ,diiefiain were iveko,,,.,! iiid traitor.-.

<,f land or delinit- l.onndarie- to his |.o-.-e,- < iernian.- reeooni/.ed the ri-lit- of hospitality, sion-. In eaeh year the iiia-i-trate- and .-liiet:- They ihoii^ht it not lawful to injure -n,-sts or

cred he-i, a i-ertaiii portion ,,f -r..iiud. aii.l in , d.nt had thrown int(, their eoniiiiunities. The

to	remove	to anoth	•r trael." I-	.r thi- custom	1],-	ho,	-,-.1 ;	n.l f.-.l. Hi- p.-r-	.11 was	invio-
th		.ed the	following rei	-o„<; na.nely,	lal	1.-,	m.l.	if ii.-c.-.--ary, th.- <	.ernian	-w.r.l
e^ th Co In l.a 1" fn hi 1h th V 1	It the rlike . -orli th. - th,- I d In th .IV likel ThelV evidel torian, ■ir land re -,-,il, jiniiin;.:' • niilita	d that land- ot ddiliona • >anie t< V to rem; va- aiiot that tl ,-e liord, ■e of th. •that th s ahand of war y dictati	l.y the a. the niniv p rea>oii is : mre a- th.-ir in contented ler lieiion o at >tate ha i> are ,-oliin ■. "Thevtl ir valor."' ad i.ir h la ,11 olHeer en	■ werfnl would 1 Iniml.le. To s of the L^reat ..un, would he w ith their lot. the Teutonic tin. -ivate-t h- and who-e 1- the Konian expelled fron, ie-." At th.- ■|-.->pondi,l- \n m- wa< .-h.,M.n ,,|- 1 tilit\'	th th N, ar th Tl ho th	An. .1.- rth. ■ t.-i .- ( I i-.h hink r Im. 1..- , ..-ar l.'i- <	.-.-ml 1 t.. ..f '1 pie. -.-,,-.1 .1.1, 1 with .-lll.-l i..r .. pi„	fi-ature of Teutoni.- ..f which would h nts of the old har .- eliivalr..us i-,-,-p,- hav,- slmwn t.. wot f t,-.-i.liti..nal h..ii..r , -.1 ii..t ..nly l.y th.. ami w,.r-hip. Ahl il hi-toiian a> (iiiiz. t of Taeitn-, r.--ar. ■u..ma,ih 1 am..n- - .-him.-ra, it w..nl the rank whi.li w	lifi-, t.i ■ r..-.-nt larian- . -t whici Kill, r i.le ha.- - sai.l t. .- .,f h,- .-ml„-r,- rati..n 1 t ha- .1.- in- the th.- (l.-r 1 n.-v.-,-t -.- of .-hi	..mit .1 l.y f the tlmy ...n a -.-ared mi-iit. have • OWU .f her .r.ler- ,i;i-eat -lared .-tipe- heless ained
wi 1"	•Ide.l tl lee the,		of life and -neh -npre,		to	1 fr. the,	n, tl	;',llv'inthe'hou"l!	.|.l-..f ]-■	f.-ted ith.-r-

th.- .-hi.-ls ..f .-a.-h .-ant..n r,-,imi„-j .-..ntn.l ..f lan.l. that ill.- .-lain, ..f (;.-,-nian pat,-i..ti-ni may

th.-ir r.-sp.-.-tiv.- tril.es. Th.- (;.-rman> an- >ai.l well 1.,- all..w.-.l t.. stan.l nn.-hall.-nL:.-.l.

l.v C.-.-ar, p.-rhaps n,.t wilh..nt a toii.-h ..f It i-, li..w.-v.-r, with tin- inllu.-m-.-s ..f the

slaml.-i-, to have h.-l.l i-..I.I.,-rv a< m. .-rim.- am-i.-nt T.-nt..,ii.- ] pl.-s U| m...i.:n .-iviliza-

uh.-n .-..m,nitt.-.l l..-v 1 tli.- limits ..f lli. ir ti..|i that th.- hi>t..rian ..f t. .-.lay i- im'-tly ,-..n-

owii Stat.-. Th.-v ev.-n i-e.,;ai-,l.-.l <l.-p,-.-.lati..n .-.-rm-.l. Th.-,-.- appear to 1..- at 1. a-t tw.. ..f

al.r..a.l a- a h.althfid .-N.-r.-i<.- f..r the y..uth th.- -.-ntim.-nl- up..n whi.-h the m...l..,-n w..i-ld

..f th.- nali.,11— a f,v.- -.-h...,l f..r th.- trainimi- is ku'L-.-lv fi-am.-.l whi.-h ..w.- th.-ir ..ri,-in to

ami .l.-v(-l..p,m-nt <<i' th..-.- manly jiowers whi.-h th.- Ii!n-lia,-ian-. The lii->t ..f th.-<i- i- th.- no-

communitv. ' tuted, iii.k-ed. the verv o.-.-m-,- ..f all that is

BAI^EAIUAX ASCEXDKXCY. — TBIBES OF THE XOUTH.

pleasurable in the liarliaric life. It i>, pcrlKips, impossible t'nr oin- of our liay to aiiprniatr the lull force nf tlii.s ^entiiueiit as it exi>tril among the primitive tribes of Northern Eu- rope. Personal self-assertion was the most potent element in the best charaetpr of tlie times. The life of enterjirise ami ailvciituri', tilled with every hazard and viris^itudr, bounded by no restrictions of law or customs, gave full scope and .stimulus to the individ- ual development of man. Restraint became intolerable and libtMty a necessity.

M. Thierry, in liis hi.toiy ,,f the Norman Conquest, has contributi-d a masterly sketch of the character ami disiio.^itions of the peo- ple who laid the foundations of Modern Eu- rope. The instincts, passions, prejudices, motives, and sentiments are drawn with a skill and fervor which leave little wantint:' to the completeness of the [lieture. Tliou;^h there was much that was coarse and soltish in the unrestrained and violent lili- ot' the barbarian as he fought back and forth over the frontier of the Rhine or wandered at will through the labyrinths of the Black Forest; though the chivalrous sentiment for women did not always jjreserve him from l)rutality, or his profession of honor prevent tiie perpe- tration of gross crimes against morality anil the better laws of human eouiluct, yet there were many ennobling traits and much njoral grandeur in the strongly personal, even will- ful, character and life of the barl)aric tribes; and these latter qualities have flowed down in invigorating streams into the veins of every modern state to whose population the Teutonic race has contributed a moiety of its strength.

It was of vast imjiortance that stich an idea as tlie personal worth and individual right of man should be as.serted and trans- mitted to the modern world. In the ani'ient States, the importance of men was ihriml. In Rome, the honor and rights of tlie patri- cian were deduced from the order to wliieh he belonged. The same was true of every other rank of citizenship. The individual was born into societv, and took his status from the body of whi.-li lie was a mend)er. Even in Athens, the citizen .leinoerat asserted his rights as common to the democraey, and in Sparta every grade of nninliood, tVoni tlie supreme oligarch to the degradeil Helot, de-

It thu~ happened ihat the lll.erti.^s of the

deduced from the .-tati — to ]„• ,■,, needed l,y some of tlie oigaiiie forms ot' society. AVith tile German warriors, however, all this Avas different. Each nieuilier of the Irilie claimed and exercised his rights as his mrn. They were not derived, but iuhei-cut : not deduced from some lio.ly of which he wa- a luemlter, but born with himself as an inheritan.e which none might alienate. The barbarian spoke of \wjWe,hnm, not of hi. lllHrlv. lli^ in.livid- uality predominated in all the c.mduct of life. Whatever coinpa.'t- he m.-id.' in society, he

The >econd idea wlii,-h ni,.dern time, inherited fr..m the barbarian nations i

out .le.troviu- the'tVeedoUl of the illdiv

attachi^s one man to another. At fii doulll, tlM> loyal bond \\hich linked th. vidnal to hi^' fellow exi.-ted wiihout 1

S,, unile.l. Soon, houever, the tie I.

one of graduati-il subordination. Tlr was in the service of the other, and the protected the first. Th.' -aiii-tion of tin was personal loyalty aihl de\-oiioii — ai which, in the eoui-e of a few centnri came a passion thi'o\iL:hout I'jirope. am stituted not only the e-seiitial iirincipl also the redeemin- trail, of feudali>ni deed, but for tlie growiu- li.lelilv .if i,

societ}' could bav.' .'ouiiuuiMl i.. exi,~t ii an age of deea.l.'in-.' an. I Liloom as tlia which Europe pluneed al'tei- the .ivertlir tie- Roman Empiiv.

The s,.c.,n.l an.l third -roups of barl

■came ■ one latter

such

into

>w of

form.iT .livi.i.iu .-mbra.v.l th,' ImMiian: Servians, the ('r..atian-:. the AV.'ii.li, the : the B..li.:-mian,-, the .M..ravians, th.' 1'.. niau~. the Wiltsiaus, the Lu<atiaus, th.' niaii<, an.l the Lithuanian-. Of thi'> m.iie inip.irtant were the Poles, the Bn

UMVKnsAL hist()i:y.—the M()I)i:i:x world.

B.n<, til	■ P	.nicr	U]ia	IS, ail	1 ll.r hill.
As alix	idy	sii.l	il	IS hcl.	1 by -~ .■
gists tl		ill.-	Si	ivic,	,1- Slav.ii.i.
were <>	i'-:i	lally	an	.iti:-h.	It In. Ml tl
Teuton'		..rk	of	iianUi	ul. JV th
may, it	i.	(vrt;		hat t	le Slavic ,::
barbari	Ul<	have	ex.-	vi-,-,1	a lev- iiiiji..

flueuce uii.iu tin- .l.Mliii.'s ..f 111...I. rn Eur..pe aud the worl.l than have tin- 'i'cui..iiic uali<.iis. The Bosnians .-am.' int.. Kun.iie in the seventh centurv. Th.ir tlr~l Impact was up..n the i..-..i.lc ..f Illyiia, «li<.m tlu-y dislodged fr<.m a i...iti..n ..i' the ci.niitry. They have theii- modern n'|.ivMiitativ.s in the people of Albania, where th.y c..n-tilnU- ihc nilin- class, embracin- ih.' l.,ys, n..l.ility, and land- owuers. Th.' Servians first iiia.lc their ap-

pearanc

Til

the Cduntry whi.'li the eai-lv days ..f ..nel-e.l bv the K..!

the Huns. It was v. Byzantine E.npiiv, seventh century, wl the Avars, to whon

n..w bears tli.-ir name. In 111' l-aiipire they were eou-

-ri.-uni, the Servian .li>tri.-t ,s M.,-ia Snpeii..r. This in bv the ()-Ir..-..ths an.l aft.rwanl alla.'h.'d L. the

III,- ini.l.lle ..f the was .leva.^tated by .rti..n "f the lands

were permanently all..tt.'.l. Servia theu re- mained a dependency "f the Ivislern Iviii)ire until the time of the rnisa.l.s.

The Ceoatiaxs, or Cia..\Ts, belonged t.) the Illyrico-Serviau branch of the Slavic race. Their primitive European settlement seems to have been in the south-western angle of Hun- gary. This country was originally a part of Pannonia, and became a part of the Empire in th.' times ..f Augustus. It was ..verrun

Avars. It theu became subject to the Eastern Empire, and so remained until the tenth cen- tury, when the Croatian princes liecame inde- pendent.

The Weniii, or Wknds, were one of the north-western tribes of the Slavic family. From the fourth t.. ih.- ninth (■.•ntnry they were found in the c..untry stretching fr.mi the Saale and the Elbe northward to the Eider. In the times of Charlemagne they became ag- gressive, and were driven back by that war- rior in the directi.,n nf the Vistula. Subse- quently they were well-nigh exterminated liy

kin-,-

.y the sixteenth cen ■ a scattere.l ]...pul:i kn.iwn as Brau.leii

.1 ('

the Sla

).l.r an.l

le y'../.o,s

le of the jirincipal e. Their first Eu- ■ se.iii> t.. have been in the V b.ars ih.ir name. Some- -.•a.l int.. the region betw-eeu \'i.-tula. They were known .•ailing the People of the Plain, an.l >..<iii b.'. "11111' th.' 111. ist conspicuous of all ihi' Slavic iiathuis. The hi.?tory of P..lan.l an.l the Poles will hereafter demand ..ur attention as a special study.

Th.' B(inE5ii.\Ns grew from the tribe of the B.iii, classified by Cresar among the Celtic pe.iph's of (iaul. They were displaced from their ..riginal settlements by the Marcomanni. Thev niigrateil int.. Bavaria and Bohemia, an.l w.r.' ^llb^e.)uently inc.irporated with Slavi.' Czechs. German colonists also settled ill til.' country, and the jieople became com- p.isit.'. Of their own accord the Bohemians sought annexation to the emi-ire of Charle- magne, with which they were assuciateil for

The tribes kn.iwii as MORAVIANS made their aii]>earaii.'e in the early times of the Empire, in the country which still bears their name. Here with difiiculty they maintained them- selves against the successive assaults of the Qua.li, the Kugii. the Heriili, and the Lombar.ls. The c.iuntry was subsequently conquered by Charlemagne, who, after his usual manner, imposed tribute upon the ^Moravians and obliged them to accept the Christian r,'ligi..ii. Of the ancient Pomera- nians very littl.' is known, except that they were of the Slavic race and constituted a part of the old monarchy of the Wends. The same may be said of the Lusatians, who seem to have been a mixture of the Wendic and Germanic stock, and who, after a period of independence, were reduced to the tribu- tary relation by Henry I. of Germany, in the early part of the tenth century.

The LivoNiANS first made their appearance

in the country stretching eastward from the

i bay of Riga. The modern representatives of

I the race are f..unil in the Finns and Letts ;

' but neither the ancient country nor its inhabi-

BABBABIAX ASCEXDEXCY.—TBIBES OF THE SOh'TH.

40.3

tints were made kuowu tu Eui-diif until alinit the middle of the twelfth ci-utury, wlieu iiitt r- course was ujjeued iq) between ifiga ami the West by the merchants of Bremen. The existence of Lithuania and her people was made known a century and a half earlier, at which time the inhabitants were still iu a state of half-savagery, subsisting I'nr the nidst part on wild products of the woods. From this time forth theii- country became subject to the various Russian princes who were just then beginning to be felt iu the afiairs of Eu- rope. In the twelfth century they achieved their independence, and iu the thirteenth maintained it iu a long and severe struggle with the Teutonic knights who had estab- lished themselves on the shores of the Baltic.

The third or Scythic division of the bar- barian nations included, besides the great race of the Huns, the Alani or Alans, the Averi, the Bulgarians, the Hungarians, the Turks, and the Tartars. Of all the savage peoples who beat along the borders of the Roman Em- pire and finally broke through and destroyed the civilization of the ancient world, the most ferocious were the Huns. Beyond their Asiatic origin, nothing has been ascertained of their primitive history. To the Greeks they were known, in a general way, by the name of Chuni, and by that title they are de- scribed by the historian Ptolemy as early as the second century of our era. They are be- lieved to have come originally of a Tartar stock, and to have had their primitive seats in the country north of the great wall of China. After long and bloody wars with the Chinese, they were at last subdued by the emperor Vonti; but the unbroken spirit led to a mi- gration of the race in preference to submission.

Accordingly, in the first century of our era, they left their original settlements to discover and conquer new homes in the West. One division of the tribes, known as the White Huns, took possession of the country east of the Caspian, but the great body continued their westward march to the banks of the Volga. In the course of the third century they crossed the river and overran the country of the Alani, many of whom they incorpo- rated with their own nation. After another century, continuing their march to the west, they fell upon the Goths, and, in A. D. 375,

defeated them in battle. Then it was that the Gothic people were pressed between the upper and the nether millstone. Behind them were the sw'ords of the Huns, and before them the lances of the Kdnian,-. li was iu this emergency that the Gutlis .-uiiuht and obtained permission to settle within tin- b.mlers of the Empire. The Huns then iixe.I their habita- tion on the banks of the Don and the Dnieper. They took possession of Pannonia. Rome fought for the defense of her provinces, but Attila, the " Scourge of God," led his tre- mendous armies of savages to glut themselves with the accumulated spoils of centuries. The story of his invasion of Italy has alreatly been nam-ated iu the preceding Volume.'

In A. D. 453 Attihr .lied, an.l the vast domini..n which he had established fell to pieces. His followers were broken up into bands, and gradually amalgamateil with succeeding hordes of barbarians from the North. Of all the wide dominions, ruled by the sword rather than the scepter of Attila, only the modern kingdom of Hungary has jweserved the name of his ferocious people; and of the various races included within the borders of that kingdom, only the JMagyars are of genuine Huunish descent.

The origin of the Alaxi is shrouded in un- certainty. They appear to have migrated from the eastern part of the Caucasus to the river Don. During the reign of Aurelian they were associated with the Goths in an expedition into Asia Minor. Near the close of the fourth century they were defeated by the Huns, whom they presently afterwards joined in a war with the Goths. In the year 406 they were confederated with the Suevi and the Vandals, who were then engaged in devastating Gaul. Subsequently a colony of Alans occupied the country south of the Loire, while another established itself in Spain. A portion of X.irthern Italy was also occu- pied by the Alani until they were displaced by subseipient invasions.

The third of the Scythic trilies that con- tributed to the overthrow of ancient civiliza- tion was the Avari or Avars. They first appeai-ed in the West about the michlle of the sixth century, when they began to try the Roman outposts on the line of the Danube.

' See

:ik Tenth, dute p. 345

41)4 UXIVKJi'SAL HISTORY.— THE MODERS WORLD.

ni tlR t luntn h. tu.ui Don 111 tht tiiiK . t hi alliaute with tlit (n V. ^^ald» with the Ldinlm I m a war ai;am-t tin < ■ the\ po^^e^'-ed the 1 ii _ i

th u_li tht (

t hi\i heeii -uliiLCt- ot tht Khiii UMilted, aud all of his

[Hill ml the kiii_dniii, except Pannoma, fell away. In

th \ wtii m tht -tiiu_dt ot the Ba\aiiaiiv against Chaile-

lu I ittci I ma.,iit, the A\aii aided the toimei ; but l)i)th

ih \ I -i-ttd paitie> weic ()\eKome 1)\ the kiiiir nf the

\l II tiUR ' Ti uik- ml u I ln| 11 1 t iMcpt a tiilm-

and here they estal.lished a kiiiL' greatest of their soverei.trns wa^ Ki who flourished from A. I>. "iTit to dominions are said to have cxtrndc river Elbe to the Euxinc Such thority that even tlu- I'-iniHrnr o was obliged to pay him iiiliuir. conquered Daliiiatia ami liai'a<<cil and Germanv. In the year Ii40,

rXS IX GEUM.'

loin. The The Bri.i:Ai:rANS first appeared on the west

AN r.AlAN, ern banks of the Volga. From this loeality

t'l.K). His tlicv iiiiLii-atrd to the Don, and in the latter

d from the ]iart of the fifth century passed westward to

n-as his au- | the Daimlic After establishing themselves

f the East ^ in tin' rcjiiui on the other side of the river

The Avars fVi>ni that whicli now bears their name, they

b(jth Italy bcLian a >crics of aggressions against the East-

the Slavic ern Eini.iie. The many iucursiou.s of this

BAL'BAKIAX ASCEXDEXCY — TRIBES OF THE XOBTH.

■warlike people, who sometimes made their ■way to the very gates of Coustantiuople, have already been recorded iu the preceding vol- ume.' Duriug the reign of Anastasius, the Empire -ivas obliged to purchase peace by the payment of an enormous bribe. The Bulga- rians retiied only to letum iu the lei^u of Justinian, but the ^etelau Bcli»anu> die« hi> S'woid agiinst them, and the} ^^ele quickh dii\eii to their o\\u phce. Bulgiiu \\ t> ©■\eriun by the A^^l>, but the c in(pie--t \^ is

ube into Mcesia Inferior. Here, in the year 680, between that river and the Balkans were laid the foundations of the priucipality of modern Bulgaria.

The fifth branch of the Scythic fomily iu Europe was the Hungarian. By this no ref- eience is intended to the nnnj othei nations — Dacnus, Illjuaus, Pannomaus, Bulgarians, Itz\ges, Aliu>, A\ai-. Huu-, Gepid e, Lom- biid-, Khijii — thit ha\e contubuted to peo- jik the Hun^iinn Empuc liut t > tin ]\rA(;-

■of short duration, and the people soon re- gained their independence. The greatest of the Bulgarian khans was Kuveat, who made a league with the Emperor Heraclius, and re- ceived from him the title of patrician. After his death the old Bulgarian dominion was broken up, and his five sous became as many conquerors iu distant parts. The fir.st sub- dued a district on the banks of the Dou ; the second established himself iu Pannonia; the third, iu Moldavia; the fourth, in Italy; and the fifth, named Asparukh, crossed the Dau- •See Book Ti-nth, ante pp. 353-300.

YAES or HuNGAEiAN.s proper. These ■were a warlike people, whose original seats were in the vicinity of the Caucasus. Their first mi- gration carried them into the region between the Don and the Dniester. Afterwards they crossed the Carpathiau mountains, led by Ax- MOS, one of their .seven chieftains. They were at this time a band of seven tribes, united in a compact which, under the sanction of oaths, gave a guaranty of justice and equality to all members of tlie federation. Arpad, the son and successor of Almos, overran all of Hun- gary and Transylvania, and early iu the tenth

UXIVEh'SAL HISTORY.— THE MODKHX WORLD.

Of tllf cnllliuu- iif :hr	rn:K> iniii \Ve.~ti'rn	Th.- 11	HI.
Asia ami Eastern Eumi	1', snnie account has	trihal api	■11
already been given in the	prece<liug volume.'	Ihvu um.	t
These people had the >	anu' original homes	tinns. \'	i~t
with the Hun and the	Eu-tar. With them	lar ill vac
they engaged in l\v»r t	icrce wars with the	fruiu il„-i

Chi

the'

State

<e which nfru|ii'd the lu'st centuries ■ and after the Chri-'.ian era. As early ,' cstalili-hnient ot' the Ixuniaa Empire iiad made their way westward to the Dun. In the third century a Turkish was established in the country around Lake Balkasli. :Meanwhile the conflicts of the Turks and the Chinese continued in Tartary.

It will be rememl)ered that in the sixth reutury the Emperor Justin II. made a Grseco-Turcoman league against the Sassani- (Ife^aa alliance which led to the permanent establishment of Turkish institutions in West- ern Asia. In the eighth century there wei-e recognized no fewer than eight distinct Turk- ish nations, scattered in various parts nf the vast region between Tartary and A-ia Minor. During the sixth and seventh centuries they had already established themselves perma- nently in what is now Asiatic Turkey. The Seljukian dynasty, the most famous of all the Turkish mediceval powers, extended itself in the eleventh century almost to Constantino- ple, and after the collapse of this empire, the Ottoman dynasty arose on its ruins, grew pow- erful throuiihout the West, finally crossed

mil in 14.V; comj.letcd the sub-

Eiiipiiv ,,f the East.

i4' Taktai:, like >.. many other ivis, uiipears at the tirst to have <k>iguate an assemblage of na- 1111'Ils of half-savage tribes simi-

It

lught by qiansion

Central and -Xorthern A^ ethnologists that the gn took its origin from the locality of modern Turkistau. Many scholars regard the Turco- mans themselves as a Tartar race. The physi- cal type, even to the present day, appears to indicate some such race-identity. It is from this source that the great Mongol dynasty of the I\Iiddle Ages arose and extended itself around so large a part of the world. From the Iburth to the tenth century, the slopes of the Altai Mnuntains, which seem to have been a center of the ^longolian movement, threw otf wave after wave of barbarous popu- lation, which sank successively in the coun- tries toward the West. Perhaps the largest European influence of the Tartar race in modern times is seen in Eastern and Southern Eussia. — Such is a sketch in outline of the principal barbarian nations who, from the first to the fifteenth centuries of our era, contrib- uted by invasion and war to destroy the Europe that was, and to fill the Europe that now is with peoples of different races. It now remains tn take up in their order and consider liricriv the principal barbarian kingdoms which wci-e founiled on the ruins of Rome.

CHARTER LXXIV. — BAKBARIAX IvIXGDOXIS IN ITALY.

if kingdoms estab-

thc barliarians

vas that of the

This nation was

he iicninsula liy

.Id chieftain Odo-

whn assured his fol-

ilain liy force the

iind for the cession

of a third part of the lands. It will be re- membered that this demand was resisted by Orestes, regent for his son, the helpless Au- LMistnlus and that the father, for this patriotic but fnnlhaidv conduct, was driven into Pavia and slain bv the barbarians. This left the Imv Au-u-tulus like a shorn lamb, to the nirrcv nf th.' winds. He could only im]dore the clciucih-y of Odoacer, and when did a victi.riou- barbarian forbear?

BARBARIAX ASCEXDEXCY.—KIXfiDOMS IX ITALY.

Augustus the Little, the lioy-Ciesar of ex- piring Kome, wus huirieil away tn tlii' castle of Lucullus iu Cauipauia. Oduaeer at once made himself kiug of Italy. iJume was dowo, aud the residue was ground under the heel of a German chieftain out of the North, ;vho, to the one-third of the lands of Italy which had been demanded by his folluwcrs as a recompense for their services, added the remaining two-thirds to fill up the measure.

King Odoacer soon showed himself master of the .strange situation which had supervened in Italy. He wisely adapted his lurthnds of government to the condition of the jjei.iple. Having himself been pireviously iu the service of the Empire, he was well acquainted with the character and disposition of the Roman race. He accepted the title of king, but re- fused the purjile and the diadem, thus con- ciliating both the rieiinan princes and the phantom nobility of Italy. The Senate was allowed to remain and even to correspond in the usual way with the authorities of the Eastern Empire. The body went so far as to make out a programme, iu accordance with which the seat of emjjire was to be transferred to Constantinople. Italy was to become a diocese, and the senators respectfully asked that this scheme be approved by the recogni- tion of Odoacer as Patrician of the Italian province.

At this amusing by-play aud nonsensical assumption of an authority which no longer existed, the king of Italy might well smile a smile of condescension. In a prudent way he deferred to the prejudices and political cus- toms of his subjects. In the cnuisc i.t'a i\-\v years he reinstituted the con^ul.-hip and con- tinued to avoid the Imperial dii:nity. The old laws were still enforced, and the old executive officers, including the pnetorian pre- fect and his subordinates, were retained in their places. In a politic way, Odoacer de- volved the unpleasant duties of administra- tion, such as the collection of the public revenue, ujdou native Eoman magistrates ; but the execution of those measures v.-hich were

ikel

■iKUiee a tavorahle impression upon

^Meanwhile the honor of Italy, which had been so long dragged in the dust by the de- generate descendants of Theodosius, was re-

vived by the swnr,l „f her barbarian m<.nareh. On the north the old finiKier .,1' Italy was reestabji.died, and wa- rci'o-uized by the chief- tains of (iaul and Germany. 0<loacer made a successful campaign in Dalmatia, and re- gained possession of that province. He crossed the Alps and made war upon the king of the Ktigii, whom he defeated and made prisoner. >So great was his success iu arms that the Roman Senate might well decree an honor to their warlike king.

.A!i-e,alile, however, was "the s.,cial aud ce.iiioinic condition of Italy. Aafieulture and commerce had almost ceased. For their cur- rent supjdies of provisions the Romans were at the mercy of the winds and the seas. The granaries of Egypt and Africa no longer sent their abundance into tin- marts of the Eternal Citv. War, famine, and p.siil.nce had added their horrors through i;enerations of ,lecay. The tendency t.i depopulation was seen on every hand. Prosperous districts were left without inhabitants; tor the breast of dis- h(jnored Nature yielded su-li iiauce im longer to a raee of idle,- an,l bri:;an.ls. As to the in.lu-tiial and artistic aspect ,.f life, that was seen no more. The value of property decliued to a miiumum ; i'or the senators knew not in what day or hour a new company of

homes by the contiscation of estates. The Eoman nubility hd a life of tremulous anxiety, humbly subsei-vieut to the master to whom they owed their lives and the remnant of their fortnues. Nor di.l the kin- fail in many in- stance- to iiitei-poM. b,-tw(M-n the rapacity of

Roman subjects. The demands ot' the (iermau chiefs were fre(pieutly ie.~i,Med liy the king, aud .several of the more insolent were ])Ut to death f.r tlie attenjptcd robliery of native noblemen.

In the iiur.-uaiice of tlii- ditticidt policy

Odoacer consi mI the fourteen v.'ars of his

rei:;n. AVith him rose and fell tiie Hcruliau kingdom in Italv. Ilis ]ie<.ple were neither str.m- cnou'ji nor >utHeieutly civilized to found a permanent d(.iiiinion.' Abva.ly the great nation of the (_)>lrogoths, un.ler the leadership of the justly celebrated Theodoeic, whom the discriminating Gibbon has declared to have been "a hero alike excellent iu the

UXIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

,-,, .Inw,

an.l (i

them

•j: (.■st;il)li>lK'il tliuni?L-lvu.< in I'auuimia 1, the Ostrogoths had growu to be itliieuce among the Ixirbariaii states, rclatidiis liad liccii cultivated Ijetweeu the Kinpiiv of ih,' Ka>t. The Em-

luarks (if hi> lavui-, and iipoii Thiodorie, their king, the litlts (if iiatriciaii and eonsuL The Goths, however, were still in a half-barbarous conilition, and the various (hiuatives, made to them by tlie Eastern Emperor, were quickly consumed in the liciiise of appetite. It was in tills condition of atliurs that the far-seeing mind of Tlieodoric perceived in the state of Italy an inviting opportunity for the exercise of hi> own genius and a veut for the restless activities of his people.

He accordingly applied to the Eastern em- peror. "Italy, the inheritance of your ju-ed- ecessor," said he in a httcr to the court at Constantinople, "and Rome itself, the head and mistress of the world, imw fluctuate under the violence and oiipn'ssiou (jf Odoaccr, the 'mercenary. Direct ine with my national troops to march against the tyrant. If I fall, you will be relieved from an expensive and trotiblesome friend ; !)ut, if with the Divine permission I succeed, I shall govern in your name and to your glory the Roman Senate and the part of the republic deliv.'red from slavery by my victorious arms." Thi- propo>al of Til'eodorie was -ladly ent.-rtained by the Emperor, who saw, no doubt, in the euterpri.se the prospective restoration ot' his own influence in the West.

Theodoric accordingly umlertook the con- quest of Italy. The invasion was in the nature of an emigration ot' the whole (iothic people. The aged, the inlirtn, the women tind children, were all borne along with the im- mense procession of warriors, and the whole property was included with the baggage, burin-- the pro-re~s of the march of seven

Gothic host was freipieiitly threatened with famine. On the way Theodoric was actively opposed by the Bulgarians, the Gepidre, and the SarmatiaiLs, who had been prompted to such a cour-e bv Odoacer. Nevertheless, the

ob^tael.-, pa.-ed the Julian Alps, ami made his way into Italy.

Odoacer went boldly f.rth to meet him.

a deciMve battle Was fought, in which the ()Mro-oil|. Mere .-nce-.-fid. The country of the Veneti as far south as Venma lhu~' fell into the hands of Theod.jric. At the river Adige a seccjud battle was fought, in which the Heruli were again defeated. Odoacer took reiuge in Ravenna, and Theodoric ad- vanced to ^lilan. At this juncture, however, the treachery of a deserter, to whom the command of the vanguanl had been intru-ted,

brought Odoacer again into the field. The- odoric was reduced to the necessity of calling for assistance to the Visigoths of CJtiul; but, after a brief continuance, all Italy, with the exception of Eavenna, was delivered to the Ostrogoth ie king. In that city Odoacer im- luuriMl himself during a three years' siege. Finally, however, he was obliged to yield, and the ()>tr(igiiths to.ik ]iossessii>n of Ravenna. .Vftera feu day-, Odoacer, to whom an li(mor- able capitulation had been granted, was stabbed at a baiKjuet; nor is it doul)tful that the blow was struck with the knowledge and coiiidv- ance ot' 'I'lieodoric himself. Several ot' the l>rinei|ial adherents of the Herulian king were al-o killed, and Theodoric, proclaimed liy his < ^ithie sld'jeets, was acknowled- ei I tliroU-hout Italy and rehi.-tantly accepted bv the Emperor of the East. Thus, in the year A. D. 4!).'!, the O-tro-othic kinedom was c-tabli.-hed in Italy.

Theodoric at once entered upon a reign of thirty-three years' duration. In accordance with the rigiits <if conquest, a third of the hiii.l,> was apportioned to his foll,,wer.s. To the (ioih-, long ai'cu.-tomed to the cheerless rigors of th.' North, their new liomes in Italy seemed a paradise. The new nation that was thus transporteil to the South was estimated at two luindreil thousand nnii of war, besides

III some respects the new population was a.-,Miiiilateii to the old, and in son,.', the old to the new. The conquerors a— iiiiied the moiv elegant dn-s and many ..f the social cuMoms of the Romans: but the (iotlii.^ Ian-

BARBARIAX AS<•EXI)E^TY.—KIXGDnMS IX ITALY.

guage held its own aguiust the Latin. It lic- came the policy oi Theuilurie tu viicdiu-agc the Italians in the industrial inirsuit^, and in reserve the Goths as the warrior caste of the state. The latter held their lauds as a gift of military patronage, and were expected to be ever ready to march at the sound of the trumpet. It was a part of the king's theory that his realm must lie niaintaini'(l liy the same power- by which it had been creatcil, wherefore supreme reliance was placed iu the arm of military power.

It is hardly to be doubted that, had he so chosen, Theodoric, after the subjugation of Italy, might have entered upon a ueiiei'al ca- reer of couc^uest in the West: but snch a purpose was no part of his plans or |ioliey. He devoted hira.self assiduously to the re(ir- ganization of Italian societ\-, and with tliat woilc his ambitious wen- >ati-lied. He estab- lished his capital at Kav.Mina, and his court soon attracted ambassnlois from all parts of Europe. His two dau-lilei-s, his >i>tei-, and his niece were son;jlit in niairiaL:i' liv the kin-s of tlie Franks, the Ibn-un.lians, tlie Visigotlis, and the Vandals, Olferinus were brought, as if to oue of the magnilicent princes of the East, a distance of fifteen hundred miles, from the far-off shores of the Baltic.

It is rare that history has the pleasant duty of recording the career of a sovereign bt'giunini: iu war and ending in peace, as did that of Theodoric the Great. Wlien ..bligi-d to aliolish his peaceful policy, it was rather to act on the defensive or to enforce the edicts of the administration tlian to gratify tlie lust of conquest. He establishe.l a ;:overiinient of the provinces of Rh;etia, Noiieuni, Dalmatia, and Pannonia, thus extending his authority from the sources of the Danube to Illyricuni.

It was luitural that the successful career of Theodoric in the West .should awaken the jealousy of the Eastern Emperor. A Avar broke out between the two powers, and in the year 505 came to a climax in battle on- the field of ^largus. Victory declared for Theod- oric, who, more humane than his enemy, used his victory as not abusin-- it. ^Maddened by his defeat, the Emperor Anastasius sent a powerful fleet and army to the shores of Southern Italy. The ancient city of Taren-

his way rapidly into the eipiipped a fleet, and ha,-te of the marauding s(|uailr(ii About this tim.' Clov Franks, gained the ascendei of Gaul — a movement wiiic Theodoric as untavorable ti king of the Visigoths, \\ career of Clovis coidd be n the remnant of tlie royal sought and found a i'rien. court of Kaveuua. At tl Alemanui, who were now sc the surrounding nation^, v the protection of the kiuLi hostile Burgundians were m as to desire^uo further ai;-r <.f Aries and -^Iar>eilles n^ free communication thus e- the two kingdoms of the ( this time Theodoric was

>\vs the d.- teni- c made

■parture

The V

veuua, and the abuses whieb li: in the southern kingdom wei-e n sovereign of Italy. Tin- Gnthi was thus establi.shed from Sicily ube and from Belgrade to the At It was a virtual restoration, nmler auspices, of the Emiiire of the \\'e,- It was deemed expedient by Tin to a.ssume the insignia ot' Impei-ial He accepted the title of king — a n congenial than that of emperoi- to t of the Xorth. As a leuidat.n', tin was less fortunate than in the wv.

xivs to the titnos of tliin-s, as dete

stitution the etlete statutes ,,f ( ', He studiously maintained his re amity with the Ea.steru Empire, : correspondence with Anastasius ;: tone at once deferential and diploni sovereigns of the East and the We themselves as in alliance, and the annually confirmed liy the choice suls, the oue from Coustantinnpl other from Rome.

isman, the vii'torious

■ i,npede.l,

pressed bv

ken under y, ami the •Iv handled The <-ities ken, and a ■tl between

In.leed, at zed as the

isi-oths of

u-y of Ka-

grown up tie.l by the

. the Dau- itic Gcean.

idoric not luthority. ime more

■cord- :.d by

lations of an.l in his issumed a latic. The -t regarded union was .f two con-

410

UMVEIiSAL HISTORY. — THE MODKHX WOULD.

The pulacu nf thr (i.ithi,- i,i<marrli al Ka- vfuna \va^ aft.-r l\u- -ivU- „i iIh laur vm- IH-n.rs ..r tlic \\'c -I. Til.- iiiiiii.-ui> ^f ^late were the iTat-rian preleet, the pieteet of Rome, the iiia-ter nl' the ntiiees, ete., with the names au.l .lutie.- nf \vh..iii thr le.uuui.'^ were h.n- familiar. The -uveriim. ut ..f the fifteen •• l;e-i..n>" "f Jial.v «a~ a-Muued to seven eiiii>iilar~, three enrMetnrs, and five presidents; and the tin'ms .it' administration were derived fmni the cxi-lin,- statute.- of the Romans. In tlie enurt- of tlie eountry the proceedings were deterndin-d hy the uatiouul- ity of the ])arties to the eau-e. When the aetion was l>etween Roman and Rumau, then the trial wa- eon.hieted aeeording to the practice of the Empire. If tlie parties were Gotliic, then the Gothic statutes were em- phjyed; and in case of a suit of a Roman and a (iotii, a mixed court lieard and deter- mined the cause.

In the management of the atlairs of the stale. Theodoric exhiliited niucli wisdom ami lilierality. Instead of persecuting the friends of Odoacer, he appointed Liherius, one of the firmest supporters of the Heruliau ri<jrme, to be iirictorian prefect. He took into his coun- cil the two authors, t'as>iodorus and Boethius, and deferred to their prudent advi.'C. While learning was thus patronized, Theodoric also took pains to encouraee the revival of Komaii institutions by at lea-t a re>pe.tful u-e of the old repuhlican form.-. The de.-eeiidauts of the patricians were flattered l.y hearin- the name of the Republic; au.l tlie Roman iio,,r were pleased with the old-time distribution of provisions. The games were reiustituted in feeble imitation of tiic .-jileiidor of Imperial times. The African lion a'jain bounded into the arena, and the gladiator au<l eymnast ev- hibited their prowe-aud skill before a mixe.l niultilu.le of German- and Italian-.

In the year A. 1). .'.<M), Th.-odoiic visited Rome, where he was received \\itli all the glorv that the dindni-bed sun ..f the ol.l me- itropolis wa- able m -bed on her soverei-n. For six n.onth- tie- (..ahie kin- remained at the an.'ient cajutal of the (Wars, where his

manner- and , al- "ere ju-llv applaude,]

bv those who a- .-hildren had witne-sed the extinetiou of the i:m|/nv. 'fhe still remain- inu landmarks of power, .such as the column

and torum of Trajan and the theater of Pom- pey, made a jirofound impre-ssiou upon the mind of TluMjdorie, who conceived from these remnants of Roman glory a shadowy notion of what the Eternal City had been in the days of her renown, lie li.jrmed the design of preserving, as far as possible, from further decay the grand monuments of a civilization wduch no longer existed. He issued edicts to ])revent further injury to the great works

architects and set aside revenues to repair and restoie tho-e structures which were tiiU- ing into nun. This lilieral i>atronage was likewi.-e extended to the works of art which the cily still iio.s-essed, and even the barba-

work of resiuini: from olilivion the trophies

When hi- brief residence at the old capital expiied, Theoiloric returned to Ravenna. He .set an example not only to those of the court, but even to the humble. AVith hi- .,wn hand he i.rnne.l and cared tor an orchard, and f(.)und an actual delight in all the pursuits <:if peace. When his borders were troubled l)y the barbarians, he removed his court to Ve- rona. Not only that capital and Ravenna,

but also the cities of Spoleto, Naples, auil I'a- via, exhibited in the multiplication of their chuivhes and otlit r buildings, which now for the tirst time showed the pointed architecture of the (iiiths, the manifest presence of a mas- ter spirit at the helm of state. Society be- came mole settled and happy than at any tin;e during' the previous century. The peas- ant was aL:aiii seen in the field, and the Ro- man nobleman in the porch of his villa. The agri.adlural interests of the state were rapidly i-eviveil, and the mines of Dalmatia and Erut-

In reli-ious faith Theodoric, like his peo- l)le, was an Arian. This fact ojieued a chasm between the (loilis and the Italians, the latter acceptine ih,. Ni.eiie creed. The king, how- ever, wa- littl.- .li-po.sed to trouble^ or be troubled in matters of Ihith. He and his (oithii' subjects pursued their o\\ ii way, and the orlho.lox (■alholi,.s, their.s. Those "of the (ioth- who preferred to apostatize to the Atha- nasian belief were jHiinitted to do so without

BAF!BABIAX ASCBXDKXCY.—KIXGDOMS IX ITALY.

was marked with a .spirit of ti>leranct_' ami moderatioo. The old theory of tW- lunniui law that every citizen might choose lii> dwu reliiiinii was adopted as best suited to the con- dition of the people.

It wutild, however, be far from the truth to suppose that the government of Theodoric was above reproach or his times without their vices. In the beginning of his reign the He- ruli were unjustly oppressed with taxation, and several of the economic projects of the king would, lint for the opposition of Boothius, have greatly injured tlie industrial iiitircsts of the kingdom. The nobles and friends of the mouarch were in some instances piTniitted to wrest estates from others and to hold their unjust acquisitions. Nor was it possible that the two hundred thousand Gothic warriors, by whose barbaric valor Theodoric hail conipiered an empiif, could In-, even in the midst <if peaeefid >uironndinL;-, converted at once from savagery to civilization. The native fierce- ness of these warriors, who could hardly be restrained to the ]irosaic life of a settled resi- dence, had iiKiuy times to be conciliated by a temporizin-- policy on the part of the king.

It appears that the religious toleration in- troduced into the state by Theodoric, though outwardly accepted liy the Catholics, was exceeilini;ly di~ta.-tcful to their ortjiodoxy. Without the power to rever>e or rc>cnt the policy of the king, the Italian zealots turned their animosity upon the Jews and made that persecuted race the object of their scorn and persecution. IMany rich but defenseless Israel- ites— traders and merchants living at Rome, Naples, Ravenna, Milan, and Genoa — were deprived of their property and turned adrift as so many paupers. Their synagogues were desfioileil ami then burned, their homes ]iil- laged., and their persons outraged. To the credit of Theo,|oric, he set hiuis.df aiiainst these manifestation- ot' rapacious liiL:otr\-. and some of the chief leader^ of the tumult were obliged to make restitution to their victims, and were then condemned to be publicly whipped iu the streets by the executioner.

Then it was that tlie Italian Catholics set up a cry against the jiersecution of the ( 'luuvli. The clemency and good deeds of the king were firo-otten by those who were opposed to martyrdom when themselves were the martyrs.

The later year.- of the k	n;/.- life were clouded
with these religious .li-t	nhances in his kiug-
j (lorn. Nor did the .■.	iduct of his Italian
subjects fail to excite in	the ndnd of the .<ov-
ereigu the small vices <	f jealousy and liitter-
ness. It is alleged that 1	e secured the services
of informers against the	malcontent but uoljle
bigots of the kingdom,	whom he .-u,-pected.
not without eau.se, of a	ecret and treasonable
correspondence with the	Emperor of the East.
Certain it is that Ju	tinian, who had now
1 succeeded to ]iower at	Coii-tantinojile, re-
solved to puree til.' Chi	rch of heresy a> well
in the Wot a- in hi-	paternal ilomiini>ns.
An edict wa. i-ud	fi-oni (Aiiistantinojile
again.st the Arian ('liii>	tians in all the .Med-
iterranean state-. Tlio>	■ who refused to ac-
cept the estaldid.ed cree	1 of the Church were
to sutler the i.enalty	if excommunication.
This cour-e wa> indi-na	itly resented by The-
odorie, who ju,-tl\' rea-o	ed that the same tol-
eration shown by liini	elf to his Catholic
subjects in the A\'e,-t -h	■ old of riuht lie ex-
teudeil to the Aiian (In	i-tians in the Empire
of the Greek.-. Theo.lor	• a.vordinelv ordered
the Roman poiitiH' an	1 fmr di>tinenished
seimtors to go on an endia	-y to < 'onstaiitinople.
and there demand of Ji	-tinian the rit^hts of
reliuious freedom. The\	Were I'ommanded in
their ii^.>truction- to nr-.	upon that nmnarch
that any preten>e to a d	■ million over the con-
science of man is a usii	pat ion of the divine
prerogative, that the p	iw.r of the earthly
sovereign is limited to	earthlv things, and
that the m.i-t .langerou,-	hia-c.-y in a state is
that of a ruler who ].n	s fiom himself and
his prijtectiou a part i^	his subjects on ac-
count of their relieions	I'aith. The rejection
bv Justinian of tlii- ap|	1 al furnished, so far
as anv a.'t could funiid	, to Theodoric good
-round f.r i-Miin- an e	lict that, after a cer-
tain :lav, tie- orthodox 1 ,,. r il It 1 +1, ,. 1, I, ,.1- T +	religiou should be ,1,-
pl olulllteil throUl^lloUt It	of the bitterness ex-
cited liy thi- sdii-niatic 1	roil that the virtuous
and philosophic ISoethiu	-, who had ,-o long
been the greatest and Im	-t ol' the kin^'.- couu-
>eh,l-<. \va- aceu-ed of t	casori, imprisoned iu
the tow. r of I'avia. ami	then subjected to an
ignoniinious execution.	As Theodoric became
more gloomy iu his old	age, Boethius soared
into a clearer atmosphei	e. In the practical

41:

UMVKHSAL HISTORY.— THE MnUKUX WORLD.

ai;ain-t rvn-y cnul aiiil tyr;uuiical ima.-uiv ;

believe that the furilu-r existence of the Romau Senate was iiieoiiipatible witli hi* own safety, resolved upon the aniiihilatiMii of that

iLT him Boetbiu.s made the AUnnus were criminal, be le senators were eiiuallv

lid not

,. A IK

Kinpen.i

hini.-elf and all tl guilty; and to thl- court arc tn be added that, should to liberate Rome tVi divulge his in t' inn:

he East,

invitini:- liini to the delivei-anrt.- of Italy, and signed liy Albiuus and Boethius. The latter was accordingly arrested and thrust into prison. The subservient Senate passed a sen- tence of confiscation and death, and Boethius sat in his dungeon awaiting the Idow which should <l(Iiver bini from darkness.

To the ihipri-onnient of this benign spirit the win-ld is indrbteil for the comitosition of that sublime treatise, the Consolufion of riilhm- fhy — a work which the calm Gil)l)on declares to be "a gulden volume, not unworthy of the lei.-urc nf I'lato I, I- Tiilly, but which claims in- blr inri-it IVoni the Ijarbarism of the id the situation of the author." In it ^ travi iM-^ the whole circuit of those ill which the i)biloso].ihic mind has ii-t iiitiTc-t Miicc the human spirit fii>t

o coll-cinlH bcill-. Tlh- dllll-cn of

the prisoner becomc< ino,-,. liiiiiinou- than the chamber of the king, lua-on tiaihcs that the

conipa times, Botth theme foun.l awoki;

cipllll.	d III t
ethics	of coi
goes t	.rth to
tiny.	What
free-w	ill, of 1
of etf	rnity?
f.ir th	■ iiiasf<
Such	are tht

svil ^tnl,: of manki

s[jirit of Borthiiis grappled with in the dim light ot' hi- prison. Then came the execution- er-. A cold was drawn around the neck of the jihilo-opher, and tightened until his eyes were bursting from their sockets. Then was ho ,y(, ,T;f»//v beaten to death with clubs. The life was out, but the work >iirvived ; and iu a di-taiit a-v, Alfiv.l the (iivat of England found time to give to our Anglo-Saxon fathers ;i tran-lation of the nolile work of the Roman niartvr.

ThiK in \u< old age was the life of Tbeod- oric clomlrd with >u-piciou and crime. It ap- jicai--, houi'vcr, that the severe German cou- scirnco within him laid upon him the merciless la,-h for hi- mixleeds and cruelty. As he fell into decrepitude and the shadows of death gathered near, the ghosts of his murdered vic- tims glared at him out of the settling dark- ness. Especially did the specter of the vener- able Symmachus, who had been executed soon after Boethius, frriwn out of the shadows and menace the trembling king, who hobbled into his chamber, and after tlircc days of remorse died, in August, A. I). .V_'(;.

The decease of the (oithic sovereign was not so sudden as to prcvint him from arrang-

lietween his two grand,-on^, Amalauic and ATll.VL.iiilc, the Rhone being fixed as the boun- dary lietween their dominions. To the former was assigned the throne of Spain, and to the lat- ter the emjiire of Italy. Atlialaric was at this time but ten year- of a-v, and wa- under the control of his mother, the celebrated Ajiala- .SOXTHA. Around the bedside of the dying The- odoric gathered the Gothic cliiefs and Italian ma-i-tratc., and swore all.-giance to the lioyish pi-iiicc, who, under the iv^eiii-y of lii^ niot'her, wa< now ,le-tined to be their ruler. To iier-

the

It (_.

nous monument near the city of Ravenna, and here, iu a vase of porphyry snpjiorted by foiu- columns, his remains were deposited.

The -ovei-ninent of a nation of two hun- dred thou-and warriors was now intrusted to a woinan. The mother of Amalasontha was the -i-ter of Clovis, king of the Franks. The ipieeii reiieiit of Italv was thus descended from the. two roval IIou-cs of the M>'n>rhH/wns and the J„c,/;,o,.<. Nevertheless, the laws of

BAHBARIAX ASCEXDEXCV.—KIXGDOMS IX ITALY.

413

the barbarians tnrbadf the (» throne by a woiiiaii. Such, 1 peculiar circunistaiice.s of In with the death of her fathei almost obliged to concede ti tives of sovereiii'i

which union was b, whom Theoilorie de In the mean time vonng widow, whose

whicli the

sitv the cl

In the

the last

. She had coutractcd a with prince Eutharic, of iin the youth, Atlialaric, -ignated as his successor. Eutharic died, and the ])ersonal charms and keen aied by the best cbicatiou Id atll.rd, became nf ncccs- age in the Gothic state. ■ of her regency, Amala- terate the hitter memories of her father's reigu had let't in tlie miuds of her subjects liy restnriiig the children .if B.iethins and Svmniachus to their lost inheritance. She al-o c.inciHatccl her Roman subjects and quieted the tilths by sal- utary restraints. The chief of her counselors was the statesman and orator, Cas.siodorus, by whose wise advice she was generally guided. ^Meanwhile, she devoted herself a.-sidimu-ly to the education of her son. That youth, liow- ever, soon proved liimself to lie unwortliy of his parentage. Having been properly punished by his mother for some neglected iluty, he es-

chiefs, already bi'couie nialconteut under the reign of a wnman. They e>pi>used the cause ly kiuLL', and detiriiiiued to rescue he control ,,f Amala.nutha an.l her ministry. The lad was a.'conlin-ly set free among the wild indulgences of the semi-liar- barie lite, and the queen found herself envi- roned with enemies. Opposition stirred up the worst elements of her nature, and in order to maintain herself she resorted to assassination. Several of the ( Jothic noldes fell 1yv treachery. In order further to strenethcu lier po-ition, she then iMiutrai'ti/d a man-iage with tlie pi-iuce Theodati's, lidpini self in the governi however, olitaind Theodatus, an.l in -Vlo th.' .pi.^.-n was .lep.ised from p.iwei', an.l snlij.et. .1 to imjiris.inment on an island in Lake E. ilscna.

Now it was that the Emperor Justinian un- dertook to avail himself of the dissensions of

of tl him

-ociate him with her- The Gothic faction, I over the mind of

the Gotlis, and thereby recover Italy. By his agents he pr.jcured the signature of the captive queen to a document surrendering her claims in his fav.ir. The Emperor thus found opp..rtunity f.ir interference in the affairs of th.' \Ve>t ; l)Ut belbre any serious measures ciid.l be taken, Amalasontha was strangled in her bath by order of Theodatus. Such, how- ever, was the condition of affairs in Italy and Africa that abundant excuse was ofiered to the Byzantine court tor ])rosecuting its designs again>t the bai'barian kiu-.loms. Tlie state of til.' \ an.lals was .listra.-te.l with civil commo- tii.n-. Ilil.l.'iii-, the rightful sovereign, had be.n (lepo-i.'.l an.l iniprisoni'.l, and the usurp- in- < ielim.a- was s.'ai.'.l .,n the throne. The Cath.ili.- party ..f the We-t fav.ired the resto- rati.ai ..f the .lep.ise.l M.vei'.ign, and appealed t.i Justinian to ai.l in that work. The latter fitt.'.l out a ]>.iwerful expediti.m, the conuuaud of which was intrusteil t.i Bici.isAUifs. In the year 53:1, the armament pr.i.'ce.lc.l t.i the Af- rican c..a>t. .V b.attl.' was tbught with the Vandals a few mil.'s fn.m Carthage, an.l Bel- isarius was com|il.-tely vict..ri.ins. The East- ern army entered the \'anilal i;apital. (/ielimer was again defeat. '.I an.l ..lili'jc.l i.i surren.ler. Withi'^u three ni..iith^, ..r.l.a- was r.'M..iv.l in Africa and B.li<urins letnine.l t.. C.n^tanti- n..ple to be re.'.'iv.'.l with .li-trust liy his sns-

however, that a great triumph was c.'lebrateil in his honor in the capital ..f th.' Ea-t.

An excuse was s.ion fnund ior tlie contin- uaii.-e ..f <Ti-ei.k int.-rf.i-en.'c in the affitirs of Itah'. ( >n th.- ...■.■a>i..n ..f the marriage of a sister of Th.MMlori.- th.' (ir.'at t.i Thrasimond, king of AtVi.'a, th.- f.Mtr.-> ..f Lilybaaim in the islan.l ..f Si.-ilv was giv.-n as a bri.lal pres- ent t.i th.' \'an.hil-. An army ..f G.ithic wai-i-ii.rs a<v..nipaniiil th.' -il't an.l [lailhapated in th.' ..•.iiiHi.'t .if th.- Van.lals with tie- ?il.i..rs.

S ,, h,,wever, th.- <;.iths an.l th.- Van.lals

.luarn-le.i, an.l F.elisarius was invite.l by the

the kine-.l..m .if Italy. To this^vas a.hled the m.itive of vengeance against the mnr.lerers of Amalasontha." Accordingly in A. D. r.3.=i, Belisarius was again sent out fr.im Constanti- nople t.i reduce Sicily. That work was ac- complished without serious opjoosition, and in the following spring Belisarius crossed over

414

I 'M I -ICnSA L JUS TOT! ) '. — THE MOD ER .V 11 "O ULD.

into Italv. The wliolr cnuntrv sninli ..f Caiii- ]K.nia was >|,(H,lilv r..lii<'..I. "( apna and :^a- 1,1<- wr,v tak.-n. "'n,ro,lamssiiowin- no si-iis of capacity in the ciiicr-iciicy <if his coiiinry was deposed liy the Gotliic cliief's, who lifted tlieir jreiii'i-al YiTic;i:s upDii their bucklers and l-nM-laiiiird him king. Theodatusflrd and was nmi-ilnvd in the Flaniinian Way.

'I'hc old lioman faction of Italy, thoroughly ortlind..>c and thon.ii-hly tired of the suprem- acy of the (ioths, went over to Belisarius, and the cit\- of the (.'a'sars was once more rescued from liailiarism. The king of the Goths, how- ever, collccird a formidable army in the North and in tiie sjiring of 537 besieged Belisarius in Rome. A line of fortifications was drawn around the city. Many of the ancient struc- tures won- demolished and the material rebuilt into the i-amparts. The mausoleums of the old Emperors were converted into citadels. When the Goths swarmed around the sepul- cher of Hadrian, the immortal marbles of Praxiteles and Lysippus were torn from their pedestals and hurled down upon the heads of the barbarians in the ditch. Belisarius made one audacious sortie after another, hurling back his inveterate assailants. Neai-ly the whole Gothic nation gathered around the Eternal City, but Belisarius held out until re- inforcements arrived from the East, and after a siege of a year and nine days' duration, Eome was delivered from the clutch of her as- sailants. A'itiges was obliged to burn his tents and retnat before his pursuing antagonist to Ravenna.

Great were the present afflictions of Italy. In the brief interval wdiich followed tlie with- drawal of the Gothic king from Rome, the Frank, Theodebcrt, king of Gaul, sent down from the Alps an army of Burguudians to es- liou>o tlio cause of the Goths. The city of ]\Iihiu, which had gone over to Belisarius, was by them besieged, taken, and dismantled. In the next year (A. D. 539) Theodel)ert hi7n- self, with an army of a hundred thousand Prankish warriors, entered Italy, and en- camped ,m the Po. It soon became evident that liy him the CJoth and the Roman wei-e to be treated without discrimination. Theodebert fell at the same time upon the opposing camps of Belisarius and Vilipes. ami drove every thing before him. Soon, however, the jirovis-

,f the Fi e broke

Th

warriors demanded to be led hack to their homes beyond the Alps, and Theodebert was constrained to comply with their wishes. The barl)arian liorde was <mirkly witlidrawn, and Belisarius again found oppdrtunitv b) tblhjw up his successes against Vitiges.

The king of the Goths now shut himself up in the impregnable fortifications of Ra- venna. Nothing could tempt him to show himself beyond the defenses of the city. Nev- ertheless the Roman general laid siege to the place, and awaited the results of impending famine. He vigilantly guarded the apjiroacheg to the city, cut off' supplies, fired the exjiosed granaries, and even poisoned the waters of the city. In the midst of their distress the Goths, conceiving that Belisai-ius hut for his oljedi- euce to Justinian would make them a better king than their own, otiered to surrender the city into his hands and become his subjects, if he would renounce his allegiance to the Emperor of the East and accept the crown of Italy. Belisarius seemed to conij)ly. Ravenna was given up by the Goths, and the victor took possession. It w-as, however, no part of the purpose of Belisarius to prove a traitor to the Emperor, though the conduct of Justinian towards himself furnished an excellent excuse for treason. The suspicion of the thing done soon reached Constantinoj^le, and Justinian made haste to recall the conqueror from the West. So the hero, who by his military gen- ius and personal courage had well-nigh recov- ered the entire Western Empire of the Ro- mans, took .-jhip at Ravenna and sailed for the Eastern capital.

With the departure of Belisarius the cour- age of the Goths revived. They still possessed Pavia, which was defended by a thousand war- riors, and, what was far more valuable, the unconf|uerable love of freedom. Totila, a ne])hew of Vitiges, was called to the throne, and intrusted with the work of reestalili-hing the kinii-dom. Of the Roman generals whom Belisarius left behind him in Italy, not one proved equal to the task of meeting the Goth in the field. The latter traversed the country without opposition, marched through the heart of Italv. and compelled submission even to

BARBARIAN ASLESDENCY.— KINGDOMS IN ITAL Y. 41.-,

,^iLji jU'liL (.!•■

i'y [vi:i;sAL history.— the modern world.

T,, the

of li.'ILsi si.iriKMl t.

E:i>t against the

theu that

It;:

In

Wr-t. ('aiv was taken, .,■.,.■ that the aye.l eoni- il.T.-.l with surh re>tri.- a eonspicuuLis success !• T.itihi laid actual siege

h.iw.ver, hv th.. I man.l.T -h.>ul,l l„. tinn- as w.ul.l II inqms-iKl,.. Mrau toKoin.., an4a.loi,t,.l starvation as his allv.

The .'itv was .h.f-ndr.lhv liiivr th,.u>an.l sol- diers nn.l.T th.. eoninian.l of lir>~as, a veteran Goth. The besies^eil were trra<lually reduced to the extremity of eating bread made of bran and devouriuL' d(JiiS, cats, and mice, to sav n.ithin- of drad h..r-.> and otiiil. When Be'l- i.-ariu. landed in Italy he made an in.'rti-.-tnal attempt to raise the siege of the city, and the Romans were theu obliged to capitulate. In the day of the surrender the barbarian in To- tihi asserted itself, aud the city was given up to indiscriminate pillage. The walls were thrown down; some of the grand structures of anti'iuity wm- battered into ruins, aud the Goth dri-lai^d that he would convert Rome into a pastuir. But before the wor.st could lie aiToiiipli^hid Belisarius seut so strong a protest to Totila that the latter reversed his purpose, and the city was saved from gen- eral ruin.

The Gothic king next directed his march into Southern Italy, where he overran Lucania and Apulia, and quickly restored the Gothic suiireiiiacy as far as the strait of ^I(>ssina.

his siHithern expeilition when Belisarius, who had established himself in the port of Rome,

sallird forth with extraordinary daring, and roL'ained possession of the city. He then ex- erted himself to the utmost to repair tlie de- fenses, and was so snccessfid in this work that when, after twenty-five days, Totila returned from the South the Goths were repulsed iu

.|U,

wh	1		he
.-.4'	1	tl	ev
	1	it 11	da -'St
•es	.	■ t	he

I!c

were treated with consideration, and eipies- trian games were again exhibited in the circus

I under the patronage of barbarians.

In the mean time Belisarius was finally recalled t(j t'onstantiuople aud was forced into an inglorious retirement by a court which had never shown itself worthy of his services. He

I was succeeded in the command <if the Roman army in the West by the eiinneh Xap.ses. who

the spiiit of a warrior. The disjiatch of Jus- tinian recalliuL;- Belisarius had declared that tlie lenniaiit of the (iothic war was no longer woiihv of hi> |ire-eiiec. It Was this " rem- I naiit" that in the vear :.ol wa. XarM-.. lIi>po«er>'were ample ai sutheient evi'ii for a -nater work ill- in Italy lie made ha>te t<. brii. the eil.-i- of battle. On his way fr to Rome lie became convinced that delay would be fatal to success. On every side there were evidences of a coiinter-rexdliitioii in favor of the Goth>. It wa> evident that nothing but a victory could restore the influence of the Bvzantine government iu the West. Advanc- ing rapidlv on the capital he met the Goths in the Flamiiiian Way. a short distance from the city. Heiv, in July of 552, the fate of the kingdom established by Theodoric was yielded to the arbitraiuent of arin.-. A fierce and obstinate conflict ensued in which Totila

itrnsted to

natters to Ravenna

Xi

Eternal Ci of Justini

d his army scattered to the winds, ved the keys of Rome iu the name r, tliis lieing Xhe fifth time that the r had been taken during the reign 1. The remnants of the Goths

BARBABIAX ASCEXDE.XCV.—KIXGDOMS IX ITALY

retired beyond the Fo, where they a-s.-sfmljled and chose Teias for their king.

The new monarch at once solicited tlie aid of the Franks, and then marched into Cam- pania to the relief of his brother Aligern, w!io was defending the treasure-house of Cumw, in which Totila had deposited a large part of the riches of the state. In the year 553 Narses met this second array in battle and again routed the Goths and killed their king. Ali- gern was then besieged in Curare for more than a yiar, and was obliged to surrender. It ■was evident that the kingdom of the Goths was in the hour and article of death.

At this juncture, however, an army of seventy-five thousand Germans, led by the two dukes of the Aleraanni, carae down from the Rhretian Alps and threatened to burst like a thunder cloud upon Central Italy. The change of climate, however, and the wine-swilling gluttony of the Teutonic warriors combined to bring on contagion and decimate their ranks. Narses went forth with an army of eighteen thousand men and met the foe on the banks of the Vulturnns. Here, in 554, the petty eunuch intlictid <m tlie barbarians a defeat »o decisive as to refix the status of Italy. The greater part of the Gothic army perished either by the sword or in attempting to cross the river. The victorious army returned laden •with the spoils of the Goths, and for the last time the Via Sacra was the scene of the spec- tacle of victory called a triumph. It was a vain shadow of the Imperial glory of the Cffisars.

Thus, in the year 554, after a period of sixty years' duration, was subverted the Ostr(j- gothic throne of Italy. One-third of this time had been consumed in actual war. The coun- try was devastated — almost depopulated — by the conflict. The vast area of the kingdom ■was reduced to the narrow limits of a province, which, under the name of the Exarchate of Eavenna, remained as an appanage of the Eastern Empire. As for the Goths, they either retired to their native seats beyond the mount- ains or were absorbed by the Italians. The Franks also receded beyond the limits of Italy, and the Emperor and the pope, using Narses as the right arm of their power, proceeded to restore a certain degree of order to the dis- tracted peninsula.

In the mean time two other barbarian na- tions became competitors for the sovereignty of the North. These were the Gepidie and the Lombards. The latter, after having disai)peared from history since the days of Trajan, again returned to the stage, and for a seas.m lioeanie the princii^al actors of the drama. After a contest of thirty years, they succeeded in over- throwing the Gepidre, who befeire sidmiittiiig fought to the verge of extermination. Audoin, king of the Lombards, was succeeded liy his son, Alboin, who souglit fu- his wife the princess Rosamond, daughter uf the king nf the Gepidre; but the demand was refused, and Alljoin undertook to obtain by force the eov eted treasure. A dreadful war ensued, wliieli, as above stated, resulted in the destruetimi of tlie Gepidie. Allioiii tonk the prinee.s Knsa- mond after the hemic fashion, and converted the skull of his beloved father-in-law into a drinking cup.

Thus had the king of the Londiards a taste of the glory of war. He ra~t his eves upon the sunny plains of Italy. An.iind'iiis ban- ners were gathered not only his own trihes, Init also many of the (Jei'nians and Sevtlis. ]\leaiiw]iile, the able though tyrannical Narses, aeeii-eil liy his Roman subjects of exactions and cruelty, had been recalled from Italy, and was succeeded l)y the exarch, Longinus. For- tunate it was for the Lombards that the pui.s- sant eunuch was not their competitor for the possession of the Italian prize. In the year 567, Alboiu descended from the Julian Al[)s into the valley of tlie Po. Kunim- .pivad lier wings before the aven-ing avalan.l.e, and no army could be found to confront the invaders. The peo]ile fled like sheep before the terrible Lombards, and Alboin was besought by the cowering multitudes to assume the lawful sover- eignty of the country. Only the fortress of Pavia held out against the invaders until it was reduced by famine. Here Alboiu estab- lished his court, and for more than two centu- ries Pavia, the ancient Ticinuni, became the capital of Lombardy.

Brief, however, was the glory of the con- queror. The barbarian instincts of Alboin soon led to his destruction. Engaging in a night revel in a palace near Verona, he drank wine to furious mtoxication. While his bar- baric brain flashed with hilarious delirium, he

418

uxivkhsal iiistohy.—the moderx world.

orderea tlie .kiill law, to Im' l.n.uji He tliLii ha.l tlu carried to ihr (juc shoul.l .Irink ai Obli-ea to ,o,„i, quest, Kosaiuoiiil i

.1 lillr

■n with or,lri> that .-he too

I ,v;„;,v »■;//, /,,,■ father i

V with tlie alx.iuiiiable re- esolved on vengeance. She induced two chieftains to join her enterprise, and while tlie kiuil was sleeping heavily from the .'ff.-t- of di-ink, >hr oi„.,...-.1 his chanil.er door and adiiiitt.-.l thr a>-a"iiis. Thus in the rear 'u-) tlio founder of the kingdom of the Loiiiliards met his fate on the spears of mur- derers.

For the monn^nt the rcniiiant of the Ge- pidte at Verona attriii|it('.i to uph<ild their queen ; but the Lomlianl chiefs qnickly rallied from the shock, and Rosamond fled to Ravenna. Here she .soon caiitivated the exarch Longi-

nus, and witli him >\u- con^pinMl to destroy Helmichas, the lovi-r who had aiconiiianied her in her flight. Wlnle in his hatli she gave him a cup of poison, which he partly drained; but, discovering the treachery, he drew his dagger and compelled Kosamond l<i drink the red!

In the mean time the Lombard chiefs had assembled at Pa via and chosen Clepho for their king. Short, however, was his reign. After a year and a half he was stabbed by a servant, and his hereditary rights and the regal office descended to his son Autharis. During his minority of ten years uo regular regency was established, and Northern Italy was distracted by the couflictiug claims and animosities of thirty dukes, Roman and barba- rian. In the year 584 Autharis attained his majoritv and assumed the warrior's garb. He vigorously asserted his kingly rights, and again consolidated the Lombard party over the mal- content regions of Italy. It was well for the barbarians that their sovereign was able and warlike. Soen after the accession of Autharis, Childebert, king of the Fraid<s, passed the Alps with a jiowcrful army, which was pres- ently broken nji by the ipiarrels of the Ale- mauuian and Fraidush leaders. A second expedition was met and defeated by the Lom- bard king, and a third, after a partial success, yielded to famine and pestilence. The domin- ion of Autharis was indisputably established from the Alps to the headlands of Calabria.

In the vi-ar r,'.)() Autharis died and left no licir. The Londiard chiefs laid npou his wi.low, Thoodoliuda, the duty of choosing a hu>l,and. uho -hould lie king. The queen's lircfereiice fill tijion Agihilf, duke of Turin, who entc-ri'd upon a reign of twenty-five year-, lireat was the reputation gained by Th.odoliinh, among the Catholics; for she converted her hii>band to the true faith from tlie heresy of Ariu<. S,, marked was the

dox hicraridiy that Pojie Gregory presented to her the celebrated iron crown, afterwards worn by the kings of the Lombards. This famous royal baidile deriveil its name from an iron band with which it was surrounded, said to havi' bei'u wrou-lit from one (jf the nails used in the ero- of Chri-t.

For a period ot' tw(.i hundred years Italy remaineil under the dominion of the Lom- bard-. The petty exarchate of Ravenna also maintained its existence under eighteen suc- cessive governors. Besides the immediate territories ruled by the exarchs, the provinces of Rome, Venice, and Naples were also sub- ject to their authority. Pavia continued to be the capital of the Lombard kingdom, whose confines swept around on the north, east, and west as far Avars, the Bavarians, and the Burgiindians.

The Lomlianl monarchy was elective. The right of the chiefs to choose their own sov- ereign, though many times waived in deference to heredity and other conditions, was not re- sisted <ir denied. About eighty years after the establishment of the kingdom, the laws of the Loml)ards were reduced to a written code. Nor does their legislation comjiare unfavorably with that of any other barbarian state.

This ejioch in history should not be passed over without reference to the rapid growth of thePajial Chureh in the close of the sixth and the begiiiniii'j- of the seventh century. Most of all by (iregory the Great, whose pontificate extended from .jiJO to 604, was the supremacy of the apostolic see asserted and maintained. Under the triple titles of Bishop of Rome, Primate of Italy, and Apostle of the West he gradually, by gentle insinuation or bold asser- tion, as best suited tke circumstances, elevated the episcopacy of Rome into a genuine papacy

the countries of the ■ Austrasian Franks,

BAEBARIAX ASCEXDEXCY.—KINCWOMS IX ITALY.

4i;

of the Chuivh. 11 u <.l, 1 111 Inn.mj tht Western ew/< m (.uUti L^ul thin tht^ AriaDS of Ital> ml ^i un int > t\w ( uh li< achiL\ement- wi- the u muM ud ui Vu.l fold, an.l tini-' .111 1th. shluitx t the I ^ixon fithei-ot r.ntini I 1 1\ luoiik. un I

UNIVERSAL inS'lVUY.—THE MoDKUX WOULD.

the leadfi-.-hip u out by Gregory in ic,-cir gauism, and sucli wa- iliuii that in a short tiiiit- Kthi xvith trii th.ui>au.l of hi.-,

Vuirustiue were seat | Chinvh, liut liot lirave enough

jnli-out the

-hind froiu pa- •- in evangelism king of Kent,

was the beginning of the great spirimal lu.jn- archy of Rome. Though the imlependeuce of the Greek Church was yet reluctantly recog- nized liv the jiopes of tiic West, and though the ,, iH.il a-erti..,, ,.f their t^-ni|H, nd dominion wa. .till withheld a. in.-xprdi<-nl or premature, yc-t th.. foundations of the great hierarchical kingdnm in the nd.l-t of the iiati-uis were securely laid, chietly by th.- ::eniu,~ and .-tate.- mauship of <!regory the Great.

It was the growth an.l eneroa.'hmeiit ol' Catholic pnwrr ill Italv that ultiniatelv led to the ..verthnnv of the Lombard kingdom. As the eighth century drew to a close and the kingdom of the Franks became nmr:' and more predominant beyond the Alp>, the pop<-s

Carlovi

Lombard iucubu>. A- early a. the time, of Gregory 111., Charhs .Marlel «as solicited 1. come to the aiil of his Catholic bi-ethreii in the South. Tlie entreaties of Pope Stephen were still mme importunate, and Pepin, kini^ of theFrank>. ^^a. induced to lead an arm.N aero.ss the Alp>. Twn r.,iluiies nf cumpara tive j)eace had somewhat abated the warliki valor of the Lombards. Thev were still brave

spears of the Franks. Astolphus, the Lom- bartl king, cowered at the apjiroach of Pepin, and he and his princes eagerly took au oath to resti.ire to the Church her captive posses- sions anil heiicetbrth to respect her wishes. :so sooner, however, had the Frankish sov- ereign returned bey.m.l the ni.uintains than Ast..lphu.. bn.ke lii. faith and renewed his pre.latory war ,,ii the Catholic dioee.e. A

recreant Lombard.-', uh.,,-e cimiitry he overran an,l left the kingdom proMral... For a period of abnut tw.mty years the Lnmbard .-tate sur- vived the sh.H-k of this inva.-i.m, and then re- turned to its oM ways. Again the lioiuans

ironi their town,-. P,.p.- Adrian' I. had now come t.i the papal throne, and Charlemagne had su<-,-,eded his fatli.r J'epiii. Vainly did the Lnmliard- altmiipt to guard the pa.s,..-. ,,f the Alp-a-aiiiM the gn-at Frankish compieror. Lv hi.- vi-.:ilaii.-e he surpri^cl the Loiubard outpo-t- and made lii> wav f. Pavia. Ileiv, in 77.:, J)e,-iderius, the last of the Lombani princes, made his stand. F>r lilb-eii months th.- eilv wa- b,-ieg.-d bv the Franks. When the ri-j..rs of tie- in vestm,-iit culd be ,-ii.lui-ed no loiiuer, the eitv su rn-iiden-d , and the king- dom of the Lmubal-ds ua- at an eii.l. The (-ountry becam.- a ].roviiH-.- in tlu- empiie of Charlemagne, luit Lombardy continued ibr a time under the government of native jirinces.

enough to make occasional depredations upon So much was conceded to the original kinship the provinces and sanctuaries of the Holy ' of the Lombards and the Franks.

CHAPTER L.XXV IvINCtDOMIS OK 'fHK \' I i=.lGOTH S, \".\X1JALS, AX 13 KRA.X IvS.

the > he <;	ear 410. ,th, was	Alps. alliaii	Ilonnriusn- •.-, and thr	adly (n.tl	di	pted	the j.rotlered 1 his march
the el	lannel ,,f	into <	iaiil. The <-it	le.- o	■Na	■boil	le, Toul.Mise,
tlUS, 1 his 1	is folio w- n„ller-in-	and and t	I'.nnleau.-v we h,- (iothic .1.	■e 1	erm	neli	,'.u extended

e tii.-ndly league between Adolphus 111- llmuaii Empire was further ce- d by hi- marriage with Placidia, daugli- • Theodo-iiis the Gnat. P.v the vear

PERSIA.

ARABIA.

. Chosroes II

40. Uu 111

The Arabians were desceihi. i I i im i !i - i: i Ahra

ham. They have nlw,i\ ; i ,■ :' : ' ilili.iugl

generally at war with tin n ii. Kht-.i-. \v ii,, ir i.i-iMiy n unknown and unimporluni. i-.v. i|.i ti, li.^ , ..lau. uuii witl other nations, it is unnecessary tu mention tliem until th( time of Mohammed and the subsequent conquests ol hi: followers, the Saracens, who were Arabians.

. Justin II., a weak prince.

EASTERN EMPIRE.

.S4. Bellsarlus U) Dreadful pesti

73. Tiberius III.

He defeats the Persians. ; Carthage, and ends the Vandal kingdom

i-fc-isors. ; 40. Library of Alexandria (700,000 volume)

les III.; he nun'Krs ; stroved by the command of Omar.

tlur. ■ 45. Othman. He subdues Baclriana am

J". Siroes. aftier murdering

his iiiiherland brothers. 60. Moawiyah (Ommlas), firs ■■■■-■ Horimlsdas. OMMIADES. »■• At

Mohammed, M. Ali, a brave and virtuous caliph i

rj. Begins to propagate his A '

doctrines. Ali removes his seai

27. He is saluted king, from Mecca to Cuja.

32. Abu-Beker, his father-in-law, sue- 84. ceeds him as caliph ; takes Damascus. 33. Omar, in one campaign he conquers Syi Phcenicia, Mesopotamia, and Cbaldaea ; in the next, the whole of Persia. His gen als subdue Egypt, Libya, and Numic"

11. Heracllus II. 11. Heracieonas. u. Constans II. or Constan-

They I

;def

ho bums t celebrated ' idii t "f Heraclius, called 85. Justinia the ■ Ethesis or Expositio he prohibits any dispute t the question of one or wills in Jesus Christ.

YISIGOTHIG KINGDOM.

conquered by the Vi

V-c. Vitiges. Totila.

WESTERN EMPIRE

king A the

LOMBARDS IN ITALY.

60. Gundebertus.

3. Clephes. The

. Vj. Anarchy. 91. A

Athalaric. ::t, Beiisarius i:ik''^ i;..iii.-. ; .s4. Antharis.

:;l. Theodatus. Hi. Totila the IGoth takes and F

pluii'ljers Rome. bi

AND 49 Rome reitaken by Beiisarius

5U. Agiiinlrecovered by

30. The order of Bone- Toltila. 90. Gregory

KINGDOM OF THE OSTROGOTHS.

; to the bishop of wiving, "We hast ir Holiness, who

..theGIiiEAT. 40. John IV. r,7. Vitalia

6.;Bonif3celll. 4'.i. Martin I.

17. Boniface IV. 42 Theodore. ; 'St. Honorius I.

h. The Pantheon at Rome dedicated i

. Adeodatus. 7b. Agatho.

Middle Ages Begin.

16. Computation of time from duced by Diouysius, the

. Fifth General Council, at Con

writingswf Theodorus, Theo demnedias heresies.

GAUL

. Childebert has Paris, Clotaire I. has Soissons, Clodomir has Orleans, and Thierry ha.s Metz. Clotaire reunites the kingdom by 559, but at his death, in 562, it is again di%'ided among his sons.

62. Chllperic has Soissons, Charibert has Paris, Grotan has Bur- gundy, and Sigebert I. has Aus-

FRANCE.

MEROVINGIAN HOUSE.

87. Pepin d'Heristal mils all the real Thierry ; defi

p5wer into the hands of the authority, thi

mayor of the palace, which the honors o

accounts for the character of the succeeding liings, aptly denominated "sluggards. 38. He dies, and his dominions are divided be- tween his two sons. 91. Clovl 38. Clovls II. has Nuestria, and Dagobert II hiis ceeds Chilperic. Austrasia. 65. Clotaire II. ;s tranquillity 28. Dagobert I. 73. Thierry II. ng the kingdom.

SAXON HEPTARCHY.

71. KA.ST ANGLIA, found NORTHUMBERLAND, 97. Au

founded by Idda. mi

d by Offa.

tin (Augustine) and forty monks arrive as sionaries, sent by Gregory, bishop of Rome.

CHRONOLOGICAL CHART No. IV.

Barbarian axd Mohammedan Ascendencies.

From 500 to 900 A. D.

PREPARED BY JOHN CLARK RIDPATH. LL D

WALES. SCOTLAND.

1 (or Cleneth) I. 36. Donald IV. 63. Malduln. SO. Ferchard II.

:avansaries built.

49. Abul-Abbas, first of the 79. Al Modi.

ABBASSIDES. 84. MusalHadi

SARACEN

1- »6. Haroun Al

id III. and benev

rwan II. does n

Al Mansor ; does much for science.

62. Builds Bagdad for his capi- tal, and calls it the city of Peace.

. After conquering Spain

they invade Gaul. portance.

In consequence of this, Ara-

61. Al Montaser.

V Mamun, a great encou ager of learning.

33 Al Motasem.

EMPIRE

RaSChid, a brave 41. Al Wathek. 69. f

olent caliph; he ...........

h for science. ■*''• Al Motawakkel.

" The Augustan age of Saracenic literature."

Haroun sends Charlemagne a clock, the first ever seen in Europe. 61. Aft^er the murder of the

ca;liph the Turkish guards dispose of the throne at thifir pleasure.

41. Constantine V.

onths. t'oPK

sars in succession

' Calinicus, 11. Phillplcus Bardanes. pswiththe 13. Anastasius II.

16. IS AURIC agmiw. irus Tiberius. RACE. causes

7J. Leo IV., iconoclast

or image-breaker.

81. Constantine VI.

Irene is regent in

She restores im

negotiates a m

ct lemagne, but i

a- 88. Irene murde

■h proclaimed

2. Nicephorus. 29. Theophilus

11. Miciiael I. Cukop.al.vtes.

13. Leo v.. THE AK.MEN

20. Michael 11, THt her son's minority. Stam.mekek.

age- worship. Irene

arriage with Char- 42. Michael III.

s dethroned. the Ukin

rs her son. and is

Basil I. lias a vigorous reign ; i stores in some measure the fa: ing honor of the empire ; foum

the MACEDONIAN RACE.

sole empress.

Photius, patriarch of Constani

ngdom or caliphate of

;The Visigoths conquered by 55. Thi

■ the Saracens, who, having Cordova founded

! extended their dominion rahman of the House of Om-

I along the northern coast miades. He and hissuccess-

; of Africa, invade Spain ors encourage literature and

I from Mauritania, whence science.

; they are called Moors. The

; Goths retire into Asturias. 87. Hashem.

kingdom <

22. Abderrahman II. He encourages science and literature, nsurrection at Cordova. In- 52. Mohammed I. 89. Abdalla, a mild surgents exiled, a body of and enlightened prince.

race of pirates from Scandin

during two centuries (from 800 to 1000),

ravage almost every coast in Europe.

jimbertus usurps. )ertus II.

12. Ansprandus.

Luitprandus; he takes Ravenna.

. Hildebrandus deplosed for his vices.

Rachisius. 1 74. Is deposed by

56. Desiderius. ,' annexes Ital

49. Aslolphus ; he retakes Ravenna a

is defeated b-y Pepin.

ud threatens Rome ;

75.Charles the Bald. kiir. I 77 Carloman. Louis II. ; bi}. Charles the Fat,

Cnnt

the pope.

ith

ope Step

(■hate of Ravenna I. >- Constantine. 41 Zachary. 57. Paul I. 67. Stephen III. 9.5. Leo.

John VII. 31. Gregory III. 511 Stephen II. 72. Adrian I.

7. Sissinius.

15 Gregory

26 to N7. Controversies respecting image-worship, at Constantinople, at which Pope llcnioriii ishops are solemnly anathematized.

PAPAL

87 Seventh Gen

CHURCH.

Eighth General Council s

Leo IV.

I 55 Louis II. 66. He goes against the Sara-

13. Louis I., THE Pious.fJO. Lothaire I. His cens, who had invaded

Divides his domin-;brother (. harles has Itulv, and is defeated.

ions among hisjFrance, and Louis 75. Charles II., the B.»ld,

sons ; thev revolt. 'Bavaria. 12. Louis of Bavaria, kiiin of Fnirice.

; .SI. Charles the Gross. Kiaiids..ii of Louis I.

Ikes 1

, declares war against 52. He applies to the pope witli reference to the

deposition of Childeric III. The decision

is that " As Pepin possesses the power, he shall also bear the title of king." The last of the Merovingians is therefore dis- missed into a convent. 71. Carloman dies. 68. Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, er as mayor. 3-2. rours— Charles defeats the Saracens with im 11. Dagobert III. 47. Chilperic III. liberties and religion of Europe. 15. Chilperic II. 72-803. Charlemagne subdues the

41. Pepin le Bref, son Saxons seven times.

20. Thierry IV. of Charles in 73. He defeats Desiderius.who hart Austrasia. invaded the dominions of the pope

Charlemagne, or Charles the 40. Charles II., the Bald. Great, crowned emperor of the 41. /'on(c»ai;— Lothaire defeated by his West; brave and industrious; brothers Louis and Charles,

a statesman and patron of learning. 77. Louis II., the Stammerer. The Normans overthrow all the 79. Louis III. and Carloman.

and Carloman. '™''"™ provinces, burning and destrojing. mense slaughter and saves the 87. Charles deposed for cow- 88. Eudes Ik'e, and the imperial dignity transferred from France

CARLOVINGIAN. IMPERIAL. '" ^^^

ted.

Egbert the Great ;

72. Alfred the Great, [;

the "father of

EDE. " the Venerable." an ecclesi

19. Conquers Kent. 38. Ethelwoif. dcfiii-

24. Conquers Essex. 57. Ethelbald. divi'l

27. Finishes the conquest of the aiirt > -

ither kingdoms, and remains sole king. m.

.58. Fresh inv:i-,

00. Ethelbert.

1 Uriel, King of Man, and 77. He divides the kingdom among

wife Esyth, heiress of his sons into three principali-

es. 43. Roderick II., tics; viz.. North and South

the Gke.at. Wales and Powy's Land.

nberkeleth. . Eugene VII.

21. Mordach.

30. Etfinus.

64. Fergus III. 1. Eugene VIII.

AKCHANis. 19. Congal III. 57. Donald V. 74. Ethus. 92. Donald VI.

24. Oongal. 58. Constantine II. 75. Gregory the Great.

43. He extirpates the Picts, and He defeats the takes the title of king of Scotland. Danes and Welsh.

BARBARIAN ASCEXDEXCY.— KINGDOM OE THE VISIGOTHS.

414 nearly the whole of Gaul had sul)niitte(l to the conqueror, who next turned his arms against the barbarians of Spain. Five years previously the Spanish peninsula had been overrun by the Vandals, who with but little opposition gained possession of the country. Adolphus now made his way across the Pyre- nees and began a career of conquest, which in the following year was cut short by his as- sassination. The chieftains, however, chose AVallia as a successor, and in three successive campaigns drove the Vandals out of Spain. The country was thus nominally reiiuncxed to the Western Empire. On returning into Gaul, in the year 418, the Goths were re- warded by Honorius by the cession of Aqui- taine, the .same being the extensive region between the Garonne and the Loire. The Gothic cai)ital was fixed at the city of Tou- louse, and a more settled state of atlairs ruiper- vened than had been witnessed since the beginning of the barbarian invasion.?.

During the reign of Theodoric he was fre- quently called upon to protect his Visigothic friends in Gaul and Spain. The Franks, however, became more and more aggressive. By the year 507 Clevis had fixed his capital at Paris. In a council held at that city he declared his purpose of making war on the Goths because of their heresy in following the creed of Ariu.s. The nobles proclaimed their readiness to follow and their determination never to shave their Ijeards until victory had crowned their enterprise. Clotilda, the queen, added woman's zeal to the cause, and through her influence Clovis vowed to build a church to the holy apostles, who were expected to be his patrons in the extermination of the Gothic heretics. A campaign was accordingly organ- ized for the recovery of Aquitaine.

At this time the king of the Visigoths was Alaric, a warlike prince, but no match for Clovis. After mutual preparations the two armies came ftice to face a few miles from Poitiers, where the overthrow of the Goths was easily effected. The two kings met in the battle, and Alaric fell under the battle-axe of his rival. The conquest of the rich province of Aquitaine was the result of the conflict, but the Goths were permitted to retain the narrow tract of Seiitimania, extending from the Rhone to the Pyrenees. As to the rest of

the Gaulish possessions of the Visigoths, they were permanently annoxed to thi' kingdom of France.

In the mean time, during tin- lattrr half of the fifth century, the race of Alaric had planted itself firmly in Spain. In this c^m- try the barbarians made little concealment of their purpose to extinguish the Roman Em- pire. Theodoric II., wIkj had himself obtained the Visigothic throne liy iimrdcr, was in his turn assassinated by lii~ 1 nether, Euric, who proved to be as able as he was base. In the year 472 he passed the Pyivnct-s and raptured Saragossa and Pampeluna. Thr noblt.-s of the Roman party gathered an army to resist his progress, but were defeated in battle. He then extended his conquest into Lusitania, an.I re.luced the wli..l.. pmiiisula. Even the little kingdom of the Suevi was made to arku<iwledge the authority of the Gothic

With the beginning of the f .llowing cen- tury the royal line of the Goths was broken Ity the death of the infant grandson of The- odoric, and the government fell into the hands of Count Theudes, whose valor as a chieftain had already maile him a power in the nation. At this time thi' (i.iths were en- gaged in a war with the \'andal>, and it was resolved to invade Africa. In tiie year .335 an expedition was made against Ceuta, on the African coast. The place was besieged, with every prospect of success on the part of the besiegers ; but on the Saljbath day the pious Goths forebore to i>ress the enemy and en- gaged in worship. Takin- advantage of this respite, the h-religioiis \'aiidals .sallied forth and broke up the investment. It was with difficulty that Theudes made his escape into Spain. In a short time, however, an embassy came from Gelimer, now in the deepest dis- tress; for Belisarius was victorious over the Vandals, and their king was a fu-itive. In 534 he applied to Theudes fu- lielp; hut the latter merely temporized with the nie.-sengers until he learned of the downlall of Carthage, whereupon he dismissed them.

After the conque.st of Africa, Belisarius repaired to Italy and the \'isigothie kingdom was for a while left undisturbed. When Theu.les died the .<ureessi,,n was disputed, and the less worthy of the two eaadidat.'^ appealed

VXIVEUSAL HISTORY— THE 3I0DEIIX WORLD.

to Justinian iVir

TheKiniKTnr,.^,

in reluni m-v. ral

ompeuse. In tl

Easteru Eni]iirr

stored iu SpMin.

the .-ixtli an.! i!

<-entury the kini

■Ji-ell be re.-anl.-.l

Between ilie

the CI

jal agencies

the

i|r<l uiili -viiiial r.iuscs iu effecting At (he period referred to, Leovi- sild was kill- nt' ihc (loths. He, like his sulij.M-t^, li.l.l 1., ArianisMi. His son, Her- nieiir-ihl, clin-c for his wife the nrtliodnx (hiu-htcr of Si-cl„-rt, kin-- of the Franks. Between her and the wife of the Gothic monarch violent dissensions arose, and the yountrer jirincess was at last beaten almost to death and ..rdered to he drowne.l in a fish- pond. Ilernien-^ild, hackrd hy tlie arrh- bislinp ,,r S,.vilK., pr,-venfd ih- .■x-.cution of th<. i,inrd,i-ons purp.,-,. of the .pieen. The C'ath..li.' party rallied t., ihc Mipport of Her- meuegild and liis wife, and civil war — which was reallv a war nf i-eli^ions — broke out in the kingdom. For the time success declared for the side of the kin- and the Arians. The rebellious son was ov.rthmwn, and finally, after repeated arts of treason, was put to death.

When Leiivi'jild died, he was succeeded bv hi- sou, Keeared, uho, like his brother, was ..f tlie oihodox belief. He deelared him- self a Catlioli,., II,. ealhMl a .•ouneil of the Arian el,.r-v, and na-on aii.l supcTstitiou

pe

their error. I!v	var'	ms means they were
w(m over, thou..- had to be ,.ru-h	■d Ih	■ral nascent rebellions fore the change in the
national fiith <-.	dd 1	.,. ,.ti;.cted. The whole
bo.ly of the Vi-	.;ollii	. pe,,pl,. was gradually
brought within	li(. (	•athnli,- fol.l, ami the
Suevi of North-w	(■Men	Spain wi.re also added
to the Chunh.
One of the 1	rin(.i|	al acts of the reign of
Eecared was the	ealli	IL.- of thi. great Council

of Toledo — first ot' the conventions of that name. Seventy bishops of the Church as- sendiled and lestilied the zeal of new converts by extending the doctrines of the Nicene Creed. The king celebrated the religious re- covery of his people liy sending costly pres- ent- to (Me-ory the <ireat, and that pontiff re- ciproiale.l by retui'iuiig to Kecared the hairs of John tlie Baptist, .some of the wood of the True Cross, and some iron rust from the chains of St. Peter.

During the seventh century the Visigothic kin;:dom iu Spain flouri-shed as greatly as miglit be expected of a barbarian ]iower iu a barbarie a,-... One of th.. marked f.atures of the time, was the establishment of numy ..olo- nies of Jews in the Spanish peninsula. The warlike spirit in the sons of Israel was now extinct, but their buffetings aiuoug the na- tions had developed iu the race that marvelouc fai^idty of gain by wdiich the Jewish people have ever sinci^ been characterized. Their rapid accnniulations had made them the vic- tims of avarice in every state where they had settli.d. N(ii- Were the pious Visigoths any exi^eptiou to the rule of persecution. Of course the religion of the Jews was generally made an excuse for the perpetration of deeds the real object of which was mere confiscatiou and robliery. Indeed, it may be stated as a general fact that, during the Middle Ages in Eur()]ic, the right of property was never re- garded cxeept wdien enforced by the sword.

In the beginning of the seventh century the Visigothic king was Sisebut. During his reiiin a great persecution was instituted against the Spanish Jews. The real motive was plunder. Ninety thousand of the Israel- ites were compelled under penalty of confis- cation to accept the rite of baptism. Those who refused were put to torture; nor were the recusants permitted to avoid the alterna- tive by escaping from the country. It was baptism or death. The obstinacy of the Jews was such that most of their property passed to the hands of their jiersecutors. When there was little more to Vie obtained by rob- ber v one of the successors of Sisebut issued an edict for the banishment of all Jews from iiis donnnion. One of the great councils of Toledo re(piired all succeeding sovereigns to sub-erilie to the law of banishment; but cu-

BABBABIAN ASCEXDEXCY.— KINGDOM OE THE VANDALS.

pidity was generally stronger tluui au oath, and it became the practice tu despuil and enslave the Jews rather than drive them to foreign lauds. Notwithstanding the distresses ■which they suflered the Jews continued to increase, and it can not be doubted that they were the agents of that intercourse by whieh in the early part of the eighth century the Moors of Africa, already panting for such an enterprise, were induced to cross the strait and undertake the conquest of Europe.

The story of this great movement, by which the JMohammedans were precipitated into Sjjain, will be reserved for its proper place in the Second Book. It is sufficient in this con- nection to say that in the year 711 a great army of mixed races, all professing the faith of the Prophet, and led by the great chieftain Taric, crossed the strait of Gibraltar and began a career of conquest which resulted in the subjugation of Spain. The Visigothic ascen- dency was ended, except in the Christian king- <loiu ijf CastUe, in which the remnant of the (.'iui^tian powers were consolidated and were eiuibUMl to maintain themselves during the remainder of the Middle Ages.

Of the Kingdom of the Vandals a good deal has already been said in the preceding jiages. The progress of this people from the north and their settlement in Spain will readily be recalled.' Having once obtained a foothold in the peninsula they gradually pre- vailed over their adversaries. Even the Ro- man general Castinus, who in 428 was sent out against them, was defeated in battle and obliged to save himself by llight. The cities of Seville and Carthagena fell into the hands of the Vandals, who thence made their way to tlie islands of Majorca and Minorca, and then into Africa. Into the latter country till y wrrr invited by King Boniface, who had liirMiii, ihc Iraderof an African revolt against iiis lival Aetius. The disposition of the Van- dals to extend their conquests beyond the sea had been quickened by the warlike zeal of the great Genseric, who, after the death of his brother Gonderlc, was elected to the Vandal throne. So great was the prowess of this mighty warrior that his name is written with those of Alaric and Attila as the thii'd of the barbaric thunderbolts liy which the great tree

' See Book First, p. 3ii.

of Rome was riven to the heart. He is rep- resented as a man of medium stature, lame in one leg, slow of speech, taciturn, concealing his plans in the deep recesses of his barbaric jrpirit. His ambition was as great as his policy was subtle. To conquer was the prin- cipal thing; by creating strife among his ene- mies, if might be, liy open liattle if necessary.

"When about tu dc]>art fir the war in Africa — though Genseric coutemjilateil no less than the removal of the whole Vandal race to the south side of the Mediterranean and the consequent abaudunineiit of tlic Spanish peninsula — he turned about tu chastise the king of the Suevi, who had rashly 2'resumed to begin an invasion of the territory from which the Vandals were departing. Genseric fell upon the impudent violators of the peace and drove them into the river Anas. Then in the year 429 he embarked at the head of his nation, crossed the strait of Gibraltar, and lauded on the African coast.

The number transported for the succor of Boniface amounted to fifty thousand men of war, besides the aged and infirm, the women and the children of the nation. It was, how- ever, the prestige of victory rather than the array of numbers that rendered the Vandal invasion so formidable to the African triljea. Strange, indeed, was the contrast between the florid-complexioned, blue-eyed German war- riors, strangely dressed and still more strangely disciplined, and the swarthy natives of that sun-scorched shore. Soon, however, the Moors came to understand that the Vandals were the enemies of Rome, and that sufficed for friendship. The African tribes crowded around the camp and eagerly entered into alliances with Genseric, willing to accept any kind of a master instead of the relentless lords of Italy.

No sooner had the Vandals established themselves in Africa than Count Boniface and the Princess Placidia found abundant cause to repent of their rashness in soliciting the aid of the inexorable barbarians. It be- came manifest that neither Tyrian nor Trojan would receive any consideration at the hands of the stern king of the Vandals. Boniface sought and obtained the pardon of Aetius. Carthage, and the other Roman posts, by which Africa had long been overawed and

428

ryivj:i:sAL history.— the modkux world.

held iu -uhi.	( tmii rclurnc'l	C|llirkly In tl	I'ir	lat.Vi th
allegiance, an	1 1! iiiira.-.- will	an ani'iy of x	i-t-	viit'iriui
eran« won 1.1 _	l.i.lh have c'.M	priau-.l with		l/ilifS nt
con-titiit(.l .11	tliMiiii,.. ill ,lri\	iiiL^ iIk' \'aii.	al-^	iviuaiiici
be\ 1)11(1 tliL -	(a But (iuiis		hi-	The

tar and wide until only the Cii-ta, and Hippo lilK-ius >..— inn (,f the Kniuau-. .ii.litinn ,,f AtViea eontril.-

THE LANDIM., OF THE VANDALS IX AFRICA. Drawn by F. E. Wolfrom.

BAKBARIAX ASCEMn:X('V.—KIXGDO.V OF THE VAXDALS.

uted to its rai>i(l conquest by Geiiseric A sect called the Donatists, so named fnmi their leader, Douatus, who flourished in the begin- ning of the fourth ceotury, fell under the ban of the orthodox party and were bitterly per- secuted. Three hundred bishops and tliou- sanils of clergymen of inferior rank were de- prived of their property, expelled from their country, and driven into exile. lutoleralile fines were imposed upon persons of distinc- tion supposed to be in sympathy with the heretics. Under these persecutions many of the Donatists gave way of necessity ami en- tered the Catholic fold ; but the fanatical ele- ment could not be subdued, and this numer- ous party became the natural all)' of Geuseric. The sacking of the Catholic churches which ensued, and which, as reported by thr f'atlnrs, has made the word vaiuhili-<in a synonym inr wanton robbery, is doubtless to be attributed to the uncontrollable vengeance of the Don- atists rather than to the barbarians them- selves, who, on the whole, were h'ss to be dreaded for their savagery than either tiie Goths or the Huns.

In the year 430, the seven rich provinces stretching from Tangier to Tripoli were over- run by the invaders. The cities were gener- ally destroyed. The wealth accumulated by ages of extortion was exposed by the torture of its possessors, and seized with a rapacity known only to barbarism. In many instances the unresisting inhabitants of towns were butchered by the frenzied A^'andals. Boniface himself, after vainly attempting to stay the work which he had provoked, was besieged in Hippo Rhegius. For fourteen months the garrison held out, but was finally reduced by famine. Meanwhile, the Empire sent what succor might lie spared to shore up the totter- ing fortunes of Africa. A powerful arma- ment, under the command of Aspar, leaving Constantinople, joined the forces of Boniface, and the latter again offered battle to the Van- dals. A decisive conflict ensued, in which the Imperial army was destroyed. Boniface soon after fell in Italy in a civil broil with his old rival, Aetius.

It appears that, after the capture of Hippo Rhegius and the overthrow of Boniface, Gen- seric did not press his advantage as might have been expected. He entered into nego-

tiations with the Emperor of the West, and agreed to concede to that sovereign the pos- session of Mauritania. Several aspirants for the Vandal throne, notably the sons of Gon- deric, appeared to annoy ratinr than endanger th(.' svi}ireniacy of the barbarian monarch. Xor could the turbulent impulaiidns which he had subdued be easily rediiciil in an orderly state. An interval of eight \i'ais was thus placed between the defi'at of Ilmiiface and tile capture of Carthage. Wluii tlir city fell into the hands of tlie assaihuits. it was de- spoileil of its treasures after the manner of tile age. Tlie d.iminant ]uu-ty of the Car- thaginians was subjected to the severest treatment by the conqueror. The nobles, senators, and ecclesiastics were driven iuto jierpftual banishment.

With the downfall of Carthage the suprem- acy of the Vandals in Xortheru Africa was completely established. The maritime propen- sities of the Moorish nations had not been extinguished by centuries of warfare. Nor was Genseric slow to perceive that the ocean was now the proper pathway to fnrther con- quest and glory. The coast towns again rang «-ith the shipbuilders' axe, and the Vandals emulated the nautical skill of the subject peo- ple. It was not long till an African fleet conveyed an army into Sicily, which was readily subjugated. Descnits w.av made on the coasts of Italy, and it bicame a question with the emperors, not whether they could re- cover Africa, but whether Rome herself could be saved from the clutches of (4enseric.

A Vandal fleet anehor.d at the mouth of the Tiber. Maximus had ivccntly succeeded Valentiuian on the Imperial throne, but at the end of three months he was murdered and his body thrown into the Tiber. Three days after this event, the Vandals advanced against the city. The Roman liishop, Leo, and a proces- sion of the clergy came forth, and in the name of religion and humanity demanded that the inoffensive should be spared and the city saved from nun. Genseric promised moderation, liut vain was the pledge of barbarism. For fourteen days and nights Rome was given up to indiscriminate pillage. The treasures of the Eternal City were carried ou board the Vandal ships, and wanton destruction, fire, and murder added to the horrors of the sack.

LMVKRSAL HISTORY.— Tin-: MODKRX WORLD.

She thul hud <k->i.uikMl the i.ali..ii< wa. in her turn outraged and h-t't lyin- \n hur own Ijloud by the bank:^ uf the I'ilnr.

From this time, \nv a [.rriod of eight years, the Vaudals beeamr ihi- terror of the .Medi- terranean. The <-oa,-i> of Spain, Lignria, Tuscany, Campania, Lueania, Bnittium, Apu- lia, Calabria, Venetia, Daliiialia, Epirus, Greece, Sicily, Sanli'nia, and indeed of all the couutries from (nin-altar to Egypt, were as- sailed by the piratieal erat't of (u-nserie. With all of his con. pi. -t- aii.l predatory excursions the Vandal kin- .-h..\ve.l himself capable of policy and statecraft. After the capture of Rome, he took the Empress Eiidoxia and her daughter, Eudocia, to Carthage. He com- pelled the young princess to accept his son Hunuerie in marriage, and thus established a kind of legitimacy in the Vandal government. Eudoxia and her other ilaughter, Placidia, were then restored iVom their captivity.

The separation between the Ea.stern and Western Empires had now become so com- plete that the one couhl no longer depend upon the other for succor. The West was thus left to struggle with the barliarians as best she might; nor were her appeals for aid much regarded liy the court of Constantinople. The warlike Count Ricimer, leader of the bar- barian armies in Italy in alliance with Rome, was reduced to the necessity of tendering tbe submission of the country to the Eastern Em- peror as the condition of protection against the Vandals.

On his return to his African kingdom, Geuseric again found himself embroiled with his Catholic subjects. The orthodox bishops openly disputed with his ministers in the synods, anil the king resorted to persecution as a means of intellectual conquest. In the reign of Huxxeric, who succeeded his father in the year 477, the Catholic party was still more seriously proscribed. Many were exiled, and a few were tortured on account of their religious creed. After the death of Hunneric in 484, the tlii-..n.. .l.-c.ii.le.l successively to his two neph.ws. (iiNDXMfVD and Thrasi- JttTXD, the former ol' wlioni reigned twelve and the latter twenty-si'ven years.

This period in Van.lal history was occupied with the (piarrek ami war- of the Arian and orthodi>x parties in the Chur.-h. ^Meanwhile,

Hi

Hunii

majority, and alter the death of his cousin Thrasimun.i, in rrl-), acceded to the throne. His disposition w;is much more humane than that of his predecessors, but his goodness was supplemented by feebleness, and, after halting through a weak reign of x-v.ii years, he was supphmte.l ..n the thn.ne by hi- ,-..u.-ili ( Je- l.iMi;i:. The end of the Van.lal power. h..w- ever, was already at hand. raitjy with a view to exterminate the Aiian heresy, and partly for the purpose of restoring the suprem- acy of the Empire throughout the West, Bel- isarius was disjjatched into xVfrica and intru>te.l with the w.irk of recoiKpiering the c.iintry. The years .530-5o4 were occupied by the great general in overthrowing the do- minion established by Genseric south of the Mediterranean. Gelimer was driven from the throne, and attempted to make his escape to the capital of the Visigoths in Spain. He made his way as far as the inland districts of Nuinidia, but was there seized and brought back a pri.soner. In the year .534, Belisarius was honored with a triumph in the streets of Constantinople, and the appearance of the aged Gelimer in the captive train was a notifi- cation to history that the kingdom of the Vandals existed no longer.

The origin and course of the Fraxkish Nation down to the time of Clovis has already been narrated in the preceding pages.' It will be remembered that, after their settlement in (iaul in the beginning of the fifth century, the Franks were ruled in the German manner liv a noM.^ fannly, which traced its origin to the prime ^NIeroveus and was known as the ]\Ierovingian House. The chieftains of this family were elevated on the bucklers of their followers and proclaimed kings of the Franks. They were represented as having blue eyes and long, flaxen hair, tall in stature, warlike in (lisi)osition. Ci.. uu. ix, the first of these kings, held his e..\i)t at a t.>wn between Lou- vain ami Brii»el>. His kingdom is said to have extende.l from the Rhine to the Somme. On hi- deatli the kingdom was left to his two sons, the ehler t)f whom appealed to Attila, and the younger — Jleroveus — to the court of Rome. Thus was prepared one of the condi- tions of the Hunnish invasion of Gaul. Of

' See Bo..>k First, p. 37.

BAHBABIAX ASri:XI>EMT.--KIX(^DO.U OF TlIK Fh'AXh'S

the ieiti:n of ]\Iu(i\eu>. not nuK h i^ kiKiwn The uext i5(i\eieign, named Childfrr, was banished on account of his Aouthful follies For foui \eus he Ined m letuemeut m Gei-

111 iu\, where he aluised king of the Thuriii-i^ his quetn wh i i | into Gnil Ot thi-

ll his way l.nni the

THIS DIDs-l TH

UXI VERSA L HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

pi-iuce KllLODWlG, 111- C'i.OVl<, \vlii> i-^ n-ai'lcd as the f.uin.U-r of ihe Krauki-li inniKUx-hy. Ill III,- your 4M lu' su<tcim1,mI his fatluT in the frdveniiiieiii, lieing tlieii liut lilieeii years

.li-l...Mtio (.lie ol' h	was a warrior tn>iii lii--	yniith. His eaptiiied the
ealhe,ln,l nf it> trc	of Kheims ami ihs]ioi i>iires. Among tlie ri	eil the altar •li 1 tv was
When it kin--a^ whieii n	■ us vase of ,<:-reat ~i/' ,-aiue to a .livi-ion nf ,iii-t that usi-e ,.f tlie ,nii-.-a that all the s	aii.l value, the spoil, the H.ils of war
^^hoiil.l K. hiiii^elt.	.livi.h.l hv l,,t— ~ou-h F,,i- the l.i^ho|, nf l;lu	the vase for iiiis had sent
to liiin a les, ,rni	h>, an.l Clovis wouh	of the price- 1 fain make

friend- with the Christian iiehleiaau. But ,,iie nf the Franki>h chiefs struck the vase with his l,attle-axe and destroye.l it.

Clovis was greatly angered, hut for a while concealed his wrath. lu the course of time there was a military inspection of the Franks, anil when the king came to examine the arms >,r him who had l.)roken the vase he found thciii ru-ty and unfit W- use. He wrenched the hattle-axe out nf t',e hands of the chief and threw it on the ground, and when the owner >tnnped to recover it dashed his own ]i..iidirnus weapon into the skull of the stoop- in- warrior. '-Thus," said he, "didst thou to the va.-e at Sni-smi-." N-.r did any dare tn rcM'iit the murder of the chief.

At the time of the accession of Clovis the kin-dnin of the Franks embraced only the |irnvinccs nt' Tournav and Arras, and the nunihcr nf Clnvis's warrinrs di.l nnt, j.erhaps, ex<'eed five thousand. It was, however, a part of the freedom of the C4erman tribes to attach themselves to what chieftain soever ap- peared most worthy to he their leader.

At tii>t (/lovis was a snldiia- of fortune. In his earlier expeditions an.l cniKpiests the spoils nf battle were divided among his fol- lowers. Discipline, however, was the law of his annv. and justice the motto of his govern- in. .nt. His a>'cen.haicv over the Franks and other (iernian tribes -non became the most marked of any thus tar witnes>ed since the

after his acce-.-ion t.i aiithorilv, Clovis was

obligeil to cnnten.l for his rights with the l\(jmau .Syagrius, who claimed to be master- general of Ciaul. That elenjeut in Gaulish society, however, which was represented by Syagrius had .so greatly declined in numbers and influeuce that Clovis gained an easy vic- tory, and his rival was delivered over to the executiniier.

The next conflict of the king of the Franks was with the Alemanui. This strong confed- eration of tribes claimed jurisdiction over the Khiiie from its sources to the Moselle. Their aujii ,-,-ions in the kingdom of Cologne brought th. Ill into lonllict with Clovis, and the latter defeated tlieiii ill a great battle fought iu the ].lain of Tolbiac. The king of the Alemanni was slain, and his followers were obliged to submit to the conqueror. The result of the conflict was so lar-reaching that Thcodoric the fireat .sent his congratulations from Ka- veniia.

In the year 496 Clovis was converted from paganism to Christianity. In the mean time he had married Cleti. ua, a Catholic princess, niece of the king '" Burgundy. It was through her instrume •tality that the king's mind was gradually w m from the supersti- tions of the North. The tradition exists that in the vnsis of the battle of Tolbiac, when the kingdom as well as the life of Clovis was hanging in the balance, he prayed aloud to the "God of Clotilda," whereupon victory declared in his favor. The pious warrior could do no less than recognize his obligation by accepting the religious faith of his queen.

It appears, moreover, that the doctrines of Christianity had already difl'used themselves not a little among the chiefs of the Frankish nation. Though it was anticipated that the conversion of Clovis would be illy received by his people, yet the opposite was true. The chiefs of the Franks applauded his course and followed his example. In the year -196 Clovis was puldicly baptized in the cathedral of Rheims, and the officiating bishops and priests spared no pains to make the ceremony as sol- emn and magnificent as possible. Three thou- sand of the principal Franks were likewise baptized into the new faith.' Thus, nominally.

It is narrated that Clovis was greatly excited hi-arinsr repeated the tragic story of tlie cruci- iin of Chri.st. His feelings were a mixture of

BAEBARIAN ASCEXDEXCY.—KIXiWOM OF THE FEAXKS.

at ler

the m ,f Cl..vi

kiugilom estab was plautC'il up

thfully lui

d cluURtLl

suhjett A\

Ih

Christianity.

It couia not lie tri ever, that the lives a Fraukisli kin.u and hi.- modified liy their conv raauaers aud coarse iust still coutiiiued to predoi the o-radual influ- ences of enlighten- ment dispelleil the darkness of heath- enism. The rei-'u of Clovis thus he- came a mixture of Christian professijo and pagan practices. He accepted the mir- acles performed at the holy sepulcher at Tours liy St. Mar- tin, and drank in the entire supersti- ti<in of his times. Hi' ivreived from the Catholic clergy the title of Eldest Son of the Church; for he was the first of the pagan kings to accept the doctrines of Christianity as they were promul- gated from the See of Rome.

But neither the professions of relig- ious faith, nor the baptismal ceremony, nor any humanity in the king himself preventeil him from imbruing his hands in the 11 d ft the innocent. He assassinated all the pimce t the Merovingian family as coollj and delib erately as though he were an Oriental de pot nor was any human life or inteiest permitted

t) tml l)et\\iin him ml In puip e In tlu ^eii 447 the \imoiKin an eie obliged tr ubniit to the new Fieuch moniichv About tlu tme time the iemimiu_ tioo]~, md gai 11 m withm the hunt t ( ml \\ it o^el 1 \\ It 1 I \ the Ii ml III tiiitli 1 npie t-,

(-l)M extended hi iuthoiit\ (\ti the noith eui pioMute and in 4'^!'^) lit be_an ^ai on Ciuudi bild king of the Buuuudiiii In the

Christian pathos and Imrharian vengeance. "Had I been present with my valiant Franks," he ex- claimed in wrath, " I would liave revenged his injuries."

If iliii t tint 111 ini h a pie\iou ly in those t the 1 111 (t tht Iimk leligiou chmor ^\'i at It htuht bttween the C itholic and \nin piiti The 1 in„ adhered to the lat

tei an 1 tht t imei h uing a natuial affiln tion with CloMs 1 t^ood excu e wa gi\en to the king of the Franks for undertaking the war in the name of religion. In the year •500 a great Ijattle was fought between Langres

■i-.'A

rXIVKliSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

and Dijon. Vi guu.lyiMcanu- a .^liiirt time < u which were ii the war was ii contiuued his

n.,u.rnr, ami iM, liowever, til hi> death, , .Sigismund. Burguudians

was destined X" cxtiinlinii. In tlie year 5o2, an army of Frank- wa.- Ird inln th'' t-nnntry, and Sigismund was driven IVimi tliL- tlirctne, captured, and, with lii- wife and two children, buried alive in a well. The Burguudians were still allowed to enjuy their hieal laws, but were otherwise inrorporatfd with the do- minions of the eon(|ueror. There thus re- mained to the sous of (.'lovis a realm almost as broad as the Republic of France.

In the mean time Clovis had established his cajjital at Paris. In the first quarter of the sixth century occurred the great struggle between the Goths and the Franks for posses- sion of the country uorth of the Alps. A personal interview was held between Clovis and Alaric on an island in the Loire. Many were the mutual professions of kingly and brotherly affection between the two distin- guished monarchs, who each hid beneath the cloak of Christian regard a profound and settled purpose to undo his friend at the first opportunity. In the year 507 a great battle was fought about ten miles from Poitiers, in which the Franks were completely victorious.

In the next year the kingdom of Aquitaiue was overrun by Clovis and annexed to his dominions. Hearing of these great conquests and especially delighted with the Christian profession of the king of the Franks, the Em- peror Anasta.sius, looking out from Constan- tinople to the west, conferred u])on him the imperial titles. The king entered the church of St. Martin, clad liinwelf in purple, and was saluted as Consul and .i((;/"•^'"•^■•

Something was still wanting to complete the establishment of the French monarchy, and this was >u|)|ilieil a quarter of a century after the death of Clnvi-. The city of Aries and Marseilles, the la-t strongholds of the Ostrogoths in (iaul. « -v Mirren.lered to the Franks, ami the tran>rer was sanctioned liy Justinian. The |>e(j|ile of the provinces beyon<l the Alps were al.-olved from then- allegiance

to the Emperor of tin' Ea>t, and by this act the independent s<,vereignty of the Franks was \iitually recognized. So complete was the autonomy of the new government that gold coins, stamped with the name and image of the ^Merovingians, ])assed current as a meas- ure of value in the exchanges of the Empire. The settled state of afiairs which thus super- vened among the people of Gaul, contributed ]io\M'rfiilly to stimulate the nascent civilization of the tpoeh. Already under the immediate suceess(]rs of Clovis, the Franks or French became of all the recently barbarous peoples of the North the most polite in manners, lan- guage, and dress.

It may be interesting in this connection to add a few i)aragraphs respecting the growth of law, and, in general, of the social usages which prevailed among the barbarian peoples, especially among the Franks, in the times of the Merovingian kings. Before the elevation of the House of .Meroveus, namely, in the beginning of the fifth century, the Franks appointed four of their sagest chieftains to reduce to writing the usages of the nation. Their work resulted in the production of a code known as the Salic Laics. These statutes were reported to three successive assemblies of the people and were duly approved. When Clovis became a Christian he found it neces- sary to modify several of the laws which touched u])on questions of religion. His suc- cessors in the kingdom further revised the Salic code until in the eoure of a century from the time of Clovis the statutes were reduced to their ultimate form. About the same time the laws of the Ripuariau Franks were codified and promulgated ; and these two bodies of law were made the basis of the legis- lation of Charlemagne. It will be remembered that when the Alemanni were conquered by the Franks they were permitted to retain their own local institutions. The same was true in the case lif the coiKpiest of the Bavarians. The ]\Ierovin-ian kiniis took care that the laws of the two peoples last mentioned should also be conq.iled as a part of th; local statutes of the kin-dom. lu the case of the Visigoths and the liuigundians, written legislation had al- reaily ju-eeeded the Prankish conquest. Among

the former ] pie King Euric himself was the

trilial leud^lator, bv whom the immemorial

BARBARIAN ASCEXDEMV.—KIXGDOM OF THE FRAXK>

4:>"'i

usages of his nation were redueeil to statuti in- form.

In general, the barl.iarian hi\v> wcri' such as sprang necessarily out of the eniiditions present iu their rude society. Each tril)e iiad its local customs and usages, which iu the course of time obtained first the sanctinu of observance and then of authority. Whm th.- kingdom was consolidated under the Mimviu- gians each tribe was permitted ti> retain its own laws; nor did Clovis and his successors attempt to exact tiniformity. The same free- dom which was thus extended to the various nations composing the Frankish power was conceded to the different classes of society. In some sense there was a law for each member of the tribe. Individuality was the essential principle — -free doom the first thing consulted in legislation.

The barbarian customs were persistent — transmitted from father to sou. The child received and followed the law of the parent; the wife, of her husband; the freedman, of his patron. In all procedures the preference ■was given to the defendant, who must be tried in his own court, and might choose the law under which he w'as prosecuted.

The peculiar vice of the barbarian legisla- tion was the fact of its being jiersnual. Crime was regarded as committed against the indi- vidual, not against society. This led inevitably to the substitution of private vengeance for public punishment. As among the American aborigines, so among the ancient Germans, revenge was regarded as honorable. Society conceded to each the privilege of vindicating his own rights and punishing the wrongdoer. The individual executor of the law was thus in his turn subjected to the will of the kins- men of any whom he had punished. Venge- ance and counter-vengeance thus became the common methods of obtaining redress. The lex talionis was the law of society. To the extent that this principle prevailed the magis- trate was reduced to an advisory officer, whose duty was to mediate between man and man, rather than enforce by authority a common law upon all.

Growing out of these vicious principles was the idea present iu nearly all the barbarian codes that human life might be measured by monetary valuation, that blood had its price.

The admission of this elrninit into the legis- lation of the Germans left the lu'iiiciple of hue and forfeiture as almost the only rcstniint against the commission of criiin'. K-M-h mem- ber of society was permitted to take the life of the other, subject only t" hi< aliilitv to pay the price of the deed. Every ]M'ison was ajv praix'd for criminal purposes. I'poii thi- life of t-ach was set an estimate, and this i stiniate was freely admitted as the liasis of crinur.al proceedings. Of the Aiilrii^tiiiii<, or persons of the first rank, the lives were ap[>raiscd at six hunilred jaieces of gold. The next grade of persons, embracing those wiio >at at the king's table, were listed at one-half as much as the Antrustions. The ordinary Frankish free- man was reckoned as worth two hundred pieces of gold, while the lives of persons of inferior quality were set at a [irii'e of a hun- dred or even fifty pieces. Ju general, the commis.sion of crime against the life of a per- son was followed by the payment of a fine equal to the price at which the murdered man was appraised. It was perhaps fortunate that this irrational and inadi'ipiate punishment was reenforced by the fear of that personal venge- ance which might in turn be taken upon the murderer.

With the lapse of time greater rigor was introduced in the administration of justice; and by the time of the ail vent of ( 'harlemagne legislation had tlir the most part lieeome im- per.sonal — that is, punishment was thenceforth inflicted in the name of society, ..ml not in the name of the individual.

In the sixth century the law was generally executed by the duke or prefi't ot' tiie county. The judge was nearly always unlearned, pas- sionate, perhaps vindictive. The methods employed in the alleged courts of justice were worthy of a barbarous age. The defendant might introduce his friends as witnesses, and prove that they believed him innocent! If as manv as seventy-two persons could be iound so to testify, it was sufficient to ab^jlve an incendiary. It was found that the barbarian I conscience was a very indifferent .safeguard against the crime of perjury. In order more certainly to obtain the truth, tw - new methods were invented of putting tlu' jiartie^- to the test. These were known by the common name of the ".Judgment of God." The first was by

UXIVKHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

fire, the see<.ii.l l.y nvuI.t. Tl put tn the tcsl (if liaiKllillL:-

1 -111. Ill the -ithri- ,-aH- thv

. |„U iiitu th.- w:il, r. Shoul.l he ,|,, the j.Ml-iii.-nt \va-, -V../ CnUtu:

iltnl,ut..l' to ihr hnvuiver Guii.hj-

.1, ki Annt

■ iirial rolllhal. Ill

xpeetetl to confrout

thi- arcii- I-, aii'l to \iii.li(aie his iuuoceuee by hatth-. 'I'hi' ioiiil,ataiit< met each other on foot or. .11 hoi-.l.ark. aii.l foiidit, eaeh aeeonl- iiiu- to tho IN. tho.l of hi. own coniitryiiH-n; an. I ill.' eourt a.ljii.l-.'.l that h.- wli.i f.'ll was th.Ti-iiiiiiial. Thi< inati.mal aii.l .a-u.'! in.thoil of .l.-,-i,li„- .li>|,ut.'~, h.'-.,tlrii, as it was, Ijy

i.-iiora an. I eia.lh-.l \\\ superstition, siiread

thi'.iii-h..iit all thr >tati- of Europe, and con- tiiiii..! 1.1 pn-vail for many eenturies. Nor mi:;ht th.- w.-ak, ex.'ci.t l.v 'th.' aid of a eliam- pi.m, h..|i,. t.i e.iiiteii.l sueee.>fully with the vi.pl.aii;.' of th.' >ti-oii!j: oppressor.

A- till- lia.k a~ the days of Ariovistus, a. claim uas ,-ial.li>h.-,l liy "tlie Germans upon th.- hin.U of (raid. At tir~t on.-tliir.l. and afterwai'.l- tu.i-thir.l^. of the t.-rrit.n-y of the vSeipiaui were a~>i-iii-.l to the warriors Ijeyond the Rhine. Aft.-r tiv.- hundred years these claims, once i-.-.-ouni/.i-d. were reasserted by the Vi.-i'ji>ths ail. I 1 iiir-iin.liaiis, and became the liaM. of th.- ,-ul.-.-.|U,-nt Ian. I titles of Gaul.

At the tinii- of tin- Fianki~h invasion, the rijriitsof theori-inal (iaiil- and i;.imaii> c.-as.-d

by ('!.ivi> to his t'.ill.i\vi-i-s has already been mi-ntioii.-.l. The Mi-niviii-jian princes took and retaiii.-il lari;.- .lomains out of the comniered ten-it. iry. Tlu-y also a-iiiii.-.l th.- ri-jht ..f .-.,ii- feri-iiiu- ii|..iu the Fi-anki.h nolil.- (-.-itaiii lan.N call.-.l h.n.fu:.. vvhi<-h w.-n- t.. lu- li.-l.l in tli,- t;-ii.lal fa-lii..ii .,1, th.- r.,i,.liti.,i,s of military s.-rvi.-.- an. I leuna-.- t-i th.- .iiz.-rain. B.-si,les tilt- royal i->tat.-> an.l beiiefi.-iary lands, two oth.r (-la».-s ,if till.-, kn.iwn as the alh„r,al and S,„r,r ,„,.,...Moi,, w.i-,- ab.. r.-r,,-nized. Already tin- sv.^t.-iii of F.-ii.lali-m mi-hl lie .M-en o.izin- out .if bai-bai-i.- Fi-ai,.-.-.

The .M-stem of -lav.-rv wa^ a.lopte.l bv the Franks as well a,~ bv th\- i;,,maiis. Th,-' bar-

lui-ed to M-i-vitnde the prisouere ar. In general, however, the cap- L-.lneed to .serfdom were attached to • f their masters, and were heiice- l(-.l a> liel.im:iii- t.i till- land rather t to p.i->oiial owiii-r.-hip. Still the

th,- di.

-s oi

The consoliilatincr and civilizinjr fiirces which began to assert themselves during the reign of Clovis were greatly retarded after his death. That event occuived in Paris in tlie rear 511. Th.- kin- was buri,-d in th.- l.a-ili,-a ..f the Holy Ap..~tl,-, which ha.l b.-.-ii ,i-.-<-t,-.l by him at the instance of Glolihla. The king lett tiinr sons as his siH-ce^-irs. The first, named Theodoric, was born of a German wife, who preceded Gloiihla. The other three, named Childebert, ('lo.loinir, and Clotaire, were the sons of the ipieeii. The unfortunate policy was adopted of dividing the kingdom among them. Theodoric received for his por- tion parts of Western Gt-rmany and Aquitaiue, to-.th.-i- with th.- c.ainlry bounded by the lihiue an.l tin- ^leiise. Ghildebert reigned at Paris ; Chxlomir, at Orleans ; and Clotaire, at Soissous. The last uaiueil king was destined to unite the dominions of his brothers with his own.

At first the three sovereigns of Gaul formed an alliance and made a succe.^sful war on Bur- gundy, in the course of which Clodomir was kill.'d. A. D. 531. Thereupon, Clotaire and Chil.lL-bert conspired together to take his king- iloin. The territory of the Orleans prince was accordingly divided between Paris aud Sois- sous. After this Childebert made an expedi- tion into Spain, aud achieved .some success over th,' Visigoths, but made no permanent con- .|ii,->ts. Returning into France, a dispute arose bit w, -ell him and Clotaire, and the brothers 1111,1, -It. i.ik t.i settle their troubles by battle. But liefore the coutest vva.s decided, Chilrlcbert died ; aud by this mortal accident, the French territories of Clovis were again consolidated in the hamls of his sou. Jleanwhile, the east- ern part of the FrankLsh Empire, called Aus- tralia, remained under the authority of The- oiioric. Two of the s,ms ,.f Clo.h.mir aro.'^e to claim the re.-titution of the (.)rleans lirovince

B ABB Am AS	ASCEXJ)Kycy.-	-KLXGDOM OF THE Fh'AXKS. 4Z
which had Ijelongf.l to thti	iatln-r; hut th.-v	the kingdom of Clovis in a single govern
were hunted down and iimr	Irivd hv C'l..tain".	ment.
A rebelliou headed by L'	iranine," th. kind's	Clotaire II. died in the year til's, and wa
soil, was next suppressed b}	• tlie roval arniv ;	buried in th;_' seiiulchcr of the Meinviu-iun
and the disloyal prince, together with his wife	at Paris. He was succ.-cded in the -nvern
and children, was burned a	live. Theodoric's	ment by his son Dagobei-t I. Ilifor,' the deat
crown descended to his gi	audson, who died	of his father, namely, in (i22, lie had h.ei
without issue, and IBH	IBIiiimmHBBlMB	iWiiii iiiiiiiiiffliMBiiSBBsriiifciJ'iiiiw iiMiiiiiiiiP^iroiiiiMiB'B^M
Austra-ia al.n was H	hhI^EBbh	E^^i^^^^^^^^^^Hi^^^iHl
added to the kingdom HH	HhhBBBB	H|^^^Hn^^H^ra^KraH^^^^
ofClotaire, wdiichnow |^|	^^HHR^HH	Bi^M^^Hml^^M^K^^H^^^
equaled in extent the	^H	I^Hffiffl^^H	^SHR^^H^B^^HI^^^^B
realm governed by	HI	|PBiilE|^H	H^PHI^^H^^^^^^^^S^^RI
his father. His reign	HB	||^p^Hh|hj|	sBB^Im^^^^^^^W^^^ |t^H||
was extended for three	m	h^hHIhh	^^H^B^^^Bw^ U ' f \ |li;if
years after the extinc-	Hi	||ji|||BHBH|	hBB^vV''
tion of the Austrasiau	IS	^ra^^H^BH	H|^^B||P|\
branch, when he died.	IB	BfflB^p^ftjII	i^^mHnll '^ t
leaving the Empire	HP	iilillfm^^HH	H^^^i t^J»^^^
again to be divided	B^	iBiBw^Hi
among his foui son--,	llllj	IH^^^HhIP	^^^^^^^^^ ^^"^^^^^^^j
Charibert, Gontian,	^H	IBBJIH^PP^	^^^^^^^^^^^•''^^^^^liiB^'" '
Chilperic and Sige	^B	l^l^^^wm
bert. These all be	Hk	HH^^^^K^J	^^^r^^^^^H
longed to the lace of	H|	hH'w
Eois FuineanU, oi	hI	$^^^^^^ ^^rJ^B^^^^^^^p
Eoyal Donothmgs as	^S	^^^^S} Sk	^^^^^^^l^^^^k^^^^^^^^ral
they were called, m	HI	^^^l^^^^m	'^^^m^^A^^^^^^^^^^m^^^
contempt of then m	^M	^O^^^^^K	^^^^^^^^^^^bM^^P^^^M
dolent disposition and	^9	^^^R-3-J^^	^ ^'"^^^W^^^^mHiii >W^^^M
slothful habits	^'^	^*^^~'^ ,	^ A^^^^M^^^^^flS
On the deith nt		,>~-*-^	'^^^^H
Chilperic the ciown		i^ec,^
des.vnde,! to 1 ,i„nd t'lotaire, \\h<. it th.	4	^^^^	^^^HH
ripe age ot hjui mouths, \\as left t i		^^^U^j^	'_yjv^^^^^^^pW|
the regency of hi-		~	~"'"^^' "" "^ ^^M^^^^^^^H
mother, Fiedegond i			>JY
At this time the An
trasian go\einment	r^J
was uudei the iegenc\	m=::^	^
of the Pi UK ess Biu
nehaut, \\hogo^elned
in the name of hei Liandso	IS rut^^.Ml the	let .iiizel 1 kin_ t Vu tn u ■\ftel the
two regents i wii bioke out	knidhd «uh the	1 .tist t tie kii. ^.^lstl,l ml l.ui unh
double feiocit^ of biibausm	Uld NN miinl.n 1	i 11 t D hut 1 1 hti t n 1 1 il 1 e
In the veil bl3 Biunehuit	« Is ,,\, l|„l^M ltd	I ht 1 tl 1 111 ] m f \ lUltlll ^ hi h
by the nobles of Buicrunih t	nd delneitd lut	hil 1 ten pieMoush issi ne 1 ti Clnulitit,
the hands of Clotiiie wlio	pnt hei to death	^^^s leinnexed to the consolidated Empiie
with an excess of cruelty.	Her extinction	D unbelt ] i(\td to be so\eui.ni of _ieat
removed the last obstat	le t.	the reuniting f	d iliti nl imbiti u He mil i i ni ital

438

LMVKRSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX WORLD.

the mil: patroiiiz He 0111 revisc-il

earn I -I I the <.>( was tl

nxl tl i-loin	of l,i>	.1 the Sol- was well .ul.lic and
plav.. . Th	te lii;-. 1 in li •ni h.-	Striking - conduct invited to

acci'pi then 1

He den in the jialaee. When Dagobert II. -^vas isans. a-sa>sinated Pepiji and .Martin were honored He with the title- of dnke- of the Franks. At itutes the .siirie time tin- kin-ly title was abolished in Au-tra-ia. In the year lj«0 Martin was killeil in hattle, and I'epin liecame master of the state. The Uerinau tribes ou the border had now become hostile, and Duke Pepiu was obliged to exert himself to maintain his east- ern frontier. In i;s7 h<- inflicted a .signal IS and defeat on the enemy, and then invaded the eeame territorv of Xeii^tria. He met the f .rces of

I. MEROV.ffi;US, 458.
2.CH.L.,eI,,s:.
3. Clovi.*. Sll-fl.oTrLDA.
1 ' ' 1 4 TlliniU:V I. .'tl.".. 4. ei.nuullIP.. r,4J 4. 1 HILDEBEET. .MS. 4. Cl.oTAIRE I., 561.
5. CH.tElIiEP.T I,. .>S.-.. .=.. (U--NTI1K.1M. .V.Kl. .^. ChILPERIC I.. .iSl-Bp.r-VEH.AlT. S. Sk.ebeRT I.. ,iM-FREDEGOXDE.
f.. Cl.eTAmE 11., WS r. . •■HLDEDERT II.. 6M. i 1	610.
1 1 S. D.IUOBERT I.. r,:N. .V. 1 IIAKIBERT 11., 031. 7. ThEODEBEET, 613. T. THIERRY 11.
9. Sir.EBEP.T II,. iViO. 'J. (LOVIS II.. fi.V,.
10. ClOTAIRE III.. .■.:,!. 10. CHILDEBK II.. 67.S. 11. IlAGOBERT IT., 6T9.
12. Thierry III., 691.
13. fI.ovisIII..69n. 1
1 I 1 !•!. riiiM.F.r.Er:T III . 711 15. Dagobert III., 715. 16. CiiiLPEKir 11.,	720.
THE MEROVINGIANS. 17. Thierry IV..	37.
EXPLANATION: I* f„, 'nr,,, TTT Figures;;rfffrfin^na.i.^slnciir.alethenKmV>orthProien. . . 1.. i HIl.nERic 111. siK-cmlinn " " " d,-»tp of denth or depontion. •• prerrdlnn " and repeated indicate contemporaneous reigns from « to IS are the Tl.iis Faineants	7S2,

for th	' time a k
tractei	wit	1 the
numlic	rle-s	con. -11
63S, a	id ^v	I- bill-
Pa~	siiii:-	iVer t
of Si,	ell.T	t II.,
who 1	i'ld	he th
he was	a>^a	siiiate
his bn	tlier	Mai-ti
office	had,	durin

ind of Onei

vear

the

<. He dii'd It St. Di.iiis.

rief and inglorious reign come to Dagobert II., from 674 to 679, when Pepix of Heristal and in, mayor of the palace. This the alleged reigns of the Bois Fa!neanis, become the most important in the Prankish government. The mayor of the palace was the great functionary of the state, and the king with his imbecile glory was hid-

this province in the battle of Testry, and in- flicted upon them a defeat so signal as to com- plete at one stroke the conquest of Northern

France," as that territorv

Gaul, or "i;. was then calhil.

Perhaps no otlur prince ever had more "kings" at his di<po.sal than Pepin had. He did not, after the manner of C'lovis, attempt the extermination of the remaining Merovin- gians, but permitted them each in his turn to occupy the nominal throne, behind which he himself stood a grisly terror. Tho kings Thierrv HI „ Dasrobert II., Clevis IH., Chil- debert'lIL, and Dagobert HI. were so many

BARBARIAX ASCENDEXCY.— KINGDOM OF THE EUAXKS.

royal puppets in the lumil.s of the great Fraiik- ish master. Ouce a year, ou !May-ilay, wh.u the national assembly was convened at I'aii-, Pepiu would bring forth his little sovereign and show him to the penpk'. After this ceremony had been performed the king was sent l)ark to the seclusion of his villa, where he was licpt under guard, wiiile lV[iin conducted the aliiiiis of state.

The period reaching from the year 687 to 712 was occupied with fierce struggles be- tween the Franks and Frisians on the Rhine frontier. The former, however, ha^■ing now gained the strength of civilization without having lost the heroic virtues of barbarism, were more than a match for the savage tribes whom they encountered in the north-east. The Frisians and the Aleraauni were com- pelled, after repeated overthrows, to acknowl- edge the mastery of the victorious Franks.

Great were the domestic misfortunes to which Pepin iu his old age was subjected. A fierce rivalry broke out between his queen, named Plectruda, and his mistress, Alpaida. Grimoald, son of the former, the legitimate heir of his father's power, was murdered ; and the king was obliged to indicate a grandson, Dagobert IK., as ids successor. The son of Alpaida was Karl, or diaries, afterwards sur- named Martcl, meaning the Hammer. When in the year 714, the boy grandson of Pepin acceded to power, he was placed under the regency of the widowed queen Plectruda ; but Charles Martel soon escaped from the prison in which he had been confined by his father, seized his nephew, the king, and drove the queen from the palace. The way was rapidly preparing for a new dynasty.

In his restoration to liberty, Charles was aided by the Austrasians, who proclaimeil him their duke. The Franks were now, as always, greatly discontented with the rule of a woman. Wherefore, when Martel led an army of Austrasians into Neustria, he easily gained the victory over the forces of the queen ; and the Western Franks were little indisposed to acknowledge his leadership and authority. Becoming mayor of the palace, he permitted Dagobert to continue in the nominal occupancy of the throne. After his death three other kinglets, Chilperic, Clo- taipe, and Thierry, followed in rapid succes-

..■t>. Bn	when,
ilc clynav	V died.
the Ihn	e, and
lb', Jiin	self as-
allhirs, a	iid the
H.l ^vitl	. The
■iinrd to	accept
y retain	ng his

no successor was appoi snincd supreme direct! RiiU Faineants were new monarch, howevt any title of royalty, rank as Duke of'the" Franks. "

Cn-vAt was the energy now disphived in the government. This was the epoch' in which the struggle began to he manifested between the Frankish kings and their nobles. The barbarian aristocracy was littlj disposed to submit to the rule of a monarch. They felt that their free doom was curtailed by the au- thority of a king. Charles Martel was com- pelled to take arms against the powerful chieftains of Austrasia before they would .*ubmit ; and the prelates of Neustria were in like manner reduced to obedience. He was also successful iu several campaigns against the German tribes on the north-eastern fron- tier ; but the great distinction of his reign and glory of his own genius were shown in his conflict with the ^Mohammedans.

The appearance in 8])ain of these fiery fol- lowers of the Arabian Prophet, their victo- ries over the Visigoths, and the establishment of the Moorish kingdoms in the peninsula have already been referred to and will here- after be narrated in full.' Having conquered Spain, the Moslems crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Gaul. Their purpose of conquest was nothing less than all Europe for Allah and the Crescent. In the south of France a gallant defense was made by Count Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine, who in 721 defeated the Saracens in a liattle at Toulouse, where Zama, leader of the host and lieutenant of the caliph, was slain. The Moslems rallied, however, under their great leader Abdalrahman, and con- tinued the invasion. Count Eudes called loudly to the Franks for aid, and the call needed no second ; for the Saracens had al- ready penetrated as far as Poitiers, and the kingdom was threatened with extinction.

Charles took the field at the head of his Frankish and German warriors and con fronted the Moslem host on the memorable field a few miles north-east of Poitiers. Here,

■^ee Book Second, pp. 114-154.

■i4(

rXIVIJUSAL JIISTOL'V. — rJIK MODFJiS WORLD.

on the .'M nf Ortnl„T. ::;■_', was fuuulit .me of the givat liattK- nf hi-lnry. in uhirli tlir religious stains of ]uir.i|ir was lixiJ. All day loug tiie coiillict raged with fury. The Arabian cavalry beat audaciously agaiust the ranks of the heavy-armed German warriors, wild with their battli-axes dashed down what- ever opposed. At .-unset the Ai'abs retired to theii- own eanii). During the niglit some

u.entlv anuexe.l to the Fi-a.iki.li domin'ion.-. Charles eontinn.Ml to rule the empire until his death in 741, when the gcjvernment descended to his two sons, Carlomas, who received Au.stra.«ia, and Pkpin THE .SiiOKT, to whom was assigned the remain- der of the Frankish d.jnuni.m. The latter soon obtained posse>,-ion of hi- Au>trasiau provine

as wel

i-^ hi<

of the Moslem tribes fell into battle with each other, and on the nion-.,w the host rolled back to the south. Thus just one hundred years after the death of the Prophet, the tide of his conquests was Ibievcr stayed in the West.

In honor of his triunijih over the .Saracens, Charles re.'eivd tli.' nam.' of the Hammer; for he hail b.at. n tli.' infi.lels int.i th.' earth. Without any impiihl.nt att.iiipt to jjursue the MohanmH-dan li..nl. - b.v.m.l the limits of safetn-, he nev.rllMl.-> piv-.d his a.lvantage to the extent ..f ilrivin- lliein bey.m.l the Pvrenees. The pr.ivin.-e of A.iiutaine was

nam. of kin;., and thu- be. ame the founder

of Tin ('\1J()\IN(.I\N D-i'N.\'!TY.

On hi- iii-t a. le^sion to power, Pei)in adopted the ]ioli. \ of hi- immediate predeces- sors and set up a AI. loMiiirian figure-head in the i>ei-on of ( hil.l. ii, III. This poor shadow of .111 . \tin. t Ilou-e wa- made to play his part until th. Mar I'tl, when a decision was ob-

tiim.I f 1 Pope Zacharv in favor of the

( .11 lo\ III. 1.111 lamih . ( hihleric was thereupon -hut up 111 a mona-ttn, and Pepin the 8hort w I- .iiioint.il an.l (i..wn..l as king by St. ]'...nituc 111 tlu .ath..li il (.f S..issons.' He

BARBARIAX ASCENDEXCV. — THE AXGLO-SAXOX KIXdDOMS.

sigiializfil the tir.--t year of his reigu hy aii- iiexiug to his tlomiuious the proviuee of Wep- timaiiia, which for several years had been held by the Saracens of Spain. In 753 he engaged in a war with the Saxons, and compelled tluit haughty race to acknowledge his supremacy, to pay a tribute of three hundred horses, and to give pledges that the Christian missionaries within their borders should be distressed no nil ire.

From the days of Clovis friendly relations were cultivated between the Frankisli kings and the bishops of Eome. After the defeat of the Saxons, Pope Stephen III. made a visit to France, and earnestly besought the aid of Pepin against the barbarian Astolphus, king of the Lombards. The Frank readily accepted the invitation, and led an army into Italy. Astolphus was besieged in Pavia, and smm obliged to sue for peace. A favorable settle- ment was made by Pepin, who then retired to his own capital ; but no sooner was he beyond the Alps than Astolphus violated the terms of the treaty and threatened the capture of Kome. In the year 755 Pepin returned into Lombardy, overthrew Astolphus, comjuered

the exarchate of Ravenna, and made a pres- ent of that principality to the head of tlif Church. Thus was laid the fouudatimi of the so-called temporal sovereignty of Rdnie.

Five years later the attenticiii (if I'c|.iii was demanded by the condition of atiairs in Aipii- taine. In that country a popular leader, named Waifar, had arisen ; and under his in- fluence the province was declared imlependent. For eight years the war continued with vary- ing succe.sses; nor was Pepin at the last able to enforce submission until Iir hail procured the assassination of Waifar. lii TCiS the king of the Franks returneil to liis capital, where a few days afterwards he dird at thi- ai^e of fifty-three. The kingdom d.-rnnlid to his two sons, Carloman and Caiolii^, or Karl, commonly known as Charji-. or Karl the Great, or still more generally liy his French name of Charlemagne. — Such in luiefisthe history of the Frankish kingdom from the half-mythical and wholly barliarous times of Meroveus to the coming of tliat great sov- ereign, who by his genius in war and peace may be said to have laid the political fnunda- I tious of both France and CJermanv.

CHAPTKR LXX\"I.— The ^NOLO = SA>COX IvIMGnOMS.

) people of the English- leaking race, the story of the Anglo-Saxons can never fail of interest. Tlie hardy and adventur- ous stock transplanted from the stormy shores ot' tlie iialiic to the foggy island of Britain has grown into imperishable renown, and the rough accent of the old pirates of Jutland is heard in all the harbors of the world.

The native seat of the Anglo-Saxons has been already defined. From the river Scheldt to the islands of the Jutes, and extending far inland, lies a low and marshy country, through which the rivers for want of fall can scarcely make their way to the sea. The soil is a sediment; the sky, a bed of dun mist and heavy clouds, pouring out their perpetual

rains. Ever and anon the stoi-m< mil in from the North Sea, and the black waves jilunge and roar and bellow along the coast. From the first, human life in this low- and doleful region has been an everlasting Inoil with the ocean.

It was from these dreary regions that the storm-beaten, war-hardened fathers of the English race came forth in the middle of the fifth century to plant themselves in Britain. Nor was the natural scenery of the new habitat, shrouded in fogs and drenched with rain, girdled with stormy oceans and clad in sunless forests, better calculated than their original seats to develop in our forefathers the sentiments of tenderness and refinement. By the banks of the muddy Briti-sh rivers, and on the margin of the somber oak woods, the mixed trilies of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and

rXIVFRSAL HISTORY.— THE MODKIIX WORLD.

Frir-i;ms c.-talili-hcl tli,in>.lv, < an.l In-an to	the inandmiit is most jirotitalile and most
^\<n■k nut lh.> >.-v,iv lull -nin.! |.r..l,l,-in< nf	n.ihle ; th. y Lit tli-- eaiv .,f the land- and Hocks
En-lUli civill/alinii. Ol' Ihr iHi>Mnal c'liarac-	to tlu' women and .dave- s.-afaring, war, and
terijties and iiitrlK-ctiial l'.atiirr< of the race	l)illage was tlu'ir whole idea of a freeman's
much has hecn written, hiil nnihin^ ln-ttcr in	work. They <lashed to sea in their two-sailed
the way of description and analysis tliaii the	harks, landed anywhere, killed every thing;
essay of tlie eloiiucnt Taiiie. Of tlie Anglo-	and haviiej >acritiec<l in honor of their gods a
Saxons he savs:	tithe of their ]>risoncis. and leaving behind
"Hu-e wliite h..di.s. rnol-hlooded, with	theni the red light of their burnings, went
fierce blue cyis, reddi-li llaxin hair; ravenous	farther on to begin again. 'Lord,' says a
stomachs, tilhd with meat and cheese, heated	certain litany, ' deliver us from the fury of
1)V stron"- drinks; of a eold temperament.	the Jutes.' 'Of all Imrbarians these are
slow t 1 1 t 1 ] 1 ue to biutil	tion^e t of bol> an 1 heirt the mot for-
drill 1 tl t tl 1 li\ tlefeatuie	mihbk —we mi\ id 1 the most cruelly
whicl 1 t 11 t pe i\e lu tie	fei

CF THE \NCLO SAXON Drawn bv A de Neu 1

race, and these arc what the Eomau historians discovered in their former country. There is no living in these lauds without abundance of solid food; bad weather keeps people at home; strong drinks are necessary to cheer them; the .senses liccome blunted, the muscles are braced, the will vigorous. In every coun- try the body of man is i-ooted deep into the soil of nature; ami in this instance still deeper, because, being uncultivated, he is less removed from nature. In Germany, storm- beaten, in wreteheil boats of hide, amid the hard-ships and dangers of seafaring life, they were preeminently adajited for endurance and enterprise, inured to misfortune, scorners of danger.

"Pirates at first: of all kinds of huntinir

" When murder liecomes a trade, it be- comes a pleasure. Aliout the eighth century, the final decay of the great Eoman corpse, which Charlemagne had tried to revive, and which was settling down into corruption, called them like vultures to the prey. Those who remained in Denmark, with their brothers of Norway, fimatical pagans, incensed against the ('luistians, maile a descent on all the sur- rounding coasts. Their .sea-kings, 'who had never slept under the smoky rafters of a roof, who had never drained the ale-horn by an in- habited hearth,' laughed at winds and storms and sang: 'The blast of the tempest aids our oars: the bellowing of heaven, the howling of the thiniilei-. hurt us n<jt ; the hurricane is our .servant, and drives us whither we wish to go.'

BA NBA R I A X A SCEXD K.\( 'V.~ THE A XGL OS A X< ) X KIXOIX UIS.

"Behdl.l them n..\v in En-lan.l i,i..iv set- tled ;in(l wealthier. I)<i you hn,k tu liiid them mueh ehan.ue.l? Chan.ueJ it may l.r, but t.ji- the worse, like the Franks, like all barbarians who jiass from action to enjoyment. They are more gluttonous, carving their hogs, filling themsel'ves with flesh, swallowing down deep draughts of nn^ad, alf, spieed wims, all the strong coarse, drinks which they eaii pro- cure; and so they are cheered and stimulated. Add to this the pleasure of the fight. Not easily with such instincts can they attain to culture; to find a natural and ready culture we must look among the sober and sprightly populations of the South."

Such is a picture of the character and life of the Anglo-Saxons when they began to possess themselves of England. It was in the middle decade of the fifth century of our era that the half-civilized Celtic people of South Britain, left naked by the withdrawal of the Roman legions, and hard pressed on the north by the Picts and the Scots, adopted the fatal expedient of inviting to their aid the barbarians of the Baltic. The tribes thus solicited were the Jutes, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Fris- ians. The first mentioned dwelt in the Cim- bric Chersonesus, now Jutland, or Denmark. Parts of Schleswig and Holsteiu were also included in their territories. In the latter country the district known as Angeln was the native seat of the Angle.s. To the .south of these tw(j regions, spreading from the Weser to the delta of the Rhine, lay the country of the Saxons, embracing the states afterwards known as Westphalia, Friesland, Holland, and a part of Belgium. A glance at the map will show that these tribes occupied a position of easy approach by sea to the British Isles.

At this epoch the condition of Britain was much the same as it had been during the Roman Supremacy. With the retiracy of the legions from the island the life of the British Celts liad in a measure flowed back into its old channel. The institution of the ancient race had been in large part revived. Especially had the religions superstition of the Celts reasserted its sway, and the Druidi- cal ceremonial was again witnessed under the oaks and I)v the clitis risiiii:- from the sea. Here, as of" ol,l, the Drui.l priests by their mysterious and often bloodv ritual reached

out the hand of iiower sul.iects and swaycil thei Albeit, ill matters of wai were no match for the ru. X<irtli, who now descended

•r men- savage i-ions at will, e lintid, Celts nharians of the ountless swarms

ujion the coasts of the island.

It is believed that Hengist an.l Horsa, the leaders of the barbarian host which acce]ited the call of the Celts, as well as a majority of their followers in the first exjiedition, were Jute>. With them, however, a large liody of Angles from Holstein. and Saxons from Fries- land, was joined in the invasion. So I'ame a mixed host into England. At this time the king of the British Celts was Vortigern. Him the Jute chieftains aided in driving back the Picts and Scots. When the island was thus freed from its peril the Celtic king was entertained at a feast given by Hengist.

Beautiful was Rowena, the daughter of the warlike host. By her was the li.art of Vorti- gern fatally ensnared. Ilunilily he sought and gladly received her hand, and in proof ijf gratitude he gave to the .lutes the isle of Thanct. Here the invaders found a jierma- nent footing and would not be dismissed. Fresh l)auds were invited from the Baltic.

The fertility of expo.sed Britain and the wealth of the Celtic towns excited the insatia- ble cupidity of the barbarians. First quarrels and then hostilities broke out between them and the Celts. The sw.rd was ,lrawn. Vor- tigern was deposed and his .son Vortimer elected in his steail. A hollow and deceptive truce was concluded, and the chief personages on both sides came together in a feast. When the drinking was at it height, Hengist called out to his Saxons, "XiinpJ nirr f:rri.vas" (Take your swords); whereupon each warrior ilrew forth his i)laile and <ut down all who were present except Vortigern. The result of the first contest in the island was that all of Kent, the ancient Cautinm, was seized liy the invadei-s and ruled by Eric, the son and suc- cessor of Hengist. Thus was estullli^hed the first Saxon kingdom in England.

Thus for the predominating foreigners were Jutes, mixed with Angles. This condition of affairs continued ^yith little change for about a century. In the vear 477 a named Ella and his' tlnve sous erful force of their countrymen

((uar ixon

in whit w I- ifieiwiul- c r Sav)ii\ llii- 'ii-t -itt'

UNIVERSAL mSTORV.-THE MODERN WORLD.

(\ ,11 S utli i-hii.l(.i Nl-i \ Jlui-tu i!i( CtltK popuk-

un'u In llK I tiou. had imiM.i.l.lN lu M th< ii own hut a

^r."'ii"\Nuh.iin_s 111 the I vcriou. fctui^'gk n .w 1h,ui h.i ih. i-o-t-i.^n

DRUIDS OFFERING HUMAN SACRIFICE. Drawn by A^ tie NeiiviUe.

BABBABIAX ASCEXDEXi Y. — THE AXGLO-^AXOX KIXGDOMfi.

of Britain. Tlie native peoples tooli; up arms and made a spirited resistance. A great bat- tle was fought iu wliich the Saxons were vic- torious, and the Celts were driven into the forest of Andredswold. Meanwhile new bands of Saxons poured into the island and joined their countrymen. The British princes estab- lished a confederacy, but Ella defeated their army in a second battle and gained possession of nearly the whole of Sussex. Such was the founding of the second Saxon kingdom in Britain.

The coast now in possession of the invaders extended from the estuary of the Thames to the river Arun. Near the close of the fifth century the Saxon leader, Cerdic, with a sec- ond army from the continent, landed in tlio island and carried the conquest westward over Hampshire and the Isle of Wight to the river Avon. Tlius was fnumh^l Wessex, or the kingdom of tlie West Saxni,>. Wtst nf tlic Avon the country was still held by the Brit- ons, who now fought desperately to maintain their frontier against the invaders.

North of the river Thames the first con- quest was made in 527 liy the Saxon prince, Ercenwine, who overran the flat country of Essex, establishing here the kingdom of the East Saxons. Subsequent conquests soon ex- tended the Saxon border northward to tlie Stour, which was maintained as the frontier till 547.

The next descent made by the German tribes from the Baltic was on the coast at Flamborough Head. A long space was thus left between the frontier of the East Saxons and the scene of the new invasion. This time the invaders were Angles. The wild country between the Tees and the Tyne, embracing the present county of Durham, was overrun, and here was founded the kingdom of Bernicia. The next incoming tribe was also of the Angle race. The territory lietween the Tees and the Humber was now occupied, lint not without a long and bl.iody contest with the natives. This region became the kingdom of Deira.

Near the close of the sixth century the barbarians came in swarms. The most jiopu- lous bands were out of Angelu. The names of the chieftains by whom they were led have not been preserved. The new-comers were divided into two bauds, called the South Folk

and the North Folk. They overran the coun- try between the Stowe and the Great Ouse, including the present counties of Sull'olk and Norfolk. This district constituted the state of East Anglia. The country of which these last invaders possessed themselves was almost insular in its isolaticni from the rest of the island. Around its westei-n frontier lay a series of bog.s, meres, and lakes, and to the defense thus naturally afibrded the EastxVngles added a long earthwork, the line of which is still plainlv to be seen, being known as the Lhv;r.< DIW.

Still the northern tribes poured into the island. In the beginning of the seventh cen- tury the country between the Wash and the Hundier, constituting the modern Lincolnshire, was conquered, the same being the only chasm now unoccupied by the foreigners between the Avon of Hampshire and the North Umbrian Tyne. Thi" northern l.onn.lary was now ex- ten. led t.. the Frith of F,,rth.' In the year G17 the Angles of Bernicia and Deira were unitiMl and foinied into the kingdom of North Undiria. The \vestern coast of England, from the Frith of Glyde to the Land's End in

wall to the borders of llanqishire i-eiiiained in possession of the Celts.

The inland frontier of the Saxon kingdoms was for a long time wavering and uncertain. It was ])erpetnally fixed and unfixed by the varying fiirtunes of war. During the seventh century a branch of the populous Angles founded the inland kini^dom of jMercia, ex- tending from the Sexci-n to tln' Humber, and bounded on the west by ^\■ales. In this dis- trict a war of conquest was not so violent as in other jiarts of the island. A large propor- tion of the original Celts remained iu their homes, and were blended with the conquering people. The jNIercian Angles are said to have contributed more than any other of the north- ern tribes to the genei'al subjugation of Britain.

Such was the Saxon conquest of England!, and sui'h is the storv of the establishment of the seven ]ietty kingdoms known by the name of the HicPT.\RCHY. The movement of the German tribes from the north occupied a pe- riod of nearly two hundred years. More than half of that time Cso stubborn was the resist- ance of the Bri tains) was occupied with fierce

441 ;

UyiVKU^iAL lIlSTOltY.—TlIK MODKRy WOULD.

wars betwcfU tin- iiivuiliTs and the iiivudcd. Of the pn-viniis hi-tniy nf iIr- J'.riti-h C h^ very little is kimun. Nn,- ,an tin- iradilinns which have lic-m |.i-,m rvt-d (if the faiiiiiiis Prince Arthur and hi> i-hivalnui,- kni-iits "f the Round Table In- artnpted a-^ lii,-t<irical truth. 01,1 British patri-tiMn ha- wi.v.n the f.rtinn <.f a n.ythi.-al. national h.^m, wlms,- aetual exi.loils wm- atn nd, d doulnh- with the disasters and mi-fnitinn - of the Saxon conquest, and mij;ht iu- r<-:iidid as heroic only because they wrw- jh rfoinu-d iiy a patri- otic and valnnnis prinre strivin-- to defend his country.

It has been matter of dispute among those who have most critically examined the history of the Saxon Heptarchy whether the kini^s of the different states were of r<|iial and inde- pendent rank, or whether one was I'rcoL^iii/.iMl as superior to the rest. Arrni-.TinL;- to luMle, the Anglo-Saxon chronicler, one of liie princes of the ^kingdoms held the tith' and rank of Br'dwalda, or Wielder of the Britaius, being sovereign of the rest. If, however, any such tie of sovereignty bound together the several king- doms of the Heptarchy, it was a very feeble and ineffectual bond.

The first Britwalda, or ruler of Britain, is said to have been Ella, the conqueror of Sus- sex, who hehl that rank until r)]!). After this for a consi.leralile period no prince was pre- eminent. Then aro>e ('ea^^lin, king of We-ex, who became Britwalda in 5i>'S, but his right of sovereignty was disputed by Ethelbert. jburth king of Kent, and a descendant of Hengist. Hostilities broke out between the two princes; but Ceawlin held the primacy until his death in •')<):!. The office then fell to Ethelbert. This prince took for hi> ,,n,.en tlie beautiful Bertha, daugliter of Charibert, ..ne of the i?oi> FahmmU of Paris. It was the fortune of Ethelbert to be in authority at the time when the forty Christian monks >ent out

set up the'-tandnrd of the en.-. Now it wa- 'that the Anglo-Saxon- wee induced to al.an- don the super-iition- and piaciiec- of pagan- ism and acce],! the. doctrine- of ( ■hri>tianity.

The lii-t three r.ritwaida— Ella, Ceawlin. and Eth.ll.ert— weiv Saxon-, or Jute-. The f ,urtli was Kedwald, kin- o|' East Anglia, who is said to have obtained the -unrcnie rank in

the year (il7. His reign was occupied with wars. iir,-t with the Scoi>, an<l afterwards with Edilfrid, kin- of the ^orth L'nda-ian.-. wlnmi he d.leate.l in a L:reat battle in Nottingham- shire. .Xevertlu le- a few \ ear- later the othce of IJrilwalda ].a--ed to Edwin, kin- of North

to the north of the i-land. The old hi.-torian Eabyan ha~ tlii< to -ay of the peaceful reign of Edwin: "In this time wa> mi great peace iu the kingdom of Edwin that a woman might

grief or annovance; and f.r the refreshing of wav--oer. tl.i'- lOdwin ordained at cl,-ar wells Clip- or dl>lH- of brax or iron to l,e lastene.l to po>t> standing by the said wells' si.Ies; and no man was so hardy as to take away those Clip-, he kept so good ju-stice." Such are the sim]ile annals of a simjde age.

It was during the reign of Edwin that the Isles ..f .Man and Anglesea were a.hled to North I'mbria. So powerful became the king that all the Saxon chiefs of South Britain aeknowleil-ed hi- authority. In the year 633, however, I'cnda, the Saxon king of 3Iercia, relielled again.-t Edwin, and formed an alliance with Cadwallader, king of Wales. In the next year a great battle was fought at Hat- field, "near the river Trent, in wlii.di Edwin was ,l.t;at<'d and killed. Penda next inva.led the cuuitry of the East Angles. In these inovements he stood as the representative of the' old paganism of the Angles. It was im- ]iossible, however, that the principles which he repre-ented slionld make much headway against the convertc-d nations along the coast. In (;:^4 <)>wald. a nephew of Edwin, gathered an armv, fell unexpectedly upon Cadwallader and hi-' Wel-h in their camp near Hexham, and routed them with great slaughter. Cad- wallader hini-elt' was among the slain. The tcnjpoi-.arv a-ccndency of Wales was destroyed. (),-wald retook the territories which E.lwin had !o-t, and he wa- r-o,,n afterwards recognized a- Uritwalda of the Heptarchy.

In thi- epoch in the history of the Anglo- Saxon fathers, churches and monasteries began to lie built in various inirts of the kiuL'doms.

BAEBARIAX ASCEXDEXCV.~THE AXGLO-SAXOX KIXO'IXLMS.

447

sion of whose peojile aud those of "Wessex he labored assiduously. The enertry "f his l"'v- ernment cau uot be doubted. He eiiniiieilcd even the Scots and Picts to aekuowletlye his authority. In him rather than in any of the preceding Britwalda might be recognized the lineaments of a real king of the Angles.

In 642 Oswald was slain in Ixittle, where- upon Penda, the pagan king of ^lercia, en- deavored to regain his ascendency over the Angles; but Oswy, the brother of Oswald, rallied his countrymen, aud the Mercians were beaten back. Osw}', however, was not recog- nized as Britwalda. Under the repeated as- saults of Penda he was re.stricted to the old kingdom of Beruicia, while Deira was given to a prince named Odelwald. In (l')'_' the Mercian king again advanced into Xorth Um- bria, laying waste with fire aud sword like a savage. In his despair Oswy sued for peace, which was granted un such terms as greatly to weaken the North Umlirian kingdom. Two years later, however, the compact was broken aud a great battle was fought near York between the Mercians and North Umbriaus. In this conflict Penda and thirty of his princes were killed. In gratitude for his unexpected victory, Oswy established ten abbeys anil sent one of his daughters to become a nun with the Lady of Hilda.

Following up his success the victorious Oswy inflicted a signal vengeance on the Mer- cians. All the territory north of the Trent he annexed to his kingdom, and soon afterwards added the remainder south of the river. In 655 he assumed the ofEce of Britwalda, but his claim was disputed by a rival. In the following year the North Umbrians revolted under Wulfere, sou of Penda, ami nut nnly regained their kingdom, but also made a suc- cessful conquest of a part of Wessex. Aliout this time Oswy was greatly afflicted by the revolt of his son Alchfrid, who demanded that a part of North Umbria should lie given to him in sovereignty. The king was obliged to ciimply with the wi.sh of the rebellious prince. jMeauwhile an epidemic called the yellow plague broke out with violence, and for twenty years continued to decimate the island. In 670 Oswy died, being the last of the Brit- waldas, unless an exception should be made in the case of Ethelbald, king of Mercia.

In the mean time a eDU-MJiduting tendency had appeared among the states of the Hep- tarchy. The seven kingdoms were reduced to three. Kent, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia were swallowed up in North I'mbria, ]\Iercia,

and Wessex, which now biia the ruling

states of England. This fact of consolidation greatly simplifies the remaining history of the .Suxoii kingdoms, and further on we shall liiul the tendency to union constantly illustrateil until the final niereement in the times of

The successor of Oswy in N(jrth Umbria was his son Egfrid. Scarcely was the latter seated ou the throne when his northern fron- tier was assailed by the Piet-. In (i71 they were defeated by Egfrid's cavalrv and driven to their own territories. Eight years after- wards the king made war on Mercia, and his army met that of his enemy on the banks of the Trent. Here was touLiht another bloody battle, in which many Itrave leaders ou each side were slain. Peace was made by the in- terposition of a Christian bishop, who induced the rival Saxons to desist from further blood- shed. In 685 the Picts and the Scots again rushed down from the North, and were con- fronted by Egfrid. This, however, was the last of his battles. He was slain in a conflict with Brude, the Picti.^h king.

Such was the violence of these times, that of the fourteen kings who reigned in England during the seventh century, six were slain by rival competitors, generally their own kins- men ; five were overthrcjwn by their rebel subjects; two sought refuge in monasteries; and one died with the crown ou his head. Of such bloody materials was composed the concrete under the heavy walls of the English ^Monarchy !

During the first quarter of the eighth cen- tury, a dubious contest was waged lietween the kingdoms of Jlercia aud Wessex. The tide seemed to set against the lattei-, and the kings of Wessex were reduced to a kind of vas-" salagf!'. In 737, Ethelbald, king of Mercia, was recognized as monarch over the whole country south of the Humber, excej)ting Wales. In the fifth year of that monarch's reign, however, the Saxons of the West King- dom rose against the Mercians and defeated them in a creat battle at Buxfurd, in Oxford.

rXlVKRSAf. niSTonV. — THE MOf>Fl:.\ WORLD.

^hiiv. From	7.')7 t'	7! 14 tiie paramount au-	trie's noblemen, bn
th.-rity c,r .M(	rria w;	< a-aiu recognized, e:^pe-	was drunk i)y the k
t'ially in thr	ni-ii	of King Otfa, who, after	horrid manner. Th
subduing Sii-	-.x an	1 Kent, overran all that	rose against the b
part of the ki	i-.loni	,f\V,v-,.xon ih,. l,.ftbauk	she was expelled fr
of tlic Thanu'	. ilo	then n.adc war on Wales	to the court of C'hai
an.l .Irov.- tl	,. kin-	beyond the river Wye.	convent fu- securit_
Tlic country 1	ctwccl	that >lream and the Sev-	tion reasserted Itselt
cm \va^ lurn	an.-ntl.	■ occupied by .'^axou col-	of door.-, V,ar,^
onists. In o	arr to	secnre this r.'gi.m from	haggard and foih.
rcconqnrst, li	■ raUM_	1 a ditch and an earth-	.streets of I 'a via.
xvnrk to l,e ,1	rawn 1	,r a hundred ndlcs along	Learning of the
the W.i-h fro	iticr.	I'he line of thi> defcn.* is	returned IVom the
still tM 1.,. tra		n l!a-in-werke to Bristol.	kingdom of Wessex
Kin- (»tfa	\va- (•	died the Terrible. Well	subjects with grea
mi-ht h.- .->	lir n	inied by the yeomanry	without further oj
of Wahs wli	. man	• times felt his vengeful	prise wa- to e>tabli>
blow-. Tlln>	wimn	he met in battle he .slew,	.shir,, and on the si
ami the lapt	Vr~ he	reduced to shu-erv. Al-	had thi- work bee,
beit,lir\va>a	taritnr	i-pirit. always abonnding	sex wa- inva.hd 1

mistake the potion

king himself, who died in a

thanes and warriors then

inde.l	queen, and
kingd	■ m. Flying
e, she	vas sent to a
•e lier	bad dLsposi-
he wa	turned out
■ds >ll	■ was seen,
.ing 1	read in tlie
<,f Be. It and	trie. Egbert claimed the

tt J.

:ed

lirst

reputation other than that of a bloo.ly tyrant. In the year 71(5 the king of Mereia died, and the jiower which he had established by his warlike deeds began rai)idly to decline. At the same time X.irth Umbria fell into a weak and helple.s condition. Meanwldle the kingdom of We.ssex had been gradually gain- ing an ascendency which was soon to be as- serted in a still more .striking manner. At the time of Otili's death the West Saxons were ruled by Beotric. His right, however, was di.-puted"by Prince Egbert, who, after a short and un,-ucVc-,-fnl strngLde f .r the crown, was obli-ed to s.uk saf.ty in l!i-ht. He found rctiiL'e at the I'onrt of .Alercia, whither he was fdlowed by the nie>,-enger.- of lleotric, who demanded that the .<ax<.n refn-.'c >h<,uhl be killed, and Eadbnr-ha. daughter ..f Otih, be

tlu' .Meriaan capital, Egbert Hed to the camp of Charlemagne and took service in the army (d' that great monarch. Beotric obtained

be the bane ..f the kin-doni. .'-^he instigated her husband to the perpetration of many crimes. She then became a murderess herself. She prepared a cup of poison for one of Beo-

li- authority in Devon- of Cornwall. Scarcely •complished when Wes- the Mercians. Egbert now otablisheil his character as a great cap- tain bv inflicting a decisive defeat on the en- emy. Following up his advantage he subdued the whole kingdom of Mercia, and annexed it

ernor f .r the country and others for East An- glia and Kent. The country north of the Humber was next invaded, and in a short time Nortli Undn-ia was compelled to submit. Eanred, the North L'mbrian king, became a vas.sal of Egbert, whose authority was acknowl- e<lged from Cornwall to the Frith of Forth.

Thus in the year 827 were the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy consolidated under a single ruler. It was three hundred and seveutv-six years since the landing of Hengist and Hor.-a, and eleven years after the death of Charlemagne. It will thus appear that the tendency to political union was felt somewhat later in England than on the continent, where the great Frankish emperor had already estab- lished a single rule over most of the barbarian state-, l-^-bert continued to style himself the king of We-ex and Britwalda of the Saxon states. The nanu' of king of England was reserved for his illustrious grandson.

For seven years the island enjoyed the blessings (d' a government more regular and exten-ive by far than any previously estab- lished in Britain. Local insurrections here and there were easily suppressed, and the En- glish people began to feel the influence of

BARBARIAX ASCEXDENCY. — THE AXGLO-SAXOX KIXGDOMS.

4-19

civilizatiou. Sraively, however, bail this .-tate of affiiirs superveiieil wheu the country was profouudly s-hakeu by a new invasion from the north. The Ani;lo-Saxons were in their turn maJe tn f.'cl the iih.iws of hiwless bar- in their native seats on the Baltic, t(j(jk tn sea, as the Angles and Saxons had done, and threw themselves on the shores of England.

Xo lirood of pirates more reckless, fierce, and hardv had ever gone forth on the hazard- ous seas of fortune. The first landing of these Xorthmcn was eSected in the Isle of Sheppey in the year 832. In the following year a new band was landed from thirty-five ships at Chartmouth, in Devonshire. Here they were met by the army of Egbert, and, after a stubborn conflict, driven back on ship- board. The Saxons were astonished at the ilesperate valor displayed in battle by their new enemy. The whole coast became infested with the sea-robbers, who captured, killed, or destroyed whatever .-ame in their na.di. They ma.le'a lea-ue with Cornwall, an.l in 834 landed an army in that country to cmiperate with the Corni.sh king against Devonshire. Egbert, however, was not to be discouraged, much less alarmed, by the activity of the Danes.

The people of Cornwall were in a state of comparative independence. They felt them- selves well able to regain the political position which they had had before the invasion of Egbert ; but this hope was vain. They were met by the Saxons at Hengsdown Hill, and defeated with great slaughter. Great was the misfortune tn AVessex and all England when, in 83(3, the warlike Egbert died. It became at once ajiparent that the kingdom which he had lliunded had been maintained by his genius and sword. Scarcely was he buried until the supremacy of the West Saxons was denied, ami the states began to reassert their independence. The crown of the West Saxons descended to Egbert's son Ethelwulf, who began his reign by conferring the kingdom of Kent on Jus son Athelstane. IMercia revolted and regained her independence. Thus at the very time when the piratical Danes were swarming along the coast, that political union by which only England might hope to protect herself against the invaders was broken up.

FindinK that the o;reat Egbert was dead.

the Xdrthraen spread inland everywhere. The southern jsarts of Wessex and Kent were completely overrun, and a fleet of Danes sail- ing up the Thames captured and pillaged Lon.h.n. So desperate became the cndition of the country that, in ^:A, the bish<.]is and thaiics (if AVessex and Mercia met in a con- urosut Kingsbury to devise means of defense, liarhulf, king of JMercia, led an army against the Danes, but was defeated and .slain. Better success attended the campaign of Ethelwulf, who, with his West Saxons, overthrew the Northmen in Surrey, inflicting up(jn them such a bloody defeat as they had never before sufl'ered in the island. Another victory was gained over the pirates at Sauwich by Athel- stane. of Kent. Ceorl, chief of Devonshire, also defeated the Danes at Wenbury.

Tile distractions of Fi'ance were at this time such as to make that country a more in- viting field than England to the rapacious Northmen. In the time following their de- feats they saile.I up th.' Seiu,., captured Paris, and laid "the city in a~h. ~. j:nghuid was for the moment relieved liy this diversion of her enemies. Ethelwulf even found time to make an expedition into Wales and to punish the jieople of that country for a recent insurrec- tion. He carried his banners as far as An- glesey, and the Welsh were obliged to yield.

Returning from his war, Ethelwulf, whose religious zeal was even greater than his mili- tary abilities, determined to make a pilgrimage to Rome. In the year 853 he passed over to the continent, crossed the Alps, and reached Rome, where he remained for nearly a year. On his return into France, the aged zealot fell in love with Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, of France. Obtaining her father's consent, he led the princess to the altar of the cathedral at Rheims, where they were married, with a solemn ceremony.

Ethelwulf had five sons. Athalstane, the eldest, who had been king of Kent, was now dead. Ethelbald, the next of the brothers, was ambitious to receive the kingdom from his father. A plot was formed to anticipate the course of nature by dethroning Ethelwulf. The conspiracy extended over all Wessex. A manifesto was issued, in which the direful flagitiimsness of Ethelwulf was set forth in this — that he had openly eaten with his French

450

queen at tin- that the tu\ Alfred, 1km I

uyivKnsAL nisTnin:—THE moderx would.

Kii,

tlRi pujR. na.i am. oil. It i# alMi t king's first witi- ; not yet dead, li room for Judith. The old kinsr brni! in his kiiipl

divi.ion nf \Vr.,-,

was given to Ktl long survive.

succeeded t(j kin.L'dnni. 1 athv tn his

Hit

i greatly distraetrd hy the

Finally he agreed to a

by which the better part

)ald. Ethelwulf did not

He died in 857, and Ethelbald

the government of the whole

nnw appeared that his antip-

utherV Fivnrh -p'e.u was ,,,-

.k that

princess for lii.~ dwn witr, thus -etting at defiance all emisisteney and law. Si. flagrant, however, was this otlt^nse that the Church at once lifted her hand and demanded a divorce. Judith returned to France, and presently f.und s,,larc with a third husband, Baldwin of Anl.nnrs. Her >un luTanie ICarl .,f Flan- ders, and married Elfrida, daughter nf Alfred the Great, of whom was born that Maud, or Matilda, who, as the wife of William the C.n- queror, became the great mother of all the subsequent sovereigns of England.

After a brief reign, Ethelbald was suc- ceeded by his brother, Ethelbert. Meanwhile the Danes returned in swarms and hovered

.und

d- from pita! of

everv quarter. Winehe-tw, the F>.ex, uas seized and l,un,e<l. hi MiT the king died an.l \\a> sueeeed.<l by Ethelred. During the iir>t y. ar c.f his reign he fought nine pitched battles with the Danes. Hundreds and tl,(iU>and,- of the inva.lers fell under the swoiils of tiie Sax(jns, l)ut as soon as one horde was destroyed another arose in its place. As the war progressed, it became contautly more apparent that the main reli- ance of the Saxons mtist be jilaeed in Prince Alfred, who in the fierce battle- longht by his brother with the Danes disi)layed not onlv the greatest courage but also the highest qualities of generalship. In the fierce battle of Ashtoa the day was saved Ijy hi^ valor and jires-

eiii f mind. In the year ^7n, two tierce

conflicts occurred in which the .Sixijiis were defeated, and in the following year Ethelred died. The crown then descended without dis- pute to Alfred, the youngest and greatest of the sons of Ethelwulf. For him destiny had reserved a jnore distinguished part than for any other sovereign of primitive England. The events of his glori(nis career, and the cir- cumstances attending the real founding of the English jMoiiarchy will be fully narrated in the Third Book of the present Volume. — Such is a brief sketch of the principal states and kingdoms founded by tho.?e l)arbarous nations that converted the Roman Enii)ire into a desolation and then estalilished them- selves amid the ruin.

J3aok hmMj.

The Mohammedax Ascexuexcy.

CHA.F>TKR LXXX'II.— Cakkek ok the PROF'HET.

[OHAMMED, the sou of Abdallali, of the tribe of Hashem, was born iu ]\Iecca on the mideasteru shore of the Red Sea, iu the year 569. His in- fancy was obscure and I'tunate. llie tamily were poor Arabs, and the child was afflicted with epileptic spasms. His uncles and aunts, of the Hashem tribe, declared him to be possessed of the Djin, or Demons. So that from his childhood he was looked upon with a certain measure of superstitious dread ; but the boy proved to be amiable, and the prejudice of his kinsfolk against him was gradually relaxed.

The father, Abdallah, died when IMoham- med was but two months old, and the child was given to a Bedouin nurse, who reared the little epileptic on a regimen of goat's milk and rice. By and by he was returned to his mother, but the latter, unwilling to endure his convulsions, gave him to his grandfather, a tough old personage, named Abd el Mottal- lib. When he was six years old his mother died, and presently the tenacious grandfather

also ceased, after which the young Prophet was put under the care of an uncle named Abu Taleb, who disliked his ward and ab- horred the Djin by whom he was possessed.

At the age of nine the ]»,v ^[ohammed was mounted on a camel and di,~iiatched on a merchandising expedition into Syria. While abroad he saw the sacred places of the Jews. He stood on the spot where the King of Salem came out and did olicisance to Abra- ham. He was shown the jilace where his great mother, the bondwoman Hagar, went forth leading Ishmael by the hand. He saw Damascus, city of the desert, and Sinai, the mountain of the law. Then he returned to Mecca full of visions and dreams.

When twelve years old Mohammed left Abu Taleb and lived with another uncle named Zubeir. He was also a merchant, but did not, like Abu Taleb, trade in the direction of Palestine and Egypt. Zubeir led his cara- van into Southern Arabia, and him Moham- med, now reaching his sixteenth year, accom- panied on a second expedition of trade and travel. He continued in his service till he was twenty years of age. Then, becoming (451)

452

UNIVERSAL HISTOUY.—THK MODERN WORLD.

WU-. The 1 with au Kiiiaiuih,

weary of irksninc ih-niii.ihiii<s journeys, he iiiimil hi- aticiu Meccuus IjL'caiiii- invnivc.l in a East-Arahie trihe callnl tlir aud Mohammed enli-tcil with lii> r..uiiirymfu. After the war was ..v.r li,- ntunied to Mecca and took U|i thr vmatinn ..f a shepherd. Afterwards \w fnrnird a partnership with a lineu merchant nankd Saili, ami su dividrd his attention hctwi-cn liis linck.- and liis nicr- chandisr. Whilr i ii;ja'jcd in carrying on the linen trade, li<' iHranic acquainted with the rich widow Kadijah. living at the town of tlioiiLih inncli older than him- Iv inairii'd, thus obtaining a id a lai-c c-tatc. Ho thcre-

Hajasha. self, he 1 faithfid V upon gav and lived at Kadijah's home in llajasha.

Thus, from the age of twenty-six to thirty- five. Mohammed passed the time as an Arab citizen in jirivate life. About the year .594, however, he was bnjught to the attention of his countrymen in a (■on>pieuoas way. The idolatrous temiile in Mecca was called the

Kaaba. W

at that pla. white .-t.me pur-

Abraham lived ■iel

ive mm a

tone th.

was Iniilt. With the growing wickeilness of the world the stone became as black as pitch. The Kaal)a had now become dilapidateil, and it was decided by the chiefs of Mecca that the edifice must be ii built. This was accord- ingly done; but when it came to the sacred task of removing the Black Wtone into its new resting-place, the chiefs fell into violent quar- rels as to wh.i should ].erf irm the work. At last itwasa-ieed that the matter >honld be decided by aibitialion, and Mohammed wa< called from llaja.-ha \n be the umpire. Ou coming to .Meeea he piTlornied his ditticult duty in a manner highly sali>fai'l<iry to all concerned. It was the lir.-t public transaction of the Prophet's life.

It appears that the dispute of the chiefs about the Black Stone of the Kaaba made a profound im]ires-ion on ^lohammed's mind. To a man of lii- dear understanding, it is likely that the quarrel apjieared in its naked absurdity. lb- may liav.' slid to Kadijah, on his return In.me, that the tath<-rs of his race, Abraham aud Ishmael, would be ashamed of

such wrangles as he luul lately witnessed at Mecca.

iMohannued was exceedingly unfortunate in his cliildi<n. One after another they died. The bereaved father grew melancholy and morose. I'lie iniitlierly Kadijah was growing old. 'i'iie I'r.iphtt walked alone among the hills aud talked ab>tractedly to himself. One (lav he wandereil among the rocks at the fiot <,f"M.iunt Ilara. lb- entered the mouth of a cave and sat musing. All at once — so he afterwards told Kadijah — he fell into an agonv. He was shaken as by an unseen power, and [;i-eat .Irops of sweat roU,.,! ,lown his face. Whih- he sat shndderin-. all of a sudden a li-ht tladie.l ai'ound him, and there stood the au-el (ialiriel. Mohammed was overwhelmed with terror, but tlie angelic voice spoke out clearlv and said:

"Cryl In the name ,,f the Lord who has created all thin'.:s: who hath created man of congealeil IiIo.mI. Cryl V>\ the most benefi- cent Loid, who taught the u>e of the pen; who teaclieth man that which he knoweth not of him>elf Assuredly. Verily man becom- eth insoli-nt, because he seeth himself abound in riches. Assuredly." Such is the first clnqiter of the KuR.\N.

M,.hamm.Ml is reinirted to have run home after hi- swo,,n and crie.l out: "O, Kadijah! I have either become a soothsayer or else I am po.sse.-sed of the Djin and have gone mad." The good Kadijah answered: "O, Abu '1 Ca- sem! (iod is my jirotection. He will surely not let such a thing happen unto thee, for thou speake-t the truth. Thou dost not re- turn evil for t'vil : neither art thou a talker abroad on the streets. What hath befallen thee-;'" .Mohammed told her what had hap- jiened to him in the grotto. The wife re- ),lied: ■•llejoice, my hu>band, O, Abu '1 Ca- sem, i'or my life shall .-taiid as a witness that thou wilt be the prophet of this peojile." [Mohammed tlioueht, however, that he was possess.,! of the Djin, and on the next day, being in despair, he went out to M..uut Hara to kill him.elf; but (iabriel reappeare.l, hel.l back the rash Arab from his purpose, and .said: "1 am (iabriel, an,l thcni art M.iham- med. the Prophet of God." Still the son of Abdallah troiid)led and refused to believe.

It is related that at this juncture Moham-

3I0HAMMEDAN ASCENDENCY.— CAREER OF THE PROPHET.

4:,:)

med aud Kudijali took a eertam Jew some say, a mouk, uamed Waraki uit confideuce, aud tuld him all tli u h curred. Thereupon the holy man said: "I swear by Him in whose hands Waraka's life is, that God has chosen thee, O Alni'l Casem, to be the Prophet of this people." — Such was the commission of Mo- hammed, the beginning of his prophetic office.

For more than twenty years revelations continued to be given by Gabriel, as circum- stances seemed to require. Xo oue ever saw the celestial visi- tant but the Prophet himself: he was his own interpreter. What Gabriel told him iu the grotto he repeated to Kadijah or other believers ; and these revelations, gathered t<>i:cthir by his followers after his death, constitute the Book Al Koran, the Bible of Islam.

Having persuaded liimseH' of the truth of his vi-iMn-. IMohammed began proehiiiiniiL; his mission to the Arabs. His first converts were those of his own household. From this nucleus his doctrines leavened the surrounding neighborhood. Finally the tribe of Hashem was called together iu council. Before the assembly the Prophet stood up aud ex- plaiued his purpose and the principles of the new faith. There was much contrariety of opinions among the Hashe- mites. The Prophet's uncle, Abu Talel), arose aud pro- nounced him a fool. Young Ali, sou of Abu Taleb, however, expressed his admiration for his cousin's doctrines aud his purpose to follow him and fight for his cau«e. I Most of the tribe voted in the same way ; but Abu Taleb remained an infidel. He used to say, as Mohammed passed by: "There he

Its u )\\ ' L I k ut ' II IS goiug to talk It ut Hei\eu ' \ uiL 11\

\ttei a biiei pi jlI im iti u of his doctrines

at Ha)a-ha, Mohammed rqi.iired to ]Mecca. Heie he pleached with jia'-^iouate vehemence. He told the Meccans that they were a race of miserable idolaters, unfit either to live or to

UMVKnsAi. lu^Tnnv.^THK Mor>Ki:s world.

die. ''Tl by (lay a

re 1:^110 Guil but Allah," h 1 ni-ht. He sUmhI u], in Knivi-^h, the Arabian l.(\ ■ nf tl„. Kaaba, ainl .1

Knn-i.-b balrb to

took fright an.l .alka iq A I

suppress his iieplnw a> an iiuiny ot re- ligion; but Abu ciiuld net ihi it. The alter- native was thus placid liirorc the priests of themselves luin- convcrteil or takint;- up arms. They chose the latter course, and hostilities were about to begin at Mecca.

Mohammed was sagacious. Seeing him- self not sufficiently strong to cope with his enemies, disliking at first to undertake the propagation of religion by the sword, he es- caped from his native city and took refuge at the court of Aby.sslnia. The king received him and was converted, as were also the mem- bers of his court. Nor did his flight from Mecca discourage his followers in that city. They continued to proi'laini his doctrines and await his return. Many took sides against the Koreish, and the latter were obliged to consent to pracc ^Mohammed returiied little less than victorious.

A new factor was now introduced into the situation. About sixty miles from Mecca was the town of Yathreb. In this place there was a large colony of Jews, who, with that tenacity of religious belief for which over all the world they are proverbial, had established a synagogue. Here on every Saturday the priests stood up and expounded Hallachah and Hitqiiaihdi — the Law and the Tradition. They looked for a Messiah, and said " Lo here and Lo there." The.se Israelites traded with Mecca and found that city profoundly agitated by the presence of Jlohamraed. They heard the Meccans reciting how the Son of Abdallah of the tribe of Hashem had become a great Prophet. This news was carried to Yathreb, and the synagogue became excited with the belief that the jNIessiah had come. The Rab- bins took council together, and said : "If this Mohammed is indeed that great Prophet, let us, first of all, tender to him our allegiance. Wherefore, when he shall have become the ruler of the nations, he will honor us as the first to accept him." An embassy was sent to Mecca to ascertain the truth, and to tender the submission of the .Tews. Mohammed cau-

tiou.-lv acCL-[)ted the offer. " For," said he, •■ Ishniael our liither was the uncle of Jacob. As<urr.|lv."

Thr Korci-h now became .Icsperate. Tlu-y held a council, and re.-olved that Mohammed should be assa.ssinated. A committee was ap- pointed to do the bloody work ; but when the night came for the perpetration of the wicked deed ^lohainnicd, informed of the C(mspiracy, wraj)ped hiui>clt' in his cousin All's cloak, and aided by the darkness, escaped from the perilous city and fled towards Yathreb. This event, which occurred in the year 622, is called the Hegira, and is the Era of Islam.

As Mohammed approached Yathreb the gates were opened by the Jews. He entered and was safe. The name of the city was changed from Yathreb to Medinet al Nabbi, or City of the Prophet — the modern jMedina. From this time forth, the Son of Abdallah awaited an opportunity to be revenged on the Meccans. The city of his birth soon became distracted with the civil feuds of his friends and his enemies. When the time ripened for the event, the Prophet, accompanied by a great band of pilgrims, set out from ]\Iedina and returned to Mecca. In that city, so pow- erful had his influence now become, the Kore- ish were obliged to submit. They sent out an embassy and concluded a treaty with the conqueror for a period of ten years. The neighboring tribes also sent messengers, ten- dering their acceptance of his doctrines. The star of Islam was in the ascendant.

After a year or two the Meccans broke their treaty ; but ]\Iohammed was now strong enough to enforce obedience. The vocation of the Koreish was gone. The idolatrous images were knocked from their places in the Kaaba, and the renovated temple was dedi- cated to the worship of Allah.

The Prophet now lost no time in giving shape to the new religion. He built a mosque at Medina. He systematized his dogmas. He labored with the discordant elements of Arabian thought. He struggled with bellig- erent factions. He allayed feuds, jealousies, and schisms. He consolidated the scattered bands of his followers, and planned great for- eign wars. His purpose contemplated no less than the subjugation of the world by the Book and sword of Islam.

MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDENCY.— CAREER OF THE PROPHET.

In the beginning of his military career Mohammed was unsuccessful. lu his first battle, however, Avhich was fought with Abu Sofian, chief of the Meccaus, the Prophet gained the victory. Afterwards be met witii a series of reverses. In 62.") he was defeate<l bv the Knivi^hit<>s in the battle of .M,,unt dh<Ml. Two yr;,,'. hitcr he was besi.-e.l in :Modiua. Amung hi> own f .ll..w.-rs tla^re w.'ie dangerous factions and contentions. Ilis con- nection witli tile ,]f\\< proved unfortunate. He could not be their ^Messiah ; tliey would not be his people. His alienation from tlie sons of Israel became so great that war eii-

against the .lewish tiibcs in Arabia. In re- venge for the.se aggressions against her coun- trymen, a Jewess, named Zainab, fed the Prophet a poisoned landi. the eflects of whicli burned in his bonrs until his death.

By this time the idra of propagating tlie doctrines of Islam bv the sword had talvcn complete po.s.session of the mind of ^loluini- med. He sent to C'lmsroes II., king of IVr- sia, a written demand that he slioul.l snbnnt himself and his people to Allali and his Prophet. When tlii< was n'fused, he under- took to enforce compliance by war. A des- perate battle was tijugbt at jinta. in which Mohammed's general, Kii.vled, so greatly dis- tinguished himself that he received the sur- name of the "Sword of God."

^leanwhile the Meccans a'jain revolted. After a severe struggle, however, thev were subdued, and their sulmiission was the end of present resistance in Araliia. For a seascm the Prophet returned to ^Medina, where, in the ninth year of tlic Ilcgira, lie received am- bassadors from many of the surrounding states. He ue.xt made a demand of submis- sion upon Heraclius, Emperor of the East, but the same was rejected with as much dis- dain as that Somewhat mild-mannered sover- eign could command. Mojunnmed thereup<m declared war, but his attempted concpiest re- sidted in a ridicidous failure. The soldiers of the Prophet became discontented and muti- nous, but were finally rpiieted.

Eesuming his station at ]\Iedina, Moham- med now busied himself with the preparation of a great pilgrimage to Mecca. The event was set for the tenth year of the Hegira. At 28

least forty thousand ]iilgrims assembled for tlie journey. The rite.- and ceremonies of the prei>ariition and tlie marcli liave ever .yuce re- mained the models of the annual pilgrimage ot' the faithful to the shrine of their Prophet. In the year 632, three months after his return to Medina, he was taken with a fatal illness. He clearly foresaw the end which his friends would have concealed ii-oin bis vision. He luid liimself taken to tlie house of his favorite wife Ayesha — for the good Kadijah was now ilead. This house adjoined the mosrpte, and tlie Prophet ordered himself borne back and toi-tli from his couch to tlie shrine. He spoke of his approa.'hing death. He liberated his shives an<l distributed sums of m(uiey to tlie poor. He then jirayed for support in the final struggle and <niietly lireathed his last.

Tliere was much di-pute ab.mt tlie place of the Prophet's burial. It was, li,.wevcr, finally determined that he sliould be interrd in the house where he died, adjacent to the mosque of Medina. Subsequently the temple was en- larged so as to include the spot wliere the bones of Abdallah's son are still reposing. Of all hi- ehildreii ,,nly a ilaiighter named Fatima surviveil her father. She was married to Ali, the Prophet's cousin, and became the mother of the rulers and nobles of the ilo- hammedan world.

^lohamraed was a man of medium stature and of a well knitted and sinewy frame. His body was of the Oriental ty[ie, and his con- stitution delicate. He had a fine oval face, full of tender lines, and a massive liead with slightly curling dark hair. His long well- arched Arabian eyebrows were separated mid- way by a vein which swelleil and throbbed visibly when he was excited. His eyes were large, black, and restle--. Ilis hand, which in salutation he never first witlnlrew from another, was exceedingly small, and soft as the hand of woman. His step was cpiick and energetic, and is descrilied in tradition as being like that of one who steps from a higher place to a lower. When his attention was called he stopped short, and turned not only his face but his whole body in that direction.

In mind the Prophet had the rare union of womanly timidity with extraordinai'v cour- age. In times of danger he would, without a moment's hesitation, put his life in peril. He

rM\'Ki;SAL ni.sTonY.-^TllE MDDKliX WORLD.

wasoi'a lurvnns aii<l ir>tli- ofteu low <pirii,-,l. 11.- u tive, but iiinre iViMiumlly walked alone, nioinly ainl spoke hb wor.l.< ••aiuc loitl an overwholniini:- tlucni-y. him smile," saiil the early

" VnU -Wnlllil liavc tllell^lll

"in thf ,-liaia.tri- ..f .M..IiamnuMl tlu-re were traits of cliiiaiikc .Miaplirity. Alter KaJijali's death he used to sit in the house and play with the dolls whieh his -irl-wife Ayesha had broujrht with her. TJie love of solitude and the

,.Hli„	i. ^	Vhen he ■i-i< and
'• If \	.iU	lad ,-een
hrnnic f th.-	le .	f I>huu, hine."

ranient,aud i Sea, fivjni the Strait of Bab el Maudeb to the times talka- borders of Falestiue, people of any other blood [, and ofteu 1 were either infrequent or entii-e strangers.

Thi- wild otrspring of Hagar's sou led the

life of IK ■mad-. Tiieir hand was against every

man ami ivciy man'< hand against them.

After the dotrnciion of Jerusalem -by Titus,

many of the fiiiiitives escaped into foreign

lands. Nut a few bands and colonies found

ret'uge in Arabia. Geographical jiroximity, the

vagrant di,-p..Mtl,,n of the Aralis, which had left

large di>triet> sparsely peopled or not peopled

at all, the tie> of consanguinity by which the

•Vrabs 'ind the Jews were bound together,

the ithnit\ of then hu£ruage — both de-

lue 1 i\ m 1 c mmon oiij.mal — all invited

tl lilt nite «ous of I lael to find a

1 e\ ! n niona then eiiit kinsmen

t tl '^ nil ^ Ttwil itlements

^ 1 1 1 1 \ 1 L 1 1 the close

t tl 1 It I t n tl All coast of

tl 1 1 ^ tl 1 ^1 z .1 1 to .Alecca

ill I U hi 1 \Mtl httle Jewi>h

1 1 hi w ill w ne t^ nuder the

(_ \ 111 -sAeie al inland colonies,

tl t 1 tl A nth tentuiy Jewish

1 1 \ I I 1 1 u 1 en toius were

\ II 11 1 1 il I t nnlgamated.

Oi tl I t 1 1 lel _i u however,

1 1 1 1 1 I t t its < flu traditions

^ ai 1 1 1 1 11 Vial c ntiuued idol-

d lU

h

Ol th:

hilt

1

i 1

I I

\ I

m m eem in th h A httl

t th

\ 11 Ih

In lit cau 1 t AI 1 It the 1 1

1 th , nn li 1\ tie till i

ui Cult t the 1 1

lilt 1 t AI

■\I 1 1 1 CI tl 1 i\ -11 cand flour-

' 1 1 1 1 tl "S itl n mi lonaries of

tl Ci i 11 1 z il ] hnted the seeds

t tl 1 t 1 h m e\ci\ quaiter of the

] 1 M \ t the e monks evangel-

it t 1 1 netiitel iiabia and there

J 1 1 111 t t 11 t the unrepentant

III 11 1 111 1 then hearers sit-

tm 1 tl ill I 1 1 d ne m the syna-

^ ^ue ai 1 1 I I 1 t the exj sition of

Hdl II 17/ ' / B It these Jews

\ 1 til 1 11 I t ui 1 1 the preaching

1 tl < 1 1 V 1 1 1 1 iiitt than the

It tl I 1 1 t I 1 Vrabs. were

It 1 t tl 1 It that by the

Lcn tint i» the birth of

MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDENCY.— CAREER OF THE rROPHEr.

JMohammed two Semitic religions, nei very flourishing condition, existed

side in the laud of his appearing. J\i(lai>iii and Christianity, the old and the nc"," (K-v(lo|i- ment of Mosaism, dwelt together in a sort df subdued antagonism. The time had now cnme when a third Semitic faith, more aggressive than either and possessing the same original ingredients as both, should appear to contest with its predecessors the battle-field of faith.

The system of Mohammed may be detined, first of all, as an eflbrt to rescue the Arabs from idolatry. But in a larger and more phil- osophic sense it was an effort on the part (jf the Prophet to furnish a common ground and basis of union between the Christians and the Jews by which all the descendants of Abraham might be gathered into a single religious house- hold. The scheme was worthy of a great and capacious genius. It showed that Jlohanuned realized the condition of the religious world. He saw in the chaos of the Semitic race around him the materials for the aggrandizement of his own nation and the glory of his own name. He conceived it possible to readjust the Sem- itic fragments and to bind together both Christian and Jew l)y an indissoluble tie ; but he misjudged the peoples with whom he had to deal. So far as his on ii cnuiitrynien were concerned they were soon brought within the fold of Islam ; but the sons of Israel and the followers of Christ remained immovable in their respective beliefs. After several tenta- tive efforts on the Prophet's part, an open rupture occurred between the three religious parties in Arabia. Islam began its own inde- pendent career; Judaism fell away into obsti- nate conservatism, and Christianity parted company with both. From this time forth the three Semitic religions are seen like three ships sailing a.part ou the expanse of ocean.

It may be of interest, before proceeding to notice the political development of Moham- medanism, to review briefly the points of con- cord and dissonance between the three religious systems here referred to. In many of tlu-ir fundamentals they were all at one. AH had a common historical basis. That there is one God, Father Omnipotent and Maker of heaven and earth. Judaism, Islam, and Christianity all emiihaticaHv atlirni. Secondlv, that the

held bv a i:^ this kino-dn, a ^b>Mah, . Islam ch.ni...

:hat

un.l

p.-rp.tuallv ruled bv d «'hri-tianilv aHirm'; that .Mo,M-.~ was a. I in- , .l>ii:.t, Ju.laiHii, IMam. y all affirm. F.„uthlv, that nspire.l T.arh.r and Prophet, tianity afiirm; .Tu.laiHii .lenies. iri^t is thr .Mr.- iristianitv affirm

Christ w Ishuu an

Fifthly, that ( Jiri-t is tlir 31. -Mali and Savior of the w..rld, Christianity affirms; .ludaism an<l Islam str.nuously deny. Sixtldy, that :\ro- hammed was an inspired Teacher and Prophet, Islam vehemently affirms; Judaism doi-s not affirm; Christianity denies. Seventhly, that the Scriptures of the Old Testament coiiiain the inspired and authoritative doctrines of God, Judaism, Islam, and Christianity affirm. Eighthly, that tlir S.riptures of the New Tes- tament are the words of Divine truth, Chris- tianity affirms ; Islam affirms in part, and Judaism denies. Ninthly, that the Book Al Koran is the revealed truth of (lod, Islam strongly affirms; Judaism d.'iiits /// pmi, and Christianity denies In u-lnl . Tcnthly, that the world is ruled by eternal Fate, Islam af- firms; Judaism does not affirm, and Christian- ity denies. Eleventhly, that man is a free or, at any rati-, n-ponsibh' agmt, Chri-tianitv aflirms; Ju.laisn, dn.> not dmy, and I.-lam denies. Twilfthlv. that man i- rrwardod for those actions whii-h aio callid \irtiioiis and pitnished lor tho.,. whirh aro callrd virions, Christianity, JudaiMii, and Islam all atnrm. Thirteenthiy, that thiiv i> a resinivrtiou of the body aftor drath, Chri-tiaiiitv and Islam aflirm; Judaism iirithrr aliiniis nor dniies. Fourtrrntldv, that it i~ tin- liijio-t dtitv of

Jui

all affirm. Fifte.ntl Christianity atfiiiii- ; Sixteenthlv, that (ioi of nothin-, Chri-liaii all affirm. Si-vinte. point. .1 a Dav .,f J

Is!

affii

Div

is to be

does not attirm or denies.

This list of fundamental pro]...- be greatly extended, but \\\\\ \k- snfti.'i..nt"to dve a clear idea .if features of the three relioious svst

111. aii.l I>lam •O.I is Triune, 1.1 Mam .l.-ny. ' uiiiv.'fse out 111, au.l Idam

Jii.l

UXI I 'KUSA L HIS TOR }'. -

The material oi' il flurini;- Muliaiiini.Mrs eillplialically iimiK,!	<■ K, lit',-. „iMi	an \ Tlu •. '1	as all ppvlueed vvh,,le ^v„l•k is In- ,.nene.-s of
Gn,l is 111,-' ,1 inai LoJIIah II Alhh, '■ t! is mtcratcMl „n aim	1 tl, CIV is ist CN	.nL^ln n,j (	,,!■ ihe whole. mhI 1,ui Allah," laLiv. Not the
sevi-n >t |ia»a-c> (if	!„• .1,	wi>li	I'-niateiieh are
miirr .~iii-ular in lli,	ir < n	n,,'i:	li,.ii ,.r ,,ne iu-
preiiic am! indivi-ili ]K';Ued declaratii)ns ( Tim-; ill the one Inn,.	,• I), 1- tlu- ,v,l ;	ily I n,l t • tl	lai. are the re- in ivs of Islam. \,-lfih Chapter: ' eternal <:iod :
" ( Vy ! ( ;," 1 is im	tll,T	. II

THE MODERN WORLD.

Tlie i,lea ihat Ciod had had a .sou, born of woman, in any other sense than that all men are his otlsjiriug, was so rei)u<ruant to the mind of Mohammed as to call forth his sever- est dennueiatitJiis. In the nineteenth C'hajiter the Koran says :

"This uas Jesus, the sou of ;\Iary, the word of iniih, eoncerniug whom they doulit. But it is not meet for God that he should have a sou : Praise to Allah ! Yet they say God hath begotten a Son. In this they utter a lilasphcniy : and but little is wanting that the Heavens shouM tear open, and the earth eave asunder aud the mountains fall down, for that they attribute children to the most Merciful. Verily it is not meet for God to

peril of the Day of Judg- ment is everywhere depicted in the Koran. The threatened retribution is held forth as the must powerful motive of humpn conduct. In e expectation of this final ordeal, Islam sets rth every deed of man and utters against every .species of sin the terrible invectives of the coming wrath. Everywhere the Koran proclaims the approach of inexorable doom for every soul that sinneth. The fifty-first Chap- ter has tlie following paragraj^h :

"Cursed lie the liars who waile iu deep waters of ignorance neglecting their salvation. Forsooth tliey ask, Wheu will the Day of meut come? By the winds dispersing scattering the dust ; and by the clouds bi'aiing a load of rains ; and by the angelic ban, Is who distribute things necessary for the creatures; verily that where- threatened is certainly true, aud Day of Judgment will come. Assuredly." Iu the fifty-second chapter the same strain ■,iniinn,',l : " Ev the mountain of Sinai; bii,.k written in an expanded scroll ; 1 liy ihe visii,-,l house; and by the elevated 111 by the swelling ocean ; lit of the Lord will surely on that dav wherein the heaven ken and shall reel, and the mount- agL'er and pass away." Ill iiianv parts the Koran breathes a spirit at variance with lli,' vindic- tive utterances of other portions. There are occasional tender and beautiful pa.ssages which may well be compared with the best of the

MOHAMMEDAN ASCEyDEMY. — CAREER OF THE J'ROl'IIET.

Vedie Hymus or tlie Psalms of Davia. Th.- following, which stands as Chaiitcr tii>i in most of the fditious, might well have been sung by the sou of Jesse :

"Praise be to God, the Lord of all his creatures; the most merciful, the King <if t!ie Day of Judgment. Thee do atc wor-hip and of thee do we beg assistance. Direct us in the right way, in the path of tliose to whom thou hast been gracious; not iu the way of those against whom thou art incensed, nor of those who go astray."

The Koran is preeminently seusUDUs in its imagery. The delights of the blessed and the torments of the wicked are given with all the realism of detail peculiar to the Arabian imag- ination. Para.lise and Hell are paintnl witii a vividness that might well add new glcani,^ of light and darkness to the glorv and dolor of the Divine Comedy. The fifty-.~ixtl, Chap- ter of the Koran gives a true idea of Lhini's abodes of peace and anguish :

"When that inevitable Da}' of Judgment sliall suddenly come, no soul shall charge the pre.Iirtinn ,.f "its cnniim' with falsehood. Then the rartli >hall be shaken with a violent .shock; anil the mountains shall lie dashed iu jiieces, and shall become as dust scattered abmad ; and men shall be separated into three distinct elassc's: the companions of the vijit hand; (how happy shall the eouipanions of tla- right hand be!) and the com])anions of the left hand ; (how miserable shall the companions fif the left hand be !) and those who have been preeminent iu the faith of Islam. These last are they who shall approach nearest unto God, and shall dwell in the gardens of delight. They shall repose on couches adorned with gold and [irecious stones, and shall sit opposite to each other's face. Youths who shall continue iu their bloom forever shall go round about to attend them with goblets, and beakers and a cup of flowing wine: their heads shall not ache for drinking it, neither shall their reason be disturbed : and with fruits of the sorts which they shall choose, and with the flesh of liirds of the kind which they shall desire shall they be fed. And there shall accompany them fair damsels having great black eyes resem-

bling pearls that are hidden in their shells; and tliese shall be tlie rewar.l lor the work which the righteous shall have wrought. They shall U(jt hear therein any vain discourse, or wrangling, or charge of sin ; but only the sal- utation of Peace ! Peace ! — And the compan- ions ,,f the right hand (h.^w happy shall the companions of the right hand be!) shall have their abode among lotus trees that are free from thorns, and trees of Mauz laden regularly with their ])r(jduce from top to bottom; under an exallcd .-hade, near a flowing water and aniid-t abundant fruits whi.-h .^hall not lail, nor be tbrliidden to be gath< red. . . . But the companions of the left hand i how nnsera- ble shall the companions of the left hand lie!) shall dw.Il amidst buridng winds, an.l scald- ing water, under the shade of a i.lack smoke

shall

and tuey of the fruit of the tree of Al Zakkum, and they shall fill their l.)odies like to burst, and shall drink lioiling water like a thii-stv camel. This fors,,oth shall l)e

on the Day of Judgment.

But it is fidelity, and i of the truth - of Islam rise, swears by the darkness', by stars, by M .spanned the and the smal Book, l,y th angels, by tli and by the Day of Judgment I Such are the oaths of Islam, ami such is Islam's liook — a book under whose fiery influence the wild Arabian tribes were converted into a terrible nation, whose flaming swords and fierce uu- quenchalile valor conquered an em]>ire gi'eater than that of Alexander.

uprecatious agauist in- ible oaths in attestation ->ion, that the Prophet ■ight of his jiower. He \\aters and by the grim II- sun and the setting ai and by Him who it, by the human soul > the' Kaaba and by the m.l the dawn ami the jhts of dread mystery,

UMlLnsAL lllsTonV-THE MnJ>j:j;X Wmn.li

CHAPTKF^ LXXX'IU. CONQUESTS OF THE KiRSX CA.LI1^HS.

..1 wnliMiii (.itatc, lost any mi-lit arniM- him of enricliiuo^

II"' AiaKs himself from the Caiii.liatr.

• >- llnM The .leath (,f .Mnhaiunir.l was the ^i-nal of

l,i-,.|iL;inu>.iithu>iaMii. >ri,.at rom, notion.. All Aial.ia was atilcteJ

loni ihr >j>ii-it ..f hy the intelli-enee that ihr I'rophet was iu>

ihit. tliat ill. re more. After the liitt.r iHT-i-rntion^ to whieli, l\ \\;i- no ,i:in;jrr of ili-ohi- j in the beginning of hi- mini-try. tiir son .)f .l.atli of AlHlnllalf- >on four | Al).lallah""ha<l been .ul.jortr,!, 'h,- ha.l pro-

of his to||o\\, i>— two of il,,-m <-ivilians au.l claimnl the propa-ali-u of Mam l.y the

two mililarv h.ro,..— ha.l ahva.ly ac.iuin-,1 a swonl. It will !.,■ n niomh. av.l that the larger

national n|inlalion. The eivilians were .AIo- part of tho t.n y.ar. of ],i. pnl.lie .'areor wa*

hamm.Mf. kin-men, his uncle Abu Beker and .lovot.-.I to tlir' work of nli-ious con.,no,-t.

his .•onMU. thr noMr yonng Ali, heretofav Thr e-tahli-hnnnt nf hi- i.ow.a- in Aral.ia was

mentiom-.I. Tin- two military l.a.lei- u.av by for.-..; thr Arabs f,ar,-.| him as a ron-

the Pr(,i.h.-t-- g.-n.ral-, thr au-t.-rr < )mar and .,'urror. Th.' rondition wa- surh a- to l,,a.l

the oI,l v.-toran Khalr.l. Karli ,,f tin-..- had inovital.lv to nvolt whmi lii< d.ath was known,

his |.ani-an<, and .-a.'li miuht liavo pr.-.-.-.l hi< , Tho Aral, trib,-, bolioving that th.-v ha-l

claims a> the righlfnl ,-u. ■(■.•-.. r ..f M..hamm..l. m.thing fnrlh.r f. f.-ar, now r..>e in robelfmn.

But the leaders .,f y.,nn- l-hnn u. n^ f.., ^^i-,. ■I'h.y gave m. Ii.v.l t.. Abu li.-ker. They re-

and full of zeal t.. iii.bdi;.' in ..p.ii .[uarr.l-. fu-..l t.. pay lb.' Zumi. i,r nli';i..us tribute.

The .•succession was alh.w.l f. pa- .pii.-tlv i.. whirl, th.' p'r.iph.t ha.l imp.-e.l. The revolt

Abu Bokcr. Ali .'..uM \\.ll abi.l.. hi- tin,.., spr.'a.l far an. I wi.h-. until in a sln.rt time

and the g.-m-rals w.av .ati-fi.-d uiili .'arryin- then- wa- m.tliin- left of il,,. ..mpire of 1-lam

the banners nf th,. n.'W laith int.. f,rei-n but the tinv. eiti.s ,,f ."\Ie.ra, Me.lina, and

lands. The remain, I. r .,f th.. present I!....k Tavef.

will be occupie.l with th.' narrative ..f The n^lud- t....k the fi.d-l un.ler the ha.l .)f the Mohammedan conquests, beginning with the chieftain Male.- Ibn X..wirah. He was Arabia. ! note.l as a val.m.us Arab knight, as well as a The Caliph Abu B.-k.:-r c.ntente.l him^.df p.iet au.l man ..f ,-ulture. His p.ipularity, with the title of kiln: ..r priu.v. reje.ain- all ni..reover, wa< increa>.'.l by the i'an.,- of his claims t.. b,- th.' vi.ar .,f (i...! ..n .'artli. II.- wiib. who wa- r.-pnt.-.l I.. !..■ the m..-t b.auti- was surname.l HI S,..l,l,k, ..r the T.-titi.r ..f fnl w..man in Arabia. Th.' a.lvance of .Malee the Truth, lb- wa- a!-., .all..! th.- fath.-r ..f a-ain,-t .M.'.liua -av n.ai.'e to Abu Beker the virgin, th.' r.f.ivnee being t.i Aye.-ha, the that the iu-nr-.-ut- aime.l at the entire ex- only ..n,- of the l'r.>phet"s wives who was mar- tincti.in ..f hi- authority au.l the restoration rie.i a mai.l.n. ' of tribal in. l.'p.'U.lenee through<.ut the <'.iuntry. Abu Beker s.xm sh..we.l th.- hi-Ji.--t .piali- Th.- Caliph hapten. -.1 t.. f.rtify the city, ties of leadership. His purp..-.-, m..n-..v.-r, Th.- w.,m.-u. the ehil.lr.-n, th.- age.l, and the were for the promotion ..f the .-an,-.- ..f I-lani inlirm w.-n- s,-nt t.. th.- nmnntains t.) tiud and the general •J.....1 ..f the Arabian p.-..p].-. fr.-.-.l..m an.l >.-.-urity. Tin- .-hief r.-lianee .)f 'He was a man ..f virtue an.l int.--rity. linl.- Abu B.-k.-r was u]h.u th,- v,-t,ran Khal,-,1. to sus,-eptibl,- 1,, tl„- inllu.-n.-,- ,.f luxury an,l in- uh..m th.- .-..mman.l ,,f th.- army wa< iu- ilubj-.-u,-,-. In tl„- -..vernment In- r,-,-,-iv,-,l n.. ti-n-l,-.l. .\t the h,-a,l ,.f lour th..u.au.l five enn.lum.-nts, a,-,-.ptin- ,inlv a ,-am,-l an,l a hun.ln-.l m,-u the li.-ry .-,.l.li,-r ,.f 1-lam w,-nt bla.-k -lav.-. On.-nt.-rin- iut..,.(ii.-el,.-.lir.-.-l.-.l forth an.l ,pii,-kly overllir,-w Malec in battle. Av,-lia t,, mak.- an iuv.-nt..rv ,.f hi- i..-r-.-nal lb- ha.l K.-.-u in-^tru.-t,-,! bv Abu Beker to

MOHAMMEDAN ASCEXDEXCl'.—COXQUESTS OF FIBST LALIFHS.

4V.I

treat the relicl ehiettaiu with courtesy, Init Khaleil was devnid of sentimeut, ami pro- oeeileil to hiy waste the territories of the re- volteil tribes. He had Malec brought iuto

his presence and demanded wh_\

av the Zucat ; and when the cajitive that he couhl pray without any such

liis head was struck oti' by (jue of iildiers. Abu Belter felt constrained

tiie murder of the prisoner to pass

unaven-vd. M.'anwhiie, in t sc prophet Mose

Itc.i the belief n

he

Cahdla, prince of tlie

wdc Tam

.f Abu vi.ite.l

the alle,u-eil proj^het, and tlie twain became enamored. While tliis brief idyl was enact- ini;', Khalrd marched forth from ^Medina and overtlirew tlie followers of Mosedma near tlie the <-apital of the rhapsodist. The prophet him^elt' was killed, au.l the remnant of his forces e<ea]ied destruction by professing the faith of Islam. Klialed then marched from tribe to tribe, enforcing obedience and exact- ing tithes and tribute. The rebellion was everywhere broken up, and before the end of the fust year of Aim Beker's reign, the Mo- hammedan empire was reestablished throughout Araliia.

N(iW it was that Abu Beker undertook to collect and reduce to form the precepts and revelations of the Koran. Many of the speeches of the Prophet already existed in writing, but many others were preserved only in the memories of his friends and followers. Abu Beker perceived that in the course of nature, to say nothing of the hazards of bat- tle, the assoeiat.'s ,,f :>Iohaiinne,l would s..on pass away, and that the preci(jus words which he had uttered would erelong be given to the uncertainties of tradition. " In a little while,'' said the zealous Omar, "all the living testi- tiers to the faith who liear the revelations of it in their memories will have passed awav, and with tluqn so many records of the <loc-

rri^eil by these considerations, Abu Beker proceeded to collect from various sources the materials of the Book. The surviving disci-

ples were diligently (piestioiied as to the say- ings of the Prophet, and whatevei- could be thus obtained was written down, revised, and made authentic. >Sucli parts a- already ex- isted in manuscript were e pared aii.l Jdited

by the scrilies of the Caliph, and the whole work brought into nearly the Ibrin which the Koran at present bears. The work, however, was subjected to a subsequent revision by a later Caliph, after which furllier modilications were forljidden. But the idiief honor of the permanent composition of the I'.ible of Islam

As soon as the reeon(|iiest of the Arabian tribi's had been completed, the vision of uni- versal dominion again rose on the court of ;\[edina. The prophet had said that the world should lie subdued to his doctrines. Either lier>ua;iou or the sword should avail to firing all nations to submission. I!y his ott-repeated injunctions, bis followers were incited to un- dertake the conquest of the world. From Arabia the scepter of authority was to be stretched out to the remotest habitable bor- di'is; and pagans, idolaters, and unbelievers should bow to the sway of Allah and his servants.

Nor was the time inauspicious for the nn- dertaking. The K<jman Empire of the West was under the heel of the barbarians. The Byzantine power and the Em]iire of Persia had exhausted themselves with long-continued wars. .<eaively a single state of Western Asia, and not one of the kiii'jdoins \vl,nse ter- ritories touched the 2tleiliteriaiieaii was iu a condition to ofler a successful resistance to a new and aggressive power. .Vbti Beker, therefore, made haste as soon as Khaled had reduced the Arab tribes, to assume the work enjoined by Mohammed. The first country against which he raised his arm was Syria.

The Syrian states, embracing Phojnicia and Palestine, had long been consolidated into a province of the Eastern Empire of the Komans. Heraclius now reigned at Constan- tinople, but the Byzantine power had so iiiueli deelined from \yliat it was in the days of Theodosius as to invite attack from every quarter. Syria was especially exposed ; nor did the Arabs fail to perceive in that country a fair field of conquest. Their <'aravans going and coming from the Syrian cities had made

)ti2

rMyi:i:sAL insTnuv -thi: mdhkus world

.uvrv> of l,i. I'n,,,l„t: Tliis i- to il

tliriii faiHiliar witli lla- aliUU<lant iv~. tlu- i.n,vin.-,.. „u I,- ilian will, it- tiv.-lv ,hf, n-.l.- |....ui,,n. .\,T.,r,|

AKu JJtk.T aii.l 1 nmin.l vou tli;

iiilonu yni, that I r ill.' faillii'ul into ■V IVnni ii„. i„lia-ls,

Mu,:		i-Ml.Ml	s th tlia
ll.r II,.-	uil,l	liur-rni I tlork	■11 o m1 t
.M..	inn,	ca'^tT t	> joi
the	naii.l	.lilion. of the	Th ho.-
\va.-	-iv.-	1 Vrzc-l	. an

till- ainiv

th.' I'l-oplH-t. Ho thou Lrave to Yozo.l his part in- injmn-tions, whi.h may well ho re- li.atoil a-' ilhi,-ti-ative

I>h.ni p.in- forth to

■•T.vat voui- Hohli.-i-s with kin.ln. -s an,l ron- M.loiation." >ai.l Ahu ];,-kor to hi. -onoral. -V.v Jn-t in all vonr (loalin'i^-uilh thorn.' an. 1 (on-nlt lh.il f,.lii,.- in.l ..i.im..n- I i.lit \iliinth m.l n, \u

1... ^\h.ll \i. t..M,.u-,

l).-tl.,^ n.,t

.t ^u^ km.l, ,t tlu e..inhJ.l . n..i kill iiu

I- ..I the Iw.i Ai

l..ll..«.n. 1.1... lin,.n..n

111 ih. nini. ..1 til. Ar..-t Ah i.itul (. Ah.hllih Vlh. k Ihn \l.ii k ihili t.. ill t

.h'l..- ihit -li..n ni,l.,li.\.i- ..t .li

il... n..

(;...!. i'r

MOHAMMEDAX ASCEXDEXcY.^COXQUESTS OE EIL'ST (ALII'irS. 4(1

•V embrace

skulls uu: renJer tribute."

So Yezed hegaii the invasion «i' Syria. <Jn the borders of the country he met an army which Heraclius had sent to oppose his inarch, aud the Mohammedans gained an ea.sy victory. Twelve hundred of the enemy were left dead on the field, and a long train of liuotv was sent to Medina. Arabia was fired

with the

niti

■IK\

under the eomniaud of Amru, and sent to the Syrian frontier. In a short time uo fewer than four Mohammedan generals were carry- ing the banners of Islam through the encmy'.s country. Amru invaded Palestine. Oi)cidah marched against Emessa. Seid proceeded to- wards Damascus, and Hassan overran the country beyond the Jordan. All four of the armies were to act in concert, aud Obeidah was to be geueral-in-chief

While the Syrian war was tion, a .second campaign was ancient Babylonia, now triliu siau monarch, aud of this exp

us put m mo- lertaken into V to the Per- tion the com-

mand was given to the veteran Khaled. With ten thousand men he undertook the subjuga- tion of the country. He besieged the city of Hira, carried the place by storm, aud killed the king in battle. The Chaldsean kingdom was quickly subdued, aud an annual tribute of seventy thousand pieces of gold was im- posed upon the conquered people. The con- queror then marched against the city of Aila, where he overthrew the Persian general Hor- nuiz, aud sent his crown, a fifth part of the booty, aud an elephant, to Al)u Bekor. Such were tlie first instances of a tribute levied fiy Islam upon a foreign nation.

Nothing could withstand the headlong career of Khaled. Three Persian armies were successively beaten down before him. The Babylonian cities were taken oue after another until opposition on the banks of the Euphrates ceased. The name of Khaled became a terror to unbelievers. EstalilisliiuL:- his head-ijuartcrs in Babylonia, lie wrote a lett.r to tlu' I'rr-iaii nionan'h, saying: "Pn.fr.s the iaith of AUah and his Prophet or ].av trihuti' to tlulr M'r- vauts. If you refuse botli, I will conir upon you with a host who love death as nnich as vou love life."

poureil into .Mt-iliiia tin- -Vr.iina

the earnest of universal trium zeal of the followers of the P with the sight of captured ci from the heads of infidel [ui Koran promised immortal lilies soldier who should tail in bati chie.'srushrd to the upllftul sta

Eupiira	es. ■	Bv All
"all w.	inaiik	iud is n
another	,-urli	,s Khal
.^Ira	i«hil,	, houv

.M:,

ilhful Arab

jss sui.

■!i l\

.i tl

cess. Abu '(Jbei.luh prov, ,1 u task which was inqioxd npoi

Caliph. While each su.r, r.lil,;; Khaled brought to Medina tin

couragement aud alarm, lie 1 great armies were on the uiaii-h timu (_'oii>tau- tinople to oppose him and ileeiiied hiiusilf unable to confront the hosts of Heraclius. Great w-as the contract thus exhibited to the mind of Abu Beker In- the headloiiLr career of Khaled and the timid inactivity of nbeidah. The Caliph accordingly onleivd hi> victorious general to leave the Euphrates and assuiue the direction of the war in Syria.

Khaled at once hastened across the Syrian desert with a force of fifteen hundred horse and joined the armv of his countrvmen before the city of Bosra. This important mart near the Arabian frontier wa- a place of Linat strength. Komanus, the i^uvenior, estinuiting the probabilities of the conflict, would have surrendered to the ^Mohammedan,-, liut the garrison aud the inhaliitants resisted the prop- osition aud insisted on defense. Before the arrival of Khaled, the city was already assailed by ten thousand JMohammedau horsemen un- der the command of the veteran Seijaliil; but the garrison sallied forth, threw the .Me.-jems - into confii-^ion, and cut them down with ureat

The terrified JMohammedaus were already breaking into a rout when a great cloud of dust on the horizon annouuced the arrival of Khaled. The impetuous warrior dadie.l iijion the field, restored order, drove the Svriau -ar-

VMVKHSAL UlSTOnV. — THE MODKUy WORLD.

If. lil^ lui

rr.i|.liri.

AthT llix'Vrs,

llnliu;

Thr cilv was taken and the

.1 I.V lllr nnirr of Khalr,l. The w.MV ..l,li-,.,l to r,.,inun,r Chris- t., accept M.^hanniiiMl as their

,l..wnlail of lioM-a Khalea fixed

. With a to,vnftl,irty-M.ve,i thousand „■ |,i-. -,d t;.i-uard t.i the ri.-h ],hdn and

uitilul was the si-hf which' -i-eeted tiie .r the ^fn-h.ni ilo-t thai it .-eenH'd tn a vi-i(ni <if tlial I'aradi-e wldcii the ed tn the faitlifuh The

rrnphet had citv was St 1-1 111

to

%. <>i?--:.'

.,f Khah'	\. The -(n	ernor was wounded ami
|lllt to fl	■jlil. Then	upon the wdiole ^loslein
to.ve ..h;	l-e.l upon	till- opposing army aud
drove th	• l,ede-ed	leadlon-- into the city.
With ni;^	It fa 11 the, -a	es wcreclo<e<l and Bos'ra
Takiir	advantage	ifthedarkm-sTtomanus, d li iii- own hiiu-e near
the wall .	'riheei;;';";
Kiiah-d. dred me, a li|-ee,,|„	AlHlali-ahii erted ^i-iial	■ his wav to the tent ot in wa< sent with a hnn- V to open the u-ates. At ih,. >rn-hin lio-ts rush.'d aejh the -ates, and th,'
|„.o|.le „	■ r,n-ra Uel	■ -iiddeidv aron^e.l with

Hei-aelii,>. who was then holdin- his court at Antioch, that tiie expedition of Khah'd was more to he feared than a preilatory foray of nomads. He there- foie merely ordered

a lorce of five tllotl-

■:iiid men to march liom Antioch fortlie succor of Damascus. Arriving at the city, Caloiis, the general of the detachment, ^ attem]ite(l to assume

the eommaml. and violent dissensions ensued. :\leanuhile Khalcd drew near at the head of his army, and a sense of danger .served to unite the factions within the walls. The garrison was drawn out through the gates, ami the two armies were brought face to fai'c in the phiin. A fierce battle en- stied, in whii'h both the Christian commandei's

%.:'

■%.

was now besieged. Heraclius, real character of the foe with 1 to grapple, sent forward from niiv of a hun.lred thou-aml ni.u. lunted Khaled sallie.l forth into et the approaching hosts in de- il intlictcd upon them a conij)lete I rout. The siege was again re-

MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDEXCY.— CONQUESTS OF FIRST CALIPHS. 4(

Hit Ho

ills, \w\\ thoroughly : IV of soventv thdiL-a

niascus. Khaled called upon tlir r*Jo>lrm chiefs of Arabia for aid, and as soon as |Mi>si- ble broke up his camp before the city, march- ing in the (lirectinn of Aizuadin. The garri- son of Daiuascns sallied forth ami pursued the retiring army. Khaled, however, turned upon them and inflicted a severe defeat; but the assailants succeeded in carrying off a part of the baggage and many of the Moslem women. These in turn were recaptured by Khali d, and the assailants were glad to make good their escape within the fortifications of the city.

Meanwhile the Moslem reeuforcements ar- rived before Aiznadiu, where Khale<l now gath- ered his entire force for the impending battle. The Im]ierial army greatly exceedeil the^Moham- medan in number, and was thoroiiiihly ciiuipped ami di^eiplin(•d according to the Koman nulliod. After lying face to face for a day Wenlan, the commander of the Christian host, sought to circiiinveiit Khale<l by treacherv ; but the latter oiitwitte.l his rival, and Werdan was caught ami slain in his .,wn .-trata-em. Tak- \\\'S advantage of the temporary di.-may of the Im[ieiial array, Khaled, though outnumbered two to one, charged upon the opposing camp, and a massacre ensued hitherto unparalleled in the fierce confiicts of those desert lauds. Those of the Christians who survived the on- set fled in all directions. The spoils of the overthrown were greater than the victorious ^Moslems could will dispone of An immense train of booty wa- di-iiatrln d to .^[.•di^a, and Abdalrahmaii was romniissioned to bear the news of the viitory to Abu Beker.

It appeared that all Arabia was now ready for the field. Every chief and his tribe were eager to join the victorious Khaled for the capture of Damascus. After the victorv of Ai/.nadin the ^[ohammedaus resumed the in- vestment of the city, and the siege was pressed with .-neh -everity that neither citizen nor soldier durst venture bevond the ramparts. The ^loslems, however, were repelled in sev- eral assaults, and the garrison in turn was driven back at every sally. For seventy days the siege continued with unremitting rigor. When at last the people were reduced to ex- tremity, an embassy went forth, and one of

the city gates was opened to Obeidah. At the same time Khaled obtained jjossessicni of the gate on the opposite side, and fought his way into the city, where he met the forces of Obeidah, peacefully marching in according to the terms of capitulation. Great was the rage of Khaled, who swore by Allah that he woukl put every infidel to the sword. For a while the slaughter continued; but Khaled was at length induced to desist, and to honor the terms which had been granted bv the more mereiful Obeidah.

.•^o Dtima-rus fell into the hands of the Moslems. A part of the inhabitants remained and became tributary to the Caliph, and the rest were permitted to retire with their prop- erty in the direction of Antioch. The latter, however, were pursued by the merciless Kha- led, overtaken iu their encampment beyond ^Mouiit Libanus, and were all slain or captured. This exploit having been accomplished, the JMoslems hastened back to Damascus, where .«ome time was spent in dividing the spoils of the great conquest.

In the mean time Aim P.eker grew feeble with age, and died at ^bilina. His death oc- cui'i-ed on the very day of the cai)ture of Da- nia,-eu>, and before the news of that great vietoiy could reach him. Perceiving his end at hand, the aged Caliph dictated a will to his secretary, in which he nominated < >mar as his successor. The latter was little disposed to accept the Inirden of the Calii)hate. Having extorted from Omar a promise to accept the office and to rule in accordance with the pre- cepts of the Koran, good Abu Beker, after a reign of a little more than two years, left the world in full assurance of Taiadise.

The succession fell peaceably to Omai;, who began his reign in A. D. (io4. He was a man great in mind and great in stature, strong of will and resolute of jinrpose. The two years' successful reign of his predecessor had left the Calij)hate in the ascendant ; and it was not likely that Omar would allow the con- quests of Islam to stop with their present limits. His religious zeal was equal to his warlike valor, and liis ])rivate life was as tem- perate as his public exaiiqile was commendable. For the fiilse luxury of the world he had no liking. His manners were as severe as those of John the Baptist. His beverage was water;

466

his r..,Hi, ofiKiii.

\v;is: •• Im.ui- tl.ii

wonl; llu' .[M,!

lif-I.M-tcil opporl

On acrriliii"-

i\\n-i:i:sAL iii.sroin: ^the modkrs would

aii.l the Mvivt rail,.- i;.i-u;..nl ..i III.

kiK.ul.Ml::,.,! ih.^ir >\n. an<l

iv.-il thr tlnii- .■o.iH-iciir,-. wnv >ali~l

title of Kluii-al-.Mo,n,i,ni,i. ,„■ Cmnniai the FaithluL II.' l...,Lian hi~ caiv, r I,

iti.ms ha.l \nvu in ir .>un arr,,nl, a.'- ^w.,v uhipiK.,! till

r,l.

i-.m in Danias.ais .■.iiii|il.'tc tlic cun-

■>l

11,

pan. I a tu certain ehi-:

■n.l. i>, an.l the remedy was , -iin KIk

so iV.-.'ly n|.pli..l a> t.. |ir.iv..l;e tlie sayiug, I ol' lli.' .M

"Omar's i\vi,-te.| s.'ourL:.' is more U) be feared i tli.' dire.

One of tlie tir>t aels .jf tli.' new C'alij.h of.Iu,-h,'

was t.. r.'rii.p.nnt Aim Ol,..i.lali t.. the e.,m- f..r a y.-a

man.l of ti,.' arniv in Svria. Th.^ nn^a-ure I., tl,.' ^h

was .m<. .,f -r.-at |..'ril ; fi.r n.^itli.-r .li.l Oh,.i- On n-

dal, .l.'Mre t., 1... ,. nm-al-in-ehi,.f, u..r was it Klial.-d I

,f a liaailH-e. As > , a> ih.' .AiM.lili.m N\as 1k-

i Khal..! was .-.mt foruanl willi .m.-thinl

wh.i had r.'e,.iv.. of <;o.l," aee,-]. Ohei.lah. A .di

Tin

Kme-.a. d'h.' main l.o.l an.l .-hi. f. a.lvan.vd l,v w;

:)l..l.lah f..un,l that in a si,^.-. An in- ■ aiitli-.riti.,- .,f the

l.v th.' pavm.mt of

• fi.Ty wan-ioi-. .,f Ih.' ••Sw,,r.l sniH.nlinaie t.. this tran-f.-r of Avn ..f Ahvia, din-, an.l huii-

>. It was stipnlat.'.l that ..f a v,.ar Km., -a sh.ml.l . th.. :\I..d.-nr~, .m .-.mdili.n, t

Is, wa. tak.n 1.

annv. V,x th.-.-

itier.s of the

ain .d- si„,il was .Iriv.m -..v.rnn d th.- ,.hin.l.r,li.tril,nt..l As .

M,

of I-	dam .•.,H.lii.-..l	to th.-ir eN.-..|l
,li.-r^.	Whih- ill.- a n-, llo\\r\-er. tl	,,, ,l„. ,,f ll,,.
wini-
Oh.'i, iKUiS	of ,|nml-.mm'''	aliz.'.l with ..e -. •■r.v Allal

th.- m.Mvhants ,d' Em.:-a fonn.l

ih.miM-lve-.-e.Mir.- fr..m a,L::jiv-i.m th.-y ..|hi,..1

I lh<- -at.- of th.' .-itv, .■MaMidi..l fair-, an.l

■ l,.'i;an t.i j.lv a |.r..lilahh' tra.h- uith th.-ir .-.m-

s ,|n.T,,r>. Th.' -id .,f d'hrift l,.-an t-. r.v,,v.T

- fr.mi ^lars a |Mirti..n ..f hi- >|H,il-, ddie .^f.e

- hamme.lan. in.'anuhil.' rava^.-.l the Mirnmn.l-

- in- e.mnlrv, fell u| th.- villa;.. ■> ..f the nn-

1 h.-li.-v.r-, an.l .-.'i/.d th.' |.n.|M.rty ..f whoewr I \\..nl,l n..t |,rof,-> hiins, if a folh.w.'r of the

- !>r..|.l.,;. ddi.' Syrian (in.ks, havin- mn.di • .d'th.- r.'liL^i.Mi- .-I'loplmi.',- f.r uhi.h tli.ar ra.'C

l,il,lH-r-." A m.-au.' wa- pn-paiv.! at th

su--.',-ti. f All, wh.i.mi Oli.a.iah was .1

n.-t.-.l t.. hav.- tie- ollm,.l,a> |ml,li.-lv uhippe, On r.MM-ivin- th.- .li-pal.-h ih.- -en.-ral sun m.m.'.l th.' .euiltv, an.l had th.- ha.tina.h, lai vn.on th.ir fh-di until the h.mor of Islam w:

:\r..iiam-

. d'.iwn

bv their own aet the

will ,-	■11.1	]iioi;.5 11	(■11 t.. iiistnu	t VOll,
shall refuse yoiiv trilmt	pai , _\ pv	ticipate i m shall It' \IIU 1	11 all <mv to be left in j 1 the payn eicet lidth 1	'iP\
forll,	fV(			walls

2I0HAMMEDAX ASCEXDEXCy.—COXQUEHTS OF FIRST CALIl'HS.

whole territories of Emessa, Alhailir, and Keooesriu were saved from devastation.

Relations quite friendly were thus estab- lished between the dominant Moslems and the subject Syrian populations. The policy of Obeidah was so successful that when for a long time no intelligence of further conquest was borne to i\Iediua, Caliph Omar, Ijelieviug that Oheidah had ceased to glorify the Prophet, wrote him a letter complaining of his apathy in the cause. Stung by the reproaches of his master, Obeidah left Khaled to await the ex- ]iiration of the year's truce at Emessa, and himself at once set forward on an expedition to Baalbec. While on the march W raptureil a rich caravan of merchants and fomid him- self in possession of four hundred loads of silks and sugars. The caravan, however, was permitted to ransom itself and continue on its w-ny to Baalbec. Thus were the people of that city notitied of the approach of the ^Moslems. Herbis, the Syrian governor, believing that the distiirbei's of his peace were only a baud of marauders, sallied forth with an army to put to flight the assailants of his people; but Obeidah inflicted on him a severe defeat and he was glad to secure himself within the walls of Baalbec. The city was soon besieged, but the garrison made a brave defense. lu a sally which was ordered by Herbis, the Moslems were driven back. Shortly the besieged made a second sortie in full force, and a general battle ensued, in which the Syrians were de- feated. Being reduced to extremities, Herbis finally sought a conference with Obeidah, and Baalbec, like Emessa, was ransomed from pil- lage at a heavy cost. The same scenes which had been witnessed at Emessa were now re- enacted in the recently captured citv. ISler- chantmen grew fat by the estalili-liinnit of a trade with the vietori.ius but ivck].-< Modrms, who, burdened with the .pi.ils of wnr, wn-e quick to purchase at an exorbitant price what- ever pleased their fancv.

Meanwhile the year of truce with Emessa expired, and Olieidah demanded the actual surrender of the city. The sole condition of exemption was the acceptance by the people of the faith of Islam or the payment of an annual tribute. "I invite you," .■=aid Obeidah, "to embrace our holy faltli and the law re- vealed to our Prophet M.jhanmied, and wc

Allah, the supreme judge, il. eid./ bctw > )i u^." The authorities of Emessa icj. eted this summons with contempt. The ■.;arii,~oii pre- entlv sallied forth, and. the .Alo.de, „> were handled roughly. Obeidah then resorted to stratai^eni and proposed to the inhabitants that he would retire and undertake the conquest of other cities, on condition that his armv .-liould be provid.iiied for a five davs' luare'h from the storehouses of the city. The proposal was gladly accepted, but wlieii tin- five da\s' provisions were dealt out to the ^[osh m-. Obeidah, pretending that the sup^ily was still insufficient, asked the privilege of purchasing additional stores. This granted, he continued to buy until the supplies of Emessa were greatly re.lueed. Tlu^ Modem army then marched away and cpiiekly captured the towns of .Vrrestan and Shaizar, This done, he re- turned with all haste to Emessa, claiming that his promise to leave the city was liy no means a promise not to return.

Thus by craft and subtlety the inhaliitants of Emessa found themselves overreached and subjected to the hardshi])s of another siege. After several days' fighting, during which the

impression on the steady [ihalaiixes of the Syrian Greeks, they resorted to their ii>iial .stratagem of pretending to fly from the ii;jht. The opposing army, believing that the Arabs were n.ally routed, rushed forward in pursuit and fell to plnnderiii- the Modem camp. Suddenly, however, the forces of Obeidah turned from their flight and threw themselves headlong ujion the broken ranks of the .'Syri- ans. The latter were thunderstruck by "the unexpected on-et of a foe whom they eon-iil- ered overthrown, and were unable to reiin-m the phalanx. Then a terrible slaughter en- sued. The field wa. >trc^wn with Christian dead. The huge bulk of the governor was dis- covered among the slain, his bloody garments still fragrant with the perfumes of the East.

The city, unable to offer further resistance, immediately surrendered. Obeidah, however.

r.\ni:iiSAi. iiisrony.-^TJiK modi-lw wojujk

was uual.lc M avail U\m.r\f nf tin- a.K „i- vi.-iniv. I'm- in 111.- luoiurnl ..f i

of tile KiniHTor. wa< api.n.a.-lin,;: uilli an iii m.n>.- arniv ..f hravv-arint-.l (iivrk~. tlauk. hv a li..-t'uf aiixiliari.- a-aiuM ^^ilo,n tl Mu.l,.,„> rouM 11. .t h.,|„. to Man. I. h lH-,;an

,/„ui--.' >li..ul.l Ih- |.ui-mi,'.1 I., uiaiiilain tli,' w<

tlir ,lcvil an.l Ih 11 li.liind. Fisrlit bravely, ami y..n will MMaiiv tli.' ..n.- fly, and yuu will fall ini.i the .itli.a." 'I'll.- liii-tilr armies met near Y.ini.ink. Tlir Katilc lu-an at muniiuL', and rap-.l fnn..u-lv tl,P.u-l,..ut tli,- ,lav. Three tiua- til.- .M..-l.-ni~ u.iv .hiv.-u Lack l.v the

■Mi.'.l I., uiaililain tli.- wnx the Ar

, a .-..iin.al ..f uar it was tlu- w;

V.Tni.iuk, nn the Im.hUts -av,- a

,iv await th,' anmiael. of I'mphr

Il.ra.-liiis, at	ir.t d.>,,i	<in-- thr re
M.iluniini.Mlan		ns'on 111.-	>..utl
was now thon.	ijilv ala	■IU..1 at th	■ i".rt
intellisi-ence \vl	i.-h fnn-u	l.hhc.M.-l	■ni ru
of all Syria.	An ani	y of .-i-h

mc

un.hr the (•..niinan.l .,f .Manii.l, win. wa< ..i dere.l t.. r.-e.,v,'r lli.- Syrian pn.vin.-e fn.in th Arab-. .Manti.'l wa^ 'i..in.-.l n, mnh' l,v an

r- t.) n-n.-w th.' h,-ht. Xi-htlhli

)v ini.rninu- li-lit the hattle was re- 1 a-ain <-..iitinui.l to the darkness. :inil f..nrtli day- of the eontliet were Th.- Christian hosts were at last ■i.ai liv th.' fierv as>aiilts ..f the M..d.ni~. -Mann. 1 wa~ .-lain an.l his army e..nii,l,-t.ly n.nf.l. Tii.- .•.mtli.t was deeisive

Aft. a- a H,..ntlf> n-t at Dania-.als, the Arab arn.v |,r...-.-,.h-.l t., b.-si.-.- .K-ru>alem. The inhabitant- ..f that .-ity iirepaied fir defense by LiathiiiiiL:' [irovi.-ion- ami planting engines on th.' walls. Th.- usual demands made by

M,

r.l .laba

.1 bv th.' M..>l.ni

c.imin,- ha.l .ibli-.Ml tin the viet.iri.ius M.,-h.m< Em.»a.

The Arab. j.ai.a-als. ii.

i.eril an.l a-kin- lor r,

that the people should aitli of Islam or b.-eome ir of th.' I'r.iphet were ■<tnient lii'i;an. For ten ■t' r.n.'wt.l from time to

dat Y.'rm.iuk. fillow.'.l

he L

It w:

Omar sli,.uh:

t., ol h.lW.' firth	.'i.lah. IVt a-r, tin- in, uith a bo	.r.' ih. ■'•""■" Iv .it'	arrival .. - Khal.'.l p.'k.'.l t>	■ this fir ha.l sail HI].-, lal
til,' a f'at.	.\- .Mann. In- o|„no.	1- Jab inlli.'t ■'i'l" n."j'..l	ll.lll, wh.. la.'la.l wi ialioiis wi	h Ih,' m
Khal	',1 «as M-nt li;.-t.'.| rxr,	I.I .'1 1-. It th.'	nf.'n'iie.'.	but noth .Mill,,' A

,'.1 that th,'

.fn.in M.'.liuaand r,',',ive the city. That mat,' a,','..r.lin;Jy trav.r-.'.l the Arabian , d.'>.'rt, an.l th.' Il.ilv ( ilv wa- -iven into his 1 han.b. h wa- Mipulal..! that the Christiaus

, sh.iid.l buil.l .w ,'hnn'h,'- in the countries

■ whi.'h liny .-unvn.l.'r.'.l; that the d...:irs of all

It the b,-lbsh,iuld

ila<',',l ,'on rwar,l ,Hit

nl M.ihainin.'.h,

lul,

In th.' ini|,.'n.r in- his .iwn aliilil t.i Khal.'.l. Thai the ,'onrii,'t. nia.h' address. '-I'ara.li

In- ,'ity .,f Davi.l.

Omar m'I n|iul..n>l v ob-.a-ved the terms of h' -uri'.'inhr. Th.' ' .M.i-h'ins were forbidden o play ill th,' Christian churches. The devo- ion- of the Ishunite.s were at first limited to he slips ami porches of the sacred edifices.

MOHAMMEDAN ASCEyDEXCV. — COXl^UE.-STS OF FIRST CALIPHS. W.

4711 i\\]vr:i;sAL insTDnv.—THK modkrx world.

The Calii'li, howrvrr. .li.i not t'liil l-. :ul.l ilic t'u-i..n <:i>U( .1 a> liiiiMc as any thing which

Scan-liin-- <.ul lli«- >hf ni' ili.' icmplc t<\' S,,l,,- ijtini-c this .Ir-pcrair, internal strife could be innti. hr rl.ar.-.l tli- skih-.I >i,oi .,f ilir :l:hri< .lai.-tcl, Khalr.l a|ii»anM| uith liis army bo- or centuries, and laid tlieri'.>n the fouudations | tore the walls. Tile city was stormed, the of the -reat mos(|Ue whieli still bears bis name, conllict ra-in- tiercely lor many hours, until

.t ma-nilieml <],eeimens of Arabian arcbi- , d.e.-ist IVom ibe a>sailt. The beads of the

teemre. Tim-, in tli- vear A. I ». C-'i:. the Arai> inison.r- wen- cut ..ifan.l thrown down

l)asse.l into the' ban.l- of the follow.rs oi' the by liv<|Uent sdlies, niade himself a terror even

iiefoiv baviuL;- .Terusalem ()n)ar planned For live month- the citad-l was besieged,

Soiitliern >vria wa- a— i'jned to Abu Sotian, prise ; but the Caliph ordere(l the investnieut

while the iiorthern region lyin- betwe.n ; to be pro->ed to a conclusion. At last an Arab

Hauran an,l Aleppo was committed to (Jbei- i stratagem >ucc,ede,l where courage had failed,

dah. At the .same time an iuvasion of Egypit A certain ]\lo-|rm Hercide.s, named Damas,

was ordered, and an expedition against that ' with a band of thirty reckless followers, scaled

c.umtrv put under command of Aniru. The-e the ca-tle wall by night, killed the guard,

in triumph to .Medina. During his ab-ence Islani. an.l held the gate until Khaled and his

the atlidrs of ^tate had beeu managed by Ali, irre^i.-tible ho,-t poinrd in and captured the

whom the Caliph had intrusted with the gov- citadel. Aleppo wa- the pri/.e of victory. The

ernmeiit. terrible Yoiikenna, linding the Arab sword at

throat, savid himsell' l)y a sudden couver-

to Jshuu, and mo>t of the garrison fol-

mI his example. He signalized hi.s defec-

1'rom the Christian cause by taking uj)

.-word of the Prophet. He i>etraved the

of Aaza/, into the hand^ of Obeidah, ami

oriilied, aiul the eitad.l, then undertook no less an enterprise than the

I, moun,l. ,-e.-m.-d inipre^- drlivery of Antioch to the .Mohammedans.

riie pla.'e was under com- . To tlii> end lu- gave himself up at one of the

le |Kople by word and jucseiicc ot' Herac'lius at the Syrian capital.

■ed to li-ht for the city to lb- pretended to be a fugitive. The Emperor

.•idah couM reaeh .\leppo. aeeepted hi- .-tory, and put him in command

rth with ten thoir-and men of th.- v.ry bam'l of renegades whom he had

to .■onlVont the ap|>roa(ddng Moslem-. Dur- led within'.-ight of the chy. He rapidly rose

ing hi- ali-eiieo thi' peace-loving traders of j in the Imperial favor. He was made a coun-

Aleppr. .-cut a d. piitation to ( )beidah, otil-ring I selor of the court, and became one of the mo.st

to make the city tributary on condition of important lier-ona-es in Antioi-h.

being spared. But, while the negotiation- .Meanwhilo, ( HM-idah came on with the main

werc^ pending, Youkenna surp,rised the Arab army to be.-iege the city. The treacherous

a.lvance and -ained a partial suec-s; then. Yo.dc.mna wa- intru-ted with the defense,

hearing what tlu- eiiiz,m- ,,f Aleppo had d.m.-, -fl..- f iree.- of tl„. Knip.-ror were drawn up and

he hastened ba.d; to the city to lu'event a nviewed without the walls, ami Heraeliii.s

surrender. him.-elf made a present of a crucifix to each

On reenterintr the irates Youkenna charged battalion. The main dependence for the safety

upon the citizen-, and liumlreds were jiut to ol' Antioch was the great stone bridge across

the sword. A sciie of bhxMlshed and con- the river Orontes. This iiassat^e must be

Yu-. the no:	tnwhile.	, Ob,.i,lah . The citi	began his n, les of Kenm-	.arch to rin and
Alhadi	r w.-re	surrender	.■d to him u	ithout a
couHi.'i	;. The		lantile metro	poll, of
Alepp,	., how,	■ver. wa-	not to be -'	iven up
Withou	t an ol		ll-L;le. Thi-	wealthv

wh ex;	nd <.f an
Y.

MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDEXCV.—COXQUESTS OF FinST CALIPHS. 47

.secured by the ]Mii.-ilems before they cduhl hope to take the eity. The guards ..f the bridge, however, ha^l a private t-pite t(.» be gratified, and as socm as the Arab army drew near surrendtred tliemselves and their charge to Obeiihib. Tluis was the approach to Au- tideh huil opeii, aud the two armies were lirought face to face before the walls of the city.

lu the mean time Youkeuua, who held command within the ramparts, completed his treason by liberating the Arab prisoners. When the intelligence of his proceedings was carried to Heraelius, the latter fell into de- spair, slipped away from the Christian camp with a few followers, took his course to the sea-shore, aud embarked for Constantinople. The generals of the Emperor, however, re- mained aud fought. In the severe battle which ensued before the walls of the city, the Moslems were again triumphant. Antioch surrendered, aud was obliged to purchase her exemption from pillage by the payment of three thousand ducats of gold.

The conquest of Syria was now virtually complete. Khaled, at the head of a division of the army, traversed the country as far as the Euphrates. Everywhere the towns aud villages were compelled either to profess the faith of Islam or pay an annual tribute. Another leader, named Mesroud, undertook the conquest of the Syrian mountains. Little success, however, attended the expedition un- til Khaled went to the assistance of Mesroud, whereupon the opposing army of Greeks withdrew from the country.

In the mean time Amru, to whom had been assigned the subjugation of Egypt, pro- ceeded against Ctesarea. Here was posted Constantine, son of the Emperor, in command of a large army of Grseco-Syrians. Great were the embarrassments of Amru in the con- duct of his expedition ; for many Christian Arabs, who could not well be discriminated from the true followers of the Prophet, hov- ered as spies about the Moslem camp and carried to Constantine intelligence of what- ever was done or purposed. None the less, the Christian general entertained a wholesome dread of the ^Moslems, and on their ap- proach sought a peaceable settlement. He re- monstrated with Amru, and at the same time 29

.tested that the Greeks aud Aral

A I

ru niamtaniei

that

rdint

to the Noachic distribution of the world Syria belonged to the descendants of Shem ; that they had been wrongfully dispossessed aud thrust into the deserts of Arabia, and that tht-y were now come to repossess their inheri- tance liy the sword. After much jjarley, the usual alternative was presented by the Mo- hammedan. The people of Csesarea must either accept Mohammed as their Prophet and acknowledge the unity of God or else become tributary to the Caliph Omar. The armies then j)repared for battle. It was the peculiar- ity of all these conflicts that challenges to jiersonal combat were given and accepted by the leaders. Before the wall of Cfesarea a ]Wj\verful Christian warrior rode forth and de- fieil the Moslem host to send a man to match him in fight. An Arab youth from Yemen otl'ered himself for martyrdom and was quickly slain. A second and third followed his ex- ample. Then the veteran Serjabil went forth and was prostrated by the Christian hero. But when the latter was about to take the life of his fallen foeman, his own hand was cut oft' by a saber stroke of a certain Greek, who came to the rescue.

Presently after this adventure — the weather being cold and boisterous — Constantine im- mured himself in Cresarea. That place was then besieged by the jMoslems, and Constan- tine, iustead of being reenforced, received the intelligence of the capture of Tripoli and Tyre. He also learned that a fleet of muni- tions and supplies which had been sent to his relief had fallen into the hands of the enemy. Discouraged by these tidings, he gathered to- gether his treasures and family, slipped away from Cffisarea, and emliarked for Constantino- ple. As soon as the authorities of the city learned that the prince had fled, they made overtures to Amru and secured their safety by the patient of a ransom of two hundred thousand pieces of silver. A few other places of minor importance were taken by the Mo- hammedan, and by the following year, A. D. 639, opjiosition ceased. All Syria was wrested from the Empire of the East and added to the Caliphate of j\Iedina.

It will be remembered that on the accession

4,2

UXIVEIiSAL niSTnUY. — THE MODKILX WORLD.

of Oiuar that potentate displaced the victorious Khaled from the commaud of the Syrian army, and in other ways showed his dislike for the favorite general of Abu Beker. Khaled was a hero according to the Arab heart and model. Eschaus, one of the many jinets of tlie desert, san- tlie praises of tlie Sword of God and attrihule.l to him the full glory of the Syrian victories. For this bit of adulation Khaled was weak enough to make the poet a present of thirty thousand pieces of silver. To the austere Omar, already in- imical to Khaled. tlii< vainglory appeared in- tolerable. The vetei'an soldier was, moreover, accusal of euibez/.lcin.iil, was deposed from his command, and divnieed with a trial. Alreadv aged and infirm, the hardy warrior .•ould not I'ecover from his disgrace. He died of a broki-n heart, liut from the sepulcher his fame >hone out more brightly than ever. For it was found that instead of enriching himself iiy emijezzlemeut, his whole estate consisted (jf his war-hoi-se and armor.

Amru was now free to prosecute his inva- sion nf K-vpt. Having crossed the bord.'r. his \\\A work was to capture I'elu>iuni, wliicli he ilid after a siege of a month's durati(ju. He then marched against Misrah, the ancient Memi)his, which, next to Alexandria, was now the most important eity of Egyi)t. The place was investi-i! for >cveii months, nor niinlit it ihe h;

.Is of the Mo.s- the governor, correspondence render the city )e permitted to retain had collected while in

then have fallen into il lems, but for the tri:i,- Mokawkas, who enten-d with Amru, and agreed ou condition that he b the treasures whicl ofhce.

Having thus posse-e<l himself of M.-mphis, Amru next set out for Alexandria. By the terms of capitulation the people were obliged to prepare the way liefore him, bridge the canals, and >upply pi-ovisions. The malcon- llv tl'i.' (hvek— eh^ni.'nt ,,f K-vp- frll back bcfuv the invadin-

specui

tiau society Icii army and took i strongly fortified m ioned and defemh to all the fleets of attempted reductic appeared the proj. less, Amru made t

Al

isily accessible anean, that its [1 of the desert

tV. XcVCthc-

umds of nji--

ious and civil submi.s.-iou to the Prophet and his vicar, and when these were refused, boldly laid siege to the powerful capital. In a short time he succeeded in capturing the citadel, but the (i reeks rallied in great force, drove out the assailants, and made prisoners of Amru and several of hi- oflicer-. Xot know- ing, however, the rank ami imjHjrtance of their cajjtives, the victors permitted them to depart ou the easy mission of obtaining favor- al)le terms from Amru! The far-resounding shouts of the Moslems on beholding the safe rctui-n ot' their general gave notice to the cicdulous governor of Alexandria that he had let fly the most important bird <.f tlie de>ert.

For fourteen months the >icge of ilie city continued. Xothing could di.sajipoint the des- pciatc .Mo-lcms of their prey. Caliph Omar .-I'Ut army alter army to reenforce the besieg- ers. It i- said that twenty-three thousand of the Arabs fell in various unsuccessful assaults before the city was obliged to yield. At last, however, the end came, and the capital of Egy])t succumbed to the followers of the I'rophet. The fiery Crescent took the place of the Crov- in the metropolis of Africa.

3Iost of the Greeks, who for .some centu- ries had been the predominant class iu Egypt, t<iok ship and left the country. For a while, howevei-, they hovered about the coast, and when it was learned that Amru. leavini;- a .-^mall garrison in Alexandria, l.a.l started (,n hi. march up the valh^y of the Nile, a large fire,' .if ihe(ireek fugitives >u.l.l,-nly returned anil retook the city. Great was the wrath of Amru ou hearing what was done. He at once marched back to the capital, and after a bri..f invotment, again carrie.l the citadel by a.-ault. M.ist of the (ircks were cut to pieces, and the rest escaping to their ships took flight by sea. The ^Mohammedans were now mad for the pillage of the city, and were with dittii'ulty h.'l.l in .•heck by Amru and a m.'»a'je from the <'alipli. (^mar was very far from .l.-siriu'.: that the magnifi.'ent metrojjolis >li..ul.l b,. .l,.>tr..v,Ml. At thi- time Alexau-

.Iria is sai.l t.i hav c tain.Ml fair th.m.suid

]ialaces, five thousand baths, four hundred theaters, twelve thousand gardeners, and forty thousand tributary Jews. The Cidiph was sufti.'iently wise t.i tin.lerstand that not pillage but till- iiiipn>ition of tribute was the best

3I0HAMMEDAX ASCEXDEycY. — COXQUESTS OF FIUST CALll'H^

method of replcuishiug the coffers of Medina and providing the ret^ources of war.

Formidable resistance ceased iu Egypt with the capture of the capital. The other towns and villages surrendered at the first summons and became tributary to the con- queror. A tax of two ducats was laid upon every male Egyptian, and a large additional revenue was derived from the landed property of the kiugdom. It was estimated that the Caliph received from these various sources the sum of twelve millions of ducats.

At the time of the conquest of Egypt, there was resident in Alexandria a certain Christian scholar of the sect of the Jacobites, known by his Greek name of Johannes Gram- inaticus, aud the cognomen of Philoponus. "With him Amru, himself a scholar and a poet, liecame acquainted. The antagonism of re- ligious zeal was for once overcome by the sentiment of personal regard. While still resident in the city, the Grammarian informed Amru that Alexandria contained one treasure, which he had not yet beheld, more valuable and glorious than all her other riches. This was, in brief, the renowned Alexandrian Library, the vastest collection of manuscripts known to the ancient world. It had been fcnmded by Ptolemy Soter, who placed the vast collection made in his own times in a building called the Bruchion. Here was gathered during the reigns of the earlier Pto- lemies a mass of four hundred thousand vol- umes. An additional building, called the Serapeon, was subsequently procured, and in this another collection of three hundred thou- sand was stored. During Julius Csesar's in- vasion of Egypt, he was besieged in Alex- andria; a fire broke out, aud the Bruchion with its contents was destroyed. The Serajieon was saved from destruction. Afterwards, as far as practicable, the lost collection was re- stored. During the ascendency of Cleopatra, the library of Pergamus was brought by her lover, Mark Antony, to Egypt, and presented to the easy-going but ambitious princess. Not- withstanding the injuries which the great library at various times sustained, it was, at the time of the Moslem invasion, by far the grandest and most valuable collection of liooks in the world.

In making an inventorv of the treasures of

the city according to directions received from Omar, Amru, through ignorance of its exist- tence, failed to take notice of the library. The Grammarian thereupon besought him that he himself might be made the possessor of the vast collection. Amru, disposed to favor his friend, referred the matter to the Caliph Omar for decision. From that potentate he presently received the following fatal missive: "The contents of those books are in con- formity WITH the Koran or they are not. If they are, the Koran is sufficient without them ; if they are not, they are pernicious. Let them, therefore, be de- stroyed."

This reckless mandate of ignorant bigotry was carried out to the letter. The invaluable treasures of the Bruchion and 8erapeou were torn from their places and (li>tiil)uted as fuel among the five thou-and baihs of the city. So vast were the collcctidiis that six mouths were required to consume them. At last, however, the work of barliarism was com- pleted, and the library of Alexandria was no more.'

The capture of Alexandria ended the do- minion of the Eoman Empire in the South- east. So great was the affliction of Heraclius on account of his losses that he presently fell into a jjaroxysm and died. The crown de- scended to his sou Constantine, but that prince had neither the courage nor ability to undertake the recouquest of Syria. Fortunate it was for the Mohammedans that Egypt fell at this juncture into their hands. A great dearth ensued throughout Araliia, and Calijih Omar was obliged to call upon Amru to fur- nish Medina and Mecca with supplies. The rich granaries of Egypt were etnptied of their stores to save the people of the South from starvation.

In order to open and facilitate communica- tion between Egypt and Arabia, Amru C(.im- pleted the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea — a work which had been begun liy the Emperor Trajan. By tliis means an all-water

' Tlie story of the destruction of the Alexan- drian Library has been doubted by so careful an authority as Gibbon, who found the act unmen- tioned by two of the most ancient historians, and regarded it, inoreover, as a deed altogether incon- sistent with the intelligence and character of Amru.

UXIVEHSAL IIISTOny. — THE MODKHX WOULD.

route was fstahhslicd i.ciwciii tlic J'.-vptuin stor(-linu-,.s aihl 111.- caiiital nf tl„- ( ■alii.hatc. Amni rnntimir,! \\,i- .uu,v liinr in llir -..v.-ni- ment ..ftl.c rnuntrv uln,-li !,.• IkhI .-oihiiun-,!, exliil.itiii- in l"'ar,. tal.ntv a- ivinarkal.l.' as thu.r whirl, !„■ hacl .li-|.layr,i in war.

Ill the iiaaii tiinr, uliilc tlir cdliqucst of Syria an.! Ivjvpl l.a-l Ih.i, pn.-ressing, tlie Mohammedan ilMiuiiiiMii had likewise been ex- tended in the :!ii.-, li r I'crsia. The vic- tories of the IJoiiiaii^ ill that <-<miitry, no less tliaii till' <-ivil hidils and iiiunlers with which the Persian cinirt was (■(instantly disgraced, invited the xms of Wain to undertake an in- vasion. The caiiilal (if the country was now the city of Madain, on the Tigris, the site of the ancient Ctesiphon. The conquests of Khaled on the Euphrates before his recall to aid in the subjiiL'-ation of Ryria have been already narrated. It will be nnieinbered that on going to the aid <if Ohcidali, Khaled left the larger part of his army under command of Mosenna to carry mi the war. On the ac- cession of Omar a new (ifliicr was appointed to the governorship of lialiyl-mia, which Khaled had subdued to Islam. It does not appear that Mosenna was competent as a military chieftain. For a time nothing was added to the Mohammedan dominion, and Caliph Omar, tired of his subordinate in the East, sent a second Olieidah, surnamed Sakfi, to supersede M(jseiuia and carry out the policy of Abu Beker.

On the approach of the new commander to the capital, an army of thirty thousand men was sent out by the Persians to confront the invaders on the border. A battle was fought between the advance detachments of this force and the Arabs, in which the latter were vic- torious. The main body came up too late to succor the routed van, and was itself signally defeated. The reserves of the kingdom were now brfuight out under the command of Beh- man, who led into the field a new army and thirty elephants. The Persian forces were reorganized on the plains of Babylon, and were vastly superior in number to the Moslems, whose army consisted of nine thou- sand men. There was a dispute between Obeidah and the other commanders as to whether they should hazard a second battle or retire into the desert "nd wait for reeuforce-

nients fnnii Arabia. Olieidah was for fight, and lii- view- prevailed over the adverse ,,pini(,n< ..f hi- eciierals. The Arabs crossed the la I pi 1 rate- and attacked the Persians on the (ipp(i>iie bank, Init reckless valor could nut prevail over the hosts of the enemy. Olieidah wa< -lain, and fair thousand of liis men were either killed (.r dniwiied in attempt- ing I'l relicat. Had the Persians followed up their ,-uree,-s with energy, the whole jMoslem army inn>l have been destroyed. Mosenna, howcvir, siieeeeded in rallying three thousand of his men, and was soon reenforced by de- taelinunts out of Syria. Thus enabled to reiissume the oliiaisive, ^Io.senna ravaged the Balivldiiiau ])lains, capturing towns and villages.'

After the battle on the Eui>hrates, Queen Ar/.emia, then the ruler of Persia, gave the ciininiaiid (if her army to Mahran, who was ordered to check the Career of jSIoseuna. The liostile armies again met in liattle near the town of Hirah, on the confines of the desert. From midday until the setting of the sun the tight raged tierccly, and the victory remained undecided, till at last Mosenna and Mahran met in single combat. The latter was slain, and the Persians took to flight. A revolution in the capital followed the news of the battle. Arzeniia was dethroned by Rustam, prince of Khoras.san, who put his captive sovereign to death. A new army was mustered, and it was determined to scourge the Arabs from the land.

^leainvhile, the Caliph Omar had not been idle. A large contingent of nomad warriors was gathered at ^Medina, and Omar was with difficulty dissuaded from taking the field in person. The command of the reenforcements was at length given to the veteran Abu Wakkas, who had been a companion of the Prophet. He was given the general com- mand of all the Moslems in Persia, and was intrusted with the completion of the conquest. Mosenna presently died, and the whole re- sponsibility devolved on Abu Wakkas.

The Persians still greatly outnumbered their assailants. Their army, under command of Rustam, was posted at Kadesia, on the frontier. So great was the disparity of num- bers that Abu Wakkas would fain have waited for reenforcements ; but the messenger

JIOHAJLMEDAX ASCEXDEXrY.^i OXi^CES'L'y OE EIRST CALIPHS.

of the Caliijh exhorted the general to tl-ai' not, but to strike in the name of the Proiiht-t. Before venturing on a battle, however. Aim Wakkas determined to attempt the eoi[ver>i<in of his euem_y by jjersuasiou. An end):is>y, consisting of the most eminent Aral)s, was sent to the Persian capital, and the king was exhorted to turn to the tliith of Islam. The

the

is suh-

latler was indi-i

and the eoiil^ivnre wa. bmkrn

tual recriminations.

Again the fate of the kingdi nutted to the arbitrament of liatrle. Tli.- two hi.istile armies were drawn up on tin/ plains of Kadesia. Here a terrible contii'/t cii-iicd, but nitiht came without decisive n -ult^. The next day wa- ron.-iunrd in .kinuidiiii- and personal romliats in whir], ,-,.v.'ral ..f the leaders ou Loth ^i^rs were >laiii. The third day's tii;lit was atti nded with varying suc-

night. On the next morning Ru-tain was killed, whereupon the Persian army took to night, and the camp wa- .1. spoiled by the ^[oslems. Thirty iliou-and of the Persians were slain in the Imttle and the pursuit, and an incalculable amount of booty fell into the hands of the victors. The suclvd banm-r of Persia was captured by an Aral) .-oMicr, wlio received therefor thirty thou-and pin, s of gold. Thus, in the year (i:')o, was f..ULiht the great liattle which di^cided the fate of Per.sia.

The work of organizing the Babylonian country was now devolved bv the Caliph on Abu Wakkas. A mw capital, named Bas- sora, was founded on the united Euphrates and Tigris, and here were established the head-quarters of the ^Mohammedans in the East. In a short time the city grew into importance, becoming a great mart for the commerce of India. Vntil the present day Bassora is regarded as one of the i)rincipal emporiums of eastern trade.

As yet the capital of Persia had not lieen assailed by the Motion,.. But after the liattle of Kadesia, the juMiplc were so dispirited that the completion of the conquest by the Arabs was only a question of time. INIauy cities and Is were given up without even a

stron

show of defense. What Babylon thus fell into the ers of the Prophet.

led of ancient of the follow-

After a short time Abu Wakkas gathered his forces, crossed the Tigris, and adxaiiced against ^ladain. On his approaili to tlio cap- ita! the Persian coun.selors bi-oiiuht tin- kinir, Yezilegird, to save himself ami tlicm by living into Khorassan. Xo s.-ttled pnli,-y wa'~ d'eter- miued on until the ^lio-Lins wm- wiiliiii one day's march of :^Iadain. Tlien the king, ac- companied by his panir-strnek household, took to tli-hi. Tiiere was no f .nnal resistance to the entrance of the Arabs into the capital of Per.sia. The city was left sitting with her treasures in her hand. "How manv gar- den-^ and fountain^." said Abu Wakkas' "and fiehb ,,f corn and fair dwellin- and other

■sof

lai:e. A scene ensued like that of the sack of Rome by the barbarians. The Arabs of the de>ei-t in'oke into the magniticeut palace of rhnsroes and reveled in the >plemlid halls of the Sassaniau king. While tlie Prophet lived he had written a letter to the Persian monarch, demanding his suiimi--ioii to the new kingdom which Allah wa~ e>talili>hing in tlie earth; but the hauelitv soveiei-n tore up the Prophet's letter in contempt. " Even so," said Mohammed, " ,-hall Allah rend hi,- empire 111 pieces." When the Arabs gained posses- sion of the Persian basilica, they cried out: "Behohl the white jialace of Khosru ! This is the fiilHUment of tlie pi'ophecv of the Ap.istle oi' (iod."

Abu Wakka- e-tabli-hed himself in the royal aliode. Mo,-t ot' the treasures wdiich throii-h age-, had been accumulated in the vault> of the capital were >eize,l by the :\r,,s- lems. Tlie>e unto],l ^poil- of war were di- tributed according to the Arab method. (.)ne- fifth of the whole was >et apart ibr the Caliph, and the remainder was diviiK'd among the sixtv thoiismd f .llowers of Abu Wakkas, each soMier iveeiviiig twclvc hundred pieces of ^ilver. A caravan of nine hundred heavily

Caliph',- portion to Medina. Xever before had such an enormous train of spoil fieeii seen in the streets of the Citv of the Prophet.'

' As illustrative of the sph-it of tlie Moham- meilans, an incident may be related of the (hvision of the spoils. Tlie rnyal carpet of the Persian palace, [lerluips the most famous piece of tniiestry

■iiii

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODKRX WORLD.

Thus, iu the year Go7— the event heiug coin- eideut with the capture of Jei-usalem by Omar— the Euqiire uf Persia jnissed under the dominion of tlio .Mohaniniedans. The clond, apparmlly no larjir tiian the hand of a luau ri.-iiiL:- from ilir .-liores of the Red Sea,

spread out

i<t until its shadow the Euphrates and

fell beyond tlie valic\ the lofty rauL'e of Zai;io>.

Remaiuinfi iu tiu- capital of Pia-sia, Abu Wakkas sent forward an army of twelve thou- sand men in |>ui>uit of the fugitive king. The latter had tied to Ilohvan, iu the Median hills. This place was besieged for six mouths, aud finally captured. FroiB this place Yez- degird made good his retreat to Ehaga, the ancient nv-idiiiic of the Parthian kings. The further pur>uil ot' the moiuirch was forbidden by the (-'alijih, whc^ urged that the welfare of the believers was of more importance thau booty taken from infidels.

Abu Wakkas soon discovered the unhealth- fulness of the situation at Madain. At the suggestion nf the Caliph it was determined to seek a more sahdirious position for the Arab army. The village of Cuta, ou the western hank of the Euphrates, was accordingly choseu and made tlie future head-quarters of the :Moslems of the East.' Iu building his new city Abu Wakka> .lespoile.l the old; for many of the editiees of Madain were pulled down to furnish material for the new struc- tures on the hither side of the Euphrates. — And now came a characteristic event iu the career of the compiering Islam.

It appears that Abu Wakkas was too sus- ceptible to tlie influences of Persian luxury. He began to a>Hinie the habit and >pleudi,l manners of the Ivist. lie had built for him-

of ancient times, was taken with the other booty to :Medina. What disposition should be made of this most beautiful and costly trophy ? Sliould it be spread out aud used on state occasions by tlie Caliph? or sliould it be cut up and distributed with the other spoils ? Omar decided that justice required the partition of all booty. The beautiful carpet was accordiufrly divided without respect to the design or workmanship, and jiarceled out in scraps tolhosi' who liad lakeii the j.alace.

'The tnwu of Cula was <leserv<Mlly famr.us in the trailitions <,i the S.-mitir nations. Tiiere Xoah, when the world was al.out to be drowned, entered the ark of saiety. aud there the serpent that tempted Eve was haui.-hcd under the cur.se.

self at (-'ufa a maLiiiitica-nt Kiosk, or summer residence, wh.re he a»umed the state of royalty like that of a Persian priuce. Great was the niortiticatiou of Caliph Omar wdieu the news ol' these proceedings was borne to ^b-dina. Hi' immediately wrote a message to Abu Wakka>, aial (h.^patehed the same by the hands (jf a iaitht'ul envoy named ^Moham- ined. The latter repaired at once to, Cuta, wliere he signalized his advent by burning to the ground tiie stimi)tiu.)US Kiosk of Abu W'akkas. When that di>tinguished personage came forth indi-uantly and demanded to know the reason of this incendiary work, the am- bas.sador put into his hands the following letter from Omar: "I am told thou hast built a lofty ]ialaee, like to that of the Khosrus, and decorated it with a door taken from the hitter; with a view to have guards aud cham- berlain- ,-tationed about it to keep off those who niav c'ome in quest (if justice or assistance, as was the practice of the Kho-srus before thee. In so doing thou hast departed from the ways of the Prophet (on wdioiu be bene- diction<), and hast fallen into the ways ..f the Persian monarchs. Know tliat the Kho^ais have jiassed from their palace to the tomb; while the Prophet, from his lowly habitation on earth, has been elevated to the highest heaven. I have sent .M..liamuied Ibn Mus- leinah to burn thy palace. In this world twi> houses are .-ufhcieiit for thee; one to dwell in, the other to contain the treasure of the IMo.slems."

Islam had now become an Empire. The austere Omar found himself burdened with the cares of state. His main dependence iu the ti-an-acti"n of |iulilic business was iu the advice of Othman and Ali. Between them and himself he drew as closely as possible the ties of relationship and interest. In the same year with the founding of Cufa he married the Arab ]irineess, Omni Kolsam, daughter of .\li and Fatima, ami granddaughter of the Prophet. The relation of the reigning Caliph with what may be called the royal family of 1-lam was thus more closely drawn, and the -uppoit of jUi secured for the future.

.Meanwhile Hormuzau, satrap of Susiana, looked with ill-concealed aversion upon the .Mohammedan power in Babylonia. T. him the fjumliui: of the citv of Bas.-ora on the

MOHAMMEDAX ASCEXDEXCY.^COXQUESTS OF FIRST CALIPHS.

Lower Euphrates appeared a.s a nienaee. The haughty prince foresaw that his proviuce must also presently succumb to the aggressive Mohammedans, or else that they must be re- pelled from his borders. He accordingly re- solved on war and made Bassora the object of his hostility. The people of that city applied to the Calijih for assistance, and another army of the faithful was sent out from Medina.

The conflict was short and decisive. Hor- muzan was defeated in a series of battles, and half of his provim-e was adde.l to tiie Moslem dominions in the East. In the mean time Yezdegird, the fugitive king of Persia, sent word from Rhaga to the governor of Faristan to take up arms in common with Hormuzan for the recovery of the kingdom. The con- flict was accordingly renewed. Reenforce- ments were sent forwai'd by the Caliph, and Hormuzan was pressed to the border. Be- sieged in the fortress of Ahwaz, he was finally compelled to surrender, and taken as a pris- oner to ^Medina. Here, in order to save his life, he was compelled to accept the doctrines of Islam and be enrolled among the taithful.

Nothing gave greater cause of anxiety to Caliph Omar than the apprehension that his generals would be corrupted by the luxurious habits of the people whom they conipiered. Es])erially was the distrust of Omar directed agaiu.-t Aim Wakkas, who was again reported at Medina as having assumed the manners of a Persian prince. This report so offended the Caliph that he deposed Abu Wakkas from the command and appointed Numan to suc- ceed him. Wlien the news of this proceeding was carried to Yezdegird, his hopes again re- vived, and he ordered the governors of the provinces still unsubdued to send forward all their available troops to rendezvous at N"eha- vend, fifteen leagues from Ecbatana. Here in a short time an army of a hundred and fifty thousand men was collected for battle. This force was greatly superior in numbers to that of the Moslems, but the latter were dis- ciiilinc-il in all the hardships of war and trained to victory until they regarded them- selves as invincible. The command of the Persian host was given to Firuzan, an aged warrior, whose discretion was as great as his courage. On assuming control of the army, he adopted the policy of fortifying himself in

an impregnable camp until what time the Moslems should wear out their energies by in- eflectual assaults.

Accordingl}', when Nuniau arrived liefore the Persian camp, the army of Firuzan could not be induced to come forth and fight. For tv.'o months the Arabs beat in vain against tlie position of the enemy. But when valor failed stratagem succeeded. Pretending to break up his camp and retreat, the crafty Numau fell back for one day's march and was followed cautiously by the Persians. For another day the ^I(]slcms continued their feigned retreat; but on the third morning, with the break of day, they turned back with terrible impetuosity on tlieir pursuers, and in an hour inflicted upon them a di-astnius de- feat. The Arabs, in their turn, pursued the routed host and cut them down by thousands. B(jth Numan and Firuzan were killed, the former in the heat of liattle and the latter in the flight. The number of the Persian dead was reckoned at a hundred tb.iusand. So de- cisive of the fate of the Persian Empire was this great conflict that the ^Moslems ever after- wards cclel)rated their triumph as the "Vic- tory of Victoi'ies."

8oon after this signal success of the ]\Io- hammedans, a strange Per-iaii rode into the ^Moslem camp ami promi-ei], under pledge that his life should be >pare.l, to .-how the Arab commander a greater treasure than any his eyes had yet beheld. It appeared that this stranger had received from the hand of the fugitive Yezdegird a box containing the crown jewels of Per.-ia. The casket was opened in the presence ot' Hadifeh, who had succeeded to the command after the death of Numan. The Moslem general accepted the treasure; but since it bad not been taken by the sword, it might not be distributed to the soldiers. The scrupulous Hadifeli accordingly sent the box to the Caliph ; luit the latter looked upon the fla.-hing jewels with ill-con- cealed contempt aliki' for the precious stoues and for any who eoul.l be dazzled by them. "You do not know," said he, "what these things are. Neither do I; but they justly be- long to those who slew the infidels and to no one el-e.'' He then ordered the box to be carried liack to Hadifeli, by whom the jewels were s(ild to the merchants who followed the

478

UyiVKBSAL HISTORY. -THK MODEUS WOULD.

u' s;ile were -Aly a.lvic'.- i. to make i.eaee and tlieu pay

Moslem camp. The proeeeil< ot" the sale were dUtributed to the aniiy, eaeh soldier reeeiviug for his portion lour thousand pieces of -ohl.

In the mean time the remnant- of the Per- sian army ovnlirown on tlu-liold of ^ehavend had eoUeete.l at Ilamadan, thr an.'i.'nt Keha- tana. Here, in a ^iro,,- firlr.-. tlu-y took refn-eaml made a -land. llalH-h. the com-

feh, at thr -am.' timr pn-parin- an ohstinatr • lefeii-i' lor thr rity. Learnin- of th,' trearli- ery whirl, had In'on prarti.-ed upon his lieu- teiiant. Caliph Omar -rnt forward a d.taeli- ment of hi- an. IV to Im^I,-,- Ilamadan and hrin- llalH-li to' l,i> >rnMS. The latl.r in a sh.)rt time Ird out Ids army, and a -reat hat- tie wa- fou.-ht iH-f.re the M.-dian capital. After a strugde of three days' duration llie conflict ended with the overthrow (jf the Per- sians and the capture of Hamadan.

All .Media now lav open to the invader- The Aral) .^'eiieral, Nuhahn, wa- .h-patdied to hunt <lo\vu the kill-- in his hidin- place at Pdia,^a. Hearing of his approach tin- monarch fled, leaving the defense of the town to a suhordinate officer. Tlie -atcs w.ae soon opened by a rival i-hieftain: two thousand Mohamme.lans wen- admitted; the Pc-ian governor was cut down in the -tri'cts, and the city taken in the mid,-t of much slaughter. The traitor Zain, who had betrayed the place to the .Moslems, was made provincial governor, l^.oilies of troojis were sent out to reduce the surrounding country. Ee.sistance was virtually at an end. Town "after town yiel.led to th.' invader^ and became tributarv to the <'aliph- ate. The province ,,f Taba'ri-tnn paid live hundr.-d ihou-and pieces of u,,hl to pun-ha-,- exemption from llie levying of troops within her borders. It wa- ivident, moreover, that so liir as the reli'jioiis svstems in conflict were

JJuring the concpie-t of Hamadan. the .Mo.-lem> had to encounter the s.Jdieis of

pr..vin'ee in the north-wc-t of Media to aid their countrymen in the .S.u.th. It was luit likelv that 1-lam would r.v.ilook su(di an af- Iront'. more j.articnlarly when it proceeded from the Fire Wor.-hiper-, who had their altars at the fH.t (if .^lount Cau-'a-u-. >'o so.mer, theref .re, ha.l llama.lan f.llen int.. th.' hands ,.f the .M.,han.n,..lan,- than th.y tun.e.l their arms a-ain-t Azerbijan. The ^lagian priest- hooil ami sii'ular princes of the country rallied

resist the

m ; but the god

.e M:

thn.wn by the follower.- ..f ih.^ Pn.ph. t. The arndes of Azerbijan were l.,at.-n f. the t^arth, anil till- province was a.Me.l without a s.-rious

Th.' plain .■..untries s.,uth <.f the defiles of the Cau.-asus ha.l now all been subdue.l. It ivmaim-d for the njcky passes of the North to 1m- s.-iz.'il by the men of the desert. Of ohl time th.-i- passes had been guarde.l by IV.r-

c..nrag.'..u,- s..|.liers were able to keej. at bay the innumerable hordes of Gog and ^Magog from beyond the mountains. It was necessary to the further ]n-ogress of Islam that the de-

tiles o iVi.-n.l:

suit, s

Pr<.

.uld 1 T.

It f.

.|...n.on

lor.'.l

ward all.r th.- .-..n.piest of Az.-rbijan, ami the pa»e.- w.-i'e taken fr.nn the enemy. One fortress, known as Dcmir-Capi, or the Gate of Iron, was wrested from the barbarians only after a severe conflict, in which not a few of the M..,-I,i„s fill.

Wh.ii th.' .jafwavs of the North were

faith

c.l Ab.lal-

spirit fail. Th. Per-ian- f.resa ,1.. r.-Mdt. A

religion of ours ha- be,-,, me obs.)lete; the new- religion is can-ying i-v.-ry ihing before it.

.a-.- a-ain-t anv ,...»ibh- irru).- ri-m fn.m the North. The gov- lormii.^- his .luty as guardian of ..f 1-lam. t.i.ik into his confidence .- of till- mountain chieftains, -Za.l, wh.im he made his subordi-

MOHAMMKDAX ASCEXI)EXCY.~iVX(^UESTS OF FIRST CALII'HS. 47

nate iu the work of defense. T ance of the Moslem \vith this l);ir aud the stories which the hittei mysterious regions of Gul:- and .M determined the adventurous Alxi d.-lik-

IS arms hevonu

du-

ll.

Ca.H

unknown tn the fan penetrated the conutri and the Euxine, where lie encountered the ancestors of the Turks, who wt-re a-toni.-hed at the strange demeanor of the Aralis. "Are you angels or the sous of A(hiiii'/" >aid thi-v to the ^Moslems. To which the true believers gave answer that they were the sons of Adam, but that the angels were on their side, tiglit- ms th.- l.attl.'s of tiie x-rvant- of Allah.

'>ora while thr harl.aiiaus were kept aloof bv awe; but presently, when the .=pell was broken, they fought the invaders with savage audacity. By degrees, however, the Turco- mans were overcome, and Abdalrahman turned his arms against the Huns. He laid siege to Belandscher, the capital city of the liarhnrians,

but the place with.-t I ],\> a-auh-. Tiie

Turks came to the as>istaiiee of tlieir lielea- guered neighbors. A hard battle was fought before the walls, aud AbiUdrahman, who had undertaken the expedition without the consent of the Caliph, paid f.r his rashn.'^s with liis life. His body was taken by the euen.v. an.l became an object of superstitious rexereuce. The army of the ftiithful luade its way baek into the pa.sses of the Cauea-us. Si-hnan Ilm Rabiah, brother of Abihdrahinau. was ap- pointed as his successor iu eoiniiiainl of the northeru outposts of Ishiiu.

For the Caliiih < >niar the day of fate was now at hand. Anion;; the Persian prisoners taken to Medina wa~ a ei-rtaiii carpenter, named iMruz. He was a folh.wer of the I\Iagi, worshiping the Hre. Like otliers of his class, he was subject to the taunts aud exactions of the Mohammedans. Being compelled by the authorities to pay a tax of two pieces of silver a day, he went to the (.'aliiih, complained of the abuse to which he was subjected, and de- manded a redress of his grievance. Dinar heard his story, and decided that one who received such large wages as Firuz did (he being a manufacturer of windmills) could well afford to pay a tax of two pieces a day. Firuz

turning away exclaimed: "'I'hen I will build a windmill for you that shall keep grinding until the Day of Judgment!" "The slave threatens me,'" said the inuli-turlied Omar. "If 1 were dispoM.l to piniish any one on su,-piciou, I .-h.iuld take ol!' l,i. h-'ad." hiruz, however, «as allowed to -o at liberty, ^"or

carried into effect. Three days afier the inter- view, while the great Caliph was praying in the mos.pi,. ,jf :M,,,lina, the Persian a-ssas-sin cam.' unpereeiv.'d behind him and stabbed him three tiuie> with hi- da^^er. The attend- ants rushe.l upon the murderer, who ,lefeu,led hiius.-lf as long as he eould, and then com- mitted suicide rather than be taken.

The goo.l Omar finish,.! hi- praver, and was then borne to his ,.wn house to die. He refn.sed to name a su,-e,--oi, (h;claring that he preferred to fillow the examph' of the Prophet.

He, however, appoint..! a ncil of six, to

wh..m the .piestioii of su.-.-esH..u should be ref'.'rr..!. F.,r, s...mr^ that tlie elmice woul.l likily fall .m Ali ..r < )thnian, he exhorted Iwth th.'se priu.'.s t.i b.wari- of unrighteousness and pers.iiia! aml)iti.>n. T.i his own son Abdallah lie Liave much fatherly e.iunsel. instructing

ury .•i-ht.M'U th..u-an.r.lirh.ii,-, wlii.di he him- self ha.l borr..w.-,l. II.. a!,-., wn.t.^ a t.iuehing lett.-r t.. him wl„, shonl.l !,.■ his su.-.-.>s.,r, full of a.lm.,niti..n. au.l patri.,ti.- maxims. He th.ai ma.l.. arran-.-m.ait- with Avsha that he sh.,id.l be buri...I by th.. si.le .,f Abu Beker; an.l then, .>u th.' srv.. nth .lay aff..r his assas- sination, .pn.'tly ..xpir...l. His .li.atli occurred iu th.. ..I.v.nth v..ar ..f his reian and the sixtv-thir.l ..f hi- a-...

A lil.Hi.lv se.n.. f.lh.we.l the murder of the Calii.h. The enra-...] Ab.lallah was easily persnadeil tliat ..tliers as w.'ll as Firuz were acccss.iry t.. tli.. lakin.j-.,tf ..f his father. Be- lieving that a .•.mspira..y ha.l existed, he flew np..ii th.. ima-iu...! e.inspirat..rs and cut them .I..WU with.,ut a trial. Tlius were slain Tnln— " th.. .lauj,|..r ..f Firuz— a .'..rtain Cln-i-tian, nam...l I »-.!.. ,fein.., an.l II.,rmuzau, wh.. will be rem..nibi 1. .1 as the ..a|>tiv.. satrap ..f Susiaua.

S,, .li.-tiu-nishe.l a part ,Iid Caliph Omar bear in thi> estalilishment ami jiropagati.m of Islam as fairly to entitle him to his appellative of the Great. He had all the virtues which

480

UXIVEUSAL HIsrOnV. — THK MOUKHX WORLD.

Il,u-i;i-l,i nf

rul.T was

tluin u.>(>nKU-. 111. uhoK. rnr.,..,,! Allah ,,, 1,,.;, man u I,..-, .ui.liii- h ua. ,luni

li.. h.-Mtatcl nut to hrai, tlu-

,nt- nf iH.w.i- pa-x'd adiuini-tnilinii ,,f allaii-. Ai „rni- apuMlr (.f ihr (ii-aiii/..-(l aii.i put uiali r tin Tlir v.ar u\- .M. r th.' Va

ai-lv Mam, ami to him iiimv than to any s.-civ

tl,.:,- ruha' or man. sivr onlv the l'f..|.hol, the from .Mrcra \s

Kmiiiiv of the -Mohaiu- wiiicii all cvolils wi

,f hi. oovcrnmrnt niav !»■ favofalily <-om- iianir of the ( ali|i!i Omar with the in-cri|iti(

1 with tho.c of tho' -ivalost an.l l.r~t L' > li.i.Aii It, Ali.AII, — " Thciv is no C.

-.■i-n.. It was a ruir of hi< na-n that no l.ut Alhih."

1,. .-aiitivf win. iMcamo a mother sh.mld It wa^, however, by the vast woi'k of (■(

,1,1 a- a slave. In tin' .li-trihnlions of (|m-t that the rei,<;u of Omar the Oreat v

H'a.urv mo>t ai-lin-ni.^iie.l. Th.- .Mohamine.lan ree,,:

exi.lanation of his eonrM- the Calilih was a: en-tome,l to sav; "Allah lias hestowe.l tl

;:■ 1 thii.-s of this worl.l to relh've our ne,v

siti.'.s. not to rewanl onr virtues. Our virtu.

,.. Call

■ •■aptuivoi tliirtv-.Hx tlioiisiml towns ■e-M- a> tr.i|.hie>of the ten-aml-a-half hi- a.lniini>tration. ISut Omar was •aii> a ,l.-tioyer. As fhr as was prae-

,y. Not only s.,, l.ut W liuilt in the

of eommiave. 'Tmh r liis authority .hate was eonsoli.iate.l an.l his rei-n

was -rant. '.1 a vi^arly stiji.ii.i of two hiin.lr.Ml tuiv>. Out of tiiis .-j h m-v the ui-aut

tli..u-aii.l .lirli.ali>. X.'arly all tin- v.'t.rans .,f ti-uiv ..i' Sara, en .l.uninioii, an.l t.. it must 1

the Svrian, I'.-rsian, an.l K-vptian wars w.av r.f. riv.l th.' v\>v of that politi.'al .-reatne

rewara.-.l with h.Minti.'s va'rvin- fnmi on.' ; whi.h ii.r nianv -■.•mrati..ns nia.le the Ai

thousaii.l to five th.iusan.l .lirh.ins. Nor w.ml.l ', l.ians th,' mast. as of the Ea.st.

2I0HAMMEDAX ASCEXDEXCV.—OTHMAX AXD ALL

The new potentate was already seventy years of age, gray as to his fiowiog beard, tall, swarthy, and in every sense Arabian. He had not the austerity nf iiianiK r- I'r siiuiillcity nt' character which had liclnn-cd tn (>mar; Imt in the strict observanrr ..f ivli-i-u- duties he emulated his predeees>i'i-. It wa-, hciwever, in the matter of expenditure that Othuian differed most from the second L'aliiih. He was lavish in the distribution of the great riehes which conquest had turned into ^lediua. Xor was there wanting among the faithful a spirit to appreciate the liberality of the ruler. In times of famine the poor were freely supplied from the bounty of the state. The Caliph foiled not in his antecedents and present con- duct to excite the adniiratimi and loyalty of the true believers. He tnok in marriage two daughters of the Prophet, thus combiuiug in his household the profoundest elements of per- sonal veneration known t<i the Islamites. In his previous history Otliniaii ha.l been inti- mately a-..eiated with :Mol,anin;e,l, and had been a partner of both of his tlights. Xor did any of the companions of the Prophet stand more closely in his affections than did the faith- ful Othmau. Of him the sou of Abdallah said : ' ' Each thing has its mate, and each thing its associate : my associate in Paradise is Othmau."

The fugitive Yezdegird still hung like a shadow on the borders of the ancient king- dom. Hope of recovering his former power, there was none ; but the friends of the exiled king still rose in rebellion here aud there, and gave trouble not a little to the Jloslems. The latter, under their veteran leaders, continued their conquests in all directions. Ancient As- syria was overrun liy their arms. The ruins of Nineveh, as those of Babylon had already been, were trodden umler foot liy the men of the desert. Yezdegird was pursued from town to town, from province to province. Being driven from Rhaga, he found shelter for a brief season at the magnificent city of Ispahan, and then fled to the mountains of Faristan, whence in ancient times the Achtemenian kings had gone forth to the conquest of the world. Afterwards Yezdegird sought refuge in Istakar, among the ruins of Persepolis, and here he barely escaped capture l>y his enemies. Thence he fled to the province of Kerman, and thence into Khorassan. For a while he hid himself

on the borders of Bactria. In his flight he still maintained the forms of kingly authority. About four thousand dependents of the old Persian court at .Madain still followed the wretched king an.l shared hi> fortunes.

\Vliile tarrying at the city of Merv, Yez- de'.:ird bu.sied himself with his superstitions. He built a temple fir the fire-worship, and h(.|HMl, perchance, t.. win through the fovor of heaven what he ha-l lo.t bv the folly of earth. .Meanwhile the citv of Ispahan was regarri- soned liy the fragments of the Persian army whieh had siuwived the battle of Nehavend. Ihit on the approach of the ^loslems the gov- ei'iior proved treacherous, aud the city was given up. A sterner defense was made at ■. Around this veu.Tal.le site were ^ath- ,e traditions of Persian glory. Within mparts of the city were collected no than a hundred and twenty thousand men. who, under the leadership of Shah-Reg, the lu-ovincial governor, made a final lirave stand fir Persia. But no eoiira-e or patriot- ism could avail against the finiou- assaults of the ^b.slenrs. A .threat l.atlle. f,u-lit outside the walls, resulted in the annihilation of the Persian forces. Shah-Reg was killed, aud Is- takar fell into the hands of the ^Mohammedans. The province of Khorassan was the next

Istak ere.l the 1 fewei

driven to the border and fled to the Scytl: derings cease until hf khan of Tartary am Returnino- from tlc.-i

kin-d.,ni. Soon, I bv his X,utheni a who had .so Ion- -.v tered into a conspi hands of the enenT\

.dued until Ye/.de-ird,

crosscil the river Oxus ans. Xor did his wan- ]n'escnted himself to the the emperor of Chiua. remote pilgrimages aud irtars, he crossed into the effort to recover his ever, he was deserted s while his own nobles, red to his fortunes, eu- V to betray him into the Discovering the treason.

he escaped from i\Ierv and continued his flight

to a river, wdiitln of hm-semen and cimeters. Thus, last of the old 1 the fire-temples o fall, an.l the dvn;

of I' East

xpuv Witl

of C'hosroes was extinct. Persia became a iMohammedan province.

INIeanwdiile Egypt had remained quietly

482

[■xni:i;sAL lusTony.—TiiK Mni>]:i;x would.

under the .L"ivc-in(.r.~hi|i 'A' Amru. Till iH-n- ple, if not contentful wiili \\\r clian-.- of mas- ters, acceptcil ihf Civ-iit a~ til.' ( lul.Kin (if their i'at.'. A tnleial.le ,lee,ve of ,,niet was niaintaincMl until the a.ee.-ion of Othinan,

ship to make room for Saa.l, l.roiher of the Caliph. The ii.w ollirer oue.l iiis elevation

of Ann.t in' i-xeenlive 'ahilities. The hitter had, in.f'e.l, won the alfvtion^ ..f the K-yii- tians liv hi< jn-iiee timl luo.h'ration, and they bitterly resented his ,lep,,-itnm. From the Hr,-t the ears of the new i^overnor were gn-eted with the niiitterin-> of revolt. Nor did tlie ,inoe,-or. Coir-tantine. who ha,l sn,-

lly hy again deposing loiship and reiip2)ointing le latter, smarting nnder d not l,e wined out l.v

itile.

hx

ioivi-n (■o.„|ue>t. He a.'eordingly •ye upon Nortlierii Africa as an in- vitiii'.;- tield foi- his operations. There, from the liorder- of I'];jvpt, ,-tri'tehing awav across liarea to Cap.. .\on' in the .li.tant AVest, Liy a <'onntry more than two thoii>and miles in extent, many of the <li^tri.•ts popidons and fertile t.i exui.erance, and all of hislo|-ie fame. Here were the countries of Jfdiva, -Aranuirica, Cyreiiaicu, Cartha-e, Nnnfidia,' and .Ahnirita-

-spi

il t..

Mol,

thu< liecii fimenteil in Egypt. A iieet was immi-diately eipiipped, placed nnder the com- mand of .Manmd, and >ent against Alexan- dria. With him the (:.vek> of the great me- tropolis eiitcavd into correspondence, and the citv was pre-eiitlv lietiaved into his hanils. Thus of a SU.ldell, the political condition of the kingdom was rev, is,d, and Othman found quick occasion to repent of his folly in ap- pointing an incompi'ient hu'orite to office.

Amru was at once reinstated. The ohl general repaired to the M'cni' of action, rai.~ed a large army, composed lar^ifly of thi' anti- Greek element in Egypt, and a'.iain laiil siege to Alexandria. It was now the third time that that city had been invented by the forces of Amru. The veteran now registered an oatli in heaven that it wa- the /„.-/ time that the capital of E-ypt would liiul herself in a con- dition to lii'comi- the vubjeei <if a sicge. Ac- eordin-lv, when, after an obstinate <lefen..=e on the part of the (ire.ks, the city a-tdn fell into hi< li;,nd-, h,' levele.l th,. ramparts to the

sault on every sid.'. .Maun. I and his (nv.-ks,

spieil away to ( 'on-tantinople. The rest of the inhabitaiUs were, for tile most jiart, spared, and the sp..t wh.fe the slaughter was stayed was conuuemoraled by the merciful Amru, who built thereon a mo>,,ne c^alled the .MoMpte of Mercv.

As s,,on as tlie ,ian-er was pa> E-vtit pacilied. the Caliph Otliinai

lans. Ait.r the disastrous wars lelated in the la>t liook ..f the preced- ing and the first of the present Volume, the African states had, during the sixth century, sunk into a condition of helple.« decay. They were now to be rou-ed from their stupor liy the .■lamorou> war-.ay ,.f Arabia.

A> soon a. Saad htid settled the affairs of Egvpt after his reinstatement in office, he be- gan to prepare I'or his contemplated African campaiijii. \\\ army of forty thousand Arabs, fully eipnppeil, mostly veteran soldiers, well supplie(l with camels for the march across the de>ert, wa< mustere.l on the border of Egypt, lookin- ..nt to the west.

A toilsome march was now begun across th<. trackless wastes of Libya. But to the Arab and the camel the doert was a native plai-e of peace and free.h.m. Arrivin- ;it the city of Tripoli, one <il the most wealthy em- porium- <if the .\fiican .oast, .Saiid began a si. ■■/.'. \ \alianl r.^i-tance, however, was ma. I.' liy the inhabitant- aii.l the Greek aux- iliai'i.s wh.i ctniie to lln^ir assistance, and the :\I..>l.ins w.iv .Iriv.n ba.k with .-evcre l._>s>es. M.anwhil.. the lu.man governor, Gregorius, arriv.'.l on the s.'eiie with an army numbering a hnn.lre.l an<l twenty thou.sin.l'men. Most of these, however, were raw recruits whom the general had gathered in Barbary for the defense of his African territories. The host, tli..udi -r.allv .mtnumb.rin- the ^ilo-lems, was bill., .■apabl.- ..f >lan.ling before the Arab v.t.raii- in batll..

■fhe tw.. armi.s m.t betbre tlie walls of TriiMili. Foi- -everal davs the conflict was

MOHA}rMEDAX ASCEXDEXCY.—OTHMAX AXD ALL

desperately renewed trum moruing till iinon, when the African sun would drive the coni- batants to the shade of their- tents. Saad dis- tinguished himself in the battle. In the part of the field where he fought the enemy was driven back with slaughter, but in other parts the Moslems were repulsed. One of the most conspicuous personages of the fight was the warlike daughter of Gregorius, who, mounted on a tremendous steed, flashing in bm-uished armor, scoured the field like Bellona.

The Roman general, unable to rout the Arabs, undertook to accomplish by perfidy what he could not do by force. He ottered a reward of a hundred thousand pieces of gold and the hand of his Amazonian daughter to any one who would bring him the head of Saiid. Hearing of this proposal, the Arab leader was induced to keep aloof from the field, and the battle went against him until what time it was suggested that he in his turn should offer a hundred thousand pieces and the hand of the same maiden — so soon as she should be taken captive — to him who would cut oif the head of Gregorius. Then the Arabs fell to stratagem. On the following moruing, pretending to renew the fight, they held most of their forces in reserve until the teated hour of noon. Then the Moslems, fresh from their rest, led by the valiant Zobeir, broke from their tents, fell upon the exhausted enemy, killed Gregorius, captured his daugh- ter, and inflicted an overwhelming defeat on his army. Zobeir, by whom the Roman gen- eral was slain, refused to accept the reward, and though he was made the bearer of the news of victory to Medina, he forebore all reference to his own deeds in reciting to the Caliph the story of the battle.

Though completely triumphant over the army of his enemy, Saiid was unable to follow up his successes. So great had been his losses that he could not further prosecute his con- quests. He was not even strong enough to retain possession of the territories which he had overrun, but was obliged, after an ab- sence of fifteen months, to return to Egypt. The expedition had been more fruitful in slaves and spoils than in the addition of ter- ritory to the dominions of Islam. In the fol- lowing year Saiid made similar expeditions from Upper Egypt into the kingdom of

JSTuljia. The people ut' that laud had been christianized by the agency of traveling mis- sionaries, who had set up the Cross as far south as the Equator. The Nubian king was compelled by the Moslems to acknowledge the supremacy of the Caliph, and to emphasize his own dependency by an annual coiitriliu- tion of Ethiopian slaves.

In establishing the authority of the Caliph- ate over the distant countries subdued by the prowess of the Arabs, it became necessary to organize provinces and to establish therein a kind of satrapial governments. In pursuing this policy. Caliph Othman appointed as gov- ernor of Syria one of his ablest generals, named Moawyah Ibn Abu Sofian, chief of the tribi' of Koreish, to which belonged Moham- me(l. Abu Sofian proved to be an able and ambitious ofiicer. During his service under Omar he had frequently sought permission of that Caliph to build a fleet and extend the authority of Islam over the seas. Omar, whose policy it was to hold his ambitious gen- erals in check, refused the permission ; but after the accession of Othman, namely, in the year 649, it was agreed that Abu Sofian should equip an armament and try the for- tunes of the Mediterranean. The outlying Asiatic islands still owned a nominal depend- ence upon the Empire of the East ; but the decadence of the government at Constantino- ple had left the insular kingdoms exposed to easy conqtiest. Abu Sofian directed his first movement against the island of Cyprus. The garrison proved too weak to make any effect- ual resistance, and a conquest was easily ef- fected. In the island of Aradus, however, the Moslems met with a more serious recep- tion. Once and again they landed, and as often were repulsed by the heroic inhabitants. With superior forces the Arabs then renewed the attack, overran the island, fired the prin- cipal city, and drove most of the native Ara- dians into exile.

In the mean time the Emperor Constantine fitted out a squadron, took command in per- son, and went forth to encounter the Moslem fleet in the Phoenician Sea. It was the first decisive conflict of Islam on the deep. Con- stantine ordered psalms to be sung and the Cross to be lifted on high as his ships went into battle. On the other side the golden

484

UMVKHSAL HISTORY. — TEE MODE J! X WORLD.

nd I

itli.-t. The kll- , as ^^■A\ a~ bv

fleet

Crescent was displayed passages of the Kmai faithful as thev be-an tie snnn >h,,wed tliat, land, a ueu pnwn- had aii-i, t„ , the suiiremacy of the iiatim,-. Tl the Emperor was either wi-eeked or driven from the scene, and (_ oii>taiitine himself barely escaped by tlight. >^uch was the bat- tle of the blasts.

The next movements of the Moslems were directed against ( 'nte and Malta. Landings were effected, citii's taken, (■nn,|Ue>ts maiie in the name of the Propiiet. Tlie island and city of Rhodes suffered a memorable assault. That celebrated Colossus, which was reckoned oiie of the Seven "Wonders of the ancient world, was broken into fragments, shipped to Alex- andria, and sold to a Jewish merchant.'

Soon afterwards a second sea-fight was had with the Christians in the Bay of Feneke, less decisive in its results than the so-called Battle of the JIasts in the Sea of Phoenicia. Subsequently the Arabs coasted along the shores of Asia Minor, crossed the Hellespont, and flaunted the emblem of Islam within sight of the turrets of Constantinople. Thus in a few years did the inflamed followers of the Camel-driver of Mecca, s])ringing, as it were, from the parrli.d san.ls of the desert, inspire.l with the sullen dn-nia of Fate and the rapturous vision of Paradise, rear their victorious banners over the ruins of the most famous states of anticjuity.

Ominous was the accident which now be- fell the Caliph Othman. Mohammed had had a ring. At his death he gave it to the vener- able Abu Beker. After his departniv the sacred relic passed to Oniai-, and fmni him to Othman. It cou-sisted of a baml of silver, in- scribed with the words, " Mohaninieil. the Apostle of Allah." One day, while gazing into a linink. Othman drop|ieil the ring into the water. The sti-eam was seandied in vain; the relic could not be found. It was the sig- net of authority. Great was the dread wliich fell upon the superstitious Arabs on account of this irreparable loss.

' The fragments of the frreat bronze statue are said to have Ijeen so many and lieavy that it re- quired a caravan of nine lumdred camels to trans- port them across the desert.

It came to pa>s that since the days of Abu Beker the lioi.k ut' Al Koran had become cor- rupted liy the interpolation of many spurious passages and false versions. Violent disjmtes arose among the teachers of Islam as to what was and what was not the true Koranic doc- trine. The .piaiivls of the doeloi-> b.-eanie a scandal t.) the faith, and Otlinian ua.- impelled to correct the ai)Uses by authority. A council of the chief ^Moslems was called, and it was decreed that all the copies of the Koran, ex- cepting one only which was in the hands of the old jn'iucess Hafza, widow of ^lohammed, and which was recognized as genuine, should be burned. The precious volume of the widow was then used as the basis of seven carefully made transcripts, and one copy of the authen- tic original thus established was ordered to be placed for preservation in the seven cities of Mecca, Yemen, Damascus, Bahrein, Bassora, Cufa, and ^Meilina. All othei-s were given to the flames. Wherefrom the careful Othman received the title of the Gatherer of the Koran.

The Caliph was already in his dotage. For several years his secretary, named 3Ierwan, had had an undue ascendency over the ol<l mau's mind and was indeed the master spirit in the government. Two other circumstances tended powerfully to render the administration unpojnilar. In the first j)lace, during the quarter of a century from the death of [Mo- hammed, the true moral enthusiasm of his followers had .somewhat abated. The motives of action which impelled the leaders of Islam were more worldly, less sincere. Of coitrse the fiery zeal for the propagation of the faith still linrned in the hearts of soldier and civil- ian, liut tJie dross of per.sonal ambition and the cros.-purposes of enmity and jealousy pre- vailed over the higher principles and impulses of the first believers. In the next jdace, the personal and administrative character of Oth- man was of a kind well calculated to offend and incite the faithful to disconteni. ; )thinan had assumed a bearing more haui;hty than that of his predecessors. His expenditures of the jniblic money were unreasonably lavish. He wasted the treasures of Islam tijion friends and favorites, many of whom were unworthy of respect. To the parasites of the court he gave money without stint. The ambitious secretarv received a gift of more than five

MOHAMMEDAX AsrEM)£ycy. — UTHJlAy AM) ALL

xiiiiM*MiJ»r!Sgfa ,»if

:!;:lili!::i;|!j::l!!ls:i:t:i!ll!li:;!il:iii:!!i!J!lll;!i:!ii:iL:L

4S(;

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

w..ul(l 1 patieiici people.

tlinii.un.l .liiiuv-, thr .lonativc hrmg

llr.l ..lit nfllir >l".il- nf Africa. ^nr

le haii-litv nl,| iinli-iilat.- Uimik with the critiri>i,i~ an.l r,„„|,laii,t.- nf his His coiidurt ill ivinoviiiL: tlu/ ahie Aiuru from the -nvmim-.-liii. ..f K-ypt aii.l the appniiitninit in hi^ ^Lail of Saa.l, his own foster Un,ther, ha.l hii.l the fniiialatioiis of distrust iu the begimiiiig of his administration. Other removals of faithful officers had added to the discoutent, and now, for the first time in the history of Islam, were hear^l the niiit- terings of revolt and mutiny.

Accidental circumstances fired the train of rebellion. On a certain occasion the Caliph went into the pulpit of the mosque and de- fended himself auainst the charges which were freely circulated. He declared that the money in the public treasury belonged to Allah, and that the Caliph, as the successor of the Prophet, had a right to distribute the funds in what maimer soever he would. Hereupon a certain veteran Moslem, named Ammar Ibn Yaser, who had been one of the companions of the Prophet, spoke out openly in the mosque, contradicting what the Caliph had .said. For this he was attacked by the kinsfolk of 0th- man and shamefully beaten until he fainted away. When the intelligence of this outrage was spread abroad the smouldering elements of sedition were fanned into a flame.

At this juncture a certain leader arose, being a converted Jew of the name of Ibn Caba. Knowing the distempered spirit of the people he went aliout inciting to revolt. He visited Yemen, Hidschaf, Bassora, Cufe, Syria, and Egypt, denouncing the government of Caliph Othmau and inviting the multitude to dethrone their sovereign. He advised that a fictitious pilgrimage to Mecca be undertaken ■with the ulterior object of collecting an army against the government. It began to be said that Ali was the rightful potentate of Islam, and that the reign of Othman had been a 'usurpation from the first. This was done, 'however, without the connivance of Ali, who remained faithful to Othman.

The seed sown by Ibn Caba took root and grew and flourished. Bands from all parts of the country began to assemble at iledina. Encamping at a distance of a league from the city, the insurgents sent a message to the Ca-

liph, dcinaiidln:;- that he should either refoi-m tile aliu.-c- lit" hi> LiTivernment or abdicate the throne. S(, critical became the situation that Utliniau was oiiiiged to seek the services of Ali as a mediator of the people. The latter agreed to um^ his influence for jieace on condi- tion tliat till' Caliiih would denounce the errors of his reign and make reparation for the wrongs which he had inflicted. The aged Othman was obliged to go into the mosque and make a public confession of his sins, and to ofl'er prayer to Allah for reconciliation and forgive- ness. The multitude was quieted, and a tem- porary peace secured.

Ill a short time, however, the Caliph, act- ing under the inspiration of his secretary, who had been absent from Medina during the re- cent crisis, returned to the old abuses; and the people, learning of his perfidy, again rose in revolt. Ali refused to interfere ; for Othman had broken faith. When the rebellion was about to break into open violence, the Caliph again came to his senses and eagerly sought to maintain the peace. He implored Ali to lend his aid in placating the multitude. The latter finally agreed, on condition of a written pledge, that the abuses in the government should be corrected, to go forth again and per- suade the people to desist from violence. Saiid was removed from the governorship of Egypt, and the popular Mohammed, son of Abu Beker, was appointed in his stead. The new officer set out for Alexandria, and affairs at Medina again assumed a more peaceable aspect; but while Mohammed was on his way to Egypt, one of the slaves of Merwan, riding by, was taken, and upon his person a dispatch was found <lirected to Saiid, and signed by Oth- man. The former was directed by the latter to seize jMohammed on his arrival in Egypt, and put him to death ! Thus had a double treachery been perpetrated by the government at Jledina.

Mohammed at once marched back to the capital. Othman was confronted with his let- ter, but he denied all knowledge of its compo- sition. Suspicion fell on Merwan, but the Ca- liph refused to give up his secretary to the vengeance of the people. A great tumult arose in the city. Ali and other patriotic INIoslems sought in vain to allay the excitement. The insurgents, led by Mohammed and Ammar

MOHAMMEDAX ASCEXDEXCY. — OTinLiX AXD ALL

Ibn Yaser, broki- into the Mosijiie, •winre Othmaii, uuw ei-hty-twn years ut' a-e, >at reatling the Knraii. By .-<ime he was struek with clubs ami by others pierced with swoi-ils till he was dead. The treasure - h<.iu.>e was plundered, and the body of the mur<lered C'a-

As simn a- it was iviiown tliat vengeance had done it~ wurk, the rity l,ceanie tir^t calm and then r.'iH ntant. Tlie magnanimous Ali gave pul>lic rxjiri-,-siou to liis sorrow, and re- buked liis sons for not having fought more bravely in defense of the dead Calipii. It a[)- peared, moreover, that the treacherous letter to the emir of E-ypt had really been written by Merwau for tlie purpose of hastening the revolution; for he, in the mean time, had se- cretly abandoned the cause of Othman, and gone over to the insnroent^. Thus in the year A. D. (355, the thirdCaliph of the .^loham- medau states ended an unpopular reign with a shameful dcatli.

Thouuli no >urcc~~or was named by Oth- man, the [lopuhu- voice at once indicated Ali. But several candidates appeared for the vacant Caliphate and the delegates wdio came to ^Medina from the various parts of the iloslem Empire were clamorous for their respective favorites. From the first, bowever, it appeared that the election of Ali Ciidd hardly be defeated. He was liy birth the Proplict's cousin ; by mar- riage, his son-iudaw. He was courageous, elo- quent, and liberal. He had reputation l)otb iu tbe field and in the cabinet. It was per- ceived, moreover, that his election would es- tablish the crown in the House of ^Mohammed ; for Fatima, the Prophet's daughter, was the wife of Ali, and the mother of all the liiiral descenilants of Abdallab's son. The chief of the O]iposiug candiilates were Zobeir, avIio had distinguished himself in the war with Barbary by the slaying of Gregorius ; Telha, who had been one of the electoral council appointed to choose a successor to Omar the Great, and Moawyah, the satrap of Syi-ia.

Medina was tbrown into great excitement on the occasion of the election. Nor might the choice of a new Caliph be postponed ; for the people were clamorous for a new ruler. The leading men pleaded with Ali to accept the office, and he was disposed to yield to their entreaties; but he refused, as in the elec-

to l.il

indei>endence and justice to all. 'fh./ clirtion was held iu the mosque of ^ledina. Tho choice fell on Ai.i, and the other .-andidates came forward and gave their ri-lit hands in token of allegiance. Moawyah, Jiowever, was not present at the election, and his liiinily, the

tribe of Ommiah, withdrew as s( as they

perceived the result of the eleetion. It was .loubtful also whether the pled-e -iv.n by Zobeir and Telha was any thin'; more than a superficial recognition of what they were un- able to prevent. Their merely nominal loyalty w-as soon discovered iu an eflijrt which they made to ensnare Ali iu difficulty by advising him to investigate the assassiiuition of (hhnian and to punish the perjietrators (,f that deed. Thi>, if undertaken, would lia\c iiopelessly eudiroiled the government with ,-ome of its most able supporters. Ali imidently adopted the jiolicy of letting the dead pa,-t bury its de.ad ; nor did he omit any niea.-ure which wisdom could dictate to j.iopitiate the iavor of the tribes of Koividi and Onniiiah, which had so strenuously su]ipoited Moawyah fir the Caliphate.

Ali ba.l the genius to ,b-eover an-l ihe will to eoi-rect the governmental abu.-e< whii-h had

sprung u}) during his predi ssor's reign. He

liegan his work by reforming the provincial governments. The subject states of Islam had received as their governors at the hands of Othman a class of favorites who, as a nde, had little fitness foi- their ottiee. It hecanie the duty of Ali to disi.laee these worthles.s satraps and to ajqioint others in their stead. In the performance of this duty he disj^layed his usual courage. Notwithstanding the tem- porizing advice of his counselors he proceeded to depose the incompetent and to put the faith- ful in their places. Strenuous efl!brts were made to retain ^Nfoawyah in the governorship of Syria. His wealth and influence were so great as to make him a terror to the timid advisers of the Caliph. But the disloyalty of Moawyah was so manifest that Ali could not blink the situation without jeoparding his own authority.

The governor of Syria had recently dis- played one of the bloody garments of 0th-

UXTVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

man in the mu^-inu- "f l)aiiiaM.'U.- ami liaii ex- horted the Syrians in ilcniaml tin- inuii^linu-nl of the wrctchw wiui had .-hiin th< ir .-nveivigii. To permit Moawyah tci ri-tain authority in the East was a virtual abdication on the joart of All. A new c-ataloirui' of governors was accordingly niadi- i>ut. and ilir ntii<-i-r< so ap- pointed were at oucf .-rut to iliuir n-spt-rlive provinces.

These measures were attmdeil with much hazard. The new officers were either not ac- cepted at all or received with aversion and distrust. The deposed governor of Arabia, Felix, resigned to his successor, but carried off the treasur.'s (rf the province to Medina and delivered tlieiii to Ayer-ha, who was of the l)arty of the malcontents. The new governor of Bassora found his subjects in such a state Df eruption that he was obliged to retire from the citv, and was glad to etK-et his escape. Amniar Ibn Sahel, who had received the satrapv of Cufa, found the people of his province in ami-, >uppi>rting the former gov- eriinr, whom Otliinau had appointeil. Saiid Ibn Kais, who had received the governorship of Egypt, was met by multitudes who de- manded that tlie murderers of Othman should tii-t he [lunlslird, ami pio\ incial governors app.-intr.l aftrwanl.-. Urn Kai>. like the rest, unable to suppiu't his claims by fcjrce, returned to ^Medina. Xor did lietter success attend the effort of Sahel Ibn Hanif to install himself in the goveriioi-hip of Syria. Sn c.inpletely were the people of this proyimx- under the influence of Moawyah, that they drew their cimeters on the very borders, and forbade the satrap to set his foot within their territory. It thus happened that four out of the five provincial governors wen- oMIliciI to i-cturu as it' ti-Diu a fool's erran.l into foivi-n parts, and procnt th.niMJvc. cnq.tv handed to the Caliph.

It ua- nnu .-vidcnt that allhirs had reached a ci'i-i-. -\li di-patched a messenger to ^Moa- wvali dcniandiu'j hi- alh-^iance, and the Syrian guverm.r .-eiit hack to Mclina hv the hands of au officer a scaled nn->ive; but when the letter was ojiencd it wa- found to contain not a word. Sii,-h a ni..ckery could not he (Jther- wi,-e niterpreied lliaii as a cliallenge to battle.

Moawvali ini liately ]irepared for the

conriict. ' He liun- up in th.' mos,|ue of Da- UuiMMis th.' binndv vc.-t -f Otliinau. an.l hy

his ascemleney over the pa.-^ious of the Syr- He made a ]iul)lic declaration in the name of Allah ;ind the Trophet that he was guiltless of the blood of his predecessor. He then disjjatched mes-sengers into all the jirovinces, demanding that the true believers should rally around the emblem of Islam.

Meanwhile, Ayesha, Znbeir, and Telha withdrew with their confederates fr.mi .Me.lina and made their head-quarters at Mecca. The birthi)laee of the Prophet became the .seat of a conspiracy for the dethronement of his succe.s.sor. Aye>ha was the leading spirit of the great relielli(.n. Supported by the two powerful fiimilies of Koreish and Ommiah, she sent out couriers inviting the coriperatiou of those governors whom Ali would have de- posed and inciting the people of the provinces to insurrection. In a council which was held at ]\Iecca, it was resolved that the rebellious army, under the leadership of Telha, should march to Bassora and make that city the base of future operations against the Caliph. At the same time the following proclamation was prepared by Ayesha and truini)eted through the street- of ."\i.'cca:

'•In the name of the -Most High God. Ayesha, ^lother of the Faithful, accompanied by the chiefs Telha and Zobeir, is going in person to Ba.ssora. All those of the faithful who burn with a de.-ire to defend the faith and avenge the death of the Caliph Othman, have only to ]ire>ent themselves and they shall be furnished with all necessaries for the journey."

The retirement of the insurgent host from ]\Ieeca was not unJ'ke the embarrassed move- ments of the Priphet and his friends in the earlv davs ' f Islam. Ayesha, mounted on a camel, led the way ; init the princess was dis- tracted with sui>erstitious fears. On arriving ;it Bassora the gates were closed against her and her arniv ; for the ])eople of the city were divided in tiieii- allegiance, and the party of Ali had gained the ascendency. Some went forth and joined the camp of Ayesha, and skirmishing began between the two factious. ^Meanwhile, a message was sent to ^Medina to know whether Telha an.l Zobeir ha<l freely a-ent,d to the ele.-tiou of Ali or had acted

MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDENCY.— OTHMAN AND ALL

4^9

under coiiipulsi.m. While this business was pending, however, the partisans of Aj-esha broke into the city, killed the governor's guard, and obtained possession of his person. By this means the party of All was suppressed and Bassora remained in the hands of the rebels. The latter conducted themselves with more pruilence than was to have been ex- pected, for they forebore to persecute the adherents of the Caliph, seeking to win them from their allegiance by kindness and blandishments.

All was not idle in the emergency. Being an orator, he harangued the multitudes from the mosque. There was, however, less enthu- siasm for his cause in the city than a sanguine prince would hope for. Still the people came to his standard, and when two learned doctors of the law made a solemn declaration that Ali was in no wise implicated in the murder of Othnian, the loyalty of the peojile was kin- dled to full heat. Taking advantage of the uprising, the Caliph marched forth from the city and proceeded against Bassora. He sent word to Abu Musa Alashaii-, governor of Cufa, and to the other satraps who were fa- vorable to his cause to come to his assistance ; but the ruler of Cufa was little disposed to aid a prince who had attempted to depose him from office. A reply was accordingly sent which meant either evasion or nothing at all. jNIeanwhile, the governor of Bassora, who had been put out of office by Ayesha, and whose beard had been contemptuously pulled out hair by hair, came to the camp of Ali and made a plaint of his degradation. The Ca- liph next dispatched his son Hassan and Am- mar Ibn Yaser to expostulate with the gov- ernor of Cufa and to demand a contingent of troops.

These messengers were kindlv received by the governor, and urged upon him the reason- ableness of All's demands ; but he held aloof from complying. He was for arbitration, for investigating the oflense which was charged to the Caliph, for every thing, indeed, except furnishing the troops. While the negotiations were pending, another one of the Calipli's ambassadors had struck to the bottom of the question by seizing the citadel of Cufa, scourg- ing the garrison into obedience, and sending the soldiers of the escort to stop the nonsense

which was onacti'd at the mdsque. The i)eo- Jile thcrcniion turned suddenly U> the eause of Ali. Xinr tli..usand of tjir inhabitauts followed the ambassadors to the Caliph's camp. Bassora was invested by a loyal army of thirty thousand men. Seeing the futility of resist- ance to such a force, Zobeir and Tellia would have capitulated; but the vindictive Ayesha defeated the negotiations furiieace; and the issue was decided by battle.

A severe conflict ensued om>idi- tlie walls, in which Ayesha, seated nu her camel, rode up and down among her partisans, urging them til strike for victory and spoil. After a bloody fight, in which Moslem cut down Mos- lem with no l)etter inspiration than the breath of faction, victory declared for Ali. Telba was killed, and Zobeir, withdrawing from the field, set out towards Mecca, but was over- taken at a brook and slain while kneeling down to pray. When his gory lieail was borne to Ali, the generous Calijih wejit bitterly at the sight, and bade the wretch who lirought it to carry the tidings of his bloody deed to Ben Safiah in hell! Thus perished the two rebels who had been the main supinrrt of the insurrection. As to Ayesha, she continued the fight until her camel, hacked with the merciless swords of All's men, sank to the earth and left her a prisoner. Ali, however, had given orders that no indignity should be oflered to her who had received the absurd name of Mother of the Faithful.' The spoils of victory were divided according to the rules of war, and the reliellion in Araliia was at an end.

Not so, however, with the revolt in Syria. Here the powerful ^Moawvah stood in arms and defied the authority of the (.'ulii)h. The minds of the Syrians had lieen abused with the belief that Ali was guilty of the murder of Othman, and the local power of the provin- cial governor was useil to divide them more and more widely fioni all sympathy with the govern- ment at ^Medina. Nor was ^Nloawyah ^Yanting in the subtle jtolicy peculiar to aniliitious chieftains. He sent word to Amru, the de- posed governor of Egypt, now in Palestine, to come and join his standard, ]ironiising to restore him to the high authority which he had held under the former Cali]iliate. Amru

' Absurd, for Ayesha hod ic< rhil'hm.

UXIVERSAI. HISTni;V.~THK MODKRX WOULD.

was not	iIl^l■ll^	ihl,' tu	ih.. appeal. Jom-„eyi„g	of tlie pn.phct-	^. Ali accordingly directed his
to Dam;	l.-^ru-,	h- ha.l	ail interview with Jloa-	attendani- «1,	1 II' I'l dig, and a huge stone
wvah, ai	ul i.u	hllrly ,	■a-t in his lortuiie.s with	heiii- wilh dil	ii<-iiliy overturned, the well of
tii..... ,,r	tlic n	■ImIHoi	,. Jl thu<li<eai„enerP.-	antiquity wa.	found. The army was saved
sary tor	Ali t	o c.aiti	luue ill the field in order	rn.m thir.-t am	1 liie hermit converted to Islam.
to "ket'ii	the th	rone.		In the yeai	■ f,.-)? the forces of the Caliph
For t	he pro		u of'lii.s Syrian campaign	came face to i	ace with those of :\roawvah in

■AI'TCRE OF AYKSHA BY ALI, Drawn by F. Fikfiitsher.

the Caliph raised an army of ninety thousand men. Arriving on the borders of Syria, the soldiers suffered fur water; hut a Christian monk who lived in thi' iici'.diliorhood jiroduced an ancient iian-hiihiit, -aid to have lieen writ- ten by Saint Peter, wherein it was ]iredicted that a well digged of old by Israel should be reopened by the lawful successor of the last

the plain of Seffein, near the Euphrates. The army of the enemy, led by the rebellious gover- nor and Aniru, numbered eighty thousand men. The leading generals on the other side were Ali himself and the venerable Ammar Ibu Yaser, now ninety-two years of age, of old time one of the companions of the Prophet. When the two hosts came in sight Ali attempted to se-

MUHAMMEDAX ASCKXDEXCY. — OTHMAX AM> ALL

cure jivace l\v iieuuliiuinus : hut ^Ii);i\vy:ih was iniplacaliK-, and tlit- i^sue was i^ivfU to the ile- cisiou of llu' .~\v..i(l— an.l thu decisidu was ivn- den-d in favni- ,>f the (;alii.li.

Duriu- tlK' tour ni.uith.s that ihUowed sev- eral hattles eusueil, hut the results were iudedsive. Tlie general advantage was cm the side of Ali, whose successes, liowover, wei-e chiuded i)y the loss of several ahl - otti- cers, among whom was the iiatriarch Aniniar Ihn Yaser. In one of the desuhory lights Ali sjjurreil his Steed within hearing of Moawyah, and challenged him to come firth and decide their ,|iiarrcl l,y a pci-onal comhat ; hut the wary rehel would n<it put liis life upon such a hazard. His refusal precipitated a general battle, which was fought during the night, and which resulted in the rout of the Syrian armv. When, however, the defeated insur- gents were driven to their camp, aud were ahout to he exterminated, they hoisted the Koran on a lance and demanded that the dis- pute shoidd lie settled by the decisions of the Book. The victorious Ali was little dispose.! to surrender the fruits of a triumph so hardly won to an arbitration which IMoawyah had many times refused; but the religious preju- dices of the Moslems were so strong that they trailed their lances in the presence of tlie Ko- ran, and would not fight against those who ai)])ealed to its decision. Au arbiter was ac- conlinglv appointed from each army, Abu Mu-a hein- chosen bv Ali and Amni bv ]\Ioawyah. ^

The amliassadors met at Jumat al Joudel, and the negotiations were undertaken. It soon appeared that Musa was overreached by the wit and subtlety of Moawyah's agent. Amru succeeded in persuading him to a dcci- .sion by which both Ali and Moawyah were to be deposed and a new Caliph elected. When, however, it came to the piroclamatiou of the lesult, and a tribunal had been erected be- tween the two armies, Musa was induced to go up tirst and to announce that Ali was ile- posed. It was then Amru's turn to declare the deposition of Moawyah ; but instead of making the proper proclamation, he ascended the tribunal and said: "You have heard how .Musa on hi. j.art has deposed Ali; I <m my part dep..s,. him also, and I adju.Ige the fa- liphate to ^Moawvah, and I invest him with it

as I invest my linger with ili it with justice, for he is the and avenger of Othman."

Great were the surprise a the announcement of this fr; Strange that a decision so ] mulgated should have )_ieeu ing force ; but the bigotry ai the age were ready to enfoi which bore the mnblaucc of ,iih.<t.ni,r was clearly a fraud, wilhtlrew his army, and [hi religious animosity betwei })owers were substituteil for

Thus it w-as that victory vanished from the firasii of

;.n ot

an agreement :li, though its 11 accordingly d hatred and

ll pposinc

orable battle, ■aih' achieved C'aiinh. The

Caliphate was jirofoundly shaken by the catas- trophe, and the influence of Ali failed away for a season. Dissensions sprang those who had been his adhi^rc party, called the Karigites, deiK Caliph bitterly for allowin- hinisel

nned

Moa

1— and with s, on the i.a

) among s. One iced the (1 I)e cir- ■u. The th— that Syrians,

a palpalile fraud, aud that its observance on the part of the Arabians was a piece of super- stiti(jus folly. The Karigites renounced their alkgiance and took up arms, and Ali w-as obliged to suppress them by force.

^learnvhile, Moawyah attenipteil to make g....<l the iiromise which he had given t.. Amru I'espectiug his resti.iration to authority in Egypt. In order to secure Ijy subtlety ^vhat he C(_iuld not accomplish by force, the Syrian governor forged a letter purporting to lie written to himself by Saiid Ibn Kai's, the governor of Egvjit, in which treacherous overtures were made respecting an alliance again.st Ali. This letter was jwrmitted to fall into the hands of tlie Caliph, whose mind was thereby poisoned against Saiid, and who appointed jMohammed, the sou of Abu Beker, to supersede him. The government of Saiid in Egypt had been as poptdar as that of .Mohannne.l proved to be, di.sta.-teful to the pc.ple. I )i.->eiisi(ms were spread abroad and revolt followed. Learning of the condition iif atiairs, Ali sent out a new governor, named ]Malec Shutur; but the latter wa- poi.nn.'.l bef .re reachin- his destination. Ailair> were thus thrown into such c.infusion that .Moawvah .lisi.atched Amru with au armv

UNIVERSAL inSTOin'.--THE MODERN WORLD.

to seize the Egyptian goveniuieut for liiinselt'. The movement was ^;lu•L■e.<st■^lI. The party of Ali was ovortlirowu. Mohammed was slain, ami his hmlv, iiirln<,Ml in the carcass of an ass, \va< l.urnt \i> a-hi's. Thus was Egypt suddenly snatchud away from the successor of the Prophet.

Moawyah now liecame more active than ever. He assumed the ofleusive, carried his arms into Arahia, ravaged Yemen, and hoisted his banner over the Kaal.a at ?*Ieera. The spirits of Ali w. IV s,, -ivatly dei.resse.l that he fell int.. iiichmrhuly, and he, who had been called ili<- Linn c.f l.dam, went about with an ab>trarlrd air cir SLLt in moody silence. At length, linwiver, he roused himself to action. lie raised an army nf sixty thousand men, and deti'rmined that .Moawyah should feel erelong the force of a staggering blow. But at this juncture the remnants of the Karigites became a factor in the political con- dition of the times. Three of the fanatic sect, meeting in the mosque of Mecca, and at- tributing the distractions of Islam to the am- bitious rivalries of Ali, Moawyah, and Aniru, resolved upon the assassination of all three of the rulers. The conspirators then separated and went to their allotted stations.

Barak, who undertook the murder of Mo- awyah, went to Damaseiis, to..k his stan.l in the m(iS(iue, and as .>io;iwyali knelt to pray, dealt him a terriiile lilow with his sword. The governor, however, was saved alive, and finally recovered from his wound ; but the assassin was taken and put to death. The second murderer, Anini, the son of Asi, re-

di, nii-tn

paired to P'gvpt, killed the I mail. the governor. This a-sassin was also taken and executed. The third conspirator, named Abdalrahman, made his way to Cufa, which was now the capital of Ali. Here he entered the house of a Karigite woman, to whom he presently made an offer of marriage. 8he agreed to L^ive lier hand on condition that her hush;ind uoiiM lirin'.:' her as a dowry three thon~and |.ieei< ot' -ilver, a slave, a maid-ser- vant, an.l the head of the Caliph Ali. All these thine-s Abdalrahman agreed to bestow.

He accortling confederates.	y took and th
selves m the their vielim.	niosipie When
upon him wi fatal wound.	One ot

nto his confidence two three stationed them- to await the coming of Ali drew near they fell swords and inflicted a tlie murderers escaped, one was slain as he was flying from the scene, ami Aliilalrahman was taken. "Let him not be tortured," said the benignant Calijih before he expired, and his orders were obeyed. Thus, in the vear A. D. C^^M), the fourth successor of th,- Pn.phet <lie,l a vi..Ient death.

The character of Ali sulliTs not by com- parison with that of any of the early ^loslems. In war he was a warricn-, in peace, peaceable. But for the rebellion of Moawyah, Zobeir, and Telha his reign would, perhaps, have been the most prosperous among those of the early Caliphs. Nor should failure be made to men- tion his patronage of letters and art ; for it was from this epoch that the Arabians began to be distinguished as poets, historians, and philosophers. Ali himself was a devotee of the Arabian Parnassus. His career through- out .showed the man of sentiment ami reflec- tion rather than the fiery zealot which was revealed in Omar. " I^ife." said the poetic Ali, "is but the shadow of a cloud, the dream of a .sleeper."

The family of the Caliph Ali emln-aced the lineal descendants of ]\Iohanimed. Ills Hrst wife, Fatima, was the Prophet's daughter, and by her he had three .sons, Mohas.san, Hassan, and Hosein, two of whom survived their father. Of his other eight wives were born twelve sons and eighteen daughters. The children of Fatima, as being of the blood of the Prophet, were held in great esteem. They were permitted to distinguish themselves by their turbans and other dress from all other Moslems. The descendants of this line were known as the Fati.mites, from the name of their great mother, and were ever regarded by the Arabians as the legitimate sovereigns of Islam. By that people the memory of Ali was held most sacred, next to that of the Prophet, and the anniversary of his death is still scrupulously observed as a solemnity liy the thithful.

MOHAMMEDAX ASCEyDEMV. — OMMIADES AXD EA TLmiES.

CHAPTER LXXX.— OMXIIA.DES AIVD FATIMITES.

fFTER the death of Ali his sou Hassan was choseu to the Calij^hate •u-ithout op- position. He was well fitted by the excellence of his character and the benevolence of his pur- poses for the sovereignty of a great state ; but the times were distracted with rebellion and turmoil, and Hassan was little disposed to war. Nevertheless, in his inaugural ceremony he pledged himself to uphold the Book of Allah, to f )llow the tradition of the Prophet, and to make war against all opposers. The penple, in their turn, pledged themselves to sujipurt his government, both in peace and in war.

The circumstances of the accession of a new Caliph were such as hardly to permit him to re- main at peace. There, on the Syrian horizon, stood the hostile figure of Moawyah. Against him the Caliph Ali, at the time of his assassina- tion, had already prepared an army of sixty thousand men. The warlike Hosein, brother of Hassan, was eager for the fight. The Caliph accordingly took the field in the first year of his reign, and marched against the Syrians.

In a shiirt time, however, his inefficiency as a general was manifest. A tumult having broken out in the army, he was unable to enforce discijjline, and treachery became rife around him. His courage failed, and he re- solved to make overtures to iloawyah. He accordingly sent to that potentate an embassy, proposing to surrender to him the Caliphate on condition that he himself should be per- mitted to retain the public treasury, and that no furthrr slnnders should be uttered against the memory of his t'ather. The first condition was fully agreed to, and the second in part. Hassan himself was not to be offended by hearing his father's name spoken with con- tempt. It was also stipulated a- a part of the terms of Hassan's abdication that he should return to power on the death of Moawyah.

Nothwitlistauding the auger of the war-

like Hosein, and notwithstanding that the people of Ciifa refused to surremler the treas- ury, which they claimed as their own, the settlement was carried into effect, and the governor of Syria became Caliph, with the title of Moawyah I. Hassan received a large revenue, and retiring to Medina found com- jsensation for the loss of power in distributing to the necessities of the poor.

The dissensions of the Empire lieiug thus quieted, and the shade of Othmau placated by the destruction of those who had taken his life, Islam had jieace. Abottt the only faction remaining to di-turb the >t:ite of the faithful were the Karigites, wlio stirreil nii a revolt in Syria and were with difficulty suppressed. They were a sect of fanatical zealots who, contemptuous of all the forms of government, attempted to esfalilisli a reign of spiritiuil frenzy over the prostrate form of reason.

The new line of sovereigns begiuning with Moawyah was known as the Ommiad Dynasty, being so called from Ommiah, the ancestor of ' the tribe to which the Caliph l>eIonged. The opposing party of princes in the politics of Islam, representing the true descendants of the Projihet, were, as already said, known as the Fatdiites.

The powerful warrior, whose ambition was thus at last gratified with the possession of the throne of Islam, now gave his attention to the arts of peace. He called about him many learned men, jioets, scholars, and states- men, many of whom were lirought from the Grecian islands, and whose culture added to the luster of the court of Damascus. But while the Caliph thus strengthened himself in the world of letters, a strange family compli- cation iutroducecl s(inie excitetuent in the world of polities. It had happened in the days of yore tliat Abu Sofian. father of Mo- awyah, had, while sojourning in the city of Taycf. liccome enamored of a Greek slave, who afterwards bore him a son. The child, being illegitimate, was named Ziyad Ibn Abihi, that is, Ziyad the son of Nobodv. But

* «, m^'m

tf!»T~?-Si T>r!

4y2

UM VERSA L JIISTOin'. — THE MODKHX WOULD.

to seize the E^sy	itian	.^rovn	miieiit for himself.
The moveiiu-iii \	as >	l<vr.--l	ul. The parly of
AH was iivfithii	wn.	.Mnh	unmed was slaio.
and his lin.ly, ii	, •!,.>,	d in	the carcass of au
ass, was l.uriit	1.1 a	dies.	Thus was Egypt
suddenly Miat.'ht,	1 aw	ay fro	n the successor of
the Pr.ii.hct.
.M„awvah now lu-	■a me	more active than
ever. llV assnu	cd t	iie oflensive, carried his
arms into Arabia	, rav	iged \	emeu, and hoisted
his banner over	the	Kaal)	I at Mecca. The
spirits of AH wi	re s(	1 grea	ly depressed that
he fell into ni.	lanr	mlv.	n,l he, who ha.l
been eallr.l llir	Lin	1 iif	.dam, went almnt
■with an ali-trac'ti	d ai	(ir sa	in m.Hidv <ilem-e.
At lenL'th, Ih.w	v\-rv	he	•oUM-,1 hilii>elf to
action. He rais	■d ai	arm\	(d'si.xty llii.usaml
men, and deteri	uue(	tliat	JMoawyah should
feel erelong the	force of a	staggering blow.
But at this Jill	ctur	' the	remnants of the
Karigitc's liccanu	a i;	rtor ii	the politiral eon-
ditiou of the t		Thi	■e of the fanatic
sect, meeting in	tl... 1	1(.H|U(	of Mecca, and at-
tributing the dis	ra.'l	..lis ,,t	Islam to the am-
bitious rivalries	.f A	i, Mk	wyah, and Amru,
resolve.l ui.dii til	■ ass.	ssiiiat	on id' all three of
the rulers. TIk	en.	-pirat,	rs theu separated

and went to their allotted statious.

Barak, who undertook the murder of ^[o- awyah, went to Damascus, took his stand in the mosi|ue, and as Jloawyah knelt to pray, dealt him a tcrrihle blow with his sword. The governor, however, was saved alive, and finaUy recovered from his wniiiid ; lint the assassin was taken and put tn death. The second murderer, Amni, thr s..n .,f Asi, re- paired t(i K-vpI, nitriv.l the ]ii(.s(iiir, and kUled the Imam Karijah, mistaking him for the goveruor. Tiiis assassin was alsd taken and executed. The third conspirator, named Abdalrahman, made his way to Cufa, which was now the capital of Ali. Here he entered the house of a Karigite woman, to wdiom he

presently agreed tn husban.t thousand vant, anil these thii

lie

of

d nn

Ali. AI o bestnw

He aerordin-ly t<».k intn his eontidenee two ciiiifederales, and the three stationed them- selves m ihi- ni(>>ipii- In await the coming of their vieiiiu. Whfii Ali drew near they fell upon him with their swords and inflicted a fatal wound. One of the murderers escaped, one wa.s slain as he was flying from the scene, and Abdalrahman wa> taken. "Let him not be tnrlur.il," said the benignant Cali]ih before he expired, and his orders were obeyed. Thus, in the year A. D. 660, the fourth successor of the Prophet died a violent death.

The character nf Ali suiters not liy com- pari.M.ii with that of anv nf llir rurlv :M,"i.slems.

Li u But

-Mna

his reiu-n wi

ist prosperous among

,s. Nor should failure be

eeable. Zobeir, ia]is, have been se of the early e to men- tion his patronage of letters and art ; for it was from this epoch that the Arahiaus began to be distinguished as poets, historians, and philosophers. Ali himself was a devotee of the Arabian Parnassus. His career through- out showed the man of sentiment and reflec- tion rather than the fiery zealot which was revealed in Omar. "Life," said the jioetic Ali, "is but the shadow of a cloud, the dream of a sleeper."

The family of the Caliph Ali embraced the lineal descendants of ]Mohammed. His first wife, Fatima, was the Prophet's daughter, and by her he had three sons, Moha.s.san, Ha.s.san, and Ho>eiii, two of whom survived their liiiher. Of his other eight wives were born twelve sons and eighteen daughters. The children of Fatima, as being of the blood of the Prophet, were held in great esteem. They were permitted to distinguish themselves by their turbans and other dress from all other Moslems. The desceiulants of this line were known as the Fatimites, from the name of their great mother, and were ever regarded by till- Arabians as the legitimate sovereigns of Islam. By that people the memory of Ali was li.'ld mo.st sacred, next to that of the I'rnpliit, and the anniversary of his death is >iill M-nipulously observed as a solemnity by.

*.*»'.'»*'^.«il».^\*^»>>^r»>^»^#

m-^.

csy jiowT'sa -:9^'h^ijsrjii£i^^»i sf^rfi

MOHAMMEDAN ASCENnE^'Cy. — <)MMIADES AM) EAUMITES.

^)-.'

CHAT^TER LXXX.— 0M\IIA.DES AIsJO FA.TIMITES.

'''. tia not

■:-:. U,

[.■iiimi , Hi-iiist

:;:-! tiltir

.•rR. lie

:,,tWof

FTER the death of Ali his suu Hassan was choseii to the Caliphate without np- positiou. He was well fitted by the excelleoee of his character and the loiievoleuce of his jiur- iity of a great state; but the times were distraeted with rebellion and turmoil, and Hassan was little disposed to war. Nevertheless, in his inaugural ceremony he pledp'd himself to uphold the Book of Allah, to fdllnw the tradition of the Prophet, and to make war against all opposers. The people, in their turn, pledged themselves to suppnit bis government, both in peace and in war.

The cii'cumstances of the accession of a new Calipli were such as hardly to permit him to re- main at peace. There, on the Syrian horizon, stood the hostile figure of Moawyah. Against him the Caliph Ali, at the time of his assassina- tion, had already prepared an army of sixty thousand men. The warlike Hosein, brother of Hassan, was eager for the fight. The Caliph accordingly took the field iu the first year of his reign, and marched against the Syrians.

In a short time, however, his inefficiency as a general was manifest. A tumult having broken out iu the army, he was unable to enforce discipline, and treachery became rife around him. His courage failed, and he re- solved to make overtures to Moawvah. He accordingly sent td that potentate an einliassy, proposing to surremler to him the Caliphate on condition that he himself shoukl be per- mitted to retain the public treasury, and that no further slanders should I)e uttered against the memory of his father. The first condition was fully agreed to, and the second in part. Hassan himself was not to be offended In- hearing his father's name spoken with con- tempt. It was also stipulated as a jiart of the terms of Hassan's abdication that he should ret\u'n t<i jiower on the death of Moawyah.

Nothwithstauding the anger of the war-

like Hosein, and uotwitlistanding that the jieople of Cufa refused to surrender the treas- ury, which they claimed as their own, the settlement was carried into effect, and the governor of Syria became Caliph, with the title of Moawyah I. Hassan received a large revenue, and retiring to Medina found com- jjensatiim for the loss of power in distriljuting to the necessities of the poor.

The dissensions of the Empire being thus quieted, and the shade of Othman placated by the destruction of those who had taken his life, Islam had peace. About the only faction remaining to disturli the state of tlie faithful were the Karigites, who stirred up a revolt in Syria and were witli ditlicLdty suppressed. They were a sect of fanatical zealots who, contemptuous of all the forms of government, attempted to establish a reign of .spiritual frenzy over the jirostrate form of reason.

The new line of sovereigns beginning with j\[oawyah was known as the Oji:\iiad Dynasty, being so called from Ommiah, the ancestor of the tribe to which the Caliph belonged. The opposing party of princes in the politics of Islam, representing the true descendants of the Projihet, were, as already said, known as the FAxniiTEs.

The powerful warrior, whose ambition was thus at last gratified with the possession of the throne of Islam, now gave his attention to the arts of peace. He called about him many learned men, jiorts, xholars, and states- men, many of whom weri' bioiiLiht from the Grecian islands, and whose culture added to the luster of the court of Damascus. But while the Caliph thus strengthened himself in the world of letters, a strange laraily compli- cation introduced some excitement iu the world of politics. It had happened in the days of yore that Abu Sofian, father of Mo- awyah, had, while sojourning in the city of Tayef, become enamored of a Greek slave, who afterwards bore him a son. The child, l)eing illegitimate, was named Ziyad Tlin Abihi, that is, Ziya<l the son of Nobodv. But

f- #>

	#'♦*«
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	L^
i 1

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4; 14

the bloud of his ai bau. Thi' youth himself 1)V his elo. pen,,!.. During tl

UMVKL'SAL niSTunV.

ncoti-v tolil ill .-|.itc of the

to

f the

the eourts ,,f Wiiiu. 1 liiiii -..venior of

ilf dvt'\ uir h.

ill Ik'M

h. The .f Zivad

The Calii.h Ali aj.,.' Persia, ami that i...-i accession of hi- half-lii-..tli( r to the

But the Son of Noho,ly l.y no i tened to reeo-niz,. Moawyah a- Ca latter became alanm.l at the sileilc and sent a kindly invitation I'm- him to come to Cufa. Acrijiiin-- the invitation, he was met ami emhiared by :\b.awyah, wli., thus publiely aekiiowled-ed the Governor a< his brother. An aet wa> semied by vvhirh Ziyad was made a lc<;itimate liranrb of the TIoii>o of Koreish and a priii<-e ot' the realms of I-lani.

Great was the anger of the aristocratic Ommiades to be thus scandalized l\v tlie iu- trotluctiou into their ranks of the parvenu son of a (iivrk -lavr. lint the far-i-ht.d Moawyah let fume their idle passion, for he had gained a jiowerfid frieml and supporter. Nor did the Caliph fail to make good use of his new-found brother. He sent him to as- sume authority in the city of Bassora, where a reign of anarchy and assassination had been established. The eity had become a den of thieves, and it- reputation a >teiii'h in the nostrils of Islam. To all this the Son of Xo- body put a speedy termination. Two huiiilird ruffians were put to death on the first niyht after his assumption rif otHee.

Order was at once restored. The gov- ernor was then sent to Kli'(ia»an. So e.xem- plary were his measures that quiet reigned wherever he went. As he journeyed from city to city, he made ])roclamatiou that the people -honld leave tlieir doors open at night,

])roniisiiii;- to make g 1 whatever was taken

by theft. Having reduced all Babylonia to good government, he set out for Arabia Pctra. But wdiile on his way thither he was attacked with the pla-m' and did. So u-reat had been his merit that lii< familv ri-ht^ wmv eontlrm.-d to his son Ol.oiilallali. who was made governor of Klioras-an and a prince of the empire. Another son. named Salem, was, in like man- ner, honore(l. and -' ■ L;ri at wa- his po]iularity that twenty ihoii-and eliildn n were said to have received his name. The third son,

nil-: }[<n>Ki;x mould.

Kameil, wa.^ al>o .-o mueh ilistiuguished by his talents that he \\a- made a prince of Arabia Felix, an.l hi- d. -e. ndaiit- considered it an honor to 1„. called the children of Ziyad. It thu.- happ.-ii.-d that the l.a-.-horn Son of No- body hecame the illu.-triou- Taiher of Some- body. Nature had writt.n her sign-manual above the puny statute- (,f nun.

-^loawyah kept hi- liiiih with Amru by re-

llui the latt.r did not h,ng .-urvive the recoverv of what had b..,-!, the ,,bj,ri ,,f hU ambition. In A. I). CC.:; ho ,li,d, aial I.-lani had cause to lament the fall .,f <.ne ,,f the abh-.-t veter- ans of the faith. Like manv of hi.- IV-llow- leade,-. hebe.-amein hi- .ildm.ie ..„amoredof letter., and sought by patr na-e and example t.. ha-teii the return of the dav ..f li-lit and learning.

The ivi^^n of Moawyah wa- ncited as the epoch when hostility to the Eastern Empire became a part of tb.^ .^etth'd poliev of I-lam. The warlike imjaihe- ..f tile Caliph were turned in the direction of Con-tantinople. The injunction of the Prophet to eomiuer the world still rang in the ears of true believers, and the general (luiet of the I\Iohammedan .states eucouraiieil the half-dormant desire of foreign conquest. It was now aliuost a half century since the death of the Prophet. His promi.se of full pardon for all the sins com- mitted by the soldiers who should conquer Con.stantinople was not wanting as an incen- tive of war in the brea^^ts of faithful veterans wh(j recalled with a sigli the glorious days of early Islam.

An army was ai/corilingly mustered to march against the di-iant (J reeks. The com- mand was given to the veteran Sofian, who, Avith several other aL.:(il patriot-, comjianious of Mohammed, undertook the enterpri.-e with the fiery zeal of youth. Hosein, the brother of Hassan, was given a command, and a chiv- alrous spirit pervaded the army, to which the soldiers of the Crescent had become strangers during the civil wars. The enthusia.-m of battle wa- in the raid^s, and future victory wa> re-aided a- a j'art of that necessity which the I'r.i|4iet hail jiroelaimed as the immutable law ..f the world. On the other hand, a gen- eral llavoi- of ih'cay was noticeable throughout 'he Emoire of the Greeks. Especially were

MUHAMMEDAX ASCEXVEXCY. — OMMIADES AXD EA TBIITES.

the armies which issued from the gate.> of Constautiuople fatigued, as it were, with the lassitude of decliuLug age. In no re.^pect, moreover, was the weakness of the Eustciu Empire more displayed than in the will aud character of Constautiue IV., the rfi:;uiii^ sovereign, whose chief element of grcatue^s was a famous name.

In the preceding volume' a brief reference has already been made to this effort (jf the Moslems to capture Coustantinojile. Xo ex- tensive details of the expedition have been preserved. It is only known that the Moliam- medan squadron jrassed the Dardanelles in safety aud debarked the army a few miles from the city. The Arabs with their accus- tomed vehemence began a siege, but very un- like were the battlements of Constantinople to the puny ramparts surrounding the towns of Syria and the East. The Greek capital, more- over, was well defended by trooj^s collected from many quarters, most of them veterans in the defense of cities. The en)i)loymeut of Greek fire spread terror among the assailants, to whom such explosive and portentous bombs seemed no less than the favorite hand-balls of Ben Safiah. Of course, the besiegers with their nomad armor could make no impression on the rock-built bastions of the city. So, despairing of success, they fell away t'nnu the prize which was beyond their grasji and rav- aged the adjacent coasts of the two continents. They established themselves in the island of Scyzicus, and from time to time renewed the conflict through a period of two years.

As the war continued, the forces of the Moslems were gradually wasted. On the other hand, the courage of the Greeks was revived when it was seen that they only had been able to interpose a bar to the progre.^s of Islam. By aud by they marched forth with their forces and pursued the Mohammedans, inflict- ing several defeats. Moawyah was first driven to act on the defensive, and then compelled to seek an expensive peace. A truce was estab- lished for thirty years, and the Caliph agreed to pay the Emperor an annual tribute of three thousand pieces of gold, fifty slaves, and fifty Arabian steeds.

In the mean time the Caliph had grown old. The compact still existed with Hassan iSee Book Tenth, nnl,' p. 3s3.

that the latter shoiil.l ,- ment on the death of > the Caliph's eldest sou, \ tor to secure the succe the vear 669, the exeni Hassiii ended his careei

It tl

serene frame of mind, calmly consigning his murderers to the mercies of Allah, liel'ore whom they must presently stand, stripjied of all disguises.

The politic Yezid refused to marry her whose crime had opened to him the way to the throne;

but lie procured her .-ilr with laiuv gifts of

money and jewel>. TlioiiL^h Ila-siu iiimself was destroyed, his family was by no means ex- tinguished. He left as liis eontribiition to the House of Fatima fifteen .-oi,,. ami five <laugli- ter.«. One of his man-iage- lia.l lieen with the daughter of Yezdeginl, the' la>t king of Per- sia, and the expiring glory of the Sassanidte was lilended with the proiihetic blood of Islam. A lew years after the death of Hassan, the celebrated Ayesha, wli.> had survived the death of .M..hauinied f.rty-seveii years, and by the perpetual feuds sjiringing from her jealousy of

Fatima had kept	he con	rt of iledina constantlv
embroilec	, expir	^d, A.	D	678	She left no
offspring	nor di	1 any	of	the c	ther wives of
the Prophet, exc	e]iting	on	ly F:	tinia, transmit
his name	to post.	ritv.
It will	be rei	lembel	e.l	how	the unpopular
Al.lallah	Ibn S:	a.I att	ell	,.ted	to make good
his claim	to le:	der-hi	, 1	y th	i conquest of
Northern	Africa	and	h.	w he	failed before
the walls	of Trip	.li. A	ft.	■wart.	s the attention

of the iSIoslems was absoilieil in the civil wars, and then in the rontest with Constantinople. Thus for a while the African enteriirise was

abaiid d. The foothold which Islam had

gained .111 tlie coa>t west of Egypt was broken,

aliiio>t re>trieted to the valley of the Xile.

Aftta- the tailure of his war with the Greeks, Moawyah determined to devote the energies of his old age to the recovery of what had lieen lost on the African eoast. To tliis end an arinv was .n-ganized and [.huvd under eoinniaiid of

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

t;Er=;;,c:^,;'%'v'fe?,i.- ^ -j v \ nf" ^I'^u <. -w' -k^^V .'^T^-Jni^,,

MOHAMMEDAN ASCEXBEyCY. — OMMIADES AXD FATIMITES.

A'M

departed from Damascus to enter on his cam- paign. His first movement was dii'ected against the province of Cyreuaica, and its capital, Cy- rene. Tiie city was besieged and taken, its walls thrown down, the country concjuered.

From the borders of this province Acbah then continued his march to the west. Through dense and serpent-haunted \yoods and trackless wastes of sand, he pressed onward to the site of ancient Carthage. Here he chose a heav- ily wooded valley as the place in which to found a city which should serve as the head- quarters of Islam in the West. Nor has tra- ditidn tliilr,! to nenrd Ikiw Acbah went forth into thr (lank wilduruess, infested as it was with lions, tigers, and serpents, and conjured them to fly to other jungles. " Hence ! " said he; "avaunt, wild beasts and serpents! Hence, quit this wood and valley ! " Then they fled to parts unknown.

When the news of the progress of Acbah was borne to ]Moawyah, he added the newly conquered countries to the province of Egypt, and appointed Muhegir governor. But the action of the Caliph was based upon ignorance of the vast extent of the territory which Ac- bah had overrun. The latter had meanwhile established himself in his new city and exer- cised authority over the surrounding country. When Muhegir arrived in Egypt, he became desperately jealous of the fame of Acbah, and slandered him in letters to the Caliph ti> the extent of securing his recall and deposition from his command. The valorous Acljah, however, indignant at the injustice done him, hastened to Damascus and made so manly a remonstrance that he was at once reinstated. Returning by way of Egypt he found that Muhegir had used the interim to destroy, as far as possible, the results of the conquest. Acbah accordingly deposed him from authority and placed him in irons, and then went about to remedy the mischief which he had accomplished.

In a short time he had reduced the country to such a state of .jiiirt that he w-as able to re- sume his work of roiiijui'st in the West. From the frontier which he had already established at Crerwan, he marched into Algiers, the an- cient Numidia, and setting up the banners of Islam, compelled the barliarous tribes to rev- erence the name of the Prophet. He then proceeded into Morocco, the ^Mauritania of

the ancients, and in like manner reduced the inhabitants to submission. .Still westward lie pressed his way until reaching the Atlantic, he rode into the salt waves to his saddle girth, and drawing his cimeter, declared that only the sea prevented him from honoring the Prophet by further conquests in his name.

In the mean time intelligence was borne to the victorious Moslem that the Greeks of the African coast behind him, as well as the sav- age tribes of the interior, had revolted and were about to overthrow his authority. His caj)ital of Crerwan was threatened with cap- ture. Returning by rajiid marches he was at- tacked in Numidia by the Berbers or Moors, who gave him great annoyance, but could not be brought to battle. On reaching his cajiital, however, Acbah found that his lieutenant Zo- hair had beaten the reliels in battle, and re- stored order in the jirovince. As soon as every thing was made secure, the adventurous governor returned into Numidia to j)unish the audacious Moors.

Meanwhile, the Greeks of the coast had joined their fortunes with the barbarians of the mountain slopes, and Acbah found a large army ready to oppose him. The leader of the Moors was a noted chieftain named Abu Cahina. When Acbah came in sight of the enemy, he perceived that their num- bers were so great as to make a victory over them impossible ; but with the dauntless zeal of a true follower of the Prophet, he deter- mined to conquer or die. He struck oft' the chains of Muhegir and gave him a horse and armor. The two then rode, side by side, into the hopeless conflict. The jMoslems fought with thinning ranks, but invincible courage. At last only a handful remained, but they faced the enemy until all had perished. The dead body of Acbah was discovered still grasp- ing his sword and surrounded with a heap of infidel slain. The destruction of the heroic band of Islam was complete.

^leanwhile, important events had taken place in the Caliphate. Tlie aged Moawyah, forecasting the end of his career, named Yezid as his successor. This act was in violation of the precedent established by Mohammed and oliserved by Abu Beker, Omar, and Othman. It was a direct eff"ort on the part of Moawyah to make the erown of Islam hereditary in his

LM\i:i:sAi. iiisTony. — Tiu: Moni:i:.\ woin.n

family — to substitute tiie ]>iiiic'i]ili- n for the rigiit uf elwti.m. S,i,-1, a p counter to ail the niaxiiii> nl' Aialiiaii

tlie variuus |ii-nviiu-e> to appcjiut ilelegates wIki should perform the art <,f fealty to the j)riiu-e Yeziil, nearly all the re-icms made a favor- able response, anil the prince was ai-knuwl- edged as the lepn ,-entalive <i|' die (Jmniiadr-

Thu> was e>lal.li~lied bv llie will and power of .Moawyah th.. .lynasly .,f the lIon.~e of Oni- miah, I'roni which fourteen Caliphs were des- tined to arise.

The instituti.in of a regular court, after the manner of the Ka-t. liad now becnie an es- tabli-lied fact in the Caliphate. Th.- stern de- meanor of the primitive successors of the Prophet relaxed in the soft airs of Dama.seus. The transformation from the au.stere rajiine established by Abu Beker and Omar was mostly effected during the reigu of ^Nloawyah I. Already before the death of that poten- tate, his liouseholil and t;(iveiiinient, in the luxurious capital of Syria, had a^unied the typical a.spect of the courts of the East. The plaiu food, siiujile garb, and severe manners of the early JIo.<lem rulers yielded to the in- fluences of ea-e and opulence, and the exem- plary virtues (if the first Caliphs were no longer regarded as the passports to Paradise.

Superstition still held sway over the minds of the greatest. It was a part of the policy of Moawvah to make Damascus one of the .sicred eiiie- of 1-lam. To this end he con- ceived the pioje.l of transferring from Medina .«onie ,,f llle relies mo.t .<arLvd in th.- eves of true l,eli,.ve,-. Amnn- the obj.vts to be re- moved wen- the walkin- stalf of the I'lophet an.l the pnlpit fn.m wliieli he u>r,\ to di-eoui-e to the penpl,-. Tlu- >talf was found aiid trans- ferred to the n.'W capital, but when the ].ulpit was about to be removed an eclili.~e of the

To see the >tar< in daytime was too much even for Moawvali, and the pulpit of the Prophet wa- all.'.ued to i-emain in .M,-dina. Feelin.j his ,.nd approa,-!, .Moawyah siim-

his parting injunctions. In A. J). f.T'.i, bein- then in the twentieth year of his reign, the

gn-al	Cali	.h Wtls,-athere,l to 1	is ihthel	<. His
sepnl	■her	was niade at Dam;	M'Us, wh 1 .■.,,.;...	eh had ,.)■ tl,,.
.MoIk	> .Mo	Ian Kmpiiv. (ire:	1 i.ipii.i t was ll his ,le,	ol tlie e fame Is, and
gfeal mani T	■est.d le SIR	tlie grief which th on liis dej.artnie f ce.-ion had abvad>	• true 1 r I'arad	(lie vers p..itited
to Y	.ZIIl.	He receivid the i	.yal L'aii	leiits in
the .s the	prn„		prine,.	■ame to
falh.	r's p(	• nndi r the lull pularily and the n	imi.iilse	of his won by
hi- o	\Mi al	ililiesimd ambition	s. Neve	1-thele.SS
his c	larac	er as a youth had	been -r.	ally io-
jun-,	bv 1	is associations in D	,masr„s.	aiid his

aeee,s>ii,ii to jiower at the aL;i- ot' iliirty-four

II,- enteie.l upon his reien, how,-v.-r, with many ansjiicious omens and no opposition, save from ]\Ieeca, Medina, and some of tlie towns on the Euphrates.

The jiersonal rivals whom he had most cau.se to fear were Ilosein, brother of Hassan, and Abdallah, son of Zobeir. To the danger to be a]i|in-hend((l from these princes the new Cali]ih was fully awake. A plot was made against their lives, but they escaped from Medina and fled to Mecca. "While resident here Hosein received a secret message from the city of Cufa, declaring that the pc<i]ile of that nu-tropolis were ready to acknowledge him as the rightful successor of the Pro])bet. He was informed that on going thither lie would be recognized and obeyed as Caliph.

To a.-^certain the truth <if thi->e reports a me.-isenger was sent to Cufa, who found atiairs as represt-nted, but the governor of the city hail no knowledge of the conspiracy. By some means, however, intelligence of the true state of ali;di-> was conveyed to the Caliph, who despat.-lieil Obiidallah, .< .f Ziyad, to sup- press tl„- n-volt. This .,.„eral 'ha>tened to

Cufa. took jHxsessi, f the city, killeii the

amba^>ailor of lliw-in, and scattered the con- spirators in all directions.

In the mean time the nnfoitunate ])rince, who ex]iected to reach the Caliphate by meairs

louini-ved toward Cufa. On the borders of iiabylonia he was met by a band of hor.-emen, i-eiit out by ()b,-iilallah to bring the aspir.ant into his presence. The prince was led along

MOHAMMEDAX ASCEXDEXCV.—OMMIADES AM) F ATI MITES.

to the banks of the Euphrates. Fiiuliug tliat every thing had turned against him he would fain have returned into Arabia. Those wlio had him in charge woukl gladly have shown considenUiiin ti) a descendant of the Projahet, but Obeidallah had resolved that Hosein should acknowledge Yezid or j^erish for his temerity. The son of Ali, however, chose to die rather than submit. With his small band he attempted to defend himself in his camp. Desultory fighting continued for several days. His followers fell one by one until he

le Day scpul- to the

ibe assassmatiim ot their prn: proibund impression on the minds mites. The day of his death becai versary ..f mourning, and was rail of ILl.rill. Oil thr >p..t whciv lu. cher was built, and tradition rec coming generations, the omens and portents wherewith Allah threatened the world when the descendant of his Apostle was slain.

Among those whom the dying .Moawvuh had named as persons to be feared hy liis successor was Zobeir's son, Abdallah. The caution was

^^..^s^^m^^>:j^-\MM' "

was left alone. At last he .sank to the earth, bleeding with thirty wounds, and died under the swords of his assailants. His head was then cut off and carried to Obeidallah in Cufa. After being displayed to that savage warrior the bloody trophy was sent to the Caliph Yezid at Damascus, who either through real or affected grief denounced the murder of the prince and cursed Obeidallah as the son of a Greek slave. The Caliph treated the family of Hosein with consideration, and thus in some measure made atonement for the destruc- tion of the grandson of the Prophet.

well taken ; for after the death of Hosein the tribe of Hashem proclaimed Abdallah as Ca- liph, and he was recognized as such by the people of Medina and Jlecca. The prince thus made conspicuous was ambitious and war- like. The party of Fatima, enraged at the murder of Hosein, rallied to the support of Alidallah, and a seer out of Egypt declared that the Prophet Daniel had i.redicted for this j prince the honors of royalty. The Caliph I Yezid became alarmed at the couditiim of af- I fairs in Western Arabia ; but pretending to i despise the presumption of Abdallah, he sent

jUU

UMVKRSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

woril t(i tlie governor of Mt-diim tn ].iit a sil- ver rdlhir aroiiiul the neck of tin- iinlcndcr, should he not di'sist from his claim-, and >ciid him in fetters tn l>ai]iaM-u>. The -(ivern..r, however — as did alsn \i\- >ui-ct-Mir — iearcd tu undertake the duty x\hirh V.zid had assigned. Xor did the task allnti.Ml hy thr Caliph to his subonlinate become less (inrrMii> when the sto- ries of his own immoral lifi' "'le circulated among the abstemious and continent Arabs. The unpopularity of the rei-ning prince be- came so great that an insurrection broki' (Jiit in Medina, an.l thr few adherents of Yc/id were obliged for safety to >hut tliem-elvc- up in the palace ..f the gov.rn..r. It wa. with great ditficiilty that the Caliph .-ccured an to go against the insur- .eteran Meslem assumed edition departed to sup-

the P

11 calculated to

army and a -e, gents. At len.tl command, and tl press the revolt.

Meanwhile the peoph trench around the city fend theni-elves to the arriveil he summoned tl but for three successive refused. On t

if :Me.lina digged a nd pr.'pared t<, de- ist. When .M.>lem place to surrender, •e days the demand was th ;\Iedina was attackeil and carried by storm. The friends of Yezid were liberateil from the governor's palace, and the city given uji to indiscriminate shiughter and pillage. Having completed the work of destruction, jMe.slem started on tlie march for Mecca, but died before reaching his destina- tion. The command devolved upon Hozein Ibn Thamir, who jiroceeded to the city and began a siege. ]''or f /rty days the walls were battered by the Syrian engines. A part of the Kaaba was broken down, and the rest burned to ashes. The .Meeeaii- were brought

to the Ic death o

Ye,

Tl

Ho/.ein, an.l demau(h'd that since the ( ali|.li wa> no iiior.-, hostilities should come t.. an < the news was confirmed the ■d to a truce. The siege was the Syrian army, accompanied r ( )nnniah, retired to Damas- cus. Nor did the true believers of the party of Fatima fail to ascribe the sudden death of the Cali])h to the avenging hand of Allali ; for the pillage of ^Medina, the sacred home of

id. As

aban.h.ned. ai by the famil\

M.

1 II., s.,n of Ye/.i,|, was at once prorlaimed Caliph. lb- wa> still a mere youth, weak in Ixxly and in nnnd, liekle in conduct, and somewhat heretical in lielief. For his teacher, Almeksus, being of the sect of the Kadarii, taught the freedom of the will as against the doctrine of jiredestinatiim, and the young Moawyah indiilied the danger- ous heresy. He was afflicted with weak eyes, and obliged to avoid the daylight, from which circumstance the Arabs gave him the surname of Abuleilah or Father of the Night. For six months he nominally held the scepter and then abdicated, refusing to name a successor. This unhcanl-of proceeding greatly excited the Omndade.-, who attrilmte.l the prince's resig- nation to the influence of Almeksus. Him they accordingly seized and buried alive.

The recreant IMoawyah not only refused to name his successor, but even went so far as to denounce the Ommiad line, saying that his grandfather was a man less worthy than Ali, and that Yezid had been unfit to reign. He also very jiroperly included himself in the list of unworthies. Having thus relieved his conscience, he shut himself in a dark cham- ber and remained there until he died.

It thus became necessary for the princes of Islam to choose a new Caliph. In a conven- tion at Damascus, the election fell on ^Ierwan, the same who had once been the secretary of Othmau. It was stipulated, however, that at his decease — for he was already aged — the crown should descend to Khaled, tlie junior son of Y'ezid. Merwan gave the required jdedges and entered upon his reign at Damas- .■us. Meanwhile Abdullah, the sou of Zobeir, wa< acknowledge.! as Caliph throughout the W.-st. N.it only Arabia, but al... Khorassau, liabyjonia. aiLlKgypt, re,'..giiized him as the li'Ldtimate ruler of Islam. At the same time,

th.- 1,1 ly-miii.l.'.l Ob.i.lallah, son of Ziyad

and emir of Bassora, endeavored to obtain the Calijihate. He jileaded that the disseu- .«ions between the Houses of Fatima and Om- miah were sufficient .-aiise for the iii.lepcnd- ence of Bassora ami his own apii.iintment as Caliph. The chiefs of the city were ready to second the movement, and Olieidallah was called upon to accept the primacy, at least

MOHAMMEDAN ASCEXDEXCV.—OMMIADES AXD FATLUrfES.

until a new ruler could be legally electeil. This action, however, was soon repented. The people of Cufa, still remembering the atrocious conduct of Obeidallah in the murder of H(j- sein, rejected his claims with disdain ; and the inhabitants of Bassora, turning upon their own creature, drove him from power. He was obliged to disguise himself as a woman and fly for his life. He escaped into Syria, and perceiving the jiresent hopelessness of his situation, gave his influence to Merwan and aided in his election to the (.'alipliate. Tliis adherence of Obeidallah to the cause of the Oramiades was one of the circumstances which led to the defection of Babylonia and the transfer of the allegiance of that country to Abdallah, Caliph of the West.

The accession of Merwan was thus recog- nized only in Syria, and among the Syrians themselves a strong party arose in opposition to his claims. The leader of the disafl'eeted was a certain chieftain named Dehac Ibn Kais, recently governor of Cufa, who sympa- thizing with the politics of the people of his former province, declared for Abdallah and raised an army to support his pretensions. Merwan at once took the field against his Syrian enemies, and a bloody battle was fought, in which Dehac was killed and his army cut to pieces. Merwan returned in tri- umph to Damascus, and began his administra- tion from the palace of JMoawyah and Yezid. The great age of the Caliph and the gen- eral suspicion that he would attempt to vio- late the agreement respecting the succession led to a movement on the part of the author- ities of Damascus to secure a guaranty. They demanded that JNIerwan should marry the •widow of Yezid, and thus place himself in loco •patris to the young Khaled. He com- plied with reluctance; but in order to extri- cate himself as far as possible from the com- plication, he raised an army and set out on an expedition against Egy^rt. The campaign ■was attended with success, and the party of Abdallah was overthrown in that province. Merwan then returneil to Damascus. But scarcely had he reached the capital when news came that ]Musab, the brother of the Western Caliph, was marching upon Egypt to recover what was lost. A second time the Syrian army, led by Amru, the son of Saad,

marched against the Egyptians, ami another hard-fought battle resulted in a cniuplcte vic- tory for Merwan and the reestal)li>hiiicut of his authority in tne valley of the Nile. He appointed his son Abdalaziz governor of the conquered country, and again returned to the capital of Syria.

In the mean time the people of Kliorassau, disgusted with the quarrels of the rival Ca- liphs, chose for their governor Salem, the son of Ziyad, who was to act as regent of the province until what time the ixilitiral affairs of the Caliphate sh.iuld be settled. While Khorassan was thus virtually made independ- ent, the people of Cufa, long ill at ease on account of the murder of Hosein, sought by repentance to make their peace with the Fatimites. A society was organized, called The Penitents, embracing in its membership the principal men of the state. The whole movement had for its ulterior design the re- storation of the House of Ali to the undi- vided sovereignty of Islam. The leader of the revolutionary ])arty was Solyman Ibn Sorad, wdio had ]m-v\\ (uic <if' tlic coniiianions of the Prophet. An army was mustered, which, after passing a day and night in prayer on the spot where Hosein was murdered, be- gan its march into Syria. But Ijei'ore Soly- man reached Damascus, Obeidallah came forth at the head of twenty thcmsaiid men and scattered the revolutionists tn thi' fnur winds. It will be remembered Imw tin- In ro Acbab, on the far-ofl' plains of Numidia, was over- powered and destroyed by tlir ^Mmirish host led by Abu Cahina. The latter, alter his victory, pressed on to Cajrwan where he began a siege. At this juncture, however, ref !iforcements ar- rived, sent out from Egypt by Alidalaziz, the recently appointed governor. Every thing looked to the speedy repulse of Cahina and the restoration of Moslem authority in North- ern Africa. But in the mean time the sleepy court of Constantinople bad anmsed itself to action and dispatched an Injperial army to make common cause with the iMoors in the expulsion of the Mohammedans. Against these combined forces of < ']iri>tianity and barbarism, Zobeir, the governor ofCarwan, made a desperate but ineHectual resistance. The Moslems were defeated in battle and driven back to Barca. Crerwau was assaulted

:)()-2

UXIVEBSAL HJSTony. — THE MODEUX WORLD.

aud taken, ami all the western part.s ot the African e(jast restoivil to the condition in which they had been Ijefure the conciuest l)y Aehah.

Ju>t after the fiax'o of Solynian in Syria, the inteili-eiir,. ,,f thr h..<s of Korthern Africa was cai-rici! li> Dainax-us. It had the etlect of an eliTtrl.' -park upon the half-paralyzed ri-ht an,i nf IMaui. Fur the u-.n.'e, the Litter

Thnii-h /nlhir nro-iii/.ed the Caliph of the West, .Mriwaii >.iit firward a large army, nnder eniniuaiid nf his son Abdalnialec to assist the African governor in recovering his province. The forces of Zobeir and those of Syria were united in the Barcau desert, and an expedition was at once begun to regain the lost territories. The old spirit of the Arabs was fully aroused in the struggle with the un- believers. The Christians aud Moors were driven back precipitately upon C'Derwan. The eitv was lie-ii-. ij and retaken, aud the whiih' reiiimi reeevered fmni the enemy more quickly than they had wen it. Zeljeir was reinstated as govenmi- et' Africa, and Alnlal- malec marched back to join his fither at Dania<.-us.

In his la-t davs, the aired Merwau at-

teni

,lee

which he lue It was evidc'iit that his ..atli to transmit the crown to Khaled had l)een taken with meutal reservation. It transpired that when engaged in the strngLile fir the recovery of Egypt, ^lerwan had pmiai-ed the succession to Amru Ibn Saad eu eondltieu that that prince would aid him in the establishment of his power. Tin- iir^niise also was made in bad faith ; for the iiienarcdi all the while entertained the purp(.~i' te advance his own son, Abdalmalec, to thi' ihrnne. Circumstances favored the scheme: f'>r Abdalmalec returned iu great glory from his African campaign, and was re- ceived witli such fovor by the Damascenes that ]\Ierwan found little difficulty iu having him recognized as his successor. This act, however, hastened the exit of the Caliph and substituted violence for the order of nature. The prince Khaled reproached his faith-break- ing step-father for his comluct, and the latter denounced the prince as a sen of unchastity. Thereupon the mother who was thus insulted

thrust a pillow into the face of the feeble old Caliph and sat tipon it until he was smoth- ered to death. Thu.s, in the year 684, the Caliphate ef Damascus was transferred to Abdalmai.kc.

The new potentate was acknoweldged by Syria, Egypt, and Africa. From the first he exhibited the qualities of a powerful aud am- bitious ruler. He gave his attention to aftairs (if state aud laid extensive plans for the pro- iiKitiou of the interests of Islam. The chief weaknesses of his character were superstition and par.simony. He was a .scrupulous ob- server of dreams and omens, and his conduct was so sordid that the Arabs gave him the surname of Rafhol Hejer, or the Sweat-Stone.

Abdallah, the sen ..f Zobeir, still held the Western Caliphate, having his capital at ]\Iecca. jS'ot a little fame was added to his government by the fact that the sacred city of the Mohammedans was the seat of his au- thority. It was deemed desirable by Abdal- malec t<j establii^h in his own dominions a sec- oinl sacred place to which the faithful might diiret their pilgrimages. To this end the temple of Jerusalem was selected, and the enterprise of enlarging and beautifying the edifices on Mount Moriah and of filling them with holy relics was undertaken by the Ca- liph. The stone upon which the patriarch Jacob laid his head on the night of his heav- enly vision was placed in position to receive the kisses of true believers, even as the Black Stone of the Kaaba was saluted in the holy jdace at ISIecca. Thus did the Calijih en- deavor to divert the :\roslems from visiting the scenes which were associated with the memorv of the Prophet in the caj)ital of Abdallah.

Among those chieftains who in the city of Cufa had favored the cause of Hosein was a certain Al Thakifi, surnamed Al Moktar, the Avenger. When the emir Obeidallah sup- pressed that unfortunate insurrection, Al Mok- tar was persecuted and im])risoned. He re- ceived from Obeidallah a blow which put out one of his eyes. Being released by Yezid, he swore eternal enmity against the tribe of Obei- dallah, aud his vengeance neither waited nor slept. Finally his time came to be avenged. Before the accession of Abdalmalec, at whose court the family of Obeidallah was in high

MOHAMMEDAN ASCENDESCY. — OMMIADES AND EA'H MITES.

favor, Al Moktar had goue to 3Iecea aud espoused the cause of xlbdallah, where he fought with great bravery uutil the death of Yezid occasioued the raising of the siege. Afterwards he went to Cufa aud became au agent in the organization of a band of Peni- tents. Witii the ovurtlirow of that sect he was auain iiniii-ison(<l, but was released on the death of ilerwan. He then weut into Arabia, and became recognized as one of the strongest supporters of the House of Ali. At the head of a body of avengers he fell upon aud de- stroyed Shamar, who had commanded iu tlie massacre of Hoseiu and his friends. He slew Caulah, another of that baud, and burued his body iu his own dwelling. Others of the en- emies of Hosein met a .similar fate, until the larger number were destroyed.

Al Moktar established himself in Cufe and extended his authority over all Babylonia. The attitude which he here assumed was such as to liring iiiiou liini the hostility of both the Caliphs. Tiicy accordingly made preparations to suppress him by force. Al Moktar eutered into a correspondence with Mohammed, half- brother of Hosein, then residing at Mecca, but could not induce him to do any thing dis- loyal to Abdallah. But the suspicious of the Western Caliph were excited, aud Mohammed and his friends were thrown into prison. Al Moktar now advanced with a small army of horsemen to release his friends by force. The assailants made their way into Mecca, broke open the prison, and set the son of Ali at lib- erty. The frightened Caliph, however, was permitted to remain in authority, and Al Moktar returned to Cufa to defend himself against Obei<lallah, who was approaching at the head of a Syrian army. The latter was encountered a short distance from the city, and utterly routed by the forces of the Avenger. Obeidallah was killed, aud a large part of his followers destroyed in the flight. When the head of the slain emir was carried to Al IMoktar he struck the bloody face a ter- rible blow, as if to repay the stroke which he had himself received from Obeidallah, aud liy which oue of his eyes had been destroyed.

The Avenger was thus left victorious at Cufa. A combination, liowever, was soon formed against him, and armies were mustered to besiege his capital ; but .\1 INIoktar marched

forth boldly to meet his enemies iu the open field. A battle was fought, iu which he was defeated and driven into the citadel. Here, with about seven thousand men, he defended himself till he was slain. Thereujiou the gar- rison surrendered to IMusab, the general of Alidallah, and every man was put to the sword. The enemies of the house of Ommiah were avenged on the Avenger.

By the victory thus gained over Al ]\x(ik- tar the province of Babylonia became a de- peudeucy of the Western Caliphate. Musab, the governor, was the brother of J^bdallah, and Al)dalmalec perceived that in order to maintain his authority he must reconquer the country on the Euphrates. He accordingly mustered a large army, and leaving Amru as his regent at Damascus, set out on an expe- dition into Babylonia. No sooner, however, had the army departed than Amru, cherishing the memory of the wrongs which he had suf- fered at the hands of JMerwan, usurped the vacant seat of the Caliph and undertook to jierjietuate his authority. Hearing of this flagrant proceeding, Abdalmalec returned to Damascus, put the usurper to death, and drove his family into exile. The Caliph then again departed on his Babylonian campaign. A battle was fought with the Cufians, near the city of Palmyra, in which the army of Musab was completely routed. The emir and his son were both among the slain. It is nar- rated that when the head of Musab was car- ried to the Caliph an aged patriarch living in the castle took up his burden and said: "I am four-score aud ten years old, and have outlived many generations. In this very cas- tle I have seen the head of Hosein presented to Olteidallah, the sou of Ziyad ; then the head of ObeidaUah to Al Moktar : thcu the head of Al :\Ioktar to Musab, aud now tliat of Musab to yourself." Determiuing that the fifth act should not be added by the presenta- tion of his own head to another within that castle, Abdalmalec ordered the noble edifice to be leveled to the ground. Having done so much at the dictation of superstition, he appointed his lirotlicr Besner aud the prince Khaleil to l)e governcjrs of Babylonia and Bas- sora, and then returned to Damascus.

The next difficulty in which the Eastern Caliphate was involved was with a sect of

VNIVKRSAL HISTORY. — THE M01>I:RX WORLD.

muniMic pan ennnrni, alii whil.. tlu-M- .M..hall.l,, .„„ \vheu the latt ill arms, and AlKlalaziz to

.vn.rals -.t' ^lus.

(•>,< the iiir^urrec-tiou the t'aiiatir^ wiTc viri.. lions, iuflictiiig ou the reg- ular armv a .li^astimis drfcat. This overthrow ho\v(.-vi'}', o.Tuircd liuiinu- the absence of Mo- lialicli at Ba^sora. That general was now re- stored to the coiiiiiiaiid, aud the Separatists were soon scattered to tlie winds.

During the continuance of these dissensions

and 1)1 \y strifes the Emperor of the East

had not faiUd to avail himself of the distrac- tions of Islam. In order to save his domin- ions i'rom invasion, Abdalmalec was con- strained to add fifty thousand ducats to the annual tribute hitherto assessed by tbe court at Constantinople. By this means, however, the Caliph secured immunity, and having established his authority in all the eastern parts of his dominion, he resolved on the sub- jugation of Arabia, to the end that all the followers of the Prophet might be united in a single kingdom. An army was accordingly raised, jilaced under the command of Al IIi'- jagi, and dispatched against Blecca. Abdal- lah soon found himself besieged in the sacrc(l city. The investment continued for some time, and many assaults were made, in \\\\u-\\ both assailants and assailed suffered all the havoc of war. Aliilallah was redu.ed t.. <le.- perate extremities, Init still ]ierseveied with the courage of a true ^loslem. When most of his friends had fallen away or were slain in battle, he led fn-th the courageous few v>ho

sdd the dvin- ('ali|	h; and the enemy strnek
oH'his head with a -	word. Thus peii-lud the
valorous Abdallah,	son of Z.ibeir, Caiiph ..t
tlie West.
The fall of hi,- V	val left Al)dalmalec mas-
ter <,f the Mohainn	.•dan Empire. The onlv
emir to dis|iule hi-	-overei.ntv wa,- .\bdallai,
Ilm Tlazen,, .d' tl,	provinee of Kh.a-a-su,.
In (H-diT to intin>i.	all' thi- -ovenior. Aivial-

malec sent to him, as an earnest of what lie might expect in case of hostility, the head of the dead Caliph of Mecca. But the loyal son of Ila/.em reverently eiidialmed the gory relic and sent it home to the family of the .slain sovereign. He then compelled the ambassador of Abdalmalec to eat the letter which he had brought, and threatened to cut off his head if he did not take himself out of sight. This piece of loyal bravado, however, cost the emir dearly. Al Hejagi was called from Africa and sent witli a powerful army into Khorassan. Abdallah went bravely forth to fight, lint was met by the enemy, defeated in several liattles, and .slain.

80 signal had been the successes achieved l)y Al Hejagi that the Caliph next sent him to as.-\une the duties of governor in Babylonia. He at once repaired to the city of Cufa, spoke to the people from the door of the mosque, and gave them to understand that their turbulence aud treason would now be brought to an end. Nor was his threatening oration unbacked by equal severity of action. Beginning with the old enemies of the Caliph Othman, he proceeded with unsparing hand to weed out the elements of discontent. Among those who were singled out for de- struction was the late prime minister of the pro^•ince, the veteran Mnsa. Ibn Ncsseyr, who in order to save his life fled first to Damascus and thence into Egypt. At Bassora he was enually severe. An insurrection broke out un(ha- his despotic rule, but the same was (piieklv suppressed, and eighteen of the leaders lost their heads.

In the year t)97 an attempt was made to do away with Abdalmalec by assassination. Two <jf the Sejiaratists undertook to murder the ('ali].li, but the plot was dis,..vere<l aud the eon-pirator- ,.l,li;jed to llv tor their lives. They repaired to the town of Daias, in :\Ieso- potamia, where they organi/.eil a revolt aud took the field. The general Adi was sent aiiainst them, but was ,l,.feated and slain. In

one .if th	eir leaders killed. But
lied his n	en, and the army of the
again roi	ted. Shebih, the Sepa-
in, assum	L-d the honors of goveru-
.\1 Hejag	)uit him to flight and
s follows	rs. The fanatic then

MOHAMMEDAN ASCEXDEXCY. — OMMIADES AXD EATIMITES.

scoured Persia, rallied a uew band, and agaiu returned to the Tigris. Here, however, he was drowned in attemjjtiug to cross the river.'

The next difficulty which the governor Hejagi had to contend with was with one of his officers, named Abdalrahman. In order to dispose of the refractory general, the emii- sent him with an inadequate force against tlie Turks; but the general perceived the machi- nation against himself, revealed the plot to his soldiers, and took the field against Hejagi. The latter went forth to suppress the rebel- lion, but was signaUy defeated in two bloody battles. Abdalrahman entered Cufa in tri- umph, and was proclaimed Caliph. The Babylonians recognized the usurpation and rejoiced to be set free from the tyranny of Hejagi. The latter, however, soon collected a third army, divided the insurgent forces, drove the mock Cali))h into a fortress and besieged him, until Abdalrahman, losing all hope of escape, threw himself down from a tower and was killed.

Among the Mohammedans the emir Hejagi acquired an unenviable reputation. He is said to have caused the death of a hundred and twenty thousand people. When near his end, he sent for a soothsayer to know if any distinguished general was about to die. The seer consulted the stars and reported that a great captain named Kotaib, or the Dog, would soon expire. "That," said the dying emir, "is the name by which my mother called me when I was a child. And since you are so wise, I will take you with me that I may have the benefit of your skill in the other world." He then ordered the astrolo- ger's head to be cut oS'.

Finding himself at length freed from do- mestic enemies, the Caliph Abdalmalec sought the glory of foreign wars. He accordingly tlirew before the Emperor of the East the gage of battle, by refusing to pay any longer tlie enormous tribute which that sovereign re- ceived from Islam. This act of hostility was followed by another. The Mohammedan gen- eral Alid was sent to make inroads upon the territories of the Empire. Nor was the expe-

■Araljic tradition says tliat Shebilj was literally tlie nir.st hard-hmrtnl of all reliels. For when the l""ly was ilraircer] up an.l opened, and his heart taken out, that organ was found to be like a stone.

] dition unattended with success. Several cities were taken by the invaders, and Alid re- turned to Damascus laden with an immense amount of booty.

During the time when the attention of the Caliph was absorbed with his troubles in Bab- ylonia, the Eastern emperor had taken advan- tage of the situation to recover his ascendency in Northern Africa. The fleets of the Greeks hovered along the coasts. Armies were landed wherever the weakness of the Moslems seemed to invite attack. Zohair, the Arab governor of Barca, was assailed, defeated, and slain. Such was the deplorable condition of the po- litical aflairs of Islam in the countries west of Egypt that a reconquest of Northern Africa was necessary to lift up the fallen Crescent. To this end, in the year 696, Ab- dalmalec called out an army of forty thousand men, and sent the same, under the command of Hossan Ibn Annoman, on a campaign against the Africans. The general proceeded at once against the city of Carthage, and after a tedious siege, carried the place by storm. The walls were demolished, and a vast amount of booty, including a great num- ber of Moorish maidens to be sold as slaves, ■was added to the treasures of Islam. A short time afterwards, however, an Imperialist fleet arrived unexpectedly in the harbor, and the Moslems were expelled from the city. But the success of the Greeks was only temporary. The Arabs soon rallied and returned to the attack with redoubled fury. Carthage was again taken and reduced to ashes.

Hussau now continued his expedition along the coast, carrying every thing before him. At length, however, he encountered a formid- able rival in the princess Dhabba, who ap- peared among the Berliers as a prophetess. The nomad tribes of JIauritauia and of the neighboring deserts flocked to her standard; nor was this strange woman without the abil- ity to organize and discipline an army. A superstitious belief that their queen was di- vinely inspired added enthusiasm and audac- ity to the Moors, who attacked the army of Hossan with such fury that he was eventually driven back to the very borders of Egypt. Having thus secured a momentary liberation from foreign despotism, the Berlier prophetess exhorted her followers to reduce the country

uxiVKHSAL histi>i:y.—the m<)I>krx world.

till- Arabs tlie region The advice ,-,1, an.l the w.irk of de- Treasmes were hurled iu s were cut down ; gardens demolished ; walls leveled ties Inirued to ashes, and 1 11 t ween Tripoli and Tan-

to such a condition that not would longer be able to trav which patriotism iiad desolate ■was eagerly ari-cptrd, and tli struction lie-an. Treasures ' the earth; orchards were cut destroyed ; house: with the earth ; the whole cnuntr gier reduced to a di-crt.

These terrible measures, however, soon wrought their result. The ruin of their homes led the wild people of the devastated region to turn to the ^Moslems for protection. The hosts that had gathered around Dhabba de- serted her standard and retired to their own districts. The (pieen attempted to check the march nf Hossan, wlio was now returning with augmented forces; but she was presently defeated and taken prisoner. When brought before the ^Moslem general, she haughtily re- fused either to pay tribute or acknowledge Mohammed. Finding his fierce captive ut- terly intractable, Hossan ordered her to be put to death. Her savage head was em- balmed and sent as a trophy to the Caliph.

After his victory over the Africans, Hos- san returned to Damascus; where he was re- ceived with great honor, and appointed gov- ernor of the conquered countries. Barca was included in his dominions; but this addition of territory proved a bane to the recipient. For Abdalaziz, the Caliph's brother, then emir of Egvpt, claimed the Barean province as his own. A- Hossan was returning to the countrii> over which he had been appointed, his commission was taken away and destroyed by Abdalaziz, who did not cease from his persecutions until Hossan was brought to dis- grace and death.

The next officer appointed to the governor- ship of Northern Africa was that ]\Iusa Ibn Nosseyr, previously mentioned as a supporter of the ;\Ierwan House in Babylonia. He was already sixty years of age, but was in the full vigor of health and strength. Eepairing to the African cani]i, lie took command in the name of the Proplict aii.l his successor. On his arrival he found thr nauitry of Tunis and Algiers terrorized by the Berbers, who, from the mountain slopes, would rush down upon tlie coast, devastate, pillage, burn, and then

fly to their inaccessilile retreats. But Musa soon jiroved more than a match for the ma- rauders. He pursued the Berljers to their fastn,-s,-. and hewe.l them d.iwn by thou- sands. <ireat was the reputation which he thus achieved. He became upon the poetic tongue of Islam what Pompey the Great was to Rome after his destruction of the Cilician pirates.

]\Iu-a, like other faithful Arab conquerors, carried the swonl in one hand and the Koran in the other. The Berber tribes might choose between the two. Not a few preferred the latter, and believing ]\Ioors began to be added ti) the mixed host of warriors — Arabs, Syr- ians, Persians, Copts — that gathered around the standard of Musa. He took advantage of every situation to establish and augment his authority. He jiatronized the old tradition that the Berbers were of the same original family with the Arabs. Presently the full tide of conversion swept over the plains of Mauritania an.l Xunddia, and the Berbers by thousands took up the cry of Allah and his Prophet. Some of the tribes, however, still resisted and fought. Thus especially did the Zenetes and the Gomeres, until in the year 702 they were beaten down iu the extreme West by the victorious army of ^Musa.

The great African governor now became a patron of fleets and navies. Notwithstanding the success which had attended a similar en- terprise during the reign of ^loawyah, the work undertaken by ^Nlnsa was met with doubt and suspicion. But the veteran general was not to lie iliverted from his pnrjiose. He or- ganized a company of ship-carpenters, and a jNloslem fleet was soon launched from the dock-vard of Tunis. The armament went to sea, and for a while secured much booty. At length, however, the squadron was caught in a storm an<l dashed to pieces on a rock-bound coast. But another armament was soon equipped, and not only the shores of Africa, but the distant islands of the ]\Iediterranean, were coasted by the freeliooters of Islam. Thus were laid the beginnings of those auda- cious Moorish piracies which have ever since vexed the civilization of the world.

In the year 70.5 the Caliph Abdalmalec dieil, and was succeeded by his eldest son Wai.ed. a glance at the city of Damascus,

MOHAMMEDAN ASCEXDEXCY.—OMMIADES AX1> FATIMITES.

■which was imw the capital and cliii'f i:h'iv nf I>huu, would sliow that the Arah.- had liy this epuc'h imbibed largely of the arts and learn- ing of surrounding nations. Contact with the Greeks had contributed not a little to the de- velopment of the philosophic spirit. The political orgauizatiou was mostly copied from the Persians, and the same j^eople had contrib- uted most of all to form the manners which lieuceforth prevailed in the Arabian court. But not all of the grandeur which Islam now displayed — not even the major part thereof — should be attributed to foreign causes. It

di-hiiicnts, the unwarlikc (Caliph f..rgot the cares of state and aliaiidducd the service of ilars. In better moments he gave himself to the arts and muses, and failed not to glorify the Prophet's name by an orthodox observance of religious rites. By him the mosque of Omar, iu Jerusalem, was enlarged and beau- titied, and that of Medina was In- his orders so extended as to include the tomb of ]\Io- hammed.

Of similar sort was the enterprise of en- larging the Kaiiba at Mecca. The adjacent liuildinc's were cleared awav to make room

was the epoch of tlie Arabic ev(ihuii)ii. The native genius of the race burst forth in efflo- rescence. The religious fervor kindled by the Projihet furnished the motive power of an abundant tlmugh bigoted activity, which at the first di-pl:ivcd itself in heroic coniiuest and

Itv.

:'w Cal

W;

It has been sui.l thai led, whose youth had been passed in Damascus, was in his manners and tastes more Greek than Arabian. Certain it is that he was in- ilulent iu habit and voluptunu- in disiH.-itinii. The harem had ab-eady beemiie nne .,l' the chief deli-hts of I-lam. ^--ootlie.l by its lilan-

f(jr the more than magniliceut structure which the architects of Damascus planned to occupy the site of the ancient edifice. Not without iinK.'h regret and luauy conservative murmur- mgs di.l the ,,ld people ,if :\Iecca behold these preparation^, by wbiili tlie most venerable slrui-tnre known to the true lielievers was to be rephi.-ed with a new au.l more stately build- ing. At Damascus, likewise, tlie Calijih com- memorated his reign liy the erection of one of the grandest mosques in the ^Moliammedan

I Enq, : he.-e I tist,

A< a siti

ted

ificeiit	edific
Folin t	,e Bap
Con>

i\\ivi:i;sAi. nisToh'V.'-THK M<>i)i:i:.\

til.. Chri^l

pn.lt tin- Chiuvll tnv foivil,!,. |H

tlH.USHI.I t l.V III.' .

,f -..1,1; l.m Walr.l t....k ; aii.l woul.l

Meal ate wert leraa, (n

W;

'I'-ii-

I., A^a Minor, wlu-re il the city of Tyaua.

He aftn-wanl- caincd liis virtorious arms into Poutus, Anii.uia, aii.l (Jalatia, in all of \vl.icli provinces lu' ivai-ril the (/resceiit and ;^atliere(l the spoils of war.

Ou the side of the East the dnminions ..f the empire were enlariied liy Mosleina's son, Khatiba. Having heeu appointed to the gov- ernorship of Khorassau, he carried the Crescent across the Oxus into Turkestan, where he met and defeated a great army of Turks and Tar- tars. The city of Bokhara was captured and the khan of Chariam driven into Saniaicand. The city was then besieged by the e.iiiiaL:e..us Khatiba, and after a long investment was obliged to snrrender. A mosque was at ouce erected, and the concpieror himself ascending the pulpit explained the doctrines of Islam.

Still further to the east, another general, named Mohammed Ibn Casem, led an army of the faithful into India. The kingdom of Sinde was successfully invaded. A great bat- tle was fought; the Moslems were victorious, and the head of the Indian monarch was sent as a trophy to Damascus. The expedition then contiuued to the east, until the victori- ous standard of the Prophet was erected ou the banks of the Ganges.

In the far w..<t the ,.nnr :\rn-a was still busy with his army and lleet. In the year 70-4" a M..l,ammeda,i ^.piadron ..ommitted 'rav- ages in .'-iaivlinia and Sjeily. On land the emir cari'ie.l his banner westward to whi'iv the spurs .,f the Atlas descend into the At- lantic. The ..onntries of Fez, Dn.iuella, Morocco, an.l Si,< vv.a-e ad.led bv su.ressive conquests. The i-,.m-.|1,-< swav of I>lam was extended to where the -ettiu'.:- sun easts his last look at the hea.llan.ls of Cape X<.n.

As a governor Mu>a e>tabH-lied ..nhr. His administration was so wise and sinq.le

.Mte

e, to snlMlue the he two cities of ? fortresses were •Spaniards, whose ' of the strait was

IS dele

-Musa

lleete.l an army an.l a.lvauced a-ainst C.uta, whieh was held by a strong earrison, niider command of Count Julian. '1'Ih- Mo-I.ni- laiil siege to the fortress and sev- eral nn-neee-slul assaults were made, in which thousands of the a.ssailants were slain. It had already become evident that with the imperfect besieging enginery of the Arabs, they would be unable to take the citadel.

At this juncture, however, the Count Ju- lian committed treason. A correspondence was opened with Musa, and it was agreed that Ceuta .should be surrendered to the Mos- lems. The treachery also embraced the deliv- ery of the whole kingdom of Andalusia, then ruled by the Gothic king Eoderic, to the fol- lowers of the Prophet! It transpired that Ccnint Julian had been the victim of private wrongs at the hands of his sovereign, and he now sought this method of squaring the ac- count. Great %vas the surprise of the veteran ^Musa in having thus opened to his imagina- tion the easy conquest of Spain.

Meanwliile the great .soldier Taric Ibn Saiid, to whom had been assigned the capture of Tane-iers, had succeeded in his W(n-k. Those of the -ai-risun who b.-l.mg.-d to the llerlH.r race were converted to .Mohammedani>m, and tlie Chri-lian inhabitants of the city were per- mitted n. r( lire into Spain. ]\lusa suspecting tlie M,ie,.|iiv of Count .Julian— for the latter

the oov,.rnment of Roderic — now sent lor Tarie, and ordered him to cross the strait in eompanv with Julian and ascertain the true

e'.niliti f afl'airs in .Spain. By summoning

hi- iVi.iids, the Count seemed to verify the representalioiis whieh he had made to jNIusa.

MOllAMMEDAX ASCEXDKycY. — nMMIADKS AND FA TnilTKS.

Nor did Tavic, in returning tn AtVii'a, tail to scour the Hpanisli eoas-t and carry liiuuf a >liiji load of spoils and female eaptive.<. (_)u ree<iv- ing his amhassatlor, ^lusa at once wmte to the Calij)h, ilepicting in glowing colors the glorious prospect which opened before his vision in Spain. He implored 'Waled to per- mit him to undertake the con(|uest (if the Visigothic kiiigiloin, and the Cuinmander of the Faitlifiil was nut slow to give his C(msent.

Accordingly in the spring of the year 711, an army under command of Taric was sent across the strait and landed on the opposite headland, to which the Moslems now gave the name of Gehel al Tarie, corrupted by modern times into Gibraltar. King Roderic, on hear- ing of the invasi(jn, sent Edeco, one of his lieutenants, to bind the audacious strangers and throw them into the sea. Edeco was easily defeated by Taric, and his forces scattered. Roderic then summoned the nobles of the kingdom to rally for defense. An army of ninety thousand men was quickly mustered to repel the invaders ; but great disaffection pre- vailed, chiefly on account of Julian, who in- duced great numbers of the Christians to joiu the Arabs and share in the spoliation of Spain.

In midsummer the two armies met on the opposite banks of the river Guadalete. For several days there was continuous skirmishing, which at last brought on a general battle. Victory inclined to the banners of the Chris- tians. The field was strewn with sixteen thou- sand of the Moslem dead. "My brethren," said Taric, " the enemy is before you, the sea is behind ; whither would ye fly ? Follow your general ! I am resolved either to lose my life or to trample upon the prostrate king of the Romans."

Before the battle was deciiled, another in- terview with Count Julian led to a defection in the Gothic ranks, and Taric rallied his men with the energy of despair. The Goths broke and fled. Roderic, leaping down from an absurd ivory ear, in which by two white mules he hud bcm drawn ahout the field of battle, attempted to escape across the Guada- lete and was drowned. His crown and kingly robes and charger were found on the banks of the river.

A short time after this decisive victory, the city of Cordova was assaulted and taken liy a

II' mean- through the city

J. The

the Sierra .^lorena until hr ,■ of Toled.j, which at once ca conduct of the coimueror was Mich as to merit praise even on the page of modern history. The Christians were permitted to continue their worshij) — the priests to ofiiciiite as usual. Nor were the (iotli^ driven from civil authority, btit were allowid to remain in the siiliordinate offices of the kingdom. Especially were the Jews, long and bitterly persecuted by the Chris- tians, rejoiced at the fact of deliverance.

As yet, however, the collapse of the Gothic power was not complete. Some half-spirited, but futile, efforts were made to beat back the invadeis. But Taric, marching forth from Toledo, carried his banners to the North until the regions of Castile and Leon were added to the Moslem conquests. A few invincible fugi- tives retreated into the hill country of the As- turias, and defied the Arabs to dislodge them.

Bleanwhile Musa, excited and perhaps jeal- ous on account of the successes of Taric, has- tened to cross the strait with a second army under his own command. Something still re- mained for the sword of the master to accom- plish. The fortified cities of Seville and Me- rida still remained in the hands of the Goths. Both cities were besieged and taken, though the latter fell only after an obstinate defense. iMusa then continued his march to Toledo, where it soon became apparent that his feel- ings toward Taric were any other than kind and generous. The brave general was com- pelled to give an exact account of the treas- ures which had fallen into his hands, and was then scourged and imprisoned. Having estab- lished himself in the capital, the conqueror soon planned a campaign against the Goths of the North. He crossed the Pyrenees, con- quered the province of Scptimania, fixed his frontier at Narbonne, and returned in triumph to Toh'do.

The remnants uC the Gothic power in the peninsida were rein-esented after the death of Roderic by the prince Theodemir. With him a treaty was now made by which he was al- lowed to retain the territories of IMurcia and (JartlnLiiiia, and to exi^rcise therein the rights of a |>roviiicial -;-ovcrnor. The conditions of peace cmliracc.l the following clauses: That

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MnDERX WORLD.

Theodemir should nni be disturbed o\- iiijiiix-d in his prineiiiality ; tliat he sliould deliver

3S to the Arabs; that ho sh

lual

the

tribute into tlie ]\Iosleni treasury.

Thus did the years 711-714 ^ overthrow of the (iotliic monarehy of Spain and the substitutinn thrrcfor of the institutions of the Arabs. Mii>a, however, did not long survive his triumph. The same ungenerous treatiiii'iit whirh he liad visited on Taric was now HM-rvrd inr himself. He fell under the suspicion of the court of Damascus and was arrested by the messenger of the Caliph. His two sons, Adallah and Abdalaziz, were left in the governments of Africa and Sjiain. The journey of the veteran INIusa into Syria, though lie was virtually a prisoner was little less than a triumphal procession. Before he could reach Damascus the Caliph Waled died, but his successor was enually unfricmlly to ^Nfiisa. The old general was tried on a ehariic of vanity and ncLilcct (.f duty and was fined two hun- ihfil thoiisaiid pieees of gold. He was then whippiMJ and obliged to stand in disgrace before the palace, until, condemned to exile, he was permitted to depart on a pilgrimage to Mecca. The resolute spirit of the aged soldier was broken, and In- (li(<l on reaching the shrine of the Prophet.

In a short time after the conquest Sjiain became the most prosperous and civilized coun- try of the West, JManufactures and commerce spVang up. Cordova became a i^yal seat. The city contained six hundred inos(jnes, nine hundred baths, and two hundred thousand dwellings. Within the limits of the kingdom were ciuditv cities of the first class and three second and third, and the dal.piivi,- were adnnie.l with lamlets and villa-es.

huu.l

twelve thousand liai Having tlm- -e selves iu tlie Span soon 1h.-ui tn l.,.,k bevond the Pvrene dominion of all lai the i)arbarian kin- tiiev would carrv tlh of "th.. Danube ni pve~~ed ..n Ibe ea~t.

Ih

tor 10 u-

,uis north of the Alps, < "reseeiit down the banks 11 the Greek Emiiire, ind the west by the vic- ■ the Koran, should col-

lapse, and tlie Ijaiiuers of Islam be set up around the ( ntiic .Mediteri-anean. Such was the outline of a jmrpose which wanted but little of fullillinent.

To the mirth of the Pyrenees lay the king- dom of the Franks, fallen into decline under the la.-t of the Merovingians. The condition of the couiitiy was such as to provoke an in- vasion by the men of the South. Pepiu the Elder, mayor of the palace, had died, and after a brief contention among his illegitimate chil- dren, his rights had descended to Charles, who was destined soon to win the sobriquet of the Ilammer. Fortunate it was for the destinies of Christian Europe that the Roh Faineants had been dispossessed of the throne of the Franks and the power transmitted to one who was aide to defend it against aggression.

It has already been noted that in the first years of their Spanish ascendency the Arabi- ans carried their arms to the north of the Pyrenees and overran Septimauia or Laugue- doc. By degrees the limits of their Prankish territory were extended until the south of France, from the mouth of the Garonne to that of the Khone was included in the Jloslem

Tills realm, however, was by no means as broad as the ambition of Abiialraliman, the Arab envenior of Spain. Tn lilni it appeared

name of the Prophet by addiug Western Europe to his heritage. He accordingly deter- mined to undertake a <;'reat exiieditiou acaiust

the F raised

1 kinplnni. In the year 7l'1 he nldable army ami set out on his

north. Having crossed the Pyre- reded to the Rhoue and laiil siege

of Aries. The Christian army

forth fill- its defense was terribly llie bank- of the river, and thou-

slain and drowned were carried ; and arnnvy Phone \i> tlu' sea.

It li:i

The (■

loss of

Th,

f Aqui- e of the tie was

lie former.

1 with the

- thousands.

iress of the Mohammedans north- iw continued unchecked a distance 1 a thousand miles from Gibraltar.

MOHAMMEDAN ASi'EXDKXCY. — OMMIADES AND EA TEMEEES.

Another similar sjiau would have carried the Crescent to the borders of Poland and the Scot- tish Highlands; and in that event the conjec- ture of the sedate Gibbon that the Koran would to-day be used as the principal text- book in the University of Oxford, would ap- pear to be justified.

Destiny, however, had contrived another end. The battle-axe of Charles, the bastard son of the elder Pepin, still showed its terri- ble edge between Abdalrahman and the goal. The Frankish warrior was already hardened in the conflicts of twenty-four years of service. In the great emergency which was now upon the kingdom, it was the policy of Charles to let the Arabian torrent diffuse itself before

of the other, and forbore to close iu the grap- ple of death, victory inclined the rather to the banner of Islam; but, on the seventh day of the tight, the terrible Germans arose with their battle-axes upon the lighter sdldiery of the .South and hewed them down by thou- sands. Night closed upon victorious Europe. Charles had won his surname of the Hammer; for he had beaten the followers of the Prophet into the earth. Abdalrahman was slain. In the shadows of evening the shattered hosts of Spain and Africa gathered in their camps, but the Moorish warriors rose against each other in the confusion and darkness, and ere the morning light the broken remnants sought safety by flight. On the morrow the Mo-

attempting to stem the tide. Nor is the sus- picion wanting that the delay of the great mayor iu going forth to meet the enemy was partly attributable to his willingness that his rival, the duke of Aquitaine, should sutl'er the humiliation of an overthrow at the hands (if the Mohammedans.

Meanwhile, Abdalrahman advanced with- out further resistance to the center of France, I and pitched his camp iu the plain between ] Tours and Poitiers. Here, however, he was confronted by the army of the Franks. Europe was arrayed against Asia and Africa; the Cross against the Crescent; Christ against Mohammed. For six days of desultory fight- ing, in which each party, apparently conscious of the crisis in the aflairs of men, seemed warv

hammedau camp was taken liy the Christians, and the spoils of one of the greatest battles of history were gathered by the Franks.

The Arabs hastily retired across the Pyr- enees. Cdunt Eudi's recovered his province (if Aipiitaine. and all Europe breathed freely after escape from a peril which was never to be renewed. Thus, in tlie year 7.'>2, precisely a century alter the (l(-:itli ni' Mdliai'.iraed, did

(US

A- Isl;

The

'It would have lieen supi'osed flint Cluirler. INIartel we.uld have receivea the highest honors whicli the Christian world could bestow. But a dili'event result followed his viotory. In raising and eciniiiidng his army, he had lieen obliged to

•)12

rMVi:i;sM. iustohv.-tiik m<>i>i:i:.\ would

Franks, h.,v the .McliaiMi

■.lan.<

d i;

appi-Dpnati/ Ihc tn'usuivs d sevcra for this sacriU-i.uis act the ri._-r.uy <

that Charli-s ha.l .irmie tn pcnliticj saints lia<l a visicii, in wliicli tlie was si'fii roaslcii in purgatorial 111 tion gained curri-ncy tliat \vl

Onf of the o of Poitiers and a tradi- 3 t(jiii1j was

opened, tlie spectators were alirighted with the smell of sulphur and the apparition of a dragon.

on of the country. i>t' art and learning', .(•anie the saws of -idcnce of prejudice •yond the ry'renees I'.air to the Moluuu- nicdaii schools to irceive all education which could not lie oliiaiiicd in tlie barbarous insti- tutions of the ^'orth. The seeds of learning were scattered by the scholars of Islam, and the Crescent taught the Cross the rudiments of art

The Arah ..hilo.

the \V.>!. Wilh

the unlrttend and the Alp. I

ik l^irlrnil(|.

The Age of Ciiareemagxe.

CHAPTER LX>CXI. THH; KlKST CARLOVINGIAN S.

	K^^^^^^l
		tm.
!	W^

HE Aryan nations again claim our attention. Af- ter a long sojourn among the tribes of Ishmael — after following the flam- ing Crescent to its zenith over the field of P(..itiers— let 11- luiu ti) the peoples north of the Alps and the Pyrenees, and, taking our stand in the great Kingdom of the Franks, trace out the course of human afl'airs in the west of Eur(i[ie.

The career of Pepin of Heristal, duke of the Austrasiau Franks, has already been sketched in the First Book of the present vol- ume.' It will be remembered that after the bat- tle of Laon, A. D. C80, in which conflict his brother ^Martin was killed, Pepin became sole ruler of the Austrasians. In the years that followed he was engaged in several desultory wars with the German tribes on the right bank of the Rhine, and in (>>^7 invaded the province of Neustria. The fate of this country was decided in the battle of Testry, in which Pe- pin was victorious. lionian France, as the northern part .if (iaul was called, yicl.led to

the Austrasians ; and Duke Pepin was ac- knowledged as the sovereign of the Prankish empire.

It was now the heyday of the Eois Faine- ants. The kingly Donothiugs still occupied the alleged throne of the Franks. They had, however, been gradually reduced to the con- dition of puppets in the hands of the power- ful mayors of the palace. For reasons of pol- icy Pepin chose not to disturb the royal show, and the Faineants were kept in nominal au- thority. Thus the puny race was lengthened fiut during the so-called reigns of Thierry III., Dagobert II., Clovis III., Childebert III., and Dagobert III. Once a year, namely, at the great national assembly in May, Peiiin would bring forth the royal manikin, show him to the people, and then return him to the villa, where he was kept under guard.

For a quarter of a century (687-712) Pe- pin was engaged in almost constant wars with the Frisians and Alemanni dwelling on the Rhine. The hardest battles of the period were fought with these liarbarians, who, after

its,

It

r,ir.

LWIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODKRX UVULD.

in his wars, that I'l-pin was destineil to dis- tinguish himself as one of the chief personages of his times. But the fouuding of his family was attended with many troubles. Besides his wife I'lectruda, he ha.l a i.ii-trcss, Al- l)ai.la, upon wiinin he lavi-li.d the Lnvater part of his aUrnli.m-. A liiit^ r 1'. :i'l wa-; thn =

obliged to appease public indignation and pri- vate wrath by putting in prison the sou of his mistress, afterwards known as Martel. That bold and impetuous spirit, however, could not long be kt'pi in coiitinemeut. Regaining his liberty he >ni)ii overthrew the regency which Pi'iiiii li:id lift !'i !;:-■ v/idow duriiiL' the minor-

MI 1 I 1 1 1 PIM()\LD

< SOU, and Sfi/.fd the mayor- CharK- Man,'! .l..v,n to the

createil in the mayor's palace botweeu the law- ity of <ii-

ful and the uiihiwful wife of the ruler. In ally for lii

these rivalries Al|.aida gained the ascendeney, 'I'h,. ra

and Plcctni.la, with \uv children, was thru'st batlle ..f I'oili.r. has already been narrated in

into the baek.^io 1. Finally Criinoabi, her the two preeeibng J'.o,,k>.' Al't.r that great

^-11. atid the h.ir expeeiaiit oi' I'epiiiV right-, evetii his pnid.'iiee foibad,' any reckless

wa.- murdered, and liie party of Alpai.hi wa- .<,.,. |.„„,|, Ki.-venlh, n.l. j.. Al-J u..l IVok involved in llie ciime. The mayor was | T\vel;;li, ./„;. i, :il.

THE AGE OF L'HARLEMAU SE. — THE FIRST CARLOVIXGLiXS.

pui^suit of the Arabs, who, though ovcrtlirowu north of the Pyrenees, were still io full foree in Spain. He afterwards renewed the war with the Arabian emii-s, who still retained a foothold on the Gallic side of the mountains, and the intruders were gradually forced out of the country. The annexation of Aquitaiue to the Prankish kingdom followed ; nor was there any longer a likelihood that the Sara- cens could regain what they had lost within the limits of Gaul. Charles continued in au- thority until his death. Like his father, how- ever, he chose to be recognized as Mayor ot the Palace rather than as King of the Franks. The assumption of the latter dignity remained for his son and successor, Pepin the Short.

At his death Charles Martel bequeathed his authority to his two heirs, Carlojian, who received Austrasia, and Pepix, who inherited Neustria. The measures by which the latter circumvented his brother and became sole ruler of the Prankish kingdom have been already narrated. Pepin soon took upon him- self the title of king. Childeric III. , the last of the Rois Paineants, was sent to the monas- tery of Sithien, at Saint Oiuer, and Pope Zachary consented to the substitution of the Caelovingian for the !Merovi>-gian dynasty. Pepin was anointed and crowned by Saint Boniface at Soissons, in the year 752.

It was at this time that the province of Septimania, which had been overrun by the Mohammedans, finally submitted to the Franks. In 753 Pepin enforced the payment of tribute upon the Saxons, and also obliged them to receive with civility the Christian ministers who had been sent among them. At this juncture the relations existing between France and Italy were greatly strengthened and extended by the favor of the Pope to the Carlovingiau dynasty. Stephen III. crossed the Alps and visited Pepin, with a view to se- curing his aid against the Lombards. Astol- phus, the king of that j)eople, had become the oppressor of the papacy, and the Pope naturally looked for help to the IMost Chris- tian King of the Franks. Pepin received the great ecclesiastic with as much dignity as an uncourtly barbarian could be ex- pected to maintain. He readily assented to lend the powerful aid of the Franks in up- holding the dignity and honor of the Chureli.

A large army was at once collocted and led across the mountains to Pavia, where As- t(jlphus was besieged and brought to his seust'S. The Lombard king sought earnestly fur a peace, Ivut it soon appeared that liis ear- nestness was in direct ratio to his fears. For no .sooner had Pepin consented to cease from hostility and withdrawn his army than Astol- phus rejuidiated the compact and threatened, should he again be disturbed, to capture and pillage Rome. But Pepin was a monarch whom threats merely excited to belligerency. He hastily recrossed the mountains and com- pletely broke the power of Astolphus. The exarchate of Ravenna was overrun, and that province, together with the Pentapolis, was given to Pope Stephen. Thus, in the year 755, was laid the foundation of the temporal sovereignty of the Poj^es of Rome.

Five years later, the chieftain Waifar raised a revolt in Aquitania. The province was declared independent, and the Aquitanians defended themselves with great heroism. For eight years Pej^in and his Franks were seri- ously occupied with the rebellion. iS'or did the king succeed in bringing the refractory state to submission until he had procured the removal of "Waifar by assas-sination. Pepin, however, did not long survive this crime. He die;! in 768, and left the kingdom to his two sons, Carloman and Karl, or Charles.

The elder son of the late king of the Pranks exercised but a small influence on the destinies of the state. His character was without the element of greatness, and his early death, which occurred only three years after that of his father, cut short any small plans of ambition which he may have enter- tained. In 771 his younger brother, soon to be known as Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, became sole sovereign of the kingdom of the Pranks, which now embraced the whole of Gaul and the western parts of Germany. But even this widely extended territory was by no means commensurate with the ambition of the young prince who occupied the throne. He soon developed a genius which, alike in war and peace, shone with such extraordinary luster that its brilliancy flashed into the courts of the East.

Charlemagne appears to have been one of those men of whom Guizot has said that to them

UXIVKIiSAL HISTORY. — THE MOJ>Ki:X WORLD.

e. It nrra.-iol

as a tiling ill uucoiii|iieral)l

,1 lint

lual sliu.l- Tliev k'cl

restore order; to iiitrodiR-e sometliin,.: ;jiiiii:il, regular, and peniiaiieut into the woilil «liicli is placed before tliem. 'riM'iiu-iiddiis pdwirl often tyraunical, coiumittiiiL'- a tliuu.-aiid in- iquities, a thousand errors; for Inniian weak- ness accompanies it. Glorious and sahitaiy power, nevertheless, for it gives to luiinanity by the hand of man a new and powerful impulse."

lu the veiy lieiiinuing of his career the new sovereign of the Franks was confronted with the necessity of a war with the Lom- bards. The ascendency attained by his father south of the Alps was about to be lost by the ambitious and intrigues of the Lomljard king, Desiderius. The jealousy between the two monarehs was mutual and leased upon causes which medireval kings were very prone to observe. Before his accession Prince Karl had married Desiderata, daughter of Deside- rius; Init after becoming king — being otlended at the conduct of his father-in-law — he sent the (jueen home to her parents, for whom he took no pains to conceal his contempt. For his part, Desiderius received and protected the nej)hews of Charlemagne — an act whieli seemed to discover a purpose of supporting the claims of the fiimily of Carloman. De- siderius alHi added t-. ' liis ofll-nses by un- friendly conduct towards the r.^ic, wlmse partiality for the Carlovingiaus was notorious. It was not likely that Charlemagne would jtennit any indignity offered to the Holy Father to ]ia<s witlimit aile(juate |inni,-linient.

with lii~ reliLiinn- prejudices, and both were e.Keited l.v the l.nid Call of Po].e Adrian I., who lie-Mii-lit the Frankish monarch to come t(i the 1-. -eue (,f the newly estal)lished but ni)w ini|.i ril( il |iatrimony of Saint Peter.

At the lii-i, Charlemagne, prcservino- the

rins re,|,„.Min- that lliat ni..naveh sl.onl.l reganl the riLilil- -f l!i- Pni"-: but the L,„„- bai-d ivfiiMd. and ( 1iailenia-ne inmiedial.ly p.vpaivd f.ii- the inva-io,, nf Italy. One arniv. I.d l,v tl.e kin- in person, ero-M-d the

Alps by way (jf ~Slnni Cenis, and the other ilesceiided iipcin Luinhardy by way of Saint Bernard. Oil the dtluT side of the mount- ains Desiderius made a lirave resistance, but was xinii obliged to take refuge within the wall- of I'avia. Charlemagne at once ad- vanced to the siege. The defense was con- ducted with obstinate courage. The assaults of the Franks were several times repelled, and the king of the Franks was obliged to sprinkle cool ])atience on his ardor. Finding that the investment was to continue during the winter, he converted his camp into a royal head-quarters, aud built a chapel for the appro- priate celebration of the Christmas festivities. He then sent for the Queen Hildegarde, a Suabian princess whom he had married in- stead of the discarded Desiderata, aud with her made the hours of the siege less tedious. Winter wore away aud the spring came, and still the Lombards held the city.

IMeanwhile Pope Adrian was all anxietv to secure the presence of Charlemagne in Rome. The dream of the nuptials of the Holy See with the great Frankish bridegroom had risen in full splendor upon the vision of the pon- tiff, and he would fain make it real by a con- summation of the ceremony. Charlemagne was induced by the Romish ambassadors to leave the siege of Pavia to his lieutenants and to hasten forward to the city of St. Peter.

On approaching the battlements of the ancient capital, the Frankish sovereign was met by the magistrates aud people, who poured forth through the gates to welcome their great champiou from beyond the mount- ains. The children of the schools came in jiroccssions, carrying palms and singing hymns of praise. He was cordially welcomed by the ro|ie, who, with a strange mixture of afiec- tion aud dignity, Leaped honors and distinc- tions on his guest. He gave to Charlemagne a book containing the canons of the Church from its foundation to the current date, and iir^erilied upon the title-page a copy of verses containing tlie following anagram: Pope Adrian to his most excellent .sou, Charle-

I'oi- some time the king of tlie Franks con- tinued in eimference with the Holy Father at IJonie. The Po])e took all ))ains during the sojourn of his (listini;iiished i;ne>t to inii)ress

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGXE. — THE FIRST CARLnVLXd lAXS.

UXI\J:1!SAL HIsTiinV.^THE MODERN WORLD.

h\i mind as inu.l, a- po-iMr uiili tlu- pa-.ant of the ImiH-rial rily aii.l ihr .yvrUxAr .,f the Imperial laitli. He urjred him to continue his cou.iui-t- in the name of religion, hut dissuaded him from incorporating Lombardy with his own dominions. As soon as the conference was at an ecil, the king returned to his

city was pre-ently hnnight to a successful conclusion.

The capital of I^omhardy was surrendered to the Franks. The whole country fell before the conquering arms of the Carlovingian. The various dukes and counts, who had hitherto, after the German fashion, maintained them- selves in a .state of semi-independence, hastened to make their submission, and resistance was at an end. The only exception was in the case ot Aregisius, duke of Beneventum, who for a season held himself in hostility. Desiderius hini-cU was taken prisoner and led into France, where first at Liege and afterwards at Corbie he found leisure to repent of his rashne.«s in lifting his arm a-uinst Charles the Great.

It appears that liis visit to Kome and the magnificent and holy things there witnessed made a profound impression upon the mind of Charlemagne. It should not be forgotten that this great personage was still iu manners and purposes but half emerged from barbar- ism, and his dispositions were peculiarly sus- ceptible to such infiuences as the adroit Bishop of Kome was able to bring to bear. The Holy See at this time made the discovery that the presentation of moral truth and obligation to the barbarian imagination was less effective than splendid shows and gilded ceremonies. She therefore adopted pageant instead of mo- ral expostulation, and converted the barbarians with spectacles.

After tarrying at Rome until the spring of 774, Charlemagne returned to France. Hav- ing i^atisfactorily regulated the afiiiirs of Italy, he now conceived the plan of extending the empire of religion in the opposite directions of .'^axoiiv and Spain. In furtherance ot this purpo-v Ik- convened at Paderliorn, in the y. ar 777, a general assembly of his people, and there the scheme of conquest was matured. The German chiefs had generally obeyed his summons and were lu-cscnt at the assemblv, but

Wi

ixons, was conspieu-

Charleinagne had already had occasion to note the olistinacy of the Saxon people. Of all the barbarians the.se were most sullen in their refusal to accept the doctrine and prac- tice of Christianity. As early as 772 the king of the Franks had felt constrained to make war on the tribes dwelling north of the Elbe. He invaded Saxony, wasted the country with fire and sword, captured the fortress of Ehres- burg, and overthrew the great idol whom the pagans called IrminsuU These offenses, how- ever, rather excited than allayed the bellig- erent spirit of the Saxons, who henceforth lost no ojiportunity to repay the Christian Franks for the injuries which they had inflicted. The border of the Elbe became a scene of constant depredation, inroad, and destruction of villages and towns. The fierce Saxons stayed not their hands where- ever they could find the hamlets of their recreant countrymen, who had betrayed the faith of their pagan fathers.

Such were the antecedents of the contest which Charlemagne was now about to under- take with the barbarians of the North. The subjugation of Saxony became indispensable to the peace and safety of the kingdom, and it was manifest that no conquest could be ef- fectual which did not include the substitution of Christianity for paganism. The Saxons fought not only for national independence, but for the whole myth and tradition of the German race. The Franks, on the other hand, entered the conflict under the full iu-

' It was at this assembly of the Saxon cliiefs that Charlemagne gave his refractory subjects their option of baptism or the sword. The im- penitent barbarians, yielding in action but obdu- rate in mind, were compelled to kneel down at the liank of a stream while the priests who ac- companied Charlemagne's army poured water upon their lieads and pronounced the bap- tismal ritual. The king soon had cause to learn the ineflSciency of such a conversion from l)aganism.

- It appears that the effigy called Irminsul I German, Ilcrrmann-Suule, or Herrmann's Pillar) was so named in honor of the great hero Armin- ius, who, by the destruction of the legions of Va- rus (see Vol. II., p. •-'721, had made Imperial Rome ti niblc for her safety. On this great feat of the W^vian arms Saxon patriotism had reared a pagai. superstition.

THE AGE OF CHAELEMAfiNE. — THE FIRST CARLOVIXGLiNS. 521

fluenro c,f i n. w li in ipIiji u~ /. il i\> t uiilik. will tlu combitiut- \\nt ik t iinlik. , 1hui_ i f tint wIikIi liul tiud the '^uaceii- iii the con j the same bl.Hid iml inoduitie- 1 h. '•tin..!.- cjiie^t^ ot I-lnii Til ( 111 i.'P m 1 111(1 .niitnhh wa. fU .tmo 1 t . ( (iiitiniio with \ im in ' \ im i-

F:

■HAKLEJIACfNE INFLICTING BAPTISM UPON THE tiAXONS Drawn by A. rte NtuviUe.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. ^THK MODERN ]10RLI>.

tudes for i aud to fiiil

the polirv I he made a left a gani: rose a cluir Franki>h cl

1 the triumiih of tlie Fraiik,^. tlif war Charlemagne adoi>ted ilitaiv ..rcupatioii.' Wheivvur

I'.y the >h\v of iwry castle lid at tlir li.L^ht hand of even- in ^1 1 a j)i-k'st. But victory

iiii.-iance.s and over such a foe [leriiianency. As soou as the nied into another district the f iVoni the earth behind the ■y Moinied hi.< castles, burned ed the -arrisons, and lid missionaries to the

could not insure march was resini pagans rose as ii con(|ueror. The the churches, si; sacrificed thi' pi

In tlie midst of these bloody scenes the priest was more audacious than the soldier. The missionaries in the very face of death made tlioir way into the Saxon woods and preached the gospel to the barbarians. It was, however, a gospel of the sword rather than of peace. A certain priest, named Saint Liebwin, made liis way to the banks of the Weser, and warned the general assembly of the Saxons to make peace with the power- ful prince, who, as the captain of heaven's army, was aljout to fall ujion them. "The idols ye worship," said the i)riest, "live not, neither do they perceive: tiii'y are the work of men's hands; they can do naught eitlier for themselves or i'or other<. Wherefore the one God, good and Just, having compassion on your errors, luith mii! nie unto you. If ye put not away your iiiii|uity I I'oretell unto you a troidile that \r do not expect, and that the King of Heaven hath ordained aforetime; there shall come a jirince, strong and wise aud indefatigable, not from afitr, but from nigh at hand, to lldl ujion you like a torrent, in order to solh u \dur hard hearts and bow down v.ur proud 'hea.ls. At one ru,-h lu' shall inva.h' the country: he shall lay at wast.- with fire and -word and carry away your wives and chiMreii into captivity."

prophecy that many rushed into the ibrest and began to cut sticks on which to impale the priest alive: but a certain prince, Buto, appealed to tlie a-embly of chiefs to respect the sacred ri;^lits of embassy. So Liebwin es- caped with ids lite.

Tlie Saxon nation at this time consisted of three or lour difii-ient jiopulations. These were the ICa.-tpludians, the Westphaliau.s, the Anglian,-, and the Jsorth-Albingians — though the latter were sometimes classified as a dis- tinct people. Each <.f these principal nations wa,- sul,divid,-d into many tribes each with its own chieftain aud local institutions. Cliar- lemague was thoroughly familiar with this German con.stitutiou of society, aud well un- derstood how to avail iiimself of the feuds aud jealousies of the Saxon jieople. He ailojjted the plan of making war upon each tribe separately, and of j)reveuting, as far as jiossible, any cohesion of the nation as a whole. If a given chieftain could be induced to submit aud to accejit Christianity, the king would treat w^ith him separately aud make peace on terms favorable to the tribe; and if others offered a stubborn resistance, they were punished with more than the usual severity. In a general way, however, the Saxons made common cause against the in- vader, and in doing .so they found a leader worthy of the < iernian name.

'WiTTiKiXD, son of Weruekind, king of the Saxons north of the Elbe, appeared as the national hero. Besides his own hereditary rights and abilities as a chieftain, his relation with the surrounding states was such as to make him a formidable foe. He had mai'ried the sister of Siegfried, king of the Danes, and was in close alliance with Eatbod, king of the Frisians. He it was who now, in the year 777, refused to attend the assembly of chiefs called by Charlemagne at Paderborn ; and by his refusal gave notice of his 0})eu hostility to the king of the Frauks.

The previous disturlwuces of his country had made it necessary for Wittikiud to find refuge with his brother-indaw, the king of the Danes. From this vantage-.'irouud, liow- .'ver, he ilirected the council of the Saxon .•hief- aud enc.mraged them to a renewal of their rebellion. Followin- hi- advice, the peo- ple a-aiu rushed to arni>, and the Franks re- coiled from the fury of their assa.ilts. In 77.S the barbarian army advanced to the Rhine, and destroyed nearly all the towns and villages on the right bank oi' that river iVom Cologne to the mouth of tin' Moselle. No age, sex, or condition was spared by the

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.-THE FIRST CARLOVIXGIAXS.

523

bloody swords of the enraged pagans. The I The revolted tribes fell back from the Rhme Fraukish forces met the insurgent barbarians and were driven to submission. IMauy of the

on the Rhenish fn.ntior, and for three vear- 1 .'liiefs s^.u-ht peace, and accepted reconcilia-

!^M^^i45S=;-

CUTTING DOWN \ s\fRED OAK OF TUt ^WON^ Drawn by H. Leutemann.

the Struggle with them continued almost with- out cessation.

Gradually, however, the superior dis- cipline and equipment ol the Franks tri- umphed over the obstinacy of their enemy.

tiou witli the king <in condition of professing the Christian thith and receiving baptism. Wittikind returned into Denmarli ; but the politic Siegfried was now anxious tor peace, and the Saxon king was obliged for a season

UMVEI^SAL HISTORY.— THE MODKHX WORED.

to make his headHjuartLTs among the Xorth- meu. Witliiu a year, Iwwever, he again crossed into Saxony and incited his country- men to another revolt. In ~>i'l Cliarlemagne's armies were twice defeated on the banks of the Weser, and the king himself was obliged to take the field. Unable to meet his great enemy, Wittikind again fled to the Northmen, and the brunt of the king's hostility fell upon those who had jjarticipated in the revolt. Four thousand five hundred of the Saxons were brought together at Werdeu, on the river Aller, and were all beheaded by the or- ders of Charlemagne. Having thus soaked the river banks in Idodd, the king retired into France ami made his winter iiuarters at Thionville.'

The terrible vengeance taken by the king of the Franks was by no means sufficient to terrify the now desperate Saxons. On the contrary, their anger and determination rose to a greater height than ever. During the winter of 782-83 the tribes again revolted, and held out against the most persistent ef- forts of Charlemagne till 785. In the latter year the king's victories were mure decisive, and it seemed that tiie pagans must finally submit. The king took up his residence at the castle of Ehresburg, and from that strong- hold sent out one expedition after another to overawe the rebellious tribes.

Charlemagne had now learned what the barbaric despair of the pagan Saxons was able to do in war. Nor did he lack that kingly prudence upon which the desire for personal vengeance was made to wait in pa- tience. He adopted diplomacy where force had failed. He sent across the Elbe a distin- guished embassy to the place where Wittikind had his camp, and invited that austere war- rior and his friend, the chieftain Abbio, to come to him under protection and to confer on the interests of Saxony. At first the great

' History has her pictures and contrasts. It was on this same river AVeser tliat Cliarlemaane, on a previous occasion, had patliered an entire tribe of the barbarians for wholesale baptism. The proaram was unique, the ceremony expedi- tious. The Church militant stood on the shore; a priest lifted up the cross, and the ministrants poured water on the penitent Saxons as they waded across the river. On this occasion Charle- magne tried a baptism of blood.

barbarian I'eareil to trust himself to the good faith of his foemau, but was finally induced to accept the invitation. He accordingly pre- sented himself to the king at the palace of Attigny, and so considerate was the reception extended by Charlemagne, and so favorable the proffered conditions of peace, that Witti- kind was induced to accept them for himself and his countrymen. He accordingly pro- fessed the Christian faith and underwent the rite of baptism. He received at the hands of Charlemagne a full amnesty and the title of Duke of Saxony, though the sovereignty was thenceforth to be lodged with the king of the Franks.

Wittikind ever faithfully observed the conditions to which he had pledged his honor. So exemplary was his life, so tractable his disposition under the teaching of the priests, that .some of the old chroniclers added his name to the calendar of the saints. In the year 807 he was killed in a battle with Cer- oid, duke of Suabia, and the tomb of the old Saxon hero is still to be seen at Ratisbonne. Nor is the tradition wanting that the great House of Capet, destined, after two centuries, to supplant the Carlovingian dynasty on the throne of France, had Wittikind for its an- cestor; for the legend runs that he was the father of Robert the Strong, great-grandfathei of Hugh Capet.

But the pacification of Saxony was not completed by the action of Wittikind. The old spirit of paganism was not to be extin- guished by a single act. Through a series of years insurrections broke out here and there, and were suppressed with not a little difficulty and bloodshed. In some instances the king found it necessary to remove whole tribes to other territories, and to fill their places with Christian, or at least Fraukish, colonists. Nevertheless it was not doubtful after the surrender of Wittikind, that the conquest of Saxony was virtually accomplished, and Char- lemagne might -with propriety consider the country beyond the Elbe as an integral part of his growing empire.

The task of Charlemagne on the German side of Gaul was by no means completed. ]\rany of the populations which had already been subdued continued in a state of turbu- lence, and the utmost vigilance of the king

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGXE. — THE FIRST CARLOVIXGIAXS.

was necessary to keep them iu tolerable sulj- ordinatiou to authority. The Frisians had to be reduced by force of arms, and only then consented to a sullen peace. On the di^^taiit horizon of the north and ea.st lay the >till more sayage peoples — the Avars, the Huns, the Slavonians, the Bulgarians, and the Danes — all bearing down from their several quarters of the compass upon the frontiers of the Fraukish empire. Nothing le.ss than the most strenumis aotivitv and warlike L'-enin* (if

successful warfare \vith the savage i came upon him from the north and to give them a permanent check, with respect to the general dr>tiii age, the king of the Franks may pr called the 8tayer of Barbarism.

In the year 781 Charlemagne f lu spicuous occasion on which again tn and honor the majesty of the Pn] years previously Queen Hilde;;a

•aces who

east, and

Viewed

ies of his •iiperly be

nd a con- reccignize le. Four i-de had who re-

B,\PTISM OF BAR

Charlemagne was requisite to hurl back the barbarian races to their own dominions, and to keep a solid front on the side of barbarism. The monarch jjroved equal to every emer- gency. In his contests 'with the more distant nations he had the advantage of a Germanic barrier between himself and the foe. Before a barbarian army could inflict a wound on any vital part nf the dominion it must trav- erse 8axony or some other frontier state which the king had established as a break- water between himself and the wild ocean beyond. He thus was enabled to carry on

S IN THE WESER.

ceived the name of Pejiin, and who was now presented to Pope Adrian for baptism. The rite was administered to the Carlovingian scion, and he was anointed by the Holy Father as King of Italy — this title being con- ferred out of deference to the Pope's advice that Lonibardy should not be incorporated with the kingdom of the Franks.

Meanwhile, on the south-west, events had taken place of but little less importance than those which were happening on the Elbe, the Rhine, and the Weser. The forty years fol- lowius; the battle of Poitiers had

r)2()

UXIVERSAL iIISTni;y.-TJII-: M(il>i:i!X WOL'LJ)

|.aiii>li fi-Mii-	Tin. ivi
n,l .MnlKUn-	Mrrovi.
Icr-Uiii.liii,-.	ship ,.!■

hut tew ili>tiirh:uici-s ahm.i:

tier of (.aul. The Chri.-i

medaiis c-diniii'.' to a hri

au.l havin- a t-K-rahh' iv-anl for earh other's

rights, ha.l iiiainlainr.l a fair degree of peaee.

With the ai-ci"i f Charlemagne, however,

the ambitions of tlie Franks aud the jealous- ies of the Saraeeiis had in a measure revived. The one, ].erhai.s, cr.erished the dream of au early rxpiil-ion of the ^rolianmiedans from Eup.|io. and ih.- otlu-r look.d «iih ill- couccaleil riiinity at the rapid pro-rr-s and ovcrwhehning intluinee of the liari)arian Em- peror on the other side of the Pyrenees. Nor might it well l)e forgotten or forgiven that he was the grandson of that other Charles, at whose hands the great Abdalrahman had met his fate.

Mixed with these general motives was a speeific aet of treason. Among tho.se wiio in 777 had eonvened at the assembly of Pader- born was a certain Ibn al Arabi, the Saraeen governor of Saraiios-a. Having a difiieulty with the Caliiili, h.- ,M,u-lit the aid of the Christian Fraid^s, and wouhl fain make eoin- mon cause with them against the Miiliainnicd- ans. For this reason came he to the asseuilily called by Charlemagne.

The king of the Franks was C[uick to seize the opportunity thus afforded of extending his dominions on the side of Spain. Though still emliarrassed with his German wars, he gladly accepted the inyitation of Ibn al Arabi to be- come his champion aud avenger.

In the spring of 787 the Frankish sover- eign, having divided his army into two parts, as in the Italian campaign, set out on the Spanish expedition. One division of his troop>, under coininand of Duke Bernard, wa.- dinctrd to .-eek the eastern passes of tlie Pyrenees, and traverse the peninsula by way of Gerona and Barcelona to Saragossa. The other division, led by Charlemagne in person, was to pass to thr wc-t. enter Spain by the valley of Roiiee-valles, and march by way ofParapelnna to thi- phiee of meeting before the walls ot' Sarai^o,-sa. In carrying out his own part of the cainpaign, Charlemagne trav- ersed the proviiH'cs of Aquitaine and Vasco- nia, at this time ruleil by Duke Lupus 11., son of that Duke Waifar who will be r,".-alled as a f.rmidalile anta-oni-t of Pfiiin the Sliort.

[ii-inee was descended from the

■al im lination be expceted to fa\cir tlie eaiisc of tlie Carlo\ingian eoiKjueror. The latter, however, soothed Duke Lu])us, aud by generous treatment ,-e( lurd tioni him an oath of fealty. But the rv.iit soon showed that the pledge was given with the mental reservation to break it as soon as circum- stances might seem to warrant the act of perfidy.

Alter this brief but necessary detention Charlemagne hurried forward to prosecute his work in Spain. Passing thnmgh the valley of Koucesvalles, he arrived before Pampeluna, and received the surrender of that city; for the Arab governor deemed himself ill able to make a successful defense against the Franks. The king then pressed forward to Saragossa, where he expected to receive a similar surren- der at the hands of his friend Ilm al Arabi. But as has .so many times occurred in the his- tory of the world, the recreant governor had promised more than he could fulfill. It was one thing to agree and another to deliver. F..r. in the mean time, tlie old Arab spirit was thoroughly arou-ed from its dream of peace. Tlie local quarrels of tliese ambitious towns of the Western Caliphate were suddenly hushed in the presence of the common danger. The Saracens rushed forward to the succor of Saragossa, and Charlemagne found that he must take by a serious siege — should he be able to take at all — the prize which the officious Arabi was to have delivered with such facility.

Ill a short time there was a greater scarcity of provisions outside than inside the walls. The besiegers were constantly beset by new bodies of troops arriving from various parts of the peninsula. Diseases broke out in the camp of the Franks, aud they found them- selves more endangered by the invisible plagues of the air than by the swords of the ."^araeens. At the same time intelligence came that the Saxons on the opposite side of the kingdom had again risen in arms, and were threatening to undo the entire work of con- quest on the north-east. It was, therefore, fortu- nat<- for Charlemagne that at this juncture the .\rabs sought to open negotiations. The king gladly aeeepted their ofl'er of a large ransom

TEE AGE OF CHARLEMAOyE. — THE FIRST CARLOVIXdlAXS.

to be paid iu gold aud guaranteed by hostages in lieu of tlie besieged city. Such an oti'er gave him a good excuse for the abaudonmcnt of an entei-pi-isb which would soon have had to be given up without even a show of success. As soon, therefore, as a settlement had been effected with the authorities of Sara- gossa, Charlemagne began a retreat out of Spain On arriving at Pampeluua, he or- deied the walk of the city to be le\ele(l with the L'nuii 1 in ill +lnt iin fnt ii

lives in the engagement. Eginhard, master of the king's household; Anselm, count of the palace ; aud the chivalric Ilolaud, prefect of Brittany, aud greatest knight of his times, were amiiiig the slaiu. Nur was Charlemague iu any condition to turn upon the mountain guerrillas who had thus afflicted his army. He was obliged to continue !iis march aud leave the Basques to the full en- joMuent i>f then Mctoiv.'

1 ' I 1 ( h 111 111 _n A\ 1 T t il le to pun-

TIIE BATTLE IN JUL \ ALLL\ ul- 1 Drawn by H. Vogel.

revolt of the people might be attended with greater hazard. The kings army then rcrii- tf-red the passes of Eoncesvalles, and had partly escaped through the defiles when the Basques, having taken possession of the heights, liegan to hurl down upon the soldiers in the pass huge masses of stone. The dis- comfiture of those who constituted the rear- guard of the army was complete. Very few of the Franks escaped from their dangerous situation. The Basques fell upon the baggage- train and captured a great amount of booty. Several of Charlemagne's captains lost their

ish the mountaineers of Vascouia for their perfidy in the aflair of Roncesvalles, he failed not to take vengeance upon the j^eople of Aquitaine. Duke Lupus, who was thought to have had a hand iu the insurrection, was

^ The defeat of the Franks in the Eoncesvalles gave rise to a cycle of heroic some of whicli are still popular in the France. The Sour/ of lioland, reciting the and tragic dentin of that hero, became a with his cnunti-ynien, and was chanted by diers as an inspiration to victory. The AVilliam the Conqueror sang the hymn marched to the battle of Hastings.

passes of legends, south of exploits favorite the sol- men of as they

r.\n'i:i!SAL in>'n>i:Y.^THi-: Moin.ny woiii.h

.1 t.

seized ana lian-ra. Tlu- livr- .. ■were .•spared only „\\ ciiinliliMi] But while A.|iiilain,- wa- tlni-

the province .-li..nia >iill I"- Irli .-utHcifiiily free to constitute a liulwark aL:ain>l lln- Ai-al>.-. The national vanilv ot ihr A^iuilauianv wa.- flattered with ihc nilr ol' a nativr diik.-, l)iil the real purposi- nf .-urh a i-iincr^ion wa- tin making of a defense against the Andahi-iaii Arabs.

th.- ,a>lcrn \,..u\vv^ .if ilu^ Prankish dnniini.ms the Ilun- and Shivcnians were drivin hack a;;ainsi the horders of the Empire of the JCast. The Saracens were confined to Sjiain and the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. On all sides a houudary was so well estaiilidie.l a- to .se- cure coni])arative exemption from foreign

eminent to his new capital of Ai.\da-(-'hapelle,

which wa.s favorahlv situated ..n the side of

lies. At

paign Queen Hildcgarde added another son to j this phici- the court of the monarch hecaiue the royal househohh The child received the I the ino-t impoitunt, if not the uio-t s],lcndid, name of Louis. an<l was afterwards known as in all ( 'hii-tendom. Hither eaine emhassies the Del.onair. In 7>1 the ehild, then three hiarin;.-- juvM-nl- ti-om the -nat jiotentates of years of age, was taken with his ))rother Pepin ! Etirope, Asia, and Africa. Neither the em- to Rome, and was anointed by the Pope as jx-rors of the East nor the Caliphs of 13aghdad King of Aquitaine. Within less than a year failed to re.speet in this way their fellow sov he was taken bv the courtiers to his own iirov- \ ei

ince. In order that the farce might he as imposing as p(is.-ilile the chihl was clad in armor, mounteil on a horse, and conducted by his councilors to the royal seat of goveru- meut. The administration of the affairs of Aiitiitania was henceforth conducted in Louis's name, tliough the real authority proceeded from the court of Charlemagne.

One of the leading principles in the policy of the king of France was the e-tal.li-liiueut of a secure frontier around his empire. In this work he was mea>uralily su<-ces>fiil. From

ereign of the West. So great had been his activity acd .n H^nal \n< su.'.-e>s, l,oth in war and in' pe.ace, that by the close of the eighth century Charlemagne had taken and held a rank among the greatest mouarchs of the age.' In the year 799 intelligence was brought

baud of conspirators had been organized, that Pope Leo lU. had been attacked, that his eyes and his tongue had lieen cut out, and

nuts. The intention of the Ilolv Father, thus

.\s

i-itv of Cliarle

.le

THE riFTV-THUF.E C.\MP.\IGN"S

Y	s! ■■■■■ ■■	■'^	— —>-
- ' - ' . ' ,.,,1 Wr.,-ial,.l.-\llL ■ ■ . - ■'.■:uA IhcEll"'. > : " _ -, '''.I'h'.rlJ.l'l.yhisse.ierals. I'l ,.r,.,„l.lM'„|,mi. -- i ■ \l;r,. .!!!!. 1,'i illlfw'.'/uL' Oil l..i«vi-Kll.canii the Oder. w.c- 1 :,nlln.'li I D.uiuheanil Rh;. - : . lv>„n.llhe Elln- and thf We.i	ib	1 C- ,-a^..I;-■■:y■"l■I Kl'n'tl!." l',.'i«,''r Kl".- Ul',.'l'\\.-IT. il ■■ Ar.i'.. ..1 S|„,in, c,,i..liiri,.i bvlii^^MH l.,,uK 1,. -.\..;,- l;.'yMi,.i til.' i;lli.-, lii. -.:'v :,- ', '''"' 1 '.T<.''.'.u'.] l!vl!i-~i'II-,'""' ■ Mm -.III.. I'.cm.Mi ili.>;!l...„,iU tlircMer. Mm - .n. .;;;.,,,- ( ,„mIii.-1m,1 I ,y 1,1- -m1, ( l,nti,>. - , 'i . . •'■ . ■-'''". 'i'.'.n.hilhA liV h'.'- ■j'.'m-l'all'."' . ' . ■' ■ ■ ■ - -^ ■.']'^ Im.M. ■ . i: i.r,ii„i ihfO.icr.

THE AGE OF CHAllLEMAGXE.—THE FIRST CARLO VIXGLiyS.

brutally treated, was aoiiouuced to appeal to the king of the Franks as the defender of the insulted Church. In a short time his Holiness came in person to Paderborn, and poured out his grievances in the ready ear of Charle- magne. Nor was it doubtful that the latter would uphold the cause of the Pope with all the ieM)uices at his command. Having tar- utd toi a brief season in the Prankish doniiu- lons, Leo leturned to Rome.

the sanctuary of the apostle. Some time was spent in examining the eliargc-s made by and against the Pope. Two monks, sent by the patriarch of Jerusalem, brought to the great Carloviugian the blessing of their master and the keys of the Holy .Sepulcher. Finally, on Christmas day, when the king came into the basilica to attend the celebration of mass, even as he was bnwing down to (jtier prayer, Pope Leo jilaeed ui^ou his head the golden

The first months of the year 800 were spent by the king in the usual affairs of gov- ernment; but in midsummer he announced to the national assembly his purpose of making another visit to Italy. The journey was un- dertaken in the autumn, and late in Novem- ber the king arrived befoi'e the walls of Rome. The Pope came forth and received him with every mark of obsequious favor. He was led into the city and given a recep- tion on the steps of the basilica of Saint Peter, from which place, followed by the shouts of the multitude, he was taken into

crown of the Empire, while the people shouted, "Long life and victory to Charles Augustus, crowned by Ood, tlie great and jiacific Em- peror of tlio Romans! " (liailes assumed to be astoni>li.d at the ei'owning and the procla- mation. He even declared that, had he known of what was intended, he would not have entered the church, even to attenil the Christmas festivities. But his faculties were not sufficiently confused or his luiniility suffi- ciently shocked to prevent him from })aying adoration to the Pope, according to the old- time metlKid at the coronation of the em-

rx[vr:i;sAL ihstory.—thk M(>j>i:j;x world.

(jiiisli lii.s title of I'a

iffr

.1 I.

assume tliat <>f Kiii]icr..i- an.l Aiijii-lus. It can not reas()iial)!v lie (iniihtcil thai the whole tahleau an.l (■.nr.iony ha.l h.-m an-ai>,<:v,l l,y Leo an.l Charhina-iH- on tho o,-..,Moti of the reeiail vi-it of the foiiii.r to Franer.

It \va< now eh-ar that a p.ineipal eloinont in th." mutual a.hniration of th. Holy See anil the kin- of the l'rank> was the pfoject to n-storc tho laiipiiv ^'l' the \Vr<t. The scheme ini't with a tav.irahlr rcr.ptioii, especially in Italy, whero thr I'op.s an.l l'.i>ho|.s hecarae

an.l ,Mippo,-t,.r north of the Alps. It re- niaine'l lor the laupci-ors of the East to ex- hihit ih.-ii- joalou-y over an .-vent which they wei-i- inipotiut to hiniler. But Chaflemagne coul.l wrll artoi-a to veil un.ler a kingly snav- itv ami prmlent anilii-uitv his roiitenipt for the inii.erilo i-nln- of ( ■on-lantinopl... His coniiiiunirations with tin- .•a>tern .nipefors

\Vl-

wrll tni-n

ike

miration. By such uican< ho avoi.hil any open rupture with the elf-te political ]iow<a' which from the palace of Constantinople still claimed to he the Empire of the C';esars.

lu the internal affairs of his government, no less than in his foreign wars, ( 'harlemagne exhil.ite.l a genius of the hi-hct or.ler. By the close of the eighth century, hi> conquests tad made him ma.ster of the whole country from the Elhe to the El.ro, from the NortJi 8ea to the ^Mediterranean. Germany, Bel- gium, I'ranii', Switzerland, and the northern parts of Italy and Spain were included in his d.imluious. '.\t his a<-ce>sion to p,,wer the .liver.e hn-tile trilies iidial.itiug these wide domain- wer^' Imt half emerged from bar- liari-m. Thi' lanpin'or of the Franks imposed upon himself till- herculean task of civilizing the<e pertui-l.ed nations and of Ldviu- to them th.' advaula-es of a re-ular Government.

It was impo-ilile ill the nature of things that even the ma-terful sjfirit of Charlemagne .-hould -uceed at once in giving order and rest to til.' Iiarharic -oeletv of We>tern Eu- rope. The- geuiu- of confu-ion still struggled with the >pirit of co-nios. and the evolution of regidar forms wa< >low and painful. The

administration was one of adaptation ami ex- pedients. Whatever the Emperor found to be practii'alU- available in carrying out his man- dates, that he retained as a part of his admiu- i>tiative system. Whatever failed was re- jected. The king struggled like a Titan with till' elements of disorder around him. Wher- ever the superhuman energies of his will were manifested, there peace and quiet reigned for a season. But no sooner would the imperial presence he turned to some other quarter of the kingdom than the old violence would reassert itself, and the reign of chaos would begin anew.

The eflbrts of the Emperor to form his sub- jects into a single nation and government were beset with special ditiiculties. The peo- ]ih- oi' his empire spoke many languages. Their institutions were dissimilar; their prog- ress and civilization variable. In some of the states the authority was in the hands of as- semblies of freemen; in others, military chief- tains held the chief authority. Xo fewer than four class distinctions were recognized in society. First, there were the Freemen; that is, tho-e who, acknowledging no superior or patron, liel.l their lands and life as if by their own inherent right. The second class was comjiosed of those who were known as Luedes, Fidele.s, Antrut'tions, etc.; that is, those who were connected with a superior, to whom they owed fealty as to a chief or lord, and from whom they accepted and held their lauds. Third, Freedmen; that is, those who had, for some .signal act of .service or as an act of favor, been raised from serfdom to a condition of dependence upon .some leader or chief to whom they attached them.selves in war, and near whom they resided in peace. Fourth, NA/ivs; that is, those who, lieing the original occupants of the soil, had been reduced to boudage on the conquest of the country, or those who, taken captive in war, were con- verted by the ca])tors into serfs.

But these classes were by no means fixed. ]Many of the j.eoj.le sank from a higher to a lower level ; some rose from a lower to a higher. Weak Freemen would attach them- selves to some distinguished leader and be- come his vassal-. Ambitious Antrustious — even Slaves — would not only achieve their emancipation, but wouhl themselves couquer

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGXE. — THE FIRST CAULOVLXGIAXS.

estates and become independent. It was with this vast, inorganic, and shiftini;- mass that Charlemagne had to deal, and it was mit of tliis heterogeneous material that he labored to create a great and stable state.

The Fraukish Emperor was by no means a theorist. However anxious he may have been to see a regular system of authority estab- lished over the peoples whom he ruled, he \vas preeuiiuently willing to be taught liy ciiciiiu- stauces. However eager he was to govern by reason and law, he none the less retained the sanction of force as the means of preserving order. In an epuch (if traiisitimi, wliile the winds of barbarism lilew tVmn all (jiiartii- i>f the compass and met in his capital, lie dppdsrd to their fury the barrier of his will, saying, "Thus far, but no farther." He was thus enabled, by personal energy, stcniiie^s df de- cision, and inveterate activity, to build up in a boisterous age the fabric of a cnl..,->al iimn- archv, well wortliv t(i rival the Kiiipirc of tlic C;esars. In all his i.iethod> aii.l work theiv were, of course, the iiiliereiit vices of al)solute power; but the system established by Charle- magne was the best that the times would bear or the people were able to receive.

If we look more closely into the nature of the Imperial administration, we shall find first of all the central government established at Aix-la-Chapelle. Here the Emperor reigned ; here held his court ; here summoned Ids min- isters to council. Beside those di-intaries who were immediately associated with him in the government, by whom he dispensed his au- thority, and upon whose judgment he relied somewhat in conducting the affairs of state, the general assemblies, composed of the chief men from all parts of the kingdom, consti- tuted a notable feature of the political system. According to the judgment of modern histo- rians, indeed, the national councils of Charle- magne were the distinguishing characteristic of his reign. No fewer than thirty-five of these great assemblies were convened by royal authority. Sometimes one city and sometimes another was named as the place of the coun- cil. Worms, Valenciennes, Geneva, Pader- born, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Thionville were in turn selected as the seat of the assemblies. Manv of the dukes and cmmts answered the edict of tlie king with trreat reluctance ; but

the Emperor's overwhelming influence was gen- erally sufficient to .secure a large attendance. Tlie meetings, when convened, were in the natitre of congresses, in which measures were jiroposed and debated after the manner of more recent times. It was the wish of Char- lemagne to make his chiefs and nobles partic- ijiants in the government, and to concede to tliem such freedom of expression as might at least enable him to apprehend the wishes of the people.

In regard, however, to the measures dis- cussed by the assemblies, the right of propos- ing the same was reserved by the king. It does not appear that at any time the initiative of legislative action might be taken by the assembly itself. Every thing waited on the pleasure of the sovereign, who wrote out and laid before his congress the suliject matter to be (leliated. The assembly which convened in the early spring was called the ]March-parade;

which was appointed for the first of May, was known as the May-parade. In the interval be- tween one meeting and the next Charlemagne was wont to note down such matters as he deemed it prudent to lay before the assembly, and it not infrequently happened in times of emergency that special sessions were convened to consider the needs of the state. ^Modern times are greatly indebted to Hincmar, arch- bishop of IJheims, who Houii,~hed near the

isfactory sketch of the great Erankish assem- blies and of the business therein transacted. Both the subject-matter and the style of this venerable chronicler may justify the quotation of a few paragraphs from his work. He says :

"It was the cu.stom at this time to hold two assemblies every year. In both, that they might not seem to have been convoked without motive, there were submitted to the examination and deliberation of the gran- dees . . . and liy virtite of orders from the king, the fragments ot' law called oijiitula, which the king himself hail drawn up under the inspiration of God or the necessity for which had been made manifest to him in the intervals between the meetings."

The next paragraph from Hincmar shows conclusively that not only the initiative but also the definitive or final act in IcLdslation

IWJVKRSAL lIISTDRY. — THi: MODRRX WOULD.

rested with the Emjieror. The chrdiiirliT eon- timies :

"After liaviug received the.-r cnimnmiic;!- tious, they [the couiiseldr.-] delilni-alnl in\ them two or three days (jr more, according to the importance of the husiuess. Pahice mes- sengers, going and coming, took their ques- tions and carried l)ack the answers. No stran- ger came near the jihice of their meeting until the result of their deliberatidiis had lieen able to be submitted to tlie smitiny (if tlie great prince, who then, with thi- wisdmii he had re- ceived from God, adopted a resolution, which all obeyed."

The talkative archbishop thus further describes the workings of the Imperial gov- ernment :

"Things went on thus for one or two capitularies, or a greater uuudier, until, with God's lielp, all the necessities of the oceasidu were regulated.

"Whilst these matters were thus proceed- ing out of the king's presence, the prince himself, in the midst of the multitude, came to the general assembly, was occupied in re- ceiving the presents, saluting the men of most note, conversing with those he .saw .seldom, showing towards the elders a tender interest, disporting himself with the young.sters, and doing the same thing, or something like it, with the ecclesiasti<-s as well as the seenJars, However, if those who were delilieratiiig about the matter subuiitled to their examination showed a desire fir it, the kini: re|iaireil to them and remaine<l with ihian as long a< they wished; and then they reported to him with perfect familiarity wliat tliey thought aliout all matters, and what \\e]-e the frien<lly disiais- sious that iiad arisen amongst them. 1 must not forget to sa\- that, it tlie weather weic fine, every thing took place in the open air; otherwise, in sevei-al <listiuct buildings, where these who had to delilierate on the king's

the men of The places a,.] lords were divi that the l>i>h. of hi-h rank

■il into two ]iarts, m sueli sort , the abbots, and the clerics light meet without mixture In the same way the counts of the >tate underwent sepa-

kiu'' was

Honor p laical ai

morning, until, whether the t oi- :ili-ent, all were gathered together; tlen the loi.U aliove specified, the cleri.'s on tli.ir si, I.- an.l the lai.'s on theirs, repaired to the hall uliiel, had li.en as.-igned

for them. When the lor.ls ia-tieal were thu> >epaiated from the multitude, it 'vmained in their power to sit separately or together, according to the nature of the business they had to deal with, ecclesiastical, secular, or mi.^ed. In the same way, if they wi.-lied to si'ud for any <ine, either to ilemaml refreshment, or to put any (piestion, and to dismi-s him after getting what they wanted, it wa> at tleir option. Thus took pla<-e the examination <.f aliliii- ].roposed to them by the king for delilnratiou.

"The second business of the king was to a.sk of each what tlierc was to report to him or enlighten him touching the pait of the kingdom each had come from. X.,t only was

val between the as-emlili.s, about what hap- l>ened within or without the kingdom ; and they weiv bound to seek kii.iu ledge from for- eigners as well as natives, enemies as well as friends, sometimes by em25loying emissaries, and without troubling them.selves much about the manner in which they ae(piired their in- formation. The kin- wi-hed to know whether

was nee(»ary to draw the attention of the eouneil-geiieral, and other similar niatter.s. He s,,uj,t also to know whetlna- any .if the subjugated nation, were inclined to revolt; whether any of those that had I'evolted .seemed dispo.sed towards submission; and whether those that were still independent were ihreat- enin- th,. kingdom with any atta.'k. On all the.e Md.jeets, whenever there was any mani- feMalion'of .li.Mirder or daiu;vr, he .hmianded ehiellv what were the motiv.'S or occasion of them."

Ill this description it is easy to discover the real pri-|ioiiderance of Charlemagne himself in all the alHurs of the Prankish kingdom. The a.s-iemblies were convened liv his edict. He

THE AGE OF CHAELEMAGXE.—THE FIRST CARLOVIXdIAM;.

initiates the law and completes it. He i.s ad- vised, but decides the matter according to his own preference. He consults with his dukes and counts, not to derive autlmrity fnim them— for that he already has — l)ut tn olitain information of the real condition of the em- pire, to the end that he may adjust the clumsy machinery of state to the work to be accomplished. Nor is it proper to suppose that any true public liberty was couched in the national assemblies. They were not a ve- hicle for the maintenance of popular rights, but for the transmission of royal authority. They were the means which the greatest sov- ereign of the age adopted for the purpose of reforming society by the introduction of regu- larity and law in the place of caprice and violence. The government of Charlemagne was absolute, but salutary.

Turning from the general to the local administration of affairs, and passing from the capital into the provinces, we are alile to dis- cover the scheme of the Fraukish Emperor in practical application. To secure obedience and unity, he recognized in the provincial governments two classes of agents, the one local, the other general ; the one native and to the manner born, the other appointed by the king as his resident representatives. In the first class may be enumerated the dukes, counts, vicars, sheriffs, and magistrates — the natural lords and leaders of the political society of the provinces. These were em- ployed by the Emperor as his agents in dis- pensing authority. Nor did he omit any rea- sonable means to secure their fidelity and cooperation in maintaining the order and unity of the kingdom. In the second class were included those beneficiaries and vassals of the Emperor who held their lands and properties directly from him, and were there- fore more immediately dependent upon him than were the native provincial dukes and counts. Politically, the royal vassals were the agents of the government. Their inter- est, to say nothing of loyalty, inclined them to the support of the throne, and they thus constituted a powerful influence to counteract or suppress local rebellions.'

' The relations of the native dukes and the royal beneficiaries in the administrative system of Charlemagne were not dissimilar to those of State

A third class of officers, over and above the former two, were the royal messengers, called the Missl Regii, whom the Emperor ap- li'iiiitiMl to travel into every [lart of his do- niiiiiiins, to find out and punish wrong-doing, to sui)eriuteud the administration of ju.stice, and esj^ecially to inform the sovereign of the actual condition of aflairs throughout the empu-e. The office of these important agents was not only informatory, but administrative. They stood wherever they went for the king in person. They exercised authority in his name, and in general their acts required no confirmation from the royal court.

There was thus extemporized, so to speak, out of the crude materials of Frankish polit- ical society, and by the genius of an extraor- dinary man, a huge monarchy, rude but powerful — a government of adaptation and expedients, rather than a government of con- stitutional fi)rm. The motive of Charlemagne was single. He desired to introduce order into human society, to restore in some meas- ure the symmetry of that social constitution which he saw dimly through the shadows of the past. He thus oeeame a reformer of the heroic type, and laid about him with an en- ergy and persisten<'y that would have been creditable in any, even the greatest, characters of history.

The personal character of the Frankish sovereign may well be illustrated from the memoranda which he left behind him of Car pitidaries, or statutes either actually adopted by the national assemblies or intended to be di.scussed by those august bodies. In these notes and suggestions of laws we find a strange intermixture of ethics, religion, and politics. Sometimes the royal note-book contains a principle like this: " Covetousness doth con- sist in desiring that which others possess, and in giving away naught of that which one's self possesseth ; according to the Apostle it is the root of all evil." Again the king says briefly: "Hospitality must lu- practiced." Boon afterwards, however, he adds: "If men- dicants be met with, and they labor not with

and Federal officers in the goyernment of the United States. The local counts an<l sheriffs rep- resented the State system under our American con- stitution, while the royal vassals stood in the rela- tion of Federal appointees.

Uyil'KliSAL HISTORY. — rilE MODKHX WOULD.

\ir lake- tlioiiL:lil almiit i;iv-

in hi:

nu.'h

a lix..l pii.-r on |,n.vi-i..i,.. II,. ua> jcalons

of tlir JnMi. f lii- a.lnnni-liallou an. I ihc

reputation of hi- .-onrl. Tho loval hra.l-.|nai-- t.T. wrrr not tn h,- nia.l.- an a^vlnn, for ciim- iual.s: •' \\\- do uill and dccivf tiiat none of those will) Mi\r in oni- [)alace shall take leave to receive ihcniii any man who seeketh ref- uge there and cometh to hide there by reason of theft, homicide, adultery, or any other crime. Tiuit if any free man do break tlirotmh

his shotildei- to the pulilic (|uarti'r, and be there tied to the same stake as the male- factor. "

It was in the latter rather than in the ear- lier |iart of his reigu that Charlemagne be- came conspicuous as a leui-lntor. Of the sixty-five statutes attributed to liini, only thir- teen are referable ti> that part of his reign

ing tifty-two are all in.'lude.l l)et\veen the years <S01 an.l .sl4. We are thu> afforded another example of a military leader wiio, having compiered a i)eaee with the swoid, was anxious to preserve liy law what had been so hardly arhii-ved.

Any sket.'h of the life and times of Char- omitted therefrom of his attitude towards learning. Instead (jf that jealou-y which so manv of his pi-e(lecc\-sors and r'onteniporaries manifesto towards srholai- and philn.opher.s— instead of that contempt whieh the small rulerv of the human ra-.. have ever >hown f(,r the bi--bniin.-d, radi.'al thinkers of tl„. l.as-in- a-e — tlir -real Carlovin-ian t<..,k special pain- to seek the accpiaintanee and lailtivate the esteem of the leariieil. Upon scholais and teachers he looked with the greatest favor. He invited them to his court. He mad,- them hi- .onnselors. He sought their a<lvice in the ::rave>t emergencie-. He bestowed lavors upon them, anil made no concealment of hi- wish to be indelited to them for a knowled-e of letters and the arts.

Intheniid>t of suclKurronndings. hefaind

exact knowled-c. lie obtained the rudiments of science. He stndled -raniniar, rhetoric,

certain extent, the recondite problems of the- ologv. He even, in some mca-ure, assumed the ilntv of teaching: tho- branches to his children and member- of hi- hnn.-ehold, and it is amu.-5iyg to find in his eorrespoudeuce many interesting references to such small questions of scholarship. Thus, in a letter to the learned x\lcuin, lieing troubled, for.-^ooth, because he could no |oni;cr di,-covcr the j)laiiet ^lars, he writes: "What thinkest thou of this ,l/i(/v, which, last year, lieing concealed in the sign of Cancer, was intercepted from the sight of men by the light of the sun ? Is it the regular course of his revolution ? Is it the influence of the sun? Is it a miracle? Could he have been two years about perform- ing the course of a single one?"

Nearly all of the distinguished men of the eiiihth and ninth centuries were grouped about the court of Charlemagne. These were employed by the Emperor, either as his polit- ical advisers or as the instructors of his house- hold. Some were sent to Pepin in Italy to superintend that prince's education, and some to Aipiitaine to teach young Louis the rudi- ments of learning. Tho.se who remained at Aix-la-Chajielle were organized into a body known as the School ok the Pal.\ce. Over this Charlemagne presided in ]ier,<on. Here ipiestions of scholarship, theories of learning, anil speculations of metaphysics were dis- cussed with all the vigorous zeal for which the men and the times were noted. At the head ot' this group of scholars and philoso- ]ihers stood the two most distinguished literary men of the age. These were Alcuin, the ]irincipal director of the School of the Palace, and Eginhard, who was distinguished as a historian and biographer of his sovereign. Among the other most eminent scholars may lie mentioned the bishops Augilbert, Leidrade, Adalhanl, A-obard, and Theodulph, who were at the head of the Sees of St. Keipiier, Lyons, and Orleans. Of all these, Alcuin stood high- est in the confidence of the Emperor. To his sovereign he was wont to say : " If your zeal were imitated. ])erchance one might see arise

THE AGE OF CHARLEMA GXE. - THE FIRST CARL <) ) 'IXGIAXS. 5:

in France a new A.heus far more glonou- ^^,„k~, and «a, xl.. mtu.^tul ^uth th. clu.

thau the ancient -the Athens of Christ.' tiou ot Piinte Loui.

Egluhara was made master of the i.uUli, I The 'school ol the P d lu h,l it ill,

Cn^KLEMAUM, PKE-UjIMj 1\ iUK S( H< Drawn by A, de Neuville,

.-,:;.;		uxiVKHsAL nisTonv.
Tlu- n	Anti.| 1 l,y tl	,. M-h..h,r~ <A' ill.- rniirt. Alniin

w:i^ .■all.-.l Kla.ru-; A„-ill..Tt, li.m,.-r; Tlu-.,- dulph, Pin.lar. ( •|Kul._'niague hini.-flf selecte.l his nioilel .mt .if Isia.'l, audcho.se to be known as David. Rut lh.'>i. >uiall vanities and imi- tations may w.'ll 1h- ('..ri^ivcu t.. mt-u who made life a M-ri..us lui-in.-s aii.l with wlium public office wa.s n(.-vcr a siuecure.

lu his habits, manners, and preferences Charlemanrne remained essentially German. Thi' .il.l Prankish stock was ever h..u..re.l by his <<\\u aud the example of his i-.iurt. II.- sp.ik.- (..-rmau. an.I lo.Aed with littk- fav..r u|,..n that iii.-ipi.-)]! Fr.-ii.-h whi.-h, by ih,- bl.-niliii- ..f th.- .-..i-nipt Latin ..f tlu- (iauls with till- Fraiiki>li .liah/cts, was l.)e<rinuiug to ],ri-vail as ill.- l'..lk-<iicech of France. It was at this tinu- that the two great divisions of Fr.-ii.-h, tlu- /.'(//;//(' iFnc of the South, siHUi t.i be iii.i.lilu-il into rroveu5al, and the Laii'iiir ./' .1(7 .if tlu- N.irth, which was the real fiiuii.lati.m iif iii.iil.-rn Fn-ii.-h, t.iok their rise as ]ii-riiiaiu-iit vari.-ti.s ..f huiiian .speech. As f.ir L'harlemagne an.I his .-ourt, they hel.l st.iutly to the mugher tongue of tlit.-ir Franki.<h fathers.

As the Emper.ir gi-..-w .il.l hi^ a.-tivities were somewhat abated. Mni- ami lu.irt- he iii- trustc.l to others the management of the afi'aiis iif state, and more and more he gave hinis(-lf to enjoyment, recreation, and religious devotions. H<- f.mii.I .lelight in the warm baths of Aix-la-( 'hap.-ll.'. T.i these resorts he invited his family, his friends, an.I many ..f the nobility of the kingdom. His ..1.1 f.m.l- ness for ri.ling and the cha.se n.-v.-r f.irs.mk him. Of inild,-r j.iys he pn-h-m-.l the exhil- arati.iii ..f imi-i.-, aiul t.i tlu- .-lul that he niii^ht lit- llui- iu-pir.-.l and .s.iothed, he brought t.i his .-aiiital the nmst distinguished musicians of Italy. In the midst of such exercises and amusements he f.irgot not the near approach of the inevitable hour. Several times he made and unma.Ie or modified his will. He jir.i- vided with the greatest care n.it .mly f.n- th.- settlement of the affairs of the king.l.mi, but also for the di.-tributi.m ..f his own estate. His property he .livi.l.-.l iut.i three major por- tions. The first t\v..-thir.ls were given to the twenty-one (irim-ipal churches .if the empire.

-THE M<)J)Ki;y WORLD.

The remaining tliir.I was reserved for himself during lift-, an.I \vas then to be distributed to his family, <ir b.-st.iwed in alms on the poor.

Having att.-iuled to his personal affairs, the aged Emper.ir, in the year 813, set about the settlement ..f the successi.m. Three years be- fore this time he hail l.ist by death his second son Pei)in, king of Italy, and in 811 his eldest sou Charles, whom he had intended as his successor in France, had died. Prince Louis was now summoned by his father to Aix-la- Chapelle, to be publicly recognized as his suc- i-.-ss.ii-. The principal bi.shops, abbots, counts, and lai.- luiblemen of the kingdom were or- di-red to convene and ratify the Emperor's choice. Of what follows, the biographer Eginhard says: "He [the Emperor] invited them to make his sou Louis king-emperor; whereto all assented, saying that it was very expedient, and pleasing, also, to the people. On Sunday in the next month, August, 813, Charlemagne repaired, crown on head, with his son Louis, to the cathedral of Aix-la-Cha- pelle, laid upon the altar another crown, and, after praying, addressed to his son a solemn exhortation respecting all his duties as king towar.ls (bid and the Church, towards his lamily aiul his people, asked him if he were fully r.-s.ilv.-.l t.i fulfill tli.-m, an.I, at the an- swer that lu- was, ba.le him take the crown that lay up.m the altar and place it with his own ban. Is upon his head, which Louis did amidst the acclamation of all present, -who crie.l, ' Long live the Emperor Louis ! ' Char- lemagne then declared his son Emperor jointly with him, and ended the solemnity with these words: 'Blessed be Thou, O Lord God, who bast granted me grace to see with mine own eyes my .son seated on my throne!'" The ceremony being completed, the prince re- turned into his own province, there to await the event which all foresaw as near at hand. In the beginning of the year 814 the Em- peror was taken ill of a fever. The resolute old monarch adopted the usual methods which he had previously used in sickness, but in tliis instance to no avail. On the seventh day after his attack, having received the com- munion at the hands of the bishop, he quietly expired, being then in the seventy-first year of his age and the forty-seventh of his remark- able reign.

THE AGE OF CEARLEMAC XE. —SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAiiXE

In so far as the energies of Cluirk' i;\-ere devoted to the great work of eret barrier agaiust barbarism, and of givini viviiig Eurnpe a state of ijuietude in the arts of peace might once more liour career was one of tlie most successful history. The barbarians were brought ' On the uorth and east the still half- tribc>, siarcely improved since the days (,f Julius Cic.-ur, were com- pelled to give over their wandering life and to settle within fixed lim- its of territory. On the south-wc>t the fiery cohorts of Islam were thrust back into the {)eninsuhi

tlie dead is dead, and that the purpose of men can never av;

has" left behind. In the wot .i

lizatiou of tlie Ox pired nearly three e

il tn

Spain. Xor was it

M.i

to be supposed that medau army would dare to make its appearance uorth of the Pyi- euees. lu these respects the ser- vices rendered to civilization by the Emperor of the Franks can hardly l)e overestimated. But if we scrutinize the other great purpose of Charlemagne, namely, the restoration of the Eouum Empire of the "West, we shall hi ing but the inevitable failure. In spect the Emperor's political tlie< utterly at fault. He ai)prelieuded

ly in its growth

-t of Europe the

lie ra.'c luid ex-

')efore Cliarle-

ne became a sovereign ; and his grand

estoratiou, kindled as it was in

1 notl

the flame of his own ambition and fanned by the perpetual encouragement of the Church, could but prove a delusive dream — an idle vision of the impos.-ible.

CHAPTER L>:XXII.— SUCCESSORS OK C HP^KLE M AG^^; E.

UrjXG the leign .>f

Charlemagne the Carlo-

vingiau race reached it>

hi^diest glory. None of

-uccp"ors proved to

death of Charlemagne to the overthrow of the Carlovincrian dynasty, a period of a huudred and seventy-three years elap>ed, and thi> epoch may in iieneral t< im- be detined a- one of decline and retro^re-ion. The oidy sub- stantial fact which remained to te-tify <it tlie grandeur of the times (]f Charles the Great ■was the permanent repre>-iou of the barbarian 33

niii;ratioii-. So etlii-it-iit liad been the work accompli^ied in the la-t ipiarter of the eighth century that the territorial foundations of modern France and Germauy were laid on au immovable basi~. Thouuh the barbarian inva- sions were renewe.l or at(. iiipted throughout

the ^^hole of the (•allo^i	i-ian ascendency,
yet the re-tle- tiib, , of	tlie North cimld
never aLi.iiu do more tlia	1 indent the terri-
torial line, ^^lneh liad b.	,„ ,b-a\\n (m the
map ot' Wi-ttru Europe	l,y the .-^\ord of
Charh maune.
Another general tact t(	be uot.d le^pect-
'Tlie signature coiivist. o	tlu- ,Toss «itli the
f,mr letters " K L l; --.it tl.	. eii.Kof til' iMi-s.

lm\i:j;sal iii^rni:y.~-nu-: M<iiii:i:.\ would.

..|- il„- S, a-,

he,-.' ,i,,-|Mr

Nnrwav, I)

spccui rates.

\<Mlli-\\i>tirn Eui'Diic was such as o [\\xn\- ihc movements of the \)\-

Th

the couiitrv by

,1 then th:

of tlie riv.T.. At tii-t Scheldt, aii.l iuhl„-,l th.- ha The Seine fuini-h.Ml the guerrillas nf iIh- North ^ Loire. Bcfnre the mi. I. lie d' th.- ninth cen- tury they had asceu<h;.l the fiar.inne au.l sacked his villages. In .'>4-"i the city .ifSaiiites was burnt by the sea-rol)l)ei-s ; and in the fol- lowing year Limoges was taken and sacked. Following up their advantages, the piratical craft next appeared in the rivers of Aqui- taiue, and the city of Bordeaux, after making one successful defense against their assaults, was captured, plundered, and given to the flames. Tours, liouen, Augers, Orleans, Meaux, Toulouse, Saint Lo, Bayeux, Ev- reux, Nautes, and Beaubais were sooner or later pillaged by the insatiable' Northmen. More, however, will be added in detail with respect to these incursions when we come to con.sider the times in which they occurred.

Resuming the narrative, we find L. nis, the third son of Charlemagne, seated on the throne vacated by his father's death. He is known in history as the Debonair, though by his contemporaries he was called the Pious. Perhaps the name of the Weak would have suited him better than either. He was altogether wanting in that physical energy un.l immoral robustness which had .•i>n>titut.il the salient features in the chara<-ter .if his father. It should not be overlooked, how- ever, that in the single matter of moral recti- tude, the new sovereign far excelled his predecessor ; but his political incapacity ren- dered his domestic virtues of but small or even nesxative value.

the niann.r.- an.l lial.iln.h- .>f the e.,url. The (•xc.».> ..f ih.- |ii-e.-i-.ling ivi-n ha. I ii.-en en- .lure.i li.-.-auM- i.f tJM- nia-nilieetit strength with wiii.-h lli.y were a<-i'niii|.aniiMl. A code ol'au-t.iiiy ua> ii..\v >iih>tiliile.l in the palace,

teni|it> were iiiaile In thi-.iw oil' e.itain abuses which ha. I ll..uri-he.l .hninu the p.vee.ling a.ln,ini.Mi-ali..n. The >ul.ju::at. .1. th.uigh stiU sullen Sax..n~, w.av re>t..iv.l f, a p.u-ti.m of their lili.iti.-. IJ.ival iii.->. ii;jcrs were sent into various i.i-ovince< \\h\\ anth.iritv to miti-

ing reign, leke.l with r-v which

i;.

L..ui< ha.l alrea.ly lueii pivsente.l by the i|Ueen Ilermengarde with three sous, Lothaire, IVpin, and Louis. These princes, at the date of their grandfather's death, were already ad- vancing towards manhood, the elder being nineteen years of age. Three years after coming to Imperial power Louis convened a national assembly at his capital, and an- nounced to that liody his purpose of sharing the thi-..iu' with L.ithaii-e. The measure was coujile.l with tile as.-erti.m of the Emperor that he did not by any means purpose to break up the iiuity of the great kingdom which he had received from his father ; but the merest novice in statecraft could not fail to see the inevitable effect of the joint sovereignty thus instituted in the emjiire.

Couicident with the elevation of Lothaire til Imperial dignity, the other two sons of the emjieror — Pepin and Louis — were crowned as kings, the former receiving Aquitaine, South- ern Gaul, and Burgundy; and the latter, the countries beyond the Rhine. The rest of Gaul and Germany, together with Italy, fell to Lothaire, and the subordinate rulers were directed to repair to him from time to time and receive their authority at his hands. During the remainder of his life Louis the Debonair was to retain the home kingdom, having Lothaire as his associate in the gov- ernment. The two junior sons of the Emperor, youths as they were, repaired to their re- spective provinces and assume. 1 the duties of

THE AGE OE CHAELE-UAdXE.—SUCCESSOBS OF CHAREEMAdXE.

government, the oue iu Aquitaiue, the << in Bavaria. Thus, withiu five years after death of Charlemagne, were made t!ie giimiugB of the great three fohl divi>ioi Western Europe into Feaxce, (iicuM; and Italy.

At the very commencement of his re the weakness ami subserviencv of Emii

ingian had set ou these te with dignity and kii had shown due deterei

Louis. As Stephen drew near to the Emperor went forth to meet prostrated himself at full lni,jfh he

I. CHARLEMAGNE, 814. I IL LOUIS THE DEBONAIR, SIO.

LUfIS THE GEE.Ma;

ULES THE FAT, SS:

v. CHAKLES THE BALD. 877

Uth.x.l SAXONY.

VIl. ARNTLF,

ronrndof FRANCONI

. CONKAD I., 91S.

XI. OTHO THE GREAT.

XILOTHOI XIII. OTHO I

XIV. HENRY IL. 1024.

lONRAD I

CNRY III., 1056.

XIX. LOTH AIRE OF SAXOXY, Henry the Blank. XVIIl, HEXRY V.

Agnes=Frederick of HOHENSTAUFEN.

Gertrade=Heiiry the Proud. Henry the Lion.

Jiidith=Frederick.

XXII. HENRY VI.. ir.17. XXIV. FREDERICK 11.. liM. 25. Conrad IV., 1234.

J indicate drscrnf.

Conradin. EXPLANATION:

' the order of the reigns.

I. Carlo%-insian Line, A. D. nxv-911, SSovereigns.

II. Sa.xon •■ •• 911-10M.5

111. Franconian ■• '■ 1024-1115.4

— - ■ 1125-li>l.6

XV. Hohenstaufen

Id icate EMPERORS, , DTNASTIES.

s, NOT EMPEKOR

GERMAN HOUSES MIDDLE ACES.

Louis were manifested. Two years after his accession, Pope Stephen IV. was invited to come into France and perform the cere- mony of consecration. The Roman pontifis had already ou several occasions performed like service for the Most Christian Kings of France. Charlemagne had been crowned by Leo III., and his sons consecrated at Rome. The example, however, which the great Car-

There he lay uutil the Pope stretched forth his hand and lifted up the groveling ruler from the dust.

It was not long until the inherent weak- ness of the government gave occasion for insurrection. The mountaineers of Yasconia first rose in revolt. Meanwhile Bernard, who, before the death of Charlemagne, had suc- ceeded his father Pepin iu the kingdom of

.'.10 cxi\-Ki:sAL HISTORY.— TEE .moi>j:j:x would.

Italy, was Ir.atli tn see the crnwii tran-ferrcd ; AVurir.s niiil o]H-iily annulled the ?ettlenient

to hi>cnu,-in Loihaiiv. in..re i.arti"ul;.rly ^inee \ which he had iiia<l"e twelve year> i,reviou>lv.

the latter ha<l rm Letter ehiii.i r,,, ih- "throne He took away from re].in" and L„um the

of Italy than iniidit he found in the cai.rice • proviui-e.- of Burj:undy and Aleinannia and

undertook ti> maintain his ri-lu^ l.y f.rn-; This lla-rant act led to an immediate revolt

hut tlie rehi'llioii ncfived lilli-- r.nnui-naiice. on the |.a!-t of Lothaire, Peiiin, and Louis,

even >outh of the Alps and ];. mard was and to thr liitterness of this reh.Hion were

qui<-llv i.ut and,., 'fhe \-a>rons wrre also adih'd th." .lis.-rac.dul quarnds wideh pre-

eadly n.lue, d to sulmd-don. In lirittany, vailed at thr n.yal court. An amhitious Sep-

howcvrr. a nvolt ocrnn-ed of more serious i timanian nohleman. named Bernard, was ad-

pro|iorlit.ns The c'ountry wa> siill covered vanced to the ]>osition (d' ehandierlain of the

willi hc:ivv forests and many facilities of re- j j.alace. He .-oon enpiL'-cd in an intriLiue wdth

.sistancc were allord.d to an in>uruvnt p<.pula- | (Juecn duditli which scan.laliz, d the court

tion. In the year Ms. the inhahiiauN ch(,-e ' and increased the oppodti.m to Louis and his

Morvan. They renounced their alleeiaucc clndin- many of the chief men of the k'ing-

aud refu-ed to pay iiiliute to the Frank-. (hmi. The Empress was seized and >lint nji iu

At the very time when the Emperor Loui< a convent. Louis was obliged to no forth

wa- pre-idiuLT in a national a--endilv at Aix- from hi- capital and give himself up to the

la-Ciiapelle, Count Landiert. govern..r of in>ureent-. V,y them he was depio-ed from

Brittany, made his wav to the capiral, and otti.-e and th.- .a-..wn continued to Lr.thaire.

reported that V\< province wa< in a >tate of | The old act of 817, hy which the distribution

revolt ;ind that Ei-anee wa- invaded. There- j of the kingdom among the sons of Hermen-

upon a Franki>h monk, named Dilcar, was i garde hail lieen determined, was restoi-ed ; and

sent to the Breton kin- to know hi> griev- ' the more recent act of Emi.cror Louis relative

ances and t.. command snluui-dou. A haunhty to Prince Charles, was annulled. Thus, by a

answer wa- returned, and the Fraiildsh nion- sudden outbur.-t of p.ipular indignation, the

arch wa- ohli.^ed |o -o to war. A liattle was ambitiou- .-.■lieine< of (^leen Judith were

the reliels Were utteilv routed. ]\[orvan was Soon, howcvei-, there was a great re 'ulsion

slain, and his bh.odv head wa> hrou-ht hv the of public fvling in favor of the ,lidi nored

slaver to Ditcar f.r recognition. The revolt king. It was tardily perceive.l that he had

wa- .|nicklv extin-uidied in blooil. lieen moiv dniied against than sinning. The

Aftei- the di;!lh i^f tile Enipiv>s Ilernieu- jn-iuce- Louis and Pei)iu, moreover, became

garde, Loui- cho<e for his >eeoiid wife the bitieily i,.;dou,- ..u account u{ tile Imperial

lu-ince-< .liidith of liavaria, dau-hti-r of Count dignity couf-rrd upon Lothaire. They ac-

(iuelf— a fiinily de-tiu<d to the hi-he-t di- cordinely went over to their father's siile ; nor

tinciiou in the subse.pient ainials of Ihiropi-an were tin- eccdesiastics slow to repent of the

nionarehv. In tlie vcar X'l'-\, the new Empre<- cour-e wliiidi they had recently pursued towards

]ire-ented her lord with .a -on. who beeairie their -overeie-n. Another national assembly

know u amonu- the rnh-r- ot' France a- Cliaile- wa- convened at Ximegueu, and the acts

the r.ald. There wa< thu- added to the kin-'- whi.li had been adopted by the former body

household of heir- anoth.-r exp.'ciant. who, were abro-ated. Louis the Debonair was

backed bv the ab-orbin- pa-ion and brilliant re<t..red t.) his ri-hts, and the two princes,

abilltie-of his nioiher. wa- from thetii-t an ob- Pepin and Lotds, were reinstated in their

tlie Emperor had alivadv settled the succe-.-iou. Now it was that the Emperor was obliged

Nor was it Ion- until - 1 reason was shown : to maintain his authority by force. He ac-

for their jealousv. In the vear M".i the king, | eordiiigly mustered an army and marched

now completelv under the influence of (;»ueen ' a.-ain-t his refractory sons. Prince Pe].in, of

Judith, went before a national assemblv at ' Aijuitaine. had been already overthrown by

THE AGE OE CHARLEMACXE.—SUCCESSOES OE cnAELE.}LUL\E.

his brothers Lothiiire and Louis, ami his king- dom g-ivcu to Charles the Bald. It wa> imw the father's turn to try the issue ol' liatllr with Iiis own .iH-priii--. The two armies met at a l.laee ealle<l the Field of ll-d, situated between Tohnar and Bale. But when the Ixittle was about to lH',i:in a lari;e part <if KiuL;' Loni-'s t'orccs abandoned him and went over to Bothairc. The monarch was thus left naki'd to the mi'rey of his .sous. The name of the Field of Bed was changed to the Fiehl of Falseh 1.

The victorious princes, however, received their lather with the consideration due to his rank, but their filial respect did not extend to his restoration to power. On the contrary, Lothaire convened a national assembly and had himself proclaimed Emjjeror. In a short time another convention of grandees and bishops was held at Compiegne, and Louis the Debonair was again formally deposed. He was obliged to hear the decree of his own <lethronement, in which the charges of inca- pacity and weakness were openly set forth, read aloud to the multitude. He meekly ac- cejited the situation which had been imposed by his subjects, and retired to the convent of Bheims.'

It now appeared that the aflairs of the Empire were permanently .settled ; but though the Emperor Louis was dethroned the party of his supporters was by no means annihilated. In a short time rebellions in his favor occurred in various parts of his kingdom, and the usurping sous t'ound it difficult to retain the power which they had seized by force. The beautiful and audiitious Judith was still at liberty, and her intrigues prevailed to win over many friends to the cause of her dis- honor..! hn>baud. X..t a few of tlie cleigy rallie.l to his sujiport. In the year X'.'A two national assemblies were held, and the acts of the convention of Compiegne were formally revoked. The Imperial dignity was again conferred ou Loni~, an.l the kingdom con- tinued in a ferment of revolt as before.

Four years after this second restoration of the Emperor to ]iower Pei)in of Acjuitaine died. The la-oblem of the Empire was thus somewhat simplified. lu 839 an assemlily was called at Worms. The general <'.iniliti(in oi' the dvnastv and the distriliution of p.ilitieal

iv,-,,lvr.l t.i make a new territ..rial ,livisi..u of th.. king.hnn. Bavaria an.l th.^ .■in-un.ja.rnt r.-i..nswere left as beloiv to tl„; Bri,,.-,. I.nuis, heucef)rth known as L.iuis llir CmtKiii. The w.-t. rn p..rti..u of ili.^ Enipir.' was ilivided

int.. tu.i parts by \W Bh ■ an.l the Meuse,

till' ca-tcin .livi>ion failing liy his own choice to Lothaire. The west.rn part was assigned to Charles the Bald. The Ceriiian, h.iwever, was l.iy no means satisfied with the distribution. He took up arms to undo the settlement, and his imbecile father in his old age was obliged once more to attemjit the maintenance of peace by wai-. At lli.' bead of his army he .set out towai-.ls the Bli.nish frontier; but on ai-rivin-' near th.' .-ity of ]\Iayence he fell sick of a fc\-er an.l .li<-.l at the castle of lugelheim. Thus in the .Summer of 840 the question of the settlement of the kingdom was still fur- ther simplified by the course of nature.

In his last h.iuis th.- expiring mouarch transmitted the Inipei-ial emwn an.l sword to his sou Lothaire. To Louis of Bavaria he sent the assurance of pardon, and to both princes the earnest admouition that the rights' of the Queen Judith an.l the young King Charles the Bald should be i'aithfn'lly observed.

Of little avail, Imwovei', were these chari- itable iujuncti.)ns of th.' dying Emperor. For in the mean time the jirince Pepin II., son of the deceased Pejiin of Aquitaine, had usurpeil the government of his father's pro- vince. With him Lotliaire now entered into a conspiracy f .r .l.sp.iilinir- Charles the Bald of his inheritani'e. The latter took the alarm, and made an alliance with Louis the German, who, like himself, was imperiled by the am- bition of Lothaire. The Empress Judith went on a missi.m to the Bavarian prince, and the latter, as soon as pra.'tieable, sent an army to the aid of Charles. In the next summer after the death of the Debonair the forces of the rival lirothers, Charles and Louis on one side, and Lothaire an.l his nephew Pepin II. on the other, met nii-ar th.- villag.' ..f F".)ntenailles, where the destinies of the Carloviugian em- jiire were again t.i lie decided. The two armies are sai.l to havi' numbered three hun- .Ir.'.l thousand ni.'U. For four days the an- tagonists inauenvi're.l, dreading to come to battle. lu the beiiinniuir of the conflict

UyiVKnSAL lUSTOllV.—THE MODIJlX WORLD.

victiirv >i LotludR-; rallieil In; flicted oil Hardly c^ had such overthrow oils to tl

rlfiii

e'buwaU

aged poet nt' the- I'liurl the irr<']);iralil«' di-a,-n r '

made m(jst -tivnuou- cir.rt- h< r.-tni-i^ hi- f'lr- tuues. He apiH^ali-d to thr Saxmi- and (.idiii- ised the n-tnialinn nt' iia-ani-iu if tiny wmuI.I espouse hi> cause. Si'veral of the tribes re- volted in hi~ favor; but Louis and Charles were little di^p(l-ed to lose by uegligence the fruits of their great victory. The two princes met in a public assembly on the right bank of the Rhine, between Bale and Strasbourg. Each cuiiie at the head of his army, and there, in the most solemn manner, they renewed their covenant against Lothaire. The alliance thus made was publicly celebrated by the offi- cers and soldiers of the two armies in a series of games, military sports, and joustiugs, the same being, perhaps, the beginning of those knightly tournaments which became one of the leading features in the s(jcaal history of the Middle Ages. The two kings themselves, clad in armor, entered the lists, attacked each other, as if in battle, pursued, retreated, and per- formed feats of fictitious daring.

But neither the league between Louis and Charles nor the ro\al sports which they insti- tuted for the delight of their soldiers could overawe the courageous Lothaire. In spite of the efforts of the allied princes he made such headway on the side of Saxony that they were obliged to recognize his rights and to consent to a new territorial adjustment. The three brothers met in a conference in the summer

' Angilbert thus utters his anguish over the battle of Fontenailles: "Accursed be this day! Be it unnumbered in the return of the year, but ■wiped out of all remembrance ! Be it unlit by the light of the sun ! Be it without either dawn or twilight ! Accursed, also, be this night, this awful night, in which fell the brave, the most expert in battle! Eye ne'er hatli seen more fearful slaugh- ter: in streams of blood fell (■l.ii>tiaii men; the linen vestments of the i\v:\A did whitm tlie cham- paign even as it is whitened liy the Ijirds of au- tumn."

of .s-lo, and it was agreed that Italy, A.jui-

.should aUo be given the ihree cirie. .d' -May- enee, Worni.s, and >i.in>, on the h ll bank of thelvhine. The eastern part of ( lanl. bound d iiy the lihine and llie Wyo and tiie rivers .>ieu.-e, Saone, and Khoue, wa- assigned to Lothaire. The remainder <if tlie (iaulidi ter- rito,-y was given to Charles tlie Bald, and to liini al,~o fell tlie jirovinces of Vascouia, Sep- tiniania, and the French po.ssessions beyond the ryrences.

This .settlement of affairs made at Verdun, in the year 8-43, gave the iiui.shing stroke to the project of I'estoring the Empire of the West. The name of Emjjerm- was still re- tained and has continued for many centuries as a sort of traditional factor in the politics of Europe. But it was the shadow without the substance. The Empire itself became a myth, into which not even the greatest minds could do more than breathe the breath of a fitful and evanescent vitality.

In the midst of the great civil disturbances to which the Frankish kingdoms were thus subjected the Northern Pirates came in to- reap their abundant harvests of spoil. They made their way at times to the very gates of Paris. The abbeys of St. Germain and St. Denis were captured and sacked. The outer quarters of the city were several times in the hands of the sea-robbers, to whom all treas- ures, both sacred and profane, were alike. lu the year SfiO Pepin of Aquitaine made a league with the Northmen and consented to- their capture of Toulouse. The marauders went from place to jilace through the prov- ince of Aquitaine, seizing what they liked and destroying what they would. Nor did it appear that either Pepin or Charles the Bald had the courage requisite to scourge the Northmen ont of their territories.

One of the most audacious of the piratical leaders was the sea-king Hastings. Several times he appeared with his fleet in the rivers and harbors of France. Not satisfied with the spoils of the western coasts, he made his way into the Mediterranean. On the shore of Tuscany he descried a city which he mis- took for Rome, hut being unable to take the place bv assault, he resorted to stratagem.

THE AGE OE CHABLEMAGXE.— SUCCESSORS OE CHAHLEMACNE. ^43

Pretending to repent of his pa^t life, lie ^ent pdit to be cueuLited that he \\a~ ih ad, and for the Chii^tian bishop, and ^\as baptized a- I hi- toUowei- claimed for him the ii.ht-- of a eonveit. Soon afteiwaid- he cau-ed the u- \ buii.il 'Hit IhhU w i- li nu to thi < itludral,

UMVKJ;S.\L insToHY. — THE MoPI-.I.W WOIUJ).

but

i|. .~i>

1- the

licli

prostrate Ilasliii-s, .hvw W\< >\\uv>\. ainl slew the ecclcsiii.-tirs ■■i-iit ami I'I'l. ili> iin-ii, at the si-nal. joiiMMl in tlu- hl.n\y woik. 'Hie cathedral \va< pluinl.nd, ami llie ml.l.ers made away willi tli( ir <|".il> lielnre tiie .-lupe- tied iMipulati-ii .-nuld rvali/r u hat wa^ done. At a lalrrdah^ lla-liii- and l,i< l.aii.i rav-

H,. then s,ii,d ui, tl... S.in.' and appeared I,'.- fere Pari-. Chariivs was taken, and fliarles the Bald was oliliged to entreueh himself at St. Denis. >So great was the terror which the Northmen had spread abroad that the king — though again-t tlie ailvire ol' many of

Hastings, and rdun iit.d td pinvhase a peace. It was agi'i'd t(i (■((!(■ tn the triumphant robber and lii-^ loll. .wits the county of Char- tre.s, oil condition that he wotdil t'case from his piracies and liecoinr a Chnstian. It seems that the rapacity of Hastings was at last sat- istied, and he accepted the overtures of the Fraukish king. But liis fellow-chieftaiu Bi- oeru, not yet satiated with plunder, could not be reconciled. He sailed away with a cargo f hootv, was wrecked on the coast of Fries- lan.l, aiid soon afterwards died. Theiv was then a lull in the tempest of north i-n inva- sion, an.l the kingdom of the Fraid^s for a while flowed in the more (piiet currents of history.

Three kingdoms issued from the treaty of Yerduu — Italy, Germany, and France. Po- litii'al causes — the accidental circumstance of nniny sons in the family of Louis the Deb- onair— had condiined with the general facts of geography, language, and race-kinship to divide the descendants of the subjects of Char- lemagne into Italians, Germans, and French. The imbecility of the Emperor Louis had co- operated with the tongue of Clovis in the formation of nations ; and the jealousy of the queens, Hermengarde and Judith, had made a league with the Alps.

Aiiion'j- the various immediate successors of Chaileina-tM' the most distinguished were Charles the Bald and Lothairc. The former inherited the brilliant faeulties of \\\< niotluT, and added a iu.l-inrnt an.l will of hi- own. He maintaine.l about his eaiiital an.l eouft

\[- \.

nair hail had no other .son pire founded by the greate gians might have i)roserv(

Deb.).

e l-:m-

It will now be desirable to note briefly the principal events in the history of the three kingdoms of Italy, Germany, and France, from the middle of the ninth century to the acces- sion of Hugh Caj^et. Taken altogether, the period is oue of the least interesting and in- structive in the whole course of Jlodern His- tory. During its continuance men appear with little heroism, and events are jirojected on a stage so little dramatic as scarcely to ex- cite a passing interest.

Charles the Bald continue. 1 his reign from S.'il) to X'o with sean-ely a notable inei.lent. After the settlein.ait of Hastings at Chartres, the king.l.Jin, though freipiently menaced, suf- fere.l f.ir tlie time not much actual injury from till' in.airsions of the Danes. In the year .s?:. Loui< II. of (i.'fiiianv .li.'.l. For some years that sovrei-n ha.l b.,in.. the Im- perial title ; f.a- Lothaire ha.l cease.l to b.' Em- peror in the year 855. On the death .if Louis, Charles the Bald .seized the title ; but so small had already be.'.nne the influence of this tra- ditional dignifv that the French king was rather weakem-.l than ina.le strong by its as- sumpti.)n. Slioitlv afterwanls a much more important event oceunv.l in the e>talilishment of the hereditary principle among the noble families of France. Hitherto the dukes, counts, and grandees had hel.l and exercised their authority by th.' r.ival (.remgative. In 876 Charles wa- obligid to >i.jn a decree by which the tenure of the noble titles of the kingdom, with the landed estates thereunto belonging, was remanded to the law of de- si'ent. Thus as early as the last quar-

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAdXE.—SUCCESSOIiS OF CHARLEMAdM:.

ter of the ninth ceutuiy were Liiil in ]''i-:iiice the fouuiUitions of the feudal s_\>teni, which wa^; destined in the course of tinu' tn (.l>taiii the mastery of alnmst the wlmh' nf \V..-ti ru Europe, in the fnlh.wiii-- year, .^77, < 'harlrs the Bald died in a village at the fiK.it i>f Jlout Cenis; nor was the suspicion wanting that his life was taken by poison administered by his Jewish iihysician, Sedecias. A fitting epitaph for himself and his reign is furnished in the pungent comment of one of the old French chroniclers: "Fortune in conformity to his humor made him happy in appearance and miserable in reality."

The late king had been exceedingly un- firtunate in his family. Of his four suns, namely, Louis, Charles, Lothaire, and Carlo- man, the eldest two proved to be rebellious and turbulent princes. It was the purpose of the father that Lothaire and Carloman should be devoted to the ser\-ice of the Church. The thought was uppermost in his mind that his own sins might thus be vicariously expiated. The Prince Lothaire, being weak and lame, submitted to his fate and entered a monastery, but Carloman refused obedience. He broke oft' from the enforced obligations of the monas- tic life and fled into Belgium. Here he raised a revolt, put himself at the head of the insurgents, and laid waste the country. The forces of the king were called out against him, and the prince was defeated and taken prisoner. Convicted of violating his religious vows, he was condemned to have his eyes put out ; but escaping from confinement, he made his way into Bavaria, and found refuge with his uncle, Louis the German. Charles and Lothaire soon died, and Louis was thus left as the heir expectant of tlie kingdom and the empire. On the death of his father he quietly ascended the throne, taking the title of Louis II., and receiving the sobriquet of the Stammerer.

The new reign was brief and inauspicious. No event of importance occurred during the two short years in which he held the royal power. He died in 879, leaving two sons, named Louis and Carloman, and a posthu- mous heir who received the name of Charles. Louis took as his inheritance the kingdom of Neustria, and Carloman obtained the province of Aquitaiue. All the rest of the territories

recently governed liy the exception of I'r

.!■ Lm

man. The excepted ,li.inci< uciv >rmA hv i;,./,on, Count of I'rovcncc, who had married

tion was recognized by I'cipc Jolni \'1I1., an,l Bozoii was crowned as king. Thus, by a hold and successful, though bloodless, usurpation, were laid the foundations of the little king- dom of Provence, which was destined to fiourish for several centuries, ami to liccome the most polite and refined center of culture north of the Pyrenees.

King Louis, like his predecessor, was des- tined to a brief and inglorious reign. He came to a premature clcath in the year 882, and was succeeded by tlie exiled CarLiman, who held feebly to the crown for the space of two years. The posthumous Prince Charles, being now but five years of age, was consid- ered l\v the not over-loyal barons as too young t<j assume the burdens of the state. They therefore sent a deputation to Bavaria, and tendered the French ci-own to Cliarles, the youngest son of Louis the (icrnmn. This prince had already received the Iiii]n rial dia- dem at the hands of the Pope, and thii>, hy a concurrence of fortuitous events, ail the do- minions of Charlemagne, with the exception of the kingdoms of Provence and Aragon, were again united in a single government.

To their new sovereign the French gave the surname of Le Geos, or The Fat ; for ho was corpulent to the last degree. Xor was he more energetic in mind than in Imdy. ^lorc even, perhaps, than his predecessors, did he lieconie the tool of the intriguing courtiers by whom he was surrounded. Neither did the humili- ating j)Osition into which he was forced arouse his pride, nor the distresses of his peo- ple awaken his sympathies.

Now it was that France was destined, more than ever, to feel the scourge of the liands of the Northmen, and to experience the full ' humiliation arising from the imbecilitj' of a rider who was incompetent to defend her. The piratical Danes had in the meantime found a leader greater and more warlike than Hastings. The new chieftain bore th(.' name of Rolf, or RollO, who by native CDurago and brawn had obtained an easy ascendency over

uyin:i:sAj. iiisioin'.—TJii-: moderx world.

well us tl.al c.f lii^ ^^■A^■v\^ tily ..r Paris a.i.l l.rii,,- liu iu the person nf its king ance with their wislie.s. T'

..fiiis liirl.ulent	ron ver	cil anil ill.	unci 111 verteil Nortluuan emlej
hi^ aiiil>itii)ii, as	with I	1<- e\pii,~	iilalimis of the oue ami the
til capture the	cleliani-	• of the	it her. Ha.stLug.s returued to
niiiii uiuuarchy	the Fi	lukish a	my, and preparatiou.s were
I supple cumpli-	reuewe	1 lor the	impeudiug coufliet.
anuies of Mori h-	At	this jui	eture au episode oerurred
jy lioUo iu per-	worthy	of note.	A certain Count ThibaiUt,

other liy his acsneiate chieftain, I who had greatly coveted the estate? which le latter was to ascend the Peine, i were held by Hastings, availed himself of the .situation to jday upon the fears and credulity of that reformed pirate. The count told his victim that King Charles had purpo.sed his death, and that his only .safety lay in flight. Hastings thereupon sold to his informer at

son and the Siegfried. T

and the former, having captured the city of Rouen, was to join liim before the towers of Paris. In the emergency that was upon him, Charles the Fat sent for Hastings and em- ployed him as an ambassador to the chief of

the Da

But the interview between the I trifling price his town of C'hartres, fled to his

THE AilE OF CHARLEMAGNE.— SUCCESSORS OF CHARLE.VACXE.

couutrymeu, and lapsed lutu the- more ecu- genial 2)iirsuits of |iiraey.

Meanwhile, the ^lorthmeu gathered belore the walls of Paris.' Their fleet consisted of seven hundred huge barks and obstructed the Seine for the distance of two leagues. The forces of Rolf and Siegfried numbered fully thirty thousand men, and every one was a weather-beaten warrior, hardened by every species of exposure, aud expert in all the dangers of laud and sea. But even this wild aud daring host was astonished at the walls aud towers of Paris. Everywhere new forti- fications had been reared, aud a defiant sol- diery looked down from the ramparts. Great towers of stone stood here and there, and the solid walls of St. Denis and St. Germain were seen in the distance. Even the dauntless Siegfried forbore for a season to make an as- sault upon the impregnable bulwarks of the city, but rather sought to gaiu his end by parley and negotiation.

The city of Paris was at this time held aud defended by Count Eudes, eldest son of Rob- ert the Strong, of Aujou. Of him the Danes made the demand of a free passage through the city, and promised, if this were granted, to refrain from all injury and violence. But neither Eudes himself nor the bishop Gozlin, by whom the negotiations were conducted, was silly enough to be entrapped by the wiles of a pirate. So the baffled Danes were obliged to give over their stratagem and resort to opeu force.

A siege ensued of thirteen mouths' dura- tion. Eight unsuccessful assaults were made by the Daues. The old Abbe, a monk of St. Germain des Pres, has left on record a poem, recounting the progress and daring exploits of the struggle. The leaders within the city were Eudes and Gozlin. The latter died during the siege, and Count Eudes, quitting the city, made his way to the Emperor Charles, calling for reenforcemeuts. On his return with three battalions of troops, he was obliged to cut his

' It will be remembered that the outskirts of Paris had 1ieen already several times taken and pillaged 1iy the Panish pirates. But the heart of the metropolis, tliat is, so much of Paris as is situ- ated in the Jle de la cite, liad not thus far been pen- etrated by the marauders. It was this center of the city that was now assailed by Rolf and his robbers.

way from the heights of Montmartre through the Danes to the gates of the city. The in- vestmeut continued until the autumn of .S.Sti, when Charles the Fat came with a large army to the succor of the besieged. But it was a fatal succor which he brought to Paris. On his arrival he agread to purchase with a heavy ransum the retreat of the Northmen, who were iuiluced for the wiutcr to retire into Burgundy.

So pusillanimous was this conduct of the king that a diet, convened in the following year ou the banks of the Rhine, passed a de- cree of deposition, aud the Imperial dignity was conferred ujjon Arnulf, a natural son of Carloman, brother of Louis III. At the same time the title of king was conferred on Count Eudes, who had so bravely defended Paris, and the monarch-elect was presently crowned by the archbishoj) of Sens. Another claim to the crown of France was at the same time advanced by Guy, duke of Spoleto, whose alleged rights were founded on the fact that he was descended from Charlemague in the female line. The duke hastened over from Italy, and was proclaimed by the bishop of Langres. But the accession of Eudes was already a fact accomjdished, and *-iuy re- turned to his own place as hastily as he had C(inie.

:\Ican while, Bozon, king of Pnivenee, died and was succeeded by Boso, duke of Aides. At the same time, Count Rodoljih was giveu the title of king in Transjurau Burgundy, and was crowned at St. Jlaurice. All the while the young Prince Charles, son of Louis the Stammerer, and legitimate heir of the Carlo- vingian House, was overlooked and well-nigh forgotten. He was, as yet, only a child, and the ambitious dukes aud enuiits, themselves eager to seize some jHtty crown, were little disposed on the score of loyalty to hunt up and lionor the feeble scion cd" the stock of Charlemagne.

Having retired from his unsuccessful siege of Paris, the chieftain Rollo renewed in AVest- ern France his career of cruising and pillag- ing. It appears, however, that his contact with civilization began to reiict upon his fac- ulties; for he was a man of genius. Before entering upon his French coufiuests he had alren<ly made an expedition into England,

CMVKusAL iiisT()i;y.~THi-: mddkhx woni.D.

THE AGE OF CHAIILEMAG XE.— SUCCESSORS OF CHAHLEMAH SE.

hail been dniie iu the c;qHtal. Only when he met with (ilnlurate resiistance diil the olil vhileuce "1' liis nature break forth a_L:ain>t his tne<.

This ehange iu the eharaeter aial .cnli- ments nf the Danish chief le.l to a eorroponil- inu^ change iu the niauner of warfare. -Vt'ter the ileiiositiou of Charles the Fat, the struggle between King Eudes and Kollo eontinurd with varying fortune. The former gaiiir.l a great victory over the Danes at ^loutlaucnn, but was in his turn defeated at Vcrniamloi,-. In the latter conflict the veteran Ila.-iings agaiu appeared as the leader of the Nonh- men. Itollo, now master of many towns, lie- gan to treat the subject populations with kind- ness and justice. At times he showed himself disposed to forbear from further excursions and maintain the existing status. On one occasion he went over to Euglanil, and there renewed his old-time frieudshi}! with King Athelstaoe, who had succeeded Alfred on the throne. So great became the reputation of Rollo for increasing wisdom and humanity that Eudes was obliged to recognize and deal with him as king with king.

In the year 898 the French monarch died, and Charles the Simple, the legitimate Car- lovingian prince, now nineteen years of age, was raised to the throne. Kollo and the Danes still held their own in the western parts of France, and it became more and more apparent that their expulsion from the country was a remote, if not impossible, event. In the first years of the tenth century the <juestion of some satisfactory settlement with the Xorthmeu was many times debated in the councils of the king, and Rollo himself was by no means an unwilling hearer of the premonitory rumors of peace. Nevertheless, the great Danish chieftain was not at all dis- posed to relinquish aught of his advantages.

In the year 911 Charles was advised by his counselors to open negotiations with Kollo with a view to securing the permanent settle- ment ijf the question between the two peoples, even by the cession of territory. Franco, archbishop of Kouen, acting on behalf of the king, was authorized to otfer the Dane a con- siderable part of Keustria and the hand of Gisele, daughter of Chai-les the Simple, on condition that Rollo would become the king's

vassd and endirace Christianity. The North- man regarded this projiosition in >o fuvoralile a light'that he consented to a thrrc inonl!.,'

enee between Ko'Uo and the French ni,.narrl,. A meeting was held at St. Clair-sur-Epte, Charles taking his station on one side (if the river and the"" Dane o,, thr other. Th.: kin- otil'red to ee.le Flanders, hut this was reth-rd.

Xoi- wonh

N.

liiaritime parts of Neu.tria. He dnnandod, also, that those districts ,.f iSrittanv which had been .seized by the French slionld be added to the cession, and that the dukes of the ceded provinces should become his vassals. To these demands the king at la-t eon-ented, and a treaty was formed accordin^jly.' The question of a century was settled by the ad- mission of a nation of invaders within the borders of France.

Thus it was that tlie pa.'ified Northmen ceased to threaten. Having now a country of their own to defend, they trouliled their neighbors no longer. The piratical habit was abandoned, and the agricultural life was sub- stituted for predatory warfare.

On tlie southern bonier of France, for the last half century, the Saracens had not ceased to trouble. Time and a'jain wvrr the prov- inces of Aquitaine, Sei.tiinania, and rroveiice invaded by bands of hri-aii'ls and roMiers. The Mohammedan banditti apjiearcd now on the Rhone at Arle-. in Camaigne, in Dau- phine, Kouer-ue, and Liino„si„. A-ainst these incursions the iinhccilc sncc.-ssors of Charlemagne seemed imjiolent to defend the people. Each province lutd to protect itself as best it mieht. To this end towers and fort-

i.eii lavsei-ved of tills settlement, in token of his t'liarles. but the • rnneli i^rleying eiiiM Ke iloiie by VMsaiqinintedby Init the warrior is master. Bend the knee he wouLl not. The king stood upright and so did tlie Dane. At lengtli the warrior stooped down and takin<.' la.ld of the royal foot lifte.l it so lii-h an.l snddeidy that Cliarles fell baekwarils on the i;ronnd. It was fortunate that the ridiculous scene ended in laughter.

the ratitication of the te The Franks insisted tli;i vassalaw should kiss tlic Dane indignantly refuse.! it was agreed that the l;i proxy, and a certain Xoi Kollo to perform the eei so selected was as hangli

UXlVEJiSAL lIlSTom'. — THK MoDKlLX WORLD.

■, thv

resjfs were lu these, when I i-aiseil iu \.\w iur shelter.

Ou the whule, licnvever the southern border \vu.- than dangerous. The iiu by hordes ot' robin r.-, who and % rather ihau plan.

, and into I'aceu " was would tlee

iisturuauee ou v'oking rather :is were made led til pluDtler d ii^hl.

Nt

-ed from

lues b

were the JloluumuetUius of Spain ].re behind by other hosts out of AiVii a the Northmen, driven fnuu ihi ir I iunumeralile .^wanus nt' .V>iatie liarli;nian.-. Thus it hajiiieiied that, uhile the nurtlieni and western iVoiitier nf Franee \\a> brnkeu in and a large part of her territory taken liy the audacious Daues, the southern Imrder was preserved from serious iufraetion.

As to the new province thus ceded l)y Cliarles the Simple to Rollo and his couulry-

pri.,~perous ,li-triets in Franre. The great Danish chieftain was recognized as Duke of XoRJiAXDY. Nor should the peu of history here fail to note that William the Conqueror, whose valorous blood has flowed into the veins of all the English kings and queens who have reigned since the Norman conquest of 10(5(3, was himself — though illegitimate — the eighth in regular descent from Kolf, the Danish pirate turned reformer and civilizer.

After the settlement between Charles the Simjile and Duke Rollo, the kingdom enjoyed peace for the space of ten years; liut iu S^l'l the ever-growing ambition of the Freiieh barons led to a revolt against the feeble- minded Charles aud in favor of Count Rob- ert, brother of Eudes. Civil war broke out between the rival parties, ami Cliarlis, in at- tempting to iiiaintaiu his ri-ht-, lialf reileenied his forfeited fame. He tunk the tield in j.er- smi, met C.iiint rmbert in iiattle and slew him with his own hand. But the cause of the rebelliiin was taken up by Hugh the Great, son nf the slain count, aud the king was soon di-a>trou>ly defeated. Hugh, al- ready Count of Paris, was andiitiniis tn be the maker of kiiiL^- rather than be king him- self. He would fain restore that ancient regime in which the ]\Iayor of the Palace stood behind the throne and directed the affairs of the kimrdnm. Accordiudv, after

the defeat and tiight of Charle.- the Simple— for the latter with all speed sought refuge with Herbert, eniiut of Vermaudois — Hugh brought it about that the French crown should be conferred on Rodolph, duke of Burgimdy, to wlumi his own sister had been given iu marriage. So predominant was the iutlueiiee of the great count that Rodolph's noiiiiuatiiiu was ratified by the barons, while the deposed Charles was shut up as a prisoner in the Chateau Thierry. Elgiva, the wife of the tlethroned monarch, who was a sister to Atliel>taue, king of England, escajied with her Sou Loui- and sought protection with her

The statu> thus fixed by revolution was maintaineil tmtil Hl'ti. In that year Charles the Siuqile died, his takiug-ort' being ascribed to poison. Rodolph continued to reigii until '.t^ii; but the real jmwer of the kingdom was wiel.le.l by Hugh the Great. Rudolph died

at the disposal of the great leader, who again refused to claim it for him.self. Nor can it be doubted that in his policy Count Hugh was guided by a desire to secure the peace aud prosperity of the kingdom. In looking about for a new sovereign he faOed not to take note of the absent Prince Louis, who with his mother was still sojourning with his uncle Athelstane, of England. A message was sent to the English court, requesting the exiled (jueen to return with her son, in order that he might receive the crown of France. As was natural, the sincerity of the count was distrusted, and the queen at first refused to put herself at his mercy. King Athelstane also .shared his sister's apprehensions ; but the fears of the exiles were at length quieted, and Louis returned with his mother to France. They were recei\ed liy Hugh with profound respect, and were conducted by him to the cathedral at Rheims where the prince was solemnly crowned with the title of Loris IV. Nor did the imaginative French fail to find for their new sovereign an apjiropriate sobri- quet. He was called D'Out r, mn; or the Stranger; for his youth had been passed beyond the sea.

It was not long until King Louis showed iu the management of public afl^airs an ability aud prudence greater than had been exhibited

THE AGE OF CHAKLEMAGXE.—SUCCESSOBS OF CHA1:LEMA(:XE.

by auy previous kiug siuce the days of C'liar- lemagne. Had his character been as sincere as his sagacity '\vas prot'ouud, the greatest good might have beeu exjjected to the king- dom ; Init lie was dishonest, and in some re- spects vicious, to the extent that his great abilities bore little fruit. The foreign afiairs of the kingdom, moreover, were now of such a sort as to require the full resources uf the state.

In the year 937 France was invaded by the Hungarians, who were with dithculty re- pelled beyond the liorder. Two years after- wards the people of Lorraine, who had re- belled against the authority of Otho I. of Germany, made a voluntary transfer of tlieir allegiance to King Louis. That nKinnrch had married Otho's sister Gerberge ; but this athn- ity did not prevent the rival br(jtliers-in-law from going to war. In the struggle that en- sued, it was Louis's misfortune to have alien- ated many of his great counts and barons. In the very beginning of his reigu he had at- tempted to shake off Count Hugh of Paris; but that powerful nobleman was not to be easily disposed of, and the sympathies of the other nobles were naturally attracted to his cause. It thus happened that while King Louis gained the inhabitants of Lorraine and went to war to defend his acijuisition, the great vassals of France went over to Otho and proclaimed him king. The war became one between Louis and his own subjects. A battle was fought before Laon, in 941, and the king's army was defeated. Hugh of Paris was on the eve of again becoming master of the situation when Otho, satisfied with the humiliation of his rival, interfered in his be- half and saved him from ruin. The war was brought to an end. The German Emperor received back the province of Lorraine, and then with the aid of the Pope mediated a peace between Louis and his barons.

The next complication in the affairs of France was in respect to the duchy of Xor- maudy. In the recent civil war William Longsword, duke of that province, had taken sides with Count Hugh against the king. But Arnulf, count of Flanders, supported the royal cause. The two nobles were thus brought into antagonism, and after the cessa- tion of hostilities William was assassinated bv

his enemy. The young Duke Kirhu	•d fell
into the hands of King Loiii,-. ^^ll<., uii	In- the
pretense of educating him at the <	apital,
would have taken away hi- libcity, a	.1 ,,or-
haps his life. But the boyV p.vcni	ir, ( )s-
moud, perceiving what \\a> iiitmilri	l.',.,.r-
suad.-.l \a< ward to U ign ilhu-s, and ^^\	\lr the
kiug and his olticers were oil' \\w\v ■ ] jl. , ,- i.-j.,,. liil 1 MW-IX' i' ■ tI	vnard,
in a ini-s ,,f hay. He tli.'n'oM'aprd «	castle ilh his
chai'^v, and took the lad ior [irotcctioi	to his
unci.', the i-nnnt of Sonlis. Soon aft.	rwards
this n<.l.lrmaii smrrodrd in makiu.a	King
Louis l,ini>rll- a pii~ T, and oliji.^o,]'"	dm to
	ich he
	.rcl to
liis,hd.,-don,. and by his marriap' witii	Anne,

(lau-litcr ot 11 j)owerful ridci character less He received tl such were the

.•aut

'.ivat, soon iHcame a Avas his goodness of courage was notable, ne I ' the Fearless, and if his person, the atla-

bility of manners and the generosity of his conduct, as to make him at :>!!ce the favorite

tongues. It was one of the caprices of tins amialde prince to prepare his <iwn cottin, which was hewn of stone. I'ntil what time it might be used for its ultimate purpose, the sarcophagus was on every Friilay filled with wheat and coins, which were distributed to the poor. When about to die, he gave or- ders that the open cofiin should be set under the eaves of the church of Fecamp until the rains should wash his lioncs chan and white. The reign <if Loins ])'( »uti<nicr continued until the year 954. While still in the full strength of manhood, he journeyed one day from Laon to Eheims. A vagrant wolf crossed the pathway before him, and the king, spurring after the beast with all his might, was thrown from his horse and killed. He left as his heirs two sons, Lothaire and Charles, the latter being in his infancy. The elder son, now at the age of fourteen, re- ceived the crown by the right of succession, and with the consent of the counts and barons. The unfortunate policy of dividing the kingdom among the sous of the deceased monarch — a political method which had pre- vailed from the times of Louis the Debonair- was now abandoned, never to be revived.

uyi\i:i;sAL iii^touy.—the M()1>ei:s wurld.

Tho un.livi.h.	1 .s..V>	r.-i-iuy of 1m	aiiee was
coiil'cnvil tiiH)	1 Lnl	llAiKi;, anil C	larles, liis
youii::Ti- linilli	L'r, wa>	left I., aiiidr 1	is time.
The c.liu-i	i.>ii .>l	ihe 11. 'W snve	■ei.mi hail
been caivfully	.■..ii.h	et.-.l liy hi.-^ Ill	itlier anil
her l.i-uih.i-, 'i	„■ ,vl	l.ral.-.rsi. l;r	mo. His
characUT, tliu	s loriii	•.1, was above	the .-tan-
,hinl .,f thr (	n-l.,vi.	-iaii kill--: 1.	It hi- ani-
bitinlK WlTr	.iiii.'lii	1,- ill-.lir.vt,il	an.l his
roi-ii was Mil	til.' w	ii.le le-s sileee	.fill than
that lit' his \\a	i.-r.
Two N-..ai-s	lit. a- tl	e siirri — i,,ii ot	Lothaire,
Hugh the Ci	■at .11	■il. llr hail 1	laiatained
his ascciKleiir	• in I	!•• atlair- ol' I	"nuiee for
nearly half a'	.■el,t,l	y, ami llii- In	iir of his ,, ii-i. ti...
(Icath fiiiiiiil penple. 11.. rei'ii^iii"' till- la	la.l !"■	-i-tril ill ill.- ,1- hilH-.-lf, lil'll	witli the ,,olii,V of
with til.- .lu.-li.	- ..f 1';	1-i-. r,ut tiii> 1	^eiiliaritv

IS auti

not Ijoanng tlie title ol i ^ was regal.

In the year OT-". the Emperor Otbo the Gi-i-at <li.-il, "ami bei|iiealhril iiis ri-ht-, kingly anil Imperial, to hi- son Olln. I[. This trans- prince gave opportmiity to Kiiii^ Lothaire to reassert bis elaims to ihe provinee of Lor- raine. He aeeoiilinulv rai-iil an army, and without aiiv notilii-aiion of his intentions to the Germans, maivhr.l upon Aix-la-Chapelle, the then ea[.ital of ihe lOmperor. The Prinee ■Iv l.v surprise. He ■oni th.' ilinn.T-tal.le aii.l sp.-i-il away, in onl. r to |.>rapi- IV..111 the eitv. Lothaire .•aptun-.l ami pilla-.-.l th.- pal- a.v, ami then returnnl to Fram-.-. Oil..., how.-v.-r, .-oon .-howeil him-elf wortliv of his

Otbo was taken eomp was oliligi-il to spring

pnt ,h-

Otho ih

He mareheil ..n Paris, wast IS he went; but the Coun

tb.

Lot Ik

ho hail threatened, be ili-i] hiiiisilf with nonsensical menaces. 1-' taken possession of tho heights of

Montmartro, be drew uji his army ami made them sing a Latin eantiele. The perf.jrmanee was like Ihe lowing of a herd of bulliilors, and the mu/u- reverberate.l throngh Paris! it was the lir<t <;ermaii opera, iierformed before an

Having inilii'ted this terrible in.-ult upon bis fi.-, Otho maivhed awav towards Ger- many. Lolhaiie sallied f .rth in pursuit, ami overtook hi- eou-in's f..r.vs on the banks of the Ai>ne. One divi-ion of the army bad al- ready crossed to the other side. The river rose in the night, ami tlu- French were thus enabled to fall ujion and destroy the remain- ing division with little danger to themselves. In this emergency Otho sent a challenge to Lothaire to meet him in single combat; but the French barons, .listiu.-tiiig the puissance of their king, .-aeiitiei-d tin ir ehivalry to pru- dence, and indu.-e.l him to decline tlie battle.

Having at length fatigued their own capri- cious aniliiti.iiis with mar.'hiug, countermarch- ing, and indecisive conllicts, the two mouarchs agreed to a treaty of peace. The province of Lorraine was divided, one part being returned to (.)tlio and till' other assigned to Prince Charhs, brother of the French king. The lattrr, ill the y.ar itJ^fi. died, leaving his

the Sluggard. This prinee wa- twenty years of ago at the time of his father's death, but so feeble were his faculties that the ministers were obliged to put him under the guardian- ship of Hugh Gapet. It appeared that the drama .if a puppet king with the real monarch behind the throne was about to be reenacted. But the French barons were now tired of the ridiculous farce which had been performed at intervals since the days of the Roh Faineants, and tliey determined to have a real king or none. Loyalty to the Garloviugiau dynasty was now almost extinguished, and the people — if the woril people may be properly applied tl) the inhabitants of a European state iu the tintb centurv — were ready for a revolution. Tho logic of events at this crisis was assisted liv til.' iarl\- death of Loiiis V., who reigned but little more than a year. His brother Gharlos, duke of Lorraine, was now the sole male survivor iu the line of Charlemagne. Sui'h, however, was the insipid character of this iirince that ho ceased, bv bis own worth-

THE AGE OF CHAELEJUGXE.— SUCCESSORS OF CHARLEMAGNE.

.ppiove-l

iuateil liy nature and

A race which lia.l hrhl the thr..ne of Franr,.

fur tWM hiiiiili-rd :ind fi>i-ty->ix yi-ais. and

one Lii'i'at rulrr, wa^ ui^w to </\\i- pla'-c tn anothvi', tViini which wcfc to sjirini;- .^oiik- of the i:rcatr,-t >ovcrcii;n,< of Eurojic.

Turniii'j-. then, to another branch of the Carh.vini.ian IIon~e, we tind in Ciennanv a list of i.rinces not unlike those of France. It will he remeinhered that with the deatii of Lonis the Debonair the empire of Charle- uia,!iiie was divided anioni;' his tliree sons — Lo- thaire, Louis, and Charles. To the secoml of the.se princes was assigned <lerniany. lie made his capital in liavaria, and rei-neil nn-

.said to l)ei:in with the treaty of Verdun in 843. The uatnre of the strui;yle among the three .sons of the Debonair has already been sufficiently narrated in the history of the French t'arh.vin-ians. It will be r..inemb,avd tliat, in .SfUt, Cliarl.s the Hal.l an.l L.mis tiie German divided between them the territory wliich had fallen to Lothaire IL, the line of division running between Verdun and Metz, thence along the Vosges, and terminating at the Rhine, near the city of Bale. It may also be recalled that the settlement of a suc- cession in the House of the German was attended with as much difficulty as the Deb- onair had experienced witli ///s sons. For Carloman and Louis, the lieirs of the P]m- peror, were already before their father's death engaged in intrigues against each other or their father. It was partly to free himself from the presence of a dangerous aspirant that the Prince Carloman was sent by Louis to make war on the Wends and Slavonians, who were threatening the frontier of the Elbe. The year 875 was marked by another attempt on the part of the rulers of France j and Germany to obtain possession of the j kingdom of Italy. In this ambition Charles

and Louis, intlaine.l with jealous anger, pre- pared to make war on the French king. But in the year 876 he died, being then at the age of seventy-one. 34

With this event tlie (ierni:	n kingdom was
partitioned amoim- tlie three .	on. u\- the late
soveivign, Carloman, Louis th	L' Younger, and
Charles the Fat. Hoping to tlie distracted condition of the (	ivail hini-^elf of ountry, Charles
the V,-M marched against tlir <	irrniaii prin.-e.s.
but lie was met at Aiideniach ..1.1 t 1.1. :i ii. ] +■ .If 11,. . 1 .	on the Lliiue,
ami terrilily '.leleated hy an a nian<l of Louis the Young	■r.' The three
brothers then peaceably adji dirterences. Bavaria, Cariuthi:	sted their own . the Dannbian
provinc... uihI the hali-^oyer.	i;:nty of ISolie-
niia anil :Moravia were as-igiie	1 to' Carloman.
Louis the Younger I'eceived	all of Ceidral
an.l Northern Germany, wlii	e Charles the
Fat became king of Siiabia.
A~ .~o,,n as this seitlenier	t had 1ieen ef-
(h.ni of Italy: but befoiv he	sei/.i' the king- conld establish

Ah IS wi

an

the

•s III.

if c

lle.l the Lonil.anls to acknowl- rei-nty, and was .rowncl by the In'Cer- recognized as Arnulf, legit- imate son <if the latter, was made Duke of Carinthia.

This condition of atlairs coutinned until 882, when, by the death of the childless Louis the Younger, all Germany and Italy became united under Charles the Fat. It will be reiiieniberi'd that shortly after this consolidation ot' power in the East and South, the Frnirli Louis anil Carloman, sous of Charle< the ISald, died, leaving the crown of France to the imbecile stripling, Charles the Simple. Nor will it lie forgotten that, when the latter intensified the folly of childhood by the absence of intellect, the French nobles offered the sovereignty to Charles the Fat, who by its acceptance became monarch of the reunited empire of Charlemagne.

The story of the invasion of the Northmen, and of the utter incapacity of the Emperor Charles to repel them from his dominions, need not lie repeated. Such were his feeble- ness and timidity that he soon lost all hold upon the confidence of his nobles, in so much that a conspiracy was organized against him,

ux]\'i:i:sAi. ni.sToin'.—Tjn: M(U>i:i:x uojuj).

anil HI .S«7 1r- was drivcu IV..111 the llirour, to , They juii purLil

tlie i\-inanii

hi.- life- ..II

At this crisis iKilmv a.-ain a,-.(Tt.-,l lu-r .su- periority over h'lritiniacy. Duke Aknulf, the bastard grandson of Loiii- ihr (Icinum, was reeojrnized as the sueees-..r <>i' ChaiKs the Fat in C.rnianv. Tlir Franki^h .loiuinions, as already narrated. I,r,an to I..- dlsnienihere,!. The kin-d.m, ..f r.u.-mi,ly ua- Inuii.h.l, with Aries for its .-apiud. In Italy, Ikivn-ar,

dnkeof Friuli. -. i/, d U| ihv inh. ritan.-e of

the Carlovini^ian- uhilc FaMcni France and Wol.ru Switz, ih.iid w.rc Ljivcn to Dnke Conrad, -ran.]--,, of Loui- the D.^iionair.

They 1 decree- and in	of the anc the,,, the	he a n .1,1 .■elll, claii,,> 0	|)i'oil,icti. ■'the 1"	n of the Church, ]i.s 1.) he
rcL-ard,	1 a- the \	i,'a,-s .if	Chri-t.	th,- viee-
<;-c.renl> arl)itei> astical ri	,,|- (n,d , ,.f all 1,1,1 ,>r civil, w he-.. .-Iain,	1, .iUlll, an alfaii - th.- CI	a„.l th. -, wlu'th livo.allN iiivh ),.".	ri.i;htful ■r e.'.F-.M- a.-.i1.-.l. V plant.d

her.Mlf, aii.l l.n.k.d I,,,.' ami th.n- lor the means will, whi.l, t.. i„aii,tai„ h,r i...>iti..n. Kin- Arnidf s....i, f. 1111. 1 his r.war.l. The P.ijje Forino^iis was at this lin,,- in the jM.wer of a Lonihard i,rin.-.-, on wl,..-e hea.I ho ha.I heen oonii.elle.l to ,,la.-c the .-n.wn .,f .-mpir.-. I'll. ha- the p,-.I,xt ..f lilHiatin- His

,f II. ,1

F.,r

tared Ki>nie, and wa:

As for Kin,- .\,-,i,df !,.■ a.l..i.t..l th.> |H.li.';

attending' stri.tly t., his ..wi, .l.iiiii,ii..iis.

sueces-sfnlly and finally dr.,ve l,a.-k the 1);

from his northeru and the B.ihenuans from peror. Here, howev. r, hi- ......1 f .rtii

his eastern frontiers. A-ainst the latter peo- t.) a sudden end. Sl,..,tly afl.r his 1,1, • h.' |.,ii-.-u.-.l his a.lvanta::.- I.y makin- an ti.,n 1,.- wa- ],.,i>..i,e.l, ai,<l tli..i,-h h.- ii,va.-i.,„ ..f th.ir .■..uiiti-y. I lalf harhari.' P.. heniia was thus -I'oini.l li.tw..,, th.' ii|i|.. and the ii.thei- i,iill-t..ii.-. F.u- at thi- jui,. ture the lierce, l>|...Ml-,l,ii,ki,iL; .Ma-yar-, in..; savage of the Fii,i,i,-1, ra..-, ha.I Imrst .mt .) Huugarv ..I, th,' .a,-!, an.l u.iv livali,,- ll honles of Attila in th.-ir .l.-va-latin- .-..111-. Haviii- ,-.,n,|,l,.t...l hi- .-.m.in.-t in r.ol,. mia, Arnidf ,'.liirii...l int., hi- ..un kii,-i..ii

kin- l.-.l .ii>, cap- I as F,n-

,tl, i.iit

I.- .li.-.l in Mt',1, an.l was ^uc-

la,-t

the,

He ...•.•uuI.mI

111, until th.-

th

with th.- Hungarians. Th

)4 w,

.1 t,. Il

mo.st in,|,..rta„t ..f Arnulfs a. Chitreh. A„,i.iti.,us t., ll.' and ther.-r..iv .a-.r t.. -.■.-ii,-. the p., pes, tl,.' kin- favo,-.'.l body to ll,.- la-t .l.-.,-e.-. II. that the .ivil .,lli.-.-i- -I, ..,,1,1

.sh.iul.l f..rf-it hut half-av.nv

I',.- kh,L! 11.. I

.f H..

(i.-i-i.iai,y. |„ ,l,e ,„.,,„ Ii„„- a ,-.-i-i.-s ..f ,l...- uni.-nls, ,-all.-.l tl,.- M.h,,-:,,,, fhmlah. w.-re

hn.n-ht t.. Ii-J,l 1 L,av.- slill fiirth.-r .■i,.-..iir-

agement to tla- ai,,l.ili..i,s ..f tl,.- l!o,,,an \un\- ti'ffs. These c.-l.l.,at.-.| pa,-.-l,„,.-nts r.-,-. Iv.-.l

'; V whom th.-v w.-,'.- sai.l P. have been writt.-n.

the liel.l ..f hi- overthrow, cou- [rilmti- as a c..i,.litiou of peace, e folhiwin- v.-ar. ain.-ti..n of' the Carlovingian „any. th.- <-r,.wn of that king. ,1 ,1..],, w.iiiM. a.-'..iiliii- to th.- terms of the •t tr.atv ..f \'. i-.lun. hav.- il. ■,-.•. 1,. led to Charles - thi- Siiupl,-. th.-n .il, th.- throne of France. .1 Bill th.- <;.-,-iiiaii n..l.l.- ha.I l..-.-..n„" t.,.. in.le- ,1 I pen. 1. -lit t.. s„l.i„it th.n,.-.lves a-ain t.. a .1 j Fi-anki-h s..v. r.i-n. Th.-y ac.-or.lingly met o I in a .li.-t at F..r.-!,.-in, an.l cl,.i-e f.r th.-ir khig -, ' l),ik.- ('..,i,-a.l .,f Fran. -.mia. H.- b.-longed ,.■ l.v ta„,ilv lo tl„- Salian Frai,ks. an.l thus was if : .-^tal.li-i,. .1 what i- kn.iwn as th.- ^-^.M.I.VN Dy- .- I XASTV. insiea.l ..f the Carh.vingian. Pope !-e St.-].h.'n IH. ha.I threatened to anathematize r- 1 all wl,.. a.-k,)..wl,..hj.-,l alh'-iance to any Em- „- I p.-r.ir n.il a . I. -.■.-i,.lai,t of Charlemagne. But -.1 j Kin-j C..i,,-a.l. f.-arin- him not, accepted the I', ' h.inoi- .■..nl'.-i-,-.'.l bv tlie iliet, and was crowned Halt... ar.-hliish..i> of :\ravence.

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGXE.—ISUCLESSOBS OF VHAIiLEMAGXE. •",.-,.-,

The new king <if Gerraauy soou showetl iiionaicli dusiiairfil of uiilmlding ihe kiugihjin.

himself to be a brave aud geueruus ruler, j Ilr aecoidinglv, when near his death, ordered

Great was the favor with which he was re- his brother Elierhard to lieaj- the crown and

ceived by his subjects, aud great his abilities ! se. pier to Henky oi' Saxuxy, whom he de-

in court and field. But the success of his gov- i elai-e(l to lie the only in-inre i-;i[iaMe of rul-

enuuent was by no meaus equal to his de- ing ( ierniany. The andiassadors found their

serving. The Hungarians again iuvaded the [ [nini'e expectant nettini:- finches in a valley

country, and were defeated in a great battle ' near the Ilartz, from wlni-h circumstance they

by the Bavarians and Snabians; but the , gave him the sobricjuet of ^/i- i«(c/(;r. Lithe

iPl-.^

CUNRAD ELEl'TED I^

counts, Arnulf, Eerthold, aud Erchauger, 1 ^eai 'H' who commanded the kiuL^'s forces, now set I their sovereign at detianee and would lain rule as independent ]u-inces. ('oni-ad suc- ceeded in deposing them; but Arnulf tied to the Hungarians and in,'it,',l tliem to niar.'h again into O.Tmanv. The kin-, thus badg- ered and distressed, appealed to the Pope f ,r succor; but the latter reiilid that Conrad should pay tithes. P,eim:- woundeil in a bat- tle with the Hun-arians. the unfortunate

,LI,M Wl

!'l h, va~ tt( d upon t nn d I- km

lie i.t tl nil. 1 .1 tl. dint ol \\

lid ( o inian fa^h- .1 till nobh - anil

hi-

p] Ihii^ « 1- 1 bmal

id th< old to. ot ( hu- 1 ,11 th( tliion. ol <.. iiinm 11. in-(ih. d th, . \|M(tition~of riiMiJ, ^Ml biok. out .,lmo-t I --nibii I'.n nil and Loi-

i-MVi:i;SAL IIISTOHV. — THK MODKHX WORLD.

pun

iug his rivals to MiUinis^i.m. 1„ like nKiiiiier was ?ctth-(l a .lilii.-iihy with Charl.^ the Siui- l>k', .if Fran.-.., Nvilli ulimn. in lia- vt-ar !)21, a tivatv wa^ iikuIc (Iclininu the territorial l„,uii.lai'i.< ..r 111,- twM kiii-.ln,,,.--. Three years atterwanlMlh- lluii-ai-ian~ a-aiii iuvadearnu- ra.lV kin,.l.Hu. ami nver them i)e likewise ohtaine.l lh.- advantaue hy a superiority of wit. Havint;- luul the .ucumI fortune to capture one of the Ilun-arian ehiefs, the king wouhl aeecpt a< the conilition of his lilieratiou unthin- Ir- than a nine years' truee. A hreathiii--linie was thn< .il.taine,! in whieh to prepare f.ir the next oulhreak ol' war.

feat after another

Kin- II

lalM.r

UlK

Saxnii warriors hille no aeeii-tonieil to fight only on foot, were exerei^ d a< hoi>enien until their skill heeanie ecpial t.i that of the best. The frontier of the kinii.lom ,,n the side (.f dansrer was carefullv .~nrv( ved, and the liirti- fied' t,.wns of (^ledlinl.urg, Mer-elmrg, and Mei-en wer.' founded within .supporting dis- tance of eael, otle-r. Th- people were ordered to store within the foi-tiiied inelosures one- third of the produets of tlieir fields, and regu- lar markets were instituted in order to I'acilitate the transfer of supplier.

Having now a well-disciplined army, Henry tried the mettle of his soldiers in a campaign against the Slavonians beyond the Elbe. In 928 he conquered the province of Branden- burg, which was destined in after times to expand i

kin-dom of Prussia. His con-

Oder; an.l in !lo2 Lusatia, .,r Ea>t Saxony, was a<lded to his dominions, thus ailvancing his frontier line from Stettin, on the Baltic, to Vienna, on the Danube.

Finally, when the nine years' truce with the Hungarians had expired. Kin- H.-nry, who, in order to ^eeure the truce, had agreed to pay tribute in tli.' interim, sent as his an- nual cijiitiibution to the Hungarian treasury a mamjij durjl The insult was easily under- stood, and the Magyars rushed to the conflict with such furv that the kin<jf's forces were at first stunned 'by the >lioek ; but they soon

•St was • Hun-

rds Henry made a suc- he king of Denmark, lack across the Eider,

A short time aft( cessful \var on Gor The latter was driv and .Sdil.-wig was annexed to (iennany. Haviii'j thuscon(piereil a peace throuiihotit his iloniinions, the king seemed destined to a long and glorious reign ; but in the year 935 he fell under a stroke of apoplexy and came to \\\< deatli. \\'hile he lingered, however, he called a diet at Erfurt, and his second son Otho, afterwards known as Otho the Great, was chosen ibr the succession. Though the king had two other .sons, no attempt was made again to divide the kingdom, the unity of which hail been achieved only after a cen- tury of turmoil.

Henry the Fowler died in the summer of OoC). Otho was accepted without opposition, and was crowned with a splendid ceremony in 'he cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle. The dukes ■f Lorraine, Franconia, Suabia, and Bavaria served as chandierlaiu, steward, cup-bearer, and luar.-hal at the coronation. Nor was there wanting any circumstance of pomp to this royal spectacle, which so critical a thinker as Bayard Taylor has declared to be "the first national event of a spontaneous character which took place in Germany."

Without the prudence and patience of Lis f.-ther, King Otho equaled that monarch in mergy and .surpassed him in genius. Great, however, as were his abilities, and distin- guished as was his reign, he failed — could but fail — to give unity and nationality to the German peojile. The various parts of the Teutonic race were still discordant, belligerent. Nor could it be hoped that a German king of the tenth century could do more than hold together by the force of his will and the magic of his sword the as vet heterogeneous parts of his people.

Tlie first duty of Emperor Otho was to re- liel the Bohemians and Wends, who had made their way into Brandenburg. The wars that ensued were of considerable duration, but vic- tory remained with the Germans. The Hun- garians were also defeated in Thuringia and Saxon V. But while these successes crowned

THE AGE OE CHAI!LE}LiGXE.—SUCCESSOBS OE CUARLE.VAiiXE.

the king's arms abroad, a civil feud c>l' j^irimi- proportious disturbed the peace uf tlie iciiiL:- dom. Eberhard aud Thaukuiar, the sun of a divorced wife of Heury the Fowler, and therefore half-brother to Otho, eous}iired with Giselhert, duke of L.araine, tn aehirve inde- pendence in their rc.-pectivc pruvincc,-. The 8axon nobles, also, were offended li(caii>c cf the preemineuee of the kiuii's favorite i^mcral, Count Hermauu, aud joined the insuln.iilinate dukes. The situation portended ureal p.iil tn the king; but the conspirators failed u> act in concert, and Otho was victurinus, Thunkinar was killed an.l Eherliard eblit;ed tu put him- self at the mercy ,,f his snvereigu. .M.an- while, however, the king's younger brother, Henry, had been tempted into sedition, and the revolt suddenly broke out anew. This time the insurgents were headed bv (iin I'lert, Eherhard, and Prince Henry. Otho again took the field and marched to the Khine ; but while ]iart of his forces were on one side of the river aud part on the other, he was at- tacked by the rebel dukes. For the time it seemed that everj' thing was lost. ]Jut Otho exhiliited the greatest heroism ; liis men ral- lied to the charge, aud the insurgent army was annihilated. ^

Xow it was that the defeated princes sought aid of Louis (r()inri'mer of France.

Nor

A Fr

penetrated Alsatia. All of the territoiy w,-st .pf the Khine was overrun. The fate 'of the Emperor again hung in the balance, but his courage was ecjual to the occasion. Marching to the frontier, he gained the day in several minor engagements, and fiually won a great victory iu the battle of Andcrnaeh. Eher- hard was sLiin and Giselbert drowned in the river. The French fled towards Paris, whither they were ptir.sued by Otho; but the fortifi- cations of the city bade defiance to the Ger- mans. Negotiations were presently opened between the two monarchs, and a definitive treaty was made, by which Lorraine was as- figned to the Emperor and the other boun- daries rec'stalilished as before.

< )tlio a'jain showed his magnanimity by jiar- doning his brother Henry. The ]irince was sent to be governor of Lorraine ; but unable to defend himself in the position to which he had been assigned, he entered into a plot with

even to tht Li the 1

Hu,

d.lished bev, and Wen.li.' remoter terri ide an ex])ef oth, kine-ofi

ear 94ii Emiie

omi	lion was
i:	l.e. The
we	■e 1 )eaten
The	Emperor
gain	St Harold
-c : a	id march-
n'\.	threw his
hi>	dianiniou
tho	vas called
, to	a.~>i,-t him
w;	jing with
ins.	'i"iie two
and	this atiin-
ntei	est of the
biti	.us of the

monarclis were brothers-in-law, ity, together with the natural i German ruler in seeing the am nobles curtailed, leil him to ae<-ept the invita- tion. He marched an army of thirty-two thousand men into Normandy ; but no great success attended the movements of the allied monarchs, and Count Hugh liild out several years before he was liroiight to .-uhmisslou.

In the mean time, a complication hail arisen in Italy which drew the lilmiieror's at- tention. After the time- of Charlemagne, that unfortunate country had luen left to the mercy of the winds. The Saracens, Greeks, Normans, and Hum:aiian,- had as- .sailed the Italian coasts at will. Neither the impotent Pope nm- the >liadowy IJonian Em- peror beyond the mountain,- wa,- ahlc to afi'ord relief. In this condition of afiinrs, Berengar, duke of Friuli, one of tho.se strong and tur- bulent spirits that arise from the great deep in times of anarchy, had him>elf proclaimed king of Italy. He ilemamled in marriage the Princess Adelheid. M-ter of Conrad of Bur- gundy. But she refn-eil to aeivpt >o rough a lord, and was thrown into jirison. She nntu- aged from thence to send a message to Otho, who at once conceived the double project of liberating the princess and claiming her for himself. ' For his Engli.sh ipiei^n, Edith, was now dead.

The Emjieror accordingly crossed the Alps

with a liirire arm tured the i-itirs ut' married Aililhc-iil. king of Italy. ] retain the crown of siirreuderiug tl Istria.

Soon after tliis by the princes Kii

UXIVi:i;SAL HISTORY. — THE MOJ'KHX WORLD.

of Lorraine,

If ..1 )ke out in

uid -Mila u- title

ui.l r.innu For uearh

four years the country was plunged into civil war. At length the rebellious princes per- mitted the IIuiiLTarians to pass unopposed throuc-h their onivinrrs to the end that the

invaders uii-ht fall upun the b^mpcror. This action anmsfd the 'reiilonie .-pirit ai^ainst the rebels, and the revolt was Immght to an end in the year 954.

The Hungarian-, however, were not yet couquereib lu Ho") they returned to the at- tack, but were defeated by Otlio in a great battle near Augsburg. So .-iL:nal was the overthrow of the barbarians that but few ><{' them escaped to their own country. X<ir did thev ever afterwards dare to renew the eon- fliei. In a short time Prinee Heurv of Bava- ria died, as ,lid also Rudolf, son of Otlio. Civil war came to an vnA in (ienuanv. In

the lull that en-ued Oth,, found opportunity to gratify his ambition by a coronation at Rome. Pope John XII., then a youth but seven years of age, officiated at the ceremony, ' Emiieror was asrain

.f R<

and the tith

borne by a j)rinee of <bi-uiany.

It was not huig, however, until the bo_\ Pope repented of his action anil woidd fain de stroy the traditional rights which he had con ferred on Otho at the conjiiat to stir up the whole world ai wrote to the Em| in deposing Otho

He sfuigbt worM auainst him. He r of the p:ast to ai.l him m power. He incited all

Italy to revolt, and tried to induce the Hun- garians and the Saracens of Corsica to nuike war on the Germans. The Emperor, how- ever, met the emergency with great boldness. He marched into Italy, captured Rome, de- posed the Pope, drove Berengar into exile, reduced the country to quiet, and in 965 re- turned in triumph to Ai.\-la-Chapelle.

The ambition of Otho was greatly in- flamed bv these successes. He be<ran to neg-

from the Kuq.e iph of Cordova

lect the real interests of the German peojile for the tic'titious .splendors of a court. He demanded a- wife f.r his son Otho the Prin- cess The,,phauia, daughter of the Emperor of till' V/A-l: and when the latter was reluctant to comply, the (ierman sovereign attempted to oveitliiow the Byzantine rule in Italy. Theopliaiiia wa- at len-th given to the Prince Otho, and ua^ ,-eut to tlie ( n-rman cajiital in the year 972. In the following year the suc- cesses of the Emperor were duly celebrated at a great Easter festival in the city of Qued- liiduuv. No paL-eant so .-plendid" had been witne->,'d siuee the da\s ot' Charlemagne. The duke< and counts of the hhnpire, the 1 Poland, ambassadors the Ea-t, from the Cal- Tom the kings of Bul- garia, Russia, Denmark, and Hungaria were present at the fete. Soon afterwards the Em- peror, foreseeing his end, retired to ]\Iemle- ben, in Thuringia, and there was presently stricken with apojilexy. He lingered for a brief season, died sitting in his chair, and was buried in .Alagdeburg.

Ilavine- thus traced the hi>tory of Ger- main' from the accession of the Cailovingian line to the death of Otho the Great, it wiU be appropriate to turn to another field of obser- vation. The consolidation of the English Heptarchy and the growth of a regular mon- archy on the ruins of the Saxon states of Britain may now well claim our attention. It is only necessary, before concluding the jireseut chapter, to remark that, as will have already been observed by the careful reader, the history of Italy, the third of the Carlo- vingian kingdoms, during the ninth and tenth centuries, is so intimately involved with that of Germany and France that a separate sketch from the Italian point of view is altogether superfluous. As a matter of fact, Italy had alreadv become — as she was destined to re- main— an appanage of the greater states north of the Alps, and her local annals dur- ing this, the epoch of her ruin and decay, are devoid alike of iutere.«t and instruction. In the following Book the history of France will be resumed with the triumph of the House of Cajiet, and that of Germany with the acces- sion of Otho II.

THE AGE OF CEAULEMAUSE.— ALFRED AND MIS SUUCESHOIiS.

CHAPTER L:n:X^11I — ALFKEi:) AXD HIS t>UCCESSORS.

'F the career of Egbert, the powerful king of Wes- ^ex, a sketch has ah-eady 1 given in the First Book of the present vol- ume.' It will l)e remem- bered that in the first quarter of the ninth century this distinguished ruler succeeded in bringing under one sover- eignty all the states of the Heptarchy. He disclaimed for himself, however, the title of king of England, being content with that of Wessex. The peace of his long reign was by no means undisturbed; fur now it was that the Northmen began to prey u|ion the coasts of Endand. In the year 832 a baud of these audacious piratrs captured and ravaged the island of .Sheppey. In the next year Dorset- shire suftered a similar fate. The method of the Danes was to fall upon a given coast, rob, devastate, and fly. Attempting to protect his shores, King Egbert was himself at one time in imminent dauger of capture. In SS-t the Northmen invaded Devonshire, being joined on the expedition by the rebellious people of Land's End. Others of the old Britons espoused the cause of the Danes ; but Egbert, ecpial to the emergency, met the enemy at Heugsdown Hill, and defeated them with great slaughter. Si) decisive was the victory that for two years tiie pirates kept aloof; but the career of Egljert was already at an end. He died in the year 836, and was succeeded by Ethelwulf, his oldest surviving son.

At this time might be noticed in the rising monarchy of England the same disposition which has so many times been remarked in the history of Germany and France, to divide among several sons the political power which had been held by the father. Such was the policy of Ethelwulf, who, on coming to the throne, gave up Kent, Sussex, and Essex to be held as a separate kingdom by his son Athelstane. For himself he retained Wessex and iMercia, but the latter soon revolted and ' See Buck Kk-veuth, ,inle p. -148.

became independent. Nor were the Danes slow to perceive the broken-up condition of Euglaml. They returned like birds of prey. They took and pillaged London, Rochester, and Canterbury. In 851 a congress of the Saxon Thanes was held at Kingsbury, and measures of defense were planned against the Danes. In the course of the ensuing struggle Barhulf, king of Mercia, was killed. But the "West Saxons, led by Ethelwulf, won a great victory over the enemy in Surrey. Athel- stane, king of Kent, was hardly less success- ful in a battle at Sandwich, where he took nine ships from the iiiratcs. The men of Dev- onshire also gained a victory at Weubury, and the sea-rolibers, thus baffled at every point, turned from tlio i-laiid, which seemed to bristle with Saxon spears, and fell upon the more inviting fields and hamlets of France.

The devout Ethelwulf now found oppor- tunity to make a i)ilgrimage to Rome. In 8.j3 he crossed the Alps, and was received with honor in the Eternal City. On his re- turn he fell in love— i-or .-u.li is the phrase of man— with .Juilith, daugliler of Charles the Bald, and her he took in marriage. In the mean time Athelstane, king of Kent, died, and the king's next oldest son, Ethelbald, en- gaged in a conspiracy to dethrone his father. The ostensible reason for the treasonable plot was found in the fact that Ethelwulf had had his new French wife crowned as queen in the cathedral of Rheinis. He had actually eaten with her at the talile ! Such insults were not to be borne by Anglo-Saxon patriotism. Thus came it to pass that when Ethelwulf returned with his bride to England, he found his hos- tile subjects in arms to oppose him. The ased monarch would not go to war to main- tain his rights, but agreed to a compromise, by which the western and better portion of Wessex was given up to Ids reliellious son. In 857 the old king .lied, and Ethellsald suc- ceeded to his whole dominions.

On his succession to the full crown of Wessex, King Ethelbald claimed his father's

".liii r.\ni:i;sM. lu^Tnuv.—Tin-: mohkus wduli

Ch

a ilii.- r.

Ic.l its ;

riage, and sunn divorcL'.'

Ethelbaia «;,> M„T.-,.,l..l in ilir kin-.ln,n by Ethenxn, ^vh.,. alt, r a ^h.irt ati.l iii-lnri- ous reigu, ilicl in tin' yi-ai- MJCi. The ri-nwii thereupon (Icsi'ukIciI to lln' lliinl luoth.r, Ethelred, in wia..^ iviuii tlir I>aiii-< a'^aln swarmeil in inniiin(i-al)le liu.-i> almiL: llu- >lhir,.- of Endan.l. 'I'lav jiad ahva.lv iiiva.l.-,l W,-

ma>> was (.vcr, AllVcd threw himself iii- W. -t Sax.-ns ii|.un the on-e.iiuiiig

IS, aii.l tini- siv.-d thr kinu- .•ati-e fn.iii . in tlir i.alilr. of JiaMo- and .Alnvton, h ^^.w fon-ht n.on att.rwards, Etheh'ed .Irhalrd. In tlsc lasiMiained eonfliet he vrd a xvonnd fiviu whirh he nresentlv

.pposition Thr 11.

|M,],idai- I'l-in.-.' Au-i:i;i). r wa. .I.Min.-.l In an inheri- ,.,f war an.l ,-l.>iv. Within a iiauith his Mi.-,M-M.>n h.- wa- olili-.-.l t.i tight a \r l,atlh. uith 111.- Dan.-. N.-ar iiidil-

	I. EGBERT, S36.
	2. Ethllwllf. ,s:i7.
1 !
3. EtHELEALL.. 4. KrllELELKI. h. ElUELEED	6. Alfred the Gf.e.it,
7. Edward THE Elder, 1 ilia.	Dulie la.liani II. Dulii.-l;..l>rrtth.> Devil.
S. Athelstane, 940. 'J. Ed.mund the Atueli.ng, W 1	. lU, Edked, 955, Elfridn.	WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 15. PwEVN the Dane, 1013.
:3. Edward 14. Ethelred the V.neeadv, 1015^ THE Martyr. 97.S. :	=Emma= 17. Cam-tethe GREAT.-Alffrivn ofXormnndv. 1035.
16. Edmu.nd Ironside. 1017. E.hvy.		I'J. llAKDICASUTE, 104J, IS. HAR..LD
FmprTnrrnnr.Tin.
Edmund. E.lwanl-Gunhilde.	Earl r.ndwin.	AP.n, THE CONFES'iOI;, l.ilid.
( Edsar Christina. MargarPt-lVT ALCOLM. the .itlieling.
1 1\ Harold, lOiW.	Edilha~.':0. Edtv
EXPLANATION: DWedS'inls'indic'a'te'XfJi/inm^ rf. «- nl	gn.. THE ANGLO-SAXON . or .,.,...o„cMn. sovereign. ^^^^^

sex and laina-.l Wiiwh.-t.'r, whi.h was tin the capittil. I'h. y lia.l .Malili-li.-.l tli.inM-U in the Ish' ..f Than.-t, from whi.li tli.y 11. went forth t.i rava-.-, plnn.l.a-, an.l d.-tr.. Ethelred is sai.i t.. liav f.uight nin- pii.-h battles with tli.-.-.- f.r.i.ions martiu.Urs. was in the coiiim' ..f tin-.' iiiii..ns cnlli. that the military geiiiii- ..f I'rince Alfr. youngest but grctit.'st s.m ..f lali.-lwulf, Iteg, to be displaye.l. In the liar.|-f..u-ht battle Ashton, while the jiious Ethelred was at 1 prayers and refused to go into the fight 1111

' F.ir the subseqin^nt career of Queen Ju.li eee Vol. II.. lV...k Kl.-veiitl.. j.. AA'.<.

th.jir .iuart,-r> at Kejit	m. In
a was overrun \'\ th	■ Danes
friths of Clyde an.l	F.,rth,
e into contact with th	• S.'otS.

1- h.,>t, di

THE AGE OF CHARLE.MAUXE.^ALFllED ASD HLS SCCCE.Ssoj;.^.

vided Xorthumbria among his fulli^Ufrs, who, , mingling with the Anglo-Saxons, wt-iv, in tlif course of some generations, united iiiio a single people. Another army of Northmen captured Cambridge, which they fortiiled and converted into a camp. Having thus overrun the kingdoms of Korthumbria, ^lercia, and East Anglia, the Danes again looked to the AVest Saxons and their king, belweeu whom and themselves a contest was now to be waged for the mastery of England.

The i^rudeut Alfred, having now had the advantages of a three years' truce, had era- ployed the interval in preparatinns. E.-jie- cially had his wLsdom been rwcalrd in the construction of a fleet, which, though small and rude, may be regarded as the beginning of England's greatness on the sea. Origi- nally the Anglo-Saxons had been as skillful and courageous seamen as the l>aiies them- selves. But in the course of four centuries from the coming of Hengist and Horsa their followers had given over the maritime life, forgotten the management of ships, and de- generated into swineherds and peasants. Not, indeed, that the warlike valor of the race was in any wise abated, but the settled life had superseded the jjiratical habit, and the mas- tery of the sea had passed to their kinsmen of the North.

Meanwhile the Danes, breaking from their winter camp at Cambridge, swore by their golden bracelets that they would drive the West Saxons from the laud. In Dorsetshire they surprised the castle of Wareham and de- vastated the surrounding country. Soon aft- erwards, however, the Danish >(juadi-on was attacked and destroyed by Alfred's rude flotilla. The eftect was electrical upon l)oth parties, being inspiration to the Saxons and paralysis to the Danes. The latter speedily agreed to make peace and evacuate the king- dom. King Alfred made his enemy swear upon the relics of the saints that they woidd abstain from further injury. But on the very next night, as the king was journeying with a small band of followers towards Winchester, the oath-breaking pagans fell upon him, and he narrowly escaped with his life. The Danes then retired to Exeter, where they wei'e joined by others of their nation, and the war was re- newed with more violence than ever.

It now became the jidiiey of the ^'(irtlnneu t<i incite the people of Cornwall to revolt. lu order to strengthen the in>unectioii in tlie West a Danish fleet put to xa troin tlii> mouth of the Thames. But AlfredV e. .uiagenus navy attaeked and de>trove.l the lio.til.' x'uadron. The ai'niv of the kini:' had in the mean time marched" agaiu.t Ex.ter. lleiv (iuthrun, king of the Danes, A\as boiegeil ; Imt learning that his flotiUa had been destroyed, he gladly cajiitulated, and, giving ho.-taj:es to Alfred, retired with his army into ileivia.

lu these fierce conflicts between Alfred and his antagoui^t it soon became apiuuent that the faith of the Danes even when supported by the most solemn oaths, was utterly value- less as a basis of trust or action. No sooner had King Guthrun returneil into Jlercia than he prepai-ed to renew the war. His maneu- vers exhibited suili skill as in a civilized ruler would have indicated a chief of dijilomacy. He advanced his head-(piarters to (iloucester, a position as near as practicaMe to tjiat of Alfred. At this place his follower- rallied in great numbers, and tlieii' pi-e.-ence wa- a source of constant alarm to the kingdom of Wessex.

The time had now come t'or a new depart- ure by King Guthnin. Ilitheito the devas- tating excursions of the Dano had always been conducted in summer. In winter they shut themselves up in some fortiiied town and spent the frozen season in drinkin- and carous- ing, after the manner of the men of the North. On the first day of January, 87.S, the king of the Danes issued to his followers a secret order to meet him on horseback at a cei-tain rendez- vous. King Alfred was at that time in his capital at Chippenham, little anticipating the impending attack. While he and his Saxons were observing the ica~t of th.' i;|iiiihany the

an overwhelming force, and the kin- barely save.l himself l,v tli-iit. A.-conij-aiiied by a small band of faithful followers, he ilcl into' the w<.ods an.I con.'calcd himself in the s..m- ber moorlands of the West. ( •hipiicnham was pillaged bv the vi.-toiious niaramh^rs, who then rode in triumi.h fioni one .^nd of Wes- sex to the oih,.r. Some of the inhabitants made their way to the Isle ..f Wieht. Some escaped to the continent. INb.st of the peas-

an try n- mini. Ills	::::;;;,ii::
still uph	ill thi. Ii'a
Alfiv,! ,	a,ui. a.u
t;.nla,„ls.	ill. fol
haiiiit lit	will! lira-
Here tlu	kin,- u;
self as 1h	-t hi- run
Sometini	■~ hi- ami
forth l.\	ni.ht m

CMVEliSAL lllsTnUY.— THE MuLiKUX WOULD.

nl Wire rnliK-i-il tn au iyno- 111 thi- exti'i inity nt' hi- fortunes the king

l.v th.-ir Daiii-h nia-tiT-. \va- iliseovereiMn utlii-r- of his faithful friends.

Ill' >iinnr-i t a In mii- hanil Many rallii-ii ainunil hini as the hope of Saxon

niiri-- iif ihi- km.: : hiiiwhi-u J-^nLilaml. I'ln- i-h-i where they gathered,

,ii.j- till m hi- ua- i.Ii1il;i-i1, "a- fiirliheil, ami Alfred began to look for-

I i-\-, til hidi- liini-i If in till' ward tn an c-i-ajie from his shameful sulijec-

ind a Inrkinu-piari- in the tinn. Jli- -jiiiit was also strengthened by a

l-laiid. whii-li wa- tinn tin- vi-imi nf >t. ('utlilnii, wlm came to him in

t~and till- linim- iif i.ntlaw-. the i:ui-e of a piLriiii, begging alms. With

- (ilili-.-d til maintain him- liiin the king divided his only hiaf, and the

d liv fi-liim:- and tin- ilia-i-. ]iil,riiu -went away; but he returned by night

hi- i-iinnianiiin- wnuld .sillv and comforted the kinu' with assurances of suc-

Dani-.s plnndi-r -.,mc ..xpi.-d ca:

return t v.-rt. To tlii- i-po.-:

hardship lii-lon,- the -tm-y of Al the hut of tin- -winilin-d,' when- some tiinr niikiiown to tin- jiei

hovel was l.akin'. the loaves w.-n length di-i-oM-rii rushnl upon him ,-laiinid: '• Voii bread you see b enouirh to eat it !

Mianwhilr. the men of Somerset-hire, Wilt-hire. ])or-et-liire, and Hamiishire took hi-art aiiain-t the Danes and flocked to the caniji of All'rcd, now no longer concealed. Till- (-oiiraui- of the gathering army was still fnrthi-rkimllrdbvan'evint in' D.voli. Unbba, one of tin- DaiiMi rliii-f-, had lamlnl ^^ith

lioii-ewif.-, at of Di-von ro-e upon them in .-rea ,|- h.-r bread, -lew the kiuir with nine humln d m -ture and ex- lower-, and caiitured their Imnner, end

will not turn the t vou will be glad

with the terrible raven of Denmark.

Already the king ventured forth and skir- mished with the eneiuv. Determinincr to as-

THE AdE OE L'HAKLEMACrXE.—ALERED AND HIS SLTCESSOIiS.

certain the uuiuber and resources of the Danes, he adopted the hazardous expedient of going into their camp in disguise. He ac- cordingly clad liimself as a minstrel (^called gleeman by the Anglo-Saxons), and gained an entrance in this garb to the camp of Kiug Guthrun. There he entertained the warriors with ballads and songs ; but he carefully noted the conditi<jn of the camp, and was delighted to oliserve the security in which the Danes were resting. He obtained full inforruatiou of their plans and pur[i(>ses aud then returned to his own retreat in safety.

Believing that the time had come to strike a decisive blow, Alfred now sent word to the warriors of Wessex to rendezvuus in Schvucjd forest. His faithful subjects tlork.d to the designated spot, knowing not, hdwwcr, that their kiug had sent the summons. Great was the joy of the army on the sudden appear- ance of the beloved Alfred among them. The enthusiam of the Saxons rose to the highest pitch, and the king, perceiving that the au- spicious hour had come, marched rapidly upon the Danes at Ethaudune. Here a great battle was fought, in which the enemy, taken completely by surprise, was utterly routed. Guthrun, with the reiniuuit of his forces, fled to his fortifications, whither he was immedi- ately pursued and besieged by the Saxons. After a fortnight the supplies of the Danes were exhausted, and Guthrun was obliged to capitulate. Xot hoping to drive the enemy out of England, Alfred demanded that the Danes should evacuate all Wessex, and that their king should receive Christian baptism. The enlightened policy of the Saxon king was clearly shown in the conditions which he im- posed. Guthrun accepted the terms which were offered, and Alfreil, with the consent of his Thanes, matle to him a cession of all the eastern part of the island from the Thames to the Humber.' The kingdom of North Ura- bria, lying beyond the Htnnber, was already under the dominion of the Danes ; so that after the treatv their territories, which now

'The l.inguage of King Alfred's cession to the Danes is as follows : " Let the bounds of our dominion stretch to the river Thames, and from thence to the water of Lea, even unto the head of the same water ; and thence straight unto Bedford, and finally going along by the river Ouse let them end at Watlinfrstreet."

took the name of Daiiekujh, extended from the Thames to the Tweed. The policy of Alfreil, as it respected the foreigners in Eng- land, evidently contemplated their fusion with the S;ixiins aud the consequent production of a single people in the island. At the liaptism of the Danish king, his genei-ous cmiijueror answered for him at the font. He received the name of Athelstan, and in 878 was dis- missed U> his own territory, loaded with

After this treaty between the Danes and Saxons, the two peoi)les lived in comparative peace; liut tliis was true duly of the Nerth-

hordes kept jjouriug iu trom Denmark aud infesting the shores of Saxon England. It was the epoch when HoUaud, Belgium, France, an;l Britain were alternately assailed by the northern pirates, aud the success of any of these countries iu beating back the ma- rauders was generally an index of the inability of some other to beat them off. Thus when Alfred repelled them from his shores, they redoubled the fury of their assaults in the Low Countries and iu France.

In his relations with the English Danes, Alfred exhibited his lilierality and jirudence. The laws of till- two peoples were gradually assimilated. It was agreed that Danish sub- jects should be regarded as under the protec- tion of Saxon statutes. If an Englishman slew a Dane, he was punished in the same manner and degree as though his victim had been of the homicide's own race. All fines were assessed in the money of both people and were j^ayable in that of either. The in- tercourse between the Saxou and Danish sol- diery was carefully regulated to the end that incursions, reprisals, and retaliations might be avoided.

Now it was that King Alfred began to display his qualities as a civilizer. In his Ixiyhodd lie had been taken by his father to Eiiine, and hail there imbibed a taste for the culture (if the South. He longed to see his own jieople humanized and refined by the in- fluence of letters. With a view to planting the seeds of learning, he invited As.ser, a monk of St. David's, who was then esteemed the greatest philosopher in England, to come to his court, that he might profit by the con-

:.t;4 LXIVKHSAL HISTOUY.-

vtKatiou:^ au.l in>ti-urii,,ns nf mie >.. learned. Fur a luug tiiiu- A-.r rciuaiiir,! with tlie kiug, reading Nvilh liiui .ku .,f ihe l.e.<t Imoks and teaching liini IV.. m the aluindanee of his hire. The'' ties luiw.en the- distinguished monk and hi> sovereign luraine a. en.h.ring as they were atreetiriiate. 'I'he royal nwnd and tlie niin.l nf ihe -elmhir en„perated to kindle in the fogs ..four ancestral island, even

THK MODKL'S WOULD.

soon,	though on t	le immediate fr.iutii'i- of
Dan,	lagh, l.eeaiue	.ne of the m.jst imp..rtant
eitii's h	..f tlu- kiug.l. th.- iiiian tin	m. e the fleet of England had
JHM.n	.-t.a.lilv .-xtei	.ling the .Saxon dominion
on tl it ne .if hi	< ..uu'.ail.ir-.	lir-t the kiug had found ■oiiut of the inexi)erieuee .1 enijiloy foreign cai.tains
f.ir h	> lioliUa. M;	nv Fii.-.iaiMl.i>. skillful in

iu the ibikne-* of a i,l..oin\ and Mokut ate, that toich of gentle la.hance \\hich -hincth in the darkness.

In the year 8<S6, while the piratical Danes were engaged in the siege of Paris, King Alfred availed himself of the opportunity to rebuild and fortify th.' .-itv ..f F..n.I..n. Tliis ancient munieipalitv, th.' f.un.ling ot wlii.'h is said to antedat.' th.- leniian conquest, ha.l been l)urned bv tli.' Dam-, ami the place was reduced almost to a wa-t.-. i'n.ler the patron- age of the king, the city ar..-e fr.im her ashes and soon became mor.' ]i..|iul..iis than ever. Ethelred, earl of :\rerria an.l .-..n-in-law of the king, was m.ade pr..tect..r ..f D.m.h.n, whi.'h

\	..•iin..l bv th.- English anna-
\	n ._! t
	\ B\ 1 1 \ 1 1 .m in a.lniini-
	\ tl iti n 1 1 i> successes in
	\\ 11 Vlti 1 o strengthened
	1 hi kin^d m that his enemies
	/ were kept at bay. For a pe-
	( iiDd jf e^en years, during
	wl 1 1 tii the atteiiti.in ..f
	tl 1 1 the ^'..rth was
h^	ah t 1 llv occui.ie.l in
1	Fh 1 1 in France, the
/	1 ill 11 by the king of
	tl e A\ t "^ixous had peace
	in 1 1 1 1 t\ Already iu the
	^1 n \\ tuies of England
	wti en thise fl..cks and
	hei 1 ^^ln h i jr more than a
	th.iusan.l years have consti-
	tute.1 a leading feature of the
f t	h.' islan.l. But while this pros-
rev	,il,-.l in the insular kinu.h.m,

th..,-i- which were infested by the- Dams, were .listressed with a grievous famine. This ci.n.liti.m of aflairs soon led the N..rth- mi-n t.i abnn.h.n tin- regions of starvation tor th.' r.-abii^ ..f i>l.-iity. The very pros- ].,-vitv ..f Eniilan.l b.-.'ame a bait to allure ,„i.'.''m..n' t.i her >h..res the w..ltish pirate.- of th,' Haiti.',

In the year .S9o, the most formidable fleet of Danes ever thus fiir seen iu English waters aiiiieareil oft' the coast of Romuey ^Mar.sh, The armament consisted of two huu.lre.l and

THE AGE OE CHARLEMAdXE.—ALERED AND HIS SUCCESSons.

fifty ships, every vessel being tilled with war- riors aud horses gathered out of Flanders and France. The Heet aochoreil at the eastern ter- mination of tlie Wood of Anderi.hi, near the month of the river Limine, into whieh they towed their vessels. The invaders then inarched inland aud constructed a fortified camp at Appledore. In the same year, the celebrated Hastings, eoinniamler-in-ehief of the Danish fleet, sailed up the Thames with a squadron ..f ei-hty ships aud .lel.arked at Milton. Here, also, a strong f .nitieatinn was constructed. Fur the Danes had now i;rowu wary of the English king, and acted on tlie defensive. The aged Guthrun was dead, ami his conservative influence was no longer felt in the movements of his countrymen. Every thing conspired to stake once more the fate of England on the issue of battle. lu the strug- gle that ensued, the military skill and valor of King Alfred were fairly weighed a'jainst the prowess of the brave and audacious Hastings.

The genius of the king now appeared con- spicuous. According to Saxon law, the mili- tia of the kingdom could only be called into the field for the space of forty days. This short periixl of service seemed an insnpcralilc difficulty in the organization of an army. To remove this embarrassment, the king adopted the plan of organizing his f'orc-es into two di- visions, whose duties alternated between the home .service and the service of the field. He thus succeeded in producing a more permanent and thoroughly disciplined army than had been seen in Britain since the days of the Romans.

Having in this manner prepared himself for the conflict, the king advanced into Kent and secured a position Ijetweeu the two divis- ions of the Danes. His station was chosen with so much skill aud held with so much courage that the two armies of the Northmen could in no way firm a junction. From his camp he sent firth small detachments of troops to scour the connti-y in all directions, and cut ofi" supplies from the Daues. The latter were thus brought to the extremity of breaking up their camp and leaving the kingdom. But this movement of Hastings was only a feint.

The Danish army, encamped on the Limine, instead of sailing away, marched rapidly

to Alfred's rear. When the kin- tniiiid about and followed this division of the eneiuv, Hastings, who had apparently put to sea, re- turned to Beurteet in Es>ex. Alfred, h.,w- ever, continued his iiursuit of tlie oilier army, and overtook them at Farndiam, in Surrey. Here a great battle was fim-ht, in which the Saxons were victorious. Tho>e of the Danes who escaped were pursued thron-h .Mi-ldlcsex and i:-ex a.To-> tlie river Coin hito the I>le of :\lei-cv. Here they Were besieged by Al- lied and conip,-lled to sue for ijeace. They snri-endci'cd on condition of an immediate de- parture from England.

But before Alfred conld enforce the terms of capitulation the men of Danela-h rose in revolt, and created stnh a diversion that the attention of Alfred wa^ immediately drawn to other parts of his kingdom. A large Danish fleet bore down upon the coast of Devon, and the citv of Exeter was liesieged. Another aniiament, e., nipped bv the em.mv in Xortli- uudiria, sailed around Scotlaml, and, ilesceml- iug the western coast as far as Bristol Channel, entered that water, and laid siege to a fVirtified town on the Severn. The king was thus obli-ed to make all speed from Es.sex to the We,-t. On ri'aching Exeter he attacked aud oveithrew till' Danes, driving them iiell-mell to their ships. In like manner the Saxons fell upon the enemy at Severn, and obliged the raising of the siege. While these move- ments were in progress the king's son-indaw, Ethelred, rallied the soldiery of Loudon, at- tacked the fortified post of the enemy at Ben- fleet, captured the Danish encampment, and made captives of the wife of Hastings and his two sons. With a generosity unusual, perhajis nneipialcd in those half-barbaric times, the king ordered th.' priMiuers to be r.tin-m'd to the Danish chieftain. It was an act which would have been expected in vain at the hands of Charlemagne, or even of Otho the Great.

It a])iiears that Hastings had but a feeble appreciation of the chivalrous conduct of his adversary. In a short time he reapjieared with his fleet in the Thames, and then marched to the West. He traversed the country as far as the Severn, aud established himself at Buttiugton. But the Welsh as well as the Saxons were now thoroughly arouse<l, aud with them made a common cause against the

UynKhSAJ. HISTORY.— THE M()J>Ki;.\ WOULD.

Hastings was surnuimk-d aiul be- Supplics'^wriv cut oti: and Alfred (I the- iil.aMirc <•[■ lirariu,^' that the

u|, Danes wi

of fillin- th.ir insitiaMr n,a«^ uitli the desk of their own hall-.-tarvrd h-r.-.-. The Danish leader, however, knew no ^ueh word as de- spair, SuiniiiMiiiii- all ill- re.-our(.-e.s for the etiort, he (hL>hed hini.-elt' upon the Hue of the besiegers and -ueeeeded in breaking through. But the des]ieiat>' exploit cost him the larger part of his foree-. \\'ith the remainder he

ret I

d his fleet on

In tile Inllnwing winter Hastings was reeo- forced by men out ni' Danelagh. With the opening of spring he made an expedition into the central eountie.s of the kingilom. He gained possession of the tiuvn (it' C'liester, for- tified of old by the Eoniau-. and here estab- li-bed hiniMlf'iu a poMti..!, impregnable to assault. So skillful, however, were the ma- neuvers of Alfnd that IIa-ting> in a sliort time found hi- -npplie- em tifi', and, dreadinL' a repetitiou of hi- ( xperieine at Buttington, left Chester and maivlied iuto the north of I A\'ales. In that enunlrv thev were confronted I and turned ba.-k l,y all annv of Welsh and ' .Sixoiis. On the ivti-eat the Daiie^ traversed ynrthumbria, Liue,,ln-I.iiv, Norfolk, and Suf- folk, and tiuallv n^aehed their winter (piarters in E-ex.

In the f. 11.. will- y.ar Hastings a.scemled the river Lea ami er.i'i.-.l a f.rtress at Ware. Here he was attack.. 1 by the men of London, but the latter wir.- .1. feateil with great losses. Alfred was ..lilij.'.l t.. pr.,te..t the people of the city by eii.-ain|.iii- bitweeii it and the po- sition of til.' Danish aiiiiv. At tlii- jiiiicture the genius of tli.- kim: -t.....! him w. II in lian.l, Takfug p.,ss,.-i..ii ..f th,. L.a at a p..iiit below j the town of \\'ai-e, h.' threw ii|) f..rtifications and then diiiLi.'d iln-e.^ il.'e|i and broad canals from the river t.j ilc 'riiaiii.'^. The waters of the Lea were thus .iraim-.l into the parent stream, an.l the [)aiii-h fle.-t, left hidi and drv, was ivn.hav.l ii-.le-. IVrceiviii- his crui.'al .■.,n.lin..i,, Ha-tii,-- abandoncl every thing, broke from liis camp by night, and made for the Severn, Here lie took up a strong position at Quatbrido-e, and having for- tified his caiuii, reiiiain.'.l therein durinir the

winter. Meanw liile the men of London made their way t.. the Lea, seizetl the stranded fleet, destroyed what .-hips they coul.l not drag away, an.l fh.ate.l the re.-t d.,wu to the city.

It was now evident that the career of Hastings on English soil was well-nigh at an end. His exjieditions ha.l been gradually re- stricte.l Ii. th.' p.i..n.r di.-triets of the country, and hi- ill sii.-.o- diiriiiL' the last three years had d(-lr..y.'.l hi- prestige with his own peo- jile. \\'liil.' ill thi.'ir winter quarti'rs at (^iiat- bridge. tlii' Danish leaders quarreled, and with the o|.eiiing of the spring of 897, these rest- less followers of the raven of Denmark left their fortifications, broke up into small de- tachments and scattered in all directions. A few who still adhered to the fortunes of Hastings made their way to the eastern coast, whi.r

Er

api.l

Engli:

of th. Eii..;la

It a Di 1.1. Tl

equipjied a small fleet and sailed

eeu the ].r..-re>s of the le biiil.liii- and nianage- Kiii- Altrcl's navy was ■ t.i any whi.'h the I')anes him.' The fi.nii of the M'tn iiiipr.ivi'.l and their .i>t double the dimensions i.iiat.-.. The shores of

El.

th tl

:, ni.ii-e..vir, a.i.q.te.l a more ...li.-y with re>pei-t to his enemies, • hope ot' con. pi. St being n.iw alian-

aiiee a severe sea-fight occurred off the Wight. Two of the enemy's ships ■ir crews were taken and brought to shore, Avliereu]ioii the king onlered the last man of them to lie hanged. In the following three year-, the same severity was sli.iwn in the ca-. .if tw.'iity otli.r .-liijis cajitiireil fr.im the eiHiiiv: ami this .■..ndiii't, so at variance with the huiiiaiie .li>p. .-itioii of the king, was

so tak.ii wei-i' trait. >rs out .'f Danelagh and

Diiriie.' till- peri.'.l ..f the Danish invasions of England, the country suffered besides the calamities of war the ravages of pestilence. The contemporaneous famine on the conti- nent seems not trreatlv to have distressed the

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGXE.—ALFRED AXD HIS SIVLESSOB,'

British Islaiuis. But the horrors of the plague couuturhalaiiced the immunity from famine. Many "f the best and noblest Saxons, includ- ing not a few of the must powerful Thanes in Wessex, were carried ulf. At the same time the murrain broke out among the English cattle, so that death in the city -was answered by death iu the field. It was in the midst of these. dangers, distresses, and sorrows that the virtues of the greatest and wisest of the early English kings were tried in the fire and found pure gold.

The career of Alfred was already drawing to a close. His labors in the camp, the field, and the court were as unceasing as those of

goodness of character was aeki: his contemporaries and has been the judgment of modern times, was'e.pialed bv his benelir,.,,,.,., d,mi by his surress. I-i his ,'l,il carefully trained by his iiinthci-, panied his father through Fiai to Rome. Nor is it doubtful but eight years of age, his min impressed with the supci'inrity n refinement of the South. One lioyhood was spent in the Etei one in Paris. The active mind could but have been much orcu

owledged by

confirmed by

His genius

and his wis-

II d he was

He accom- i'-e and Italy tliat, though d was deeply f the art and

year of his ual City and of the prince lit'd with the olossal struc-

-^^r ^>

Drawn Ijv A. de Xr

Charlemagne ; but the equalde tempered Eng- lish monarch was a man of tar finer fiber and mould than his great Prankish contemporary. In his boyhood Alfred was cufeebled bv <lis- ease, and about the time of reaching his ma- jority he was attacked Ijy another and pain- ful malady, which atfiicted him through life. Even in times of his greatest activity he was seldom free from pain. Soon after the retire- ment of the Danes from the kingdom, his health began rapidly to decline. In the month of October, 901, the good king, being then in the fiftv-third year of his age, died and was buried in the monastery which he had founded at Winchester.

The estimate of th.' life and work of Al- fred the Great can hardlv be overdrawn. His

tures	of st<iuc in	the <	1.1 ai	d the new capital
and	the	jx.or V	oodel	b..i	~es ami low, mud
huts	of 1	is own	count
T	lese	episod.	< in t	ie b,	v-lit'e of the great
kin- him	the	donl>t, 1( ive 1 '	di.l 1 ' lett	Uleh	to inspire within He conceived the
great baris	project of m and brin	rai.-'in _dna-	g his hem	people from bar- to the light. He
bcii-a	1 th	is w.,rk	with	the	cultivation of his
own	mini	1. He	]i>t<.n	■d ^\	itli delight to the
gleei	len	.< they	recit.	d in	his father's court
the Saxr heart	vil.l , an	and w He le; 1 his	irlike rued	ball: liis , .n,.ti,	(U of the Auglo- luntrv's songs by genius, even in
1h,v1i	.nd.	was i	lUS	dn.ll.	d into a flame.
'h then	uni	11- niasti lertook	red il the	earni	laeular, the prince ug of Latin, the

r.\ni:i!SAL iiisniny.—riiE moui.hs world.

skillful transl inii>r..vr tl..- I

:nu.-a Dun,-^	. TIm- on.T !l..,„-i-hin- sdin„l.s of Nurth-
ly to uiiilu'	laial \v(ii' I'illii r (lotrnyed or had fallen
Irriii- into	l.cay. ■riu- iMnoninrJ of the English
1 Ihr |HMi|,l,	wa- ania/.in^ f.a- it^ i:ro.-.<iiess. xVt the
■ sum- tiini-	.f thr .l.'atli (if Ethelred there was
■,l l>i- M".lvr	y a iiro|r~>i..nal teacher in all Wessex,
U, tl...- :ui.l t	111- An-ln-Saxiin laniiiiatre could not
•ul. in l.oast	if a Mn-lr t.\t-li.«.k. In his efforts to
.1 ana , -r-an	ze pulilir xlinoU ih.' kiiiL'- was ohliged
-N	to send to .Mi'ivia tor teachers, and e^en in th it kin 1 ni n ne weie
	i ml ni| t nt 1 1 th. u ik except
	th pi t V hw nistiuctois were
	111 u lit \ 1 li m FMnce Bishop
^	V II \\\ n wh in Alfifd m st relied
	111 til 1 1 iiti n t hi ( hi itionil
1	cnti i| 11 \\ 1 1 W 1 hill in In oi
4i'f'* '	del t ii| 1 l\ th t \t 1 In iiy
1 1 hi 1 |l th km. 1 niiiRuded
wks^ i	the tl III hti 11 f ^^ il ill i 1\ cxi-t
mK^h f	m. Ill I itiii 1 I 1 11 h ml tliu In
i^^^^	IK It ml (\iin|l h in^ht ti
^^^^L ^	iiiipl lut 111 th n I lit nun 1 t I lu
^^^^\	hnd the tunluiuntil if cultuic ^nd
S||^ft ^,^	learning
m^^^v	Tht''niiititi n t Kiiu IHicd as
^^^^P*	a dili_int h 1 II 11 1 thm a wai
^^^^^_	like o\LiLi_ii 1 I wil I th tune
'-	(t the English i k i It i i niittii
-	it ^uipn^e ho\\ iim 1 tla udu u
-^	dutic i ^ \einiiKut ind the dm
-^^n^	_t 1 uid 11 1 tu of ^^ i this benign
\iui_ii t nil 1 tiiiK 111 1 ( ppoitunit\ t , tl, 1 ,,. 1 ,1 1 , ,,, .,,t ,., „ 1,,, 1,
	11 til 1 111 1 il 1 ] 111 lilt 111 \\ till li Ik _i uI\ 1 h-ht 1 ^ thing

useful books be translated into the language which we all understand ; so that all the youths of England, Init more especially those who are of '

kind

He

edin

IS — for they til thev are

iirt. H

ts of th.

s content 3 availed the seeds kinirdoni. r popular

surjiassed that of Charleniague in France. Ou his accession to the throne the outlook for English culture was liy no means encouraging. The seats of learnint: lia.l been ravaged bv the

but the most methodical division of his time could have enabled him, with the mea- ger facilities at bis command, to make so great progress in scholarship and literature.'

The greatest of King Alfred's works as an author are his translations of Boethius's Con- mlatioii of PItilosojiIt'j and of Bede's Ecclesiasti- cal History of the Enfjlish. Measured by mod- ern standards, neither of these works would be considered preeminent as a translation. The king sought to reproduce the spirit rather than the letter of the original. The work of Boethius was rendered bv the king at Wood-

' The king's daily program of duty and rest was as follows: eight hours for meals, exercise, and slepi>: eislit hours for the affairs of government; and fidit for study and devotion.

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.— ALFRED AND HIS SUCCESSORS.

stock, iu OxtViixIshire, and "was called by him — from its adai)tatioii to the ciimmou af- fairs of life— the Handbook or Manual. The rendering of the Ecclesiastical History of the Venerable Bede was a work of the highest im- portance to the yonng nationality of England, for the sti'ry was of snch sort as to atiect the still half-barliarous Anglo-Saxons much as Homer's song of ancient Troy may be sup- posed to have swayed the passions of the old Hellenes.

Time would fail to narrate the swift trans- formation of England effected by the genius of Alfred the Great. He found his country without a navy and his countrymen ignorant of the management of ships. AVhen he died, the English fleet was the best on the western coast of Europe. By the most unwearied ef- forts he obtained a fair geographical knowl- edge, not only of his own country, but also of most of the nearer states and kingdoms of the continent. Whatever could be gathered iu the wav of information was carefully re- duced t'l writiiii:'. Travelers and voyagers were sent abroad fur the express purpose of deciding disputed points in geography. On such a mission even so distinguished a person as Switlielin, liishop of Sherburu, was dispatched overland to India! Xdt less as- tonishing is the fact that the journey was safely performed, and that the adventurous bishop came happily home, bringing with him gems and spices from the East.

Among the other enterprises of Alfred may be mentioned the better style of building which he introduced : the general prevalence of human comfirt which he encouraged; the rebuilding of desolated tow-ns and the found- ing of others; the construction of fortifica- tions and harbors; the survey of the coasts and rivers of England ; the erection of strong towers and castks in different parts of the kingdom ; the revision of the Anglo-Saxon laws ; the development of the Witemniemot into a regular parliament, upon which, jointly with himself, was devolved the care of the state ; the institution of a system of police so effective that it was said bracelets of gold might be hung out of doors without the least danger of theft , the establishment of an effi- cient judiciary ; and the general stimulus which "he atfonh'.l t.i all kinds (,f in.lustry iu

the kingdom. It is not wonderful, iu view of the prodigious activities, kindly genius, and generous character of Alfred, that even after the times of William the Conqueror the Nor- man kings and nobles were accustomed to re- fer to this illustrious ruler as the chief glory of early England.

On the death of Alfred the Great, iu the year 901, the succession was disputed by his son Edward and his uejihew Ethelwald, son of that Ethelbald who had preceded Alfred on the throne. Each of the claimants gathered au army ; but the forces of Ethelwald were found so much inferior to those of Edward that the former, forbearing to fight, fled into Danelagh, where he was recognized as king. Prince Edward then ascended the throne of England, and received the surname of the Elder.

The turbulent Danes had long fretted un- der the strict law of Alfred, and many rest- less spirits among the Saxons had chosen the North as the more congenial scene of their lawlessness. All of these malcontent elements of the rising English society combined around the standard of Ethelwald. Between him and Edward, in the year 905, a terrible battle was fought, in which Ethelwald was slain ; but the general result was so indecisive that the Danes were enabled to treat on equal terms with the Saxon prince. The project of the complete independence of Danelagh was entertained by the rebels ; nor were they without a ho2>e of regaining their ascendency over the whole island. For six years the war continued with varying successes; but iu 911 Edward met the Danes on the river Severn, and inflicted on them an overwhelming defeat.

In the mean time a peculiar complication had arisen in the earldom of JMercia. In that country the Princess Ethelfleda, daughter of Alfred" the Great and wife ..f Ethel're.l, had succeeded her deccas^MJ husl.an.l iu authority. Xor dill she he-itato to a>srrt and maintain the iiidci.cndc nee of her couiitiy of her brother Edward's rule. She raised an army and com- manded like a warrior. It was evident that her f'atlier's spirit was upon her. She made a successful defense against the claims of her bnith.T, and then drove the Danes out of Derliv and Leicester. In battle ^he com- niuniled ill person, and even led successful

u:sivEi:sAL uisToiiy.—Tin: MoDKuy would.

stunuiUL; parties against seeinin.Lriy iinpi\',irua- ble lurtilifutious. Slie cumlucted au expedition iuto Wales and made prisoner the wile of the king. Al'u-r a l)rillianl ear*er of eiglit years she dieil in Itl'D, whnvup.in the kingdom of Mercia was given up to Edward. This gave the king a great advantage in the North, in so mueli that all the country between the Thames and the Huniber was presently over- awed by the Saxim anus. From this vantage ground King Edward made eampaigns against the people of N'ortliern Danelagh. He sub- dued the WeLsh and the 8coteh. He made suc- cessful warfare upon the inhal)itant.s of Strath- clyde, Cumbria, and Galloway, thus extending further than ever before the dominions of England in the Xorth.

After a successful reign of twenty-four years Edward died, and in 925 was succeeded by his son Athel.stane. The court of this king is represented as having been more brill- iant than that of any preceding sovereign. His policy was to carry f(jrward the civiliza- tion of England — a work so well begun by his father and grandfather. The great event of the earlier part of his reign was the cont|uest of Wales, which country at this time became more subjected than hitherto to tlie author- ity of the English kings. So marked were the successes of Athelstane in the We>t that the Welsh were compelh'd to make payment of heavy tribute, and droves (jf beeves from the pastures of Wales were now^ first driven into Loudon and Oxford. A like sulijugation of the people was effected in Cornwall, and the warlike tribes beyond the river Tamar were reduced to obedience.

Meanwhile the people of Danelagh, always restive under English rule, had again gath- ered head for an insurrection. A leader was found in the Prince Olaf, or Aulaf, of Xorth- umljria, who ha<l of late carried on a success- ful war in Ireland, where he took the city of Dublin, and compelled the Celtic nations of the island to pay tribute. After these ex- ploits the Danish chieftain returned to North- umbria, and sailed up the Humlier with a fleet of si.K hundred and twenty sail. He effected an alliance with Constantine, king of the S,-(,ts, and wa- joineil by the men of Strathelyde and Cunduia. The" whcile North rose in arms and bore down ujion King Atl:-

elstane, who came forth and met his enemies on the field of lirunualjurg. Here the En- glish gained a glorious victory. Five Danish 2)riuces of royal rank antl seven earls were slain in this battle. A handful led by Olaf fled iuto Ireland. Cou.-tanilne made lii.- way north of the Frith (jf Forth, wailing out his grief for the death of his sou. So decisive was the victory of Athelstane that none durst any longer resist his authority. The consoli- dation of the kingdoms and peoples of the island was now so complete that Athelstane felt warranted in assuming the title of "King of the English, " a dignity whicli had not been elaime,! l)y either Edward or Alfred the Great.

The apjilication (jf the term Eui^land to the growing monarchy is no hiUger ina])pro-

iess .splendid tlian that of the later Carlovin- gians. Several foreign princes, either for ob- servaticjn or safety, made their home for a season with the English monarch. As already narrated, Louis d'Outremer found with his nKjther a safe retreat in London. Haco, son of King Harold of Norway, also abode with the courtiers of Athelstane. The counts of Jirittany and Armorica, driven from their na- tive possessions by the fury of the Danes, waited in England for the subsidence of the storm. Kulers of distant nations .-eiit to the English king many and eo.-lly gifts, and the givei's sought diligently to ally themselves with the Saxim blood by .seeking the sisters of Athelstane in marriage.

In his patronage of letters and art Athel- stane emulated the example of his grand- father. The tran.slation of the Bible into Anglo-Saxon — a work which had been well begun in the reign of Alfred — was now dili- gently promoted, and the rising literature of England had no cause to complain of the want of royal patronage. After a brilliant reign of fifteen years, Athelstane died, and was succeeded in 940 by his brother Edmund, surnanied the Atheling.

The new king proved to be a prince worthy of his stock. His character, however, showed itself in a fondness for the pursuits lit peace railiir than the carnage of war. IMnnind was compelled, none the less, to lead hi- p( ople in the loUL'-eontinued strugcle with

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGXE.— ALFRED AND Hlii SUCCE6:i()RS.

the Danes; for the great leader, Okif, ikiw returned from his retreat iu Ireland, and again incited his countrymen to rise against the English. In the struggle that ensued the fortune of war turned iu favor of the Danes, ■who gained several victories over Edmund's forces. The kiug was obliged at last to consent to a peace on the basis of resigning to the Danes the whole country north of Watlingstreet.

Scarcely, however, had this brief settlement been effected when the Danish leader died, and King Edmund succeeded in regaining the countries of the North. The kingdom of the Scots by this time began to show signs of vi- tality and progress. With jMalcolm, king of that realm, Edmund deemed it expedient to cultivate friendly relations, and the two sov- ereigns made an allinnce against the Danes. The English ruler soon showed his faith by his works. He made :m invasion of Ciuiihria, whose people were in rebellion, and having reduced them to submission, made a present of the province to Malcolm. In the course of his war with the Cumbrians, Edmund made prisoners of the two sons of the king, Dum- mail, and them, in a manner wholly at vari- ance with the usual clemency of the Anglo- Saxons in victory, he barbarously deprived of their eyes. Nemesis, however, soon brought hfr retribution for the deed. At the festival of St. Augustine in that year, while the king caroused with his nobles and Thanes, he rec- ognized in the company a noted outlaw named Leof, who had been banished. Edmund or- dered his expulsion from the festival, but the bandit stood his ground. The king, already heated with wine, sprang from his seat, seized Leof by his long hair, and attempted to lay him low, but the robber could not be handled. He drew a dagger and stabbed Edmund to the vitals. Thus, in the year 946, the crown of the kingdom was transferred by the sudden death of the king to Eldred, another son of Edward the Elder.

This prince was already by the ravages of disease a physical wreck, and on account of his debility was nicknamed Debilis Pedibus, or Weak Feet. Fortunate it was for the new administration that the resolute Dunstan, ab- bot of Glastonbury, was one of the king's counselors, as was also the able Torkatul, chancellor of the kingdom.

On the accession ..f Eldred, thr p, nj.le of Danelagh, in rominon witii the (Jthn- iidiabi- tants of the North, took the oath of allegiance to the new kiug. But it was not long until, incited by Eric, prince of Denmark, they took up arms against the Saxons. By this time the English army had become a veteran soldiery, and the discijiline of Eldred's forces triumphed over the audacity of the Danes. Several blocjdy battles were fought, in which the English were victorious. Northumbria was more completely subjugated than ever be- fore. The title of kiug was abolished, and the province was incorporated with the other realms of Eldred. It was not long, however, after these marked successes until the king died, without offspring, and left the crown (A. D. 955) to his brother Edwy, a youth but fifteen years of age.

The incapacity of the new sovereign was manifested in one of the first acts of his reign. He appointed his brother Edgar sub- regulus, or under king, of the old realm of Mercia, thus laying again the foundation for a possible dismemberment of tlic kingdom. The recent chastisement of the Danes and the generally quiet condition of affairs in the North gave promise of a peaceful reign. It happened, however, that a domestic embro- glio arose, almost as ominous as a foreign war. The youthful king became enamored of his cousin Elgiva, whom he might not marry without violation to one of the most deeply seated prejudices of the Church. The prince, however, took the law into his own hands and married the maiden of his choice. Dunstan, already referred to as wielding a powerful influence in the state, set his face against the union. At the nuptial festival, when the monks and bishops, in common with the Thanes, had imbibed wine until they were uproariously drunken, the young king, less intemperate than his courtiers, slipped from the banquet hall and sought the cham- ber of his queen. His absence was at once remarked by the banqueters, who were deeply offended at their monarch's withdrawal. Dun- stan was at once dispatched to bring him back. The monk accordingly broke into the bridal chamber, seized upon Edwy, dragged him from the side of Elgiva, and hurried him back to the banquet. The queen, also, and

UXIVKHSAJ. HISTniiY. — THK MnDKJLX WORLD.

luiU whei

her niMtlier wore uMi-cd to Ini.l euce; and wlieu they n-adi the revelers were cariiu>iii;j, lliry were in- sulted with filthy and di,-L'u>tinL'- language. This conduct struck tire from the indignant 1 spirit of Edwy, and he determined to be re- venged on the indecent churchmen who had disgraced his nuptials.

At this time the English Church was rent with feuds and quarrels over the question of the celibacy of the clergy. Some main- tained— and to this class the secular clergymen mn~tly lii-lniigeil — that the priests might marry without ntiense to the divine law; but the monks on the contrary, held that the mar- riage of a priest was a thing most horrible in the sight of heaven. The leaders of the latter party were Odo, archbishop of Canter- bury, and the monk Dunstan. It appears that the king had espoused the opposite doctrine, and this fact added fuel to the quarrel which had broken out at the marriage feast. Dun- stan, who had been treasurer of the kingdom during the reign of Elilred, was charged with peculation and driven into exile. He fled

made an unsuccc»t'ul attiinpt to have tin' monk's eyes put out by the people of Ghent. Archbishop Odo remained in Xorthumbria. Himself a Dane, he ajipealed to the penjile of his race t<i rise in revolt aLiaiiisu tlu' impious Edwy. In oi-.Kt t.. ciiroura-r a rivil war, the in,-ui--ciit party pioclaininl Ivluar king of till' whoir couiury north of tlir Thames. Dunstan, hearing of the iiisuri'ei'tion which had been so successfully begun, returned from his exile.

While these events were takinir iilace, the

rum. A .o erly bandits Canterbury, seized the 1 the faee wi

n[iloyca liy tlie arclilii-lio|i oi oke into the roval re-i.leii,'e, utiful Elgiva, braiideil lu-r in a hot iron, and dragging her away, ea-t her, a disfigured exile, into Ire- laud. The |)e,,|ile of that island ban compas- sion upon her in lier iiii^fortiiiies. They care- fully nui— d her back to health and beauty— for her wounds healed without scars — and sent her back to P^nglaDd. But the relentless Odo was nn the alert. His briL'-ands again seized the iiiii'ortunate fimen. liv them she vas

barbarou>ly mutilated. The tendons of her limbs were cut ; and iu a few days the suffer- ing princess expired in agony. This shock wa-s more than the high-spirited Edwy could bear. In a short time, being in de.spair, he died. Nor is the suspicion wanting that the expiring agonies of the royal heart were hastened to a close by an assassin.

Thus in the j'ear 959 Prince Edgar came to the throne of England. The event, viewed politically, was the triumph of the monkish party, headed by Odo and Dunstan. A re- lentless warfare was now waged against the married clergymen of the kingilom. They were everywhere expelled from the abbeys, monasteries, cathedrals, and churches. The- doctrine of celibacy was enforced with merci- less rigor. The raonki.sh party ruled both king and kingdom. The youthful Edgar be- came a pliant tool in the hands of the old foxes, who were loose in the pastures and gar- dens of England. In the midst of this pro- gressive retrogression several circumstances conspired to improve the condition of the kiuL^dom. The king had been reared among the Dane-, and was l,v them looked upon as then- own prinee. Ills ar,vsMon to the thn.no was regarded as a kind of Danish asoondency iu the island. This fact contributed greatly to the general peace of the realm. Nor can it 1m- .I'enied that ()d.. and Dunstan adminis- teiv.l the atiliii-s of >tate with givat vi-o,- and aliility. The kingdom was more thoroughly consoli.lateil than ever before. The English army was lietter disciplined, and the fleet was increased to three hundred and sixty sail. )f the king indueeil him to of iourneviug in i)ersou into

The

a ]iolie i-tsofEii

making the acquaintance (ii' the jioople, holding courts, and encourag- ing enterprise. So great was his reputation that eight kings are said to have rowed his l)arge iu the river Dee.

This actual augmentation of power was re fleeted in the high-sounding titles which Edgar assumed. He was called Emperor of Albion, King of the English and of all the islands anil nations around. It was the good fortune of his reign not to be disturbed by a single war, and from this auspicious circumstance the king received the surname of the Peace- able. His policy was conciliatory. The-

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAdXE.— ALFRED AXD HIS SUCCESSORS.

Wt'lsh tribute was commuted into three luui- drcd wuli-scalps aunually. He called in the worn and mutilated coin of the kingdom, and reissued a new money iu place of the old. Many other beneficent measures attested the progressive character of the tinu's. In his private life, however, the king was any other than a temperate or virtuous ruler. His court was the resort of profligate men and abandoned women. Notwithstanding the fact that the king, as the willing instrument of Odo and Dunstan, enforced the celibacy of the clergy with a rigor never before known among the Anglo-Saxons, he himself failed iugloriously as an exemplar of the domestic canons of the church. He bore the character of a profligate, surrounding himself with con- cubines and converting the court into a harem. Not satisfied with ordinary flagitiousness, he abducted from the monastery of Wiltim a beautiful nun, named Elfreda, and made her his paramour. Notwithstanding this out- rageous conduct the monkish chroniclers of the age bestow great praise on Edgar as a virtuous and godly prince! Forsooth it was sufticieut that he countenanced them iu their ■doctrines and practices, and supported the profligate race of shaven scribes who lauded liis fictitious and sham morality.

The story of Edgar's second marriage is illustrative of the character of the times. Or- gar, earl of Devonshire, had a lieautiful daughter named Elfrida. The fame of her charms was borne to the ears of the royal voluptuary. Imagining himself already in love with the lily of Devon, he sent thither one 111' his <'()urtiers named Athelwold to spy out the hiddrn beauty of the West, and to re- cite to him her varied attractions. The cour- ier d'mnour found the princess even as she had been represented, and then, after the manner of men, fell in love with her himself. Concealing the true object of his mission, he sought and obtained the haml of Or^ar's daughter in marriage. He then hurried hack to his master and reported that the princess of Devon was indeed wealthy, but that her lieauty was a myth. The king, hnwi'Vcr, ins- pected his spy of lyino-, and dctcrniiucl to resolve witli his own' eves the .[Uestion of Kl- frida's charms. Atlielwold was ,,rd,ivd to return to Devon and to make straight a path

for the king. The courlier, thus brought into a narrow place, and knowing not what to do, ordered his w'ife to put on coarse attire and demean herself like a j:>easant; Init she, jier- ceiving that she had taken a courtier when she might have married a king, was not un- willing that her beauty might da/.zh' the royal vision. It thus happened that tiie <loulile- dealing Athelwold was hoisted on his own petard. Presently afterwards he was found murdered in the woods, and the ambitious Elfrida was taken by the king. It was not long until Edgar's son by his former wife waa also disposed of, and the way thus cleared for the succession of Elfrida's oflfepriug to the throne. A few years after the perpetration of these crimes King Edgar died, and was succeeded in 97.5 by his son, called Edward the Martyk, at that time but fifteen years of age. He it was whose claims were resisted )iy Elfrida. iShe ailvanced the charge that Edward was of illegitimate birth. The right of her own son Ethelred was boldly advanced by the unscru- pulous queen, and the two half-brothers were soon arrayed against each other in war. Now it was that the anti-celibate party in the priesthood rallied from obscurity and banish- ishment, and espousing the cause of Ethelred, sought the restoration of their fortunes. On the other hand, Dunstan, who had now suc- ceeded Odo as archbishop of Canterbury, up- held the claims of Edward. In the struggk that ensued the latter was at first succe.ssful , but Elfrida was by no means content to see her son displaced. She made a league with Alfere, the eolderman of JMercia, and organ- ized a conspii-aey among the Thanes of the North. For three years the hostile jiarties faced each other, Init did not proceed to the extremity of war. l-'dfrida and her son, meanwhile, resided at Corle Castle, in Dorset- shire. On a certain occa>ion, the king, hunt- ing in this neighbor! 1, ivsolved to pay a

visit to his half-brothi r. I^lti'ida received Edwaivl with smiles at tlu' castle gate, and uave him a cup of wine to drink: Imt as he was raising the- cup t.i his lips, one of ]:ifrida's attendants stal.b.d liini in tli<' back. The wounded kin- lint si.urs to ],i> horse and fled.

;ged was

it throutrh

uyivi:i;sAL jiistohv.—tjii-: M()I>i:j;\ would.

It apiM brothc-i

liliiiMly (lut 111 111 h.-ii- I ■ars ilial ii

vinl.a t <m ItVid;	ihy. Il is K-niUlit of beat him
-iiitih of	dead liiin-

ad no |,a, even related iliat wlnii Edward's .leath, lli.- fui with a torch until lie w self. The p.r-o„al ini

odium en'^^.-nd.nd hy hi- mntlu-r's erimes. Takiuo- advaiiia-e of il,i~ faet. the able and crafty DiiTislaii a'jaiii ainirarid on the scene, and rallied the iiionkidi party against the throne. He found a elainiaiit to the crown in the Princess Eiliiilha. daii-hter of Edgar and that lady whom he lia.l aliducted from the nunnery of Wilton. Edgitha, however, had taken the veil and refused to exchange her quiet life for the dangers and passions of the court. The celibate ]iarty was therefore obliged to consent that the crown should be worn by the indiccilc .-on of Elfrida, upon whom they vented their spleen by giving him the nickname of the Unready.

The personal character of several of the recent kings, and the clinics and murders which had been committed by rival claimants of the crown and their partisans, no less than the disgraceful church broils of the celibate and anti-celibate ]iarties, had by this time almost extinguished the hearty Saxon loyalty with which the pc.ipic had regarded the House of Alfred. Why ,-hould sturdy En- glishmen any longer uphold the degenerate representative of that illustrious family? Meanwhile, in the course of the last half cen- tury, the ancient and terrible animo.sity be- tween the Saxons and the Danes had sub- sided. Each had come, in a certain measure, to regard the other as countrymen. Affinity of race and language had been supplemented by hundreds and thousands of inter-marriages. It thus hap]iened that the Saxon Thanes and yeomanry of Wcsscx and the Smith began to look with tavor upon the project .if substitut- ing an aide Dane for a dci^cncnitc Saxon on the throne of En-land. And wldl,. thi< feel- ing grew apace in the c<iuniry south of the Thames, certain general causes, having their roots in the political conditiim of Norway, Denmark, France, and England, also con- duced to a chaiiire of ilvnastv.

For in ihc mean time Prince Sweyn, son of the kin- of Denmark, having ipiarrcled with hi- lalher, uas liani-hcd from the kilig- ,1.1111. Su.li, how.v.r. u.iv hi- taleiils, ambi- tion, an.l iicrs.inal intlueiice, that a large company of warriors and adventurers gathered arouml hi- banner and foll.iwed his fortunes .111 th.' ,-ca. Afl.u- a few ]iivliininary a.lveii- tures, Ih,' au.la<i..us Dane nia.le a descent ,in Englan.l; an.l tlcugh at tir-t lli.' exp.-.liti.m was int. -11.1.. I rath.r t.. .li-.-ver th.' .■on.liti,,n of attliir- anil try the spirit of the pe.iple than to undertake a serious conquest, yet it was not long until Sweyn conceived a larger and more alarming enterprise. In the year !tSl

ampt.iii. From liiuice he pr.icee.led t.i t'li.'sler and London. These imjaortant places were also taken and pillaged. The ominous raven of Denmark was seen now here, no\y there, as far as the borders of Cornwall. The in- competency of Ethelred to defend his king- dom against these aggres.sions was painfully manifested. His attention in the great crisis wliiidi was upon the country was absorbed with local difficulties and the quarrels of the monks. Alfere of Mercia was now dead, and the earldom had descended to his son, Alfric. Him the king had first banished and then re- called ; but the earl nursed his revenge until the day of judgment. That day was now at hand, ami Sweyn the Dane was the pre- cursor.

In the year 991 the English were defeated in a great battle fought in East Anglia. Alarmed at the situation of aflltirs, Ethelred had recourse to the fatal expedient of pur- chasing a peace. The payment of ten thou- sand pounds of silver procured the temporary retirement of the enemy from the country. In a short time, however, the Saxon Witena- gemot adopted meastires for the enlargement and better equipment of the fleet, and the Enc-lish s.ion found themselves again masters of the s.-a. But the command of the squad- r..ii wa- -iveii to Alfric, who now found am- ple o]i|inniiuity to be revenged. As soon as an .■ii-a-.inent with the Danes could be lirought about he went over with a large part of the fleet to the enemy. Ethelred was re- duced to the miserable expedient of seizing Alfric's .son and puttiug out his eves.

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGXE.-ALFRED AND HIS SUCCESSOBS.

lu tlie year Wo all of aucient Danelagh ■was overrun by the native insurgents com- bined witli to reign marauders. Meanwhile, the king of Denmark Avas slain, and Sweyn ascended the throne. He formed an alliauee with Olaf of Norway, and in the following year the two monarchs made a formidable de- scent upon the southern coasts of England. Ethelred was again obliged to buy off his as- sailants, who now exacted sixteen thousand pounds as the price of peace. The miserable and now priest-ridden spirit of the Faxons found some solace in a clause of the treaty which required the victors to be baptized. To this the Danes readily assented. To them it was no more than a plunge in the water. Sweyn himself had already several times re- ceived the rite at the hands of the zealous priests, anxious for the welfare of his bar- baric soul. One of the other leaders made a boast that he had been, washed twenty tiiiies ! In the case of Olaf, however, it appears that a genuine conversion from paganism was ef- fected. At any rate he honestly observed his oath not to trouble the English further.

The same could not be said of his country- men, who took only to break the oath. From 998 to 1001 the country was constantly vexed with Danish incursions. MeanwhQe, the mil- itary resources of the kingdom, under the puerile management of Ethelred and his coun- cil, rapidly declined until the only available means of preventing the ascendency of the Danes was the gold of the treasury. On one occasion as much as twenty-four thousand pounds was paid to secure the departure of the enemy. This tremendous burden was lifted by a tax, known as the Dane-geld, which was levied upon the Saxon yeomanry.

While this deplorable state of affairs ex- isted at home, Ethelred managed to embroil the kingdom in foreign complications. He quarreled with Eichard II., duke of Nor- mandy, and the two princes were proceeding to war when the Pope commanded the peace. Ethelred then sought the hand of the Princess Emma, sister of the Norman duke, and by this marriage of the English king with her who was known as the Flower of Normandy was laid the foundation of that claim which, in lOfiG, led to the conquest of the British Isles 1)y William the Conqueror.

The general condition of the Danes ami Saxons in England and tlieir relntions with each other, living in nianv pai'ts iiitci-iiiiiiiilcd as a rnnnnnn p.^.pK., have b,,.., alivadv de- scribed. In the North tlie Dani-I, pnpuh.ti.m was generally predominant; in the Smith, the Saxon. In the central districts the two pen- pies were mixed together. The situation was such as in case of treachery to expose the vic- tims ef a plot to the g-eatest hardships.

It api)ears that King Ethelred was as per- fidious as he was weak. The situatinn of the Danes seems to have suggesteil to him the hiinible pri.jeet of exterminating them by a wbn|e-ale niassacfe! It can not be deui-d that the fori'igners and their descendants in the island had behaved with great harsh- ness towards the native population. The se- verity and outrage peculiar to the early years of the Danish domination had, however, at length given place to a milder, more tolerable condition of affairs. Quiet and orderly hab- its had at length become prevalent among the grandsons of those old pirates who had made England red with the light of their burnings. This state of his peojjle, however, seems to have had no effect upon the bloody mind of Ethelred and the scarcely less perfidious spirit of his Saxon subjects.

In the latter part of the year 1002 the king sent out secret orders into all the cities and towns, appointing a day and hour in which the Saxons should everywhere fall upon and destroy the Danes. The time set for the great atrocity was the feast of St. Brice, namely, the loth of November. With a hor- rid precision the murderous scheme was car- ried out. At the ajipointed hour the unsus- isecting Danes in every town and hamlet were attacked and cut down liy their neighbors. No mercy was shown to any. All ages and conditions were hewed down together. Even Gunhilda, sister of King Sweyn, herself a Christian and married to an English earl of Danish descent, was obliged to look on while her husband and child were put to death, and was herself then murdered. No wonder, when the news of this bloody work was carried to Denmark, the heart of Sweyn grew hot within him, and he resolved to visit on the treacher- ous English such a vengeance as should never be forgotten.

uyiVEUSAL iusT(inY.—THE jioj>j:j:x world.

off the coast- nf JmimIuh.!. 11 \n tl... pri

sen

warriors, all in tiir piinu' <<\ lUe, ^va.s em- liarkcil, ami tlic ;-.|iiaili(Ui set sail for its cles- tinatinii. The liisl lamliug was effected near the city of Exeter. 'I'liat place was soou takeu ami ])liiu(lere(l. The work of vengeance was U(j\v liegiiu in earnest. In every town through which the invading army passed the Danes compelled the Saxons to furnish them a feast. As soou as the warriors had eaten their fill

thev slew their llnsts all.l set HlT- to the ll<.U.es.

Wl'ien at last a .Six.iii army of nearly e.pial strength was brought out to stay this desolat- ing inroad, it was commanded by that same Alfric of Mercia who had already betrayed an English fleet into the hands of the enemy. How or why he had again been restored to the king's favor does not appear. At any rate, when a battle was imminent, the trait(jr got in his work by feigning .sickness until what time King Sweyn succeeded in securing his booty and made his way unmolested to the coast. In the year 1004 England was re- duced to famine, and the Danes, not liking the pro.spect of starvation in a foreign island, sailed away to the Baltic.

In the mean time that train of evi/nts was carried firward which portemled the i'stal)li>h- meiit of thi' Norman a>cen.leney in Kn-land. Ethelre.l had hoped, by hi> marriage with the Princess Emma, to obtain an alliance with the Kormans against the Danes. In his emer- gency he appealed to Duke Richard for hel|). The latter heeded his call, but only iu such a way as to promote the interests of his country. Those Normans who came over to the island for the ostensible purpose of taking up Ethel- red's cause against the northern invaders were more concerned about the establishment of their master's influence in England than about the chastisement of the Danes. In the mean

lieen sueh as to give mcrtal <iti;'nse t.i her womanly priilc. She laid her cause before lier lirnili,.,-, the duke and found in him a ready li-trmr to tlir -lory of her wrongs. A violi'nt .piarrel broki- out bi'tween him and Ethelred. TJM" latt.T was w the eve of in- vadin- Nnrmandy, an.l wa< -ady himlere.I in his i.urpo,-,. hv the distracted condition of tlie

kiugd(jm. The diikr. ujion his ])art, seized upon all the English iu his realm, killed some, and cast the rest into prison. Thus was engendered between Englan<l and Nor- mandy a state of hostility which was not

of one of the countries by the other.

While these events were iu progress King .Sweyn again returned into England, fur- ther to appease his vengeance on the murder- ers of his countrymen. The Witeuagemot, knowing the warrior with wliom tliey had to

sovereign, adojited the usual exj>i-di( nt of pur- chasing a peace. But the triumjihant .Sweyn now demanded thu-ty thousand pounds as the price of his forbearance. This enormous sum was raised and paid ; but the jieople began at last to .see that the spoliation of the country was as dreadful under the policy adopted by the king as if the land were left a ])rey to the Danes. '^

In 1008, only two years after the former levy, another assessment was made upon the lands of the kingdom. The object in this in- stance was to rebuild the English fleet ; but after this work was accomplished the squad- ron was soon broken up by the dissensions and treachery of the commanders. A certain courtier named Edric had obtained such an ascn.leney over Ethelred's mind that he vir- tually ruled the kingdom. Bithric, a lin.ther of this magnate, was also in liigh favor. The latter made a consjnracy against Earl Wulf- noth, who was obliged to .save himself by flight. He took with him, liowever, twenty sli'fps of the English navy, an.l when pursued liy Bithric, with eighty ve.ssel.-, had the good fortune to see his enemy's squadron wrecked in a storm. The remainder of the Euglish armament was dispersed by mismanagement or accident, and the kingdom was thus left naked to her enemies.

A- sonn as it was known in Denmark that

eiime to uanglit, a larL^e fleet was equipped and an ai-niv jiut on board, under command of a l.-adi'r named Thurkill. F.>r three years tlii> lio.t ravaged England at will. The king- <!i.m had no peace or security except such as wa< airmded by brief truces purchased from tlie Danes. During this peri..d the adherents

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAdNE.— ALFRED AND HIS SUCCESSORS.

of Etht'lred's governmeut fell away until he was left without suf)porters. As for liiniself, ho still pursued the policy of quieting the en- emy with bribes. It is said that he paid to Thurkill the sum of forty-eight th(nisand pounds. By this means the Danish leader was induced to consent to a peace, and even to ally himself with Ethelred. It appears, however, that his motives were treacherous, and that he was really acting in concert with Sweyn, who now contemplated the complete subjugation of England. Presently Thurkill quarreled with Ethelred, and undertook a new expedition ; but the Danish king now ap- peared on the scene, and avowed his purpose of reducing both Thurkill and the Saxon monarch to submission. With the appearance of Sweyn on the Humber the people of Dane- lagh rose and joined his banners. Most of the army of Thurkill did the same. The cen- tral counties of England quietly submitted. Oxford and Winchester opened their gates to receive him. Ethelred meanwhile took refuge in Loudon, and here the valor of the citizens kept the Danes at bay for a season. All the West soon submitted to the Danish king.

Seeing that the rest of the kingdom had felleu away, the Londoners at length gave up the contest, and Ethelred fled with his family and sought protection at the court of his brother-in-law, the Duke of Normandy. In the beginning of the year 1013 Sweyn was acknowl- edged as the king of England ; but a few weeks afterwards he died at the town of Gainsborough. Thereupon the Saxon Thanes reasserted themselves, and invited Ethelred, after his six weeks' banishment, to return to the throne. The Danish party meanwhile proclaimed the Prince Canute, son of King Sweyn, as monarch of the countrv. Civil war again broke out, and for a season there was a reign of bloodshed and burning.

At length, completely despairing of relief at the hands of their unready sovereign, the Saxon nobles .set aside the claims of Ethelred and his legitimate children, and selected for their king his natural son, the warlike Ed- JIUXD, surnamed Ironside. It was the mis- fortune of this valorous j)riuce to receive at the hands of his supporters an already ex- hausted country. Nevertheless he did as much as couraare misht to retrieve the for-

tunes of Saxon Eugland. Twice he attempted to relieve the beleaguered city of Loudon. He fcnight with the euemy five pitched battles, but the Danes were generally victorious. As a last desperate measure of defense he chal- lenged Canute to mortal combat. The latter, however, durst not meet his stalwart antago- nist in personal battle, but proposed instead the division of the kingdom between them. The proposition was accepted ; Edmund Iron- side ruled over the South, and Canute re- ceived the rest of the i-sland.

This settlement, however, was of only two months' duration. Within that time after the treaty the Saxon monarch died, and in 1017 the whole kingdom passed under the dominion of Canute. This distinguished ruler began his reign with measures of conciliation, but his course in this respect was more politic than sincere. The House of Ethelred was bitterly persecuted, and many of that family and its Saxon adherents were hunted down and slain. Edward and Ednmnd, the infant sons of Edmund Ironside, were .seized and sent to Sweden. The king of that country, having compassion upon their misfortunes, sent them to distant Hungary, where Edmund died. The Prince Edward, however, married the daughter of the Emjieror of Germany, of which union were born Edgar Athcliiig, Christina, and Margaret. The last uaincil was married to Malcolm, king of Scotland, and thus through a Scottish House the Ijlood of King Alfred was transmitted to aftertimes.

Meanwhile the warrior King Canute was menaced by a sjDecter out of Normandy. In that country the two princes, Edward and Alfred, sons of Ethelred and Emma, were supported by Duke Richard, tlieir uncle. The latter demanded of the Danish king that tlie rights of his nephews should be respected ; and when this demand was treated with con- tempt, the Norman duke offered his sister, the widowed Emma, to the Dane in marriage. It appears that Duke Richard, the wiilow her- self, and Canute were equally anxious to con- summate this unnatural uiiion. Nor was it with a view to securini;- the ri-hts of her .sous so much as again becoining (juecu of England that the Flower of N.ji-niandy went up gladly to the bed of the royal Danish ruffian by wliom her former husband had been destroved.

uxiVEnsAL iiisTonv.—THE modkhx would.

successt	u
au ii	u
results	t
Alfred t	h
axed th

land, Dl

combined on the head northern kin-.huns howf mu.'li di-put.'d, and he w; tor- ii:n war-. Th.. la^t .:

■ Canute. In the ■r, his claims were involved in several liis expeditions was

undertaken in the year 1017 against Duncan, king of Cuniliria. The war lasted for two years; nor could the Cunihriaus and Scots be subdued until the king's resources were strained to the utmost. After this conflict in

king th^ the tide he, '-th not to ro.=e hig dripj.ini turned

His reveng.-ful nature found m. fur- iif offense, and in his old age, for- ^^^ getting to be cruel, he sought "^ comfort for his soul in a pil- ^^ grimage to Rome. In the r^ year 1030 he assumed the - VF; pilgrim's garb and journeyed to the Eternal City. Return- ing from his holy visit, he went intii Denmark, where he tarried for some time. From that country he seut his commands to England by the abbot of Tavistock, and thus maintained his authority (iver his English realms.

Of King Canute tradition has fondly repeated a famous incident. At the height of his power, struck one day with remor.seful reflections on the brevity and follies of hu- man greatness, and disgusted with the excessive flatteries of the sycophants about the court, he ordered them to bear him down to the sea- shore in his chair of state. Having seated himself in the very edge of the surf a« the tide came roaring in he de- manded to know of his cour- tiers wdiether the sea would cliey him and stand back. After the manner of liars, they answered that the great deep would shrink at his gesture of command. The n sat silently awaiting the issue, while rolled in around him. "Ocean," .«aid land and the sea are mine. Presume ,et the edge of my robe." The surf ler and the king was obliged to wade from the waters. Thereupon he and rebuked the fawning flatterers, 1-timed adulation had magnified the - ..f tlie weak.

THE AGE OE CHARLEMA<iyE.—ALERED AND lllS SiXVESSOi:

In the year 10;]5 Cauute died, and was burie.l at, Winehester. lie left t.> the ivuhii another dispitted i^ueecf^sion ; fur the ehiii]i.- <>t' Hardicaxute, Ills «.)n l)y the widow uf Ethel- red, were disputed by his two illegitimate sous, named Sweya and Harold. As to those two princes, the scandal of the time deelarefl that they were not of the royal Mood at all. It wa- said that Altgiva, the mistress .,f Ca- nute, had imposed on him two bantlings not his own ; the gossip of the times was perhaps a true interpretation of the facts. Neverthe- less, the credulous Canute recognized i^weyn and Harold as joint heirs with Hardieanute, and purposed to divide his kingdom among them. He accordiugl_y provided that England should fall to Harold, Denmark to Hardiea- nute, and Norway to Sweyn. When the king died, two of his sons, Hardieanute and Sweyn, were in the north of Euroi)e, only Harold being in England. The claims of Har- dieanute to the English crown were ardently supported by the old Saxon party in the island, for he was the son of the widow of Ethelred, and therefore allied to the royal family. In the Danelagh, however, the people recognized Harold. Civil war was again imminent, and was only obviated by the interference of the AVitenagemot, which body convened at Ox- ford and divided the realm between the rival claimants. Harold should have the country north of the Thames, with London fiir his capital, and Hardieanute should rule the South.

The latter prince, lieing still in Denmark, sent his mother, Emma, as regent of Eng- land. With her the powerful Earl Godwin was to share the authority during the absence of the king. Harold, however, perceiving the weakness of the situation, resolved to usurp his brother's throne, and the condition of affiiirs in the southern kingdom favored such an enterprise.

Meanwhile Prince Edward, son of Ethelred and Emma, still residing in Normandy, ad- vanced his claims to the crown once worn by his fiither. Hearing of the death of Canute, he set sail for England and landed at South- ampton. From his mother's friends he had expected a cordial reception and support ; but that unscrupulous lady was now engaged in an intritrue to secure the succession for her son

Hard	Canute. Edward \	vas ohli	.vd	to brat a
hasiy	retreat from the	ishind.	S,	nn afUT-
wards	both of the sons	if Etllr	nd	wei'e in-
vilrd	hy a treacherous	\rUrV, 1	iir|	ortiug to
have	leen written by th<	ir motl	er.	to return
to En	.iland and eUiiin tl	■ir iiihe	ita	l.T. Kd-
ward	was wary of tlie	invitat	on,	luit the
young	AliVed, "attended	by six	hui	dred ful-

lowers, accepted his mother's call, and hinded opposite to Canterbury. Here he wa- nut liy the powerful Earl Godwin, who swoic ade- giance to the prince and began to c.induet him inland. When the party had advanced as far as Guildford, while Alfred and his friends were sleeping unarmed at night, they were suddenly assailed and massacred by the barbarous soldiers of King Harold. The eyes of the prince were torn out, and he died in agony. The ruler of England had thus put out of the way another of his possible rivals. Nor was it long until he secured for himself the full title of the King of England. He received the surname of Harefoot. Of his reign there is little to be recorded otiier than the quarrels of the clergy and the intrigues of the Saxon and Danish parties to obtain an ascendency in the affairs of state.

After a reign of four years, Har^lil died and in 1040 was succeeded by his half-brother, Hardieanute. It was the happy fortune of this prince to be acceptable to both the Eng- glish factions — to the Saxons, because he was the son of Emma; to the Danes, because he was the son of Canute. As for the prince, he favored his father's people. He chose his courtiers from among his countrymen of the North, and his army and navy were Danish. During the early years of his reign there were several insurrections, chiefly traceable to the king's partiality for men of his own race. For his predecessor, however, he manifested such contempt that the Saxons were delighted. The bo<ly of Harold was digged from the grave, insulted, decapitated, and thrown into the river. In his tastes the king manifested all the gluttonous excesses of his people. Four times a day he feasted, and then held a carousal at night. ^Meanwhile, the afi'airs of government were managed by Earl Godwin anil the queen-mother Emma. At length, after a reign of nearly two years, in the midst of a revel bv niudit, Hardieanute, al-

uxivehsal history.— the modkrx world.

ready drunken, fell down .lead on the flour of his banquet-hall.

After his foolish atteiujit to secure the throne of England, the I'rinee Edward had retired to Normandy, and there devoted him- self to more conirenial ]>ursuits. Fain would he have heroine a Ih'Iv man and retired from the world. With ihr (hath of Hardicanute, however, a plain way was opened before his feet, and in 1042 he ascended the throne of England. The Danes had now no descendant of Canute to advance against Edward's claims, and many of their nobles retired from the island. Even Earl Godwin forebore to op- pose the acce.ssiou of Edward, who received the surname of the Confessor, and began a pro.sperous but not untroubled reign.

One of the first acts of the new sovereign was to accept in marriage the daughter of Godwin. It is believed that the stern father- in-law himself dictated this union with a view- to increasing his own power in the kingdom. This circumstance may in part account for the fact that in no long time the report went abroad that King Edward treated his wife with great harshness. As to his mother, the royal severity was mingled with scorn. Per- haps the treatment was not unmerited ; for the belief was prevalent that the death of the Prince Alfred might be traced to a plot hav- ing its seat in the bosom of Emma.

In the year 1043 an attempt was made by Magnus, king of Denmark, to restore the for- tunes of his House in England. A Danish fleet once more ajipeared off the coast; but the Saxons were now prepared to receive their enemy, and the latter deemed it prudent to retire to the Baltic. The Saxon monarchy had now come to rest on so firm a basis that an overthrow was no longer to be feared at the hands of buccaneers and marauders.

Notwithstanding the general quiet of Ed- ward's reign, his authority over his subjects had in it an element of feebleness. The great Earl Godwin and the other Thanes and nobles of the kingdom had so augmented their power as to make their ruler a king by sufferance. By them most of the lands of the kingdom had been appropriatrd. By them courts were held, judges appointed, and levies made of troops and money. The combined power of this nascent, feudal nobility was greater than

that of the iiioiiairh, and but for their jeal- ousirs and •(U;ii-ril<, they nnght have at any time rnnipa-.-cd hi- dethronement.

Another element of weakness specially to be noted in the government of Edward was his preference for the Normans. He could but SCI' that those polite gentlemen of Rouen, in whi>>r society he had passed the greater ]iart of his life, were greatly superior in man- ners and culture to even the most refined of his rough, untutored countrymen. He pre- ferred the language and dress of his adopted country to those of his native laud. The royal predilection in these regards furnished a suflScient motive for constant communication with the gay court of Rouen. Many schol- arh' and courtlj' Normans came over to Ed- ward's capital, and brought with them the sunlight of Normandy. For these ample pro- vision was made by the king, and it was not long before this dawning Norman ascendency was felt in all parts of the kingdom.

However agreeable this state of aflairs may have been to the king himself, it was gall and wormwood to the Saxons. The already over- grown power of Earl Godwin was thus greatly increased ; for he was regarded as the leader of the native nobility against the Norman in- novations. In 1044, however, a circumstance occurred which for a while greatly injured the earl's popularity and power. His oldest son, bearing the famous name of Sweyn, proved to be a brigand and adventurer. Con- temptuous of all law and sanctity, he violated an abbess and was banished from the king- dom. He improved his exile by becoming a terrible pirate, which vocation he plied until what time his fiither procured for him a par- don from the king. In the delay incident to such a business Sweyn became impatient and laid the blame upon his cousin Beorn, then resid- ing at the court. Him, on returning to Eng- land, he first conciliated and then murdered. But his father's influence was able to secure a seeonil jiardon, and Sweyn was restored to his estates.

In the year 10.")1 Count Eustace, of Bou- logne, who. Iiy his marriage with the Lady Goihi, ihiu-iitrr of Ethelred, became brother- in-law to the kiiii:. paid a visit to Edward and his court. Here he fouml every thing conf iniu'd t(j the stvle and manner of Nor-

THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE.— ALFRED AND HIS SUCCESSORS.

It was not wonderful that he con- ceived for the Saxons a sentiment of profound contempt. On departing after his sojourn the count, witli his retainers, entered the town of Dover, and there became embroiled in a bloody riot with the inhabitants. Eustace thereupon returned to the capital and laid his grievances before the king. The latter ordered Earl Godwin to proceed forthwith to the punish- ment of those who had insulted his Norman brother-in-law.

Instead of doing as he was hid the earl espoused the cause of the men of Dover, and told the king plainly that the Normans were they who deserved the punishment. Edward thereupon summoned Godwin himself before his foreign court at Gloucester, there to an- swer for his contumacious conduct. Incensed at this summons, the earl took up arms. At this time the whole country south of the Thames was under his sway. His eldest son, Harold, appeared on the scene. This young prince and his brother Sweyn, as well as their father, led large bands of armed men to Gloucester, and demanded that Count Eustace should be given up. The king, in this crisis, sought to gain time by negotiation. Mean- while Siward, earl of Northumbria, and Leo- fric, earl of Mercia, who were rivals of God- win, came to the rescue of Edward. The two armies came face to face ; but it was now dis- covered that the fierce animosity so lunt;- existing between the Saxons of the South and the Anglo-Danes of the North had so hr died away that the angry leaders could not precip- itate a battle. Godwin and the king were obliged, by a popular sentiment, to make peace and to refer their difficulties to the Witeuai;riunt f.ii- settlement. But before the time iif till' nil niii.; of that body the tide had so turneil against < imlwiu that he was unable to sustain his cause, and he was banished. Together with his wife and three of his sons, he set sail for Flanders, where he was cor- dially received by Baldwin, count of that province. The princes Harold and Leofwin escaped from the western coast and made their way to Ireland.

Having thus freed himself Irom the presence of the male members of the House of Godwin, the king next turned his auger upon his wife Editha, who, as will be re-

membered, was a daughter of the banished earl. From her Edward took away her es- tates and jewels, and then, when she was completely broken in spirit, conhned her in the monastery of Wherwell.

Thus, for the time, was the Saxon party overthrown and scattered. Eelieved of the presence of his most formidable opponents, Edward gave free rein to his preference for the people and institutions of Normandy. The Norman nobles came over in great numbers, and settled at his court. Even Prince Will- iam, the illegitimate son of Duke Robert, availed himself of the opportunity to tarry for a season with Edward and his friends. Nor is it doubtful that this ambitious aspirant, who was destined to play so important a part in the history of medireval England, was al- ready, on the occasion of his visit, looking to the possibilities of the future. King Edward was childless, and it was said that he was under a sort of monastic vow to remain so. The Norman rage, already prevalent in the upper circles of English politics, pointed even now to a not remote contingency of a Norman dynasty in the island. The Prince William was cousin to the reignini;- kini^-, and the cir- cumstance of his being the son of a tanner's daughter had little weight, so long as he was also the son of the Duke of Normandy. He was received by Edward with every mark of esteem and preference. He was lakru into the private counsels of the kin;:-, and it is hardly to be doubted that then and there it was understood that after Edward's death the crown of England should descend to William.

^Meanwhile, however, the great Earl God- win, now exiled in Flanders, was neither idle nor despairing. In 1052 he got together a powerful fleet and boldly returned to Eng- land. Lauding on the southern coast, he was cordial) v welcomed l)y tlie Saxons, who every- wliere rose in liis tavor. Han.ld and Leofwin returned from Ireland and joined his standard. Presently the earl's fleet sailed up the Thames, and on approaching Loudon was reenforced by many of the men and sliijis of Edward. God- win behaved with niiicli nioika-ation, merely demanding a revocation of the edict of exile against himself and family and a redress of grievances. This the king ol)stinately refused. But tlie crisis in the royal liouseliold soon be-

umvehsal iiiyronY.—THE modebx would.

was that thr Norniai Eihvanl .-u.l,l.-iily b, were the fogs of Lni^ congenial to the elc; Some took refuge ii but the greater jiari

To eo.nplete wha; accomplished, the \\ i

x,

itiou

No

iiagemot assembled aud outlawry against the

the king.

^t of

midst of the banquet, at its height, the earl iv, aud fell dying from IS lie expired, and his ,drd to Prince Harold.

■umstunees now eons])ired to turn aud expectancy of the kiugdom

f Godwin. Siward, the earl of

, died ; his eldest sou, O.sberne, l)atth' with tlie Scots, and the

too iiiiiiiatiii'c to succeed to his

restored to their estates. Queen Editha was taken from the monastery aud brought back in triuni]ih to Ijondou. Only Sweyn, the brig- ami, was cxcIikKmI iVoiu the pardon. Find- ing that the l)lood-staius of his crimes could not be waslied away, the bandit son of God- win made the most of the situation by putting on a pilgrim's garli and walking barefoot to

Jerus:	lem !
By	this c
asain	l.iec:
Godw	u. h<

u the Saxon party in the kingdom, long survive his d a kind of en- e fea-tcd one dav

father's tith's. :McanwhiIe the thoughts of the king were turned more and more from this world to the uext, and he resolved as a meas- ure preparatory to his exit to make a pilgrim- age to Rome. The Witenagemot, seeing their childless king about to depart, recalled his pious thoughts to the foct that no succession had been provided in case of his death. This emergency in the state brought out from long obscurity the Prince Edward Atheling, son of Ednnimi Iron.-idc. and set him f>rth as heir ex]iectant of the crown. Edward was sent for, aud brought with many acclamations to London. Shortly after his arrival, however,

THE AGE OE CHAELEMAGXE.—ALERED AXD HIS SCCVESSOi;.'

he suddenly sickened and died, and the suspi- cion was blown abroad that the means of his taking-oft" was jjoison, and the cause the jeal- ousy of Harold. Be this as it may, the prolj- lem of the succession was reduced to this: whether Har(jl(l, as the representative of the Saxon party but of no blood kinship to the former kings of England, should succeed Ed- ward on the throne, or whether the crnwn, after the demise of Edward, should descend to William of Normandy.

Now are we come to the complications which immediately preceded the estaljlishment of a Norman dynasty in the British Islands. King Edward is said to have made a will in which he bequeathed his crown to Duke Will- iam, his cousin. It is said that this will was executed before the recall of Edward the Atheling. It is said that the nature of this instrument was kept a prMfoimd secret for years, and that Harold remained in ignorance of the scheme which had been concocted to thwart his ambition. It is said, on the other hand, that the king's will was not made until 1065, the year before his death ; and that Harold, instead of being kept in ignorance of its contents, was himself dispatched by the king to reveal the provisions of the instru- ment to Duke William. Certain it is that Prince Harold found his way — whether by accident or design does not appear — to the Norman court ; that he was wrecked at the mouth of the river Somme ; that he was seized by the Count of Pouthieu ; that he was im- prisoned in the castle of Beaurain ; and that he appealed in his distress to Duke William for help. The latter quickly saw his advan- tage. He demanded that Harold should be released and sent to Rouen. In order to secure this result he gave to the Count of Pouthieu a large sum of money and a fine estate. It was not long until he had Harold in his power, but the crafty Norman preferred to gain his end by policy rather than vio- lence. He made kuowu to Harold, who now perceived the extreme peril of his situation, his purpose of claiming the crown of England in accordance with a long-standing pledge made to himself by Edward the Confessor.

Harold was dumfounded and — helpless. He was in the power of his great rival. Will- iara proceeded to extort from his guest a

promise that the hitter would jii-i.ninte his scheme for the assiimiitioii of the i:ii-li.~h crown. He induced the pi'iuee to ju-uuiise that in the event of Edward's death he would aid him in obtaining the kiugdom. Albeit the jn-omise was given with mental reserva- tion ; Ijut what could Harold do, being in the clutches of his rival? To make assurance doubly sure, William eoutrived that Ilamld shoul.l swear to fulfill his pledges. N(,r was either the moral character of the Norman duke or the spirit of the age above resorting t(j a ridiculous suliterfuge in order to give ad- ditinnal sanctity to the oath. A imi'tiug was

his chair of state and the Norman nobles were ranged around according to their rank. When Harold appeared the Duke arose and said, "Ivirl Harohl, I re,,uii-e vou, before this nolile a^MMubly, tn,.,,uhrni, by <.atii, the prom- ises you have made me — to wit: to assist me in obtaining the kingdom of England, after King Edward's death, to marry my daughter Adele, and to send me your sister, that I may give her in marriage to one of mine." The prince had no alternative but to swear. He laid his hand upon the Bible and took the oath, being in evident trejiidation. Then, at a signal from the duke, the cloth which cov- ered a table was jerked aside, and there was revealed a box filled with the bones of saints and martyrs. Over this terrilile heap of oste- ology, the son of Godwin had sworn away his own right to the throne of England !

Prince Harold, thus duped and over- reached, was permitted to depart. He re- turned to England loaded with presents and accompanied by Haco, one of the Saxon nobles whom Godwin had given as a hostage to Edward the Confessor, and by him had been sent for safe keeping to his cousin, Will- iam of Normandy. The other hostage was detained at Eoueu as a guaranty for the ful- fillment of Harold's oath.

On his return to his own country, the English jirince, tlioui;h hunnliated, was re- ceived with honor. He became again the rec- ognized head of the Saxon party, by whom he was openly upheld for the succession. The event was now at hand which was to deter- mine the value of his claims. The childless Edward came to his death-bed. It is said

UXIVERSAL HISTORY'. — THE MODERN WORLD.

that, in hi> l:i>t In presence i<( his imlilt vision of his will \\\ descend to \\'illiai know right woll, iu_\ have bequeathed my Normandy : ami arc have pli,i:lited uatlis rViraiu it Ivinsr kii

cession .' scene the

urs, he renewed in the s and attendants the pro-

which the crown was to 1 of Normandy. " Ye

lords," said he, " tliat I kinL'dom t(i tlie Duke of tlicre nnt tli-sc h.Tc who

to srcurr William's su<-

is said that in the last M named Prince Harold

his successor. Be that as it mav, Edward

died in Jaiiuai-y of loiili, and the question of the sueces:-ion niiKiiueil to be decided by the rival claimant.- to the crown.

We are now in the day -break of the Nor- man conquest of England. That great event will be fully narrated in the succeeding Book. Here for the jinsiiit we pause. The narra- tive will l)i' rt-sumfd at the proper place, be- ginning with the death of Edward the Con- fessor and the consecjueut struggle of Harold and William for the English crown.

584

in hi

UXIVKIISAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

II

li.iiir-, he R'Ucwod in the

vision of hi- will hv whirh thr rn.wu was to ik-(vii.l to William of Nonuan.ly. " V,- kn.nv ri.-ht well, my lonls," .-aid he, "that I have bequeathed my kiugdom to the Duke of Norraaudy ; and are there not those here who have plighted oaths to secure William's suc- cession?" Again it is said that in the last scene the dying king named Prince Harold as his successi^r. Be that as it may, Edward

died in January of 1066, and the (juestion of the succession remained to be decided by the rival claimants to the crown.

We are now in the day-break of the Nor- man conquest of England. That great event will be fully narrated in the succeeding Book. Here for the present we pause. The narra- tive will be resumed at the proper place, be- ginning with the death of Edward the Con- fessor and the consequent struggle of Harold and William fur the Eni'lish crown.

i

I

-***-*^**.**'V'«-

^^

:^.%*

♦S%

*.***

■^iW«i

]3aok 'PourfcEnl^,

The Feudal Ascexdexxt.

CHAPTER LXXX1\\-FEUDALISM PRORER.

BOUT the close of the niutli century the ;<till lialt- barl.iaric society of Wc.-t- em Europe begau t(.i be trausfornii-(l into a iirw couditioii. The moveiueiit was a \> p a r e n 1 1 y retro- grade. The unity which had been attained in several states and kingdoms begau to be broken up, and the peojile seemed to jirefcr a return to tribal indepeudeuee. General goverumeut, in a measure, disappeared, and was replaced by local institutions. Gradually this process went on, now in France and Ger- many, and finally in England, until the whole face of society was changed. By the close of the eleventh century the great governments which had been established by such rulers as Charlemagne and Alfred the Great were seen no longer. But in their stead had risen a multitude of dukedoms, counties, and petty dependencies, dotting the whole face of the country, and bound together — if bonml at all — by ties which had been voluntarily as- sumed and might generally be rennunccd at will. The state of society which thus super-

and which \nx' part of Europe,

•ailed throughout the from the .'iioch of the Carlovingians to the times of the t'rusadcs, is known as the Feudal Sy.-^tk.m, and will now claim our attention.

The social condition wliirh thus presents itself for analysis and review is, perliaps, the most difficult to grasp and uu.l.istaiid. of all the aspects in human history. Wiiy it was that the political power, ^eeuiiiiuly so well established by Charlemagne ami otlurs, should suddenly be loosened in all its bonds and fall back as if into the very chaos from which it had emerged, is a problem which has occupied the attention of the greatest thinkers and per- plexed the pen of history. Certain it is that the fact existed, and that in the times of which we siieak, when all human expectancy would have looked in the ..iher direction and predietid the growth ami development of great stutis out of the energetic materials of barbar- ism, a suilden collapse and decline appeared in the affairs of the AVestern nations, and a sulitle >oeial chemistry, seizing upon the ele- ments of society, resolved them into the prim- itive .omlition. It is the first duty of the

UMVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODKRX UORLD.

• I, II,;

It w: the Fra

Clmrk-iii will 1i;m sulK.nlii

such as these that il to the scepter of persoual

a cnler

[;.s of hi

i.a ;

liiit

' man Itr, 1)11 hn |in U<\ Ix'l hithert	y vir n unk	lyi

rii.ler these feel- character was i)ro- Kiirope. Diirin-

full strength. The miiiratoiy hal.it encour- aged freedom and disci. ura-id a.->..ciatioii. Fixed territorial limits arc miliary to the idea of a state. The- liarljarian- had m. rstali- lished territories. Tlicy were driven t'n.iii their homes by other triljes more savage than themselves. For a while they raged around the borders of the Roman Em])ire, and then burst through. Now it was that \\w necessity of combination was forced upi.n thmn. In order to battle successfully with the liomans they must have union, leadership. Great was the importance which the German kings at- tained by means of ;yar. The tril)cs came t.) understand that safety ami sii.'i-ess hiy in the direction of union and suh.ii-dinatinn. \"ery

less, hdW sullen, how terrible with supiiroseil anger was the German warrior under the re- straints of military command and civil author- ity ! His logic of the situation was that lie wonlil su)1;t the ills of obedience until the enemies ..f liis nation were overthrown, and then he wouhl teach a lesson to thi.>e \\\\,, were despoiling him of his rights. The ncov- ery of his freedom was merely postponed. He looked forward t.. the time wdien he should break the bonds ..I' that galling restraint un- der wdiich necessity had jihiced him, and re- gain the glorious license which his fathers had enjoyed in the forests of ( iennany.

and local independenc tained a fixed resiiK'ni rial boundaries were m of t'harlemagne. The upon each other an.l f

the idea of pers.jnal The barbarians ob-

on tlie soil. Territo- rk.'.l out by th.. sword ti-ibes ceased to jostle migrate fr-.m place to

foreign enemies, this al virtues of barl)a- of less value and im-

but as it related to nt of local fixeduess prerogatives. To the

I, wa> .le-irabl.' in the lit distasteful in the

place. A> it related lact ma.le the yvr: rian dukes and conn portance than hitheri the king, the attain was unfavorable to 1 German chiefs a mon emergencies of war, safety and security of peace.

The first cause, th.ai, of the institution of Feudalism was the revival of the sense of

Frankidi nobles, leading them to claim and achieve local independence of their sovereign. This w'as the beginuiug of the universal break-uj) of political society. The great duke declared his indejMm.h'nce ,.f the king; the count, (d' the duke; the loi-d, of th.' count; the i)etty vassal, of the lord; and so on, until the S(.cial fabric was dissolveil into its elements.

The next general cause of the social disin- tegration of Europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries may be discovered in the relufwm <ti,<l iJnln.ojiliinil hri;,fi wliich hail superseded those of jiaganisni. Christianity everywhere sup]danted the mythology of the North. The monks and jjriests, perceiving that the barba- rians were creatures of sense, converted them by means of shows ami spectacles. The mys- tic concepts of the Ciiristian .system were in- teipieteil literallv to the barbarian imagina- tion, 'Hie figurative sense of the Scriptures was entirely lost upon the pagans who now accepted the new faith for the old. With them the history, prophecy, and ethics of the Biblical record were received as the literal ac- count of tlie things done and to be done in the .-cheme of the salvation of man. All the

FEUDAL ASCENDEXCY.— FEUDALISM FHOFER.

ferocious houesty of the barbarian nature be- came pledged to the absolute fultillment of the law and the jjrophecies.

Among the jirophetic utterances relating to the future, and indeed abi)ve them all, was that ominous prediction whieli fnretnli! ihc eud of the world. The earth and all that therein dwells were to pass away in a catas- trophe of fire. The universe was to be rolled up as a scroll. As soon as the thousand years from the bii-th of Christ should l)e ful- filled, a consuming flame should wraj) the world, and a throne of judgment should lie set in heaven. The Dies Irce, that terrible crisis in the destinies of mankind, should sud- denly flash up through the ashes of nature ; and the cowering ghosts of men, flocking in spectral shoals from the fnir quarters of the burut-up ball, should bow before the in- exorable Judge and receive the everlasting sentence of their doom.

The effect of this prophecy, accepted by the barbarians in all its literal horror, was de- structive of all hope and fatal to all progress. As the end drew nigh, all general interests ceased. Human life became an individual concern. Each must save himself in the hour of catastrophe. The king with his council, the peasant with his flocks, must both alike erelong suffer the pangs of the transform- ing fire.

In the shadow of this awful foreboding the race of man sat dumb. The brilliant activi- ties of former times gave place to dolor and gloom. A belief in the impotence and deca- dence of man became universal. The vision of the old world, glorious afar off", full of great cities, splendid works of art, and march- ing armies, was dimly seen in recollection — a beautiful dream of the delusive past. As for the world which now lay doomed under the curse, it was ready by its sins and crimes for its imminent perdition. These gloomy thoughts sank deeper and deeper into the hearts of the deluded millions, and they sat in dumb despair awaiting the day of fiite.

It was impossible under such a system of belief that any great human interests should flourish. That which the mind of man con- ceives of as real becomes in some sense reality. Mankind have bowed to specters more than they have bowed to facts. In the tenth cen-

tury, all classes of people from the king to the serf were haunted with the iu'iiet' that the w..rld was soon to be destrovrd, and llii.- be- lief acted as a paralysis uj-ou all tli,' m.-rgies and as|iirations of the people. What was the Empire of Charlemagne — so reas.jiinl the monks and fanatics — since the Dirx Jni was at hand? Why should any fabric of human greatness and folly be longer maintained in the shadow of the impending catastrophe? With such a cataclysm just before, the mass- book was better than a constitution, and an asceusion robe more important than the robe of a king.

Added to these general influences were many special circumstances which contril)Uted to the political disintegration of Western Europe. Among the principal of these may be mentioned the personal character of the LATER Carlovixgians. Nearly all of these sovereigns were, as iudividuals, contemptible. With the exception of D'Outremer and two or three others, not a single one of the de- scendants of Charlemagne had the courage and talents requisite in a king, ilost of them were imbeciles and blockheads — a second race of Faineants of the same grade with the Do- nothings of the old Merovingians. One of the Carlovingian neuters was the Simple, and another was the Fat. One was the Stam- merer, another the Child. It was impossible that the old Frankish warriors and their <le- scendants should look with favor upon this degenerate line of royalty, llrre a duke and there a count came to uu(hT,-tand the sinijile lesson that nature makes the great men and society the manikins. That artificial loyalty and absurd devotion to factitious greatue.^s, which had done so much of old to suiqiort the gilded thrones of the East, found no place in the breasts of the nobles of the ^liddle Ages. For a while they hxjked on with dis- dain while the ridiculous farce was enacted, and then turned their backs upon the pageant of the court and .struck for independence. As s<ion as the swords of a few of the bolder lords had cleft a passage tlirnugh the royal harness and freed themselves fi-om the domi- nation of some kingly simpleton, the less courageous were inspired to do the same. Provinces fell away. Counties became inde- pendent. Personal ties, voluntarily assumed.

olio

UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

took the place of iinpo.-ed aulli<irit_v, and goverument gave way to — Femlalism. The Empire of Charlemagne was maile into three, then into four, and then into ?even kingdoms. Each of these in its turn was divided into great fiefs, of which there were in the aggre- gate, at the end of the ninth crntiny, twi-nty- 'uine in France alone, and at the clu.-e of tlie tenth, no fewer than jijtij-Jive! Uver each of these some duke, count, or viscount estab- lished himself in almost independent sover- eignty. He held his own courts, issued his own edicts, and in many instances coined his own money. He sublet his fief to his vassals, and exacted of them taxes, fealty, and hom- age. From the times of Charles the Bald, 877, the greater nobles of France claimed and exercised the right of transmitting their estates to their sons, according to their j)leas- ure. Landed property became the basis of all the dignities of the state. The crown and prerogatives of the king fluctuated between real facts and myths. Though the constitu- tion of the kingdom still gave to the nominal ninnan-li the ritrht t« distribute benefices to his ncrliles, the hereditary principle in the no- ble houses themselves had really i;aiiieil the upper hand, to the extent of sul>>titatiiii:' the law of descent f)r the royal preru'jative. Thus it was that the Femlal system was suli-

The word feu<lal, llius use state of society wliieh prevai from the tenth to the twelfth

England. .1 define the in Europe

era, is derived from the Low Latin /•cilnm. and more remotely from the Cernian word r(V/(, meaning cattle, <ir, more e-ener.ally, goods, money, or property. In other wcjrds, the thing defined was the propnitj system, as contradistinguished from the political system which it supplanted. In its broader .sense, feud- alism was a type of social organization based on the ownership of land. In the nature <jf the ,case the system implied several things:

First, tliat the l:in.Is ,.f tlie state shouLl be concentrated in the liamls of a few :

i^eeondiv, that pnlitieal ri-l.ts >hould be made dependent on land.d ri-ht-: and —

Thinllv, that all pul.lie relation- should be (le.lueed from tlu' i.rivatc relations of those

It will readily be seen from this general outline of tlie system that in its essential na- ture feudalism reversed the old theory of soci ety by putting the Man before the State. Nor will the close connection of the system, historically considered, with the primitive in- stitutions of Germany fail to be noted by any one accustomed to trace out the .sequence of events. The real transformation of the society of ancient Germany into that of ^Medisval Europe reached no further than this — that the political organization from being personal in the former became territorial in the latter. In the language of another, land became the sac- ramental tie of all public relations. The poor man depended on the rich, not as his chosen patron, but as the owner of the laud which he must cultivate, the lord of the court to which he must bring his suit and service, and in war the leader whom he was bound to follow.

It is only by a stretch of language that the word sydem can be applied to the feudal state of Europe. Theoretical writers have been pleased to see in the European king of the eleventh century the suzerain or head of grad- tiated orders ranged around this central figure, and sloping down in all directions until they rested on serfs and peasants. Xor is this view of the situation wholly devoid of truth. But, like so many other tlieories of human affairs, it is constrneted out of imagination rather than out of the facts. True it is that during the jirovalence of feudalism the king was, in gen- eral terms, the suzerain or sovereign of all the nobles of the kingdom. In this sense he was the head (if the system. But the i'eudal seheiiie was niuch more irregular and broken than wliat i> liere iniplie.l. :\Iany of the dukes and nianiuises held their lands in entire independence of the king. Even lords of lower rank sometimes possessed estates for which they paid no tax and did no homage to any superior. In hundreds of instances one duke or count held his lands of another, and it not irif'rec|uently happened that while the nobleman A held certain lands of the nobleman B. the latter also held certain other lands of the nobleman A. At one season of the year A (I'd l:.,nia-e to B as a pledge of the renewal of his fealty and service, and then in like manner would B do homage to A. The king himself held estates in many parts of the king-

FEUDAL ASCENDENCY.— FEUDALISM PROl'ER.

•dom, and these he let to his vassals witlumt much respect to their rank. Lords of low as well as lords of high degree were thus bound directly to the king, so that the supposition of a graduated order ranged around the sov- ereign would be no adequate representation of the fact. In truth, during the prevalence of the feudal system the whole structure of soci- ety was bound and rebound with ties and cross-ties, without either the appearance or in- tention of regularity or systematic gradation.

Tiie conditions on which feudal lands were held in the Middle Ages are well uuderstdod. They were, in general, three in number — homage, taxation, and military service. The act of homage was intended to indicate the submission of a vassal to his lord. It could be received by the lord only, in person. When the relation of dependence was sought or en- forced, fhe person about to become a vassal presented himself to his liege with uncovered head, and prayed that he might be allowed to enter into the feudal relation with him. The request being granted, the vassal took off his sword and spurs, ungirt his belt, knelt before his lord, placed his own two hands in his, and said: "I become your man from this day forth, of life and limb, and will hold faith to you for the lauds I claim to hold of you." The oath of fealty was then administered, and the ceremony of investiture followed. If the homage had been done on the lands received by the vassal, the lord gave to him a haudfid of earth or a stone in token of the transfer of right ; and if the ceremony was performed off the estate referred to, the superior generally gave to the vassal a bit of turf taken from the estate.

As already said, feudal rights were gener- ally liereilitary. On the death of a vassal the estate fell to his eldest sou. But the latter must immediately repau- to the manor and repeat the act of homage done by his father. It was possible for an infant to do homage \i\ jiroxy. But in this instance the act must be repeated as soon as the vassal had reached his majority.

A:^ to the taxes imposed by a suzerain upon his vassal, the same might be <lischarged either in monev or in the ]iriiiliict-; of the estate. In the case of the king ami the greater nobles, money was generally exarteil; fur the

royal chamberlains preferred to purchase pro- visions for the king's household from the me- dieval market. But in the ease of the lords of low degree, who dwell perhaps upon the es- tates cultivated by their vassals and serfs, their suzerains might well choose to accept the an- nual stipend in products of the land. Ever and anon, the peasants and villagers were seen gathering from the fields and handets the tithes belonging to the master and conveying the same in rude carts to the store-house of the baronial castle.

Most of all, however, did vassalage depend upon the condition nf military service. The vassal was solemnly bduml tn rally at the call of his lord, to accompany him in all his en- terprises of war, and to fight his battles to the death. The JNIiddle Age was in some sense a camp as wide as Western Europe. As a rule the peasant must bring from his hamlet the armor and supplies necessary for the cam- paign. Woe to the wight who failed to arm himself for the fray. Sometimes the expedi- tion was long and full of hardships. Gener- ally it was undertaken at the caprice or whim of the suzerain, who, tired of the gluttony of peace, sought instinctively the noble sport of slaughter. What cared the well-fatted king, the duke, the marquis for the butchery of the low-born serfs and cattle whom they drove into the fight? It was enough that some petty sj)ite, engendered of kingly malice, or some bitter jealousy li.uii in tlu' kingly lied, should be propitiated with the liase lilood of serfs.

It can not be doubted that Feudalism was a necessity of the social condition of Europe in the tenth century. The universality of its adoption would of itself be a suflicieut proof that the system sprang naturally and inevit- ably out of the existing condition of political society. With the cessation of barbarism, the feudal principle began to assert itself. It sprang up, as if from the soil. Wherever a given situation was present, there the feudal tenure prevailed more and nmre until the whole social machinery of "\^'estern Europe was conformed to a common tyjie of action. Every existina- institution adojited the feudal i\n-m. Monks hated it. Kin-s dreaded it. Both eiiihvaeed it. Even tlu' Chnivh juit oil her inijierial habit and donnecl the garments

UXIVEIISAL IJISTOBV.— rHE MODERN WOULD.

1.1 iiiniKi.-trrirs ■ (,r-:uiizatin,i .,f tlir lUiiiilv, t

of Feudalism. CailH.lnils aii.l iiiniia.-trri,.

One city iMcamr ilir -u/.n-aiii <if aiinthcr

The king hi.ns.-ir wa- n„ly a r.u.lal Innl ,,f rant, hrav

larger growtii. N"l "nly lamli''! i-tatc-, Imt a> thr Ira

rights, prern-ativcs. |irivih-;j-« tlir >uriili.-i' : the tiinr

fees of the Cluiivli. the n-vcmi<- .l.-riv.-.l fn,„i th.^ ,-nunt

the liaiiti-iiKil rit.-, llie |.i-ivil.--v of ti~iiin- in who in ih

a given river .,r of . iitlin-- w 1 in a -iveii in tli.' roi

forest— all w.mv eoiirclc.l l,y th.' superior to j Latin Ian

the inferior aft.'r the feu.lal manner. The itive n.-a'.:

system took complete possession of society, and | like i)eo|,

household, the ite of a f.iHhil liainn ..f the .Middle A-es. 11.- ua< hini.elf a uarrior. lie was igno- t, hravr, and Lilon..H-ly hrutal. He came he le.-ider of a hand out of tl,,. N,,rlh. At time of hi> appearin.u tlio inhahitants of .-ou.itry were tli-e half-Uonianized Celts, . in the cities and towii^ had wlmjly, an.l he ronntrv di-trita- i.arllv, >uh>titntrd the

■hese one.- war-

constrained every other institution to accept its form, if not its spirit.

Looking more cioseiv Into the social con- dition of Feudal Europe, we find much of in- terest an.l instruction. Mo.lerii times have been and are still hii-Li.ly influenced by c.in- ditious whicli w.-r.- nativ.' to the s.iil of Feu-

dalism. The- faniili feudal in its .■iiara^ the nature of laii.l- states of the "West origin. From these interestiuEr to skete

of Rome, had become tame an.l timid. They were trodden under foot by the mighty war- riors of the German woods. The work of suhjugatioii was quickly and easily accom- pli.-iie.l. A powerful liarbarism sat down with .•ni>hing weight upon the abject Celtic peas- antry of Western Europe.

The leader of this conquering band was now destined to become a feudal lord. He s.'ttl.d in the country which he had con- i|UiiiMJ. He ch.ise f >r himself an estate with a limit iiroporti.inate to his power an.l ambi- th.ii. The inhabitants of these lands— vU-

FEUDAL ASCEXDEyrr.— FEUDALISM PROPEli

lagers, farmers, shei^herds, peasants — cowerfil in terror at the sight of his naked sword. Kesist him, they durst not. He entered and took possession, and it was astonishinir fi si'C the Celtic serfs gathering around him fir yv)- tection ! They huddled around his drea<ll'ul plume, preferring his savage domination to a probable conquest by another still more terri- ble and cruel.

The first work of the inci])ieut baron was to create for himself a permanent residence. To this end he selected some solitary spot, a high hill, an almost inaccessible crag, or de- fensible position by the water side, and there laid the foundations of his castle. With the aid of his companions and the subject peas- ants, he reared the huge walls of stone. The battlements and towers appeared. A deep moat was drawn around, and draw-bridge and portcullis completed what part of the defenses had been omitted by nature. 'Within were capacious and high chambers, finished in im- perishable oak. Within the stone-girt inclos- ure were stables, kennels, and store-houses. Nothing was wanting to complete the isola- tion, solitude, and defensibility of the massive pile in which the warrior chief now took up his abode.

With him into his castle came his family. This consisted, first of all, of his German wife and children. Them he held in all the love and honor of barbaric tenderness. Besides these, there were generally in the baron's household a number of dependent kinsmen — some feeble uncle or indifferent cousin, who had been unable to conquer an estate for himself, and who preferred the safety of hang- ing on, rather than the dangerous glory of in- dependence. The same disposition was shown by many other freemen who chose to associate themselves with the master and to obey his commands in return for a safe abode in his castle. Thus was created about the new baro- nial lord a body of retainers, who constituted a principal element in the feudal society. — Such was the small, isolated family or com- munity which constituted the nucleus of power in the new system which had taken possession of Europe.

At the foot of the hill on which stood the castle of the lord were clustered the village and hamlets of the serfs and peasants. They

drew near to their master as to a rock of stifety. They dreaded him, feared him, re- s[n'eted him, hated him — tor who ever loved a master? They hnd.ll.d to-rth.r and looked up at the height; it wa- iiuirr.sMl,],.. They

, accejited their lot; and thfii lir;;an that weaiy career of toil, servility, and di/spair through

I which the peasantry of Europe has held its suffering way even to the present hour.

At the first there were few ties existent between the master and his servants. Perhaps the first real bond which came to unite thera in interest and feeling was the tie of a com- mon religion. The Christian priest insinuated himself into the new situation. For a while the castle w\ill kept him at bay, and he was obliged to content himself with a residence among the peasants of the village. To them he ministered in holy things. He baptized their children, solemnized their marriages, soothed them in affliction, and ministered consolation at the grave. It was from these benevolent ministrations that the Christian priest of the Middle Ages gained and held so powerful an ascendency over the peasant mind of Europe. But with the baron in the castle the expositor of religion was far less successful. The manners and sentiments of the early feudal family were pagan rather than Christian. It was not to be expected that the baronial chief, who had thrown ofl all restraint, who held his estates in his own rights and contemned even the prerogatives of the king, would patiently give up his soul to the management of a priest. To be sure, the banm became nominally a Christian ; but his instincts, opinions, and manners were not much curbed by the restraints of the faith which he professed. He held the priest aloof or tolerated his interference as a necessary evil. If we look into the sentiments and feelings of the feudal fiimily, we shall observe several traits of marked importance. In the first place, the situation was such as to encourage in the possessor of a fief the idea of his own personal greatness and his vast superiority to those around him. No other condition of man ever so powerfully conduced to engender pride and a sense of personal consequence as did the institution of Feudalism. The baron saw himself lifted vastly above the common herd. He saw himself deferred to, feared,

UXI I -Ki:SA L HIS TOR 1 '. — THE MOIjEUX 1 1 VIILD.

obeyed, ajiproauhed witli awe aud ob;efjuiinis- ness. He appeared to luiustdt' as the source and fountain of authority and honor. His importance was not derived, but inherent. He had conquered his estate with the sword. He had built his castle without permission even of the king. His greatness belonged to himself alone, or, at most, to his family. To his son he looked as his successor, and in- stilled in him the same lessons of hauglity self-assertion which he hilll^clf had learned

was a system in which the chieftain was the i'ather of a family proper, set in an inacessi- ble position above a subject people, between whom and himself (for they were not of the same race) there existed no ties of kinship or friendly feeling and few bonds of common interest.

The situation of the feudal family wa3 such as t(j bring into play and develop the do- mestic and chivalrous sentiment in a measure uneijualed in any other social institution of

Tl L OF niM VDI JWOS IN' TRAXSYLVANI

first in war ami

ds

estate.

As to the feudal family, it was unlike any other pre.seuted in lii.-tory. It was n"t a tribe after the patriarrhic fashion— a gray and venerable sage, father, granrlt'ather, and great- grandfather of the shepherds who gathered around his tents; nor was it a clan after the manner of tlie primitive society of Scotland — a chief livinL' a|i:irl from his followers and pursuing a dilK-nnt life, leading his men in war and commahain- tlicin in peace: but it

tlie

The members of the familv,

com pi u lov(

ilation.

nd h^

]ilai-c(l as they were i: iiiiisf holil each other With each nightfall tlie draw-bri.lge was thnnvn up, and all the housrhold gathered in tlic banqueting-hall and around the baronial hearth. AVine and latighter and song ruled the hours of the gloomy night. There hung the arms of the master and the trophies which he had gathered in war. There the baron's beautiful daughter took part in her bnitlier's irames and listened with them to the

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXCY.— FEUDALISM PROPER

warrior father's epic recital of the deeds done in the fire of his youth. The mother, too, was in the midst of the scene, still strong- limbed and glorious after the battles of many an expedition and the victorious struggles of maternity; It was not strange that Woman here and now became the idol of a nascent civilization, honored, adored, worshiped as she had never been before. The sentiment of Ideal Love gained here an ascendency over the mind of man, and about his life began to be woven those magic cords of chivalrous devo- tion which he has gladly and nobly worn for nearly a thousand years. May many another thousand be added to the past before those strong and tender cords shall be broken and the soul of man, so hardly emerged from the old fenlands and sloughs of lust, be remanded again to the level of brutality and the horrid styes of animalism !

Another circumstance to lie noted in con- nection with the feudal institution was the growth therein of the princii)le of inheritance. The baronial lord naturally liniked around to discover some means or expedient whereby to preserve in its integrity the estate which he had won by the sword. The suggestion of substituting the law of descent for the law of conquest arose naturally in his mind ; and since the division of an estate among several sons would have destroyed the very system which it was intended to conserve, the prin- ciple of primogeniture came in as the inevit- able concomitant of the law of inheritance. The complication arose with respect to the younger sons of the feudal family. AVhat should be done in the case of him who had the misfortune not to be the first-born of the household? The only solution of the diffi- culty seemed to rest in the fact that the younger son, if born to the inheritance of valor and ambition, might go forth and con- quer an estate of his own. The world was wide. Many provinces still lay in the waste of half-savagery. He who would and could, might take and keep a domain of his own. Missing this opportunity of conquest, the only alternative remaining to the younger scion of feudalism was either to win the only daugh- ter of some sonless baron or to become the hanger-on of an elder brother.

As it respected the small community of

serfs, the government of the feudal lord was arliitrary and tyrannical. The peasants were regarded as destitute of rights. All the powers and prerogatives which modern society has delegated to the magistrate were exercised and abused at will by the baronial master. He made the law and executed it. He levied and collected taxes. He inflicted punishment and treated his tenants as slaves.

There was thus established over the peas- antry of Medieval Europe a tyranny the most galling, as it has been the most jsersistent, known in the annals of mankind. The most bitter hardship of the system lay in the fact that the despotism of the feudal baron was jjerfonal. He did not pretend to derive his authority from the consent of the governed. Neither the concession of the king nor the permission of heaven was recognized as a nec- essary antecedent of his authorit}'. He ruled in his own right. It was man over man — the most odious of all the species of tyranny. Hence has arisen and continued throughout Western Europe the deep-seated aversion or positive hatred of the jieasant classes for the system of feudal d(iniinatii)ii. Nor can it well be doubted that the day will come when this aversion of the subject for the ruling classes in European society will result in sub- stituting everywhere the government of rea- son and consent for the government of per- sonal will.

The feudal family, as descrilxMl in the preceding paragraphs, constituted a part of a general society. The face of Europe was dotted with castles. Though the iso- lation of each was complete, the common origin and character nf all produced a like situation on the face of Europe. The people in all parts became divided into lords and vassals. Ties, first of kinship and afterwards of political interest, were gradually estab- lished between the possessors of fiefs. Obli- gations of service and counter-service stretched from castle to castle, fVimi province to prov-l ince, from state to state. The new social con- dition which had ;:r:iiliially nci/.ed out of bar- barism became orLiaiiii-, was ci inverted into a system. True it is that the.-e ties and obliga- tions, mutually ami voluntarily imposed upon each other and their serfs by the feudal lords, never became constitutional, never were de-

594

UXIVKRSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEIiX WOULD.

obeyed, approached with awe and obsequious- ness. He appeared t^ himself as the source and fountain of aulliority and liouor. His importance was nut dn-ivcd, liut inherent. He bad conquered his r,-t;it>' willi tlie sword. He bad built bis castle without permission even of the king. His greatuess belonged to himself alone, or, at most, to bis family. To bis son be li»iked as bis successor, and in- stilled in him the same lessons of haughty self-assertion which he himself bad learned

was a svstem in which the chieftain was the father of a family proper, set in an inacessi- ble ])osition above a subject people, between wlinni and himself (for they were not of the same race) there existed no ties of kinship or friendly feeling and few bonds of common interest.

The situation of the feudal family was sucb as to bring into play and develoj) the do- mestic and chivalrous sentiment in a measure uneipialed in anv cither social institution of

^f4> 1

FEUDAL f'ASTLE OF HUNY

is ba

first in war and afterward estate.

As to the feudal family, it was unlike any other presenteil in history. It was nnt a tribe after the patriarchic fasliiou — a gray and venerable sage, father, grandfather, and great- grandfather of the shepherds who gathered around his tent^; tu>r was it a clan after the manner of the ]iiiniitive society of Scotland — a chief living apart from his followers and pursuing a different life, leading bis men in war and commanding them in peace : but it

the Avorld. The members of the family, ]dared as they were in complete isolation, iiiii.<f biild each other in Live and honor. A\'ith each nightfall the draw-bridge was tlirnwn up, and all the household gathered in the ban(]uetingdiall and around the baronial hearth. Wine and laughter and song ruled the hours of the gloomy night. There bung the arms <if the master and tlie trophies which be liad gathered in war. There the baron's beautiful daughter took part in her brother's games and listened with them to the

»*^*^^*^,„*^"'*4

i'J. I'V.

. ^ i ■ nileJ I;tK tog

■1;, U(ffc

FEUDAL ASCEyDEXCY. —FE UDALISM PR Ol'KR.

wAYVwv fiither's epic recital of the deeds done in the fire of liis youth. The mother, too, ■^\'as in the midst of the scene, still strong- limbed and glorious after the battles of many an expedition and the victorious struggles of maternity.' It was not strange that "Wojiax here and now became the idol of a nascent civilization, honored, adored, worshiped as she had never been before. The sentiment of Ideal Love gained here an ascendency over the mind of man, and about his life began to be woven those magic cords of chivalrous devo- tion which he has gladly and nobly worn for nearly a thousand years. May many another thousand be added to the past before those strong and tender cords shall be broken and the soul of man, so hardly emerged from the old fenlands and sloughs of lust, be remanded again to the level of brutality and the horrid styes of animalism !

Another circumstance to be noted in con- nection with the feudal institution was the growth therein of the principle of inheritance. The baronial lord naturally looked around to discover some means or expedient whereby to preserve in its integrity the estate which he had won by the sword. The suggestion of substituting the law of descent for the law of conquest arose naturally in his mind ; and since the division of an estate among several sons would have destroyed the very system which it was intended to conserve, the prin- ciple of primogeniture came in as the inevit- able concomitant of the law of inheritance. The complication arose with respect to the younger sons of the feudal family. AVhat should be done in the case of him who had the misfortune not to be the first-born of the household? The only solution of the diffi- culty seemed to rest in the fact that the younger son, if born to the inheritance of valor and ambition, might go forth and con- quer an estate of his own. The world was wide. Many provinces still lay in the waste of half-savagery. He who would and could, might take and keep a domain of his own. Missing this opportunity of conquest, the only alternative remaining to the younger scion of feudalism was either to win the only daugh- ter of some sonless baron or to become the hanger-on of an elder brother.

As it respected the small community of

serfs, the government of the feudal lord was arbitrary and tyrannical. The jicasants were regarded as destituti- of rii^his. All tlir powers and prerogatives wliirh iikuKtu sdriety has delegated to the magisti'ate were exercised and alni.sed at will by the baronial master. He maile the law and executed it. He levied and collected taxes. He inflicted punishment and treated his tenants as slaves.

There was thus established over the peas- antry of Mediceval Europe a tyranny the most galling, as it has been the most i:)ersistent, known in the annals of mankind. The most bitter hardship of the system lay in the fact that the despotism of the feudal baron was penonal. He did not pretend to derive his authority from the consent of the governed. Neither the concession of the king nor the permission of heaven was recognized as a nec- essary antecedent of his authority. He ruled in his own right. It wa^; man over man — the most odious of all the species of tyranny. Hence has arisen and continued throughout Western Europe the deep-seated aversion or po.sitive hatred of the peasant classes for the system of feudal domination. Nor can it well be doubted that the day will come when this aversion of the subject for the ruling classes in European society will result in sub- stituting everywhere the government of rea- son and consent for the government of per- sonal will.

The feudal family, as described in the preceding paragrajshs, constituted a part of a general society. The lace of Europe was dotted with castles. Though the iso- lation of each was complete, the common origin and character of all produced a like situation on the face of Europe. The people in all parts became divided into lords and vassals. Ties, first of kinship and afterwards of political interest, were gradually estab- lished between the possessors of fiefs. Obli- gations of service and counter-service stretched from castle to castle, from province to prov-l ince, from state to state. The new social con- dition which had gradually oozed out of bar- barism became organic, was converted into a system. True it i.s that these ties and obliga- tions, mutually and voluntardv imposed upon each other and their serfs by the feudal lords, never became constitutional, never were d&-

^»::*»»A*K«^

UXIVKI;SAL lllSTDRY.^THK MODKUy WOULl)

]5ut

concedeil I.lcas an.l

The- one service, n sprang

The princi the argunii	t\!/t'i!fLTp'r"naM'v!!t''
took the pi	i.-c nl' written statutrs ami inaxi?ii.~
of the cn)\	n.
As it r	■spoctcil the feuilal baron anil his
family, it i	an harilly be denied that this pe-

was the twitter of the adventurous bird in the gray light of the early morning. Albeit the untutored baron and hi.s sons and daughters wist not that in the general destinies of the world they were entertaining the wierd pre- cursor of the mighty banls of the future.

>>'ot s'>, Imwever, res]ieeting the intellectual dovelnpnii-iit of the serfs. To them the sys- tem was worniw 1 and despair. They must

tnil and give to another. They must patiently endure the lirutal treatment and exactions of the lords. They must live without andjition and die without encomium. They must trans-

— ^^^

culiar system which took possession of Europe ■was beneficial — salutary. The character of the lord and his household grew and expanded under the stimulus of the institution which he had created. The baronial castle became the seat of sentiment and affection. Here the wandering luinstrrl, that forlorn, i<lealistic spirit, drifting up and down the ways and byways of half-barbaric Europe, found a resting-place at night. Here he was enter- tained by the amused lord and his household. Here that long-haired harper of the dawn sang tlie first songs and ballads of the new era bv and 1)V to lireak upon the world. It

mit their hard estate to a household of squalid wretches like themselves. They must consent without a murmur to half-starvation of the body and total starvation of the mind. They must accept a life with no tradition except the memory of hardship, with no fruition exce])t the sour lireail of poverty, and with no prospect except a gloomy mass of shadow and cloud out of which shot two tongues of fire, the one in the shape of a sword and the other in the shape of a lash.

The great system which has thus been sketched in outline gained possession of almost the entire social fabric of Western Europe.

FEUDAL ASCESDESLY.— FEUDALISM FKOI'ER.

France became fciulal. As early as the treaty of Verduu in 843 two princes divided tlie Franliisli lands with Charles the Bald. The king of Ai|uitaine t.n.k his p.u'ti.in of the territories, and i\w Duke (if Brittany di.l like- wise. The action of Charles in .STIi, in rvc- ognizing the hereditary rights of his lords, has already been narrated in the preceding Book.' By the end of the ninth century, twenty-nine great fiefs had been established in Carlnviu- gian France, and in the century filhiwiug the number was increased to fifty-five. Dur- ing the tenth century the disruptive tendency in society everywhere displayed itself in full force. The ties between the great dukes and lords on the one side and the king on the other were either greatly weakened or wholly abrogated. But little was wanting to the complete independence of the petty states into which the kingdom was resolved. In process of time the only obligation recognized by the lords and nobles was the insignificant act of fealty performed by them in the pres- ence of a shadowy king.

In Germany, also, the break-up under the successors of Charlemagne lacked little of completeness. Here Feudalism as a system be- came a definite political form, which in some parts has remained with few changes unto the present day. In the first place, Saxony and Bavaria asserted their independence. The Suabian and Saxon dukes became suzer- ains and united the interests of their subjects ■with their own. Feudal government — that graduated system of jurisdiction in which every lord judged, taxed, and commanded the class of persons next below him — was substi- tuted for that legal system which had been established by Charlemagne.

In England there were symptoms of an in- digenous Feudalism as early as the time of Alfred the Great. Under Canute the Great

all Britain was divi.l.d int.. four grrat earl- doms. East Aiiglla was -iven to Thurkill ; Mercia, to Eadri.'; Noitlanuliriii, to Erie; ^^hil(■ \\\-t Saxony was ivmtw.I hv ( 'Mnnte. Whcihrr the sy.<tr,n thus fairly inau-iiratr,l in Danish England would have conif to full flower anil fruitage under the auspices of the Saxons and the Korthmen, can only be dcter- niin(<l by Conjecture. At the tiiiir of the Nonnan CoU(pifst, the institutions of the island were in a semi-feudalized condition. With the coming of William the Conqueror, the native tendencies were suddenly arrested. He introduced into England a great central administration, to which the country had hitherto been a stranger. He took the lands of the kingdom in his own right, and became the lord-paramount of all England. The ad- ministrative functions of the old Saxon and Danish earls were transferred to the sherifis of the king. Vainly did the native Ixirons re- sist the encroachments upon their rights. They were overpowered and jiut down liy the arm of one more powerful than themselves. Norman noliles were insinuated into the places of the expelled Danish and Saxon proprie- tors, and the new order was established, which has remained the basis of land tenure, and, in some sense, of the general constitution of England, to the present day.

Having thus drawn an outline of the feudal system itself — having considered that peculiar institution in its origin, growth, and tendencies, and noted the sentiments and ideas which sprang naturally from the bosom of that society, forecasting, here and there, the influences which the system might be ex- pected to exert on the destinies of modern times — we will now proceed to sketch the social and political progress of the various states of Europe over which Feudalism as- serted its sway.

' See Book Thirteenth, pp. 544, 54."

CSniJ!>,AL Ul.^liiltY. — TUK MoDKUy WOULD.

CHAl-TKK I,XXX\'.-KKIJ1J^I. KlxiAXCE.

)f Franco (lied \Viih him the rl..viugianshe- ixti}i(t. Even be- lls death that ouce ions line of kings had sunk to a level with 111- hi (Kid of Charlemagne no more a.ssL-rletl itself as a living force in the state. For many years the powerful Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the Great, had wielded the power of the kingdom. Louis the Slug- gard was no more than putty in his hands. Now that the puppet king was dead, uow that only a distant collateral and discredited rep- resentative might claim the crown, the issue was squarely made whether Hugh would him- self accept an election to the throne or allow the choice to fall upon another.

As soon as King Lmiis was dead the French nobles assembled at S(.'ulis. The tide of public opinion ran strongly iu the direction of the choice of Hugh Capet. A feeble eflbrt was made by the remaining descendant of the Carlovingians, Duke Charles of Lower Lor- raine, to obtain the royal power for himself; but his claims were treated with contempt. In June of 987 the grandees reassembled at Senlis and proceeded to an election. Count Hugh was jircscnt among them and addressed the assembly. 'l"hc nobles were of one opin- ion as to him who .should be raised to the .seat of Charlemagne. Hugh Capet was unanimously elected, and on the following day was crowned king of the Gauls, the Bretons, the Xormans, the Aquitaiuians, the Goths, the Spaniards, and the Bas(iues. Thus, in the year 987, the Ca- petiau line was substituted for the Carlovin- gian on the throne oi' I'^'anco.

One of the lirst cares of the new king was to estalilish the succession. He proposed to the nobles that to secure the stabilitv of the

lattei

(1 been hat tlie

kingdom hi- with him.selt proposal wa^ cent interva

i;.

be associated

At first the

. In the re-

of the Slusr-

titness in the choice of a king of France. Kow there was a manifest disposition on the part of the supporters of the king to reverse the late rule of action and restore the law of descent. After some debates Duke Robert was solemnly crowned in the basilica of Sainte- Croix, and associated witli his father in the government.

The election of Hugh Capet to the throne of France was the substitution of a feudal kingdom in the place of the constitutional monarchy established by Charlemagne. King Hugh was the greatest feudal chieftain of his times. He was duke of the country called France, and count of the city of Paris. His coronation as king of the French was a public recognition of tile fact that the Lnperialistic claims of the Carlovingians had given i)lace to Feudalism as the essential principle of the state. The very nobles who had elected Hugh to the throne forbare not presently to assert their independence of it. A certain Adelbert, who had participated in the recent royal elec- tion, fell into an altercation with his sover- eign, and hot words passed between them. " "Who made thee Count?" demanded the king of his vassal. And the vassal replied with the equally pertinent question, " T17io made thre KiiKjf The incident is illustrative of the i'act that feudal insubordination had al- ready trimiiplied over monarchical prerogative.

Duke Charles of Lorraine made a spas- modic and inglorious attempt to regain the throne of his fathers. The struggle was vain, liein^;- in the face of fate. A new order had taken ]ii,vsession not only of France, but of all WeMern Lun,].('. In the year 992 the Duke Ch.-ules (lied, and liis family fell into still grealer oliM-uritv tlian i^-er. King Hugh, meanwhile, entered upon his reign with wis- dom and moderation, and the throne was soon stalilished in his House. From the . however, it was evident that the

seen verv

FEUDAL ASCENDENCY.— FEUDAL FRANCE.

incipient struggle was on between the inde- pendent claims of tlie feudal baron and the assertion of kingly authority. It was tlie bo- ginning of a conflict which was to continue for centuries, and which was finally to be de- cided in favor of the crown by the triumiih of Louis XI. over Charles the Bold.

The reign of Hugh Capet was of nine years' duration. He administered the affairs of state wisely and well. He had the advan- tage of continuing the policy which he him- self had instituted during his uncrowned career before the death of the Sluggard. Under his auspices the civilization of France, destined to remain under the direction of his

matters. It hai)pened that Robert and his queen were cousins in the fnurth degree, and this relationship was, acrdi'dinu; to tlie canons of tlie church, an insuperable oli-iacli' to mar- riage. Pope Gregory \'. issued an edict or- dering an immediate divorce under pain of excommunication. But the twain clung to- gether even under the dire anathema of Rome. They remained in the palace, abandoned by their friends, destitute, suffering, starving ; for none durst bring them food or minister to their necessities. The whole kingdom was placed under an Interdict. Still the law of love prevailed in the royal bosom. At length the queen became a mother, but her chUd

^KX^-4-

House for eight hundred years, began to mijve forward with rapid strides, and the kingdom soon surpassed in refinement and culture any other state north of the Alps. In 996 Hugh Capet died, and was quietly suceeedeil bv his son Robert, already king-elect of France.

The new sovereign of the now feudal king- dom entered upon a long, obscure, and in- glorious reign. No regular annals of the period are iu existence, and the partial records which have been preserved are confused and contradictory. In the year before his acces- sion to the throne the king had taken in mar- riage Bertha, the widow of Eudes, count of Chartres, for whom he had long cherished a romantic affection. The Church of Rome, however, was little given to romancing in such

was born dead. Thereupon the monks pro claimed that it was the curse of God upon the kingly pair for their unholy marriage. They circulated the report that the dead child was a niniistnius diinrniity, having no sem- blance ti. tlie ollsprinu of man. Terror now seized \\\»m tlic mind of King Robert, and he consented to divorce the queen. Bertha was sent in her sorrow to a convent, and there passed the remainder of her life as a nun. In abilities and energy Robert, who now received the surname of the Pious, was greatly inferior to Ins father. Hi- luived his way with good intentions, Imt the snperstnie- tnre of his reign was reared of weakness and folly. Tiie king mixed an amiable disposition aiKi kindly designs with foolish miscoucep-

ux]rj:i;sAL iustory.—the modern world.

.1 that

IS tc

■allur ihaii In relieve the H" ill ihe exeirl.se of aii-

-1 i as a lieeuse by the

■li-i"ii> seiitiuients were so ti.-tieil with forms aud cer-

kiiiu-

K,",l,e .She f hadni

if her Liay ami ileliMhtful friends from 1. Their hii-lit div.sses dashed in the the sedate courtiers with whom the surrounded himself. Their free aud laiinors were horrifyiiisi; to the pious l.ut to the .iiieeii all this was life. 1 the palaee with minstrels and trou- She contrived exciting sports and aniu-eiiiiiits, and made the monk-shadowed hall rill.;- with the high glee of jocularity. The despairing king sought refuge with his jiriests. He assisted them in the church serv- ices. He went on lonesome pilgrimages to the shrines of the saints. He sought the com- panionship of filthy beggars, and was in the habit of uwltliiij llwir j'irt as a token of his humility.

The reign .if Knliert the Pious is note- worthy in French history as the time when the lirst Hush of the crusading fever was felt in Western Europe. At the very time when Queen Constance was holding high revel with her tiiiiiliadours in the palace at Paris, and the cli-((iiis(ilate king was wamlering here and there in seairh <if siiiiie liahii fnr his dyspeptic spirit, vague rumors tloated westward and the east wind liegan to whisper the story of out- rage dniie liy the .sacrilegious Saracens at the tomli of Christ. It was said that the holy places of .Jerusalem were defiled by Infidel dugs, win I spiu-Med with the foot of contempt the h.wly Christians of Palestine. It was the pecnliaiity uf this priiiiDiiitdi-y excitement, which, after smouldering for nearly a cen- tury, was destined to wrap all Europe in its flames, that the wrath of the Western Chris- tians was at first directed against the Jews. It was saiil that these people, still hating

Cln-ist and \n< lollnwers, had iustigate.l the (um-a-.'s whiei, had l.r, n committe.l iiv the .Mnhaiiiiiirdaii- ill I'al.-tiiie. They had car- ried on a .seci'et correspondence with the In- fidels of the East, and had suggested the exterminatiim of the Asiatic Christians. Poj)e Sylvester II., though now in his old age, vc'heiiieiitly proi laiiiied the duty of Europe to d.-ti'oy th.' porll.loiis .Jews and proceed

time, however, had not yet come when such an appeal couhl fire tli.-' niullitu.les and fiing them headlong into Asia.

In the year 1002 i;..lMrt became emln-oiled with the iniucs of Bur-undy. Duke Henry of that lu-ovince, uncle of the French king, died aud left no children ; but after his death his step-son Otho came in aud claimed the dukedom. King Robert also laid claim to Burgundy as the nephew of Duke Henry. But the king was not fitted, either by disposi- tion or experience, for a conflict which must be decided by force of arms. He accordingly called in his great vassal, the Duke of Nor- mamly, to aiil him against the Burgundian usuipi^r. The latter in the mean time raised an army, advanced to meet his foe, and took pos.session of the aliliey of 8t. Germain, near the city of Auxerre. 'I'iie army of French and Normans came on from the west, and were aliout to attack the Burgundians at the aljbey when a priest came forth and warned the king not to incur the anger of God liy as- .siuhiiig his earthly samliiary. At that mo- ment a thick mist ai-ose up from the river. It was the spirit of St. Germain himself come from the deeps to reenforce the appeal of his priest!

The pious King Robert could not stand be- fore such an apparition from the unseen world. He and his army turned and fled. The rebel Otho was left master of the situa- tion. In 100.3 the king made a second abor- tive attempt to reduce the Burgundian to sulimission. The cam]iaign ended with as little success as before, and Otho continued to rule tlie province for a period of eleven years. At the end of that time he made a voluntary sulimission to the king, whose vassal he be- came, with the title of Count of Burgundy.

King Roltert held the throne of France until the year lO.Jl. His eldest son Hugh

FEUDAL ASCEyDENCY.— FEUDAL FltAyCE.

«as recognized as his successor, and was crowned as the expectant heir while still a child. But this prince died six years ln'f.jro the death (if iiis father. Eudcs, tli.' Mcond sou of Robert, was an idiot; so Henry, thu third son, was chosen for the succession, though this act was done against the violent opposition of Queen Constance, who desired that the crown should be bestowed upon her favorite, the Prince Robert, youngest of the four brothers. lu the year 10;]1, Kinu' lu.li- ert, being then in his sixtieth yiai' ;nid the thirty-fourth of his reign, was attacketl with a fever while im his return frmu a pilgrimage. He died at the t.)wn <if :Meluu, ami was suc- ceeded by Prince Heney.

No sooner was the new king seated on the thi-one than the partial and implacable queen- mother stirred up a revolt against him. So great was her influence in the court and cap- ital, and so critical became the aspect, that Henry fled from Paris and sinight the protec- tion of Roliert the ^Magnificent, the reigning Duke of Normandy. That country had re- cently been the scene of tumult, intrigue, and crime. The Duke Richard H. had died in 1027, and was succeeded by his son, Richard HI. With him his brother Robert, ambitious to gain the duchy for himself, raised a quar- rel, and the two princes took up arms to decide the controversy. Richard at first gained the advantage, and Robert was besieged in the castle of Falaise. The latter, finding himself pent up, resorted to treachery. Pretending to desire reconciliation, he opened the gates to his brother and invited him and his nobles to a banquet. Thereupon Richard sickened and died, the probable cause being poison.

An accusation was brought against Robert, and he was excommunicated by his brother, Archbishop Manger, of Rouen. Presently afterwards, however, the sentence was re- moved, and he gained the title not only of Duke of Normandy, but also of the Mag- nificent. To him King Henry now appealed as to a protector against the malice of his delightful mother. Robert at once espoused the cause of the royal appellant, marched on Paris, brought the queen-mother to obedience, and shut her up in a convent. There she had leisure to recall the pleasures of youth, and to hear afjain in dreams the thrumming

of mediieval guitars in the hands of her troul)adours.

As a rcwanl fiir service rend.Tod, King Ilriiry gavr t.. his lVi,n<l, Dnkr llol.crt, the pr..viiircs ,.f Pontuisr and (u.ors. These were annexed to Noiiiiamly. At the same time he appeased the anibiiinn of his (jwn brother Robert by l).•slu^viug on him the crown of Burgundy. Shortly afterwards the Duke ^Magnificent discovered an alarming balance ai;ainst his soul in the ledger of conscience, lb' dreamed of the treacherous banquet at Falaisr, and saw his brother's face in the shadows. Fain would he aliaiidou tlie splen- dor which he had s(j foully won, and regain the favor of heaven by a pilgrimage to Jeru- salem. But what of the succession to the dukedom? He had no children save one and he was — illegitimate. Robert had been enam- ored of the daughter of a tanuer ! Feudalism woulil hardly recognize the offspring of so base a union. But Nature had set on the brow of the youth the seal of genius. The father was anxious to have him acknowledged as his successor. At last the reluctant barons consented. They came into the jaresence of the ))astard boy and swore allegiance to him who was presently to become William the Conqueror ! Then the penitent Robert, in pilgrim's garb, wended his way to the holy places of the East, and died in Palestine.

No sooner was Duke William acknowl- edged as the rightful ruler of Normandy than lie began to display the great qualities of am- bition and daring for which he was so greatly distinguished. The Norman nobles became proud of their young suzerain, and the bishops blinked the story of his birth. Meanwhile, King Henry of France, surprised at seeing thus to bud from the bosom of a tanner's daughter a plant which seemed likely to over- shadow the realm, bitterly repented the part which he had taken in favor of Robert and his base-born son. He accordingly conspired with Archbishop ^lau'ji i-, uncle of the aspii-- ing duke, to reverse the oi-iler of events and transfer the Norman duchy to another. But AVilliam was so firmly established in the re- spect and affections of his subjects that the plot against him came to naught. Nature went forth to victory, and legitimacy sat

UXIVERSAL IIISTOHY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

King Il.-iin- (iiTU]ii((l the throne ot" France from lO.jo lo liHin. His rt-ign, on the \vh(jle, was weak, it' not contt'mptiljle. Three times was lie man-ieil. The first two unions were with queens who brought him no chililreu ; but in the tliird marriage he tooli to the pal- ace the Russian princess Anne, daughter of the czar, and by her he had three sons. This third marriage of the king with the daughter of a ro_val House then scarcely known in West- ern Europe was an event the motives of which it would be difficult to discover. But such was the wifely and the queeuly character of the foreign princess thus oddly introduced into the palace of the Capets that all cavil against the king's caprice was quieted. The three sons born to King Henry were Phelip, who suc- ceeded him; Robert, who died in childhood; and Hugh, who became count of Vermandois.

Now it was that the disk of Feudalism grew large and bright. At the same time the sun of royalty waned, as if to its setting. The splendor of the king's court was actually eclipsed by the superior brightness of the courts of many of his vassals. The great counts of Toulouse, Flanders, and Anjou out- shone their king in magnificence, and were fully bis equals in the li.ld. The Count of Champagne and ISlois, iialf-hrother to King Henry, maintained a court in rivalry to that of Paris. He even set up a pretension of royalty, and in Ktt? fought a bloody battle with the Emperor Conrad of Germany. He claimed from that nKJiiarch the territories which bad belonged to Conrad the Pacific ; but the count was slain in liattle, and his claims were thus blown away. The elder of his two sons was permitted to inherit the earl- dom of Champagne, and the younger became Count of Blois.

The reign of King Henry, however undis- tinguished in itself, was a noted epoch for two considerations. The first was the formal effort which was now put forth bv the Romish .Sec to reform the abuses of the Church, and the second was the growth and development of Chttalry. For a long time ecclesiastical af- fairs, especially in France, had been sinking deeper and deeper into confusion and disgrace. The conduct of the Gallic clergy had been such as to cover the cause of religion with re- proach and shame.

It will be remembered that the celibate party had, ill the great struggle of the ninth cen- tury, Won the day over the supporters of a married clergy. For a generation or two the celibate monks rejoiced in their victory ; but by and by they began themselves to be rest- less under the system whicli they had suc- ceeded in enforcing. Many of them broke their vows and left the monasteries. The Cluin-li was greatly scandalized. Other abuses a<lded Xo the disgraces of the organization. Benefices were frequently sold to the highest bidder. Even the Papal crown itself had been so disposed of. The folly of the earthly kingdoms in permitting children and boys to occupy thrones was witnessed also at Rome, where Benedict IX., a stripling but ten years of age was raised to the seat of St. Peter. The more serious and sincere ecclesiastics felt keenly the shame consequent upon these cor- ruptions. The cry of reform was raised. The conscience of Germany was deeply stirred at the existing condition of affairs. In the year 1049 the celebrated Bruno was chosen Pope, under the auspices of Henry III. The new dignitary was a man of sanctity and learning. Under the name of Leo IX. he undertook a renovation of the Church. He passed over into France, and convened a great council at Rlieims. Here the prelates of the kingdom were summoned, and a more rigorous enforce- ment of the canonical and moral law was made against those who had been guilty of cirme.

As a further measure of reform in the Church, St. Bruno instituted the order of Carthusian monks, the same being a branch of the Benedictines, already established. A wild and solitary spot near the city of Greno- ble, in the department of La Chartreuse, was chosen as the site of the first monastery. The observances of the new order were austere and penitential in the last degree. Nor was it long until the Carthusians gained a reputation for benevolence and sanctity above that of any contemporary establishment. Their mon- asteries soon appeared in various parts of France, Germany, and England. One branch of the brotherhood was established in the Thermre of Diocletian at Rome. Great was the industry displayed by the shorn brothers of Chartreuse in the works peculiar to the monastic life.

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXCY.— FEUDAL FEAXCE.

Another feature of the religious history of these times was the spread of various heresies. The doctrines of the Church were denied or assailed by many of the clergy. Persecutions for opinion's sake were already frequent. Sects of fanatics, anxious by some extraordi- nary method and discipline of life to merit the special favor of heaven, arose in diti'erent parts of the country. Of these, the cliarac- teristics were some almost intolerable form of penance, or unusual rigor of restraint upon the natural appetites. It was the peculiar tenet of one of the heretical sects to fast to the last extreme, with total abstinence from all animal food. Under this severe self-denial the devotees of the community were presently wasted until they were more like wan specters than men of tlesli and blood. To be so re- duced in body was iv-anlfd as the hi-liest evidence of sani'tity, and tin- liaL:-:;ard visaye was thought to br tlu' only cnuutenance wurthy the name of Clnisiian.

Turning from tlu-i' pi'culiar aspects of the religious history nt' the ilcventh century, we note the rise of (_'iu\ alkv. This institution, like Feudalism, of which it was a concomitant development, grew naturally out of the social condition of Western Europe. As early as the days of Tacitus the sentiment of honor was noticeable as a characteristic of German life. Under a system where the man was every thing and the state was little it was nec- essary to the very existence of tribal society that truth and devotion should prevail ovur the intriguing and treacherous spirit. In such a state trust was an antecedent of actiim.

When the Frankish trilies gained possession of Gaul, and, giving (ivrr the wandering life, fixed their residence on the soil, they began almost from the very first to cultivate those sentiments which they had come to regard as the best traits of German character. When the Frankish youths were first presented with the weapons which they were to wear in man- hood, they were made to take an oath that they would be brave, valiant, and honorable soldiers. Even in those early times the worst stigma which could be affixed to the tribal name was a dishonorable act on the part of its chief. Such were the fundamental facts upon which the chivalrous institutions of the Middle Ages were founded.

In the beginning of the eleventh century, Frankish society having then taken ou a definite form and Feudalism liavinL' become the basis of the state, the Chiuvh discdvered in the chivalrous sentimeius i,{' ihe Franks the means of giving a new impulse i„ relig- ion. Many of the pious imliles wlm had been actual warriors by profession were induced to become ideal soidi.rs of the Cross. They consecrateil their >words to the cause of vir- tue, truth, and religion. Th.-y took upon them vows to defend the iiinoeeiit ami uphold the weak. They became the sworn foes of oppression, the enemies of wrong-doing where- ever and whenever found. The old warlike impulses thus found a vent, and the restless energies of the barbarian character, still pres- ent in the descendants of the Teutones, flowed in a newer and broader eluinml. Just at the time when the couseiou>ue-s of ^Vestern Eu- rojio was reviving t'rom its long, Ijarbaric sleep, just at the time when tlie human imag- ination began to paint an aureole about the gross head of the feudal chieftain. Chivalry came with its refinement of thought and gen- erosity of action to add new radiance to the morning of civilization.

The noble principles and high ideals which thus began to gain an aseemleney in mediceval society soon became organii' in an institution. An Order of Knighthood was established as the conservator of the new heroism of nascent Europe. Laws and reijuhitions were adopted and a discipline establi-hed for the better de- velopment of chivalrous sentiments and the jii-oper ilireetion of kni-htl\' ardor. The order <ipened its portals to none but men of noble birth. The vulgar [.easautry was absolutely excluded. What dreams of iieroism and gen- erosity, of honor, virtue, and truth, of the rescue of the helpless and the defense of the weak, could agitate the unimaginative brains of ignoble serfs ? So reasoned and queried the suzerain, the royal warrior, the baronial lord and his aspiring sons, riding forth td tournament or going abroad in search of heroic and adventurous excitement.

The ceremonial of knighthood was in- teresting and elaborate. The aspirant to knightly honors, after a period of probation, came at length to the day when he was to be admitted among the noble order. The candi-

(M

UXIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODKUX WORLD.

■arffully l.atht-.l, in onk-r that u.seoted pure bei'ore the luinis- the wa.'^hiug he was clothed iu over which iu a kiter part of .-a.s phiceil a crimsou vest. Fi- enca.~ed iu a eoat-of-mail.

(htte wa,- first

hr nii-ht lie p

trauts. After

a white tunie,

the ceremouy

nally lie wa;

His waist \va< Imuiitl with a lielt. Spurs v.i-re

affixed to his l.nnt- and a sw.ird -iit at his

side. Tiie various jiart.- of hLs dre« aud

armor had a speculative siguificance as well

as an actual use. The white tunic was syra-

hnliral ..f the new life which the kniiiht "had

vowr.l to loud. The rr,l vest, syiuhol of

blood, indicated that his business ' was war.

Hi:, armor, which was of a sable hue, was to

nobh- Ilou~i- woic put for pre]iaratory di.sci-

lessons of the master, imbibing his courtly manners aud emulating his chivalrous deeds. The sentiment of heroic adventure became the one absorbing passion of Feudal Europe, aud the armor of the returning knight, coming home victoriou.s over the enemies of truth and chastity, was regarded as the most Ikju- orable emblem of the age.

Xor should failure here be made to men- tion the part which woman naturally assumed under the chivalric Tvijime which now jire- vailed instead of the barbaric rule of the iiast.

A KIXG GOING TO TOrUNAMEXT.
remind him of th,. blarkne.s of death. His	She wa< the ra.liaiit and adored goddess of the
1)elt signified that he was girt with cha-tity.	chivalrous ai;e. To her, in some sort, the
aud his spurs that he should fly to the res-	whole system was directed. Weaker than
cue of the innocent. When the ceremony of	man, her protection, from being an instinc-
clothing the initiate was completed, he knelt	tive simtiment, became the open and avowed
before the olficiatiiiL:- kni-ht, who there-	duty of till' kni'jht. Religion said that the
upon struok him a bh.w on the shoulder with	kni-ht ,-lioiild 1.1- true to God; humanity,
the side of his .word, and exclaimed : "In the	that III' should 1.1- true to woman. The times
name of (iod, St. .Mi.h:i.-1, and St. George, I	wire >till full of violence. Lawless passions
dub thee kni',:ht. !'.'• brave, bold, and loyal.	still >oiii:lit to be -ratified at the expense of
Rise, Sirl" For Sir wa< the knightly title.	virtue, unable to defend itself against the
Great was tlir popularity immediately at-	stroll-. The feudal situation was such as to
tained by the chivahoiis orders. The one	eneoura'je the .sentiment of ennobling love.
overmasteriuL' aiiibillon of the noble youth of	Wo/nau was Mclmled from base familiarity.
Europe was to !„■ admitted to knighthood.	She -rew up in the ca>ile liall.^. The baron's
To this eml the x.n- of the feudal lords were	dauuliter was rarely seen abroad. From her
carefully bred and traiiiod. The scions of the	fatlurV castle to the ca.-tle of her pos>il.le

FEUDAL ASCE^DE^■CY.~FEUDAL FHAXCE.

lover was tlie space of fifty, iierliaps a hun- dred, miles. It was hill country, dark wddds, and deep rivers — hills without a roadway, woods infested with brigands and robljers, and rivers without a l^ridge. Her lover niu>t come to her at peril nf his life. She had never seen him : he had never seen her. They had only dreamr.l and imagined each other's loyalty and devotidn. Their fatliei-s, ])erhaps, were friends — old-time conijianidns in the perils and hardslups of war. Perhaps

lling the reigns to a II and shining armor, if her father's castle.

It was tiie beginning of that great romance whirl, for a thousand years has been the <lreani of the human heart, gilding the gloom

with the

The institu lished in the I

nd adorning the coarseness of life

auty and tenderness of ideal love.

■ eliivalry, thus estab-

ig of the'elevnth een-

hrouuhout the western

KNIGHTS'-ERRANT.

they were enemies! May be between them yawned a chasm which had been rent open Ijy the deadly feuds of a hundred years. The young baron saw the divinity of his life afar. He must blow his bugle outside of the moat. The warder must announce a stranger and let down the drawbridge if he was welcome. Uji must be flung the portcullis, and in must ride the aspiring lover, wIkj would lain lielmld and worship the goddess of his dreams. Meanwhile she, after the manner of her sex, looked down into the court from her high and narrow window and saw hint dismount from

part of Europe. Knightl	ood in France be-
came the dominant aspe(	t of society. In a
short time a class of eh	impious known as
knights-errant became jire	•alciit. and the rep-
resentatives of this Ordei	nn;jlil be seen in
almost every jiai't of the <	ountry. In Sjiain
the buMness ,,f the knidi	\\a- more serious
an.l Ies> ideal. There tli.	.Moors were to be
eoniVonted. There the b.	nni r of the Cross
was to be lifted against tli	It ot' the Crescent.
There in a tlmusand priv	ite encounters and
deadly p.i-onal battle>	he metal of the
Christian sword was to be	tested against that

f,()(

UXIVEHSAL HISTOIiV. — TJIE MOHKUX WORLD.

of thr M..liainmc(l:in. It thus luippcued that the sentiment of hatred and contempt of Infi- dels prevailed over noLler motives in the chivaliy of 8]jain. Of all the countries of Eun.p.', iii>ular and piarii.-al Kn-lan.l was least favorahl.. tn tlir nr.pii.-n of knighth.M.l. The kni-htly Kraii.-h of the military service

were those -mrilv vi.imaii aj-cliers, whose Ioult

bows of \>	w w.r	.-o t,	rril.le	to the enemy.
In the suc(	cediii,:;-	Honk	the i	iHuence of the
chivalrous tioii as on	)nl.a-s V • of tl	vill a,- e l,a.	ill- 1	uand our attcii- upulses of the
Crusa.l.'s.	It \Ta	in tl	t.sc ni	irvelous move-
ments of K	iro,„. I	, Ih.. ]	:a-t tl	at the knightly
spirit of th	■ Wr-t	found	it^ l.r	ad(/st and most

congenial fuM ui' aiiivity.

AftiT lii> drath in the year 1060, King Henry was >uc(ccdrd (ui the throne of France by his son I'hilip I. This prince was a mere child, licing luit seven years of age at the time of his accession. The late king had taken the piceautinn tn appoint as regent Earl Baldwin of Flanders duriu- the minoritv of Philip. In lOi;; the protecuor died, and the young king was lei't to his own resources and responsiliiliiies.

The domestic relations of the new prince were no more fortuuati' than those of his father. Two years after the death of the regent, I'hilip took in man-iage the Princess Bertha, daughter of tlu' ('ount of Holland. Sis years afterwards she liroiight to her lord a son, who was destined to succeed him with the title of Louis the Fat. After twenty years of married life, th<' king made the convenient discovery that he and the (pieen were within the prohiliiied .legreesof kinship. He there- fore put her away liy di\orce, and she went into lianishnient at .Montivuil-sur-Mer. Nor was it long uulil tlie ua^u re of the king's con- scientious scruples Were amply revealed. He had conceived a violent passion for the beauti- ful Bertrade, fourth wife of his vassal, the Count of Anjou.

But no sooner was Queen Bertha disposed of thaii the king .set out for Tours, made known his so-called love for Bertrade, who presently left her eonsoi-t and joined her al- leged lover at Orleans. The bishops and priests were jiroperly shocke(l at these proceed- ings on the part ot' their sovereign. Scarcely

coidd the king <liscover one of the clergv suf- ficiently bold and unscrupulous to perform the marriage ceremouy. The whole Church of France was up in arms against it. The Pope jiromptly joined his authority with that of the (iailicaii lii.-hops who refu.sed to recognize the validity of the union. Then followed a des- jierate struggle between papal and kingly prerogative. One excommunication after an- other ua< launched at the heads of the king au,l ids t'ew adherents, hut all t.. n.. avail. He kept hi> ipu-en and mocked at the Ploly Fatliei's auilioiitv. Philip's spirit rose with the persecution against him. The priests re- fused to jjerform religious services in any town where he was sojourning, and when he dejiarted from a town the bells rang a peal of joy lor his departure. Thereupon he was ac- customed to say with a laugh to her who was the cause of the insult, "Dost hear, my love, how they are ringing tis out?"

This social disturliance in the king's house soon di>tracted the afiairs of the wdiole realm. The kingdom was [uit under an interdict by the Pope. For twelve years France lay smitten with the awful displeasure of the Holy See. Isot until the First Crusade had drawn the attention of both Church and king to the more serious question of expelling the Infidels from Palestine did Philip finally yield to the dictation of the Church. In the year 1104, in a great convocation of the bishops at Paris, the king went humbly before the body, confessed his sin, renounced his wife, and promised to expiate his crime with meek and penitential works. In like manner, Bertrade yielded to the inevitalile and took the oath of reniini-iation and future obedience. Kever- theless, it is more than probable that both king and queen, in abjuring their past lives, swore falsely even on the Gospel. A short time afterwards the audacious twain were liv- ing as before, and jniblicly journeying to- gether from place to place in the kingdom.

It appears, however, that King Philip was not wholly engrossed with his vices. In the early part of his reign he drew his sword in a war with Robert, duke of Friesland, who had seized tq».ii the duchy of Holland. But the event soon showed that the king of the French was by 110 ini'ans a match for Count Robert and his ni>rtliern warriors. A peace was ac-

FEUDAL ASCEXDESiJ v.— FEUDAL FRANCE.

(j(t

cordingly made, on terms altogether favorable to the Duke of Frieslaud. Eobert stipulated that the young king should accept in marriage his daughter Eertha. Fur she was that Bertha ■who has already been mentioned as the first wife of Philip.

It was already llir daybreak of the Cru- sades. The r^.a.'h'r «ill readily recall that part of the narrative in tlie Second Bcxik <<{' the present Yulunic «licrciu an account is given of the more friendly relations which were gradually estaldished between the Chris- tians and Mohammedans in the East. iSor is it likely that the old Hames of auinidsity would have burst out anew if the mild-man- nered Saracens of the East had remained in possession of the Holy Sepulcher. It was needed that the prejudice of race should be added to the prejuilice of relic;iiin before the ancient fires could be rekindlrd. But this missing condition necessary to wrap all Eti- rope in a conflagration was presently supplied in the conquest of Palestine by the Seljukian Turks. In the latt.r part of the eleventh century these li.Tcc barbarians, themselves the followers of the Pr(ii)lict, but a very dif- ferent people from the refined and philosophi- cal Arabs who controlled the destinies of Islam in the South and the West, gained jios- sessiou of the city '<{' .brusalrui, and lugaii a career of violence an<l persecution which was almost as repugnant to the Saracens as to the Christians themselves. What should be said of the despicable wntciics who, without com- punction or fear, (•nn\-.it( d the churches of the city of David and <-'hri-t into cow-houses and stables?

The news of what was done in Palestine created the grralc.-t iuibunatinu and ra'jr. The Christian piLrini-, who r-raprd iVoni the

nous Christian stat

up.Mi, them to rally t.. the

])eriled Cross, ileanwliil

Eun.pe, calling luudly rd of the im- laiii IVter, a

atrt

ties

spread the stnry ,,r tlie sirrih--inu,- rnm,- by Turks „„ the f .lluwei- ,,;■ Chri-t. It be remeiuliered that at tlii- jnnetui-e of: the Empire of Constantinople tieiabh-d base. The menaeini:- Tniks were even at the threshold. Th.' I'.mi.eror ^liehael distrusting his own ability to >ave the < Empire from destruetiou, sent a hurriet bassy to Pope Gregory VII., implorin aid against the common enemy. The Father thereupon dispatched letters to tl

VII.

Holv

devout monk of Picardy, hail made a jiilgrim- age to Jerusalem. There ln' had been mal- treateil and abused according to the manner of the conscienceless Turks. The monk saw with indignati(_>u and sliaiue hi.- enuntry-

tbe .-anie manner as liiiiixll'. (ioin- to the Chri-tlaii ]iatriarch of .lenisdeni, he laid be- fav him the ..t<.i-y of his wn.n-s. But the liatriarch was unable t(j redics- lii> ;:iievances. He told Peter, moreover, that the < ut'ek Em- peror was as impotent as biiiis(.lf to protect the pilgrims from the fury of the malignant Turks. The monk thereupon returned to Italy and flung himself before the successor of St. Peter, beseeching him to rally aU Christendom against the defileis of the tomb of Christ.

Meanwliile the Cbureh of the West was rent with a violent schism. In ION-s (iregory VII. was succeeded on the i)apal throne by a Benedictine monk named Otho de Lagny, who took the title of Urban II. But Henry I\'., Emperor of Germany, refused to recog- nize him, and put up Clement HI. as anti- l)ope. The latter was presently expelled by the Komans, and be and Henry were excom- municated by Urban. In KHH the Emperor marched an army to IJoine, restored the anti- pope, and obliged the Pope to fly into Apulia. Two years later, however, Urlian regained the pajial crown, and in 109.5 called a great coun- cil at Piaeeuza. There were present at the assemlily two linndreil bishops, three thousand

men. AVIiile this -ivat eonvoeation was busy with the atiair- ..1' the ( huivli ambassadors arrived lioin Alexin- Conineiius, Emperor of the Ea-t, who joined hi. voiee with that of Peter of Pieardv in implorin- the aid ..f West- ern Europe against the Turk-. Erban lent a willih'j ear to the appeal, and called upon the ('liri-lian princes to draw their- sw ords against the Iniidels. The agitation spread everyw-here. The eouncil of Piacenza adjourned, and the bi.diops returned to their several countries, fired with the risin- spirit of crusaders. Be- fore tile eiiil of the same year — namelv, in Xovember of l();t.5— Po,,e Urban II. Jailed

auutlier great ci vergue, ami tlx-i taken tor tlic rc> the Turk.-.— ILi

UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX WORLD.

uiicil at C'K'rinnnt, in Au- feudal history nf France to sketch the course

I" the tir>t toniial step was of events in tlif surroumlin-- states before en-

■uc of iIr- Ilnly Land from teriiiL' ujion the lii.-tory .if that tumultuous

i\ then, we ijause in the movement called the Crusades.

CHARTER LXXXX^I.— Ff:udai. Gerxianv.

___g^^	jgjJ^TTg^g'
	m-^t^^^rm
	^^m
	%^^
	S

)th

That distin-ui.-hed sovcrci-n was suc-ccdcd on the throne liy his sou Otho II., surnamed the Red. The prince who thus came into the kiuglr and Imperial dignity was at the time of his accession but seventeen years of a-e. It was the first fate of his reign to fall under the regency of his mother, Adelheid, who exhibited great altilities during the minority of her son. But Theo- •phania, the wife of (Jtho, became inflamed ■with jealousy on account of the asecndiMicy of her mother-in-law, and the latter was tuvM.ntly obliged to descend from her preeminence and retire into Burgunily.

In the first years of the reign ..f Oth-.. the Emperor's cousin, Henry of Bavaria, headed a revolutionary movement against the crown, with a view of .securing the independence of his o^vu state. The revolt made considerable progress, and Henry was crowned at Eatis- bon ; but the tide pre-ently turned agaiu.st him, and in '.>7<'i lie wa- overthrown in battle. The ambitious |iuriio-c ot' the barbai-ians was brought to naneht, and tliey hail the clunirin to see their country united with the province of Sualna states, ert century,

\\\

his union of the two (Tcrman I the last quarter of the tenth d the foundations of the mod- ern kin-ilom and em|iiiv of Austria.

The next complicntion demanding the at- tention of Otho nro-e ,,n the frontier of Bo- hemia and Denmark. With both of the.se states he went to uar and wa- so successful as

father. But while the Emiieror's energies

provin. and th which

found ([uiet While

It wa-

hus ali-orlieil in the Xorth-east, Lo- kine- of France, seized the favoring niity to po.-.~ess himself of the lower •e of Lorraine. In the suiumer of succecileil in capturing Aix-la-Chapelle us established himself in the aucieut of L'harlemague. Great was the wrath these events excited throughout Ger- An army of ^ixty thousand men was and Otho, turnine- upon the Franks, :hem back more rapidly than they had The Emperor pursued the retreating re to Paris and besieged him in his own Then it \\as that the German army, led (in Moiitmartre, performed an ex- pic-ce of bravado by bellowing the litany in the ears of the Parisians.' I WAV ot' two years' duration, a personal ew was had lietween Otho and Lothaire, ( ir difficulties were settled l\y the res- n of Lorraine to Germany. ■ next troulile in which the Empire was •d was on the side of Italy. The Eter- ly had for some time been the scene of I and confu-ion. In the year 891 Otho it necessary to go to Rome in order to the disturl)ances in the government, engaged in this duty he had personal ews with Courad, duke of Burgundy, le great count, Hugh Capet of France. Hither, the ex-empre-ss Adelheid, also im at I'avia, and the two were recon- At this time the coasts of Italy were 1 by both the Greeks and the Saracens, nece-sary for Otho. in virtue of his Im- title, to defend the ."^outh agaiu.st the s of her enemies. Notwithstanding the animosities existing between the Greeks le Saracens, an alliance was made be- them for the purjiose of resisting the

FEUDAL ASCEXDJ:XrV.~FEUDAL GEEMAXV.

Germau Eniperor. For uue year a (le^ultury war was carried on between the belligeri'Ut.s nf Italy ; but in the summer of 982, a .Liivat and decisive battle was fought on the coast of fa- laln-ia. The army of Otho was utterly roiit.d bv the Saracens, and he hiniself only escaped destruction by flinging liiui.-elf into the sea and swiniuiiug to a ship. The vessel was found to be a galley of the Greeks, but Otho induced the captain to put him ashore at Kos- sano, where he was joined by the Empress. Thence the Iniperinr pair niado their ,.>,'apc into Northern Italy, and in the fnllouin- yrar 0th.) summoned the Diet of the Empire to meet him at \'erona.

The call was obeyed with alacrity. The princes assembled from most of the states of Western Europe, and the Diet was the most imposing deliberativi' lioily which had been convened for centniiis. The kings of Hun- gary and Bohemia sat -ide hy >ide with the dukes of Saxony, France, and Bavaria. One of the first duties devolving on the assembly was the establishment of the succession. The choice fell naturally on the p]m]X'rm-'s son, then a child but three years of age, after- wards to be known as Otho III. Great prep- arations were then made for prosecuting the war with the Saracens. The national spirit of the tiermans was thiiri)ughly aroused, and the energies of the Empire were bent to the destrni'tiou of the ALjhammedau buccaneers in the ^b.Mliterranean. But before the prepa- rations tor the conflict could be completed the Emperor Otho fell siek and died, being then in the tweiity-ei-lith year of his age and the tenth of his ivi-n.

The n,ini<lers at Aix-la-( 'hap.'lle ^vere .m- g.age,l in the eon.nati.iu of Otii., HI.— f..lh>w- ing in that matter the decree of the Diet at Verona — at the time when the news came of his father's death. The establishment of a regency became an immediate necessity, and a violent dispute arose lietween the queen- mother, Theopbaina, and the ([iteen-grand- mother, Adelheid, as to whiih should have the guardianship of tin- Inipeiial scion. Duke Henry of Bavaria al-o came forward, and claimed the regency, being actnate<] thereto by the ill-di.sguised motive of obtaining the crown for himself. The German princes, however, were not at all disposed to favor

this ambitious project, and the vision of the aspiring Henry was soon reduced to his own dukedom of Bavaria. The regency went to Adelhei.l and Theophania, the latter •■x.'rcis-

many. and the former doin^ likewi,-c in Italy. In b.-th cmntries the^. roval w.nnen wielded their authority with prudence and su.ress. After eight year> Thenphania died, and the now aged Adellieid beeaUK' >ole regent of the

bia, IJavana, and Tuscany as niemlHT> of her cnuncil, ,W continued for three v.-ars

rea.-liin,L: tlie a-e of sixteen, took into his own hand- the rein- of government.

In tiii- period ,.f thirteen years since the death of OtliM II. the Empire was almost con- stantly m.naeed willi «ar. The Wends in Brandenlmr- again re\oli.,,l and fell upon the German settlements beyond the Ellie. Nor, for the time, was any effective aid rendered by the Impi-rial army to the people of this exposed fi-ontier. The ."^axons themselves, however, i)r(iyed equal to the emergency, and the AVendish revolt was suppressed after a severe and bloody struggle. Nor were the relations of the Empire on the side of France mure peaceable than in the Northeast. Though open hostilities were not resorted to, the sentiment of war in-evailed during the whole minority of Otho III. This was the epoch in French history when the House of Charlemagne was in the ,-low agonies of ex- ate' line, was setting up his feeble and ridicu- lous claim to the crown of the kingdom, whih' the great Hugh Capet was quietly tak- in- to himself the royal dignity, with the ample consent of the imbles and jicople of Fran.'e.

Ijittle was the (German Empire benefited

ered but virtuon- hand of Adelheid to that of/ her facile and capricious -random. Though the educatiun of Otho III. had by no means been neijlected, his instruction had been Cireek rather than German. Like many another up-tart stripling, he preferred his for- eign to hi< native culture. He att'ected to be — and iierhaps was — a-shamed of his Saxon

CSIVEL'SAL insTOUY.—THK MoDEUN WOULD.

lineage, and was fnol cimu-li i^i >tylr him a Greek hy l,irth au.l a ];..iiiaii l.y ri-li rule. AllH.it Km littj.- - 1 luiJn i..- .x- .

]KTt.d to flow iVnu, til.- ln,|Mlial M-,;,I.r uhilr (

aii.l al.Mii'.l ill hi- n.xal n,aiii,rn-iii-.

hi acei.rilanrr witli lii- tii.nry ,,f n-,-ar.liii- . himself as a llmiian ralhii- than a < m iiiiaii Juii-

peror, v(uiii-< n\\>> iiia.h-all >|.ic.l tn tli.- Ktenial (

Citv t.i ivr.iv.- hi- .rMUli at llir haii.l- ..f thr i

Holy Fatli.T. Th.- papal rhair ua- at that :

ciaii. It Ava- lirl.l liy the people that he prartire.l tlu' Jihek Art an.l was the ^-rvaut ..f his lua-lrr. the Jl. vil. Alivaily w.iv .lis- eovnahh- tlir ,-viiiptoi,,- of an ojithnak l.e- twoiai tlu- ealii.->pinl,il. beiuvolrat fouiidfrs ol' >ric'iiee ami the iL:iioraiit zral of liiiioted ,-iv,lulity.

For tliiv,. y,,,i- Otho III. reniaiiieil in y, o.TupyiiiM hi- time with the reli.L--- Maiit- of thr rity and eultivatiilL;- the tarn-,- of thi- eol..i,riti.- of the niuivh.

dolni X\'l.. uliom In A. ]1

(iirmaiiv.

0th. certa

:le with

lit, th.- J'rii,.-,-s ,Mat

the .-itv. Th.- I'.,p.-, how.-v.-r, . Emp.-ror wa< . ,/ r„ntr i„t,, lialv ter fouii.l it m-,-e>>arv f. .-r.-at.- 1 b

h.-.l with One of

.r.-at. .r ; the setting up of an iii.h-jH-mh-ut Cluir.-h 1) y ajipuintiiig to the papa.-y his ,-,,usiu Ihiiii.., the Poles. These ])euph-, uml,-r the h-ad o' "ho took the seat ..f St. I'.-tor with the title the Archlnshop of :\Iagdehur,-, ileniamled an.

of Gr.--ory V. Bv him Otho was erowii.-.l

few day.- after his' arrival in the eity. How, i their dioeese fr.

in.h-.-.l,' ,-oul.l the P..p.- .1.. ..th.-rwise', wh.-n he ' .-om-<-ssi,,ns mail

him-,-lf ha.l 1..-.-U rai-.-.l up f -r that e-pe.-i

duty -.'

It .-.M,n app.-an-.l that th,- l'..pe ha.l ll ■ l.ar-aiii. \Vli,-ii th.- .-.-i-.-m.a

p of .Magdehuri:, .ieinaiuled and

tained from the Emperor the sejiaration of

the Empire. The

1 this resiieet wore

worst

manv an.l ii ■ (;ermaii K ]'..lan<l wa. Diii-ing tin-

lUtl

the

kin-de

of coronation wa- (l.)n.-, an.l (IiIhi from Italy, ('r,-.-.-ntiii< r..-.- a-aiii-t tli.- I'..p.- expelled him IVom p.i\v.-i-, an.l >.t up a n.-w creature of his own. < hi airiviiiL:- in (.o-rnian\ Otho fu.n.l that the W.-n.ls of rni-ia w.-n

fronti.-r ha.l h.-.-n l.n.k.-n in l.y th.- Dam-s

aflairs, thi- h.mp.-r.ir !. ft his ..wn defend hers.-lt' a-ain-t h.-r .-n.-ini.--,

.1 : P,.l,-s.

n- of Otho with the from the principal

ree:

liu.-iness in han.l t.i mak.- a pilgrimage to the l.imh of St. A.lalli.rt at Prague. Afterwards he nia.le a j..urm.-y t.. Aixda-Cha]ielh-, and thi-re gratiti.-d hi- iie.rliiil fan.-y l.y i-ntering th.- M-i)tilcliei- of ('haih-niat:n.-. It ^va.- one of the dreams ..f Otli.. that h.- ,-lioul.l li.-,-ome n ..f I the rest.n-er <.f th.- Poinan Kmpir.- ..f the ■y t.. ' W.-t. That, t..... ha.l l.een th.- ,l.-lu.-ive i-tilv vi-i..ii whi.-h flitt.-.l li.-f.,r.- the fan.-y .if the - ..f -i-.-at.-st (_arl..viiiuian. Xow the O.-rmau

wa- of- 1 .lurali..!.. II.- .li.-l in <i!i'.i. v

his phi.-.- was tak.-n hy C-rlH-rt ..f ilh.-ii wdi.iiii Otho n.,w lai-.-il t.. the paj-al .-lu with the till.- of S\lv.-t.-r II.

The 11,-w pontiir ha.l l..-,-n the teaeh.-r

the Einpi-ror in l».vh I, an.l wa- gn-atlv

teem,-.l lor lii< l.-aniin-. th..Ui:li not at all his pi.-tv. In.l..-.l. th,- P..p.-'.- -.-iMilar-hip,

sain for him the ha.l fam.- ..f liein- a im

- W..U1.1 -p.-ak 1.. him an.l t.-a.-h him h.JW

- ..l.j.-.-t mi-ht 1..- a.-.-ompli-h.-.l.

It wa- 11. ,t h.nu until th.- e..ii.liti..ii of af- 1- in Italy a-.:aiii .l.nian.l.-.l th.- ].r,-.-.-iiee of

- l-aii|i.-i'oi'. Sylv.-st.r was n.it nnieh more i.lly n.-.-iv.-.l liv th.- j;..man> than had l.eeu ■ pn-.l.-.-.-M.r. A >tron- part v of the Italiean

la-t two P..|,.-. In th.- y.-ar K peror returned to Rome ami e.-

Em- .1 his

FEUDAL ASCENDENCY.— FEUDAL CERMANY.

court on the Aventioe. But his presence \vas illy brooked by the insurgent joeople. jMoved partly by his unpleasant surroundings and partly l)y euiiosity, Othn ^lippid (.ut nf tlic city by night and made a vi.il to W-inr,. On his return to Home, huwever, he found the gates closed against him. Enraged at this inhospitahle reception, he gathereil a i'urce and began a siege of the city. But before he could make any impression upon the defenses he sickened and died, being at that time in the sixth year of his reign and the tumty- third of his age. His body was takiii in charge by his followers, who cut ihrir way through the Roman insurgents, boic thrir lifeless burden across the Alps, and buried it in the royal tomb at Aixda-( 'hapille.

In the following year, A. 1). I0(i:;, Sylves- ter II. died, and the j)apal seat was seized upon by the counts of Tuseuhun. By them an ef- fort was now made to apply the hereditary principle to the ILily See, and to establi>li a papal succession in their own family. One of the counts, then a youth but -eveuteeu vear.s of age, was raised to the pontitieal dijuity with the title of John XVIL, and in the course of the following nine years he was suc- ceeded by three others as immature as him- self. Thus, whUe the Imperial crown of Germany, so ably ami houoialily worn by Otho the Great, descended to a iiiutastie strip- ling incapable of any great and serious enter- prise, the papal tiara in like manner declined from the In-oad brow of Leo VII. to rest on

tents, John XVllI. and Sergius IV. Su.'h was the waning and eclipse of the magnitieent dream of Charlemagne to reestablish the an- cient empire in state and Church.

At the death of (Jtho III. the Imp.Tial crown was claimed liy three of the (it.rman princes. The choice fell at length upon the late Emperor's cousin, Duke Henry of Bava- ria, great grandson of Henry the Fowler. The eleetiou of this prince was .seriously op- posed by the dukes of Saxony, Suabia, and Lorraine; and foi- a season the Empire was threatened with disruption. But in due time the refractory electors subndtted, and the authority of Henry was recognized throughmit Germany. Not • so, however, in the South. The disposition to resard Italy as a separate

the Italians were quick to perceive the ditt;- eiiee bitween a jiowerful S(jvereign like ( )ll the (.reat and the present wearer of the Ii. p.-rial en.wu.

Durin- the greater part of hi- rei., Hkxky 11. was vexe.l with the ,-om|,licaii, of his atlldrs south of the Alps. But a mo lu-e-Hn. d.iuaud wa^ u.ade upon the mibtai

Boledan, tl

si(,ns of the I'ol, -. F

imi Duke of Poland, a brave and warlike ]irince, undertoiik to unite Bohemia and all the Slavonic omntrie- eastward of the Elbe into an indcpendi'nt kiuudoiii. The(iermau tei-ritori.> in thi- region were thus about to be wrote.l away troui the parent state and abs.irbed in a loreign dominion. The first sixteen years of Henry 11. 's rei-u were almo.st wdiolly consumed in warfare with the Poles. One blooily campaign after another was waged, until at la-t, in infs, [.race wa- concluded by the acceptance of a depindeiit relation on the part of IVjland. But to compensate for this hundjle position as a tributary of the ( Jerman Empire, the Saxon ]irovine<' of Meissen was forced into a like relation of dependence upon the Polish .luehy.

While these events had been in progress bey. .ml the Elbe the "Wends had again revolted and obtained the mastery of Northern Prussia. In that region the authority of the Empire was overthrown an.l pa-ani-m i>tal.li>hed on the ruins (.f the (hur.h. In the mean time Anluin, duke of Ivr.a, ha.l ..nee m<.re in- du.-e.l th.' Lombards t.. thn.w ..If th.ir alle- giance. Indep,qi,hn.v wa- .l.'clar.Ml an.l the ,luk.' wa- ch..Mm kiiiL:. A- .arlv as KHHi ll..nrv II. wa. ..bli-..l f. l.a.l an arniv aen.ss

Italy. ]'r..cee.lingaLiain-t I'avia he lai.l si.-e to that eitv. which wa- [.resently taken and b\irned. li.licxinii th.' iii>urrectiou at an end the king r.-turn..l int., ( iermany. But no s..oner were th,' Al|.s b.^tw..,,, him an<! Ar- duin than the lalt.a- a-ain .-am.' t.. the fr.mt as the lea.l.^r ..f th.' r.-v..luti..n. Pope Bene- ,li.-t VHP. tlie thinl .,r th.' Imv i-.mtitls of th,' Tu-.nlau dyua-ty, wa- s,, har.l ].ressed by the insni-gents that he II.mI t.. < Germany, and besought Henry t.. ai.l him in recovering the chair of St. Peter. In KJlo the king con-

UXIVEESAL HISTORY.— THE MOD ERX WORLD.

tn.uhkMl wi of the Em] intesration

IJu.loliih III.

r.n

IS til

trni.lie the Bui-ni,.liaiis unit to annirs of Heiiiy II. inaivh..,! iTq re^^ciK' aud tlie cnuntry was com^ two arduou.s caniiiaii:iis.

Tlie vai- lOl'O was si-naliz.-.l l,v the .k-di- ,-ati..,i nf th.. -ivat ,-uth,-dral nf P.an.hr,-. Ul,nutliis,<tni<tiiivth,.I-:i„iH-rni-l,ad for many year.* lavisheil his treasure. The Pujie made a journey from Rome iu order to be present and direct the ceremonie.s of eouseeratiou. His Holiness avaik'd liiniself of the opportu- nities iif tlie ((ei'Miaii court a>i:ain to implore tlie mterterenee ..f Henry in the afliiirs of Italy. The southern part nf that cnuntry was now overrun and held hv the Creeks." The citv of Capua had l.cii taken hv them, and culd not he l-eCMVelvd l.v the Italians. The

Einpena	he,-	itated	no	to ivs|	mil to the call.
In the t	.Ih	win-	yea	r he le	I a large army
acni>> th	. Alps a	id .	\p( lied the Greeks from
the Wllnl the eoa-	■ 1'	■iiin-i	la.	except . The	a few iilaces on campaign, how-
ever, wa	- al	iii'-t ;	. d	-astrous	to the German.s
as t(. tl		neni\	XV	,o„l th	V defeated. A
pestileiic	■ lu	nke '(	nt.	an.l th(	army of Henry
was well	ni-	1 de.	r( i\	■d hefoi	■ it could e.scape
from the	cm	ntry.
The 1	cm:	iniui:	thi	ee years	of the reign of
the Em	lier	a- Hi	nr\	were .>	pent iu settling
the atili	i-s	.f (n	nil	uiv. 0	1 every side the

ro.jativc was a^sailed hy the dukes < Mni — lin- attir the manner of I- to I.eeonie independent of their

ill., develoi.nient of a feeling of

\\a~ thu^ eoLinterchecked by the

if local imlepiudeuce. In spite of

ous etlbrts of Henry H. he was

witness the constant disintegration lire. The spirit of the times had so nee the d.'atli of Otho the Creat

ce to cheek the forces of localism h.' state in on.'. In the year 1024 or (lieil and was liurieil iu his cathe- anihei-. With him expired the

nnt to make of I'd to his exit he j lis niphew, who 1 -ning Emperor. | 1 pass under the vent this catas- t to war. The I rapidly to the

with Conra.l L iu KLS.

It thus became necessary for the German nobles to elect a new sovereign iu the place of Henry II. For this ])urpo.se a great assem- bly was held on the Idiine, near the city of Mayen.e. Thi~ had now become the border line betw,...n the (nrnians and th.' Franks. About sixty thou>aiid peiMins came to the assembly. Two great camps were formed, the one on the eastern, the other on the west- ern bank of the river. The candi<lates for the Inqniial crown were two eou.dns, both named <.'oiirad, and both .-iipported by a pow- erful following. At l.aigth, after hve days of discussion not unmixed with intrigue, the choice fell on Cuni:ai> nv SuAiiiA, the elder and more jiopular of the candidates, and he at once received the crown iu the cathedral of !\rayence. The election had turned largely up.ai the thet. that Conra.l was a man of givat abilities, an.l that h.' ha.l marrie.l the Priuce.ss Ciisela of Suabia. By her — for she was already experienced iu the matter of gov- ernment— the new Emperor was greatly aided iu conducting the afliiirs of state. Nor was any serious ojipositiou mauifested to the as- sumption of royal power by one so worthy to wield the scepter.

It was the ]ieculiarity of mediaeval times that a .•han-e of .Ivnasty generally furnished the oiN'a>ion f.ir th.> revolt of malcontent peoples. The accession of Conrad II. prove.l to be no exception to the rule. First of all, the Lom- barils threw off the German yoke. Tliey fell U]i.pii the city of Pavia and destroyed the Im- rierial iialace. At the same time Rudolph of

Burgundy,	whii, a	< will l.r	rciiu'i	ull.Ti'	1, l.ad	Dmin- t
desigiifd t'	-ivo	his kin-.	1111 to	ll._-n	■y II..	Italv. an ah
now chaiii' of Coma.l.	.1 Ills 1 lu 1	liii.l and .land, al	rcsisiL u, Ki	1 tlu. 1- J!	.■hums .K-laii	sui.,.i-v...i„.d i of Sual.ia,
aniuill.Ml tl	i_: uxi<t	nu' tn-at^	• and	rrl'u,-.	d any	.-taiidanl of i

FEUDAL ASCEyDESry.— FEUDAL CERMASY. ci;!

..■n.T of the Eini.oi-or in eonditi.ni nf allair^ had many. Diikr Knu -i II., 1 of Coni-ad, i-ai-rd the nd iaid.daiiu to ih.^ itowu

longer to reeognize the tributary relation irt' ot ihir-inidy. On n-arhin- die [latenial kiug-

tlie kingdom. Ju.~t at the time, howeviT. ilom ih,' i;ni[i(ioi- inaivhi.d against the insur-

■wheu the Emiare .-^eemed to totter, the Polish gents, difcated Imih.-i and threw him into

kin- dird, aii.l u-hile his .-ons were enga.ge.l ill pri-oii. Th,- [.rayt-rs of (iis.da, tlie reliel

a violent qiian-el ahout the sueeessiou C'oiirad ' juiner's mother, at leii-th prevailed to ,-eeure

foiuid opportunity to ree.stabli.sh his .sover- him hi- lii.eiation. P.nt he faile.l to k.'ei>

eignty over the eountry. In Buivuudy al-o faith with the eiuwn. united himself with

the ehildless Rudolph III. was pre.sentlyoidige.l j C'ount Werne,- ,,f Kyi, nig, heeame an outlaw

to yield to the h.gic of events and aekuowl- . in the Black For. -i, an.l was -.,.m afteiwar.l.s

e.l-e C.inra.l as his .succes.sor. With Canute [ killed in a hattl.' with tlu' Impeiial ti.i.,ps.

the Gri'at .if England the Eniper.ir iiia.le a ' Sueli. howev.r, ha. I lieen the daring career

treaty hv which the Eider was e-taWidie.! as which th.' ivl,elli.,ns prin.-e lual run that he

his h.iun.lary on the side of D.mniaik. lu'ea a popular her... ami his e.xphiits were

Ilaviii- thus ..fil.ete.l a .-.■itl.-m.iit ..f the s,u,^. i„ the l.alla.ls an.l n.-io'-l in the tradi-

atihirs imnh ..f the Alps, C.nra.l n.'Xt turim.l ti.ais ,,f a st.iryd.iviii- |...ople. Duke Ernest

hi.s attention to the in.-uriivnt L..ml.anls. He , was th.- l;.,l.in II 1 ,,l' ( ;. i-niany.

led an army acn— the in.uiiuains, an.l early d"li.' atlhiis .,f P..laii.l, aft.'r an cp.i.di of

iu 1026 enten-d the valley of the I'.i. Fin.l- ' torl.nl.ne.. sulis...p,ent t.. ilie d.^atli of Boles-

ing Pavia in the hands of the rebels, the king Ian, at l.ii-th fell i.> a ealm. The Poles

proceeded to Milan, where he received, at the ajaiii a~~.rte.l their iml.'p.-n.lem'.' of the (ier-

hands of the nobles, the iron crown of Lorn- man cr.iwii. an.l C -a.l inva.le.l the cmntry

bar.lv. In the curse of a sin-Ie v.^ar all t., iv. -tabliMi his antlnaitv. But the expe.li- Xorthern Italy yielde.l t.. his sway. In the ti.m en.l..l in .lisaster. The Imp.aial army following spring he continued his course to , was utt.iiy .l.feate.l ami f.in.'ed ba. k t'l the Eorae, where he was welcomed by Pope John river P^lb.'. By this time a war ha.l broken XIX., one of the Tusculan pontiffs, being (uit betw.en Cmiit Albeit of Austria and now but twelve years of age. At the hands | Kin- .'^i.ph. n ..f llnn-ary. dli.' latt.a' ha.l of this sage father of the Holy See, Conrad re- : su.'.'e.-.le.l in induein- hi- p.-., pie t.. aban.l.m ceived the golden crown of Empire. Canute [ jiaganisni, and ha.l hini.-elf, in the year lil(ll), of England and Rudolph of Burgundy were ; been baptized by Pop.' Sylvester II.; but his present on the occasion, which was signalized I piety, which afterwar.ls gaine.l tbr him the by the betrothal of (lunhil.le, .lau-hter of appellati..n of ,S„;»(, ,li,l n..t .sive him fr.mi Canute, to Prince Henry, s..n .,f th.' Emper.,r. the lu-t ..f war. Count Albert app.'aled In the mean time the a.lvcnturiius X.irmans t.i th.' Emper.ir f,r ai.l, ami th.' Iliinga- had ma.le their way into Southern Italy, an.! , riaus w.'iv ..bli-.'.l t.. cmseiit t., a treaty had there succeede.l in expelling from the of p. a..' dietat..! I\v the c.iii.pierors. A set- country the Greeks an.l the Saracens. After | tlement bavin- b.'eii r.'a.'h.'.l ..n th.' Danubian their manner they t.>ok p..-s,,,.-ion fu- them- '■ frontier. C.nra.l loiin.l opportunity to renew selves, and a new Xorinamly was about to be the war with th." l'..les. In tlii>, als.., he was

necessarv t.. -tr.t.lV ..ut the Iiuiii'rial s.-epl.-r to the hhiipii'.'. In ln:;i' i;n.|.,lph of Bur-

towar.ls' th.' :\Ie.lit.'rram'an. But th.' N.a-- , -umlv fullill.'.l th.' pr i-.. whi.'h he ha.l

man,-, th..u-h tliev r.-a.lilv a,s-uni.'.l th.' r.'la- iii.-i.l.- bv -,'ii.lin- his ,.,'..wn an.l se.'pter t.. the

ti..ii ..f va-sals t..'tli.' .'n.wn, r.'fu-ed t.i leave ' Emp.-nn-. 1 1.'r.'iip..n, Cmnt O.bi -.f Cham-

the pn.vin.'.'s whi.'h th.'y had conquered. ! i-a-ne, wh., as th.' n.'xt r.lativ.' t.. Ku.h.lph,

Thus .li.l the 1.1, ,.,.1 .,f the northern races : claim, ',1 the ,lii.'hv .,f P.ui -mi.ly, an.l rais.'.l a

assert itself as tar as the strait of -Alessina. ' rev,, It in the .southern part of that province.

LWIVEIiSAL lU^iTORY.—THE MUJJEHy WORLD.

'"7£w '^wm:"zi

FE UDAL A^L KM) EM ' } '. —FE UDAL G EUM. 1 .N' 1 '.

The insurrectiou was of sufficient imiMii-tunce to demaud the presence of an Inipei-ial army. But Count Odo was overthrown, and Courad was crowned king of Buru-undy. Thus, in the early part of the eleventh century was the valley of the Pdioue, inehnlin'j- aKout the Jialf of Switzerland, incurpdratrd with the Kiiipire. The imiou, however, extended no further than the establishment of a political bond, and not to the institutions, language, and social cus- toms of the Burgundians, who continued as they had been, essentially French.

In Italy a movement was now lieu'un which in its result was one of the most iiiiporiaiit in the Middle Ages. The Imiierial sway ..ver the Italian peoples was nominal rathci- than real. It aflbrded but little protection to suri- ety and had in itself no element of staMlity. In order to continue, it had t" be constantly reestablished by force. To lie sui'e, the jiapal power never failed to uphold the author- ity of the Emperors ; for by this means the Popes were in turn enabled in every time of need to call forth the secular sword in defense of their interests.

Many of the Italian nobles and patriots, however, perceived the hollowness of tiiis ta(;- titious system of government. A few of the bolder spirits grew restless under a fjreign domination which claimed every thing and gave nothing. Chief among these brave spirits was Heribert, archlii-hop of ^Milan. In the year 1037 he induced the people of his city to throw oft' the Imperial yoke and assert their independence. The insurrection was organized under the leadership of Heri- bert, who staked all on the ca.-t of the die. He was deposed by the Emperor and excom- municated by the Pope. But he detied them both, and prepared the defense of I\lilau. The fortifications of the city were so strengthened that Conrad's army was obliged to desist from the siege, and the virtual independence of Milan was achieved. Such was the beL'inniug of that movement which, in the foll(Jwing century, led to the emancipation of the cities and the establishment of the petty but vigor- ous Republics of the jNIiddle Ages.

The career of Conrad II. was already drawing to a close. Two years after the re- volt of Milan he died at the city of Utrecht, and was succeeded by his son Henry III.

Tlie latter, now twenty-three years of a-e, was a ].rinee of the hi-hest lu■oIlli^.^ In tal-

emin.ait, and the condition of ihr haupin' at the time of his aeee-ion wa- sneh as to fur- nish a fair opportuiiitv foi- ihe .li-phiy of his abilities. In (_i<a-many Proper th.iv was a general peace. The Bohemians and HunL;:a- rians, however, again rose against I he crown and attempted to gain their inde|ieii(leuee. In two arihious canipaii^ns lleiiiy o\( rthicw the armies of the insuri^vnt slate- and le- stored his authority. Duke CuHmir, of P,- hiiid, an,l INt.a-, kin- .,f Ilun-aiv, were both eompeUed to aekuowh.l-e th,-ir'.h'pend- ence upon the Impeiial eiown. The Kus-ian Czar attempted to ally hi> fortunes with those of the Empire, lie otHavd his .laii-hier to Henry after the death of (,>tm.ai (iunhilde, but the jiriucess was deeliued liy the Emiieror

second queen.

A cursory view of the social condition of Germany in the midide of the eleventh cen- tury would reveal a -looiuy au<l forliidding prospect. The resoui-ees of the state were waste.l in almost eoutiuiial warfare. F..now- ing hard after this fact stalked ever the -pec- ters of pestilence and faiuine. The ministers of the state and the dignitai-ies ol' the Church were, for the most part, iiiuoi'aut, mereenary, corrupt. The general a.Iministratiou of the Church, under the auspices of the hoy Popes of Tusculum, had sunk to the lo\M>t le\el. The prostitution of the Italian cK i-y to the fiasest of motives and jirai'tii'cs had led to a similar defilement throughout all ( 'hri>tendom. The year A. D. l(H»(i ha.l passed uiihout the fiery catastrophe, and the End of the World seemetl to be indefinitely jMstponed. Reiicting from the abject despair of the preceding ceu- turv, the leaders of the ai;v lailiavd upon a career of defiance and .aiminal l.rava.l..; ami though the End of the World was no longer to be dreaded, the End of Humanity seemed nigh at han.l. Disappointed superstition sub- stituted the gulf of depravity for the abyss of fear.

It will not have escaped the atteiitiim of any careful student of history that the human race has in itself in the last hour of it> despair the jiower of sudden recovery. Just

f,ic, UMVEIISAL HISTORY.— THE MoDKHX WOULD.

at the time when tlie la t eiiilieis of hopi' are [ l)ut with h',-> -ueee- tiiaii ha.l atteuded their

exiiirin- in tlie a>he. nf l,itlenir,-~ an.l ,i:l..,,ni, etinrts in .■.unl.atin- the niereil.>v method:- of

a sudden hree/.e, a< if l.lowr, up fr.mi ih.- |.a- war. Il.-nr.v HI. a-aiu hut hi^ aid in the ef-

vilion of the uu~.Mii wnild, L.urh.s thr d\inu f.,rl at refunu. lie took pain,- t.) favor the

(■<K[\<. i<indles tliiiu iutn a fe, lile j. i, li,.- jrt appi liht ui. u I . .f .-ui'ii pi'ie,-t,~ ( lU Iv a> wcre morai

into a llaiue, the llaui.^ iulu a e..ulla,- nil inu. and inl.lli:;(-ut. He iutei'fered iu the atliiir.s

The el.-.'ll cif r.'vival .-uerr.ds lh,> ep.M'h nf ,,f the Holy S.e. Three rival IVjieS Were at

ill.un.'d with new am- tliis time eonteiidin- f ir th.- .-eat of St. Pet

bition, Ix'-ins a-aiii the eonliileiit battle.-^ of Kaeh of the.~e iiad exc>.mmuni<'ated tlie other

existence. tu.., to.jither with tlieir foljowei-. There was

In the mid.<t of thi> violent and pestilential - 1 iea>ou why the Emperor .-hould cross

century, the tiisi throb (.f oiu- of tlio.- ivvivaU the Alp- aud attiiiipt the ivMituiioii of order of humaidtv was f-lt in Snuthern Kurop,. aud .he,. uey iu the papal state. Aeeordin-ly, The .,eea>ion ior the ivaetion a-aiust lli.' in KldC, Henry mado his uay iuto Loud.ar.ly, crimi aud .le.-pair of tli.- a-e \va- fouuil in the aud theiie.' to the ohl Ktrusraii eity of .Sutri, seaudalou- eorruptiou of tiie Chiireh, ;ind tlio wheiv a -reat svuod \va> luld to consider and tir>t movement of ivlorm had the same (ui-iu re.oneile the diltieultie> of the Church. It with the abuse which d.miauded it. Tin- was voted that all three of the alleged P..pcs Bur-uiKlian monks of Cluuv, led bv th.lr ab- .houl.l be deposed, an.l that th.- tiara sh.mhl b..l, (Mil... b.-an 1.. inv.i-h a-ain-t tic- vi-.- b.' pla.M.l ..u th.- h.-a.l ..f th.- llish.,p of Bam- of th.' lim.-, .-.-^p.-.-iallv a-ain>t the r.-m..rMl.-,-s b.-r- Thi- cli..i.-i-, h.nvev.-r. .-.. evi.lently m.-lli...ls .if ui.-.lia-val warfare. Tli.-y pro- . lua.l.- ..ut of ileference t.. th.- Emperor, was claim. -<1 a .l..-ma whi.-h b.-.-auu- kimwn' a> the v.iy .li>tasteful to th.- real ri-f.irmers, aud the Tl;f.i: <n- <i..ii, by w!ii.-h all .-..lubats, wh.-th.-r .lldik.- ior Cl.-m.-nt H.— tor su<-h was the title j.ubli.- ..r privat.-, «.-ie f.rbi.l.l.-n fn.in th.- of th.- m-w ],..utitl— wa. -r.-atly iu.-r.-as.-d ev.-idn- .d'.-a.-h W.-.lues.lay utitil the m..rniu- wh.-n th.- H..ly Eath.-r, «u th.- .-am,- <h,v ..f his .,f th.- lolhiwin- .M. .11. lav. ' Th.- lar,-.-i- part ..f own .-..r.inati.>n, ctmferred tin- Inip.-rial cn.wn th.- w.-.-k wa- tliu- ab-oliit.lv ivM-rv.-.l f..r th.- .ai H.-ury. The growing republi. -an sjiirit ..f duti.-s ..f p,-a.-.-. I'rivat.- f.u.ls an.l publi.- Italy was vexed and oft^nd.-.l bv thi< ill-.-ou- battles were .s.. imp,-.l..l by th.- p.-rp.-tual n- .-.-ah-.l bai-.:aiu stru.-k by th.- l'..pe an.l the curreuce of th.- tni.-.- that th.- liatil.-.l spirit ..f laup.-r.ir in th.- v.-ry .-.-ut.-r ..f th.- refoi-matory retaliation an.l n-v,-u-.- .-..ul.l har.lly any m.iv.-m.-ut. Tlu- lenip..rary ba.-ks.-t ,-ivcn to l,mii.-r b.- -ratifi.-.l. Th.- n. w .l.i.-trim- was th.- w..rk actcl as a .-timulu,- t.. the .h-mo- re.-.-iv..l with ,-r.at favr. The nmid^s wlc. crati.- spirit alr.a.ly rife iu V.ni.-.- an.l -Alilaii. ha.l ..ri-inat.-.l th.- iu.-a>ur,- b.-.ame ku..wu as It ua- at tlii> tim.- that th.- Italican clergy till- ('om;i'.-gati..n .d' Cliiiiv, an. I many pi. .us an.l p.-oph-. wh.. ha.l liitli.-il.. bi-en an actual ec.-l.sia.-tii-s in ililf-r.-nt an.l di-tant part^ tii.lor in th.- el.-.-ti.m .if th.- ]'.>pes, were re- s.m-ht t.i j.)in tli.-iii~.-lv.-< with th.- p.ac.-fiil maml.-.l t.. th.- ba.-kgr-.uu.l. Tin- riglit of br..lh.-rli..o.'l. N..t a f.-w..f th.- >.-.-ular prin.-.-s , .-h..i.-.- fell int.. the hau.ls of the bi.di.ips, anil iavore.l the ben.-li.-.ut m.-a-iir.-, au.l tin- Eau- th.-y, r.-c.-iviiii; th.-ir :ippointm.-ut fr..ni the peror Il.-nry III. .-all.-.l a .li.t ..f th.- ( n-ruian Emp.-r..r, w.-n- c.-rtaiu to loll,,w his lea.l and n..bl.-s f.r 'the ,-xpr.-.. purp..-e .if eiddr.-iu- jin-f.-r.-u.-.- iu th.- >.l.-.-ti..u ..f a p.intitl'. Be- th.- .,b-.-rvau.-.- ..f the tru.-.-. | tw.-.-n th.- y.-ar> 11)47 an.l iK.-,,") n., few.-r than Oil.- r.-f.rm l.-.l t.. an..th.-r. At this ep...-h j fuir Eo]..-s w.-r.- su.-.-.-ssively rais.-.l to the pa-

,li-idty at the .li.-tath.u of Henry HI. N.-ai- th.- <-l..M- .,f hi< r. i-n the Emj.eror du vi-it.-.l Italy, au.l r.-a.lju.-t.-.l the atl'airs th.' Xoruian prin.-ipalili.- iu th.- southern

ov(-r the ..rreatest m.-rit. The ( '.iugrei;ati.in .d' . tnrb.-.l with .lutbr.-aks ami .li-sensi..u>. The

Clunv attack.-d thi- abuse with ureat vigor. ' thret- c.unt.s— G.idfrey of L.irraine, Baldwin

;he .-riiu.-	III' siiu.inv, .	.rth.' pra.-ti<-e..fs.'lliuL
du- ..fii.-.- ^.-au.laEu-	dv"'l-..vr,i	Iv ..f th.- ('hiir.-h. wa- t. Eu<.-rupnh.u> a-pir
,uts, all t to tlu- pa,		11." '■'-nimon pri.-s.h
pref.-nu.-u	t. Th.' lai-..	-,-t bi'ib.- w.in th.' c..ul.'>

FE I'D A L A SL Eyi) EM ' } '. —FE UDA L G ERJLiX } '.

of Fholei ■\u\ Diitiuh t H Ihn 1 thiew otf the luipenil w u and i iite' iudepeudence Ihe olct lou of thi ihim outbieik ^\ 1 the jiei i tent ioll> ot Heiin filling the oftte^ ot the Lmi n \\itl soual tiiend lud km meu t ih \ hi i moie able ind meiitjiiou cluiiiiiit ^ , wa the abu e comphmed ot tint b\ th lOol ill the tite t Teiinun \itli the

gle exception t "^ix ii\ \\ le „o\einLl In

the pel sonil fi Rill ml i litne oi the Fm

peioi But the tubb)iii in iiu h wa ii t t

be put ti )m hi puipo e h^ i i in n II

plunge I intD a foui \eii

the lebellnu duke II ill It hi nil.

creatuie Pope Leo I \ uh \ i niiuiii it 1

the in ur out Ht ] i

of thf Ell h h ml Dun h 11 et

UXIVKHSAL HISTORY. — THE MUUERX WORLD.

11, 1> til. lH.illl. 11	w I- -iin|ihht..l 1)V	the death
t L... IX 111.1 1	s th. Iiiiii.iidapi	Liintmeiit
t \i.t.i I! 1-	111- -u, ..".,1 JS,	w it was
hit til. p.lWtltU	1 IkukI, hi^t -ha.	1..WV and
lull u il, .it the Lelebiate.l Hihlebia	ud of 8a-
i-ihl. h. 1.111 1 111	11. ink ot Clum , ht	gaii to be 1 of St.

t.i his

V- t.. H. iii\ III., the

id wab now at hau.l. In

le fall of 1006, while re-

iling at the castle of Gos-

1 , he ■\\ a^ ^ i^ited hy the

Pope ; Init the latter was

unable to lai&e the brokeu

-pints of the aged and

tioubled monaich Already'

ill hi> last illness, his exit

w I- h ivteued by the news

of I ili-aster which his

ami} had leceived at the

ds of the Slavonians.

The cm tain fell, and the

-cepter wa& left to the Em-

iLi-oi'sMin, ahead} crowned

as king of Geimany, and

atteiwaids to leceive the

Impel lal title of Henry IV.

B. 111. Ml m his iniii.ir-

'""-' l"i"«' "-'IS

ed iiiidei the regency

ot his mothei, the Empress

Aanes, of Poitieis. The

1.1 t< It b.

will

Eiu|... liiso his flomini-

set out for .Vrriving in Lom- hel.l a review . Just after-

her husliaii.l. The lios- proviuees .if Flanders and Lorraine were again brought to a peaceful acknowledgment of the Imperial sway. It was not long, how- ever, until th.- .il.l favorites of the deceased ascendency, and the reform was brought to an end. The feudal lords scarcely any longer heeded the Imperial man- date, but each pursued his own way tow^ards independence. In Italy especially they themselves in affairs of Church and

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXCY.— FEUDAL GEE3HXY.

state, aud demanded the old-time right of uominating the Pope. This claim was re- sisted 1>y the Empress, who iu 1U58 raised Nicholas II. to the throue. Iu a short time the new pontiff surprised the queen-regeut l)y abaudonding the interests of the Empire aud casting iu his lot with the Normau barons aud uew-bom republican cities of Italy. In the home kingdom, also, the feudal broils were perpetually renewed. A conspiracy was made to destriiy Prince Henry and change the dy- nasty. When the first plot was foiled, a second was lormi-d under the lead of Hauno, archbisho]) of Cologne. The purpose now was to wrest Henry IV. from his mother, drive her into retirement, aud transfer the regency to some prince who was able to exercise Im- perial authority. Hauno succeeded iu eutic- ing youug Henry ou board his vessel at Kai- serswerth. Here the royal lad, then but twelve years of age, was seized by the con- spirators aud forcibly carried away. Shortly afterwards a meeting of the princes was held, aud the 3'ouug king was jjlaced under the guardianship) of Hauno.

The severity of his protector soon alienated both Henry and the nobles of the Empire. A counter revolution deprived Hauno of the guardianship, and the same was trans- ferred to Adelbert of Bremen. The latter held the troublesome distinction until 1065, when the prince, theu reaching the age of fifteen, was invested with the sword of man- hood. Taking the government upon himself, Henry reluctantly accepted Hanno as his chief couuselor, the latter being forced uixm him by the princes of Cohigne aud others affiliated with them.

At the age of seventeen the young king took for his wife the Italian princess. Bertha. But iu the course of three years he wearied of his choice and sought to be divorced. The Archbishop of Mayeuce gave his sanction ; but Hildebrand, now the chancellor of Pope Alexan<lcr 11., imluced the pontiff to deny the king's wishrs, and Henry was obliged to yield. His humiliatiiiu over the failure of the project was compensated by tlie death of the old en- emy of his House, Godfrey of Lorraine. About the same time another foe, Duk.- Otho of Bavaria, was seized by the king's party and deprived of his duchy. Both these events

tended powerfully to establish Henry iu the Empire, but the tendency was somewhat neu- tralized by the hostile attitude of Magnus of Saxony. The Saxons had never been patient under the rule of the Franconian Emjierors, and circumstances now favored a general re- volt of the nation. The people, under the leadership of the deposed Duke of Bavaria, rose to the number of sixty thousand, marched upon the castle of Harzburg, and demanded of Henry the dismissal of his counselors and a rcl'iirm of the government. This the king refuses], and was thereupon besieged in his castle.

When the situation became critical, he es- caped from Harzburg aud tied almost without a following. Not uutil he reached the Rhine was there any general ujirising iu his favor. The cities in this region, however, had grown restive under the domination of the bishops, and were eager to begin a revolution by receiv- ing the fugitive Emperor. His fortunes were thus stayed by a powerful support, but he was presently oliliged to make peace with the Saxons, who dictated their own terms of set- tlement. They even proceeded to the extreme of demolishing the Emperor's castle and church at Harzlnirg, where the bones of his father were buried. This flagrant abuse of victory soon turned the tide iu favor of Henry, who rallied a large army, entered the country of the Saxons, and inflicted ou them an over- whelming defeat. Thus at length were all jiarts of the Empire reduced to submission, aud the thmne (if Henry IV. seemed more firmly established than that of any former Emperor of the German race.

Now it was, however, that the great monk Hildebrand, after having moulded the policy of the papacy during four successive pontifi- cates, himself assumed the tiara, and, with the title of Gregory VII., took the seat of St. Peter. He was without doubt the greatest genius of his age, and the work of his far- reaching intellect in establishing a new order throughout Christendom has continued to be felt for more than eio-ht hundred years. Cniiiin- t(. tlie papal tlmuie iu 107:1, he at once srt abciut rci'astiim- the wlmle jtolicy and form of tlie papal Church. At the first the Bishop of Rome had neither claimed nor ex- ercised any special preeminence over the other

CXIVERSAL niSTORY. — TIIK MODEILX WORLD.

prelates of tlv sixth to the e claimed U> lie, Christendom; 1 as suhoi-'liiKiio kings and eiii|P' for Gregory \' scheme of i'ai>i powers and doi ect was no ler-

>f the il)ute,

■r th.

the cau-r ol	an uu-
]II74 th,. law ., t'iii'(l-iiiiont	oi'eclib- ,1 i.i-ii.
	il luiu- d from
ow.r and i	dlueuce
n th.- Cliurel	1 began
tinally extii	iguished

lishmenf t whicli ill I ni do 1 ^^dlin prodigi lu 1 first St 1 n the Chill h thed tiiii that ( \ n 1

us empn e to id tubes should iniuj ut this

u\el thit the

^entli century.

In the next ])lace, Gregory turned his attention to the crime of simony. The proclamation of the celibacy of the priesthood was (piickly fnli..wed by another deiiouneiii.;: llic sale of the otR- ces of the Church. It was de- clared that henceforth the bish- ops, instead of being invested with the insignia of uffive by the secular princes, whom they paid for the preferment, should '.(■ifive the ring and crosier only from the hands of the Pope. Without a moment's hesitation Gregory sent orders to Henry IV. to enforce the reform through- out the Empire. Henry was at this time wearing the Im- perial crown. He was Emperor of the West — successor of Ca?sar and Charlemagne. To lie thus addressed by a Po^jp — a creature until now made and unmade by an Imperial edict — seemed not only a reversal of the whole order of human authority, but also a flagrant insult done to the greatest potentate in tin' world. In the height of his indignation the Em- peror called a synod at Worms, and, with the

ai<l of the pose tb,. 1>

ih

t £

Chul 1 pile th

bishops, at once proceeded to de- |.(. from otfice. Word was sent to cut elements in liome, advising o^ant monk of Savona be driven V ; but brforc the message was re- iorv, tlioii-h environed with foes ■lied with an insurrection of the 1 the South, had suppressed the lit, enforced order throughout the !■ Cliurch, aii.l now stood ready to Olds with the Emt.eror. Against

FEUDAL ASCENDENCY.— FEUDAL GERMANY.

that potcutate he hurled tlie bolt of excom- miiiiii'atioii.

It was un^x Pleiiry's time to act on tlir de- fensive. He issued a summons for a national Diet, liut the lukewarm princes hesitated to come to his aid. After a year of endeavor, the assembly at last was held at Mayeuce in 1076. But the nobles would not jiermit the Emperor to be present. He was obliged to send a messenger and to siiiiiify his willingness to yield the whole qiiestiim at issue between him- self and the Pope to the body for decision. In the following year the assembly reconvened at Augsburg, and Gregory rather than Henry was invited to be present. The latter, now greatly alarmed at the situation, at once set out for Italy, in the hope of settling the contro- versy by a personal interview with the Pope. On arriving in Lombardy he found the peo- ple in insurrection and might easily have led them in triumph against his great enemy. The latter, indeed, seeing the peril to which he was then exposed, took counsel of his prudence, and though already on his way to meet the German Diet, he turned aside t(j find .safety in a castle of Canossa in the Apennines.

Henry, however, was f:ir from availing himself of the possible advantage. Instead of warlike menace and flourish of the sword, he humbly clad himself in sackcloth, went barefoot to the gate of the castle of Canossa, and sought admittance as a penitent. There for three days in the snow and sleet, the suc- cessor of Cresar was allowed to stand waiting before the gate. At last being admitted he flung himself before the triumphant Gregory, promised present submission and future obedi- ence, and was lifted up with the kiss of rec- onciliation.'

The pardon bestowed by the Pope on the penitent king turned many of the princes against the [jowerful pontiff; for they had hoped to see the Emperor deposed and de-

'Tliis humiliation of Henry was in a measure atoned for by tlie papacy a few years afterwards when Gregory's successor, Calixtus II., was com- pelled at the Diet of Worms to surrender to Henry V. the right of investiture. In 1122 Calix- tus openly laid down before the imperial tliroue the symbols of his temporal authority, reserving for himself only tlie ring and crosier as the signs of his spiritual ilominion.

stroyed. Many now w-ent over to the linjie- rial interest, and the Empire was rent with strife. The anti-imperial party in Germany proclaimed King Rudolph of Suabia as Henrv's succe..or, au.l tlie En,peror wa> supported l,v the Lomhanls. For two year> a fi.-rce civil war left its ravages on battle-fiehl and in city, until 1080, Rudolph fell in the conflict, antl the power of Henry was completely re- established.

The victor now remembered the Pi.ijie as the cause of all his griefs. With a large army he crossed the mountains and received the iron crown at the hands of the uoliles of Lombardy. The Countess Matilda of Tus- cany, to whom belonged the castle of Canossa, exerted herself to the utmost, but in vain, to prevent the progress of the invaders. Rome was besieged by the German army, and Greg- ory was obliged to take refuge in the castle of St. Angelo. In his extremity he issued an edict, relea.sing from a previous ban Robert Guiseard, the Norman suzerain of Southern Italy, who was now besought by the Pcjpe to come to the rescue and aid in the expulsion of the Germans from Italy. Guiseard here- upon led an army of thirty thousand men, mostly Saracens out of Sardinia and Corsica, to the Eternal City, and the Emperor was obliged to retire before them. The Pope gained his release by the aid of the Normans, but his allies proved to be almost as much to be dreaded as the enemy from beyond the Alps. The city of Eome, the greater part of which had already been destroyed by the Germans during the siege, was now a>sailed by the friendly Saracens, win. bunied what remained, sluicing the streets witli blood and carrying away thousands of the inhabitants into slav- ery. So complete was the devastation of the City of the Ages that the Pope durst not re- main with the desperate brigands who now l^rowled around hei- ashes, but chose to retire with the Saracens as far as Salerno. There in los.i the greatest of the Popes of Eome expired in exile.

The death of Greoorv VII. was the signal of a papal -cl,i>m. The Enq-eror made haste

.f Ita

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

junrt, ., ^^.th tl h au auti r 1 in tli i tweeu tlu ii\ il 1 111 other th n t hi t

amljitiou t )iil(l m^jiiu 'Oregon % dtitli uutil th Crusade^ the lelentle-- ^ti

t up J.

u h

t mid \\ 111 11 ilk t ) niuntun him It 1 11.1 t hi 1 tl 1 (mhulh h tte\u hi ii| 1 It 1 I II i\\ i\ till he himvtlt u i- 1/ I III 1 till uii into pu'-ju 1 lu kiii_ II n hjoked aiiMou 1\ t) liw N( un^Li •- n lliia\ as his ■succc--^ i m the Imptiial di^'uit> But the enemies of the Lnipeioi, mstij;ited and encouiage<l hv the (11 uu I I il in 11 s„ , 1 1 in iluu-it-

D \.\U IltL 1 L

and Western ('liristeiiihiin was I'cmvulsed with the shock.

As for the Emperor, he seized the oppor- tunity aflbrded hy the warfare of the rival Popes to resume his duties as the secular ruler of the German Emjiire. Trouble and disas- ter, however, attended tlie latter years of his reign. The Prinee ('onnid, eldest son of the kiiii; anil heir cxpfctiiiit to the crown, lierame ivlirllious and nsurped the thmiie ..f Lmn- hardy. Hi. UMirpalioii was a.-kiinu led-ed hy Urliau II., and il a|,|..aiv,l tor a while that

ing the younger prince from his father, as- they had already done in the case of Conrad. Thus in distraction and gloom the reign of Henry IV. dratiged on apace, while the first clarion of the Crusades w'aked the slumbering echoes in the valleys of Western Europe.

Peter the Hermit came back from Palestine telling the .story of his wrongs. The people of the European states, wearied of the broils of the scrular princes, disgusted with ]ia]ial intrigues, and desjiairing of national unity under the shadow of Feudalism, rose as one

FEUDAL ASCENDENCY.— FEUDAL ENGLAND.

muu at the bugle-call aud drew theii- swords lor the rescue of the holy places of the East. Peter called aloud to the auti-Pope Url);iu, and Urbau called to christeudom. lu ilarch of 1095 a great assembly was held at Piaceuza, aud the cause of outraged Palestine was elo- quently pleaded by the Pope aud the envoys from Constantinople. Thence was issued the summons for the great Council of Clermont, which assembled in November of the same year, aud before which august body of French, Italian, aud CTermau potentates, the wUd cry of Dleu le VeuV was raised by the fanatic multitudes. In the presence of the new and burniug enthusiasm, the old feuds of kings, Popes, and princes were forgotten, and all Christendom eagerly lifted the bauuer of the Cross.

The present chapter may be appropriately concluded with a reference to the interesting raediteval episode of the philosopher Abelaed. This distinguished and unfortunate scholar was born at Nantes, iu 1079. His childhood was precocious. At the age of sixteen he be-

came the pupil of William de Champeaux. Before reaching his majority, he was already considered one of the most eminent disputators of his times. De Champeaux became bitterly jealous of his pupil, aud at the age of twenty- two Abelard opened a school of philosophy of his owu at Melun, near Paris. This establish- ment was soon iu great repute. In scholastic deljates with De Champeaux, Abelard came oti" victorious. Now it was that Heloise, the beautiful daughter of the canon Fulbert, was jjut under charge of the young philosopher as a pupil. Soon they loved. The story is known to all the world — the most pathetic of the Middle Ages. The bigotry of the times drove the master into the monastery of Saint Denis aud threw the veil over the despairing Heloise in the nuuuery of Ai-genteuil. The catastrophe, however, was the virtual begin- ning of the ascendency of Abelard over the philosophical opinions of his times ; nor can it well be doubted that his min<l was the most versatile and brilliant of the Ijcuighted epoch in which he lived.

CHAPTER L^XXVII. — FEUDAL ENQLAND.

N the fifth dav of .January, 1066, died 'Edward the Confessor. For four and twenty years he had swayed the scepter of England, but now there was an eud. The race of Crnlir and Alfred the Great expired with the childless king, aud over his silent clay was written defuiidus est in the abbey of West- minster. To his honor be it said that, living iu a warlike age and beset with many enemies, King Edward preferred the pursuits of peace, and would fain have brought her blessing to all the hamlets of England.

As soon as the body of the late monarch was properly interred, the Prince Harold, son of the great Earl Godwin, was proclaimed kinii in a grand assembly at London. The ' "God wills it"— the cry of the first Cnisadors on assuming the Cross.

crowning immediately followed, the ceremony being performed by Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury. No doubt, as the coronation oath was administered, the memory of that other oath which the prince had taken over the bones of the saints in the presence of William the Norman came unbidden to his mind; but he cast all upon the die of the present, aud the bones of the martyrs were remanded to the pa^^t.

In all the southern counties of England the accession of Harold was hailed with joy- ful acclamations. In him the peo^jle saw a Saxon king and the jiossible founder of a new Saxon dynasty. H.' thus lierame the repre- sentative of the (ihl national spirit aud the hope of those who longed to see the country freed from foreign domination. Not without prudence aud sound policy did the new sov- ereign begin his reign. He souglit to win and to deserve the aflectious of the people. Oner-

624

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ibolished, and tlic w;

.M.

k- llaroia

i-vauce of the

I he king, first of all, ex- iiiit the whole swarm of Diit while this policy was will) respect to the for-

ous taxes w those who wcri' raised to a lii^hr sought to strciigt the Church Vy duties of reliiiinii

In secidar atl; pelled from th.- Norman favniiti- rigorously )iiii-.-u eigners, they were imt driven from the coun- try (ir riililicd dl' thcii- estates. Many of the Noniiaiis, hdwcvcr, lied IVom England and re- turned wilh all ,'^]ici'il t(i their f)wn country. They it was ulm lin.ii-lit t.i Duke William the news of the death u{' Edward the Confessor and the usurpation of the throne by Harold, the sou of Godwin.

Tradition has rec(,rded that William, when he first revived th.' intrlli-cnce, was huntinu- in the \v..,,d ,,f i;,,ii<n, an.l that his ei.untc- nance and manner were at once changed to an expression of great concern and indigna- tion. He affected to regard the act of Harold as the grossest and most outrageous perjury. Notwithstanding his wrath William deemed it prudent to conciliate his enemies, actual and possible, with a show of moderation. He at once dispatched ambassadors to Harold with the following mes-sage : "William, duke of the Normans, warns thee of the oath thou hast sworn him witii thy mouth and with thy hand on goml and IkiIv relics." To this mes- sage, which had all tiie superficial semblance of soundness. King Harold responded with sterling .speech: "It is true that I made an oath to William, but I made it under the in- fluence of force. I promised what did not belong to me, and engaged to do what I never could do; for my royalty does not belong to me, nor can I di.spose of it without the con- sent of my country. In the like manner I can not, without the consent of my country, espouse a foreign wife. As for my sister, whom the duke claims in order that he may marry her to our ><[' his chiefs, she has been dead some tiinr. Will he that I send him her corpse ?"

There was no mistaking the nature of these negotiations. England was td lie invaded by the Ncrmans. Duke William, however, took pains to send over another embassy, again

pres>iiig liis .•lainis and reminding Harold of his „ath. Tliivats and recriminations foll„wed, and then pn parations tor war. According to tlie constitution of ^l'o^naudy it was necessary for William to have the consent of his barons, and this was not obtained without much diffi- culty. The N..rman vassals held that their Feudal oath ilid not bind them to follow and serve their lord lieyond the sea, but only in the defense of his own realms. A national assendjiy was called at Lillebonne, and a stormy debate had well-nigh ended in ri<it

and insurrection ; but William,

and self-restraint, finally succeeded iu bring- ing the refractory nobles to his support. A great force of knights, chiefs, and foot-soldiers floekcil to his standard. At this fortunate crisis in the duke's affairs a legate arrived from tlie Pope, bringing a bull expressing I the ajipioval of the Holy Father. Hereupon \ a new imjictus was given to the enterprise. Under the sanction of religion the oath-break- ing Harold was to be punished and his king- dom given to another. A consecrated banner and a ring containing one of the hairs of St. Peter were sent from Rome to the ambi- tious prince, who, thus encouraged, made no concealment of his intentions soon to be king of England.

During the early spring and summer of 1066 all the seaports of Normandy rang with the clamor of jsreparation. Ships were built and equipped, sailors enlisted, armor forged, supplies brought into the store-houses. Mean- while a similar but less energetic scene was displayed across the channel. Harold, hear- ing the notes of preparation from the other side, braced his sinews for the struggle. He sent over spies to ascertain the nature and ex- tent of William's armament ; but when one of the.se was brought into the duke's presence he showed him every thing, and bade him say to King Harold not to trouble himself about the Norman's strength, as he should see and feel it before the end of the 3'ear.

It was now the misfortune of the English king to 111- attacked by a domestic foe. His own brothia- Tostig, formerly carl of North- uiiibiia, but now an exile in Flanders, suc- ceeded ill raising abroad a scpiadron with which he made a descent .m the Isle of Wight. Driven back bv the kiui^'s fleet, Tostig next

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXCY.—FEUDAL EXdLAXD.

nM^a I the coq^t of Lincolnshire ami then «iikrl np the Ilnniln i Expelled from thence, he nndc his « i) lii^t to the coast of Scotland

and then to Denniark, where ho besought the king to join him in an invasion of England, Failing in this enterprise Tostig renewed hia

LANDING OF THE CONQfEKOR. rin,ivn hy A. .iPXruviUe.

UXIVEL'SAL HISTORY. — THE MoDKh'X WOULD.

offt-r to Hardrada, kiiiL' nf Xurwav, w\u< ac- cepteil the iuvitati'iii and swooped down on the English coast with two hundivd .-hips of war. Under the conchiet (jf the rebel Saxon the Norwegians eft'eeted a lamling at Eicoall and marched directly on York. This city fell into the hands of the enemy, and here the king of Xorw-ay ostul.li>he(l his Iiead-.piart.-rs.

Tims while the threatening note was hoi-ne across the chauu«-l from iS'ormaudy the clamor of present war sounded in the ears of the distracted Harold. Nevertheless he girt himself bravely for the contest. He marched boldly forth and confronted the jSTorwegiaus at Stamford Bridge. Here a bloody battle was fought, in which King Hardrada and nearly every one of his chiefs were slain. The victory of the Saxons was complete and overwhelming.

No sooner, however, was one of the great foes of Harold destroyed than the other ap- peared in sight. Only three days after the overthrow of the Norwegians the squadron of Duke William anchored on the coast. A landing was effected on the shore of Sussex, at a place called Bulverhithe. Archers, horse- men, and spearmen came on shore without opposition. William was the last man to leave his ship. Tradition has recorded that when his foot touched the sand he slipped and fell; but with unfailing presence of mind he sprang up as though the accident had been by design and showed his two hands filled with the soil of England. "Here," cried he aloud to his men, "I have taken seisin of this land with my hands and by the sjilendor of God, as far as it extends, it is mine — it is yours! "

In the mean time King Harold was ad- vancing to his station on tlie field of HASTlX(is, near the Fair Light Downs. On his way thither he stojiped at London and sent out a fleet of seven hundred vessels to blockade the fleet of William and [irevent his escape from the inland. The Xorman duke had ur.w reached Hastings, and the time was at hand when the question between him and the Saxon king must be decided.

Tlie prudent William before hazarding a battle sent another message to Harold. "Go and tell Harold." said he. "that if he will keep ids old bar-ain willi me I will l.-av. liim

all tlie country beyond the river Humber, and will give his lirothVr (Mirth all the lands of his father, Karl (lodwiii; but if h,- ob.-tiuatelv refuse wliat I oliir him thon wilt tell him before all his people tiiat he is perjured and a liar; that he and all those who .shall support him are exconiiiiuuicated by the Pope, and that I carry a bull to that effect."

Notwith>tandiiig this terrible threat the English chiefs stood firmly to the cause of their king. William had in the mean time fortified his camj) and stood ready for the shock. Harold came on with great intrepid- ity; nor could he be prevented by the expos- tulations of his friends from taking the per- sonal responsibility and peril of battle. On the night of the 13th of October the two armies lay face to iace in their respective camps at Hastings. The English were up- roarious and confident of victory. They had recently overwhelmed the Norwegians and now in like manner they would beat down the adventurers of Normandy. They danced and sang and drained their horn-cups brimming with ale until late at night, and then in the heavy English fitshion flung themselves to rest. On the other side the Normans were looking carefully to their armor, examining the harness of their horses, and joining in the litanies which were chanted by the priests.

With the coming of morning, both armies were marshaled forth for battle. Duke AVill- iam, having arranged his forces in three col- umns, made a brief and spirited address, in which he recited the cruelties aud treachery of the foe and promised the rewards of vic- tory. A Norman giant, named Taillefer, rode in front of the ranks, brandishing hia sword and singing the old heroic ballads of Normandy. The army took up the chorus, and the enthusiasm of battle spread like a flame among the knightly ranks.' The oppos- ing English had fortified with trenches and palisades the lii-h ground on which they were eni-ani]ied. The two kings, equally courage- ous, eoniniaiided their respective armies in jiersou, and each sought to be foremost in the fight. At the first, the assaults of the Norman bowmen and crossbowmen produced little ef- fect on the English lines; and even the

'It w:is on this oi-ensinn tluit the Xormans santr llie Sumi ,'t' liolutnl, the liero of Eoncesvalles.

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXCY.— FEUDAL EXGLAKD.

charge of William's cavalry was bravrly met aud repelled. The English battle-axes eut the lances of the knights and cleft both hoi'se and rider. At one time the rejoort was spread tliat AVilliam was slain, and his followers fell into dismay and confusion. But the j^i'iuce reappeared unhurt, threw up his visor that he might be seen, and rallied his men to the charge. From nine o'clock in the forenoon until three in the afternoon the battle raged with fury. At the last, after many maneu- vers, Duke William resorted to a stratagem.

English were made to Ijelieve themselves vic- torious, but were again turned upon and routed. The lines of Harold's encamjjment were broken through. Then the fight raged briefly around the standard of England, which was iinally cut down and supplanted liy the banner of Normandy. Harold's two brothers were slain in the struggle. The English were turned into a rout, but ever and anon they made a stand in that disastrous twilight of Saxon England. Victory declared tor AV^ill- iam. King Harold himself was killed by a

BATTLE OF

iTINGS.

He ordered his knights to charge and then to turn and fly. The English, deceived by the pretended retreat of the foe, broke from their lines to pursue the flying Normans. The lat- ter, being stnmgly reinforced, turned suddenly aljiiut at a signal and fell upon their scattered pursuers. The disordered English were en- compassed and cut down by thousands. The chieftains wielded their battle-axes with terri- ble effect, but were ridden down and slain. In another part of the field the Normans adopted the same stratagem and were again suecessful. Even a third time tlie iniiinidrnt

random arrow, which, piereing his entered his brain. Nearly one-half diers were either killed or woiiii William's army, more than a fourth in the battle, and the jubilation of triumpli sounded like a spasmodie the dead bodies of three tliousan.l kniglit>. Sorrowful was tlie si-lit Edith searching among the slain foi' of her lord. At siieh a pri.'e was made uo,,d which Prince Harold h;

IV t:i

left eye, .f his sol- led. Of p..ri.hed ^s'onnau

Nonnau ,f (^iren the body the oatii d unwit- lints.

UXIVEIiSAL HISTORY.— THE MODKRX WORLD.

Ha>tiuirs was to tran.^tlT oue-fourtli of the kiu-ilciin to William the Normau. As soou as it \vu> cKar that the victory was his, the Cou- t \\\> the eiiiiseerated banner which -riit hiiii I'V ihe l'"|>e, and his sol- liers iirorciMlcil in >i.:lil "l' that >acred emblem

'!»

William vowed to \vv\- spot where the ml had been struck lie the monastery of li monks to celebrate the souls of the slain

to despoil the Saxnii

erect an aUljry ni' banner of Saxon IC down, and in a >hn,- St. .Martin was lilKd masses for the rrpn-c knights of Nnnnaiidy.

In was still necessary that William .should make haste slowly in the further reduction of the kingdom. More than two months elapsed before he reached the city of London. In the interval he beat along the coast, hoping that the people would make a voluntary sub- mission ; but in this he was di.sappointed. Finding that moderation was of little avail with the stubborn Saxons, he continued the conquest by the capture of Romney and Dover. While at the latter place he was strongly reinforced with recruits fi-om Nor- mandy. Thus strengthened, the Conqueror left the coast and marched direct to London. The defeat of Hastings had broken the spirit of resistance, and little opposition was luani- fested to his progress. Nevertheless, the Witenagemot assembled in the capital, and the uppermost question related to the succession rather than submission to the Normans.

After much discussion, it was decided to confer the crown on Edgar the Atheling, grand- son of Edmund Ironside, who had previously been set aside on account of the spurious de- scent of his ancestor. This measure, however, was carried by the old Saxon or National pai'tv, in the face of the strenuous opposition of the Ninnian taction, supported as it was by most of the clergy, who trembled at the thought of excommunication. The fact that Prince Edgar himself was devoid of all kingly qualities added strengtli to the Norman cause and di^couraiii-d the national movement.

Smh wa- till' condition of affairs when William apiiiarcd brlore the citv. Finding

rava-vd pie of > shire wt

d Southwark and ountry. The peo- ip>hire, and Berk-

all the ten

of

war. In a short time communication was cut off between the city and the cotmtry and tiie shadow of famine began to hang over We-'V minster Abliey. The earls, Edwin and Mor- car, to whom the defense had been intrusted, withdri'W towards the Humber, taking with them the forces of Northumbria and Mercia. Their retirement from London was the sig- nal of submission. An embassy, headed by "King" Edgar himself and Archbishop Sti- gand of Canterbury, went forth to Berk- hampstead, and there presented themselves to the Conqueror. The submission was formal and complete. Edgar for himself renounced the throne, and Stigand for the Church took the oath of loyalty. The politic William made a jiretense of reluctance in accepting the crown of England ; but his feeble remon- strance was drowned in the acclaim of his nobles and courtiers. As soon as the embassy had completed its work, the Normans set out for the capital, conducted by the distinguished envoys. In a short time the Conqueror estab- lisheil himself in the city and preparations were completed for the coronation.

The Alibey of Westminster was chosen as the place for the ceremony. Attended by two hundred and sixty of his nobles, the duke rode between files of soldiers that lined the approaches, and presented himself before the altar. When in reply to the question ad- dressed to those present by Aldred, archbishop of York, whether they would accept William of Normandy as their lawful king, they all set up a shout. Those Normans outside the Abbey, heai-ing the noise and conjecturing that some act of treachery had been com- mitted against their prince, began to set fire to the houses of the English and to kill all who fell in their way. Others rushed into the Abbey as if to rescue William, and the cere- mony was interrupted in the midst of univer- sal turmoil. For a while it appeared that both parties, each misunderstanding the other, would, in the wildness of their frenzy, raze the city to the ground. But Archbishop Aldred j continued and completed the duty of corona- tion, and the first of the Norman kings of EiiLdanil arose from before the altar, cro^vned with the crown of iUfred.

Thus, in the latter part of the year 1066, was the Norman dynasty established in Eng-

FEUDAL AS< 'KXPEXcy.— FEUDAL EX(rLAXD.

laud The iHilit> adopted b) Ldwiid tliL tioiid ~innt an 1 mid p Confessor, combmiiit;; -nith the geneial h\\s i,in_« uid m^tituti . i- nt of causation, hid tiiniiphod mot the old m- I m w s-.Miu.n h\ d hi- n

EDITH DISCOVERS THE BODY OP HAKOLD. D^a^YIl by A. Ju Neiivilk-.

(;:;o

UXIVERSAL HISTOR Y.

would tivat thr Kii-li^li |.ro,,lr a- wll a^ the be.t of Ih.ii- nalivr kiu.-> l.a.l .1,.,,,., 1,,-aii

the athaiiii.-tiati if tlir -(ivcnuiiL-ut with as

much iiiikhK'ss as \\w -.v^i- was litted to receive. It can uot he liimhlcil that tlie English thanes and great earls, who made their suhmissiou to the king, gained from his hautls a generous consideration. To them were confirmed their estates and hou.us, and the work of coutisca- tion began only with those who were rebel- lious or disloyal. Tlie domains of Harold and his brother, as well as those of less distin- guished leaders and chiefs, were seized by William and conferred on his Xdrnian nobles. Though these acts might well be defended as strictly in accordance with the usages of war and conquest, they failed uot to sow the seeds of bitterness and revenge, which for centu- ries together grew rank and piiisouous in the soil of England.

Prominent among those Saxons wlio re- ceived the favor of William was the royal cipher, Edgar Atheling. Without the ability to accomplish serious harm in the state, this nominal jirince of the old n'gime was still I'e- garded with aft'ection by the adherents of tlie lost cause. For this rea-oii i-ather than on account of personal esleeni, he was recon- firmed by the king in th,' earldom of Oxford, ■which had been conferred on him at the ac- cession of Harold.

In furtherance of his p.iliey William pres- ently set iorth from IJai-kiiiu; to visit the va- rious districts of the king<lom. His jjrogress was half-civil, half-military, and wholly royal. For he would fain impi'ess the English with a new idea of kiiii;ly pomp and greatness. At every pla.v li.' fiile.l not, as far as praeti- cabl.', to ,lis|,lay a -.neroiis eondeseensi.m. In allot his inleiv.,ui-o he took ear.', byai.rudeiit restraint of temper and courteous di-meaiior

towai-ds the Saxon 'I'lianes, t ii'iliate their

esteem and favor. In liis edi.'ts he carefully regarded the .,ld An-lo-Saxon laws, and in

the administration of Jnsii li.l not un.bdy

incline to ihe interests of his uwn country- men. In M • in-tances h<' even went lieyond

five favor to the na'.ive intercuts and institu- tions ,,f the Island. lie , ,dar-ed the privi- leges of the ,'or -atioi, ,,|- London, and made

THE MODERN WORLD.

hitnself the patiou of English commerce and

Whil.- in this conciliatory way the Con- .pu'ror diligently .<ou-ht to gain the trust and even the alliction ,,f hi>

power with bulwark, was that thoM- \\,,n( castles, which .-till

.-axon siniject-, he at •ry can. to fortifv his nd ,lefen.-e.-. Xow it

ul feu.lal towers an.l

nable firtre.sses cjf Xorn.an (hiUiination. On every side the Haxon thanes antl jx-asauts be- held arising these huge structures of stone, and sighed with vain regrets or mutterings of re- venge at this everlastin- menace f, the old liberth's an.l institutions ,.f the T.-ut,,ni,- race.

Th.' X.u-mansalso umlersto.i.l the sitiuttion. Th..y appr.-ciated the necessity of laying deep and sliong the innnovable Inittresses .)f their .lomini.ui. Well they kn.'W the vi-..r, the f.MUin.lity, an.l warlike val.ir of the Anglo- Saxon pe.iple. Well did they forecast tlie impending struggle of the races, and wisely did they prepare for the maintenance of the ]Hiwer which they had gained and established by .■.uiquest.

On., .if the greatest difficulties which King A\'illiam ha. I t.i me.t an.l overcome was found in ill., lapa.'ity .d' his foll.jwers. The great h.ist of Xorma'u l.n-.ls an.l bi.shops who had f.illow.'.l hiiu fr.im th.' .-.mtinent constantly .•lamor,..l lor the >p.iil.- of the kingdom. The for.-ign t'.-.-le.-iasli.'s were ...ven more greedy

restrained fr.mi the in.-tantaneous seizure of the catheilrals an.l abli.y.- of England. Many of the har.lships uu.l.'r whi.di the Saxons were

insatialil.. .I.'nian.ls .if William's foll.iwers, ralli.'r than l.i the i,..r.-.iiial wish.s .d' the king 1.1 iullici injuri.s.m his Sax. m sidijects. Even from ill., lirsl year of lli.' C.n.iu.-sl th,. sup- pr..^-...l ivli..|ii,,n in th.' Ii.'art .if naliv.' I'hig-

I an.l win The rich

..pup.

.if th.. .-.Mirllv f .r..i-u l.ir.i- fla-he.l in the s of Ih.. KieJi'sh niai.l.n.- with a .laz/.ling :iiln.-s. Wlial .-h.iul.i be the brawn and •ws .,f il„. naliv.. 1 r. with hi- bma.l

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXCY.— FEUDAL EXGLAXD.

shouMers, florid face, aud uucut flaxeu hair, comparoil with the elegant limbs, graceful diguitv, and condescending smile of the gay and polished knight of Koucn? Even the widows of valiant Saxon thanes, who had fallen on the field of Hastings, proved to he not over-diflicult to win by the splendid foreigners. Love fanned

by admiration prevailed _ r.

over patriotism fanned by memory.

The Conquest of Eiil:- land was, as yet, by n^i 1 i_ means completed. AU the West lay unsubdued. In the south-eastern part of the island the conquerors had firmly established themselves in the country. In the spring of liM'.T King William went ovci to Normandy, leaving hi- half-brother Odo as regent during his absence. It ii:i- been conjectured by Huint that the motive of th< Conqueror in going abroad at this juncture was fouiKi in the belief that as sodu as his absence was known the Saxons would break into revolt, and thus fur- nish him a valid excu-e for completing the subju- gation of the Island and confiscating the estates of the Thanes. For he was greatly harassed by the Norman nobles to supply them with lands and titles, as he had promised at the beginning of the Con- quest. The character of Odo, who was arbitrary, impolitic, and reck- less, moreover conduced to the result which William anticipated.

At Rouen the victorious king was received ■with great ccUit. To his friends at home he distributed many rich presents, and gave a glowing account of the country which he had subdued. Nor did he hesitate to exhibit to the people and the foreign ambassadors at his

court living specimens (if tlie	race tl	at had
yielded to his arms; tor as a	pnvai	tinnary
measure he had taken with bin	on hi>	return
a number of the Saxon thanes.
^leanwhile atiairs in Englan	1 w.iv	rapidly
approaching a crisis. The t\	I'anny	of O.lo
and his coun.selors began to pro	s heavi	y npoM

I^a'

,- V

ili,;am TilE .

the subject race. Their rapacity sought grat- ification in pillage and robbery. Not only the peasants, but people of the highest rank, were made the victims of outrage and spolin- tion. In vain did they cry out for justice and revenge upon the noble brigands who had ruined their homes. The complaints of the sufferers were met with insult and mockery. Not long could the Saxon blood be expected

uyi\i:i:sAL jiistohv.—thk modern would.

wo,, to tlu- lurklr,- NoMiiaii kl.i,i:lit who was caught outsi,le the walls of his castle. Soon there was concert of action among the insur- gents, anil the forci,^u dominion was menaced

ence. Tlii' Sa\<.ii plottcis x nt word to Count Eustace of lloulo-i,r to mnw over and be their leader; lor In- was known to be a bitter foe to Kini^- William. 'J'lu- count accepted the call and landed with a chosen baud near the castle of Dover. Here he \va:3 joined by the rebel Saxons of Kent, and an imprudent

son, who sallied forth from the gates antl drove the rush meu of Kent headlong over the clitts. Count Eustace fled to the coast and thence across the sea.

Among those who soon after his landing in the previous 3'ear did obeisance to the C(jn- queror was Thaue Edric the Forester, of the river Severn. He had been sincere in his protestations, but was soon provoked into hostility by the cruelty and injustice of the rapacious Normans. With two of the princes of Wales he made an alliance, and the Normau garrison that held the city of Here- ford was ([uickly pent up within the fortifica- tions. All the country round about was overrun by the insurgents, and for the time it appeared that there only wanted a national leader to rally the Saxons as one man and expel their oppressors from the island.

At this juncture the two sons of Harold came over from Ireland with a fleet of sixty ships, and made a .spasmodii' attempt to regain the crown of their father. 15ut they were re- ceived with little favor, even by their own countrymen. Attacking the city of Bristol, they were repulsed and driven to their ships,

pursnrd	by the Saxon	. The two prill
:»,. r T	lo their way ba	•k to the safe obsi
itv ol 1 ' .M,al	while- th,- spirit	of discontent and
hellion	jrew rilV- thro	li^hout the count
One mr	--a-e aft.-r anot	ur was sent to K
William	ur-ini: hi,^ i	uincdiate return
En-Jan.	. But. either 1	ot sharin- the ah
of his ,,	vii countrymen	,1 ll.r i-laiid or ,U

voke him to war, he tarried at Rouen for the space of eijrht months, and then, in December of 10(57, returned to Loudon. On arriving at his cajntal, he at once resented to his old policy of favor and blandishment to the Saxon chiefs. At the ChrLstmas festival he received them with all the kingly courtesy which he was able to command. He jiroinised the peo- ple of Loudon a restitution and observance of the old laws of the Anglo-Saxons; and then, as soon as confidence was somewhat restored, proceeded to levy a burdensome tax upon his subjects.

The .spring of lOOS witnessed the outbreak of a ivb.llioii in Devon.hiiv. The people of Exeter forlilii'd their city and made ready to defend it to the last. So great was the pop- ular exasperation that the crews of some Nor- man ships, which were wrecked on the coast, were butchered after the worst manner of savagery. Against the insurgents of Devon- shire, King William led out his army in per- son. Approaching the city of Exeter he demanded submission, but was met with refu- sal and detiaiiep. A siege ensued of eighteen days' diiiaiioii, and then Exeter fell into the hands of the Conqueror. A strong castle was built in the captured town and garrisoned with Norman soldiers.

During the summer of this year the sons of Godwin made a second absurd attempt to create a rising in the West. Several landings were effected on the shores of Devon and Ciiruwall, but the leaders were met with the same aversion as in the previous year. Find- ing neither support nor .sympathy, they again abandoned their native land and took refuge in Denmark.

After the coiKjuest of Devon, King Will- iam quickly added that of Somerset and Gloucester. The city of Oxford was taken and fortified. In every district subdued by his arms, the lands were confiscated and ap- portioned to his followers. New castles were built and occupied by Norman lords. Mean- while every ship from Rouen brought another company of hungry nobles to demand a share in the spoils of England. The enforced con- siileration which William had hitherto com- jielled his followers to show to the Saxons was soon no longer ob.served. After the garrulous manner >A' his tribe, the old chronicler Holiu-

FEUDAL ASCENDENCY.— FEUDAL EXGLAXD

shed thus describes the afflictions of his people in the early years of William the Coniiuerur: "He [the king] took away from divers of the nobility, and others of the better sort, all their livings, and gave the same to his Nor- mans. iMoreover, he raised great taxes and subsidies through the realms; nor in any thing regarded the English nobility, so that they who before thought themselves to be made forever by bringing a stranger into the realm, did now see themselves trodden under foot, to be despised, and to be mocked on all sides, in so much that many of them were constrained (as it were, for a further testimony of servi- tude and bondage) to shave their beards, to round their hair, and to frame themselves, as well in apparel as in service and diet at their tallies, after the Norman manner, very strange and tar ditferiug from the ancient customs and old usages of their country. Others, utterly refusing to sustain such an intolerable yoke of thralldom as was daily laid upon them by the Xnrmans, chose rather to leave all, both goods anil lauds, and, after the manner of outlaws, got them to the woods with their wives, children, and servants, meaning from thenceforth to live upon the spoils of the country adjoining, and to take whatsoever come next to hand. Where- upon it came to pass within a while that no man might travel in safety from his own house or town to his next neighbor's, and every quiet and honest man's house became, as it were, a hold and fortress, furnished for defense with bows and arrows, bills, pole-axes, swords, clubs, and staves and othei- weapons, the doors being kept locked and strongly bolted in the night season, as it had been in time of open war and amongst public enemies. Prayers were said also by the master of the house, as though they had been in the midst of the seas in some stormy tempest ; and when the windows and doors should be shut in or closed they used to say Benedieite, and others to answer Domimis, in like sort as the priest and his penitent were wont to do at confession in the church."

It was in the miilst of such conditions as these that the deep-seated and long-enduring hatred of the Normans was laid in the lieart of Saxon England. Ever and evermore the ' chasm seemed to widen between the hostile races. Now came the great earl. Eilwin of '

^Nlereia, wlio, under lirnmi.>e of receivin- the king's daughter in marriage, ha.l suppoibMl his rause, claiming the hand of thr .Nonnau UKii.l.u. He was rcfu>c<l and in-ult.d. Thereupon he k-ft Lon,l,,u with a buniiii- heart, called hi. Kn.tiier .M,.ivar to l,i, -uA, and raised the .-taiidaid of war in the north of England. The rebel princes took their stand beyond the Humljcr. Around their banners rallied the 8axo-Danish jjatriots of Yorkshire and Northumbria. In their wrath they took an oath tiiat nevermore would they sleep b.iieath the r.M,f until they ha.l taken an ample revenge upon the perlidi- ous and cruel Normans. But the warlike and energetic William was little alarmed by the menace of such a rebellion. Putting himself at the head of his army he marched rapidly from Oxford to Warwick, from Warwick to Leices- ter, from Leicester to Di il,y and Nottingham, from Nottingham to Lincoln, from Lincoln to the Humber. Near the contiuence of the Ouse he met and completely routed the forces of the rebel earls. Hosts of the English fell in the battle and the remnant Hed for refuge within the fortiii.-itions of York. Thither they were pursueil by William and his sol- diers, who broke through the gates, captured the city, and put the people to the sword. A citadel of great strength was built within the conquered town and garrisoned with ti\e hun- dred warriors and knights. The city of York became henceforth the stronghold of the Nor- mans in the North.

In the second ami third years after the Conquest, the country was agitated through its whole extent l>y oiitlneaks and upris- ing of the Saxons. By degrees the English nobles, who had thus far upheld the Ci.mquer- or's cause, became alienated and took sides with their own countrymen. As to the Saxon peasants, they groaned and writhed under the oppression of their masters and seizeil every opportunity, fair oi- foul, to wreak their venge- ance on the hated forei-ner^. While the Nor-

lUS

with mutt

the

the

all his smiles

,:,4

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

alluiviiicnt>, tlie kin-V ..wii l.rutluT-in-law, Earl Tilkiiil (if lla>tiii-s Castle, and the pow- erful IIu.-li .le (ii-auuiiesiiil, earl uf >,„rlulk, quitteil Eu.iilau.l and retired into ^'ormaudy. So serious was tlie sitnali.m that the kiuy deemed it expedient U> send his queen, Ma- tilila, liaek to Kouen. For himself, however, he was a< undaunl.d as ever. To till the places made vaeant hy defection and desertiou, he sent invitations into all the couutries of Western Enn.pe, otllrin^ the lirilliant rewards of con(|iiest to those who would join his stand- ard. Nor was the call without an answer. Baudrj of rovers, wandering knights, soldiers in ill-repute, and refugee noljlemen came flocking to the prey.

The vear lOd'.i was mostly occupied with military ..peratious in the North. The city of York was liesieged hy the insurgent popula- tion, and was (july relieved liy the approach of William with an army. A second fortress and garrison were cstahlisheel in the city, which was thus rendered impregnable. As soon as the outposts were secure, a campaign was undertaken against the rel.els of Durham. The expedition was le.l liy lioliert de Cmine, who marched into the enemy's country and entered Durham with little opposition. Dur- ing the night, however, the English lighted signal-fires on the neighboring heights and gathered from all directions. At day-break on the following morning they burst into the town, fired the houses, fell upon the Normans, and slaughtered them without mercy. Of Robert's forces only two men escaped to tell the tale of destruction.

Encouraged by their great success, the Xorthuhilirians immediately dispatched am- bassadois to the king of Denmark, urging him to make an invasion of England. At the same time they sent overtures to Malcolm, king of the Scots, representing to him the ad- vantages of an alliance against the Normans. At the court of the Scottish monarch Edgar Atheling had fnund a refuge, and hh claims to the crown of I'n-land were not forgotten in the general movement. The sons of King Harold, also, were abroad and were regarded liy ^o^ne as a po>-il.iliiy of the future. But the very multiiilieity of interests in the at- tempted coniliination against the Normans prevented unity of action and forbade success.

liy and hy a DanLsh fleet of two hundred and forty ships, commanded by the sous of the Daiii.-h king, was sent to aid the North- umbrians and Scots against the Conqueror. The squadron first appeared ofl" Dover and then sailing northward entered the Humber. A landing was effected at the mouth of the Ouse, and the army of Danes, reinforced by their English allies, marched directly on York. The Normans were driven into the fortifica- tions, and were cut oS from all communica- tion with the country. For eight days the assailants beat around the ramparts. Finally a fire broke out, and the city was wrapped in flames. In order to escape a more horrid death, the Normans rushed forth, sword in hand, and met their fate on the spears of the infuriated Northumbrians and Danes. The .^laughter degenerated into a massacre, and of the three thousand men composing the garrison only a few escaped with their lives. The smouldering ashes of York steamed with the blood of Normandy.

King William was hunting in the forest of Dean when the terrible news came to him of the Initehery of his Yorkshire army. Flam- ing with rage, he burst out with his usual oath, "by the splendor of God," that he would leave not a Northumbrian alive. As a preparatory measure, he at once relaxed his severity towards the Saxons of South Eng- land, and resumed his old role of cajoling them with bountiful promises. At the same time he managed by shrewd diplomacy to induce the king of Denmark to withdraw his army from England. As to the Saxons, how- ever, they were not any longer to be lulled with soothing words. When with the open- ing of the following spring, the Conqueror, at the head of a powerful army began his march against the Northumbrians, the sullen and vengeful English rose behind him witn torch and pike and pole-axe to satiate their desperate anger in the wake of his campaign. But the persistent William was not to be dis- tracted from his purpose. The son of a tan- ner's daughter had in his mind's eye the vision of burut-up York and the bleaching bones of his Norman knights.

Now was it the turn of the men of the North to (juake with well-grounded apprehen- sion. Ill the hour of need the Danish fleet

FE UDAL ASCEND EXL 'Y.—FE UDA L ENG LA M).

sailed down the Humber and disappeared. The Xorthiimbriaus were left naked to the sword of the Conqueror. He fell upon them a short distance from York, and only a few escaped his vengeance. Edgar Atheling Hed from the apparition and returned to the court of ilak'olm. Perhaps no district was ever before smitten with such a besom as that which now swept across the fields and hamlets of Noithumbiia The Nwman armj bioke up into bancK and slew and buint and it\- atred until tlu \\ 11 iii.h iiiMtuI 1. tlni t f i

he next proceeded to seize the movable pmp- erty (if his English subjects. The wealthy Saxdus had generally ailnptcd the plan of de- jiositing their treasures in the monasteries, believing that these sacred precincts would remain inviolate. The commissioners of the king, however, soon broke into the holy places of England, and robbed with as much freedom as if they had been ravaging a vulgar village. A regular sjstem of apjioitionment i\ IS adopted, by which the lands of England AMU duidtdout t. the X. lunii 1, i,U— Thus

bloody vengeance was appeased. The old chronicler, William nf ^lalmsbury, declares that, " from York to Durham not an inhab- ited village remained. Fire, slaughter, and desolation made a vast wilderness there, which continues to this day.'" Oderic Vitalis esti- mates the number of victims of this murder- ous expedition at a humlred thousand souls.

From this time forth the policy of concil- iation was flung aside by the Conqueror of England. It now became his avowed purpose to seize all the landed estates of the kingdom. Nor satisfied with this enormous spoliation,

'About the year A. D. 1150.

were the first seven years after the invasion consumed in perpetual insurrections, lirutal punishments, confiscation, robbery, and ruin throughout the realm of England.

In the year 1074 William was obliged by the condition of his continental affairs to re- turn for a season to Normandy. The county of :Maine, on the borders of his paternal king.l..i,i, bad iH.en beqn.'athed to the Con- queror before his departure for England. About two years after the devastation of North- urubiia, Count Foulque of Anjou instigated the people iif Elaine to rise against William and exjiel bis magistrates from the country.

(io(i

UNIVERSAL HIHTORY.— THE MODKRX WORLD.

With a shrewd iin.lii>taii«liii,t: of ihe simatinii, William, in (U-iianin- fur tii.' ,-..iitiiH-ut, to,,k with liii.i (.lily ail En'fi.h army, K'aviiii: all his Norniaa I'uives l.diiml liiiu. With th,->r troops he made his way into Maiiii'. ami suoii drove the insurgent.- iniu a liittvr repentance for their folly.

While engaged in Mippressing thi- rebel- lion, William rceeiv.'d intelligenee of a .till more alarming onthreak in England. This time it was the Xornian liarous themselves, who had conspired to overthrow their master. The otfice of prime counselor of the kingdom was now held hv Roger Fitz-Osborn, who was also Earl -.f ILn-lbrd. This di>tinguishe<l young lord had, during the Compieror's ab- sence, paid his enurt to the daughter of Ralph de Gael, earl of Xnrf..lk; and her he was about to take in inarriage. The rumor of the intended uninii was borne to the Con- queror, who for some na.-on >ent back a mes- sage forbidding the marriage. This interfer- ence was bitterly resented by Fitz-Osborn and his prospective father-in-law. Without regard to the interdict, the marriage was cele- brated, and the leading Norman barons were present at the feast. While heated with wine, a sudden disloyalty lirokc mit among them, Normans as they were, and a e.mspiraey was made to destroy William and redivide the realm into the three old kingdoms of Wessex, IMercia, and Northumbria. The earls of Waltheof and Norwich entered into the jilot with Fitz-Osborn and De Gael, and the drunken revel endnl in an insane insurrec- tion. Walthi'ot', however, as soon as he was sober, waslnd lii> hands of the disloyal busi- ness. Fitz-Osborn was cmfronted on tlie .Severn by a loyal army sent out by Aivli- bishop Lanfranc, pi and the iiisurgi'iii< u were beaten down b

Odo, Inshop ot V,:v until the who].- n naught. Williani i uent, and tlir r..ii some with miitilati ment, and some witi It was 11., w the fa touched in a still lu son of hi^ <o„ Itol,.. prince had been hm

l.-r the Earl <.f Norf-.lk a f.rce commanded by nx. Nor was it Ion- •llion was brought to urned from the .■oiiti-

. .Mime with imprisoii-

h'alh.

of the CoU'iueror to be

. dnke of Maine. This

the .leparture of the latter fjr his comptest of England. William had induced his Norman barons to d,, the act of fealty to Robert as their future >overeigii. On coming to man's otate, the duke, without regard to his flither's wishc,-, would fain a>snme the government in

a brief but comprelieii.-ive letter. " 'Sly .son," said he, " I wot not to throw off my clothes till I go to lied." This figurative expression was ea>ily understood In" the youth, who openly demanded the fulfillment of the king's proini>e to make him duke of Normandy. "Sire," said Robert, in an interview with his father, "I came here to claim my right, and not to listen to sermons. 1 heard plenty of them, and tedious ones, too, when I was learning my grammar." Hereupon the estrangement broke into hostility. Robert fled into foreign parts, but was presently re- ceived and supported by Philip of France, who was glad to find so sharp a weapon wherewith to hew away some of the greatness of his rival William. The rebel prince was e>labli>liiil in the castle of Gerberay, on the borders of Normandy, and sujiplied with French soldiers, with whom he made preda- tory i'orays into his father's duchy. King William in great wrath crossed the channel with an English army and laid siege to the castle where Robert had made his stand. Hire it was that the famous incident occurred in which the king was brought within a siiiiile stroke of losing both his crown and his life.

On a certain day, when the u>ual desultory fiiihting was going on in the vicinity of the .•a-tle, Duke Robert, who had sallied forth, met anil engaged in deadly eontlict with a >talwart Norman knight, whom he had the

- I f.rtnne to unhorse and hurl to the

-round. Springing from his horse and draw- in- his sword, the duke was about to despatch lii< fallen fieman when the latter cried out for lielp. It was the v(,ice of William the

The latter, however, was sud- I with chivalrous and filial devo- ■ew himself on his knees before rostrate f>rm of his father, craved a d pardon, assi>ted the wounded William

11.

FEUDAL ASCENDEXCr.— FEUDAL ENGLAND.

into the sailiUe, and permitted liiiu to ride away to his own camp.

After this heroic episode, so illustrative of

the temper of the Jliddle Ages, strenuous ef- I'orts were made l)y William's frieuds and couuselors to efiect a reconciliation between

DUKE ROBERT RECOGXIZES HIS FATHER. Iiniwu by L. P. U-yL-iiai-clii.T.

UXIVKHSAL HISTORV. — THE MODERN WORLD.

him and \\U -.,,,. At lir,-t tli.' iji..nih.-.l aii.l augry kiii,<;-. >till wral; IVmhi ih,- womi-l which Kobert lui.l iiillictiMl, wniiM \u-.a- h< iiMthiiiu but submis.-inii and luiiii-hiin-nt. At K-ii-th, however, hi- wratii Mili-iilcil and h- arcrptL-d of the prddiual'- ripcntamr. Jiut it Mum a|>-

sincerity of hi- |hii-|)(i<i->. A secuud ijuanvl soon ensueil. and tlir |u-iiice was again driven

(Is Od

intrigue to make e (in-gnrv VII.,

fort	h, never tn -(	(■ his father more.	K.S	two
bro	h..rs, Willian	ami Henry, bv a	nion-	du-
tifii	1 cnndllrt ivt	u\w>\ their fath.-r'	alfr.'
au(	Wrrr dr-linr,	. each in ids turn.	to OCI	iipy
the	thn.nr of i;.	jhmd.

surrection at Durliam. The duty of govern- ing the warlike population of Xorthumbria had been intrusted to Walcher, of Lorraine, a valorou< lii-hop of the Church. His rulr was arbitrarv and oppros-ive. The Engli>li who appealed to him for redress of grievamts were treated with injustice and di-dain. Liulf, one of the noblest natives of Jsorthiiin- bria, having been robbed by some of the bishop's retainers, and appealing to that dig- nitary for redress, was repelled and presently assassinated, h^nra'jid at this crime against their race the ]']ngli,-h in the neighborhood of Durham made a conspiracy by night and came in great numbers, petitioning Walcher to render up the murderers of I^iiilf. Each of the yeo- men had a short sword hiddin under Iiis gar- ment. The bislaip pereeivinu^ that a tumult was threatened retired into the church, which was soon surrounded by an angry multitude. The building was fired, and Walcher and his satellites were obliged to come forth and be killed in preference to being burned to death. The murderers of Litilf were slain with the rest.

Fearful was the vengeance taken on the Northunibrians Wn- their savage deed. Odo, bish..p of ]!ayeiix, half-brother to King 'Will- iam, was sent with a large army against the

ceeded. with, Hit the sli-lite-t attempt to dis- criminate between the guilty and the innocent, to smite the whole di-ti-iet with fire and sword. Beheadings, mutilations, and bnrninL'-s were

,loo,

d his halfd,

tl bv

'Sted,

o Norm;

.lui

The years l(is;;-,s4 were filled with alarm on aeeonnt of the threatening movement of the Danes. In that country King Sueno and his son HaroM had both died, leaving the Clown to the illegitimate Canute, who did not hoitate to lay claim to England as the suc- ces-or of Canute the tireat. An issue was tlins niaile up between one royal liastard who coveted and another who held the English throne. Canute began his work by making a league with ( llaf the Peaceful, king of Nor- way. With them, also, was united Robert, earl of Flandtis, Canute's father-in-law, who piniiii^ed to furnish six hundred .ships to aid in the ex]iul.-ion i>f the Normans from Eng- land. It was proposed to bear down on the Island with an armament of a thousand .sail. When the squadron was about to depart ona distracting circumstance after another arose, and treachery followed treachery until the en- terprise was completely frustrated. The move- ments of his n(jrthern enemies, however, had sufficed for the -pace of two years to keep the Conqticior ill a state of anxiety and alarm, and to lay iijxni the English people such griev- ous liunlen> a- they liail rarely borne before. For William, by taxes, levies, and contribu- tions seized upon a large part of the resources of the kingdom in his preparations to meet and repel the Danes.

About the year 1080 was undertaken one of the mo.-^t memorable of the works of Will- iam the Conqueror. This was the great sur- vey of the kingdom of England, the results of which were recorded in the famous work known as Domesd.\y Book, which has ever since remained the basis of land tenure in tho-e pan- of the Island to which it applied. The kiiiL;V in>ticiaries, or agents, traversed the entire kingdom and gathered the required in- formation from the sheriffs, lords, priests, reeves, bailiffs, and villeins of each district. Thus wa- made out in detail a complete record

the b

lurches, monasteries, manors,.

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXL' v.— FEUDAL EXGLA^F).

teuauts in chief, ami under tenants (if the ILm.-e. At tlie jireseiit ihiy it lies seei

realm; and tc this were a.lde.l the name of a >i,nii- ,-hi>> ea>e in tlie Ofhee ..f

eaeh phl.'e, tlie name i.f the holder, the ex- lie.-urd,-, an.l may ih.av he cuusulte.l

tent of the holding, the wuud, the meadow, , williout payment <if a lee.

the pasture, the mills, the ponds, the live I Like many another inonareh the em

stock, the total appraisement, the number of of England was unhirtunate in hi> e|

viUeiusamlfreemen, ami the property of each. The >tory <,f Duke Uoherl's relHll,,

Upon the whole estate three estimates were dowatall has already Keen t,,ld. Did.

made bv the inmrs; Hrst. as the same had e.\- , ar.l, th.' .-econ.l horn, after wearin- t

secondlv, as the property was when granted byAViliiam t.. his va.sal's; and thirdly, as it now stood after the Iap,-i' ot' thirteen years.

the king's oiiioers was di-r^ted at Winchester and carefully recorded, the tir>t part in a great vellnm f)lio" (,f three hnndre.l and .-idity-tw,. double column pages, and the se,-on.l part in a ipiarto of four hundred and fifty pages. The first volume contains the d.-eriptiou of the estates in the counties of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, S..ntIiampton, T.erk-, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, Cornwall. Middh-ex, Here- ford, Bueks, Oxford, (ilonce-ter, W..rcester, Cambridge, Ilnntinedon, IJedf.rd, Xorthamp- ton, Lcicest..r, Warwi.-k, Stalli.rd, Salop, C'he.-^hir.', Derby, ^'otts Yoi-k, and I>incoln. The .-e,-on.l exhibits the lecor.l lor the coun- ties of K~>ex, ^'orfolk. and Snlfolk. together with ad.lilional Mirvev. f,r Wilt<, Dorset, Somerset, D<^von. and Cornuall. The two volumes were name.l re~peclively the Great and Little Domesday, and were at first carried about with the' kine- and the great seal of England. Afterwards they were deposited in the vault of the chapel ot the cathednd of Dcmu, I).;.'

So carefully was the ureat survey executeil and so accui-atelv were its result^ recorded thrtt the authority <.f D.aues.lay F.ook as an ul.imale appeal in matters allectin- the lan.l tides of IhcJand ha. never be,.n called in M,r a while the invaluable record

quest I

;it We

the auditor and .■handH-rlain .d the exel,e,pier. L: H;:i(! it was transferred to the ( 'haptei " "'"it lias l.eeii .li^pufe,] wlieilicr tile n:niie o| Dom.s.l.ni T',o,,k isn eornilition ef tl,e name of tli. catlie.li-al Ih„„ns I>,,. or wlieiher it is iirriperly

D„nnl,.I,ni I'.nok, 1 1 Ul I is. tile ! '.o, ,1c , ,f tlc UaV ol

hum,,. The I:, lie,- seems tol.ethe l.etler spellini; and etvicolo^jv.

the years ,>f his youth the s.'andal, ] the slamlcr, of iUegitinui.'y w.mt linn New Eorest and was goi'vd to deatl stag. The third son William, ami He f lurth, as they grew to manh 1, be;

nalely, however, both the youths w. ses.,.l of kingly abilities, tlmuuh neith. iiromise of the i.reeminent m-nius di;

On.

the woist ai-ts of King W

wiieii the maudumt abated, the roval : fambheil with abstinenee from blood, appease.l with the slau;Jiler of bea^ favorite n^siilence of the kiiie was tin Win.'hcster. Desirous that his hiiiili should be at no great distance from ilal William, without sernples, took ]. of all the southwvsteru i.art of 11,-

■ po.s- i;ave laved

[letite, IS best The ilv of : I'lark

village nioli-l,	d an.	haml 1 sw.-	'ts, :	11 ..f whi.-h were de- way that th.' native
w b liunter of the Park, we IV ,1 lime d	-. Th Con.p n whi, ■stin.:. it.^.l t	hthr to ,1	;■ pi ,■ b\	for the sport of royal h.. i-l..-.- of th.' reign stablidi.'.l X.'w F.irest n.v- .,f his own blood viol.ai.'c. From this ie <,f tliii-e gaiiM-laws
an.l f.	vstda\	-s wh	.•h 1	a\,' be,-ii th.' bane of
the pe •■For,'	.pi,. ,.t saith	Favj. .•v.a- Ikuvs	an.l fh.. iii.l	Fii-li~h n.,bl.' l.,rd, fox.'s w.irth 111.,!'.' thaU
the ba In	.■ .-hui h.. y..;	Is wh	i, tl	il.l .l.'str.iy tli.'iii?" ' king .'ail.'.l together
a 'jre: hold.r depart	t ass, 1.. r, WI t.i	mbhiL	.■ of ,. .,1	his in.bl.'s an.l fief- 1 their h..ma-.' before Hilt. Th.' gr.'at and
lesser sixty t	musai	d.'ass	leaf ■mbl	e.l at Winchester and

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

atU-rwan Noniiaiii of Fnin.'

I'hili

r~ J-Pt

Vv

■ ami ()i>". The .-itu- il a <-oai>e joke perpe- . kiug ut William's u the iiiagaziue. At , the Coiuiueror fell • wa^ (Irlaved till tiie

trated l>y th

expense was ;

this juncture.

sick, and iii>

followiu.u- year. Hut as seen as the suiuiuer

of 1087 had rii»iied the harvests and made

heavy the iuir|ple vineyards of France, the

now aged \Villiaui teek horse at the head of

his army and began an invasion of the disputed

territory.

The ehjective ])eiiit of the warlike expedi- tion was the city ef Mantes, capital of the eoveteil district, and thither the Conqueror made his way. liotreyiug every thing in his path. ilautes was besieged, taken, and burned. Just as tlie city, wrapped in the consuming Hame, was sinking into ashes, the Conqueror, eager to be in at the death, spurred forward his horse till the charger, plunging hi- fere feet into the hot embers of the rampail, reared backwards and threw tlie now corpulent kin;:' with great violence upon the pommel of th.' saddle. His body was ruptured, and it was eviilent that a fatal in- jury had been received. The wounded king was taken first to Rouen and thence to the monastery of >St. (Jervas, just outside the walls of the city. There for six weeks the king of England liiigere.l on the border of that realm where ihr -moke of burning towns is never seen. As deaili drew nigh, the in- vincible s]iirit of the man relaxed. The better memories and iiuipiises of his life revived, and he wouM fain in some measure make amends for his sins and crimes. His last days were marked hy sevei-al acts of benevolence and magnamiuity. He issued an edict releas- ing from eniiliiieiiiriit all the surviving state prisoners wimm lie had shut up in dungeons. He attempteil to (juiet the voices witliin him by contriiiutiii'j- lai-ue sums tor the endowment of churches and monasteries. He even re- membered the rebe.'lious Robert, and in his last hotirs conferred on him the duchy of Maine. As to the la-own of England', he made :io attempt to estalili>h the succession.

expres,si„„-^ however, the ardent wish tliat his son rriiiee William might obtain ami bold that -r.at inl;eritance. To Henry he pive live thou.s.uid. pounds of silver, with tlie ad- monition that, as it respeetid political powel-, he slionld oatiently aliide hi.- time. ()u the morning of the yth of .September, lOST, the great king was for a moment aroused from his stupor by the sound of liells, and then, after a st.a'iiiy au<l victorious career, and almost in sight of the spot of his birth, the sou of the tanners dauuhter of Rouen lav still and pulseless.

Unto his dying day William the Con- queror was followed by the curses of English- men. So hostile to him and his Hou.se were the native poi)ulations of the Island that Prince William Rnf'us, knowing the temper of the nation, deemed it expedient to secure by silent haste and subtlety the throne va- eati'd by his father's death. He quickly left Normandy and reached Winchester in ad- vance of the new- of the decease of the king. There he coutidid the momentous intelligence to the jn-iniate Lanfranc, archbishop of Can- terbury. Him he induced to become the <'hain])ion of his cause. A council of barons aiicl ])relates was hastily summoned, and the form of an eleeliou was had, in which, though not without opposition, the choice fell on Rufus. Such was the expedition with which every thing was done, that, on the sev- enteenth day after the ConquiTor's death, the kin-ele.'t was dulv crowne.l bv Archbishop

The tlr	t act o	f the 11. 'W sovereiun exhib-
iti'd at oil .if th.' -.V'	'.' his . . 11.'	wu .piality anil the tem])er i^sue.l orders that all the
EiKjVi.li 11.	ll.'S 1','.	.iitly liberated from prison
bv'hi.- fat	l.'r she	il.l again be seized and in-

carcerateil. Th.' Norm,

finne.l iu th.' h..iiors an.

theV had b.'el. re.'.'lltlv

i\[,'anwhih' Duk.' R.-l

n,n.r. or Shorl-IIos.', el

p,,.-.-

riianie.l Oimde- n .,f the C.m- .w lor maiiv years an .'xile in France laiiy, h.'ariii- .'f his fatlier's death, ^pe.-.l into Normandy and claimed lom. Hi' was received with great le prelates of R.meii, who, f.irtitie.l in-.le.'isio,i of Kiii'^ William, ula.llv

FEUD A L A SCEXD KXC 1 '. — FE i 'DA L EXO L . 1 XD.

he?:tinveil the ( Priuce Henry, pounds bequeat going into a i jealous eye of <! Thedispo-iti. brothers was little C(in<h tious among them. But were tnrhident spirits,

,^l, II th

I- la

Wi

ht km„

tlR I ill
Th, kui_ It th hill	111	1 1 1
a^iin t Bi h 1 Ol «h 1	lit	ititi 1
111 r he tei Ci tk In	m th	n t th
wtie ]iit enth dm en m	P	\tn i\

was such as greatly to embarrass the vassals of the two princes. Many of the 11, lilies had estates both in Eng- laii,l and in Xnriiianily. All such h,d,l a ,livid,,l all.-iaii,-,. t,, William and Kiibert, and it became their interest either to preserve the peace or else to dethrone either the duke or the king. In a short time an alarm- ing conspiracy was made in Englan,l with a view to unseating William aii,l the placing of Robert ,iii tlu' thniiie. The chief manipulatur <it' the phit was Bishop Oilo, half-uncle of Robert, who found in him a ready and able servant. The Duke ,if Norman, ly, for his part, promise, 1 tn senil over an army to the supprnt ,,1 his .■,iiife,l,.iates.

Th,' ,'nn<piracy gathered hea,l in Kent aii,l Diirliaiu, and in the West. In these parts the revolt broke out with violence. But there was little concert of action, and the insurrection made slow headway against the es- tablished order. The army of Duke Robert was delayed until a fleet of English privateers — first, perhaps, of their kind in modern times — put to sea and cut off the Norman .squadron in detail. Siuce the movement against the king proceeded exclusively from his Norman sub- jects, the English rallied to his banner. In oriler to encourage this movement nf the na- tiv,'s a^aiii-t lii< in-urgent cuiiitrymen, he

wh,i hail >iirviv,'d thr,iugli twenty years of warfar,', aii,l tn them made pledges favorable to their oiiiitryiiieii. It thus happened, by a Strang turn in th,' p,,liti,'al attaiix of the kint:,l,ini, that the ,.1,1 lMi-li>li stock revive,!

after seven weeks they w,'re ,ivei scattered. Odo was taken jiiis,, onler t,i save his life agreed to gi ester Castle to the king anil to laii,l f,iivver. At this time, h.	tliiv.wn aP,l ler, an,] in •e up Roch- leave Eng- wever, the
castl,' was lii'l,] by En<ta,'e, I'arl .,	■ 15„nl„giie,
whii making a pr,'t,'n<,' ,if wrath a c,.lhHi,.ii with <),l,i, sei/,,',1 that	1,1 a, -ting in irelate and
drew him within the walls. •I'h,'	hfeiise was
begun aiew, ami was linallv In	niulit to a
,'1.,M' bv ,li^,'ase an,l faniin,-' rati	,'r than bv

fi42

U:^IVKi;SAJ. IIISTOUY. — THE MoUEUX WORLD.

,1 K\vA\A\ IVankliiis wDuld i After tlir .~.itlcineiit of his affair.- uu the

fuiu liave .l.-trov.-.l the uIm sin-v.il.. j;,it ll,.' .\..riuai Kiifu- i.a.l many iVim.l- : aii.l th,' i;in- v,a.< ia.lu.v,!

leave the

of Duke Kul.er 11. .thin-.

The ten,,,,,- the a-e new .lei porters of Willi

Altera seasm and eanie t.

I-- and the .-pirit ol

taliati<in. The su})- Ivui'us \v

^land determiued to ! led to a

itinent. William Itufus was fjr a while en- ;vd, in a war willi Maleolm Caeuniore, king S.niland. The latter had heen the ajT- s-..r durin- the ah-.n.v ol' Kufus from Ids -dom. When William retarne.l, he fell in the .Seottish army, then iu jS'orthum- land, and inllieted on the enemy a signal eat, in wiiieh l.ioth Malcolm and his son

In the year lOli:!, the iiou-coniplianee of

tei-ms of the treaty of Caeu

;il of hostilities between him

make \\ar on leilirri S||,iit-ll(ise in his own , ami JJid;e liohei't. The French king came

dnehy. The edmllllnii .it' allaiis iu Normandy t.i the ix-seue of the latter, but "William suc-

fav.Mv.l snili an .iil. rpiis.'. The duke, al- eeed.'.l in liriliiu;: him t.) retb-e into his own

way- m.ir.^ .■.inia;j.'.ius than prudent, had, e.iunti-y. It.ilurt \vas tiius left alone to strug-

duehy fell int. I anarehy. In his distress Kob- i havf wre-t.-.l fr.uii Itobert the whole duchy ei't ma.le .ivertui-.'s Id the king of France, <if X..rman.ly had not the affairs of his own '.vh.i. pr.iinisin-- his ai.l, marched an army to . r.alm .l.inan.le.l his immediate return from t:.:' fr.mti.r .if X.irman.ly, hut lent u.i ].raeti- I th.' e.mtiuent. cal as-i.-tan.'e t<i hi< ally. A counter insurree- ti.in fav.iralil:' to Kin'- William n.iw br.ike out in th,' <luel,y an.l ua- with .litH.-ultv ,-np- pn-M,d. .Al.anuhil.. William liufiis .i.rupi.;.! his time with pr.'paiati.ins, an.l in the begin- ning .if lO'.il er..,-.-.Ml .iv.a- with an English army int.. X.irman.ly. When the i.ssue be- tween the twii lir.ith.a-s was ab.iut to come to the ariiitranii'iit ..f battl.', the king of France

F.ir the pe.iple of Wales ha.l now rf-en against the ^..iiuan d.imini.m, and the revolt s.i.m became on.' of the mo.st alarming that ha.l iHcnn.'.l f.c many y.ars. The insurgents hrsl IMl upon an.l .■aplnre.l the castl.^ of :\[.intg.iinery an.l then ..verran Cli.-hire, Shr,ip,-hire,"lIeretonl.-hnv, ami the i.de ,if An- gh-.-a. On reaching his kingdom, Kufus at line.' niarchcil into the reliellious di.-trict, but jr, and a treaty of i c.ml.l nut liring the Welsh mountaineers to a ]i.'ace wa- .■on.'ln.l.-.l at Caen. The terms i g.inral battle. The enemy kept to the hilla were vei-y fav.ualil.' t.i the English king, who ' an.l lor.'st-, whence they sallied forth iu sud-

in ca.e Duke Koli Thi,- settlemen

- .if his brothers realm, .1.

.in .if the whole duchy F

lul.l die iirst. ' m

of cour.se, exceediuglv la

di,-tast..ful t.i I'i'in.M. H.-nry, who stiU la his c.iv.'rt awailin- th.' .I.'ath or d.iwnfa

I'uctive attacks uji.m tin- r.ival forces, y.ars the king with hi. Wavy N,..r- alry c.iiitinut.l an un-uecessful war- his ri-lii'lli.ius snlii.'.'ts; but he was I r.Mlii.v them t.i s!dimi.-i.in, ami was ibli-.'.l 1.1 .■unteiit himself with the

.1 .11

It .if th. He

ilv that h.' liroke in ■ I'.'.l hiniM-lf bri.-lb,

i.i-. In thi'si' he cstalilished garrisons ami h.n tnrn.il asi.ic to put down an insurrection .1 t'l th.- alm.ist'impreg- in the N.irili, whl.-h was h.;a.leil by Ilobert s.if St. :\Iicliael, off' the ; .Mowbray, earl of N.irthumberlan.l,

In lu:)(i ihe English kin- lound hit-self • on.-.' more In resume operations a'^ainst

-e.l by the forces of wa< at last obli-od

„.,,,H,,iis were taken X.

William an.l U.ib.. t.i .■apinilati'. Al away, an.l h.' was i l;:ittany, a.-c.impani.Ml by ,ine knight, three I u

.ly. In the pr.'.-eiling autumn, how-

v.a-, an cv.nt ha.l .n'cnrr..! which, in a most

.1 maiimr, .l.ri.l...! th.' wh.ile ques-

ni'. Till' Council of Clermont was

FE UDA L ASCEXD A'.VC i'. —FEUD A L EXG LA XD.

■<V-\

called by Urban II., aud all Western Eun.pe had taken tire at the recital of the outrages <loue to the Christians in the East. Duke l\(iliert was among the first to catch the en- thusiasm aud draw his s\v..rd. What was the maintenance and developmcut (if his province of Normaudy compared with the glory of smiting the infidel Turk wlm sat crossdegged on the tomb of Christ'/ Jiiit the coii'ers of the fiery Robert were empty. In order to raise the means necessary to cpiip a baud of Xorman Crusaders, he proposed to his brother Kufus to sell to him for a period of five years the duchy of Normandy for the sum of ten thiiusand pounds. The ofler was tjuickly ac- cepted, and William in order to raise the mouey was coustrained to resort to such cruel exactions as were, by the old chroniclers, compared to flaying the people alive. I>iit the tell thousand pounds were raised ami paid into the trca<ury of Robert, who -hid.ly ac- cepted the o[)portunity thus atil.i-ded of ex- changing an actual earthly kingdom for the prospect of a heavenly.

In entering upon the possession of Nor- mandy thus acijuired, William Rufus was well received by his subjects. The people of Elaine, however, were not at all disposed to accept the change of masters. Under the leadership of then- chief nobleman, the Baron of La Fleche, they rose in hot rebellion, and it was only after a serious conflict that the king succeeded in reducing them to submis- sion. Once aud again the presence of Will- iam was demanded in JIaine to overawe tlie disaffected inhabitants. In the last of his ex- peditious in that province the king received a wound, which induced him to return to Eng- land. On reaching home he found that the crusading fever had already begun to spread in the Island. Several of his noblemen, imi- tating the cxam|)le of Duke Robert, preferred to mortgage or sell their estates in order to gain the means to join in the universal cam- paign against the Infidels. Cleans were thus artordcl the kin- of -r.atlv extending his territorial po><is-ioiis. ISut while engaged in this win-k his career was l>rotight to a sudden and tragic end.

In the summer of the year 1100, William, aecov.ling to his wont, sought the excitement of the chase in the great hunting iiark of New

Forest. He was accompanied by several of his nobles. Among tlu' rest was Sir Walter de Poix, better ku<iwn by his Euglisl: nunie of Sir Walter Tyrrel. The cavalcade v\a^ gay

the gnat trees of .Malu bkeep. When

the eomiiany in higli spirits were aljout to begin the hunt, a messenger came runninL:^ to

St. I'etet'sat ( lTouce,-,er ha.l dnamt a dna.n of horrid p.,rteul respecting the sud.len death of tlie king. ■■(iive him a hundred pence," sai.l Rufus, "and hid him dream of belter fortune to our pers.m. I),, th.y think I am one of those fools that give up their pleasiu'e or tlieir busine.ss becau.se an old woman hap- jiens to dream or to sneeze. To hoise, Wal- ter ,le Toix!"

Hereupon the reckless king with his

I n companions dashed into the woods and

began the chase. Towards evening a hart sprang itp lietweeu Rufus ami the' thicket where Sir Walter was f,r tlie moment stand- ing. The king drew his bow to ,|,out; l)Ut the striug snajijied, and his anow went wide of the mark. He rai-ed his hand as if to sha<le his eyes while watching the hart and called aloud'to his companion, •■Jn the name of the devil, sh.iot, Walter, sli.Hit 1" Sir Wal- ter at oi'.ce let fly his arrow, but the fatal shaft, glancing against the siile of an oak, struck William iu the left breast ami pierced him to the heart. He fell from his hor.e and expired without a wonl. Nor has autlieiitic historv ever lieen able to de.'ide whether the bolt tiiat sped him to his ,leath was, according

to common traditi winged by accident or

whether it was purposely sent on its deadly mi.ssiou either by Sir Walter hinist It or liy some secret foe of the king ambushed in the thicket. At any rate, the childless William Rufiis died with an arrowdiead in his breast in the .lepth of New F.ire.t liunting-i:n.und, and the pojudar superstition was i-infirnied that that great Park creal.d aloretiuK^ by the de-i strucliou of so n.iany Anglo-Saxon handets and churches, was (lestiihd many times to be wet with the blood of tiie royal tyrants whose wanton ]>assions were therein excited aud gralilie.l.

The history of Feudal England has thus I.eer traced tVom the b,-innin- of the Nor-

6-IJ r.V/IAV/.s.lA inyinl!V.~THE MODERN MORLI).

man .Ux-whuvy in tl,<' tin,,- nf V,Ux:u;\ ll„. i Kufus

JLilH (It \\n lUM 1 I Fit,

FEUDAL ASCEXDILXcy.—MOHAMMEDAX STA TE>_

r,4.

be recalled, the jieople «f the vaiinus >tatrs tlir Li..n Hi-art liftr-l his liattlf-axc a-aiiist

were already ill uuiversal riiininutioii tV.uii tin.' the Iiihdels; hut the dati- nf the Council (if

preaching of the Fir.<t Crusade. In iu-uhir Cleriiiuut (A. D. KnCii has ;dr.adv lici.ai

England the excitement was by no means s<i Hxed upon as the limit nf tlic ]ircM ui IJunk

great; nor was English society thoroughly | and the beginning nf the mxt. JIcit, iIkh,

aroused until in the succeeding reigns of , we pause in the narrative nf JCniilidi aliiurs,

Stephen, Henry Plantagenet, an. I l;i<'liai-d I. j with the purpose of ivsumiiig the same here-

This fact would indicate the ciuitiuuaiirc of after with the accessi.in of Henry, surnamed

the present narrative down to tiie time wlirn | ]i(-auclei-c, to the throne of England.

CHAPTER LX.XXX'III.— MOH.-\MMEDA?v! STATES AND NORTHEKX IvIXOLJOMiS.

'ET us again, I'm- a brief scas.iii, folhiw the yellow Crescent of Islam, waning in the West, fulling in the East. The history of the Mohammedan power IS been given in the preceding Eook from the time of the Prophet to the age of decline in the Caliphate of Damascus during the reign of Merwan H. The latter, who was the fourteenth ami last of the Ommiyad Dynasty, held the throne till the year 750, when a contest broke out between him and Abul Abbas, which ended in the over- throw of Merwan ami the setting up of the Abbasside Caliph. Abul Abbas claimed to be a lineal descendant of 'Sh- hammed's uncle Ablia-, and for this reason the name Abbassidce was given to the House.

Not only was Merwan overthrown by his enemy, but the Ommiyades were presently afterwards as- sembled with treacherous mtint but two of them were iiuirderi'd. survivors escaped, the one intn A the other into Sjiain. Tlu' Arab becam.> the head of a line of in

century, and he who came to Spain laid the foundation of the (_'aliphate of Cordova.

Having secured the throne of Damascus, Abul Aljbas began a reign of great severity. The fugitive Merwan was pursued into Egypt and barbarously put to death. 'I'iic xictorinus Caliph earned' for himself ihr nainr of Al- .Saffah, or the Blood-.-liedder. So complete was the destruction of his enemies that in all the East none durst raise the hand against him. The new dynasty was hrmly established ii-oiu Mauritania to the borders <if Persia.

i^i^^

nil	ill	^pain	-ecuied hei indi pi n	1, n .	but the le-
Th.	two	maind	erof the M. .hammed	m state	^ fell to the
d.ia	and	Abl.a^	-ide..
)nii	iyad	At	er a ivi-ii of f lur V(	ar>' .In	■ati.m Abul
al 1	ulers	Al.l.a-	died, and was sueee	■ded nl	th.- thr.me
<ixt(	eiith	l.y hi-	brnther Ar,-:\rANsori	. Til..	s.iverei-nty

r,4r,

UMVJ-m^SAL HISTORY. — THE MODKUX WOULD.

was also claimed Ijy his unrle Abaaliah, l.y \\lioui tin- (k-.-trucliuii i.r tilt- Uiiuuiya.lus had hc-L-u accniuplidaMl. Al.dallah Innk" up aims to maimaiu his caii.-e, I. at Ahii Mo.k-m, tho lieuteiiaut of Al-^laii.>oui', wriil IVirth agaiust the insurgents, and ilicy were eomjjletely de- feated. Abu Moslem, however, soou after- wards incurred the anger of his master, and was deprived of his eves for refusing to accept the gnv.n.ni-hip of "H::vpt. J.ike^is prede- ces-.r, Al-.Man-.ur marked his reign with

cal sect, calle.l'the Havendites, whose primd- pal leu.'l was the ..Id l^iivptian doctrine ..f

of t'ulii, the then .apital cd' the Eastern C'alipliale. They fell into violent quarrels and riots with the orthodox J\I(jliammedaus, and thus c'ame under the extreme displeasure of the Cahph. Afttr much violence and Idood-hed, Al-.Man<uur d.'lerndned to punish the citv and people hv removinii- the capital to another place. IlJ ae.-ordinglv selected a site on the Tigris, .mce o.^cuided by the As-yrian kin-s and there fnunded the new city of Ilaglidad, whieh wa- .h-iiiie.l to remain

the Mnhammedan kii.g.ioms in the East.

In the year 7C)1.'-C>:j the >eat of g(.ivernment was traiistirreil, and Al-.Mansour began his reign of twc>nty-(jne yeai'^ with beautifying his pahiee and drawing in his court the art and learning ,.f his cunlrvmen. It was n<.t Ion-, how.'ver, until he was obliged to go to war. The descendants of Ali, sou of Abu Taleli, raised the standard of revolt and attempted to recover the Caliphate. The armies of Al- :Man-,ur, however, -aine,l the vi.-t.iry <,v<r the < iie,nie< of their inaMer, ami A-ia :Minor and Armenia, in whieh the in.Mirre.-tion had made mn-t headwav. w.re redn.-e.l to subnds- .sion. r.ut in the West Ihe revolt hehl on its wav and .-..uld not be suppressed. Distance and the intervening :\Ie.literranean favored the rebellion ill Spain to the extent of secur- ing the independence of that i.rovince, which could never be re-ained bv the Eastern Caliphs.

IJiit more impr)rtant than the r,-ars of Al-.^laii>our wro his (tforts to set tip a higher standard (d' literarv enltiiiv than ha.l hitherto been known amon^- the .Mohammedans. The

dkp,

ous of Islam were reasonable view of

made to yield to a moi human culture and retiuement. The art> and humanities embalmed in the works of the Greeks were revealed by translation to the wondering philosophers of the Tigris, ^vho were stimulated and encouraged in their work by the liberal patronage of the Calijih.

After a successful and distinguished reign of twenty-one years Al-.Mansour died, an.l W'as succeeded by his son .M.uiJH, who held the throne for a [lerioil of ten years. Perhaps the mo.-t di>iiiigui>lied part of his reign re- late.I to th.' slav.' Khai/eran, by whom he be- came the lath.r ,.f the .elelirate.l llar.mn Al-Ua-hi.l, m..>t di.^tingiii.di.Ml .,f all th.' Ca- liphs of the East. The young prince liecame his father's chief military leader. He eom- nian.led an army of ninety-five thousand men in an expedition against the Byzantiii.' Imu- jiire, then ruled by the Empress Irene. \\'ith his weU-uigh invincible soldiers, he marched thr.iugh Asia Minor, overthrew the (-ireek gi'iieral, Isicetas, in battle, reached the I>os- jihorus, and in the year 7S1 gained possession .if the heights of Scutari, opjjosite Constanti- n.iple. iSuch was the alarm of the Empress an.l her council that she was glad to purcliase the retirement of the Mohammedans bv the payment of an annual tribute of .seventy thousand pieces of gold.

AVhile the fame of the.se exploits was fill- ing all the realms of Islam with the name of the slave-woman's son, his elder brother IIadi was busily engaged in a conspiracy to destroy b.ith his reputation and his life. Kor was the bitterness of Hadi at all appeased when, iu 7s."i, the lather ^Mah.li died and left him heir to the Caliphate. No sooner had he reached thi> p.isition than, fired with increasing jeal- ousy, he issiitd or.leis lor the execution of llaroun; an.l tlie edict was prevented from fulfillment onlv bv tli.> .h-ath ..f Ila.li, who

When

l-.l, Al.dlASIlID

His t'haracter and aliilities lar >urpas>ed those of any ].rece.ling Caliph. AVith his accession came the gol.leii era of ^Mohammedanism. In his .l.'alin-s with the ditterent nations under his .iomini.n,, he fully m.'fite.l his h..i,orabIe sobii.iu.t ..f the Just.' He selecte.l his miu-

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXCY.—.VniLLVMEDAX STA TES.

isters from the diflereut states of the Empire, aud thus united in his government the chiims and sympathies of all. Among those who were thus brought into his administration were Tahya and his t^im JalTar, two of the ancient tire-worshiping priest- hood of Persia. By their influence the people whom they represented were greatly advanced in the favor of the Ca- liphate, and even the religious system of Zo- riiastrr, which had waned almost to extinction, was permitted to Inirn more brightly while it- r.pre- seutatives remaineil in power.

In his foreign rela- tions, Harouu Al-Kashid busied himself in strengthening his front- iers on the siile of tho Byzantine Empirt-. While thus engaged, a disgraceful war broke out between religious factions in Syria. The general Musa was sent by Al-Rashid into this region, aud the leaders of the rival parties were captured aud tuktu to Baghdad. An en.l was thus made of the Syrian dissensions, and Jaffar was appointed governor of that province, includ- ing Egypt.

It was at this time that the powerful family of the Barmecides be- came predominant in the aflfliirs of the Caliphate. The head of this family, Khaled ben Barmek, had been the tutor of Haroun Al-Rashid in liis youth. It was his son, Tahya, who became prime minis- ter in 786. Twenty-five members of the fam- ily held important oflices in the diflerent jjrov- inces of the Empire. For fifteen years, their

ascendency remain( in 803, a crrcunista fuel to the alreadv Hashid and led to' t

	ABBAS.
	Abdullah.
	Mobl.l.
Ibrahim. 1. .\n	■l ABBAS, A. U. 754. 2. AL Ma;	SUE, 775.
	3. Ma	4ia,7s5.
4. Hadi. 797. 5. Hae	iU-SALRASCHID,S09.
6. Al A.mix, nix	1 7. AL Ma.MVN, 8.33. 8. AL MoT.	ssiM, S42.
M..hamm.-.l.	9. VaTHEK, S47. 10. M.. TAW.	KKEL, SOL
1 . 12. IIOSTAIX SGG.	14. MoHTADI, S70.	AZZ, 867.
Mowaffak. 11. Maxiasie,	62. 15. MOOTAMIL, .'.M. I:.;. Moo
IR. MOi'.TAL.ILi, ■102.
I'j. Kahie, y.i!. IS. M	_l ^_^ __ \
	1 22. M.i-TAKFI, 946.
Ishak. ■-	3. M.iTi, 974. 21. MuTTAKI, 945. 20. RATI, 941
25. Kadib, ;031.	24. TaI, 993.
26. Kaim, i079.
Mohammed al Di	n.
27. Moktadi, 1099.
2S. Mo&TAzniE, 1124.
31. MOKTAFI, 1167. 29. M	..STAKSIIID. 114L
32. MOSTANJID, 1178. 30.	Raechid, 1142.
33. MOSTADI, 11S7.
34.X.is,E,1234.
35. Zahir, 1235.	THE ABBASID CALIPHS.
36. M0STAKSI'E,1252.	Caliphs in small capitals, ami dated.
1 37. MoSTASIM. 1255.

idsnn ofKha- Abassa, sistei er rein-eseuted

rides. Tlie minister .Tatlar, l led ben Barmek, made love of the Caliph; aud when the to Ilaroun that his afleetion for tlie princess was purely platonic, it was agreed that he might marry her. In course of time, how- ever, Abassa jtreseuted her singular lord with

UXIVKRSAL HlfiToHY.—THE MODKHX WORLD.

au lieir, greatly I So hot was lii> r; be beheadi'il. T: anil tlirown into N.-arlv all tlir n

,f the Calii.h. ,-e<l Jatfar tu Aveiv chaine.l

.,f p:

and imprisiiiiiuiiit. The iiilliieuet- df tlie House was thus muMiiiIv ihrnwu uA'. But the luemoiy of Al-Ka-hid sufi'rivd imt a little from the aratiliealinu of his jias-ieu against those whom he had no eau>e of hating other than jealousy.

In the same year with the dowutall of the Barmecides, >»ieeiihorus, haviugtheu sueeeeded Irene on the throne of the Byzantine Emjiire, made a sudden show of old-time virtue by re- fusing payment of the annual tribute agreed to by his predecessor. Not only did he de- cline longer to continue the stipend, but he sent an endia>sy to Al-IIashid, demanding a restituticm of all the sums previnudy jiaid l.iy Irene. Thereupon the Caliph, tlaming with rage, returned the following i)erspicuous but undiplomatic message: "In the name of the 3I(,st Merciful G.mC Har.um Al-Rashid, com- mander of the Faithful, to Xicephorus the Koman dog. I have read thy letter, 0 thou son of au unbelieving mollier. Thou shalt not hear, thou shalt lielmld my reply." Xor was this threatening manifesto without au im- mediate fulfillment. The Calii)h put himself at the head of his armv, wasted a large part of A>ia Minor, besiegvd the city of He- raelia, and (piiekly oliliged Xicephorus to resume the payment of tribute.

The Emperor was not yet satisfied, and soon violated his agreement. In 806 Harouu

five thousLiid men, ovrrtook Xirrphnrus in Phrygia, and defeated him with a loss of forty thousand of his troops. 8till the Greek Em- peror was not satisfied. Two years later, he again refused to p;'V the stipulated tribute, and Al-Ha-hid .■an„'up,,n him with an army twice a. gr.-at as ]Uvviouslv. He ravaged A.ia Min,,r f. tli^ iM.nhrs ,.f'the .Egean, and thru takin- to hi^ flr.t, ,,vernin the islands of < 'rete. Tile tribute was

i;hod,..,(yp,a
reimpoM d 1,11 ever. But 1,;	^ll^
tired from th	•ir
ious Greek Y,	npi

M

perfid- .tl- his

enga'.;fnient and took up arms. Haroun re- mwed the war with tlie greatest fury, swear- ing that he m ver would treat again with such an oatli-hriaking enemy as Xicejihorus. But liitoic his vengeance on the Grerk could wivak a bloody satisfaction, a rev(.ilt liroke out in Klioia.-an, and Al-Eashid was recalled fioia the West to overawe the insurgents. Bit'ore naehinL:- the revolted province, how- ever, he fell sick and died, leaving behind a reputation i'or ambition, prudence, and wis- dom uneipuded by any of his 23i"edecessors in the Caliphate. He had a breadth of appre- hension which would have been creditable in a sovereign of modern times. He cultivated the aeijuaintame of the great rulers of his age. He corresponded with Charlemagne, and in the year 807 sent to that monarch a water-clock, an elephant, and the keys of the j H.ily Sepulch.r. Xine times did Al-Bashid make the pilgrimage to 3bcca. Above all his contemporaries, he sought to encourage the dcvclopiiiciit of literature and art. About his court Hia-e gathered the greatest geniuses of Islam, and le-end an.l poetrv have woven about his nam.' the imperishable garlan.l of the Arnlwui M,ihl.<.

On the -leath of Al-Rashid, in the year 8(1'.), the su.'cvsMou was contested by his two sons, Ai.-Amin- and Al-.Mamoun. The former (.laained the throne and held it f.r four years. But his brother grew in favor and power, and when in 813 the issue came to be settled by the sword, Al-Amiu was killed and Ai.-^lAMurx took the Caliphate. He entered upon his administration by adopting the pol- icy of his ihther, especially as it related to the encouragement of learning. The chief towns of the East were made the seats of academic instruction and philosophy. Many imporiaut ^Mirks were translated from the (Jreek and the Sanskrit. From the Hindus were obtainecl the rudiments of the mathe- j matical sciences, especially those of arith- I metic and algebra. Ancient Chalda;a gave to the in.|ui-itive >clio]ars of the age her wealth ofstardorv; while the elements of logic, nat- ural hi-torv. and the Aristotelian system of j.hilosnphv'were brou-ht iu fVom the Archi-

I As a warrior Al-Mamoun was 1.-. .li-tin- ' ouishcd. In hi> eountrv, as iu the We.-t, a

FEUDAL ASCKXDEyry.— MOHAMMEDAN STA TES.

11 tlu' .

.p.ll,l,.,

n, llu'

isruptive force Ijegaii to appear in the u'ov-

froiii the center (jfthe Empire, regaiued their ■e. liiiliMMJ, near the close of his ili.~iiitegratiou became alarniiug ; anil when the ;:iiveniineut passed by liis deaili, in the war ^:;;i. ta his l)r..tlier Al- iloTAs^loi, the' Empire seemed .in the verge of dissiiliiiiou. The hitter sovereign received the name of the Octonar}', for he had fought e)<j]it victorious battles with the enemies of Ishim.' His reign, however, Ls chiefly notable for the fact that at this time the Seljukian Tnriis began to be a jjowerful element both in the armies and government of the Caliph- ate. The Seljuk soldiers surpassed in courage and vigor any others who ranged themselves under the Crescent. Daring the siege of Amo- riiiin, in Phrygia, in the year So.S, in wliich the army of the Emperur TlicipliiUn was envi- r.ined by the M..hanime,hiiis, it was the Tnrk- ish cavalry that dealt the most te:riljh> blows to the Greeks. Thirty thousand .if th.' ( hri^- tians were taken captive and re.hi.-.-.l to slav- ery, an.l .ither thirty thoiism.l were slau-li- t.iv.l ,.n the li.l.l. Er.ini this time lortli, the Turks were receive.l into the ./ai ital. They lieeame the guards of the Caliph's pal- ace, and it was not long until tli.-y liel.l the same relation to the government as .11.1 th.' ])netoriau cohort six hundred years b.foiv to the Imperial househol.l in Rome. It was .^ti- niated that by the mi.l.lle ..f the ninth .vnt- ury there were fullv titty thousan.l Turks in Baghda.l.

1 dangerous patronage of the wed .m a ra.'e of lawless for-

Tigris, ali.int forty miles .listaiit from the cap- Ual an.l ih.re otal.lidi a ii.'W nival ivsLlcnce. Th.. Caliph M.irAWAKKi:!., next aVhr Vatiiick, S.m .if .M.ilns.eni, >till fnrth.r yur.nu-.virA the Turkish u-rru,l-ury until th.' uuar.l-, having come t.i pivf.a- ih.' I'riii.v .M. -N rAss,;,:, .-on of the Caliph, ninr.l..re.l th.ir ma^.r ami ..t up the y.iuth in his stea.l. The latt.r eni,.v,.l or sutfen.l the fruits of his eriine n.. m.uv than six months, wli./u the same powta- that had creat.'.l, .l...-trov...l him, ami set up his brother M,,STAIX, who reigii.,1 until SCili, From this time until the close ..f ih.- .■.nlurv, f mr ..ther obs.aire < aliphs— ^b itaz. .■\l.iirrAiii, .Motam- MEi. an.l .M.iTAiiiii:].— n.-.v,.l,Ml .a.^li other in rapi.lsn.v,>M..n in th.. Caliphate. The f.ill.iw-

r.i-iis, b.ing th.i... .,f .M.iktafi I., :\Ioktader, Kah. r, Kha.li, .Mottaki, M.istakti, :\b,thi, Tai, an.l Ka.ler. I-lxcejit in a sp...ial historv of the East..rn Caliphat.., but littl.. interest w.iul.l b.. a.l.:_..| t<, the general annals of man- kiml by n.-itiii- in detail the bl.i.i.ly and criminal pr. igi'os of events on the Tigris and in A-ia Minor.

Ill th.. billowing— the t..iith~|.entury the

This new a Caliphate best eign.'rs, warlik..,

medan countries.

Even during the reign of .Motassem, who was the Edward Confessor of the East, the quarrels of his Turkish guards with the native inhabitants of P.a.Ji.la.l (iro-

yenrs, eis;lit months, a: ei'j:ht sons, eisbt flaushti and eight millions of t,'ol

iiiclers, 5I.5tassem ivereisn. He was He reicne.l eiirht t .lays. TI,. l,.ft [ th.iusan.l slaves.

abl.. .lominati.in was f.lt an.l re-..iit...l almost cpially by th,. moiv .,ui..t .Mohamme.lans of th.. soiitli-u..,-t .li~tii..|- .if th.. Caliphate and by th.. Christians wh... .spi.-ially in th.- H.:.lv Lan.l, w.re sulij<.rt,..l to ev..ry linniiliati.m an.l barbarity uhi.li the .Sljuks ciul.l well invi.nt. Thi- ..ii-.-umstaiice, viewed from the A>iatii. staii.l]H,iiit, was the antecedent condi- tioii .if that liir.... tmni.iil .if excitement and wrath whi.h .spna.l tlir.iUL:h W..-t..rn Eur.ipe in Ihe latt..r lialf of lli.- el.. v.. nth ....ntiiry and broke out in the wilil tiame of th.. Crusa.les.

Meanwhile the Crescent still fl.iat...l over Spain. For in the gnat iii<.s..ripti.iii of the nmiuiva.l.s a i-.ival y.mth, named Alirif.iniAll- MAX. son ..f .■\lerwan 11., ..s.ap.-l the rage of the Alilia>M.l. s an.l II. ..1 inlo W.-Lrn AlVi.^a. From tli..n.... h.. nia.l.. hi- wav into Spain, wli..r<.. .111 th.. ...la-t ..f AmlaliiHa. h.. was sa- liU(..l with ill.. a....lamati..iis .if th.. iii.onle.

H..

rXIVEi;SAL HISTDUY. — THE MODKRX WORLD.

a bnet straggle with the eniiteii<hii-- taeti..iis, under the leadei>hip of rival i mir,-, he was elevated to the thnnK' of Cordova, and thus, in 756, was established the Oinmiyad dynasty iu the Western Caliphate.

While these movements were taking plaee south of the Pyrenees, the ]\[ohaiuiiiedaus were gradually expelled from their foothold in the North aud driven back into Sjiain. The triumph of the Franks, however, was as advantageous to the Mohammedans as to themselves. A mountain barrier was estab- lished between the two races, and the Islam- ites were left on the southern slope to con- centrate their energies aud develop into nationality.

At tirst the head of the Eastern Caliphate relished not the idea of the independence of Spain. On the contrary, it was determined to make a strenuous effort to subject the Ca- liphate of Cordova to the scepter of Baghdad. One of the Abbasside lieutenants was sent into Spain with a fleet and army, but was overthrown iu battle and slain by Abderrab- man. The Caliph Al-Mansour at length came to understand that it was best for his rival to be left undisturbed in the West, lest his dan- gerous energies should be turned against him- self. By the time of the accession of Charle- magne, tlie Caliphate of Cordova had alreaily grown so much in solidity and strength as to become a formidable power with which to contend, even to the king of the Franks. The meager success, or positive unsuccess, of Char- lemagne's expedition against Saragossa has already been narrated in the preceding Book.

Much of the glory of the Arabian civiliza- tion in Spain must be referred to the great- ness of Abderrahman and hLs reign. To him the city of Cordova was indebted for the most magnificent of her mosques, of which structure the Caliph himself was the designer. He also it was who jilanted the first palm-tree in Cordova, and from that original all the palms of Spain are said to be descended. His immeiliate successors were Hashem I., Al- Hak;eii I., and ABDERRAroiAN II., whose reign extended to the year 852. The greatest of the House after the founder was Abderrahmam III., who in the beginning of the tenth cen- tury occupied the throne for forty-nine years. The whole Ommiyad Dynasty in Spain em-

braced the ni-ii- of twenty-two Caliphs and extended to thr y.ar lii:;i, wiirn Ila.-h.ni 111. was deposed by a nvoliition having it> ori-iu in tlie army. During this time Spain, iindrr tiu' patronage of the :Mohamnudans, maile greater progress in civilization than at anv period before or since. -Vgriciiltnre and com- merce were pr(Jinoted. Science aud art flour- ished, and institutions of learning were estab- lished, the fame of which extended from Ireland to Constantinople, aud drew within their walls a host of students from almost every country in Europe. It was from this source that the fundamentals of scholarship were deduced by the uncultured Christians north of the Apennines aud the Alps. The language and customs of the ]Moors became predominant iu the peninsula, and during the latter half of the eighth and the whole of the ninth century there was little disposition to dispute the excellence of the Mohammedan institutions which spread and flourished itiider the patronage of the Cordovan Caliphs.

In the course of time, however, the relative power of the Cross and the Crescent in Spain began to be reversed. About the beginning of the eleventh century, the dissensions and strife which prevailed in the Caliphate of Cordova gave opportunity for the growth of the Christian states iu the north-western part of the peninsula. Here, iu the mountainous district of Oviedo, under Pelayo and Alfonso I., the dominion of the Cross was considerably extciid( d. Portions of Leon and Castile were aihled to Oviedo by conquest, and thus was. planted the kingdom of Asturias. Under Ordoiio II. the kingly residence was trans- ferred to Leon, and that city henceforth gave the name to the Christian kingdom. Mean- while, on the L^pper Ebro and Pisuerga, arose the kingdom of Castile. In this region there had always been preserved a remnant of in- dependence, even since the days of the ^lo- hammedan conquest. Until the year 9(31 Castile was in some sense a dependency of Leon. At that date Fernando Gonzales ap- peared, and the people of Castile, under his- leadership, gained aud kept their freedom. In 1037 Ferdinand I. reunited the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, and the combined states- soon became the most powerful in Spain.

While these events were in progress north

FEUDAL ASCENDENCY.— MOHAMMEDAN STA TES.

of the strait of (iihrultar a new line of Ca- liplis was estalili.-hf.l ill Africa. This .lyiia-ty is kiitiwu as the Afrieau Fatimites; fur the founder of the house was a certain Abu, claiming to be the sou of ObeidaUah, a de- scendant of Fatinia. The dynasty was founded in the year 909 and continued during the reigns of fourteen Calijjhs to the death of Adhed in 1171. But the Fatimites of Africa did not display the energies which were ex- hibited by their coutemporaries at Baghdad

and (.'(Jidnva, and such rapid prcigress

>pain,

lijihate was given up to luxury. That luuu-

ut' thirty millinii puuiuls sterling, ami this vast sum was cousumeil in a few years ou the vices and ambitious of his successors. His son JIahdi is said to have squandered six million dinars of gold during a single pilgrim- age to Mecca. His camels were laden with packages of snow gathered from the mountains of Armenia, and the natives of ]Mecca were astonished to see the white and cooling crys- tals dissolving ill the wines or sprinkled ou the fruits of the royal worshipers. iU-Ma-

ever rctanlcd in the states south of the ]\Ied- iterranean.

Of the three or four divisions of the Mo- hammedan power during the Middle Ages the most splendid and luxurious was the Ca- liphate of Baghdad ; the most progressive, the kingdom of Cordova. In the latter realm it was intellectual culture and architectural grandeur that demanded the applause of the age; while in the East a certain Oriental mag- nificence attracted the attention of travelers and historians. In their capital on the Tigris the Abbassides soon forgot the temperate life and austere manners of the early apostles of Islam. They were attracted rather by the splendor of tlie Persian kings. As early as the reiirn of Al-.Mansour the court of the Ca- 40

moun is .^aid to have given away two millioM four hundred dinars of gold ••before he drew his foot frorj the stirrup." On the occasion of the marriage of that prince a thousand pearls of largest size were showered ou the head of the bride. In the times <,f .Moktader the army of the Caliphate iiunilieied a hun- dred and sixty thousand men. The otficers were arrayed in siilendid apparel. Their belts were ornamented with gems and gold. Seven thousand cnnuclis ami seven hundred door- keepers were a part of the govei'niuental reti- nue, (^n the Tigris might be seen superbly decorated boats floating like gilded swans. In the palace were thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestrv. Among the ,,rnam..nts of the roval house was a tree wrouuht of -oI,l au.l

UXIVE1!.'>AL HISrORY.—THE MODERN WORLD.

silver with	eiLf	iteen spi
these were	ph.	■eJ a va
birds, whie	h A	(.•re mail
tive notes.
Though lcs^ the Ahhassidc	gorgeou? mouarch

—	11 ■, f	o	111 i\ ih
	VI 1	1 111 11	lU III
	1 tie	1	itil tl t	jl u	illil	a t an 1
	f / 1	1	T en	t\ me	•seal	^^l the
i	ut t		t u a 1	uil lui	an	1 thiee
n	t 1	1	1		11 1	11 tl
	The 111	t	1 lit 1	lit		1 1 li
	tl e a		1	1 t	t (	1 t
tn	I tl t	1	1 1	1 It	\ 1 t	1 tl
i'l	■ii.h.r.	A\	ithin t	ic hall ..t	ui.h.aire

h g(.)kl and pearls, and the great basin in the center was surnninded with life-like effigies of birds and beasts.

Kot less was the magnificence disjjlayed in

the famous residence of the ^Moorish kings at

Granaila. This celebrated structure, known

as the Ai.uajii;i:a, has (though partly in ruins)

lemainc 1 to our day

one ot the wonders of

tl e n 1 rii world. In

It tiu -ture nothing

tl it c ul 1 contribute to

tl etuiity and gratifi-

tat on ot man or woman

L 11 t have been

1 itt 1 The grandest

a[ iti It was known

tl Hall of Lions,

I 1 in the midst was a pi It m irble and alabas- tti f uutaiu supported ]\ li ns and orna-

II nte I with arabesques. In the HaU of Abencer- la L the ceiling was of ce 1 ir inlaid with m thti f- pearl, ivory, ai 1 il\ r. The color- 11 w 1 exquisite and 1 e lutitul and even at the 2'ie eut day, after the laj e of more than h\c hundred years, the 1 1 llnnt tints flash down \\\ n the beholder as tl u h they were the ^\ il ot the highest art

t -i tti:lay. In tl er parts of the C il } h ite the glories of ^I 1 ammedau civiliza- ti n '\\eie disjilayed in aim 3 t equal si^leudor. fi-se centuiies the city of 1 hei 11 "-less and adorn- nent tiit cnti les ml cuius of Islam. The 1 luhtitn 1 e t three hundred thou an 1 oul Peihaps no tower in all tl c Air lem empues =uipas ed in grsndeur tl CTir\ir\ tt "^eMlle fiom whose summit

11 tl m

. lc^tlkl

tilt cnci

1 juhtitn

,t the Ii.ipl

This

:>ble

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXcy.^MoHAMMEDAX STA TE.

structure was two h iu height, aud illust arabesque architecture the other editices of th was the famous Moor- ish castle called the Alcazar, which was the resideuee of the priuce of the city, aud was iu mauy re- spects equal La arch- itectural excellence to the Alhambra itself.

While the greater part of Spain was thus dominated by the Moors, the Chris- tians still maintained their hold in the north-western part of the peninsula. The kings of Leon and Castile, during the eleventh century made some valorous attempts to advance their frontiers aud to reestablish the Cross. Of these sovereigns the most distin- guished were Sancho II. aud his brother Alphouso. To this epoch belonged the exploits of the hero, RoDRiGO DrAZ, com- monly known as the CiD, the most valor- ous Christian war- rior of his time. In the country below the Pyrenees he was, for a season, a sort of Richard Lion Heart, whose battle- axe was well-nigh as

terrible to the Moors as was that of Plautageuet iu Palestine. He made war in the name of his sovereign against the Arab governors of Spain, and marked his way with havoc. He overthrew the Kadi of Valencia, took the

Ximena, who accompauie ditions, and was, after his in the palace of Valencia.

Such in brief is a sketch ii character and progress of th'

his expe- ith, his successor

654

UXIVKnSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

"tite- <luiin_' tliL :Mi,MI. \_.- l.( t u- hmw conditi.m w i- tlu puun-ular aud insular kiug- befuie 1)( L'limiii^'- a ln-ton it tin (,iii-a(k- ddin (it Di nm \i>k 1 he earliest of the pupu- consider iii a t<_ u biicl jiaia.i ipli- tla u~(_ and i latKni <it thi^ K_auu appear to have been the

earK .levcl<.pnient of the kiii-d.uiis of North- ern Europe.

Amoucr the earliest of the Northern states to make some prosress toward the civilized

Ciiubri, who held the country as early as the close of the second century. This race, how- ever, was afterwards overrun by the Goths, who gained possession of Jutland shortlj' after

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXCV.—XOKTHERX KINGDOMS.

the downfall ol the Wf-tem EiupuL oi the Romans. The gieat Gothic chiettam l-'kiokl, sou of Woden, led his countnmen on thi^ m-

\ i^ion, and btume the fii^t Liuj; of the coun- tn Deumaik lemaineduudei GdtliH au«pice'' thiiiTinh the =ixth nnd =PVPnth ( ntn - th 1

UMVKJISAL HISTORY. — TIIK MODKL'X WORLD.

charartrr ua. oth.T •IVutuiii. Dan,,, the tat the ninth cen seats by the I waged by Ch;

rthiurii who i, .111 thi'ir native I'outiuueil war . the Northen

nations, took to the sea in their pagan barges, became pirates and hunters of men, and made all Western Europe red by night with the glare of their burnings. They fell upon Eng- land and gained possession of the island, proving themselves the equals, if not the su- periors, of tiie warlilie Auglo-Saxous. In the ninth century the ditlerent states of Denmark were consolidated into a single monarchy. In the year lUOt.) Ivor way was added to the king- dom, and iu 1013 the greater part of England was gained by the conquests of Sweyn. Three years afterwards Canute the Great reigned over the entire Island, as well as his paternal kingdom. It was at this epoch that Chris- tianity was carried by the missionaries to the Danes, who were finally induced to abandon paganism.

About the time of tlie iiolitical separatimi of England and Denmark in 1042 the iutiu- ence of the latter kingdom among the North- ern nations somewhat declined. Gradually the Feudal system made its way to the North, and the political power of Denmark under- went the same process of dissolution by which Germany, France, and Entiland were trans- formed int.. a new coii.lition. The Danish barons quarreled with their sovereign, went to war, and gained the same sort of independence which the nobles of the South attained under the Capetiau kiiiLis. Not initil 1387 did Queen Margaret, called the Semiramis of the North, arise, and, by tlie union of Denmark and Norway, restore the old-time prerogatives of the crown. As the widow of Haco, daugh- ter of Waldeniar HI., ami descendant of Ca- nute the <ii-eat. An- elaiine.l the triple crown of Denmark, Sweden, and N(.rway; and these three powers were nniied under her sway by the Treaty of Calmar in lo'.lT.

The kingdom <.f Norway has the same mythical origin with that of DenmarU. Prior to the seventh century, the history of the country rests wholly on myth and tradition. The first kin-> were ivpnle.'l to l,e the deseen.l-

anls ..r Woden, the lirst of the line hearing the name ..f So,iuinn-. After him came Nor, out of Finlan.l, aii.l established himself on the site of the modi-111 city of Droutheim. From this iootholil, gained in the fourth century, he mad.- war ui.on the neighboring tribes and reduced them to submission. Not, however, until the niiddli' of the ninth century do we come to the actual dawn of Norwegian history. The great Harold Harfager, or the Fair Hair, came to the throne and reduced the petty chieftains of the country to submission. Love was the impelling motive of his conquests. For the beautiful Gyda, daughter of the Earl of Har.laland, vowil t.. wed him not until he had make himself king of all Norway. The Norse noblemen whom he overthrew took to sea and found iu the exhilarating pursuits of piracy an oblivion for their losses. After Harfager, his son Haco, surnamed the Good, who had been educated at the court of Athel- stane, king of England, reigned iu his father's stead. Under his patronage the Christian monks traversed Norway, and the strongholds of jiagaiiism yielded under the influence of their teachings. Olaf I. came to the throne in the year SHIfi, and continued the work be- gun by the monks. Pagan temples were de- stroyed, and churches built on their ashes. This king also laid the foundations of Dron- theim, which soon became the most flourishing of the Norwegian cities. Under Olaf, Den- mark and Norway were involved in war. The king of the latter cuiitry was killed in battle, and Norway was overrun by the Swedes and Danes. In 1015 King Olaf II. signaliz.Ml his zeal for the new faith by a bitter perse, nt ion of the pagans. Thirteen years later, Canute the Great landed on the Norwegian coast, de- throned and defeated Olaf, and was himself chosen king of the country. In 1030 the de- p.ise.l king attempted to regain the throne, but was ..v.rthrown ami slain in the battle of Stikkl.>ta.l. The nati(.nal cause, however, was revive.! by .Magnus I., son of Olaf II., who succeeded in driving Sweyn, the succes- sor of Canute, out of the kingdom. In 1047 Harold III., surnamed Hardrada, made an invasion of England, where he captured York, but was afterwards defeated and killed ill the battle ..f Stainf..r.l Bri.liie. During the rei-ii ..f his ^ran.l-..n :\Ia-i,us III. iAWW-

FEUDAL ASCEXDEXrr.—XOllTHEEX KINGDOMS.

1103), the Isle of :\rau, the Shethaiuls the Orkueys, and the Hebrides were overrun by the Daue;:. Ireland was invaded, and there Magnus was slaiu in battle. His son Sigurd I. became the Scandinavian hero of the Cru- sades, and his exploits against the Moors in Spain, as well as in Palestine, were the sub- ject of many an epic ballad of the North.

Of the primitive history of Sweden but few authentic scraps have been preserved. Tradition relates that, when Woden with an army of Swedes entered the country, he found it already in possession of the Goths, who had previously expelled the Lapps and Finns. At the first Woden ruled over only the central portion, but under his successors the remainder was conquered before the eighth century. As early as 829, Ansgar, a monk of Corbie, visited i: Sweden, and made the first converts to Christianity. Paganism, however, held its ground for more than a century, and it was not until the reign of Olaf Skot- konuug that a regular bishopric was es- tablished at Skara.

When the Swedes took possession of the land to which they gave their name, the Goths were permitted to remain in the country. No union, however, was for many centuries eflected between the t two races, and innumerable feuds and frequent civil wars fill up the annals of the times. It was not until the accession of Waldemar, in the year 1250, that a political union was accomplished be- tween the hostile peoples.

The authentic history of Russia be- gins at a period somewhat later than that of the Scandinavian nations. There is a sense, however, in which the statement may be re- versed, for the tribes inhabiting the vast region now included under the name of Russia were better known to the Greeks and Romans than were those of the Baltic provinces. The names Scythian and Sarmatian are sufficiently familiar as the tribal epithets by which the peoples of the great north-eastern steppes were designated.

During the great ethnic movements of the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries Russia was the principal field on which aud over which the powerful nations of Goths, Alans, Huns, Avars, and Bulgarians marshaled their hosts

for the subjugation of the West. At a later period the Slavonic tribes first appeared on the scene — unless, indeed, these were the descend- ants of the ancient Sarmatians. Their first impact was upon the Finns, whom they drove from their native seats. iMany, however, re- mained, aud were blended with the doniinanf Slavs. From this union and amalgamation sprang the modern Russians.

Soon after the Slavic tribes gained the as- cendency they founded the towns of Novgorod and Kiev, which became the capitals of the

t\Ao diMbions of the country. In the course of a century the former principality was in- vaded by the Rus out of the North, and both Slavs and Finus were reduced to a tributary relation. Several times the Slavic trilies re- volted ; !)ut finally, despairing (jf success, they invited the great Rus jDrince, Ruiut', to come to Novgorod and be their king. In the year 862 he came with his brothers Sinaf and Tru- ver, and then and there was foumled the Rus- sian Empire.

From this time until nearly the middle of the eleventh century the family of Ruric oc- cupied the throne. On the death of the great

G5S

uyjvi:i;sAL history.— the moi>ki;x world.

chieftain, in ST'.t. llu- mi.mt-m.m, pa.-si-d to his cousin (_)1cl:', «hn rci-mil Wtv twenty-tliree years. Dui-inL' llii- lime ihc principality of Kiev was (•(uxpicnMl ami ad.lcd to that of Novgorod. 'I'hr i\hazai-s between the Dnieper and the Caspian wcie also subdued, and the Magyars were driven out of Russia iu the direction of Hungary. Oleg next made war on the Byzantine Empire, and pre.s.sed upon the (li-reks with sueh force that iu 911 the Empenir was obliged to consent

to a peace in	evi'i	y way advantageous to
the Rus.
After the d	■atJi	if Oleg, iu the following
year, Igor, son	u[- i;	ii-ic, came to the throne.
and reigned fm-	tliirtN	-three years. His career
was that of a	warrii	I-. He first put down a
revolt of the	)revl	nis ,,n the Pripet, and
then vanipiisli	.1 tl,	■ I'..trh..n,-s, who had
their seats on	til.' s	mres of the Black Sea.
Afterwards, in	'••41,	le engaged iu a war with
the Greek Kn	perm	, but was less .successful
than his pi-ed	•(■es>.)	■. In a second conflict
with the Drevl	an< 1	wa- def.ate.l and slain.
and. the erowii	pu<s(	1 to his son Sviatoslav,
uniler the i-ei^e		()l.a, hisnmther. This

jn-inress l)eeanie a convert to C^hristianity, and the new faith gained a footing at Kiev.

The Emperor, however, remained a pagan, and devoted himself to war. He made cam- paigns against tlie same nations that hail felt the sword of his fatlier and grandfatlier. The Bulgarians also were at one time his enemies, and were defeated in battle. While returning from an unsuccessful expedition against the Greeks of Constantinople Sviatoslav was at- tacked and killed by the Petchenegs, through ^ whose country he was passing. On his death, in 972. the Empire, which was now extended to the sea of Azov, was divided among his three sons, Yaropolk, Oleg, and Vladimir. The fir.st received Kiev, the second the country of the Drevliaus, and the third Novgorod. The brothers soon quarreled and went to war. Oleg was slain ami Vladimir fled. Yaropolk gained jios- .session of the whole country, but Vladi- mir gathered the Rus tribes to his stand- ard, returned agaiust his brother, put him to death, and secured the Empire for him- self. He then conquered Red Russia, Lithuania, and Livonia. He became a C'hristian, married the sister of the Greek Emjicror, and received the title of the Great. Under his influence and example Russia turned from paganism to Christian- ity. Churches rose on every hand ; schools were founded, and new cities gave token that the night of barbarism was lifting from the great power of the North.

Vladimir left twelve sons to contend for the crown. On his death civil war broke out amonn- them, and .several of the claimants were slain. At length Sviatopolk, son of Yaropolk, himself an adopted son of Vladi- mir, hewed his way to the throne over the bodies of three of his foster brothers. Yaro- slav, one of the surviving sons of the late Emperor, allied himself with Henry H. of (ieniiaiiy and returned to tlie contest. The strueiileronlinued until lOl'.i, when a decisive batth' was fouiiht, in which Sviatopolk was signally defeated. He fled from the field and died on his way to Poland. After this crisis the Empire was divided between Yaroslav and Jletislav, but the latter presently died, and tlie former became sole ruler of Ru.ssia. To this epoch lielong the beginnings of art

FEUDAL ASCENDEXCY.—XORTHEKXKIXCWOMS.

( ;.")'. I

and learuiDg in the Northern Empire. T works of the Greelis began to be trauslat into Slavic. Learned institutions were lounded in various cities, and scholars were patronized and honored. The Kussian customs and usages were compiled into a code of laws, and am- icable relations were established with foreign states. Three of the daughters of Yaroslav were taken in marriage by the kings of Nor- way, Hungary, and France — a clear recogni- tion of the rank of the new Russian Emjjire among the kingdoms of the earth.

In the year 1051 Yaroslav established the succession on his sou Izaslav, but por- tions of the Empire were to go to the three brothers of the heii- expectant. They were ij to acknowledge the eldest as their sovereign. In the same year the Emperor died, and the four brothers took the inheritance. The result was that the unity of the Empire was broken. Each of the rulers became independent; the feudal principle came in, and Russia was reduced to a confedera- tion. Thus weakened, the frontiers were !| successfully assailed by the Poles, Lithuan- ians, Danes, and Teutonic barons. Such was the condition of affairs when Europe forgot her own turmoils and sorrows in a common animosity against the Infidels of the East.

In close ethnic affinity with the Rus- sians were the primitive Slavic triljes of Poland. Of these peoples the most nu- merous and powerful were the Polans, who ultimately gave a name to the amalgamated race. The mythical hero of this branch of European population was Prince Lech, brother to Rus and Czech, so that tradi- tion as well as history associates the Poles and the Russians. Another fabulous leader was Krakus, the reputed founder of Cracow. The first historical ruler of Poland was Ziem- owit, who was elected king in 800.

But the annals of the first century of Poland are very obscure, and it is nut until 962 that we reach the solid ground of authen- ticity with the accession of Miecislas I. This prince took in marriage a Bohemian princess, by whom he was induced to become a Chris- tian and to urge upon his people the alian- donmcnt of paganism. In common with so many other riders of his times he adopted the

:■ I fatal policy of dividing his kingduiii aiiidug 1 his sons. Civil wars and turmoils ensued until I , what time Boleslas, the eldest of tlic claim- ants, subdued his brothers and regained the sovereignty of all Poland. He received the surname of the Brave, and vindicated his title by successful wars beyond the Oder, the Dneister, and the Carpathian mountains. His right to reign was acknowledged by the Em- peror Otho HI., but at a later datr he en- gaged in war with Utlio's successor, Henry II. Afterwards he was called into Russia as arbi-

ter between Novgorod and Kiev. In the civil admiuistration he was still more success- ful than in war. He encouraged the indus- trial and commercial enterprises of the king- dom and promoted the cause of learning. He held his turbulent subjects with a strong hand and administered justice with impartiality. He a,-suni.,l th,' sta'tr of a king, and had him- self ,io«n.,l l,y til,' Christian liidiops. On his death, in the vear lOLTi, the Polish crown doscviide,! peaceably to his son :\n,cis!as IL, who-r lii-ii'frei-n was lolh.wt.I by tlir n-vncy of I, is widow liixa; for the Prince Casiniir, her son. was not vet old eiiou-h to assume

the antics , went baiUy, regal ao-c Ik	1' t\w ^ovrv l.Ut Wllrll ( took ll|Hlll	„nrnt. TIk- liiiiM.lf the VI	1 at the )\\n ami
gaiiK-.l th.. ^ In thr y,	ohri.jurt of ar ln:,s ,1„.	th- Uc-tonT. l'o!i<h kill- <1	ie,h an,l

UXIVF.nSAL inSTol;V.— THE ^fODKHX WORLD.

own L'nviriiiiii lit tlie ivputati.in of a tyrant.

l)v flavin- St. Stani.-his, hishoj, ,,f Crarow, uhnha.l n'l.riiuan.lea him Im- .,„„e „f his art<. He was .Iriven tVmn the thiviie, ami in ]()sl ilie.l in e.xile. His half-inilieeile lirother, La- (lislas Herman, isucceedcd to the crown of Poland, wore it for a season, and then ahdi- fated to neeppt the less dangerous distinction ef a ilnkedoni. — Sneh was the condition of Polish aflairs when Urban II., pursuing the policy of Gregory the Great, summoned the council of Clermont and exhorted all Christen- dom to lift the Cross against the Crescent.

Att.

decisive vie

moneil into Hungary to decide a dispute rela- tive to the crown of that country, and a like mission to Kiev was successfully accomplished. Ruturning from that city he acquired in his

Cnpyrightcd by Jones Brot/iers Pub.

Painted by Gustave Dore.

SALADI N.

Elched b> G \ Turner

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The Crusades.

Chapter lxxxix.— The tiprising oe Europe.

HAT great movement of inediffival society kuowu as the Crusades was the first European event. i That is, the agitation in- 'Ived all Europe, territo- illy, socially, religiously, poUtieally. Hitherto the various enterprises which had filled the annais of the West since the subversion of the Roman Empire had lacked the general character. They had been local — peculiar to some particular state or na- tion. At last the time arrived when every people west of the Bosphorus was moved by a common sentiment, impelled to action by a common motive. As far as the Cross was adored, as far as the Crescent was hated, so far was the proclamation heeded which called all chrir^tenddm to unsheath the avenging sword against the Infidels.

Not only were the Crusades a European event — the first of modern times — but they were the first nafimial event in the several states of the West. The condition of Europe during the Feudal Ascendency has alreaily been delineated. Continental unity had bcin a delusive dream of Charlemagne. Xatiniial

unity was a vision, a hope, rather tlian a re- ality. Europe parted into king<l(>iiis ; king- doms, into dukedoms ; dukedoms, into counties; counties, into petty fiefs. The dissolution was universal. Common interests ceased. Any thing that might properly be defined as na- tional or European was impossible. The break-up was to the very bottom of the social fabric.

Even in the darkest age of the world there is something in the nature of man which re- vives, expands, develops. So it was in the time of the feudal dissolution of society. Hu- manity made suflicient' progress to demand a common interest. Only the cause, the occa- sion, was wanting to call togrtlier tlie discor- dant and belligerent elements and unite them in a universal enterprise.

An outrage — a series <if outrages — done to the i-eligions sentiment of ]Mii-opr furnished the opportunity and motive of ai'tion. 3Iu- tual hatred had long rxi-tcd brtwcin the

Christians and the Moha rd-A„<.

t.'r aforetime had done in.-aleuhil. to the prospects of tile Cio-. Al

The lat- e damage

that the oiiiplished Northern

CCA

UXIVEliSAL HISTORY.— THE MOUKUX WORLD.

Africa, had l.een e of the Prophet. ' was cai-ried iuto !■ kiugdom of the N'i.^i The system of Ch veru-e of extiurtini

l.y til.- follnwi-rs

1 the (.'hristuiu t down Ijefore it. seemed on the ^lartel aud his

Hue of battle-axes st.H>d hetweeu the tottering Cross aud apiiarent doom.

When at hist the tide ndled back aud the Pyrenees became tiie Thus far to Lskm, a deep-seated resentment took iDosse.ssiou of the mind of Barbarian Europe. An instinct of revenge postponeil hiy ih-e]) in the seadjed of European piupi>se. The West said in her heart, " Veugeance is mine, I will repay." When with the coming of the eleventh cen- tury the prophetic Dies Ine went by, and the Christians came to see that the drama of the world was not yet ended, the recollection of the old feud with the jMohammedans came back with redoubled violence. Europe — she that trembled under the shadow of impending fate — found time and occasion to gratify her passions and animosities as of old.

All ages and peoples have bad their scape- goats. The meanness and barbaric gloom of human nature have always found something which they might rend aud tear with popular approval. The eleventh century discovered its common enemy in the Infidel Turk. In him were concentrated all the objective condi- tions of hatred. To destroy him and eradi- cate his stock from the earth was the one work worthy of the praise of man and the favor of heaven.

The thoughtful reader of the preceding pages will already have discovered the antece- dent conditions or causes of the Crusades. The most general of these was the long-suspended reaction of Christian Europe against Moham- medan Asia. In the eighth century Islam struck the West a staggering blow. As a re- sult of the conquests of Taric and Abdalrah-

tiesand brought intu relations with the Asiatic states. The Spanish Crescent continued for centuries a flaunting menace to the followers of Christ. The movement of the ^Mohammed- ans westward thmuuli AtViea and northward

an-^wered bv tlie eouiitei-nnnvenient of the ChriMians .-aMward thnmj, I.nrope and into

Asia in the ( leventh. Tiie sword of the liv- ing (i.idfrev was crossed with that of tlie dead Tarie.

The more imme<llate and specilie causes of the uprising of the Christians against the Infi- dels were to be found in the condition of af- fairs in the Holy Laud. About the year 1050 the great sultan Togrul Beg, grandsim of that Seljiik who gave his name to one division of the Turkish race, came out of the Northeast, overran Khorassan aud other j^roviuces of Per- sia, and in 10.55 took possession of Bhagdad. His apparition, however, was that of a revo- lutionist rather than a con.iueror. He and his followers were already disciples of Islam, aud on assuming authority in the Eastern Caliph- ate he took the usual title of Commander of the Faithful. In 1063 he died and was suc- ceeded by his equally famous nephew Alp Ars- lan, or the Valiant Lion. He continued the warlike policy of his predecessor, drove back the Byzantine Greeks, and captured the Em- peror, Romanus Diogenes. He carried his victorious arms from Antioch to the Black Sea, and then turning about ])lanned an ex- pedition against Turkestan, the native seat of his race. Having crossed the Oxus and taken the first fortress in his route, he was assassin- ated by the governor of the town. The sul- tanate passed to his son IMalek Shah, who transferred the capital of the East to Ispa- han. Renewing the unfinished enterprise of his father and grandfother, he extended the Seljukian dominion from the borders of China to the Bosphorus.

In the course of these triumphant cam- paigns of the Seljuks they came upon Pales- tine. This province was at the time an ap- panage of the Caliphate of Cairo, now under the rule of those wild-mannered African Fat- imites, successors of Abu Obsidallah. About the year 1076 Jerusalem was taken by the Turks, and the Fatimite governors were oblige,! to retire into Egypt. The Holy City fell umler the dominion of the viceroys of .Malek Siiah, who instituted a high revel of violence and outrage against liotli Christians and Arabs.

For many years the fanatic religious senti- ment of the West had prescribed a pilgrim- aiic to xiine holy place as the best balm for a. I inflamed .■onseienee. The morbid s,,ul of

THE CRUSADES. — THE UFBISIXG OF EUHOI'E.

the Western Frauk saw iu the saiiJal-shdoii and scallop-shell of the pilgrim the einlil.ni- and passport of a better life. He \\\u> lia<l sinned, he who had consumed his ywnh in lawlessness and passion, he who had iu his manhood done some bloody deed for which he was haunted by specters, he who had for- gotten the ties of kindred and stopped his ears to the entreaties of the weak, must ere the twOight faded into darkness find peace and reconciliation by throwing off the insig- nia of human power and folly and going bare- foot to the holy places of the East. And ■what other spot so sacred, so meritorious, as the scene of the crucifixion aud l>urial uf Christ?

Pilgrimages abounded. The paths of Asia Minor were thronged with those who made their way to and from the Holy Sepulcher. Around that Tomb of tombs knelt the devout believers from every state of Christendom. Jerusalem was the Mecca of Europe. What, therefore, was the horror of the followers of Christ when the news was borne abroad that the Seljuk dogs, who had supplanted the Fatimites in the Holy City, were spurning and spitting upon the lowly at the very tomb of their Lord? — Such was the condition of affairs in Palestine as the eleventh gloomy century of our era drew to its dreary close.

Great was the terror inspired in the Byzan- tine emperors by the conquests of the Turks. Alp Arslan had waved his defiant banners almost in sight of Constantinople. Tlie de- generate successors of the Ctesars quaked in their capital. In their agitation they looked abroad for help. Could they induce the bar- barous West to come to their rescue? Would the successor of St. Peter heed their cry? Per- haps if the Pope w-ere allured with the pros- pect of gaining an unquestioned recognition as the head of Christendom — even of Eastern Christendom — he would call the Italians, the Franks, the Germans, to the defense of the capital of the East. Such were the sentiments which moved the Greek Emperor to send an embassy to Gregory VII., and to implore that ambitious potentate to rally the armies of Eu- rope against the Infidels.

iMean while the pious monk of Savona, Peter of Picardy, came home from Palestine, recit- ing with fervid and pathetic eloquence the

story of the intoleralili- (luli-a-cs U< wliii-li the I'liristian pilgrims were subjcctrd. lie hini- SL'lf iiad received brutal insults at tlir liaii.ls of the savage Turks. Into lii^ <'ar> the vener- able patriarch of Jerusalem !ia<l poinvil a tale of horror. Christ was put to .-haiue. His name was blasjjhemed. His lowlv rliilihcn were beaten, mocked, trampled under fo(ji by the base and bloody-minded fullo\MTs of the false Prophet. Under this recital Kuropc lie- gau to quake with the premonit(iiy .-luidilcr of the great ui^heaval. In this condition of affairs the Greek Emperor saw the prospect of rescue and sujjport. Urban II. saw the way open by which he was to confound his enemies and carry forward the ambitious plans of his great predecessor. The secular rulers of Europe saw an opportunity to recover from the feudal barons the lost prerogatives of royalty. The priests and bishops saw the ]iroiiiotion and glory of the Church; and tlir igiioiaiit zealot saw in the gore of the ]\Ii»lciiis Miicared on sword-blade and Cross the element of purifica- tion and peace.

The council of Piaceuza, held in the sum- mer of 1095, was quickly followed by that of Clermont. Meanwhile Peter the Hermit had gone from town to town, from church to church, preaching the holy war. France took fire. The feudal settlements were all ablaze. Lord, retainer, and peasant all caught the spirit of the inflammatory ap})eal. Crowds followed at the Hermit's heels. Tlicy bowed down and kissed the hem of his garment. They plucked hairs as precious mementos J'wm the mane of his inule! His fame spread throughout the continent, and even in insular England the barons of William Rufus shared the excitement of their friends in Normandy.

When the time came for the great council convened by the Pope, Clermont was like a vast camp. Tliree hundred bishops v,-ere pres- ent. Thousands of priests flocked to the as- semlily. ^lultitudes gathered from all the sur- rounding states. Pope Urban braved the cold and fatigue of a journey across the Alps, and came in person to preside over the council. Princes, prelates, and ambassadors thronged to the scene, and caught the common spirit. The messages from Alexius, Emperor of the East, were read to the multitude. The Pope was warned of the peril to Constantinople, and of

Ct>^

VSIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MOIJERX WORLD.

the inciilcuhililr l..,-s U> ( 'In-i-lcmlom if lluit city .-^huulil fall iiii.. thr luiuds of the Turks. The secular primi^ wnc t-xhorted to rise for the sake of the Crn.>s, fur the sake of the rich rewards which the Emperor Avas able to bestow, and for the sake of Greek women whose charms ■would be freely yielded to those who became their champions against the infidel dogs of Asia. On the tenth day of the council the meet- ing was held in the great square of Clermont. The Pope, accompanied by the cardinals and Peter the Hermit, aMvn.led a throne and made a pathetic i.Mress to the people. His Holi- uess said :

" ChrLstiau warriors, rejoice ! for you who without ceasing seek vain pretext for war have to-day found true ones. You are not now called to avenge the injuries of men, but injuries of- fered to God. It is not now a town or castle that \vill reward your valor, but the wealth of Asia, and a land flowing with milk and honey. If you triumph over your foes the kingdoms of the East will be yum- heritage. If you are conquered y.m will have the glory of dying where Christ died. This is the time to prove that you are animated by a true courage, and to expiate so many violences committed in the bosom of peace. When Christ summons you to his defense let no base affections detain you at home. Listen to nothing but the groans of Jerusalem, and remember that the Lord has said, ' He that will not take up his cross and follow- me, is unworthy of me.' Gird your sworils to v(nir thighs, ye men of might. It is our part to ])ray, yours to do battle ; ours — with Closes — to hold up unwearied hands, yours to stretch forth the sword against the children of Amalek."

Then it was that the surging mass arose in their enthusiastic rage, and the loud cry of Dleu le Villi! Dim li ]'iid! resounded like the voice of many waters. " God indeed wills it," responded the Pope. "Go forth, brave war- rior.s of the Cross, and let 'God wills it' be your watchword and battle-cry in the holy war." Such was tin- tuinultudtts scene in which the Cnisadc- wc iv tir-t Inrnially jH-oclaimed.

As soon as the loud cry of Dieu le Veut was hushed at a gesture from the Pope, one ot the cardinals arose and pronounced a form of con- fession for all those who would enlist in the holy enterprise. Tlierenj)on, Adhemar, bishop

ot Puy, raiiie forward and received from the hands of Urban one of the red crosses which had been consecrated for the occasion. Knights and barons crowded around the seat of his Holiness U) receive the sacred badge and to take the oath of loyalty to Christ. The cross of reil cloth was then stitcheil upon the right shoulder of the mantle, and the wearer became a soldier of the Cross — a Cni.-^iiilcr.^

As soon as the council of Clrrinont was dissolved those who had participated in its proceedings dispersed to their several provinces to rouse the people and to prepare for the advance on Palestine. Everywhere they were received with applause and enthusiasm. Ur- ban II. traversed France, and the people gath- ered from far and wide to hear the story of the sorrows of Jerusalem. Already France resounded with the din of preparation. ISIen of every rank assumed the cross and demanded to be led against the defilers of the Holy Sepulcher. The more ignorant classes were l)r(if(iinidly agitated. The peasants surged to and fro and could scarcely be restrained from setting out in the dead of winter. Many of the nobles felt the spell and eagerly prepared for an expedition to the East. In order to secure the means of raising and equipping forces they borrowed money and mortgaged their estates. Men were thus enlisted and furnished, and by the beginning of 1096 a large army was gathered for the holy war.

i From Scandinavia to the Mediterranean the Crusade was preached with a fiery zeal that kindled a flame in every village. In accord- ance with a canon of the Council of Clermont the taking of the cro.ss was to be accepted in

, lieu of all the penances due to the church. The license thus granted was in the nature of a plenary indulgence and became one of the most powerful incitements to the cause. The peasant mind of Europe, long galled by eccle- siastical restraint, fired with the prospect of liberation, and the nobles were not proof aizainst the same seductive motive. The bits wiTc >iid(l(iily taken out of the mouth of I'lapiiii', and the old pirate came up serenely witii the red cross on hLs shoulder. All the warlike lusts of the age were .set at liberty under the sanction of reliction and retributive

' Tlie word crusade is derived from tlie French sade, "a holy war," from croir, a "cross."

THE CUUSADEH. — THK UPBISIXG OF KUUi)PK. iicy

justice. The extravagaut iniagiiiatidiis of | the opiik'iit Ea.^t, aii.l to uiii tli..-r fnun the

traders and ijilgrims paiuted iu .u'lowiu:;- colors inlidcl A.-iatics setmcd in li, tlj, n iiiu il le-

the exhaustless treasures and rich jiroviiico of ward of all v. ho w.iuld a.~>iiiii. ihi ( io-~

PREACHING THE <'RrSADE.— " DIEU LE VEUT !

UMVi:i!SAL HISTORY.— THE MODKRX WORLD.

Tlif cl.T-v \v.nv in tli.- Iiry.lay nf tlmallral gl..iy. All th.. NvoiM >uay. .Tin aii.! tV.. umler the'iua-iral x'rpt.r of Cliii-t. The ;n<.iik^

fouu.l a - 1 cxru.^r lo Irave tlicir cloisters

ami >liari' in tlii' (■(ninu"ii artivities of life. Thry hi'h.'M ail tli.' i.liirc.- of religion suddenly elevate.] tn a new i-i-peet and dignity. They saw tlieiiisrh,- liee.inie the leaders of society, loiiked to as tlie arliilers of the common fate.

To them il was an escape from bondage and o^)[l^e^^i(^n. Thosc who werB in debt gladly threw oil' i\\v burden by assuming the cross. The creditor might no longer menace or dis- turb those who had become the soldiers of Christ. Offenders and criminals also found the day ausiiieinns. No prison wall might any longer restrain liim wlio took the sword against the Infidel. Over the thief and the murderer on whose right shoulders appeared the sacred emblem of the lioly war the church threw the iegis of her proteetiiin. All manner of crime was to be washed white in the blood of the sacrilegious Turks.

In the midst of the excitement of tliese scenes the Italian inerehaiits began to l:>iiild tip a profilabli' eoninieree. It was necessary that Europe should be furnished the means of arming herself for the fray, and of supply- ing her armies with provisions for the war. Perhaps, of all the classes of society, the traders gained tiie most solid and permanent advantages from tin' ureat eonimotion. They became the factors and carriers of the time, and in many instances furnished the money with which the lords and vassals armed themselves and their retainers. From the very first a certain advantage was thus gained by tLe merchants and townspeople over the own- ers of estates and country folk, who became indebted to them for the means of joining the army of Crusailers.

The actual number of tliose who from the various ranks ot' society sprang up as if by a eoniiiion impulse, took on the cross, and ral- lied at the call of Peter and his fellow apos- tles, can never be authentically ascertained. Certain it is that all Europe seemed to rise as if by a common impulse. By one of the an- cient chroniclers the estimate is placed at six millions of persons. In an age when no au-

thentic reeorijs were kept, every thing was left to eoiijeeture, but it is probable that after making due allowances for various delays and for tiie inlluiiiee of returning reason, and for the thou-aml ai-eidental causes which would operate to ir(Uiee the host, the number was not mueh -holt of that given above. For awhilo it app.aivd that all Europe would be

The eastern frontiers of France became the scene of the gathering. There Peter the Hermit, as the chief promoter of the enter- prise, assumed the leadership of the host. Without adequate preparation, without suit- able arms, without any appreciation of the dangtTs and ditticulties to be encountered, the vast and tumultuous throng swept out of France and into Germany. The great sea of angry and excited humanity overflowed the ordinary routes of travel, and spread devasta- tion on every hand. The means of subsistence were quickly exhausted, and the multitudes began to prey on the countries through which they traversiil. They swept on through the German territories like an army of devouring locusts, until through sheer waste of resources they were obliged to divide into smaller masses.

One liand iiunibering about twenty thou- sand, eomman<le(l by Walter the Penniless, of Burguntly, pressed forward through Hungary and Bulgaria in the direction of Constantinople. It is said of this advanced host that there were only eight horsemen in the whole num- ber. The rest of the wretched mob proceeded on foot, generally marching without shoes and hundreds falling by the wayside through ex- posure, disease, and famine. Nothing but the tolerance and friendly disposition of Carlonian, king of the Hungarians, saved the miserable vanguard from entire destruction. In Bul- garia, however, the lieutenant of the Eastern Emperor looked with less favor upon the law- less horde that had been precipitated into his kingdom. The Crusaders were quickly cut off from supplies and were obliged to have re- course to violence, but they now found them- selves opposed by a race as savage as them- selves.

The Bulgarians took up arms to defend their country from destruction. The track of Walter and bis army was marked with blood and fire. The Crusaders were cut off day by

THE CRUSADES.— THE UPBTSIxa OF EUnOPE.

Jav until	at the I'oiiliiirs i)f the emintiy	only
W.Iti-i- a	1(1 a few followers remained to i	lake
their wav	tliroii,n-h the forests to Constaiitiii	.pie.
^U■■.m^	hile the second division of the J ahont fnrtv th.iU<au.l iii-.n, wo,	in.t.
an.l .-IiiM Hrnilit ll	VII, under the romiiiaud of IVte 111 -elf, pres-ed on in the same t	the irec-

tinii taken hy Walter. Their march was pro- moteil thrnii-h Hungary by the favor of king- and peojile. The wants of the va>t multitude were supplied, and friendly relations were maintained, as far as the city of Zemlin. Here on the walls were di.splayed some of the spoils which had been taken two mouths jiro- viously from Walter and his savages. On see- ing these tokens of their friends' overthrow the Crusaders broke into ungovernaiile rage, and fell furiously upon the otiending eity. The ramparts were scaled, thousands of the people were butchered, and Zemlin suti'ereil all the horrors of pillage and burning.

These atrocious proceedings aroused the auger even of King Carlonian. He ipiiekly gathered an army, and nuireheil agaiii.-t the despoih-rs of his city. At his approach the Crusaders hastily withdrew from Zendin, and made their escape by crossing the river Save. On the opposite bank, however, they were furiously attacked liy the wild Bulgarians, who had gathered to dispute their jiassage. The savage people were driven back by the des- perate Crusaders, who, though they thus forced a way liefore them, fouud solitude ou every hand. The Bulgarians withdrew into their fastnesses or shut themselves in fortified towns, from which they could not be di-lodjrd. Peter and his followers were thus left to the mercy of the elements, and were reduced to the necessity of purchasing supplies from the Imperial officers who commanded the towers. The feeling between the invaders and the in- habitants became more and niore hostile until the people of Hissa, who had been maltreated by the Crusaders, sallied forth and massacred the rear-guard. Hereupon the whole army — if such a Maine may bi' applied to au unor- ganized host — tiiriiid about and assailed the city, thinking to renew at Hissa the havoc and spoliation of Zemlin, but the citizens defended them.selves with great bravery. The assailants were driven back from the walls and were imr- sued in a general rout ami slaughter, in which

plundered

■d that ten tlinusui the His.-ans, an.l tl

d fi

pre=M

Meamvhile the Enijieror Ah'sius began to exert his intiuence to >ave the remnant of the Crusaders fi'om destruetinii. A few of the van- guard under the leader-hip of Walter the Penniless had aln a.ly reaehed tli.^ J-a-tein capital. Tho.-e who survived of Peter's divis- ion were now received in the city, and their wants were Mippliid from the Imperial store- houses. Such was the desnerate character.

sper d and

Mild

raging and plundering their protectors. Their presence in the city became intolerable, and the Emperor gladly acceded to their request to be transported into Asia. The ragged and desperate fanatics were accordingly taken on ship-board and carried across the Bosphorus into A>ia IMiiior; but no Mioner were they out of sight of the capital than they let lon>e all their fury upon the unott'endiiig siilijects of Alexiu.s. Not Peter himself could prevent the wholesale robbery of the districts through which the Crusaders were ijassiug. After striv- ing ill vain to preserve order and moderation in^'the fanatic herd of his followers he aban- doned them to their own will, ami returned to Constantinople.

But Walter the Peimih >- had all the spirit of the turbulent ho,-t. When they deinamh d to be led against the Infidel.-, he willingly as- sumed the nspon-iliility of leadei>hip. At this juncture the Cru.-aders were greatly ex- cited by the report that the city of Nice, cap- ital of the province of Koum, had fallen into the hands of the Christians. Hoping to share the spoil- of this important compic-t, the mul- titude ru,-hed blindly into the hostile country, and reached the plain of Nice. Here, how- ever, they received no welcome from Christian allies or signal from Chri.-tian banners. On the contrarv thev were surrounded by an im- mense arnivnf Tuiki-h cavalrv. The ('ni-aders

W;

tliou,-;i le Tur

'Weil down

UXIVEHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEKX WORLD.

\\i

ike Tainrrlaufs pyraiuicl o otlier laiiatical bust; ti.

surviVL-a reaped iiilu iIr- Bv/aiiliuc tuiT.-t, ai i.Kul.- tliL-ir way back to ( ■oii.-iaiiiiiini,l,-. Tl tiiinii]iliaut Turks jiathtr.Ml ini,, a liu:;.- iiiuui thr hones of tbe lel'r the mouume ol'.-^kulLs a warn beware of Asia Minor.

Thus ai.l thr tii-t two .liviMons of tlie cru- sading host >ink into tlie earth. A tliir.l rab- ble soon f .llowe.l from Germany. A certain monk uameil Go.le-chal, envious of the tiune of Peter aud "Walter, preached the holy ^var through his uative districts, aud about fifteen thou-saod villagers aud peasants flocked to his standard. Folj.iwing the same route which had been taken by the pi'cceding divisions, Godc-clial led his followers iuto Hungary. Carloinau, however, had uow wearied of cast- in- his pearls before swine, and gave to the German fiinatics an inhospitable reception. He adopted the policy of despatching them j witli all haste through his kingdom. But the lawless multitude was not to be appeased with any thing but violence and rapine. The former scenes of plundering- aud outrage were renewed until the Hun-arians lo-e in arms, and the king permitted tliem to do as they would with tlie iuvaders. He even went fur- ther, and did an act of perfidy in order to free the land from the presence of the hate- ful horde. Wheu the Germans had gathered liefore the walls of Belgrade, he induced them witli fair promises to lay down their arms, but no s.Hiuer had they done si) thau the inhabi- tants were let loose upon them, aud they were nia.ssacred almost to a man.

lu the mean time, the fourth aud last divis- ion of the host gathered on the ea.steru cou- fiues of Germany. Perhaps no other such exe- crable mass of vile humanity wa.s seen before or since in the world. France sent her thieves; the Rhine provinces, their offsconring ; the British Islands, their outlaws ; and all the A\ est, her pads and murderers. This delight- ful army of European refuse heaped up to the number of more than two hundred thou- .<and. A few ignorant nobl.s with their bands of retainers were merged in the common mass; but when it came to the eleeti(m of leaders, the choice fell on « f/o«( and a qno.-ir! These ridiculous creatures were actually set forwanl as the divinelv constituted a<rent- by wliich the

ho^t wa- to be li-d to vielorv over the infidel Turk- ..f A-ia:

The n>ult wa.as revolting a> tlie beginning wa> abniinnal.l.-. The Miiur-titions horde fell U|ion the .ii\\i-h eol(iiii-t> in the cities of the lihin.. an.l the .M.i.^He, and began to rob and murder. The victims of the atrocity had, under tlie protection of the barons of the towns, become prosperous aud wealthy. This circumstance whetted the appetite of the vile rabble, who pretended to see in the Jews only the enemies of Christ. They propo.sed to be- gin the holy war by exterminating the foes of God in Europe before proceeding against those in Asia. The blood of the unotti^nding Lsra- elites flowed in torrents, aud their homes were ravaged aud destroyed. In spite of the pro- tests of the Romish Church, under whose call the Crusade had been begun, the Jews were massacred liy thou-ands, and other thousands, in order to save thini>elves from a worse fate under the brutal swords of their persecutors, threw themselves into the flames or rivers.

When the ruffian host could find no further material for slaughter, the march was resumed from the Rhine to the Danube. The whole route was a scene of liarbarous lust and licen- tiou>iie>s. ^s.ithiiiL:' whieh native depravity could .-n-i:e>t or M-n.-nal fanaticism euforce was omitted to complete the horrors of the advance. The day of judgmeut, however, at last arrived. On the thither side of the Dau- ube a Hungarian army was drawn up to dis- pute the progress of the iuvaders. It was now their turn to feel the edge of a merci- le-s sword. The Hungarian leaders proved to be more thau a match for General Goat and General Goose. The immense rabble was hemmed in aud beaten back agaiust the river. The tide of the Danube was red with the blood of robbers. The bodies of the slain floated like drift-wood, or choked the channel with a hor- rid mass of putrefection. Very few escaped the vengeance of the Huugarians aud the engulfing river. It was perhaps the vastest and nio-t salntai-y execution of criminals ever witnessed within the limits of Europe. Thus ]H li-lied the fimrth aud last of those fitnatic niuhitiides that arose at the call of Peter the Hermit. Already more thau a quarter of a million of human beings had beeu swallowed from .-i^lit before a regular armv could be

THE CRUSADEii.— TnE UPRISING OF EUBOPE.

equippeil uud started in the wake (if the imp- ular tuiuult. Xnt a ( ■|iri>tiaii >nl,li,.,- had thn> far i.eiietraled heyni„| the phiin of M,-,.. Walter the Peiuiik,-/ was dead. The lame of Peter was at a disemint, hut the fever of Europe was in no wi^e idoled. It still le- maiued for her soldiery to undertake by reg- ular expeditious what her peasants and mouks, her o'oose and her goat, had failed to accom-

piisi:.

In the meau time the seeular jirinces of the AVest, who had attended the Council of Cler- mont and assumed the cross, were busily en- j^aged in preparing for the holy -n-ar. Among those who were destined to distinguish them- selves as crusaders, should be mentioned, first •of all, Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine. His reputation for piety, h^aiiiing, and courage was equal to that ot' the best prince of his age. In his father's house Peter the Hermit had lived before he became a monk. From his mother, who had in her veins the lilood of the Carlovingians. (J.i.UVey inherited his duko- ■dom. In early lite he took up arms for the Emperor Henry l\ . in liis war with Ililde- iirand, and won high distiiietion as a soldiia-. In the bloody battle which was fought <.n the banks of the Elster he had struck .h.wn witli his own hand that Kodolph of Suabia whom the Pope had invested with the crown of Ger- many. Afterwards, during the siege of Rome, when the papal banner trailed and Gregory fled for refuge into the castle of 8t. Angclo, it was Godfrey who, first of all the imperial cajjtains, broke over the ramparts and opened the gates of the city. With the subsequent triumph of the Pope, however, the duke's con- science began to upbraid him for the wicked part he had taken against the Head of the church. Living in his duchy, surrounded with wealth and enjoying a good name, he none the less suffered all the pangs of remorse. How else should he atone for the great sins of his rash youth except by taking the cross and giving his life, if necessary, in recovering the Holy Laud from the Infidel-:'

With no half-hearted jHirp.ise di,l Duke Godfrey become a Cr\isader. No sacrifices were spared to secure the desired end. He sold nr morta-aued all of his castles and estates. He alienated his cities and principalities and gave up his dueliy. He laid all (m the altar

leav.n, whieh he lia.l forfeihd by niakin- war on I he viear .,f riiri.-t. With the niouev pro- cured by the.-aieof hisva-tdnn,ahisherai>ed and <'(iuipped a magnificent army. Ten tliou-

eighty thousand to,,t made up the body ot his forces. His principal oflieeis were his two br.it hers, Eustace and Baldwin, the former count ,d' B.uiillon; his kinsnum Baldwin du Bouig, and Mveral other noblemeu less con- sjiieuou-: by the ir rank and reputation.

In till' south of France the men of war were rallie.l to tlie cross by Ravmond, count of Toulnu>e, He too was a soldier liy profes- sion. He liad fought against the Saracens in Spain. He had distinguished himself at the right hand of the Ci,l. He had wedded the daughter of King Alphonso, and was known as one of the most valiant caiitains of his times. It was his saying that he had spent hi. youth fighting the followei- of the false Pniphet in Europe, and would ,-pen.l \n< ,,1,1 agi' in warring with them in A.-ia. Alivady aged, his white locks made a conspicuous >vs\\ ai'ouiid which ,-oon was gathered out of Prov- ence and CaMM.uv an armv of a huu.lre.l thou- sand men. Hi- priu.'ipal officer wa- the P.i.diop of Puy, who, after the Council of CUermont was made legate of the Pope, aud uow became a soldier of the cross militant against the Infidels.

Whih' the Crusa.lers of Lorraine and Prov- ence were thu< mar-haled bv Godfrev and Raymond, Hugh, of V.'rmandoi.-, bnithca- ..f Kilig Phdip of France, and Pobert, Count of Flanders, sounded the call in their respective provinces and armed their several hosts. Stephen, Count of Blois, and Roliert, Count of Paris, al-o rallid their knights and retain- ers and made readv for the march into Asia. It wa- at this timi' that the crusading fervor kindh'd all Normaudv into a glow. The court of Roucu furui-hcd two gallant leaders. These w,.re Robert Short Hose, s.in of William the Coiepieror. ami E,l,-ar Athding, heir of the Saxon line to the throne of Phigland.

The characters aud dis]iositions cf both these princes have already been sketched in the prece.liug iM.ok. Such wa> the inq.rovi.lence of Unbelt, au.l -0 frequeutlv was he made the

'■i rXJVKh'SAL HISTdUY. — THE MUDKUX WORLD.

Mctim cif tilt will - uiil ( u] ii \ ti-oii ( t liH ( lilt tint 1h u I ,e<luc It 1 -t 1. t uluul u 1 \ it\ Ik I duikd b> 1)1- juuu^ci bl( tliii ti'i,

lull liil in hiiii ill iIk ckniiiit- ( f T .(iiuiiic Cm-

111111- J -1(1 1 — 1)1 i\i, 1 i-h, lanatu il iiii| , uin ii tx-

ilu tliKine

lUi. iruLK 1-hAlih.K.- vi IIIE FIKST rKU.>^AI.E.-GODFi:EY, KAYMOXIl, BlEMVND, TAM.RED.

THE Cni'SADES. — TlIE Vl'lUSEM; OE EUROEE.

•of Eugland, be.st-t liy u.^urcrs wlm (UniaiMlfil their iuterest and woiik'Ii who waiitrd pic.-iiit- ill exchange fur their alle-i-d virtiu — he \\as I)reeisi4y the surt "f a i>er,-oiiage who, witliout iu(hieeiiient to remain at home, might gladly emharic in the re^peetalde eiUerpri.<e of hunting IuH(k-ls. Such were the autecedeuts of that mutiially prolitalile hargaiii by ^\■hich Count Eohert for the sum of ten tliousaiul marks sokl out his duchy of Normandy to his lirother William Rufus of England.

As to Edgar Atheling, though of a ditter- eut character, and already past the fortieth mile- .stone of life, he too found many and potent reasons for joining in the holy war. Pro- scribed from England, and robbed of even the

eon.hu-t ot hi> own atiairs, set out with an army of Anglo- and ScotoSaxons to eject Don- ald IJane fr.mi the throne which he bad u-urpe,!. IJefore departing however, he prom- i-c.l lii- friend. Count liol.ert, to join him in the East as .-oun as the .Scotti-h invtender should have been hurleil from power.

Meanwhile, the Short Hose set up his white banner, and at the signal nudtitudes of Nor- man Knights flocked to j<iin their fortunes with those of a leader so well renowned for generosity and courage. Stephen, Earl of Alliermarle, Edward Percy, Aubrey de Vere, Joscelyn de Courteuay, Conau de Montacute, and Girard de Goiiruey were the principal Anglo-Normau barons who set out with Count

prospect of the crown worn by his Anglo- Saxon fathers, he had for many years found his chief delight in the companionship of dogs and the solace of philosophy. Neither the one nor the other, however, had sufficed to quiet his ambition, and when the prevail- ing enthusiasm reached Roueu, especially when his friend Robert Short Hose caught the ci tagiou, Edgar also fired with the crusading fever, and put the red cross on his shouldt

At this juncture, however, it happened that a certain Donald Bane, an ambitious Scot, had .seized upon the thi-oiie of his I'onntry, wliiel of hereditary ri-ht helon-ed to a ,-on ol' Kd gar's sister. To resrat hi< nephew on tlie Scot tish throne, the En-li,-h I'rini'e, ac'tiiii:- witl more energy than he had ever .-howu in the

F	Till, iLl^.VIiEE,-.
■y A. Maillard.
	Koliert to rescue the sepulehei	of Christ from
1	the Turk..
f	Vei-v unlik.' the p('a:-aiit-ra	ible were these
r	magniheiait band, of warriors.	All the wealth
1	and intelligence of Etn-ope we	e now commit-
	ted to the enter[irise, anil as f;	r as the igno-
1	ranee of the age would allow, <	ue prejiarations
-	were maile to in>nre the sueei	>s ,d' the great
	expedition. All Enropo went	to prayers as
	the knightly pageant ilcpart.d.	In the matter
t	of arimir the best >kill of tl.r	tine- was em-
1	]iloyed to perfect it. Ivich ( ca-.'pic and liaubcrk of ,-liain i	iiisader wore a lail. The foot
	>oldicr> carried Ion- .Iiicld-, ai worc-ircularl.n.'klcr-. The u.	d the knights a]H,n- consisted
1	of >\\ord-. lance-, pnniai'd-, a\	-, niaci's, bow.?

i

to

r

■

hi

}:m.

PRAYIN'; FOR THE t^UCCESS OF THE CRUSA DKIW.

THE riU'SADKS. — THE FIRST rHUSADE. <;::

iou of in<tniinrnt aii.l niissilv i»ru\\:n- t.. the Mimv r..,,k their wivs an. 1 rl,il,l,vi, v.ith tlu-m.

warthiv oi- thr .Aii.iaic A-.'s. Still iIumt was , 1 »i-li'ii-iii-li.-a l.an.ns nnl,- :,|.,„.^ uiu, ,h,,i,.

no true forr.-i-ht nf the .litlieultie< to he (ai- ' lui-le-huriH aii.l Mew at iiitervah- as if in -.,ui„.l

Cduntere.l. The ,iistau<v was totally lui-ap-i the >it;iials ,,f the cha,-e. S,,i„e earrle.l hav. ;,..

preheii.le.l. The roiit.--^ to the East weie litth^ o,, tj,,,;,. v.aasts, whil.. IhiuimIs ti'otl.-il hv the

known. Th.' real oh.taeles t.i i)e overe.>n.e he- .i.le of the hors.s. Kveu yet the Cru-aae wr„s

fore a Mow eonhl l.e deliven.l were either eoiisi.jer.'.i rather in th.' liu'ht .4' a iul-riina,e-e—

unheanl of or e>t.'enie.l as tritles. The most , a .l.anoii.-tratioii in have a-aiust the Inti.lels—

intelligent knidits he-an the extraordinary than as a military eNpe.litiou involving l<a,u^

march as thouuh it were a hunt or a holichiv. , marches, sttiMiorn sieecs, ami hleoilv hattles.

CHAPTER XC— The KiRisx Crusade.

HE pilgrim princes who were now about to di- rect the chivalry of Eu- rope against the Turks 111 sufficient jirudeuce to insider the difficulty of sistence. The coun- tries throuuh which they were to pass were al- ready half exhausted by the ravages excesses of the precursive multitudes. It was now agreed among the leaders to set out at different dates and by different routes, ('ou- stantinople was to be the rendezvous. It was clear that if all the hosts now under arms were to proceed in one body, the provinces thron/h which they should jiass would be ut- terly consumed. Europe could survive only by distributing the stomachs of her defenders. The rabble vanguard of the soldiers of tlie Cross had not left a favorable impression on the minds of the Byzantine Greeks. The Em- peror Alexius found reason to rep.ait of liavinu' called from the vasty deep the p.a-turlied spii-- its of the West. Now came the news to CVju- stantinople that other vast armies, less sav- age, but more severe, were on their way to the Eastern Capital. The Emperor began to see that he might as well have braved the warriors of Alp Arslan as to have evok. by his messages such an insatiaMe host of

From this time forth Alexius was driven by the winds and tossed. Unable to dictate by authority and enforce with a menacing attitude sneli mandates as seemed necessary for the preservation of the Emi)ire, he fell

into subterfuge and double dealing — the last resorts of the weak against the strong. Never was monarch more beset with perils.

IWIVKhSAL HISTnnV. — THE MOHERX WORLD.

rrnwn, uitli hi- lira.l in ii. mwumI l- Ik- ralh,r tl,- niMtivr ..f Invaltv i- allo-Pther

l>r.--.,.,l riat lirtwvcii a Tuiki-li shield and a uantin- in Mich a -oldi.rv. T.. matrh the

Chii-tian hiu-khr. Ji.-ynnd the Bosphorus hlivd haiharian- of the' Ka^trni Empire

Ava- th,. fhimin- C.VMvnt. Ov.T the Hun-a- a-ain-1 the niaiMad \vum..i-~ c,f (Jodfivy and

rian forot wa- ~.en the p..iientnu.- sha.h.w of Kay.nond warlike setting cm- ..n ina,-titt>.—

the- eoniin- ( n.-. So the Kinperor fell back on eiafl and snhtlety.

The (iriek IhiipiT^.r, with something of ^leanwhile the several ern^ailiiiL;- armies

the old-tiine ( iattine-.> nt' his race, perceived took uj) their march foi- the East. Eor a

th.at the (_'rii-adcr- were really adventurers. while atiiiirs went well. J!v and hv, however.

He knew that the iMank-. and especially the Hugh of Vermaiidoi-, leader (,f the French Normans, had Just one da-- of tVicnds— those , Knight>, having set out with the Pope's ban-

th	.It thes	e -ree.lv
m	en wou	d di-cov
of	the E:	-t evi-rv
t.	excite-
tl	e p,-c-c	,ce of >p,
	The s itical. - w-ere	ituatioii The am made u

me cla-^s of enemies— ne

in-. lie uuder.too.l of

ndants of the North- ec

the luxurious capital II

which was calculateil an

Ei.inis. I,

he Al,

is opportunity. He ordered Count be seized, brought to Constantinople, 1 as a hosttiire. By this means he -vhat roliber in hopi-d to make Kin-.;- Philip of France, a to tind a cause brother of the prisoner, depcndt-nt upon his pleasure respecting the future conduct of the highest degree Crusade. Count Hugh was also held as a -po<al of Alex- jdedge for the future good conduct of the arie-. At all Fraidc< while traversing the territories of the -Iv di-loval, or Emi.iri--

THE rRVSADES.-^THK FIRST CRUSADE. In!)

couslmI at this act ..f IkhI laith oi, il,r ],ai-l Ivi-t 'lia.l iK^ap..! up in lin- lap. It ua. not

■A- tlie Eiiipfn.!'. Laii.liii- at Pliilipupoli, tl„. 1,,,,- until Al.xius priv.iv,.! llial ain.tlirr pul-

Dukr of Lon-ainr <li^patclir,l a n.,>s,,n-<a- t.i irv n,u>t lir aW-.p!..! uitli tli.^ warrior- of ihe

Con-tantinoplr t.. know ih,. oo-a-ion of the Wo.-t. II.' ,-rnt a ni.'.Mai-cr to (ohIiVov in-

arr.-t of tlio I'ount of \\-rniaii4oi-, and to loriuin- linn of lii> ,lr,-in' to Mipplv llio arinv

ileiiKuid his lihoration. To tiiis .ivil ro.iuo.-t , ,.ut ..f tho >torrs of ih,' c-ity, and th.. duki-

an evasive an.l uiisit;,-fa.-torv aiisucr \va> re- tlioivupon ordered hi- iojlowor- to (h-,~i>t from

turned. It was uut, long until crowds of fugi- ; further pilla-e. A better und.a>tan.lin- was

tive Greeks rushing into Constantinople gave I thus arrived at between the treaeherous Greeks

notice that Godfrey ha,'' become the avenger I and their unwelcome guest.

of his friend, and turned his warriors Ljoso i Kotwithstaudiug the outvvar<l show of amity

upm the peihlious C3uuti\ | lutiiel wtie eoust'\ntl> bietkni_ utletween

Ale\iu time pii kh t hi i Vi tl t \ 1 1 e \t tni \\ \\\ lu 1 tl it their

e d 1 \ AM 1 1 t 1 1 1 t 1 1 t ( It t t tl 1 ik w dl be

ji mi m^ t 11 e\ih t 1 1 1 t 1 i 1 11 t tt u tl 1 tt i le iimniti ns

•^^-ivr-^ ^~

Rl VLLt fN THE P W 1 1 LETINE

f Byzantine and Cru-adrrs were

the violence done to Hugh, and b.ggi,,- him wliieh burned in tlf h

to restrain his f .llowers from furth.a- ravauvs. Frank. More than ..n

The prince thereupon liade his warriors to on the evo of a— aiiltin^ the eity, and the

refrain from further injury to the Greeks, and i leaders of tin- lio-t wore little eoneerned to

then presseil forwanl to the Eastern Capital. I prevent sueli a eoidli.a. It uere hai.l to .say

Arriving brf. re the -ates he f.iind them elo-ed whether at thi- juiielnie the eiipidily of the

against the arniv of the Cross; f,r the highly , western soldi. as ..r th,' inxileliee of the Greeks

moral Al..xin-, havin- n..w ,-o„.-eiv,Ml the was m..iv .litti.adt t.. curb.

noble d,-iL;n..f-tarvin-th.'Crnsi.l.i-st., death, The Einp.r..r within th.' walls l.u.ked with

had tin-bill. I.ai th.' Gre.'ks lo s\i].|ilv them with ever-iner.>asini;- alarm upon the threatening at-

preheii.le.l th.' .-pirit and tianper .d' th.' men of .li|ilonia.'y wa- t.. mmmmv from lln' Western with wh.im h.' ha.l to .l.-al. Th.' Crnsa.l.a-s piin,v< wli.. ha.l th.'ir ,"imp< ..tit-i.l.' the ram- were unwillin- to b.' ..liia-.-.l up ..n th.. altar part- -u.-li a.t- ..f h.Hna;jv ami ..atli- of tealty of hung..r. Th.'V bui-t inf. th.' Miburbs ..f t.. hini-lf as .■.-nl.l it..( !..■ h.,n.,rablv or even tie- .'itv, ].lun.l.-r.'.l i.ala.vs :i,i.l villa-vs. .'a].- .l.v.aitlv vL^lat.-.l. II,. Iir>t lri...l ih.. ii,.w tur...u'tor,-.-h.Mi-,.-an.l h..lp,..l th,.in-,.|v,-b.,nn- p. :Ii..v ^^itl, -.1...... upon Hn-J, ,.f V.-rman-

r.XIVi:i!SAL HISTORY. — TIIE MOUKHX WOULD.

.-riir hw Mill as a ,1 ihcir iviui-uauoe ilh l,laiHli>lini.'iit>. -,-, au.l the (•(.ants ■ntc.l t(i(l.. l,..i.ia,-('

; liut liavuiundcf liii to i-eli.kT f(_-alty iiK' a ]ir(_il)k'in with he might liring the ■ (if what was due

he western princes and taken to the

d(ns, and, having i succeeded in securi oath. Great was tl grim camp when th known. But the J{ hostage to the ('rusa( was graduallv over. Godfrey, Itoin-n Sh of Fhiuders and ni- to Alexins as their - Toulouse refii-ed uil to such a nia-ter. the Empercr in whn sturdy Cru-ader K' the majesty ef Cmi-

On the app(iiiite( ■were admitted to tl palace of Alexius. There —

High on a throne ..f n.yal state that far

Outshone the wealth of Onnus or of Ind— sat the Emperor of Byzantium, surrounded by the Imperial court. Nothini:- wa-^ emitted which artificial magnificence e.)iild -npply to impress the Crusaders with a -eii-e of ea-t.rii greatness. But the eve of penetration eoold not have failed to pierce thron-h the tliin-y and -ilded sham and perceive the e-elltial weaklie- of the [lower whi(di wa< placed under the pndec- tion of the sword, of we~terii cliri-tendom. Godfrey, the two Uol.ert-. and Stephen did the act of homa-e a~ mi'jht lieeome great knights and warri( .r~. Kidi gift-^ were showered upon them, and the Enijieror liegan to wrap himself in the cloak of a delusive security.

Before the ceremony was fairly ended an incident occurred which shocked the crafty Greek from his pleasing reverie. Count Rob- erto of Paris was among the number of nobles who were present at the obeisance of the lead- ers. While the ,iai!-eant was still set this stal-

nierv that wa<	•iiactiiej-, 1(1 -at d(	strode boldly forward wii l.v the side of the
Emperor. At	ihi- tlle	( ; reeks were horrified
and the Cru.ad	1- laieji	■d. S(, me of the more
prudent Frank- (■ount i;(,l.,rt.	attempt ,1,(1 one	(1 to remonstrate with ,f them taking him by
the arm said:	" Wl,c,l	you are in a foreign
conntrv vou <	l-llt to	re-^jiect its custom^:"
"Indeed!" Kii(	the im	pii.leiit count, with a
significant lool	at Al.	Nil,-: ••but tlii-^ is a

V.'hat

e Cru.ai vonr lii he wit!

(1 \vl

surlv l;ol„rt. --I am a Freiichinaii," .-aid the' Frank, "and of the hi-he.-t rank .,f iH.bles. And one thing I kn.,w. that in my country there i? a [ila e near a church where tli'oe repair who are eager to attest their valor. 1 have often been there mv.self, and no one has ventured to present himself before me." The hint of a challen-e wa< lo-t on the mild- mannered Alexius, who had as little notion of exposing his person as he had of hazarding his thnme.

^Meanwhile the people of Southern Italy, esjiecially the Xormans of Calabria, had been roused from their slumbers by Prince Bwinnnd, of Tarento. He was the son of that R(ibert Guiscard by whom and his brother William the knights" of the ^'orth had been led again>t the Saracens in the war for the jio-ssession of the lower part of the peuinsida and the Sici- lies. Xow he took up arms in the common cause. IFi- own principality was far t(,o small a fii'id f(,r hi.- amhition. Like many aiaither restless baron, he would seek in the East and under cover of a holy enterprise the opportu- nity which the West no longer afl'orded.

But while the aspirations of BQ?mund urged him to a>.-ume the cross he found himself with neither money nor .soldiers. At this time the Norman army of the South, led by one of the brothers of the Prince of Tarento, was engaged in the siege of Amalfi, a stronghold of South- ern Italy, which the Normans had not yet reduced. Boemund repaired to the camp of his c(,untrymen and began to excite their minds with the story of outraged Jerusalem and to compare the glories of a crusade with the unworth of the petty war in which they were engaged. From the enthusiasm which lie thii< kindled to the leadership of an expe- dition \va- but a st(.-p, and Birmund soon found 1, ill, -elf at the head of a multitude of knights who wore the red cross and shouted. Dim le ]'< III. The siege of Amalfi was given up, and the ariiiv. thirty thwisand strong, departed for tile Holv Land. Anioie.:- the leaders of

this division of Cl■u^a(lrl■s was the riiiicc Tan- cwl, iK'pliosv ..rj'.c'iiiun.l, -loStilUMl t(. lirrnnu one of the -rcatt-st hi'riic< i>f the a^v.

The Hi-t hiiKlin.- nf the Italian kni-hts ^\a. made at Dura//,... At this place the Piin.-, of Ta.vi.to had ahvady in his youth .listin .U-ui.-hed lun.M.ir in a ennlliet with the <iiv, k.. Even now hi- seei'i 1 iini-[i()>e was rather t' renew the war with the Eastern Emj to exterminate tlie Turks. He act sent word to ( hidfrey, at Constautin

Tin-: CUUSAhKS.^THK FIRST rJHSADK 'an- I self rather than on the '

.1 >.,

to eai.q, and cro.-s into A-ia Mi an was >afely in Bithynia on the

id- iirolilic West numhcivd IuIIv.m

risit llk..]y lern avoided ^,.1 l.y(;od-

the (ollow-

,re-iliir sat- ■ak up their

The ho-t

rch for Pal- out of the nidrrd thou- .■d thou-and

!!..

he no party to sikIi an eiiterprisi

then advanced thiou-h ^Maeidoina and ap-

proaclied the Eastern Capital.

When Alexius heard that the Xorman Kniu'hts were cominir. and that the impla- cable Prince of Tarento was their leader, he resorte.l to his u>ual met la. d of duplicity. He roolved, if po>-ihh., to make Bcemund his va-al l.v ni.ans of l.rihcs. He invited

him wi

ived

11 the arts kn.jwu to au imperial deniai;oiiUi'. Xor did Btemund himself fail in the ilisplay of craft. The meeting (.f the twain was occupied with high-flown e(.mpli- ments and hollow professions of friendshiii. In the cour.=e of the sham interview, Alexius was indiscreet enough to exhibit to his dan- gerous guest one of the treasure houses of the palace. The eyes of the Prince of Tarento dilated with the sight. "Here is enough," said he, "to conquer a kingdom." Deeming the moment opportune, the Emperor immedi- ately ordered the treasures to be conveyed to Bcemuud's tent as a present. The latter af- fected to decline the gift. "Your niuniti- cence,' " said he, "is too great; Init if you would liave me your vassal forever malr )iie Grand Domei-fte of the Empire T This re- quest went through Alexius like a dart; for he himself had seized the Impei-ial crown while holding th<' othce of Grand Domestic. He aec.nlingly replied, that he couhl not confer the desirid honor, but that he wouhl grant it as a reward (.f future services.

Thus was the y.'ar lOilC ,-,,i,.-unie.l with tlie gathering of the armies of the W.-t before the walls of Constantinople. All winter long the Emperor was in extreme anxiety lest the up- lifted sword of Christendom should fall on him-

M.ldi.a- in armor. The mix.'.	charaeter of
tlie va>t throng was <till pres.	rve.l. Priest,
matron, an.l mai.l still journev	m1 l.y the side
(.f young warriors, wh..' .'arrie.	white hawks
on their wri>ts, and wlii-tled :	t intervals to
the hounds. At the hea.l ro.	e the austere
(iodfrey, the white-haired Hay	n..ud of Ton-
h.use, ami Peter the Ih-viuh s.a	ed on a mule.
The immense army pre>-,-.l ,-t	adily forward
and came to Xice, the capital <	f I'lithynia.
The sultan of thi- pro\ iui'i' i	ade ,-trenuous
etli.rts to put his king.h.m in	I .•onditi(.n of
defense. Nice was .Irou-lv 1	.ilili<-d. The
people were rot,.,.! hv a ,,ro,	laiuation, pnd
called in for the pn.teetiou oft	..■ capital. In
aee(.rdauce with the military i	lethod^ of the
East, the n(.n-eonibatant> wci-e	plaeeil within
the walls, while the Turki>h ai	my pit.hed its
camp on the neighboring nioun	■.uu<. On the
10th of May, lOilT, the bamie	- ..f the Cru-

.saders came in sight, (^iiite dili'ereiit was the ])rospect from that which the W'e.-tern chivalry had expected to descry. Iba-e lay a powerful citv surrounded with the seennugly impreg- nable rampart, protected by Lake Ascanius and a ditch deep and l.niad, flooded with water. Here were turrets bristling with Turkish spears, and yonder (.n the mountain slope wave<l the blai-k banner of the Abbas- sides over a powerful army of ^loslem war- riors. But the coiirai^e ol' the Crusaders was ratlier aw-akened into aeti\e eiierey than coole.l by the spectacle. TakiuL^ their posi-

innnediat.lv lUan a .-i.-v. Th.. .lay'ha.l at last arriv.'.l wluui th." is<u.' ..f val.ir, whi.di

before on the fiehl of Poiti.as, was again to be de<-i.led, but now on the plains <.f Asia Minor.

L\\J\KJ;SAJ. HISTORY. — THE MOPEh'X WOULD.

and Crescent trsicd cacli dlln-r's >iiriiL:tli ami powers in ilc^iiltui-y ami iiiil(ci-i\r (■(j|itlicl>. Several times the Cni-a.l.r- lluii- llic'iiiM-Jvcs

with cunM.lrral.lr !.>".-. i;,n Ihr -iillaii aii4 his -riici-al- ,liM-nv.'iv,l in ill,..,- ivrkl,'>s as- saults a ,-,,ui-au.' an, I .l,t,iniinati,,n wl.i.-h ha,l ha,l not iH.n u iin,>-,.,l in \V,M,Tn Asia since the (lays ,if Al,\an,l,i- tli,- <ii-,at. After some delay, the .M,,-I,in l,a,l.Ts d.-termined to risk a battle. Th,' sultan harangued his soldiers, appealing to i'v,ay nmiivi' which seemed likely to call forth th,' in,ist hei'nic energies of Islam. Then, girdin,;:' ,jn his swdivI, he gave orders for the charge, an,l ili,' .Mi.sl,'ni host, surging down the mountain si,)|i,', l',ll headlong upon the Christian camp. Su,'li was the fury of the charge that the soldi, is ,if Raymond of Tou- l,iu.-e, l.y whuni the hrunt of the battle was hi>t li,irn,', wiTi' tlu-nwn intu s,ime disorder an,l drivi'ii tVimi tli,'ir lines. But the advan- tage thus gain,d liy tli,' Saracens was of brief duiati,,n. l;ayni,,n,l lalli,'.] his men with the great, '.t l)i-av,a-y. i;,,l),rt tlie Sh,,it H.-se, now in the h,'ight of his i:l,)iy, an,l KolMTt of Flander.s, rushed to tli,' iv-iai,-, ami in a short time the bugles of tlie sidian w, r,' li,'anl sounding the retrtat. The ( 'ni-a,li'is rais,'d the shout of ti'inmph, an,l tlie sha,l,,w of th,' victorious Cmss fill atliwait th,- liehl of ear- uage. The losses ,.f ll,.' .M,,d<'ms, liow,'V,r, were not great; i'm- tli,- sultan aliamhuiiiiL;' his capital, made good his i','tn'at, ami iio,~tp,>ii,'d the decisive conllii't. Th,' ( 'in.~a,l,'vs wer,- thus left to batter ,hiwu the walls ,,f Ni.'e at their

X,it	vithstan	ling	the w	lh,liawal ,,f the
city h.	•my ,.f 1,1 out	h.f,.n~	y a-a'h	iiiis,Mi within the st the besiegers.
Tlie lal	t.T, hou	.\-el-.	W.T,' 11	it to be put from
their p	irpose.	A L	imhani	ent^iiicer lent his
sldU il cliim's	tlie pn	paral ;n,,w	1 t,, Ih.	skill ,ir th,.' :\ri,i-
,11,. A.	■s Th, An ,1	ran	parN VN ,'alh.,l	Ih,. l.ali>l..i- ,li-
<'liar-v,	en.n-m	,11- -		aiii-t th,. tnrivi-.
Catapu ro,'k n	ts hurl )oii th,.	.,1 In lli-fel	liTS ,li'	M.< ,if w.„h1 an,l ill,. I'ilv, ami th,'
	tower.	Imil	at a	li-l.-m,.,' fnmi tli,'

1,1 t,. Iian.l eiieountei's on the toj. of the

eK,-i..,u,.,liiieanwhih'aiiMv,.|v,l f,,iv,. with

, Ih,. pla.',. ,.f th.' falhn Mippli,.,l with .Mi.r-. ami th,. ('rusnl,-.- k,.pt at bay. th,. .-i,.-,- had, ',,1,111111, .1 lor s,.v,.|'al w,.,.ks ,liM',,v,'iv,| l.y (;,„ltVev aii,l th,. ,.,,nf,.,l- ,rin,.,.- ihal sii,',','s- w,,ul,l I..' in, 1,. finitely 11, .,1 as l,,iig as the inhabitants ,,f Nice II',. ingress and egre.ss by way of lake ills. To gain posse.ssion of this body of iH'i'aine therefore the inini..,liati. oiiject ( Vii.-aih'i's. Boats wiiv l,r,ai::lit ,i'ver- inann,.,l with sohliers and launcheil by on th,. lake. The morning brought cou- lioii t,i the inhabitants of Nice. The 111,1 li,,uselii>lil of the sultan atteni]iting

amazeimnt, when the charge wa> about iiiail,., the standard of the bniiperor I- I-,,-,, abov,. the turrets of the city.

thai they wer,' ali,)Ut to prove victorious, he seiii his L^eiieral and admiral to open secret ii,...:oiiati,.n,- with the besieged. The latter w,.r,' in,ln,'.',l t,, lielh-v,' that it would be far pi-efel-alile f,,' them to vield the city to their tVi.'iid, the iiionaieh of Byzantium, than to snrn'iidi'i- to th,' t,.i-iilile warriors of the West. To tlii- , 'Oil I'M- the aiiilioi-itie< oi' Nice were easily p,'i'Hia.l,.,l. A,.,',.i-,liii'Jv when the Cnisaders' 1,11-1, .<«,.ivab,, ,11 to >,, 1111,1 tlie,'l,ai-|. ill an as- sault which miiM have pn,v,.,l sm.,.,'.>fiil, the siibth'tv ,.r th,. (;iv,'k pn-vailid over the valor

of kni-hth 1, and ih.' capital of Bithyiiia was

Liiven to him rather than to them. The weak- iiex oi' hiiiiian nature found amjile illustra- tion in th,' ('■imliiet of the western ])rinces. Thev wer,' calh'd to-ether by the Kmiieror, and theii- ri-iii'^' ra-e iil the treaeliery to which tli,'\- ha, I lu'eii siilijected was quenched in a cpioii- -how, r of presents. But ev,'ii this ,.,.ol,.r iiiion th,. iiidiunation natural to such

With sullen

two-fae,',l All i,.v wiln,.-..,l th,. transfer to his ,e' i.ri/..' won by their valor, and

THE CRUSADES. — THE FIRST CRUSADE

then set out in no cnvia their march toward Jerusalem. sultai

Departing from the scene of their victuri- arm- ous Jiscomtiture, the Crusaders srt nut in two the (' divisions. The first ami hy far the lai-rr ' all >e force was enmmanded hy tiic Counts (iudl'iiy, liur>t Eaymond, Hugh and' Knluit ..f Fland.rs. a-mn The other and nmre warlike army e(.m|ioM-.l liit tl for tlie most part ot' the Xcrmaii knii^lits. was Xmn un.ler the lea.l of Short Hose, JJo'iuund, mun.l au.l Tanen.l. Thr tii-t .liviMon a.lvan.-o.l took across the plain of Doryhmm, and tlir o|l,..i- ih,. C .entered the valley of 1)(hiiii:it.\.\. Ten ilays after their departure, namely, on the oHili of June, the warrior.? under the lead of Biemimd pitched their tents iu what was deemed a se- cure position and prepareil fir the rest of the night. Early on the following- spies hurried into the ea)iip ; the approach of the sultan with two liundr( thousand men. Before the I'i'u-adois eon prepare for the onset, elouds of du>t hoil up .in the horizon, an.l the Turks hore dov at full speed to l.attle.

les wi .icked

d tl

n thr h.

Now

Tai

■d ^^A\-m■A^ lost, IJohert S -t Ho.e

h a frrdi lio.lv of horM.nirn upon the d Turk., and'.M.veral ,,r tie ir Irad.rs u-t un<l,.r the ila-hiu- swi.rds of ili.- . In another part of the li, Id JSo- llio.l his m,ai to the eharg,., and re- <'amp. Ni.vrthele- thr o,ld- a-aiu-t tian- wcrf as five to one, and it seemed o that the liiilit could be long main- Tlie Ciii>ader> were beaten back into

rn.ie band xvlirn the shrill l.uulr. of were hrard in the .liManee, and in a nng Greek moment more than fifty thousaml sabre- Hadi- annonnced ing in the sunlit;ht uikIii- the banner of Ilu^h o hundr.Ml of Verman.loi<gh.amrd ovrr the summit of the hills iM.hin.l the Christian camp. It was now tho turn of the sultan to b,- .liMuavcd. IIi> bu.l.- M,und,..l a r.tn-at, and tl,. Turks ' fril bark rapidlv, pur-urd by the Crusulrrs. ;-s of P.irmund of Thr liiir- of thr rnrmy were broken, and the li'il lu.-trr. The Sai'arrn,- soon found llirmselves hemmed in on with a palisele rvrry si,l,., and sladird by the swords of the >. I!a<-k,.l a-ainvt tie- hilb. Hi Jit was !<■. Thr ho-t was rut down l.v tleai-

Brhinr

tnd Tan- was the

camp was lia>tily -urrou formed with the wagons. combatants were plai'rd knights, vaidting into t took the battle-line, with cred furious f.ir the figli order of the conflict set wleu thr white tur- I The Turkidi bans and green sashes and loui;- sprars of the urt's, eaniels, Turks flash..! out ..f the .lu-t-rl.,u.l an.l bn.ke ' the .-..leiueni up..ii the Christians. Th.ai f .ll.>w.d th,' bl.,w- army .-bant.;, ing .if h.irns thr i-,,ll ,.f drums, the v.'ll ..f line of thr t the Sara.vn-, an.l tl,.- .k.u.i ..f ,lart^ .leseen.l- | Vall.'v .,f D. ing with .hailly .lin and i-altl.' up.m the arm.ir of the Xormau horsemen. Galle.l by the jave- lins which .set the horses in a foam of rage and fear, the Crusaders dashed into the small river which separated them from the eneiuy, and rushed han.l to hand with their assailants. The skillful Turks opened their lines, and the Chri-tian< m-.tu.-.I t.i b.-at the air. Then the emany wh.-.l.'.l, r.'tiirur.l t.i the fray, .liseharged | d their arrows, an.l a-aiii sp.'.l out ..f r.-a.' Manvof the kni^hl- r.Mlr.l fmm th.ir si.l.ll and fell. Horses .la-h.-.l « il.jlv ab.mt tl,.- li.-L Gnifusion an.l nmt se.-nn-.l t.i impen.l .,v the Christian armv. C..unt i;.,li.rt ..f Pai

lly b., n will

Thr	Cru-a.l.i- mig	It with g.io.l reas.in eel-
ebrat.- t	i.'ir viet.iry.	It was 11, iw evi.lent that
the Sai	iceus were n.	t able to stan.l before
them ii	liattle. The	•.HI rage of the e.mquer-
ors aros	' with the .).-.■;	sion, an.l with renewed
euthusii	sm they to.ik	ip tbi'ir mar,-l, t.iwards
Anti.K'l far, h.,\	. The exp.'.li ■•■ver, until a	ti.m ha.l n.,t proceeded .■hanr.' .-an,.' ..vrr the
.hvan,s	.f thr Christia	IS. Tl,.- sultan ,,f Nice,
unwillii a.h.ptr.1	g t.i hazard	an.nher engagement, laying waste the couu-
Thr ar,	he en.l th.at h ,v ..f the ],rini	s enemies might starve. es s.ion came int., a re-
gi.in wl	ere n., f,.«l w.	s t.i br f,un.! f.ir man

BATTLE OF D0(. ■■!:■. \N -I

THE CRUSADES.^TIIE FIRST CRUSADE.

or beast. The distress lieeame extreme. The jDilgrims were obliged to subsist uu tlie roots of plants aud the chance products which had escaped destruction by the Turk. The hawks and hounds starved to death. Men and horses fell famishing. The despalriug moans of dy- ing women were heard in the camp. Hun- dreds and thousands dropped by the wayside and perished. Then the water failed. Not a brook, fountain, or well was any longer found. The horrors of thirst were added to those of famine. At length, when the whole host .seemed on the brink of destruction, some of the strag- gling hounds came into camp dripping with water. They had found a river, bathed in it, aud drank to repletion. The pilgrims hasted in that direction, aud soon came to a cool, running stream. Forgetting all moderation, they rushed in aud drank till nature gave way under the sudden reaction, and other hundreds died on the banks. Others sickened from the overdraught, and the camp was filled with an- guish. Still the host quailed not; and evening aud morning the heralds made proclamation of "Save the Holy Sepuleher ! " aud the chiefs courageously renewed the toilsome march.

At length in the middle of autumu a pass was found in the mountains, and the half- starved Crusaders, dragging themselves through, came into a region of plenty. Supplies were gathered from the towns and fields, and the spirits of the enfeebled warriors revived with the quieting of hunger. Presently, Antioch, with its lofty castles and four huudred and sixty towers, came in sight, and the second great prize to be contended for by the armies of Christendom was reached.

The city itself was an object of the great- est interest. Beyond rose a mountain, the hither slope being covered with houses aud gardens. lu one of the suburbs the celebrated fountain of Daphne tossed its waters in the sunlight. The feet of the rich metropolis were washed by the great river Orontes, plentiful iu waters. But better than her natural beauty and opulence were the hallowed associations of Antioch. Here the followers of Christ had first taken the name of Chrhtians. "ere St. Peter was made first bishop of the Church. Here the early saints and martyrs had per- formed their miracles and given to the city a sanctity second only to that of Jerusalem.

The jMirtiou of Upper Syria of wiiich An- tioch was the capital was at tlh' time of the First CriLsade governed l>y I'rim-c Auxian, a dependent of the Caliphair. :\ot di-iitute of warlike abilities, this ruler now ma<le prepara- tions for an obstinate defeu>e. So -i-eat, how- ever, was the fame which flew bef u'e the tri- umphant Crusaders that the iloslems had come to anticipate defeat; and the momentum of victory carried the invaders onward.

Xot (inly had .success, in despite of I'amiue and disasters, thus far attended the main body led by Godfrey aud Short Hose, but the other divisions had in like mauner triumphed over the Infidels. Tancred and Baldwin (of Bouil- lon) had cajitured Tarsus. The former had also been victorious at IMalmistra and Alexan- dretta, and the latter had subdued the princi- pality of Edessa. He then wreathed his sword iu flowers by marrying a daughter of the prince of Armenia, by which act he gained the bet- ter portion of Ancient Assyria. Indeed, the greater jiart of Asia ]\Iin<ir was already dom- inated by the Cross; and the various divisions, elated with repeated successes, concentrated be- fore Antioch.

Between that city and the cru.sading armiea flowed the Orontes. The stream was sjianned by a great bridge defemle.l by iimi towers. Before the Christians ceiuld reach the other side, the bridge must be captured, and this duty was as-signed to Robert Short Hose of Normandy. In him it were hard to say whether his courage was greater than his rash- ness. He had all the heroic virtues and splen- did vices of his age. With a picked force of Norman knights he attacked the bridge with the greatest audacity, and such was the terror of his flashing sword, that the iloslems aban- doned the towers and fled. The Christian bu- gles sounded the charge, aud the crusading host crossed in safety to the other side. A camp was pitched before the walls of Antioch, and here the mail-clad warriors of the West lay down to rest in the shadow of the palms of Syria.

Thus far in the course of the great expe- dition from the Kliiiie to Constantinople, from Constantinople t(j Nice, from Nice to Aiuiocli, not much opportunity had been given the Cru- saders to reap the harvest of promised pleas- ure. One of the chief incentives to the

uyivi:i:sAL nisTum'.—niK modeux world.

the (.'hurch u> all over the luliiKl. i)e unknown. Th the (lark-ev.Ml Imu nanic.l as a i.ait ..:

■ t (

hair-.li' in til.-

beauties flii walls of Antinch the down to enjiiv whatf\ The -n,l ,,f Lie,.n>e Wv itv. All restraint was

i-rwar.l due M lli.-i n-k IVum liis .^eat .. tl„. C'rii.ader in hi m1 li-iires of Oi-ipnt:i ■ niii'a-e. Before th li.u ,>f tlie AVest >a r the land attord.d ne the favorite diviii tst aside. Everv vi]

I Ian Id, and .li-

dth the cold, the wake of Robert Shnrt

Hose aiKl Jxei bron-ht l.aek Western ho,~t Now there w:

und scoured the couutrv and

ittle. All .summer long the

lad tilleil itself with fatne.ss.

ii.j mon,. Sufterinir be-an.

Tei

Th

lage in the surrounding country was recklessly pillaged, and the camp of the Crusaders was heaped with spoils. Then the armed warriors gave themselves up to feasting and love-making with the Syrian damsels. Bishops of the Church wandered wantonly through the or- chards and lay on the grass playing dice with Cyprians. Believing that the garrison of An- tioi'h would not dare to come firth and at- tack them, the Franks abandoned themselves to riotous living, and all manner of excess.

It was not long until this course provoked its natural consecjuences. The defenders of the city watched their opportunity and made a successful sally. The Crusaders were dis- persed in neighboring villages, expecting no attack. Thus exposed, they were slaughtered in large numbers, and the heads of all who were overtaken were cut off and thrown into the camp as a taunt. Great was the fury of the Crusaders on behoMing the bloody remind- ers of their own and >]ain friends' folly. Roused to a sudden fury, they .-eizcd their arms and rushed like madmen upon the fortifications. They were beaten back with large losses by the garrison. In onler to prosecute the siege the (Christians now f)und it necessary to for- tify their camp and build a bridge across the Orontes. The next work was the construc- tion of wooden towers commanding the river ; for a blockade was essential to the success of the investment.

Ere the siege was well begun winter came on. The riotousnoss of the ,-uiumer and vin-

nients of the Crusaders were worn to rags. Disea>e lirought anguish, and many in despair gave up the enterpri.se and set out secretly for lioini'. I'lter the Hermit escaped from the camp and had gone some distance liefore he was overtaken and brought back by force. The daring Short Hose undertook to save him- self by retiring into Laodicea ; but when God- frey sent a summons to him in the name of Christ he was induced to return.

When affairs were about at their worst the Caliph of Baghdad, learning of the situation at Antioch, .sent an embassy to the Crusailers w ith an offer of alliance and protedion ! The Norman and French knights were in no mood to bi- protected by an Infidel. They sent back a defiant message and resolutely continued the siege. Winter wore away, and the condition of the woeful warriors began to imjjrove with the sunny weather ; but better than the change of season was the news that came from the port of St. Simeon. That harbor had been entered 1 iv a fleet of provision-ships from (ientia and l'i,-a. Sucli was the elation of the Cru-ad.-rs that many hurried ofi" to the coa>t to obtain supplies, but returning without due caution they were attacked by a division of Saracens and disper.sed. Thereupon (oid- frey, Tancred, and Short Hose called out their forces and went to the rescue. Seeing this movement the commandant of Antioch ordered the garrison to sally forth and attack the camp. Ill order to make sure of success he shut tlir ,j„l.', },. Iini.l them. The Crusaders turned fui-iously upon the Moslems and drove them to the wall. Here they were hewed down untd ni'jhtfall, when Auxian reopened the gates and the survivors rushed in for safety.

Still the defenses of the city held out. S|iring went by and summer came, and the pusition <if the combatants remained un- changed At last, however, when the sheer valoi- iif tlie Crusaders seemed insufficient to gain for them the coveted prize, an act ;if trea-oii did what force of arms had been un- able to aceomnli.-h. One of the iirincii.al

THE CRUSADES. — THE FIRST CRUSADE.

commauders iu Antioch was a curtain rene- gade Christian named Emipher. For rea- sons of his own, in former years he had kit the Cross to follow the Crescent, and by ser- vility and zeal had gained the favor of the sultan of Antioch. Auxian had taken him into his official household, and given him an important command. The chief towers on the ramparts were committed to his keeping. The situation suggested td him the protita- bleness of a reconversion t(^ Christianity. Looking down into the camp of the Cru- saders, he soon descried the figure of one to whom he deemed it well to open his designs. This was Bcemund of Tareuto. Not that this jjrince was disloyal to the cause for which he fought; but he was ambitious in the last degree, and had long been fixed in his purpose to conquer a principality of his own. The great and rich city of Antioch seemed to be the prize which he had seen in vision. Such was his frame of mind that when a secret message was delivered to him from Emipher, requesting an interview on matters of the highest moment, he not only scented the treachery which was intended, but gladly welcomed the opportunity of gain- ing nis end by dishonorable means.

The meeting was held. The hypocrite Em- ipher narrated how Christ had come to him in a dream and warned him to turn again to the Cross and to bring forth fruits meet for repent- ance. The good Bcemund exhorted lum to go on and to follow the cimniand of the Lord. Tlie result was that the shrewd Prince of Ta- reuto overreached the traitor, gained his con- fidence, and secured from him a promise to deliver Antioch into his hands.

Bcemund now called the Western leaders together, and offered to gain po.ssession of An- tioch on condition that he should be recognized as prince of the cit3\ At first the proposition was received with great disfavor. The ambi- tious leader was rebuked for his scheme, and like Achilles he went off to his tent in sullen anger. It was not long, however, until news was borne to the camp which changed the dis- position of the Western princes. The sultans of Nice and jMossouI had aroused half the East, and were marching a host of four hundred thou- sand Moslems for the relief of Antioch. It

dons	force w<ui
sad.-i	<. Co.ltVe,
prud	nt enough

only a question of

inie wnen

nq.i.

lie hurled ujion tli-

o put asi.le till ir >r and, sending for Bienuuxl, they ^iL!niliell to him their willingness that lu' sIkhiM !»■ prince of Antioch if he would olitaiii pos.-rs^ion of the city. Communication was accordingly opeueil with Emipher, and it was arranged that on a given night the towers should be surrenilered into the hands of the Christians.

It was a perilous piece of business. The traitor was suspected and sent for by Auxian. Such, however, was his skill as a dissembler, that he completely reestablished the sultan's confidence. On the day appointed for the delivery, the Crusaders withdrew as if aban- doning the siege. They hid themselves in a neighboring valley, and lay there uutil night- fall. A storm came on and favored the en- terprise. The besiegers returned and swarmed silently around that portion of the rampart which was held by Emipher. The latter es- tablished communication with the Franks be- low, and the Lombard engineer was taken up to the towers to see that every thing was in readiuess for the surrender. When the sig- nal was at last given for the Crusaders to l)lant their ladders and ascend, they became apprehensive of a double treachery, and re- fused to scale the ramj)art. It was with the utmost difficulty that Bcemund and a few others, by first climbing the ladders them- selves anil reporting every thing in readiness, finally induced their followers to ascend. It was found that Emipher was in bloody ear- nest. There, in the tower, lay the body of his brother, whom he had butchered because he refused to lie a participant in the treason.

The turrets were quickly filled with Chris- tian warriors, and, when all was secure, they poured down into the city. Trumpets were sounded, and the thunder-struck Moslems were roused from their slumbers by the fear- ful and far-resounding cry of Dku le Veut! In the midst of the panic and darkness they heard the crasli of the Ci-usaders' swords. Auxian, ])eri'eiving that he had been be- trayed, attempted to escape, but was cut down by his enemies. The Saracens, rush- ing to and fro in the night, were slaughtered by thousanils. The gray dawn of June 4tli, KIDS, .vjiowed the streets heaped with

STORMING OF ANTIOCH.— Drawn by Gustave Dor6.

THE CRUSADES. — THE FIRST CRUSADE.

;.s'j

corpses, anil the banner ni' Bteniund of Ta- rento floatin-- tVoni tln' hi-lir>t tower of Antioch. Only the citadel remained in pos- session of the jMoslems.

Jleanwhile the great army nf Turks, led by Kerboga, the .siiltau of ^lossdul, and Kil- idge Arslan, sultau of Nice, drew near to the city. The Christians were now inside the walls and the enemy without. Great was the disparity in numbers; for the Asi- atics were estimated at nearly a half a mill- ion, of whom one hundred thijusand were cavalry. Godfrey and Bremund found them- selves in possession of abundance, but it was that kind of abundance upon which an army could not long subsist. The actual stores and provisions of Antioch had been well- nigh exhausted in the course of the recent siege, and gold and treasure could not suf- fice for bread. The Turks -ainr,! jiossession of the Orontes between th.' city ami the sea, and cut off communication witii the port of St. Simeon. No further su|.|ilios could, for this reason, be obtained from iMu-ope. The allied sultans, perceiving their advantage, sat down in a spacious and luxurious camp and quietly awaited the day when the pent-up Christians must yield to the inevitable.

The condition soon became desperate. Hawks and hounds disappeared. Then horses began to be eateu. Many a hungry knight saw with famishing rage the splendid steed that had borne him proudly in every bat- tle, from Scutari to the Orontes, slaughtered and devoured. Luxury was on every hand, but no focJd. The leaders saw that it was better to tight and die than to remain within the walls and starve. They, therefore, ex- horted their followers to sally forth with them, and meet their fate like heroes; but the exhortation now fell on dull and de- spairing ears. Zeal had perished of hunger. But, when every thing else failed, supersti- tion came to the rescue. A certain monk, named Peter Barthelemy, had a dream. St. Andrew came to him and said: "Arise! Go and dig in a spot which I will show thee in the Church of St. Peter, and thou shalt find the spear wherewith the soldier jiierced the side of the Lord. Take that sacred weapon and carry it at the head of the army, and the Infidels shall flee before it."

The i)ilgrims went hastily an.l di--ed. Lo ! the object Of their search. It \va> bi-ou-ht fiirtli and shown to the armv. Ineoiiceivable was thr .•xeltement producr.l l,y the exhibi- tion of the wonderful wea|ion. Now wei'e thry r.'adv to g., forth and fall upon tlie profnir dogs of Asia. The host drniaiidod to bo l.d f ,rth to that victory which St. An- drew had foretold.

It was deemed prudent by the W.>>torn princes to send an embassy to the sultan and warn him to retire fiom the country. Peter the Hermit was chosen to bear the message. Mountnl on a mule and <'lad in a woolen inan- tlo, tho little monk of Sav.ma n.do boldly Ihrou-h the .-atc'> ..f Antioch to onlcr out of Syria an army of f. in- hundred thousan.l Turk- ish warriors! Comiim to the sultan's camp he founil him in a splcndiil jiavilion, sui-- rounded with all the hixurv of tlie i:a-t, and amu>ine himself with a ijaiiie of chess. "I come." said the Hermit, •■ in the name ,,f the princes a-embled in Antioch, and I conjure

molested. Bn t a battle .'oiM ause." Th.M.I

you r ■ von

rage and scorn speech. "Eeti

swelled Wi thi- ins,,le o those w

■ow they

thei

ite.

sent you, and tell them tha quered to receive <'onditio: them. Bid thy ca|itains hn- day imjilore my clemency, wiil find that tlieir (ohI, w himself, will not .save them Drive the vagabond away."

With the return of this answer the Crusa- ders grew hot for battle. The chiefs prepared for the fight, and in a way half miraculous one full meal was served to the army. ( )n the morning of the 1st of ,Iuly the i;ates of Anti- I och were thrown open and the Crusaders went forth to stake all on a single hazard. Godfrey and the other leaders arranged their forces in twelve divisions in honor of the. twelve apos- tles. The Duke of Lorraine himself led the right wing, supported by his brother Eustace and his kinsman Baldwin of Bourg. The left was under command of the Short Hose, and the C.>unt of Fland.i-. The re-.-rve<. inclu- dine- the An-lo-Norman kni-hts, under the

UMVERSAL HISTORY.—THE MODERN WORLD.

Earl of Albennark', were held l.y Eutmuud of Tarento. lu tlie vau of the ragged host marched a cumpauy of priests bearing aloft the spear-head whieh Barihelemy had fouud under the altar of the Church of St. Peter.

Notwithstanding theii- desperate condition, the Crusaders were confident of victory. De- lirious with the superstitions of the age, they urged their way towards the Turkish camp, fully persuaded that heaveu would make gond the promise of triumph.

The ^Moslems lay undisturbed iu their en- campment. Even when the Crusading army came in sight the sultan of Mossoul, himself an experienced warrior, refused to believe that the Christians had come forth to fight. " Dotditless," said he, "they come to implore my clemency." The peculiar "clemency" which they sought, however, was soon revealed in their conduct. Hardly liad the Saracen trumpets sounded and the Moslem captains marshaled their immeuse army for battle, be- fore the Crusaders set up their shout of Dieu le Veut, and rushed headlong to the charge. Perhaps the leaders knew that the fate of the First Crusade was staked upon the issue. The onset of the Christians was so fierce that noth- ing could stand before them. The Saracen host was borne back by the shock, and the first charge seemed to foretell the triumph of the Cross.

In the beginning of the engagement, how- ever, the sultan of Nice had not brought his array into action. Seeing the Moslems driven back along the river, he now made a detour and fell upon the rear of the Crusaders. The latter were thus pent between two hosts seem- ingly innumerable. The ^loslems set fire to the grass and bushes which covered the jilain, and the stifling smoke was blown into the faces of the Christians. Godfrey and Bcemuud had the mortification to see theii- followers be- gin to waver, give way, and despair. For a moment, as on the iield of Poitiers, three liun- dred and sixty-six years before, the fate of the two continents and the two great Semitic re- ligions seemed to hang in the balance. In the crisis of the fight, the Crusaders cried out to the priests and demanded to know where was the promised succor from heaven. The undaunted Adhemar, bishop of Puy, pointed calmly through the clouds of smoke and exclaimed :

"There, they are come at last ! Behold those white horsemen ! They are the blessed mar- tyrs, St. (^ieorge, St. Demetrius, and St. The- odore come to fight our battle !" Then the cry of, " God wills it!" rose louder than ever. The news was borne from rank to rank that the heavenly host had come to the rescue. Fiery enthusiasm was rekindled in every Cru- sader's breast, and the Moslems suddenly felt the battle renewed with imj^etuous fury. On every side they fell back in disorder before the irresistible assaults of the Christians. The field was swept in all directions, and the blaring bugles of Islam called in vain to the rally. Terror succeeded defeat, and the flying Sara- cens were hewed down by frenzied Crusaders, who knew not to spare or pity. The heavy masses of the sultan's army rolled away in one of the most disastrous routs of the Middle Ages. The victorious Crusaders mounted the horses of the slain IMoslems and pursued the fugitives until wearied with the excess of slaughter. The immense hosts of Kerboga. and Kilidge Arslan melted from sight forever.

As soon as the result of the great battle was known iu Antioch the citadel was surren- dered to the Christians. Boemund was now- complete master of his priucif)ality. A still more important result of the decisive conflict was the reopening of communication with th; port of St. Simeon, and the capture of great quautities of provisions and stores in the Sara- cen camp. The whole aspect of the struggle was changed, and the Christian warriors began again to look forward with pleasing anticipa- tion to the day when they should kneel as humble victors on the recovered sepulcher of Christ.

The position of the Crusaders in Antioch was not unlike that of the Carthaginians at Capua. It was evident that the Holy City miiilit now lie easily wrested from the Infidels. Those (if the iiilLTrims who were actuated by religious railu-r than political motives were eager to advance at once into Palestine. There lay the goal of their ambition. Not so, how- ever with the leaders. The example of Bald- win iu seizing the Principality of Edessa, and of Boemund in gaining for himself the great and opulent city of Antioch, had proved in- fectious, and nearly every prominent chieftain now cherished the secret hope that erelong

THE CRUSADES. — THE FIRST CRUSADE.

mi

he should possess a iirovince of his own. Just in pi'oportiou as this ambitious sentiment was wai-med and nurtured among the knights their horror of the atrocious Turk, sitting on the H0I3' Sepulcher, was mitigated into a mild sort of hatred which might well be postponed. But the multitude clamored to be led on against Jerusalem, and the princes were obliged to frame excuses for spending the summer at Au- tioeh. The horses taken from the Tui'ks must be trained to service under warriors of heavy armor. The season was too hut for a campaign through Syria — the autumn would be titter for the enterprise.

The stay in the city, however, proved un- fortunate. Raymi.md of Toulouse, to whom the citadel had been surrendered just after the battle, quarreled with Bremuud, and the army was distracted with their feud. The luxuri- ous living of Antioch proved too much for the rough men of the West. A contagion broke out, and fifty thousand Christians were carried off before its ravages were stayed. Among those who perished was Adhemar, bishop of Puy and legate of the Pope, a man scarcely less important in rank and in- fluence than Godfrey and Boemund. So the summer of 1098 was wasted in enterprises of personal ambition, little conducive to the rep- utation of the Western princes.

What with battle, what with famine, what with pestilence and desertion, the army of the First Crusade was now reduced to fifty thou- sand men. It was perceived by the warrior pilgrims that their chiefs were busy with tlicir own attairs, and neglectful of the isvi-.it nlijcct for which the Holy War had been undertaken. Their discontent at this state of aflfivirs broke into murmurs, and murmurs into threats. The Crusaders declared that they would discard the old aud choose new leaders, who would bring them to the city and tomb of Christ. This ominous word broke the spell, and Godfrey, Raymond, Short Hose, and Tancred agreed to march at once on Palestine. As for Stephen of Blois aud Hugh of Vcrniandnis. they had already given over the war and r(.'tnrned to Europe.

It was evident on tlie niareli from Antioch t.i Jerusalem that already the fnrinus zeal with wliieh theCrnsad,' l,ad l-e.^n be-nn had some- what aVinted. Now a iietty expe.lition acainst

the Saracens of a neighboring province, and now a (luarrel between Ai'uold de IJolie^, <'liap- lain of l;,,bert Sliort ILw. and P.'ter Barthe- lemy, relativ.' to tiie sacred spear-head found in the eluu-eli at Antioch, distracted the attention of the warriors from the prime ob- ject of tile war. The whole winter was thus consumed, and it was not until the 29th of May, lU9'.t, that the remnant of the great army, ascending the Heights of Emails, came at early morning in sight of the City of David.

Then followed a scene of indescvibable emo- tion. There lay the walls and towers of that holy but now profaned place, where the Son of Mary and the Carpenter had walked among men. To the Crusaders, the thought was ove"- powering. They uncovered their heads. They put off their sandals. They fell upon their faces. They wept. They threw up their hand*, and cried: "Jerusalem! Jerusalem!" Then they seized their swords, aud would fain rush to an immediate assault. In a short time Tan cred secured po.ssession of Bethlehem, and, when a body of Saracen cavalry came forth to stay the progress of the Christians, he chased them furiously to aud through the gates of the city. The main army encamped on the north side of Jerusalem — that part of the rampart being most accessible to as- sault. The leaders present to share in the toil and glory of the siege were Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Eustace, Raymond of Toulouse, Baldwin du Bourg, Robert of Flanders, Robert Short Hose of Normandy, and Edgar Atheling of England, who, after settling the affairs of Scotland with the usur- per Donold Bane, had led his Saxon Knights to the East and joined the Christian army in Laodicea.

While the preparations were making for the siege an anchorite came out of the hermit- age on jMouut Olivet and harangued the princes. He exhorted them to take the city by .=torm, assuring them of the aid of heaven. Great was the enthusiasm ins]nred by his ])res- enoe in the eainp. Soldiers and chiefs were

make an immediate assault. Poorly as they wi.Te snp|ilied with the necessary implements ami maelnnes for such an undei'taking, the ("rn-aders ])rc>sed their way to the outer wall

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MUDERX WORLD.

pike.s. Tliroudi tliis tlu-y jioiuvil into tlie space between the nuter ami tlie iiiuer raiujnut and prueecdeil {,, -inriu the hitter; but the emir of Jenisalem haci taken measure.^ fur a successful aefeUM,. The wall pr..ve.l t.. be ton Strong to be lirnkeu. The garriM.ii poured down every species of missile — arrows, stones, blocks of wood, flaming torches, boiling pitch, balls of Greek fire — upon the heads of the Crusaders, who, unalile to break the second rampart, or to stand the stnnii of destruction, were obliged to retreat to their eaiiip. The bermit of Mount Olivet had i.mved a l>ad counselor and worse prophet.

The siege was now undertaken in a regular way. But there was need that the Christians should be expeditious in the work. The Sar- acens, before retiring into the city, had swej^t all the region round about of its provisions. Every village was stripped of its supplies to fill the store-houses of Jerusalem. The wells were filled up and the fountains poisoned. The brook Kedron hail run dry and the remitting spring of Sjhjab was altogether inadequate to supply a sufficient fjuautity of water for an army of fifty thousand men. It became neces- sary to carry water in the skins of animals and to seek it at a great distance from Jeru- salem. To add to the embarrassment the sum- mer came on with its burning sun of Syria, and the Western pilgrims were unable to bear the heat.

As had many times already happened since tbe Crusade was undertaken, good news came in time to save tbe enterprise. Messengers arrived from Joppa, the -eaport of Jerusalem, forty miles distant, and brouelit the intelli- gence that a Geuoese fleet had arrived at that place with provisions and stores and engineers for the siege. With p-reat joy the Crnsailevs at once dispalched a tro(i|i of cavalry to eon- duct the sup[ilies an<l rei'ul'oreenients from the coast to Jerusalem. But on arriving at Joppa the forces sent out for ]-)rotection discovered to their chagrin that the Saracens had been there before them and bad destroyed the fleet. The disaster, however, was not eoniydete, for tbe engineers jiad maile tleir e-cape and had saved a jiart of the >torev >o much needed by the Crusader-. All that e-eaped the Infidels were taken to Jerusalem.

The besieirers were thus considerably en-

couraged. One of tlie chief difticidties was to procure tinibei- for tlie Construction ot'en-iues. After much search a f..re.-t was toun.l on a

lo-s were drawn to the city by oxen shod with iron, and the engineers rapidly construeted such machines as were necessary for the demo- lition of the walls. Before the astonished Saracens could well understand what was done towers were brought against the ramparts, and the Crusaders were thus enaliled to figlit hand to haiMl with their enemies.

While this encoura.eing w(,rk was going ..n the hermit of ]\Iount Olivet again appeared as a leader. He persuaded the Christians to go in a procession about the walls of the city even as the Israelites of old encomjiassed the walls of Jericho. A procession was formed, beaded by the priests, who clad themselves in white, carried the sacred images, and sang psalms as they marched. Trumpets were blown and banners waved until tbe warriors reached Olivet, where they halted, and from the height viewed the city which they had come to rescue. They were harangued by Arnold de Rohes and other ])riests, who pointed out the sacred places troiMeii under the profeue feet of the Tm-ks, ami exhorted them to pause not in the holy work until the Infidels had expiated with their blood the sin and shame of their pres- ence and deeds in the sacred precincts of Jerusalem. The zeal of the Crusaders was thus rekindled, and they demanded to be led for- ward to the assault.

By the 14th of July, Km, every thing was in readine.ss for a .second general attack on the city. The vigor with which tbe Cru- saders had of late prosecuted the siege had alarmed thi' Saracens and given the advantage to the ass.-ulant>. The huge towers which the enuine.'rs had binlt were rolled down against the walls and the Christians were thus enabled to face the ^Moslems on the top of the rampart. The defenders of the city, however, irrew des- jierafe, and tbuuht with ereater valor than at any previ.ms time. They resorte.l to every m.ans tn beat back their foes. They poured .low 11 <;nck fire and boding oil upon the lieads of those who attempted to .scale the w-alls. They hurled stones and beams ami lilocks of wood upon the pilgrim warriors wlio

THE CRUSADES.^TIIE FIRST CRUSADE.

battered the rainpart.-. Sd rcMilute Ava.-: the defeus^e that after twelve hours nf hai-il ti;;!it- ing the Crusaders were obliurd i.i fall liaik, amidst the taunts and insults i,f tlmsc wh,, manned the tun-cts.

With both fhri.tians and :\roslems the crisis had now come. With both it was con- quer or perish. The former were peculiarly pressed by the situation. A jiitreou flyint,' towards the city was intrnvjitrd with a letter under its wini,'s, and the ("iiisaders were niai.le aware that armies of Saracens were gathering for the relief of the city. It was therefore de- termined to continue the assault on the mor- row. With early morning the engines were again advanced to the walls, and the Christians rushed forward to the attack. For a long time it could hardly be known wlictlicr tln' as- sault or the defense was made with greater (jU- stinacy. In some parts the walls gave way before the thundering blows of the machines built by the Genoese engineers ; but the gar- rison threw- down straw and other yieldiiii:' material to prevent the strokes of the battering rams from taking effect. In one place, how- ever, a huge catapult played havoc with all resistance, and a breach was about to be ef- fected, when two Saracen witches were sent to interpose their charms to the work of destruc- tion. But the insensate monster hammered away with no regard to their spells and incan- tations. The Jloslems saw their prophetesses perish as though the unseen world had nothing to do with war.

Still, for the time, the Crusaders couhl not break into the city. The Saracens found that fire was more potent thau witchcraft as a means of resisting wooden engines. They threw down burning materials upon the cata- pults, and several of them were consumed. On the afternoon of thr sr..md day it >.■,., n.d as if the Chri.-tians would again h<- ihiwu back. They were well-nigh exhaustcil with heat and fatigue. They weltered and 1ilcil in the dust outside the walls. Jnst as thry were wavering aii.l ali.nit to retreat, (indtVey, who throughout the sie-e and n-ault had nmre than ever distinguisheil Iniu-elf liy liis hen.- ism, resorted to the usual ex|ieilie}it to revive the drooping courage of his followei-s. T, unking up to Mount Olivet, he belu'ld there a

"Bel„,l.l!"erie,l the hero, ••St. (Jeorge comes a-ain to ,,ur aid and u.ak.s a <i-iial fm- us to enter the Holy City." Jh.nir Im,/ ' ,-e~|,o,„led the (Vu-i.lei-s, springiiii;- iorxvard with unenn- (iueralile purpose. As on the Held liefore An- tio,.|i, when the celestial warrior^ eame to the reseue, so now the dust-cnven-d, heal-oppressed Christians became suddenly iiiviiieilile. With an irresistible impulse thev rushed to the wall and renewed the onset. The rampart bi'..ke iiefore them. Tradition recites that Keinibanlt of Crete was the first to mount the wall, (iodtivy followed. Then came Eustace with a host of warri(jrs and knights. Clouds of smoke mixed with .lust and flame arose on every hand as the victorious Crusaders broke over all opposition and jioure.l into the city.

The Saiaeeiis gave way before them. They retreated tliroui^h the streets, fighting at in- tervals until they weie driven into the pre- cinct.- .,f til.' M.,..pi.- of Omar. I!l.....l flowed in the eutt. i>, an.l Imrii.! h.'aps of the dead lay pil.'.l at ev.ry .-.iiiier. X.me were spared by the freii/,i.-.l (_'hri>tians, wh.j saw in the gore of the Infidels the white Way of Redemp- tion. Ten thousand dead, scattered through the city, gave token of the merciless spirit of the men of the West. Another ten thousand were heaped in the reeking cmrts of the great mosque on ]\Iount !Moriah. " Go.l wills it," said the pilgrims.

The indiscriminate buteherv of the Sara-

cens was carried on	by t	le rank an.l file of
the Crusading arm}	. ' Ii	this bl.io.ly work
they neeile.l no i	irenti\	e— n.i commander.
Eacli sword flam..!	with	hatre.l until it was
co.:)kMl in the dripp	n- lit	■ of the enemies of
Christ. As tor (;.„	li-.'V.	le was missed from
the slau-ht.T. An. ,,osM.sM,.n ..f hi- l.r	th.T .- ■a-t.	•ntiment had taken As so. Ill as he saw
the eitv in th.. ban	1- ..f	li- followers, he re-
m.iub.av.l th.. U.<U hiiM-.'lf ..f lii> arm.. ha.l b.-en lai.l .■l.-vi	an.l n ..f	.•h.r. He stripped vent l.anf.i.it to the *ilate an.l the Jews li.'s a-... There on
his kn.M- th.' L.r..at	< 'rusa	l.r h.iw.'.l an.l wor-
ship.-.l f.r a sea-..n.	whil.	ld- foll.iwers com-
plet.'.l the extermiii:	ti.in 1	f the Sara.'cns.'
>Ti,e spirit <.f tlie	•re is u-.'ll iUustrated
in th.' I.'tl.'v which t	le (hi	-riaii prill. 'es sent to
His H.iliiiess th.' I'..].	'. Th	' .l.'vnt writers say.
•'It y..u wish to kn.	w wh	It we .li.l t.) the ene-

694

UXIVEliSAL HlST0h7. — THE MODKUS WORLD.

As soon as the host lieiird of the act of their pious lemler, tliey tn.i niu'l.- a pause. A suddeu revuisi(]ii df iicliiii: -wrpt over thnn

They td.ik off ili.ir l.lon.l.v «,apons, and bared their head- and f.et. They wa.died the gore from their haii<l>, and tornied themselves into a procession. Lid hy the priests and singing penitential psalms, they then marched — many of them upon tlieir knees — to the Church of the Resurrection, and there found that sacred but long desecrated spot ^vhich had been the object and end of their more than tliree years of warfare — the sepulcher of Christ. There, like their most distingui.shed leader, they knelt and offered up such adoration as the heart of the ^Middle Ages was able to render to its Lord.

One of tlie most interesting incidents of the capture of the city was the emergence fri>m places of concealment of many Christians, who came forth as if from prison to welcome their deliverers. Great was the mutual joy of these long-distressed wretches and the Crusaders. There was weeping as if the lost were found. In the midst of many frantic demonstrations, the victorious multitude turned with an enthu- siastic outburst to one who had almost passed from sight during the siege — Peter the Her- mit. The little fanatic monk was singled out as the greatest of all the human agencies by which the deliverance of Jeru.salem had been accomplished. Around him, clad in his woolen garment and mounted on his mule, the me- diaeval zealots gathered in an enormous crowd, and did obeisance as to a liberator and savior. Thus, ever in the history of the worl.l the real brawn and valor, the true heroic virtue whieli tights and bleeds and wins the liattle, aliases itself at the last before some scrawny embodi- ment of enfeebled bigotry.

The First Crusade liad m.w reached its climax. Thr Holy City wa< wrested from the Turks. The UIimmI ,,f the Iiitldel iron-forgers of tlie Altais had poinvd in thick streams down tlie slop.'s (if Mduiit :\[nriali. The Syrian sun ri-ing fnun tiic phuns of Mesopotamia, flung the shadow of tlie ('ros< tVoni the summit of Calvary to tlie distant ^Mediterranean. But

in'u'S we fnunil in the city, learn that in tlie portico of Solomon an.l in tlie Temple onr liorses walked ni. to tlie knees in the inijiure Mi i of the Sar-

what should the victors do with their tro- pliy? As tor Lalihvin, he had made himself secure in tlie priiici[iality of Edessa. As fur Biemunil, his .-.jiisli and ambitious nattire had satisfied itself among the palaces and fountains of Antioch. As for the half million pilgrim warriors who had set out for Constantinople in the summer of 1096, nine out of every ten had jierished. The remnant, now numbering fewer than fifty thousand, had reached the goal, and had planted their banners on the holy places in the City of the Great King. Could they preserve the jirize which they had won?

A few days after the capture of Jerusalem the Western princes met to consider the dis- position to be made of Palestine. The almost inevitable solution was the conversion of the country into a Ciiristian state. The form of government was, of course, that feudal type of monarchy which then prevailed throughout Europe. It devolved upon the princes to choose a king, and to this task they set them- selves with alacrity. Of the leading Crusa- ders, those who were eligible to the high office were Robert Short Hose of Normandy, Rob- ert of Flanders, Raymond of Toulouse, and Godfrey of Bouillon. From the first the tide set strongly in favor of the last named duke. Short Hose and the Count of Flanders both announced their intention of returning forth- with to Europe, and as to Raymond, his haughty bearing and impetuous temper made him unpopular as a leader.

In order to settle the question, a commis- sion of ten of the most discreet cliieftains was appianted, and they at once set about the duty of election, (ireat care was exercised in re- gard to the fitness of the candidates. Duke <;odfrey's servants were called and questioned relative to the private life and manners of their master. "The only firult we find with him," said they, "is that, when matins are over, he will stay so long in church, to learn the name of every image and jiicture, that dinner is often spoiled by his long tarrying." "What ilevdtion!" exclaimed the pious elec- tors, "dciusalem could have no lietter king." So he was eliosrii. The Kingdom of Jerusa- i.i:ai was proiliiiiiicd in the city, and the nomi- nation of Duke 'Godfrey was made known to thr ea-or and joyous multitude. Thus, on the I'Md of .July, ill the last vear of the eleventh

THE CRUSADES. — THE KIXGDOM OF JERUSALEM.

century, the Holy Land with its c-;i]iit:il, once the City of David and the Clirist, now ■R-renched from the domiuiou of the Turks Ijy a series of exploits of well-nigh inconceivable audacity, was erected into a feudal monarchy after the European fashion, and placed under

the suzerainty of Go destined for the pri> defending than lie 1 his heritage, an<l In tlie nuisu of Tasso as Dcrweml

	Lorraine,
■(•r I	i..rr ills in
111	■o,H,uermg
	talizod hv
f th	Jeru^akm

Chaptkr >CCI.— The Ivinodom of Jerusalem.

UKE GODFREY ac- cepted the office but re- fused the title of king. He declared to the elect- ors that it ^yould be uu- omiug in him to wear a crown of gold in the city where (. hrist had been crowned with thorns. It was, therefore, decided that the new ruler of Jerusalem should be entitled "First Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulcher." His sovereignty, however, was ample, and his right undisputed.

As soon as the monarchy was proclaimed, the king-elect repaired with the pilgrim princes to the Church of the Resurrection, and there took an oath to reign according to the laws of justice and honor. Hardly was this cere- mony ended, when the startling intelligence was l;)orne to the city that a powerful Mos- lem army, led by Afdhal, one of the most valiant emirs of the East, had reached Asca- lon, and was searching for a force of Cru- saders sufficiently strong to offer battle. The warlike emir had taken an oath in the pres- ence of the Caliph to drive every European out of Syria ; nor could it be denied that a knowledge of his coming had spread terror before him. In the city, the Christians were in consternation. But King Godfrey had seen too much of War to be any longer frightened at the sound of his chariot. With unwaver- ing courage he summoned his followers to resume the weapons which they had so re- cently laid aside, and go forth to victory. His influence and authority secured the desired ob- ject. Even Robert Short Hose and Raymond consented to renew the struggle with the Infi- dels. The Ch'usaders were marshaled forth, and led out in the direction of the foe.

The march led into the plain between Jopi)a and Ascalon. When the Christians were about encamping for the night — it was now the 11th of August — the whole horizon seemed to be disturbed with some dark agita- tion. Scouts were sent out to a.scertain the cause, and, returning, brought back the report that immense herds of cattle and camels were driven along in the distance. This news fired the cupidity of the Crusaders, and they would fain go forth to seize so rich a Ijooty. God- frey, however, scented a stratagem, and pru- dently restrained his followers. No man was permitted to leave the ranks for the night. Events soon showed the wisdom of the king. For, before the break of day, news was brought to the camp that the IMoslem army was but a short distance away. With due celerity Godfrey and his captains set their forces in order of battle. Nine divisions were formed, and placed under command of leaders true and tried. At dawn of day Arnold de Rohes, who had been elected Patriarch of Jerusalem, went tliroiiL^h tlie ranks, bearing the cross and i)ronouneing lilessings on the soldiers. The army then knelt down, and besought the favor of heaven preparatory to the decisive struggle. As the march was n^snineil in the direction of the enemy, the tempting droves of cattle were seen to

Hid to the rear, as if to distract the of the Crusaders from the great

)n to be enacted in front.

> these movements were performed by

-tians the Emir Afdhal had also pre- pared for the conflict. He had jiostcd himself on the edge of the plain of Ase tiou strongly defensible by nat mountains and the sea conspired to protect the wings of the Moslem arniv, and in the

pa	s ar
att	'iitli
game >
	Wli
the	Ch

n a posi- For the

(>',l(l

uxivkhsal nisTony.—THE modern world.

distance the towci-s of the eily— one of the stroii'^o.-t in l'ul('>tiiic — wtie mcii as a refuge.

The Saraeen army uas diauii up in two liue.s, an.l was teml.h' in its a>iHrt an. I extent. The disparity ,,f nunil» i> uas so uivat that to any other tiian a ('ru.si'K r it woulil luivc ap- peared the e.xeess ot' iiiadne.-s to ofhr liattle. But to cue who hail mhii the war-horse of St. George and lui.l touched the sacred spear wlier.-uith til.' >ide of Christ lia<l heeii pierce.l no tasli could appal, no nuniliers trrrify.

On the other hand, where every rational ground of confidence existed, the Saracens shook at the sight of the Christian banners. No oxhortation of the Kuiir couM suffice to inspir.' tie- ho>l under his ,'nnuuaii(l. At the moment when battle was about ti^ begin the device which the iloslems had invented to destroy their adversaries turned against them- selves. The vast droves of cattle which had been intended to decoy the Crusaders were seen in the rear of Cxodfrey's army and were mistaken by Afdhal's forces for a part of the foe whom they had to face. The discourage- ment of the Saracens was so great that in tlie beginning of the engagement they fought but ■feebly, while every furious blow of the Chris- tian knights fell with fatal effect upon the Mohammedan ranks. As usual on such <icca- sions, Robert Short Hose fought like a lion. With a body of cavalry he forced his way to the Saracen center and captured the Emir's standard. The infantry rushed after him and the enemy's lines were broken and scattered.

For a while a division of Ethiopians, after the peculiar tactics of their country, fell on their knees to discharge their javelins and then with a clubbed weapon resembling a flail, aruK'd with iai:i;cd balls of iron, sprang u]i and a~siilod'the Crusaders with the fury of Huns; lint even these fierce warriors were soon routid liv the resistless charges of God- frey's kni-hts. The whole Saracen army broke and llrd in .nnrii-ion. They rushed in the ilirectioii of A^calon, and were pursued with hav..r an,l >ia,i-htrr. Thousands p,.risl....l on th,- ti.-ld; nthrr th.aisiii.l- in th.' lli-lit, and still othrrsat tin- drawl. rid-r of the city, upon which thev w.ae hopM,-dv .■row.le,! by the Christian warriors. Asealon itself, in whirl, Af.llial found rcfug.' with the fugitives, might have b. on ra-llv taken but inr a ouarrel whirl,

broke out between Godfrey and Raymond, whose ungovernable temper was as dreadfid to his friends as his sword was fatal to his enemies. As it was, the Cl,ristiai,s withdi-ew fnmi the s.vm- of th.dr givat vi.-toiy ladm with sp,.il an.l driving I.efoiv tlua,, the her.ls of cattle which hail already served them better than the enemy. As for the defeated Emir, believing himself unsafe in Asealon, he took ship for Egypt, and sought security under the shallow of the Caliphate.

The battle of Asealon was decisive of the present fate of Palestine. For the time the Turk was hurled from his seat. With the accomplishment of this result the prime motive of the Crusade was satisfied. Many of the princes now- made preparation to return to Europe. The eccentric Raymond, however, had sworn never to see the West again. He accordingly repaired to Constantinople, and received from the Emperor as the portion due his heroism the city of Laodicea. Eustace of Bouillon and Robert of Flanders returned to their respective countries, and resumed pos- session of their estates. Here they passed the remainder of their lives in prosperity and honor. Rolicrt Short Hose went back to Xor- manily, and when the five years expired, during which he had leased his dukedom to William Rufus, he recovered his inheritance. His stormy life, however, was still agitated and unfortunate. A few years after his return his paternal dominions were invaded by his brother Henry, king of England. A battle was fought between the two princes at Tench- ebray, and Robert was defeated and captured. He was taken to Cardifl' Castle and there con- fined as a prisoner of state until the year 1148, when his strange and romantic career was ended liy death. Peter the Hermit likewise left the H..ly City an<l started on a homeward voyagi'. In mid sea his shiji was caught in a storm and the terrified monk vowed, if he should be spared to found an abbey in honor of the tomb of Christ. The tempest passed and Peter ki'pt his v.iw by building a monas- t.'i'v on thr baidvs of the ^las. Here he spent the remnant of his .lay< in pmitential works, after the manner of his .udrr. As for the counts — Stephen an.l Iln-h — they, as will be i-.an.'mb.a-e.l, hail al.an.loii.'.l the ( 'rusaile li. fniv Anti..eh, an.l ^\ith..iit parti. apating in

THE CRUSADES.— Tin: KIXODO-U OE JERUSALVJL

in, liouvvr,' 4, ot i.ul.li.

the glory of capturing- Jcnisalt'i

to Europe. The age lii-:iiiil.-,l

as recreant.?, aud undir tlif

opinion tliev rallied their knights iwr a new

expedition.

Thus in a short time King (Godfrey found hinisi.lf in the IL.ly I'ity witli only a few huii- dre.l warriors to defend it. His e(iura-r, how- ever, was as great as the situalion was |i.iil- ous. His reputation as a nulitaiy chirliaiu stood him well in hand, and the swollrn stream of pilgrims from the West, who might now lie expected to crowd towards Jeru.salem, would doubtless be sufficient for defense.

But the valiant Godfrey w-as not dotinrd long to enjoy the fruits of his toil and waii'arc. As Baron of the Holy Sepulcher he .lid as mm'h as man well might to give regular insti- tutions to the country and people that li<' had conquered. A code of laws, known as the Amzei of Jerusalem, was drawn up under Ids auspices, and Palestine was suitably divided for purposes of administration. The military arm was strengthened, and Tancred was sent into Galilee, where he captured the town of Tiberias. The whole province was taken from the Turks aud added to Godfrey's dominions.

The valorous Tancred carried the war still further into the sultan's territories, where- upon a Saracen army was sent out from Da- niaseus, and the adventurous ('rii>a(ler was about to be cut off. Godfrey huri'ied to his assistance, and the Moslems were defeated in battle. Returning to Jerusalem, the Defender of the Holy Sepulcher passed by way of Ces- area, and was met by the emir of that district, who made him a seemingly courteous offer of fruits. The unsuspecting Godti-ey ai'i-epted and ate an apple. Doubtless it Jiad lieen jioisoiied, for the prince immediately sickened. He was taken in haste to Joppa, where he lingi'i-ed until the 18th of July, 1100, when he died. Willi tlioii-htfld solii-ifu.l.' lie eom- niitted hi- kiii-dom of Jeru-deiii to th.' pro- ti'etion lit' his companions, and directed that his l„,dv -liouhl be buried near tlie tomb of ( hri.-t. A few davs after Id- death his

Tiie decease of lught on a crisi: ried until the bar

■ SU.'eessi.m. Til ■Hold de Itoh.'S, 1

[.port Aiiti

It an

d to

aid in .saving the Holy City from anarchy. The opposition meanwhile dispatched messen- gers to Baldwin of Edes.sa, brother of the late king, to come to Jerusalem and take the crown which now, according to feudal tenure, would ri-htfully ile.-ceiid to him. The envoys sent by Arnold to Antioch lir.iu-ht ba.'k the dole- ful intelligence that Bd'iiniud had been re- cently taken prisoner liy the 'i'niks, and was himself far more in need of a>sistaiice than able to go to the rescue of another. Not so, however, with Prince Baldwin. Notwithstand- ing the iloulitful expeilieiiey of endangering all by leaving his safe priiuapality of Ede.s.sa for the hazards attending the crown of Jeru- salem, he gladly accepted the invitation of the barons, and laid claim to the throne vacated by the death <if his brother. Putting all on the ca.st of the die, he made over the princi- pality of Edessa to his kinsman, Baldwin du Bourg, and set out with fourteen hundred horsemen to make good his claims in the Holy City.

His reception was flattering. The inhab- itants of Jerusalem came forth to meet their new .sovereign, and welcomed him with ]ilau- dits. So marked were the e.\pies>ions of ap- proval that the Patriarch Arnold, after a few davs of sullen discontent, gave in his adhe- rence, and consented to officiate in the coro- nation of hi. suce,.->f,il rival.

As soon as thi- ceremony was comidetcd, B.VLDWIN .set about the diitie- of U\< ollii'C with great energy. His abililies wiiv >cai-eely in- ferior to those of his predece<-oi-, and his au- dac'ity greater, Tiie Saracens > that the transfer of the crown wa

>ii learned not likely ■lit. King HIS against such as to

(m

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

strike terror into the ranks of the t'oe. The cities ot' Cesarea, Sidoii, Trijiuli, ami Acre were quickly taken, and the frontiers of the king- dom widened and established on all sides.

The forces of the king were in the mean- time augmented by almost constant arrivals from Europe. Several bodies of warriors, who were drawn iu the wake of the First Crusade, reached the Holy City iu the first years of the new century, and joined the vic- torious standard of those who had preceded them. Xow it was that Stephen of Bio is and Hui;h nf Vermandois returned to the scenes of fjrmer days, shame-faced for their aban- donment of the cause, and eager to retrieve their honor. The dukes of Aquitaine and Bavaria, and the couuts of Burgundy, Ven- dome, Nevere, and Parma, all envious of the fame achieved bv their brethren in the East,

years later, when the armies of Baldwin were engaged iu the siege of Sidon, two fleets, manned liy Scandinavian Crusaders, arrived from the Baltic, and rendered im- portant service in the reduction of the city. To this epoch belongs the last of the ex- ploits of Ivaymond of Toulouse. Before the captiu-e of the Phoenician cities, he had acted as guide and leader to a band of French knights on their way through Asia Minor to Jerusalem. Obtaining an ascendency over them, he induced them to join him iu the conquest of Tortosa, on the coast of Syria. A new principality was thus founded, with Kaymond for its ruler. He employed his own knights from Provence in enlarging the borders of his state, and presently undertook the reduction of Tripoli ; but, before this object couhl be reached, the veteran warrior

	DUKE OF BOUILLON.	II., 1144.
Dukeof Bouilluii.	Count of Bouillon 1
1. GOI.FREY, IIUO. THE KINGS JERUSALEM.	S B.ILDWIN 2.B.L^wi.I.,ni8. Fulkof..njou=Milli'eent 1
4. B.4LDWIN- III., 1162.	5. .\i.m'eric 1170.
1 Y OF LrsiGNAN, 1189=8. Sybilla, ILSO-Marquis of Montferrat. , 7 Baldwin v., 1177.	C. BALmvisIV..n76.

a.ssunu'd the cross and arrived with their knights in Palestine. So long and full of hardships was the march through Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, that those who sur- vived were already veterans before reaching their destination, and the armies of Baldwin were thus repleuished by a class of warrii.irs scarcely inferior to the war-hardened Cru- saders of the first expedition.

AuLither source of strength to the king- dom was the constant arrival on the Plueni- cian coast cf tic.-ts fVnni (Tenoa and other Eur(i|nan ports. A rradicr communication wa< tlui- iiiaiiitaiiiiMl with the parent states.

fnrcfs in the snl.ju'jniinii .,f the maritime districts of Syria. ' As caily a- 1104, P„.yrut and Serejita were c.iiiquered, ]iartly tlirnu-h the aid of the Genm'se .-.luadruu. A few

of Toulouse died. The work of suljugation, however, was continued by King Baldwin, a.ssisted by all the Latin princes of the East. Tripoli was taken, and became the capital of a new dukedom, which was conferi-eil on Bertrand, .^ou of Raymond. The state thus formed was subject, after the feudal maimer, to the Kingdom of Jeru.salem ; but its im- portance, lying as it did midway between the principality of Autioch ami the Holy Land, was such as to give to Trijioli a rank of almost independent sovereignty.

At Antioch affairs had not pdiie ju-osper- ou.sly. Btemund, as already narrated, was made pri-oiier by the Turks. Tancred there- upon assumed the government during the mi- nority of ISiemund's son. While acting thus as nucnt lie continued his unending warfare with tlie Saracons ami was killed in battle. Bee-

THE CRUSADES.— THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.

GO!)

muiul finally eflected his escape aiul soon after- wards eugaf,^e(l in hostilities with the Eastern Empire. Uusucce>st\il in this war he returned to Tarento, and there, iu his old age, sat brooding and despondent amid the scenes of his boyhood. His restless nature, tormented with the vision of impossible activities, gave way to gloom, and he died of despair-.

Of the heroic comjjanious of Godfrey, there now remained in the East only King Baldwin and Baldwin du Bourg, prince of Edessa. The former was sonless, and reason and preference both indicated the latter as his successor to the crown of Jerusalem. In the year 1118 the king died and Baldwin du Bourg came to the throne with the title of Baldwin II. On his accession he transferred the Prin- cipality of Edessa to Joscelyn de Courtenay, a noble knight of France, who had gone to Asia Minor in the wake of the First Crusade.

In the mean time, Count Foulque, of Anjou, father of that Geoffrey Plantagenet who gave a race of kings to England, falling into jjro- found melancholy on account of the death of his wife, would fain distract his thoughts from his grief by taking the cross and going on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He accordingly left his province to the care of his son and de- parted for the East. On reaching the Holy City he became greatly admired for his quali- ties of mind and person. Nor was it long till he found a panacea for his sorrow in the ac- quaintance of the Princess Millicent, daughter of Baldwin H. Her he wooed and won, and when her father died he received and wore the crown rather as the husband of Millicent than in his own right. His son was named for his maternal grandfather, and afterwards reigned with the title of Baldwin HI.

The principal event of the reign of Baldwin du Bourg was the siege and capture of Tyre. This great feat was accomplished in the year 1124, and chiefly by the aid of the Venetian fleet sent out by the Doge Ordelafo Falieri. Before engaging in the enterprise, however, this thrifty ruler stipulated that he should receive the sovereignty of one-third of the city as the price of his services. Already the Ital- ian princes, especially those who held authority in the maritime Republics, had learned the value of their services to the Crusaders, and were not slow to turn their advantage to a

profitable account. Henceforth — though not less zealous than others iu proclaiming the dis- interested motives by which they were actu- ated in sending out their fleets against the Moslems — they ever took care to extort from those whom they aided exorbitant pay for their service. The squadron of Falieri arrived on the Phceuician coast, and the city of Tyre was obliged, after a five months' siege, to ca- pitulate. The new conquest was erected into an archbishopric and added to the patriarchate of Jerusalem. Thus, in the last year of the first quarter of the twelfth century the most ojjuleut city on the Syrian coast, being also the last stronghold of the Bloslems in Palestine, was won by the Crusaders and annexed to their dominions.

This is the date of the greatest power and influence of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Holy Land was now all recovered from the Infidels. Neither the Turks from the direction of Baghdad, nor the Fatimites from the side of Egypt, were able for the time to shake the foundations of the Christian state. From the Mediterranean to the desert of Arabia, and from Beyrut to the Gulf of Sinai, the country acknowledged the sway of Baldwin II. Besides the large territory thus defined the County of Tripoli under Bertraud, and the Principalities of Edessa and Antioch were as distinctly Christian states as was Jerusalem itself, and throughout the whole of these C(ninti-ies the feudal institutions of Western Europe were established on what appeared to be an endur- ing basis.

The Christian kingdom of Palestine was divided into the four great fiets of .latla, Galilee, Cesarea, and Tripoli, and over each was set a baron who was the va>sal of the king. The one fatal weakness of the situation lay in the fact that while a constant stream of pilgrim warriors was setting towards Jeru- salem, another stream fully as copious was flowing back into Europe. Even at the time of greatest solidity and peace the number of knights and soldiers resident in Palestine was never sufficient to defend the countrv in the event of a formidable invasion by the Moslems. It was estimated that the regular force of knights whom as his vassals Baldwin II. might call into the field did not exceed two thousand five hundred ; and the feudal militia, consist-

UXIVERSAL HLSTOny. — THE MODERN WORLD.

ilia- for the nin~t piirt nf aivliers on loot, only uiiinln'rcil twclvr tliou-aiid.

Another rirciiiii-taiic- trii.rma to uiiilermiuc the fouiiihitioii ..(• thi' kiii-aoiii was the rapid deterioration ot' \W ["oph- ot' tlie U est under the e.mditio,,. of lit,- in Syria. The resident Crasid.-r. w.-ro l.ronjit into eoniinnnion and felloudiip with tlu- native Cliristians of the coimtry — Syrian^, (in.k-, Arnieuiaus, — a nerveless race ot' Orientals, di>timte <if the warlike vi-or of tlir \Ve>tcrn pil-rinis. Besides, the .Mus>uhnan |)ia>antiy remained iu the vil- laacs ami conlinncii to cultivate the soil. After the lap~r of a frw \cars these diverse races beaan lo idmniiuulo, ami a new type of popu- lation «a,- pidducrd, iidieritina but little vir- tue iVoiu cither line of parentage. These hylirid inlialntants were known by the name of RiiHiiii'i or I'oidaius — a degeuerate stock deduced lioni a had ci'o-- \uider the influence of a balcfnl I'liniatc and di-ca-cil society.

(Jnc of ilic prini-ipal events belonging to the interval I.etucen tlic Fir-t and Second Cru- .sades was the in-titution of tlie two principal Orders of Knighthood. The prime motives of the origin of these celebrated societies are to be found in tlic martial spirit and religiotts enthusia>iii of ihi' age. The condition of soci- ety was >uch as to suggest the conservation of the chivalrous and lienevoleut sentiments by means of organization. As soon as the orders were established they rose to celebrity, and it was not long until the highest honors of secu- lar socit tv would have been freely exchanged IVir the distinction conferred by the liadges of knighthood.

The fundamental ]irinciple on which the new Orders wen- foiimlt-d was ihe union of mona- chism and chimh-ij. Ilitiierto the devotion of man to religion had made him a monk ; his devotion to truth denied and innocence dis- tressed, had made him a secular warrior. It now happened that the warlike vow and the TOW of religion were united in the single con- secration of knighthood. The condition of atliiirs in Palestine — unfavorable to monasti- cism from the inseciuity of .society, and unfa- vorabli- to -ec-idar (-hivalry on account of the ab>em-e of lofty sentiments among the lay jiopulatiou of the country — was pecidiarly fa- vorable to the development of organizations based on the cross militant. Such organiza-

tions contemplated the sword under the cowl — warfare in the name of Christ. The same ideas which had brought-about the Crusade de- manded preservation under the sanction of secrecy and l)rotherhood.

The oldest of the religio-chivalric orders was the Knights of Saint John of .Jerusa- lem, known also as Knight.s Hospitallers, and subsequently as Knights of Rhodes and Knights of Malta. The circumstances of the origin of this celebrated Order date back to the middle of the eleventh century. In the year 1048 some benevolent merchants of the Italian city of Anialfi obtained permission of tlie Faiinnte ruK-rs of .Jerusalem to build in the Ibjjy City a chapel for the itse of Latin pilgrims. The establishment took the name of Saint Mary, and was for a while used in common by both men and women. Soon after- wards two hosiiitals were built in connection with the chapel ; and then a second chapel, called after Saint Mary Magdalen, was erected adjacent to the woman's hospital. The man's hospital took the name of Saint John the Al- moner, an Alexandrian patriarch of the sev- enth century. This saint had left a sweet memory in the City of David by sending thither in the yi-ar (114, after the destructive siege and capture liy Chosroes 11., a plentiful supply of money and provisions to the sufler- iug people. Such was the origin of the hos- pitals or hostelries of Jerusalem.

To the whole establishment thus founded was given the name of Saint John, who be- came the recognized patron of the Order. The services in the hospitals were performed by a brotherhood — and sisterhood — of pilgrims un- under the direction of Pierre Gerard le Bien- heureux, or Gerard the Blessed. It was this Order of the Hospital that came forth on the occasion of the capture of the city by the Cru- saders, and rendered so great service to hu- manity by caring for the wounded amd dying. So heroic were the efforts of the brotherhood, that Raymond du Puy joined the Order, and Godfrey himself bestowed on them their first foreign possession, namely, the estate of Mont- baire in Brabant. His example was imitated by other princes, and it was not long until the brothers of the Hospital found themselves in possession of aliundant means.

Inow it was that the Order took on a per-

THE CRUSADES.— THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.

mauent character. After the establishment of the Kingdom of Jerusalem the brothers bound themselves by a vow to labor forever in the hospitals. They were to liecome henceforth the "servants of Christ and his poor." Their vows embraced the trinity of medireval vir- tues— obedience, chastity, and poverty. As a garb they chose the black robe of the Augus- tinian monks, and to this was added a white linen cross of eight points, worn on the left breast. On the 15th of February, lllo, the Order was approved by Pope Paschal II., un- der the name of the "Brothers Hospitallers of Saint John in Jerusalem."

In the organization which was thus made regular and permanent, Pierre Gerard was chosen Guardian and Provost of the Order. Gifts poured in upon the fraternity. A splen- did church was built on the traditional site of the abode of the parents of Saint .John the Baptist, and hospitals for the arconmiodation of pilgrims were founded in the principal sea- port towns of Western Europe.

After five years of .service as Guardian, Gerard died, and was succeeded by Raymond du Puy. He it was who, in order to protect the Christians of Palestine from injury or in- sult at the hands of the Moslems, armed liim- .self and former companion knights, and thus gave to the Ordei- its first military cast. The movement was applauded by the age. Both in the Holy Land and in the West the broth- ers in arms became more popular than ever. The chivalric sentiment was thus added to the charitable vows of the fraternity, and persons of distinction and liigh rank began eagerly to seek admission into the Order. The vow to bear arms in defense of Christ and his cause, and to defend from insult and wrong the Christians of all lands and languages, was taken with even more enthusiasm than the vow of mo- nasticism and charity.

From the accession of Raymond to the guardianship of the Order, three degrees were recognized in the hospital ; knights, priests, and brothers-servants. To these a fourth grade, called sergeants or half-knights, was presently added; and to these intermediates certain duties in both the field and the in- firmary were assigned.

Under the auspices of Raymond, a code was drawn up for the government of the

Order. The Augu.^tinian rule \\;i.- made the basis of tlie statute adopted loi- ih.^ Hiotli. rs of the Hospital. The nam.' of il„ rhirt officer was changed from (iuaiilian to Master, and Saint John the Baptist wa^ s\ili>titutod for Saint John the Almomi-, as tlu' patron of the brotherhood. In llL'o the new con- stitution was submitted to Pope Calixtus II., and hv him ci.irdiallv approved.

S,,' rapidlv ,li.r th,' II..si,itall<Ts rxfnd their estabhdiments and memberdiip that it

cording t<.i the nationalitv and lani:uage of the member^— a nine-fold divisitjn of the ( )nler. The eommauderies were thenceforth elassitied as those of Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Aragon, Germanv, England, Castile, and Portugal.

Before the middle of the twelfth e<mturv, the IL.spitaliers had l>ee,,me a powerful military iaetor in tiie alliiii- of llic East. Their memberslii[i embrai-.d the most pu- issant knights of ('lnistiii<l(.m. During the siege of Tyre, they coiitriliiiti d })o\\( ifully to the cajiture of thr i-ity, and tin- filial cxpid- sion of the -Mo.d.ni. from I'alotiiie. In ll.'io they aided in the taking of A^ralon. tli.ir valorous actions being the pride of tin Clnis- tians and the terror of the Sarai-.ais. After these successful victories for the < 'ro>s, the wealth of the Order aceumulat.d with great

rapidit	V. Nor was it loni:	until	the moral
and chivalric grandeui- ot	til.' 1	n.tli.-rli..od
began to be undermined li\	th.. ii	vi.li.ius in-
fluence	s of luxury ami e.nr	ipti.in.	As -arly
as 1168, the Master Gill.	11 .lA	-alit, suc-
cessor	to Raymond du Puy,	wa- s.'	liieed with
bribes.	together with the 1	u-ger 1	art of the
Order,	to violate a treaty with Eg	•})t, and to
make	in invasion of that .	.inntry	In 11.87
the H	..spitallers of Palestin	. W.'IV	almost ex-
terminated in the disastrous	liattle .	f Tiberias,
where	Saladiu so signally o\	.rthrew	the Chris-
tians.	When pos>.~sion .	f Jeru	salem was
finally	regained by the Sa	■a. •ens,	the Order
mad.'	its li.'a.l-.piarters f.ii	a wh	li' at the
Castl.'	..f -Mai-at, an.l a^ t	h.. >an	■ time the
womai	•s hospitals in the	f:ast \	■ere abau-
doned.	At this epoch, the	knisl	ts suffered
much	fr.im tiieir disputes	ui.l ri^	alries with
th.' T	niplars: l.iit in tim.	S of .1	niier both
broth.'	■hoo.l. gave their lie>	hloo.l	in defense

702

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

of the common causo. In ilu' l Gaza, A. D. 12-14, the 1..sm< pitallers and Temjilars were ^n two Orders came nigh sutleriug

Hos-

lat the

at this tinif that the Order of .Saint John became a maritime power, having its <j\vu fleets and winning its own victories in the eastern Mediterranean. Early in tlie fuur-

«ir^

1..;.

M

-^^J- )

BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF RHODES, TIME OF THE

tinction. Finally, when, in 1291, the city of Acre was taken by the ^Moslems, the knights retired to Cyprus, where they made a stand and recruited their wasteil ranks for tlie over- flowing commanderies of the West. It was

teenth century, they seized the island of Rhodes, where they established their power, and defied the Turks for more than two Inin- dr('(l years. In lo^'i they were driven from llieir stroii:;luilil, and obliged to seek a new

THE CRUSADES.— THE jaXGDO.U OF JERUSALEM.

footiug furthur \ve:^t. They sought a refuge first in Crete, tlieu in ^Messina, thou in the main-hmd of Italy, and, finally, in 1530, were given the island of Malta liy the Emiaeror, Charles V. This sea-horn possession they converted into a fortress, whieh, in spite of the uK.ist strenu(.)Hs eliorts of the Turks, was held l\v the knights until IT'.^"^, when it was taken Ijy Bonaparte.

The second of the great orders of knight- hood was originally known as the Knights OF THE Temple of Solomon, and afterwards as Knights Templars, or Knights of the Ked Cross. Under these various designa- tions they ran a briefer but more glorious career than the Hospitallers, by whom they were at first generously aided and afterwards bitterly opposed. The founding of the Order of the Temple dates to the year 1117. Two French knights, Hugues des Paiiens and Geof- frey of Saint-Omer, jierceiviug the hardsliipis to which Christian travelers were exposed in and about the Holy City, took np(.)n them- selves the duty of conducting the pilgrims who journeyed between Jerusalem and the Jordan. This charitable ofiice soon gained a reputation for the humble warrior-guides, and thev were joined by seven others, like-minded with themselves. An organization was effected under the benevolent patronage of the patri- arch of the city. The members bound them- selves by the usual monastic vows of obedi- ence, chastity, and poverty; and to these two others were added, to defend the Holy Sepul- cher and to protect the way-faring pilgrims in Palestine. — Such was the humlile beginning of the Or.ler.

At the first the Knights of Saint John, now in the flush of their heroic virtues, lent aid and encouragement to the new society of brothers. Xothing was to lie feared from a humlile fraternity known liy the name of the "P...,r Soldiers of the Holy City." Nothing could exceed the lowliness of the meek knights who foundeil the brotherhood. Hugues and GeoH'rey had one horse between them, and him they rode together on their first missions of benevolenee.' The first members were given a lodging by Baldwin II., who assigned them

(juarters in his palace on the site of tlu- ancient temple. Their first armory was estal)li>hed in a church near by, and here were stored their first knightly weapons. The iirst ehaiiter was limited to nine mendiers ; but this limiiation was removed by the council <if Troves in 1127. At this assembly St. Bernard, of Clairvaux, was commissioned to draw up a suitable code for the government of the body, and to devise an appropriate garb. The ilress iliosru was in strong contrast with that of the Hospitallers, consisting of a white tunic and mantle, with a red cross on the left breast. The rule of con- duct and discipline was approved in 1128 by Pope Honorius II. The jirincipal articles were these: The

'The great seal of the Teuii-Uirs still perpetu- ittes the story of the lowly origin of the Order in the figure ofthe steed with two riders. 43

teen articles of faith, the creeds of the apostles and of Athana-iu-'; to uphold the doctrines of the Two Tevtaiiieiit'^, iucludinu the interiiretation- of the Fathers, the unity of God and the trinity of hi^ per- sons, and the virainity of .Mary both Im fore and after the birth ot' her Son; to go beyon,! the seas wdieu called to do so in defense of the cause; to fiy not from the foe unless assailed by more than three Infidels at once.

Such was the luicleus of the Onler. Hu- mility was one of the first principles of the inemiHTship. The helmet of the Templar should have no crest— hi> liear.l shouhl not be cut— his demeanor should be that of a servant of

UNIVEIISAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

bis fellows. Eucli iiiciiiljer (jii a.-siiiuiiig the garb of a Knight imi>t lie gii't with a liueu cord ill token that lie was heiicefc.irtb bouud to service.

The organization of the Templars embraced four classes of members — knights, squires, serv- itors, and priests. Each had their peculiar duties and obligations. The presiding officer of the Order was called the blaster — afterwards the Grand Master — and he had as his assist- ants a lieutenant, a seneschal, a marshal, and a treasurer, all of whom were elected by the chaptei The states of Chustendom weie di vided into pioMUces, and o\ei each was ^et a provincial nn^tti Tht Gi iiid Mistei of Je rusalemwt-i ill tl 1i 1 ftheentiu

be affiliated with tlie brotherhood in order to share its beuehts. Every thing cousj)ired to make the Knights the favorites of the cent- ury. They had the prestige of Crusaders. They had St. Bernard for their Master. Tliey had the blessing of the Pope. They had the applause and gratitude of those whom they had relieved and protected. They had estates and castles and churches. They had the pat- ronage of the great and the benediction of the Church.

It was the peculiarity of medieval institu- tions that beginning in Mituous poveity they ended in luxui} and ciime As eaih as the mi Idle of the twelfth centun the membership (t the r(m])l\i wis leciuited largely from

brotherhood, which soou grew in numbers, in- fluence, and wealth to be one of the most jiow- erful organizations in the world. Counts, dukes, princes, and even kings, eagerly sought the honor which was everywhere conceded to the red cross and white mantle of the Templar.

In course of time the Knights of the Temple became a sovereign body, owing no allegiance to any secular potentate. In spiritual mat- ters the Pope was still regarded as supreme, but in all other affiiirs the Grand Master was as independent as the greatest sovereign of Europe. The liouses of the Knights could not be invaded by any civil officer. Their churches and cemeteries were exempt from in- terdicts; their properties and revenues from taxation. 80 great were the immunities thus eiijiiycd that th.nusauds of persons sought to

the class of adventurers and outlaws with whom Europe so greatly abounded. St. Ber- nard himself declared in a series of exhorta- tions addressed to the Order that the greater number of the nobles who had joined the sol- diers of the Temple had been men stained with every species of crime, the oppressors and scourges of Europe.

In the division of the Christian states into provinces by the Order of the Red Cross, three were formed in the East — Jerusalem, Antioch, and Tripoli. In the West the provinces num- bered .sixteen — France, Auvergne, Normandy, Aquitaine, Poitou, Provence, England, Ger- many, Upper and Lower Italy, Apulia, Sicily, Portugal, Castile, Leon, and Aragou. Of all these the most important by far was France. A majority of all the Temidars were French,

J4. Conrad II. 3'.) Henr 1. Otho defeats the Saracens in Italy, cr 2. St. Henry, great-grandson toHenrj" I.

GERMANY.

lenry I

aged s

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA.

5 of bloody 1

Robert II., son of Hugh Capet. 31. Henry I. 60. Ptiilip I. Invasion

The pope annuls his marriage 32. He defeats his brother Robert, whom his the Con

with nis cousin Bertha, and puts mother. ( 'onstantia, has endeavored to

his kingdom under an interdict. raise to the throne.

The feudal system still gains strength, and the j.du er of the monarch declines. Private ua

tinually carried on between the 6nroiK<. In the nextcenturvLouis Vl.and hissiin ■ ^ struggle

■ • ■ iiiNjlidal

vith their vassals. Under them

the power of the crown begins to r

FRANCE.

CAPETIAN RACE.

40. The 1

. which forbids priv

. Louis VI., THE Fat; he

37. Louis Vll..™«-!

nder CRUSADING.

19. Brcn?i«!'i7fe— Lou; featedbvtheKi 34. The emper.

ENGLAND.

■ir, DANISH KINGS.

inute II.. oppressive,; s.m of Canute the- Great. :

Edward the Confcssor,f5on of Ethelred II., mild, partial to th e 44. rnitesallthelawsjof England into one body, called the

6. Henry defeats Robci I causes his eyes to bi' fines him for life (is

Canute the Gre;at, a Dane, and the most iiowerlul {sovereign in Europe.

NORMAN KINGS.

Henrj- marries Matilda, great-grand ■ issue. Matilda or Maud : she man earl of Anjou— issue, Henry II.

4. Malcolm II.; he publishes a

SCOTLAND.

code of Laws. o7. Malcolm III., ^'anmoi lean I.

I usurps after murdering Dun

[ iVII.) the Bane.

.Anarchy. Edgar.

31. Al Kaymen, caliph at Bagdad. The Saracens introduce the Arabic numeral 55. Bagdad taken by the Turks,

ciphers into Europe. From thi-; uiii.' tli.' c al

Ferdusi. pn., the Persian Homer. ' ' '

' MvTheTurks'takeJ

EMPIRE.

Melech

41. Michael V. :•:> Constantine X. 28. Romanus Ml. 4:; Constantine IX. Tv Nicephorus.

31. Michael IV. .>1. Theodora, tlio last of tlic Ma, .■.l.aiiaus.

.57. Isaac Comnenus resigns, .si. Alexius I. C'o> 54. Schism of the East completed la separation of

EASTERN OR GREEK EMPIRE. ^^^i^J^^^^^^"^::^:^

Lcarninn and imnmn-n j«

IV.P 1 M- '. ^ ■• -

I., the first king, defeats the

POLAND. ""'11^-^? 'in

Rusi

ns. and Bohemians, and l^"\ . Boleslaus M. 79. Ladislau to lUOU A. D. Poland was t:. .

OUirnril Chnstiamty supposed SWEDEN. mark about 826 A.

The history of Sweden previous to the fourteenth century

have been introduced into Sweden about 830, and into Den confused and

odfreyof Bouillon, 'luk' III Ijininin ; Hugh. I. Hither

Robert, -"ii "i Uiliiam i]i- i ■,,,;, |ii,i..i , iiial ott h.a.l Ml .;"ii,.."i"aiii.-i-, aa.i.Ml l.x Peter the H

Solyman. at tli.> lira.l >,i {]\- I'^irkv i^ .l.f. ated, ai

\ second time victorious, tlie (Tusadcrs laptun

sieged in .^ntioch by Solyman and the Persian

^scaton— Godfrey defeats the Moslems 1 100,000 h(

Mustali. 46. Co

They assault Jerusalem, and obtain the object a the deliverance of the Holy City from the 1 Godfrey is elected king.

1.8. John I. CoMXENi-.s, a great a

( the talents and bravery n/the COMNENI tl.

The Erics and Swerli

Sweyn conquers England. 36. Canute III.

4,5. Magnus the Good, of ?

nCMUADI^ 16. Canute II., THE Great be- rivil war.

ULlllllAnNi comes king of England. 19. Conqiicrs Nonvay.

.Harold VII. 87. Olaus. 95 Eric. 6. St. Canute IV.

Unhappy times /or near century; 0/ nine kings, five

Nicholas. 35. Ercl IV.

5. The clergy and nobility ob- tain the chief power. 39. Eric V

GHRONOLOGIGAL 6HART

No. V.

EuropeduringtheCrusades,

From 1000 to 1-330 A. D. ITepari-d by Jnlin riark Ridpath, Lb. D.

PORTUGAL.

: ' Ferdinand I. i

Henry, a grandson of Robert of France, assists Alp] a reward of his bravery, gives him his daughteri - "• 39. Proclaim

CASTILE AND LEON.

Alphonso VI. of Leon in 7: Cid. mnqiKTs N\'W Cas

ARAGON.

4. Alphonso I,, tin w vi;i:h •

ions. '24. Ramirez I

6. Milan revolts and (

,,kof Sicilv. 30. Rodgerll.,k. of Sicil! 19-30. War between Pisa and Gen Henry V.. emperor and king of Italy.

s mutual hatred. Study of the Civil Law revived

ITALY.

, and PISA, rise in power and wealth. The foundations of

I )n after 900 ; they are greatly enriched by the Crusades.

: Ardoin loses most of Italy; soon after resigns.

tween his troops and the people Pavia is burnt, which can

phich for

. . elected by the states ; oj

the family of the Guelph;

gives rise to the factions of the

lies (partisans

desolate Italy

ofiei thre

79. Philip exconununicat deric I., Baeeakossa, gT-eat-great-grandso

cs Italy, has contests with the pope, 5IA. 90 Henry VI.

jreign^

Philip II., AuGu

Banishes the J fiscates 90. Goes on

's; Louis burns the , filled with rebels. 1 a crusade to atone for his

joined England, defeated and forced to re

II., (grandson to Henry I.), Plantagenet, edsaccording to agreement, and proves the

■ monarch of the age. sed by Thomas a Becl<et, archbishop of aterbury.

Ham the Conqueror, usurps, notwithstand- ilda and her son Henrv.

70. Becket killed. „• l j iken prisoner by the earl of 89. Richard ''brother. 73. His sons rebel. 90. Goeso

74. Does penance at Becket'

71. Ireland conquered ; given bv

the p. .pe to Henry II. in 5(

HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET

I., THE Lion.

crusade, defeats ^a John Lacl<land, a 1,

;he

taken, are themselves be- agiiin victorious. 10,000 foot)under y destroyed by the

Saladin, sultan of Egj-pt, a He conquers Syria, Assyria,

onium.

, He defeats the

takes Jerusa

91. Acre taken

PhiUp A

91. Richard de

9:;. Saladin d

of Louis destroyed in Laodicea. lower of the Crusaders declines. le second Crusade cost Europe 200.C

ed, assassinate of Henry IV.

41 League of the Han

f the obi s

■- HOUSEOFHAPSBURG

STUS.

property. Third Cri

ving S Philip IV THt

u defeats H nrv of Eng to the H 1 La 1 nidef ken pn oner n Eo-\ pt pu cl

s SO ot f mi p

el b tJohndyn" soon after he s forced

LousVIII thfLo H sezcs lleE

1 a bar n d to gi the Magna Charta or Great Charter h secures mpo ta r gl s o 1 classes Henry 111 a eak k ng goven ed b

cl e	pardon
on and	s tl ere
1 gl- ad	on hs
fH	RI
up b he baron Ob e eate 1 and made ea 1 Of Le caster
a i defeat and

ba tie iron tl s time

"n ce of \\ales s

the 1 1 e of the king s

I ate 1 e ght ea s marr es Margaret

The W e tern I la ds conquered om

Denmark 8d Bal ol and Bruce

\ Ougia Khan

Gengh Khin

Richard an ugustus. ■ ! Saladin. nd his do ided.

80. Alexius II. Comxenl-

S3. Andronicus I. Com.n

85. Isaac Angelus.

object of respect or of terror to the

th the Turks and

.Alexius IV.. T c\ s. 4. Baldwin I wi

4 Frencl o L ti

W The Greek

hi M chae Pa e

Andron cus II

licislaus III.

78. Casimir the Just ; he

9 Lesko the Black

—the Po e defeated b the Moguls ho e k 1 e n 1 e rs of tl e la n

d for dominion.

Wisbv becomes one of the H nse

Waldemar I., the Vktoriois, defeats the Slavonic pirates.

^ > Jomsberg, the grea

: VI Chr stopher I

Abe Ere VII

f Waldemar

0 Coun depu es of the pe antry to P rf me t 8b Ere VIM

. Alphonso, ai irt of Portugal, So. Sancho I.

1 II Capel us 46

4 Deposed bv the ^ope

) onys us or Denn s

12. Alphonso 14. Hen y I 17 St Fe d t

d Leon

nd U kes Cordova

1 1 a emp s o reco d of e Moo

TheAp

inso II. ' "!, I'.i ^- I': .> nre. 9ti. Peter irried to Raymond, cmmi of Barcelona League of the Italian cities to preserve

III., THE Bad.

k of Venice established, eric takes Crema. 67. He takes Rome Frederic takes Milan. 83. Pence of Con

S. William IV., the Good, king of Sicil

oO Conrad k f

Lou s s great fltjly enoa

THE CRUSADES. — THE KLXGDOM OF JERUSALEM.

anil thfir possessions on French soil exceeded the aggregate of all others together. It was estimated that by the middle of the thirteenth century as many as nine thousand manors were held by the Temjslars of France. It naturally came to pass that all the other elements of society were alarmed and excited on account of the bloated development of this monopoly of the wealth and honors of the kingdom. The protection of pilgrims was meanwdiile forgotten in the rivalry for power and the lust of gain. In the course of the subsequent Crusades the Knights not infrequently acted in bad faith towards those whom they pretended to serve. When the Christian kingdom in the East tot- tered to its downfall, the Templars, with a strange depravity of principle, attempted to secure their own interests by separate treaties with the Moslems ; but their fortunes were in- volved with those of the Western powers, and all went down together.

The chief seat of the Templars remained at Jerusalem from the foundation in 1118 to the year 1187, and was then transferred to Auti- uch. Here the Grand Master had his head- quarters for four years, removing thence, in 1 191, to Acre. This stronghold of Knighthood ciintinued to be the head-quarters of the Order until 1217, when a third removal was made to the Pilgrim's Castle near Cesarea. With tlie capture of Acre, in 1291, and the conse- quent overthrow of the Christian kingdom, the Tcinplai's retired to Cyprus, which they jnir- chased fri)m Richard the Lion Heart iov thirty- five thousand marks.

About this time the Order fell under the ban in several parts of the West. Esjieciallv in France were the suspicions and jealousies of the government aroused against the Knights. Their exemption from aU the burdens of the state, their arrogance, their pride and licen- tiousness aU conspired to excite against them the dread and hatred of the people and the king. Nor is it to be doubted that the great wealth amassed by the Order in the course of nearly two centuries had aroused the cupidity of those who, unscrupulous a-s the Knights themselves, were ready to seize the first jire- text of violence. Especially was the hostility of Philip the Fair of France awakened against a power which he conceived to be a menace to the perpetuity of his kingdom. He accord-

ingly determined to free the realm (if the jires- enee of the dangerous and amliitimi- linither- hood. He took counsel with Pupr Clrment V. how^ the Order might be exterminated. A judicial inquiry was instituted, the Knights being charged with heresy and immoi-ality. In 1306 Jacques de Molay, Grand Master of the Templars, was induced to come to Paris, and in October of the following year he and all the members of the brotherhood in France were seized. Their property was taken to await the issue of the proceedings. In the course of the trial many grave accusations, some of them contradictory of others, were brought forward, and the brothers were made to answer. They were charged with infidelity, Slohammedanism, atheism, heresy, profanation of holy things, and unclean ness. The prose- cution was greatly troubled to produce evi- dence, but balked in the usual methods, a resort was had to tnrturi', and many of the prisoners made confession. The Pojie was loth to give his sanction to a measure of extermi- nation, but Philip was determined, and the archbishop of Sens lent his countenance to the jjroceedings.

A grand council w\is called in Paris on the 10th of Jlay, LSIO, and three days afterwards fifty-four of the Templars being condemned were led into the field behind the alley of St. Antoine and burned at the stake. This example of vindictive fury was imitated in other jxirts of the kingdom. The reign of viiilence provoked action from the Pojje, who two years later convened the Council of Venice to consider the cjuestion of the fate of the Templars. It was decided that the Order .should be abolished and its property confiscated ; but at the same time the Pope reserved his judg- ment as to whether the Knights were guilty of the heinous charges brought against them. The landed possessions of the famous brother- hood were transferred to the Hospitallers, and their movable property went to the sover- eigns of the various states. Everywhere in Christendom, except in the kingdom of Por- tugal, where the brotherhood assumed the name of the Knights of Christ, the Templars as an organization were suppressed. De ^lolay himself and Guv of Auvergue were burned at Paris,

Tlie third of the sreat ehivalric biidies.

■10

UXIVEPSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

takiiiL' its ri.-e in the tini.' (if the CniMnlrs was theTEiTONir KMc.iri>, cir KNKnrrsoF Saint Majryof jEnrsAi.KM. Like it- t\v<i [iredeet'ssors the -new Onln- \v:i> Ua~'-i| mi a union of mo- nastic and militai-v ^rv\\rr. A f.-w years after the capture of .Icru.-akiu liy the Christians, a German merchant and his wife, dwelling in the city, threw open their house for the enter- tainment of the sick and distressed of their own nation. The atti-ntion uf the Patriarch

near by w-as attached to the humble hospital, which received the name of Saint ]Mary. The founder of the institution devoted all his own means to the \M.i-k, and it was not long until alms began to pour in in aid of the enterprise. Several distinguished Germans contributed their jsroperty to the support of the work be- gun by their countrymen. A service and rit- ual were establishid, and in the year 1119, only one year after the fnunding of the Tem- plars, the new Order received the sanction of Pope Calixtus II. lieligious and martial vows were taken by the brothers, who made the work of charity and the relief of the dis- tressed the prominent feature of their dicijsline.

In the choice of a dress and regalia, the Teutonic Knights distingui>ln(l tliemselves as much as possible fmrn tlie Hospitallers and the Templars. The gown was black with a white mantle, and on this was a black cross with a sUver edging. The Order soon achieved an enviable fame, and its members became the recipients of the same fltvors and honors which were showered upon the other two brother- hoods. The srcniid .•>tabli-hnirnt (.f the Teu- tonic Kniglits was founded in lls'.l liy the burghers of Bremen and Liibeek, whn, during the siege of Acre, were moved to luiild a hos- pital for the relief of their countrymen. The two chapters were presently combined into one order by Dnke Frederick of Suabia, who in 1192 obtained for the union the sanction of Pope C'ele-tine III. The rule of the body was .amplified and the discipline of the Augustin- ians adopted for its government.

At the origin of the Teutonic Order none but Germans of noble birth were admitted to membi'i--hi]i. Not until 1221 were sergeants and priests added to the fraternity. The'^chief officer was called the ( irand :\raster. At the fir.'^t, he had his resideiiee in .Jerusalem. Aftev

tlie fall of Acre in 1291 he removed to Venice and shortly afterward to ^Marburg.

The Teutonic knights fir.st appeared as a powerful military factor in the affairs of Eu- rope about the beginning of the thirteenth centiu-y. In ]22ii they were called out by the Grand Master, Hermann of Salza, to aid Conrad, duke of Masovia, in repelling the Prussian and Lithuanian pagans from his borders. Tiieir valor and religious zeal attracted the attention of all the European states ; and Conrad gave them, in reward fur their services, the jn-oviuce of Culm on the Vistula. E.stablishing themselves in this ter- ritory, they extended their authority over Prussia, Courland, and Livonia. In their wars in these dark regions, they carried the sword in one hand and the Go.spel in the otlier, and the pagans were given their choice. In the year 1309, the residence of the Grand Master was transferred to Marien- burg, from which, as a center, the Order became aliuo.-t as dominant in the North as the Tcmphirs in the South. The territory under their rule extended from the Gulf of Finland to the river Oder, and the annual revenues of the fraternity were estimated at SdOjMMi marks. The highest dignitaries of Nortlierii iMiroiie eagerly sought membcrsliip, and the Church smiled her fairest approval.

As in the case of the Hospitallers and the Templars, the Teutonic Order felt the disas- trous effects of luxury and power. The hum- ble professions and practices of the founders were fore'otten by the haughty Crerman barous wlio now controbed the destinies of the brother- hood. Oppression followed in the wake of opulence and authority, and violent dissensions arose as the precursors of decline. By the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Order had reached its climax. At that epoch, a series of conflicts began with the kings of Poland which hastened the downfall of the fraternity. In 1410 the knights fought the great battle of Griinwald, in which they were disa-trnu>ly defeated by La.li^laus Yagellon ; and, in a sulise(juent struegle with Casimir IV., West Prussia was wrested from them and annexed to the Polish dominions. Even in East Prussia they were reduced to the rank of vassals.

At I'englh the iiroud Knights, galled bv their

THE CRUSADES.— THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.

subjugation, made an efl'ort to regain tlieir iu- depondence. In 1525 they revolted and went to war, but the conflict resulted in a still fui-ther eclipse of their fortunes. East Prus- sia was reduced to a duchy, and bestowed by Sigismuud I. on the Grand Master, Albert of Brandenburg. The Order became the shadow of its former glory, and, after a precarious existence of three centuries, was finally abol- ished by Napoleon in 1809.

Let us, then, return to the course of po- litical events iu the Kingdom of Jerusalem. When, in 1118, Baldwin du Bourg succeeded his cousin, Baldwin I., on the throne, he was indebted for his elevation to the influence of his powerful kinsman, Joscelyu de Courte- nay. This distinguished nobleman had gone to Asia Minor with the Count of Chartres iu the wake of the First Crusade, and had set- tled at Edessa. Afterwards he was taken prisoner by the Turks, but, after five years, he escaped from his captors, and received from Baldwin a province within the limits of Edessa. In the course of time he and his patron quarreled, and Joscelyu, being grievously maltreated, retired to Jerusalem. Here he lived at the time of the death of Baldwin I. He and Baldwin du Bourg now made up their quarrel, and, when the latter became a candidate for the throne, Joscelyu iavored his election, with a view of securing for himself the Principality of Edessa. The arrang-ement was carried out, and, when Bald- win II. came to the throne of Jerusalem, De C'ourtenay was rewarded with his kinsman's duchy.

Edessa proved to be a stormy inheritance. From the first. Prince Joscelyn had to fight for the maintenance of his authority. The Saracens on the side of the Euphrates were full of audacious enterprises, and the utmost efforts of the Christians were necessary to keep thera at bay. Such, however, were the warlike energies of the veteran De Courte- nay, that, during his lifetime, the Mo.slems were unable to break into his dominions. At the last he met his fate in a manner bi-.'oiui.i- the hero of the elinrch militant. While hiving .-iege to a fortress near the city of Aleppo, the aged warrior was crushed beneath the ruins of a wall; and, when re- covered from the debris, was fotmd to be

fatally injured. He was, however, conveyed to Edessa, and there awaited the hour of doom. His sou, who also bore the honored name of Joscelyn, was named as his suc- cessor, and to him the dying governor looked for the defense of the realm. But the youth was lacking in the soldierly vigor of the fiither ; and, when the latter summoned him to go on the instant to the defense of a stronghold which luul Ijeeu attacked by the Saracens, the younger De Courteuay replied that he feared his forces were insufficient. Indignant at hearing such a word as fear from the lips of his son, the bruised and mutilated old Crusader ordered hiuLself to be carried on a litter to where the Saracens were besieging his town. Learning of his approach, the enemy broke up their camp and fled. Whereupon, looking up into heaven from his couch, the chivalrous De Courteuay expired in unclouded content.

Events soon showed that the date of his death was a dark day for the Principality of Edessa. The younger Joscelyn was a me- diieval roue. Without regard to the inter- ests of the government or the glory of war, he gave himself up to a life of sensual pleas- ure. Seeking a luxurious retreat on the banks of the Euphrates, he surrounded his court with others like-minded with himself, and gave free reign to appetite. Such measures as were essential for the safety and welfare of the Principality were drowned in the pleas- ures of abandonment.

At the same time, when the government of Edessa was thus falling into incompetent hands, a great prince appeared among the Moslems. This was the warrior Sauguin, sul- tan of ^Mossul. By successful campaigns, he had already added Alejjpo and other Syrian cities to his dominions. After thus strength- ening his borders, he turned his attention to Edessa, and eagerly longed for an opportunity to measure swords with that degenerate city. As soon as he learned of the character and apt- itudes of the young De C'ourtenay, he lo.st no time in setting out on a campaign against the almost defenseless capital of the Christian duchy. 1 Wiiile Joscelyn was holding high carnival on the Euphrates, tlie sobering intelligence was lini-nc t(i liis ears that a powerful Saracen army had ahvady encamped before Edessa. It is the lir^t inniulse of an alarmed drunkard to call

rsn-EnsAi. history.— the modkhx would.

1:0 t(i

The tLTi-itied Df Coiii'ti'iiay .-fiil iiiini.diatcly to MiUicent, (iLU.Hi-iv:Jout'()r .J.ru.s.lmi, anil to the pniiee (.!' Autlnrh, iM i assistance iu hi< Imiir nf i>rril. the queeu iior ilir ]ii-ince was a his rescue. E.losa was hit In h.r fate; aii.l, after a siege nf a nminh's iluratimi, ihe vic- torious Saracens ciilti-.d the city, and ^lut the inhabitants to the swukI.

Every thoniilitful reader <if liisiory must have been astonislied at the many sudden re- vulsions of fortune presented for his contem- plation. The career of the warlilce Sanguiu furnishes such an example. Just as his do- minion seemed to bo firmly establisiied bv his c.Hi.|ur>t ..f Ed.'ssa, he was ass.s.iiian-.l bV his Slav,-: and ju~t a^ Jn-,-.lyn d.' Court, nay was n-diir,.d to th.' rank ..f an adv.ntui-rr withnut a i.roviiK-.', without a ritv. he Mi.I.K'ulv r-.u-rd hiin,~.lf tV.iUi his ^tuiM,i-.',bvw his >w.'.nl, and putting liimself at the head of his trii(i})s, rctonk his capital from the Moslems. His spa-niodic heroism, however, was not sufficient to wn -t the citadel of Ed, -SI fnnii the hands of the foe. Meanwhile, Xounililin, -on ami successor of Sanguin, came to tlie rescue of the beleaguered garrison; and the Christians found themselves pressed desperately between two armies of Sar- acens, the one within and the other without the city. Finding his situation hopeless, Joscelyn determined to save himself and his army by flight. In the silence of ini,lnii:ht, the gates of the city were opened, and the Christians un- dertook to make their exit. But the garrison iu the citadel discovering the movement made a signal to the ^loslems outside the walls and the esca|iing army was smldcnly arnst,',l in its flight. Only a few succe.-d,.,l iu l,r,..akin- through the Saracen camp and making their way to th,- fricn,lly settlements on the Eu- phrates. All the ivst were slaughtered. Fully thirty thousand victims were lu'wcl ilown iu an imliscriininato massacre by ih,' ri'lonth'ss Islamites. On the morrow the Crescent was raised al)ove the blood-smeared city, and the Christian principality of Edessa was no more This ^rcat disasi.-r o,-cnrv,| in the year 114.".. The news of tlir lall .,f thr ciiv was sprra,l thr,iUi:h,ait ( Ini-hn.h.n!, an,l ih.^ na- tions w,iv pr,,r,,in„llv Mim,l. -i-hc king.lom b of .Terusdrni wa< diak.n t,. it,> c.nt.-r. It was <1

ist Cru-

of -Mohanmudan inva>ion. Jt wa> this condi- ti,m of atliiirs that le,l t,. th,. pn^a.-hing of the Secu-ND Ctu-sAi.i-; in Eur,.p,-. The principal agent in the w,irk of arousing the people for the succor of th<. holy places of the East was Saint Bia-nard, abbot of Clairvaux.

duced to a >, ,-oii,I upri.Mn- ,if tin- Eui'o|.(an Christians. The hali-r,.nlnry whi<-h lia,l .lai.-ed sin,- th,. C,,nn,al ..f Cl.-rm',,ni ha,l phmt, ,1 in scv.ral of th,. Western stat,.s th,- ,.<,n,iitions of another movement ou Asia similar t,i the fir.t. In France, King Philip I. ,li,,l in the y,ar HOC. and was suc,:.,:.e(le,l by his sou Louis the Fat. Til,' hLtter fr,>m the age of eighteen ha,l bi-in assoi'iated with his lather in the gov- ernment. Tin- intellect of the new sovereigu \\a> canparatively a blank, but his moral (jual- itic- will' of a hiiiher order than was coni- m,m in his a-,'. He ha,l a >incere re-anl lor justice, an,l his t,'mp,'r had something of that gayety and enthusiasm for wdiich the subjects of his remote descendants became so noted among the more .somber peoples of Europe. The better energies of Louis's reign were ex- pended in a laudable effort to protect the peas- antry of France from the exactions of the feudal nobility. The larg.T part of hi< time was consumed in petty wars with his liarons, whom he endeavored in vain to repress and force into obedience. This task, however, was beyond the limits of his power. The time liad not yet arrivi'd wh,'n the arrogance of the I'reni-h nobility was to lie broken on the wheel of royal prerogative.

In the thirteenth year of his reign, Louis was inyolved in a war with Henry I, king of En.vland. It will b,' remembered that that ambitious prin,',' lia,l >ui',',','ded his brother WiUiam Tbi fns whi'U tin- latter was killed in Ih,' ton'M: abo that th.' dn.-hy of Xormaudy bail, .luriii'^- th,' ab<,'n.'e of TJobert Short Ho.se in thi' Ea-t, b, ,11 helil as an appanage of the F.n-li-h i'r,,wn. <bi th,> r.'turn of Robert from I'al.-tiiu. h.. n'ii,,<M'--,',l JiiiiiM'lf of his estates,

i-^ p

1,',1

and con-

THE CnUSADES. — THK KINGDOM OF .JERl'SALFJI.

demued to perpetunl iiiiprisoumeut in the fortress of Carditi'. William, the sou of Duke Robert, tied for his life and sou.u'ht refuye with the Idui:- nf Fraiirr. It was the protec- tion of this I'u^itive priH(v liy Louis tlie Fat that brought on a war between that luimarch and King Heury. A l>attle was fouglit bctwcm their armies at Brenneville, in wliieli t!ie English were vii'torinus, l)ut the vietory was neither bliMwly nor decisive. Indeed, it was the peculiarity of the feudal wars in the ^\■est not to kill but to capture, for the ransom of distinguished captives was more profitable to the victor than the brief exhibition of dead bodies on the battle-field. Only three Knights are said to have been slain in the liattle of Brenneville. It liap|ii'ncd that at the tiiuc of the coutiiet r..pe (Adi.xtu,-^ II., who lia.l oM-apcd from the disturbances of Italy, was soionining in France. The potentate was gnatly -riivo.l at the war which had broken out between his subjects on the two sides of the Channel. lie accordingly mediated between them, and the two kings agreed to be at peace.

In the year 1124 hostilities broke out a second time between the two kingdoms. The Emperor, Henry V., of Germany, had in the mean time married the Princess Matilda, daughter of Henry I., and the English king now called upon his powerful father-in-law to aid him in his war with Louis the Fat. The Emperor gladly accepted the invitation, for he had many causes of enmity against King Louis. The latter raised a powerful army of two hun- dred thousand men, but before actual hostilities began Henry V. died, and the war was thus averted. As to Prince "William, Louis bestowed on him the earldom of Flanders as a recom- pense for the loss of Normandy, but the young earl pri>~ently died from the effects of a neg- lected wound.

In 112t) King Louis had his eldest son Philip, who was the pride and expectancy of the state, crowned with himself as heir appar- ent to the throne. Two years afterwards, however, the prince died, and such was the effect of the lo^s upon his lather that the king was ini:'oiis(.lablo and refrained for a long time from iiublie duties.'

' The manner of the death of the Dauphin well illustrates the existing conditions of life in Paris. While the prince was riding; tln-ough the filth and

In the following year the succession was established to Prince Louis, the king's second son, then but twelve years of age. Two years afterwards, borne down with cxcossive eor|)u- lency, the monarch was attacked with a mal- ady, and, believing his end at hand, hr >ou-lit ililigenlly to be reconciled with all his toes. Destiny, however, had appointed him three additional y.ars of life. He ,lied in 11:J7,

In aeeoi-,lauec with the [iroviiius settlrment, the crown pas-r.l |i<acealilv to I'rineo Louis, who to,,k the title of Louis VII. It was his go<id fortune to have for his minister the Aljlie Segur, one of the ablest and most scholarly men of the kingdom. "With such a support the yonn- king found opp(]rtunity in tlie early

for chivalrous amusements, to wliich he de- vote<l most of his time. His first serious busi- ness was in 1142, when he became involved in a quarrel with the Pope respecting the right of investiture iu the French church. He also alienated from himself Earl Thibaud of Cham- pagne, whose sister had been married to the Count of Vermandois. Him the king induced' to divorce his wife, and to wed a sister of Queen Eleanor. Thibaud was so greatly in- censed that he took up arms, and the king, in order to sujipress the insurrection, marched a large force into Champagne, and laid siege to the castle of "Vitry. Meeting with a stubborn resistance, he set fire to the fortress, and by an unexjiected spread of the confiagration the town was wrapped in flames. A church in which thirteen hundred human beings had taken refuge was a part of the holocaust. The king, who had not intended that the fire should do so horrible a work, was near enough to hear the shrieks of the dying, and was seized with remorse and terror. Never afterwards did he recover from tlio shock, and the work of paci- fying his eons<aeiie(' became henceforth his chief coui.'ern. It was wlnle he was brooding

the

that n the

rulil)ish-eneumliei'eil streets a swine his lioi-se. threw him, and fatallv rider. The kins ther.MiiH.n issur.i a swine shoul<l not be allow.-,! n, imi a streets; but the proelainal ii.n was so s. riouslv re- sisted by the monks of St. AutoiuL- that the (irder was so moditied as to give Dirir sacred pipfs the frr.Mloni of the city, on condition that said pigs should uxai- helh! .Such was Paris!

rXIVimSAL niSTt)HY.~THE MODERN WOUIJi

Wr^t

llr that fall <.f

dertakiiiy: a Crusi.li' \va- at nii<v MiLi-v^tuil tn Louis's ininil a> a luian- "1 ixiiialioii. An assembly of liarmi^ ami lii>lii)ps was calk-il, and the wish of the king tu undertake a eani- paigti against the Infidels of Asia was presented for di>eus>i(.n. The im-asure was received with mueli favi.r, an.l llir IN.pe, .m Ining eunsidted, gave his aiijiroval of tlie enterprise.

Til the mean time, the Empress Matilda, the childless widow of Henrj- V. of Germany, had been given by her father, Heury I. of England, to (icntlVi y I'lantageuet, sou of that Prince Fduliju.- whn, liy his marriage with the queeu- reiiviit (it'.Iiru-ah-ra, was acting so large a part in the ('hii-tian kingdom of Palestine. It was a pmirct lit' the English king (for he now liad no .Min') ti. <>iahli>h the succession to his daughter, wiih (ieoliley for Prince Consort. Very averse, however, to such a project were the barons and squires of England, who j)re- ferred a man for their ruler. For this reason they t.M.k si.hs with thr Piin.v Strph.-n, >nn of Adria, ,iau-hlrr(.f the ( ■.,ii.,ii,n.r, and vig- orously supported his claims a-ainst thn<,. of Matilda. In the year 1127, thi' Fni^lish kin-- went abroad and resided with Ins daughter, the Empress Matilda, whose three sous by Plantagenet cheered their grandfather with the prospect of the future. In ll.'>"j, Henry I. died at St. I),.nis, but was brought home to En-huid r..r buiiah

Events soon showed that tlie precautious taken by the late king, respecting the succes- sion, were of no avail. His ue])hew, Stephen, upon whom be liad bestowed many fiivors, io-

ately appeared on the scene to dispute the claims .if Maiilda. Every thing went in his iiivei-. and he \\a> erowued in Westminster, in 11:;:.. i;,.t;.re the friends and the wife ,,f IManIa-,-net

sueees.fullv enn.lnd.d ;

sup;

when David, kin- of Seothiud, t.n.k uj) arms against him, the Engli>h munareh uas able to meet him on equal teriii> ; and David was in- duced, by the ces.siou of a part of the four ncjrtheru counties of England, to desist from hostilities. The Earl of (Uoueester, a natural son (jf the late King Henry, was disposed to light for the riglits of his fatlier's familv; but

.1 the earl

to join ijred to

It soon happened, however, that the sever- ity of Stephen towards his nobles disturbed their loyalty ; and after the manner of the men of their age, they went over to the oppo- sition. Hostilities broke out between the rival parties, but the war was conducted in the des- ultory and indecisive manner peculiar to the feudal times. It was not until Februarv of 1141 tliat the Earl of Olouee>ler, who com- nianiled the army ,.f .Alatihla, succeeded in bringing bis enemy to battle before the town of Lincoln. Here a terrible conflict ensued, in which King Stephen was defeated, cap- ture,!, and imprisomMl in the castle ,,f Hri^toL .Maiilda eiit.r.Ml London in tiiiimpli and was aeknowhMlge.l as,,ueen. ]i..inre her .•ornna- ti.in, bow.-v.'r. she behaved in so in,p,.rious a manner toward- the people of the city as to alienate the atllctions even of her best sup- jioiters. M'itbin a month she was obliged to (ly to Winchester for safety. From this place .she was quickly drivi'ii t.'. Devi/.'s, and the Earl of Gloucester, in attempting to follow her thitlier, was in his turn caj.tured and shut up in the ea~th' of I;oeh,.-ter.

The rival paiiies were now in a position to exchange their noble pri-onei-s. The Earl of Gloucester was given uji for Stephan. The former immediately repaired for Normandy to bring over Matilda's eldest son, the Prince Henry Plantagenet,' to whom the people al- readv began to look for a solution ol' their

1 Stephen f.mnd	' TIk much '	is|,nl ell ,1	e /'/,
pular e.-teem. So	/./,;, „,,,/;,		anin
,n of Ilenvv I., was 1- irom Xornjan.ly,		I'hl ll. Ol
his latlierto receive	was se(	nv'e,	wUl

ijiiiel has been the snlijeetof I. est <'tymr.loL'y, i.erluii.s, is e won] from Lou- ].atin ;./oH- lii-ooiii tui'js. " It apjiears .f Anjon. wl.o first bore the ha.l committed some crime n a ]ii!e-rimage to Rome he Mill, ami acee],tcd the title I'ommenioration of liis pun-

THE CRUS.iDES.^TllE KIXdDOM OF JERUSALEM.

difficulties. Stephen resumed the exerci^f ol" tiie ruval prerogatives, aud besieged the eiii- jiress in the castle of Oxford. After a scasun she made her escape and fled to Abiugdou, where she was presently juiued liy Gloucester aud her son. The warfare between her ami iStejihcn continued until 1147, when the Earl of Gloucester died, and Matilda resigning her claim to her son, retired w-ith that prince into Normandy. For six years there was a lull, but in 1153 young Henry, now grown to man's estate, raised an army, and returning to Eng- land renewed the struggle for the crown. The rival princes came face to face at the town of Wallingford, but the barons on neither side were disposed to begin a battle in which they had nothing to gain and every thing to lose. •Stephen and Henry were thus obliged to sub- mit to their arbitration, and it was decided that the former, whose only son, Eustace, had recently died, should continue king of Eng- land during his life, and that the crown should then descend to Henry.

Such, then, was the condition of afl'airs in England, when the voice of St. Bernard was heard afar announcing the capture of Edessa by the Turks, and calling on Christendom to niliy to the rescue of the imperiled Cross. Meanwhile, in Germany, in 1106, the great but unfortunate Emperor, Henry IV., died, aud was succeeded by his unfilial son, Henry V. The accession of the latter was accom- plished by the influence of the papal or anti- German party ; but, no sooner was the young monarch seated on the throne than he went over to the policy of his father, and set him- self against the assumptions of the Church. In a short time he and Pope Paschal II. were embroiled in the same way as Henry IV. and Gregory had been in the preceding century.

The general result of the long struggle was the gradual decline of Imperial influence, until the .shadow of the Carlovingian reality was hardly any longer seen outside of the borders of Germany, and even here the spirit of feu- dalism, cooperating with the destruction of civil wars, had reduced the Empire to a fic- tion. Nor was the character of Henry V. of a sort to revive the reality of three centuries ago. He was a cold, stern, and heartless prince, whose chief motive of action was a certain rational selfishness, and whose prin-

cipal virtue was force of will. The latter quality was in constant aud salutary exercise in repressing the arrogance of the German feudal lords, who were robl)ers or gentlemen ju.st as the sword of authority was drawn or sheathed by their master.

The first foreign enterprise umlertaken by Henry was the invasion of Italy. In 1110 he raised an army of thirty thousand knights, and crossed into Lombardy. The cities of that realm acknowledged his authority, as did also Matilda of Tuscany. Even the Pope deemed it expedient to yield to his powerful antagonist, and, going forth, met him as a friend. His Holiness agreed to officiate at the coronation of Henry, but still claimed the right of investing the bish- ops. To this the Emperor would not assent, and the Pope then made the radical proposi- tion that there should be a complete "sepa- ration of Church and State" — that is, that the bishops, abbots, and priests should give up their secular power, and become simply officials of the Church. Tliis, of eourse, in- volved the reversion to the ci'own of the lands belonging to the ecrle>instie>. The measure was assented to by Ilem-y, and the long and bitter quarrel bitwei'n the Popes and the Emperors seemed at an en<l.

Not so, however, in reality. When Henry advanced to Rome, he was met by a great procession headed by the Pope. The two potentates walked hand in hand into the city. But, when the agreement was read in the presence of the bishops assendiled in St. Peter's, there was an angry tunudt, and the ecclesiastics refused to ratify the compact. The ceremony of coronation was brought to a standstill, the Pope refusing to proceed ; but he was at once seized by the German knights, and the scene became one of a bloody riot. After two mouths the Inqierial party was tri- umphant. Pascal was obliged to put the crown of empire on the head of Henry, and the supporters of tlie ]k\]k\\ prerogative were for the time forced into -nl.nii-ion.

On his return into Cieii.iany, ilie Emperor made a successful campaign again>t tiie Thu- ringians and Saxons; ami, in 1114, married the Princess Matilda, (lani:hler of Ib^nry I. of Englaml. Pre-ently atfrward. theiv'was a <!-eneral revolt in the North of (iernianv.

ry[VERSAL niSTORY. — THE MODKHX WORIA).

Frk-slan.l, Cln^r	le, Tliuriii'jia. and Saxony
all renounced t	u" Ini[i(Tial autiiority, and
took up arms t	) iiiainlain their independ-
ence. Bcl'orc t	li-^ diliirllltV CduM !>.• sot-
tied, the Eiiipcn	r was called iiitd halv, on
account of the	,lratli df ihe Cdunte-s df
Tuscany, wild 1)<	,,ueailied her ivalui td llie
Church, in^tcail i	ftd the empire, a- had iieen
pnvidu-lv a.rr. .1	li. ury .-ueceeded in secur-
ill- Tll-(-UllV, 1,11	l aKd in installing a ne\y
PdllC of lli- dW	1 appdiiitment in place of
Pa-^cal, wild !kh	died. The Freneh and

can-e. and eleeted aiidtliei- piintitf, by whom IL'iirv wa- exediniuimi.'ate.l. But the ful- niinalidii dt' >iieh a haii had already become lesw tenilie than df did, an.l the act wa- ig- nored l.dth l.y Ileiiiy hiiiiM-lf an.l (;alixtu>. who came to the papal chair in 111^.

Four years later a great diet was convened at "Worms for the final settlement of the dis- pute hetweeu the Popes and the German Em- jiernr-. The question was laid before the body ami a decision was reached to the efiect that henceforth the inve-titure of bishops with the ring and cresier shdiild remain wnth the Pope; Init all ndiiiiiiatidiis td the episcopal office shdiild be iiiaili- in the Emperor's presence, and till' candidate- >hduld receive their tem- poral autlidiity fnini him. Siaii was the cel- ebrated Ci,iii;,,-ihif nf Win-iii.<. by which the quarrel between the papal and imperial parties was settled for a period of fifty years.

In 1125 Henry Y. died at Utrecht, in Holland. According to popular belief, the judgment of Heaven was upon him for his unnati

eond	let towards his father. He
1 td tl	e grave withmit an heir, and
•e t'eU	td iiidVii-n fdr his untinaiv
Ii~ hai	-htimss and cdld temper had
,-V.ll 1	i- piT-diial fdUdwing, and the
i< lilth	di-|H,-,d td halldw the septil-
!.■ «h.	had. end.avdn..l with all his
\. w;	< the la-t df the Hdhenstaufen
The 1	atidiial <liet which was sum-
el- hi^	eleetidii Was in. .re favorable to
l.arl>	than anv whi.ii f..r a len-
	..nveiie.l hi (i,'i-liianv, Att.T
<e<-idn	the eh-.ie.' ..f ill.- .■Ie.-t..r. f.il

bishops to the Eniper

upon LoTiT.Min:. Dnki evinced his servilitv t.

for a c.jronatidn at the hands of the Pope, and by giving up that provision of the Concmlat of V\'orms which required

T.I .■dm]).nsile Wiv this |..ss df ].rerogative he nii.l.rt....k \n dl.tain ..f Fiv.l.-riek of H.,hen- stailf.n th.' .-tate- whl.ii ha.l be.-n be.jueathed to that jirin.-.' by Henry V. Put in the war which ibihiwed the Emperor was defeated and obliged to give up the contest. In llo-'! he went to Kome and was crowned by Pope Inno- cent II. Siieh wa< his hnniilily that he agreed td ])ay t.i the ehuivh an annual tribute of four hundred pounds for the possessimi of Tuscany — an act by which he virtually ac- nowledged himself a Yas.sal of the Komish .See.

It Ava< at this epoch that the violent and disuiae.tul feud broke out between the rival Pojies Inniieent and Ana.i.te. Lothaire was in duty bound to take .-i.l. s with the fdrmer, while the latter was Mipp..rt.-.l by K..ger II., the Xorman king of Sicily. In 1137 the Em- peror conducted an aniiy iiite ."^(.uth.a'n Italy, and gained some succes>es over the oppe.sitidii. But before the campaign could be brought to an end Lothaire found it necessary to return to Germany. On his way thither he was attacked with a fatal malady, and die.l in the Brenner Pass of the Aljis.

Wlien the national diet was convened for the choice of a successor, the most prominent candidate for the throne was Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria. In addition to liis hered- itary claims to the throne, he had greatly strengthened his cause by marrying Gertrude, the only daughter of Lothaire. The great prominence of Henry, however, acted against him in the diet ; for the electors were jealous lieforehand of one who seemed likely to prove an emperor in fact as well as in name. They accordingly turned from the able and haughty Prince of Bavaria, and in violation of the pre- vious .settlement elected Conr.^d of Hoheustau- fen. To this action Henry, wiio was himself a member of the diet, would not assent ; and when the Emperor elect undertook to force him into submission, he rai.sed an army of Saxdiis an.l w.ait to war. Before any decisive r.-iilt <'.iiil.l b.' r.'aiiied, however, Henry the Pi-dii.l .li.-<l. an.l the claims of the Guelphic Hduse .1,.m-,.ii.I.m1 to his nepk

II.

ifterwards The brother of

THE CRUSADES.— THE KIX(;l>OM OF JERUSALEM.

the late duke continued tlie war with ('(iiuad of Hohenstaufen, and in the cdiu-.-u ol' time the cause of the Bavarian prinns ln-caiar iden- tified with that «f \hr paiial party, while that of Conrad wa^ r-pou-rd l,y the iiiiprriali.ts throiidvuit (^criiKiny. Fnau this time forth the name nf (inoi.rii wa> ti-i-d tn designate the former, and Giiibellini: to denote the latter party iu tlie long and violent strtiggle which ensued.

The contlict between the Giielphs and Ghib- bellines broke out with the year ll-'i:), and continued for centuries togetiier, lieing the most ol)durLit(; and jier-jstent eonte-t known in the history of the .Middh' A-es. Is was in the sixth year of the reign of this Conrad .d' Hoheustaufen that the Christian pri}ieipality of Edessa was, as already narrated, captured by Xoured.lin and his Turks. Let ns then after these Ion-- digressions — necessary to an understaniliiiL;' nt' the condition of afiairs of the leadiii-- -tat. - of Western Europe, during the first half of the twelfth century as well as to a proper appreciation of the origin and character of the three great Orders of Knight- hood, destined hereafter to take so prominent a part in the eonduet of the Crusades — re- sume the story of the second npri-ing of the European Christians under the inspiration of the preaching of St. Bernard.

This distinguished abbot began his work in the spring of 114(i. A great asseinl)ly was called at Vezalay, and Bernard, ehi.l in tlie garb of an anchorite, stood on the hillside out- side the walls and harangued the multitude. Among those present were the king and queen of France, together with all the most distin- guished barons of the kingdom. Xot even Peter the Hermit was more successful in kind- ling the enthusiasm of the throng at Clermont than was the great preacher of Clairvaux of ddv of \'e7.alav. When his luded the hn-t was in the don aii.l raise.l the wild cry vith all the ardor of the first Lonis fluiig himself on his fator anil reeeived the badge een Eleanor also gladly ae-

rousiii	■■ th.
oratioi	wa
white	leat
of />;.	1 Ir
Crusa,	,.,.s.
knees	.efil
of the	ero.
cepti'd	the
erow.l,	d ai
he wa^	obli
supply	the

)wn vestments their shoulder

111 other places the scene was repeatd. I'^veiy province and city was roused from its slumliers. France was on iire, but when St. r.eniard went to ,Spiivs and l.c-oiighl the ban- peror Conrad t,. join the cnterpii-e the latter, who N\a~ naturally .,f a lukewarm .li-poMtio,,, wa> hard to roii-e from hi- < icniiaii iiiim..hil- ity. Not until the eloipiciit aMiot paused in the niiilst of mass and ex|iatiated on the ijiiilt of those who refused to lly to the rescue of the imperiled cross did the apathy of Conrad gi\-e place to emotion. His eyes brought forth th.' witne-< of tears and he meekly and eonr- ageou,-ly a,-Mimed the ei...-. The Cbrman baron, fallowed the example of their sovia-- eii:ii, and the w-armth of the glow- which had been kindled at Vezalay was felt iu the som- ber castles of the North. Even the women of (iermany armed themselves with sword and lance and took the vow of the cross.

Thus were the king cd' France and the ruler of the German Empire brought into an alliance against the distant but liate.l Infidel. It was agreed that their armies, setting forth in the .spring of 1147, should rendezvous at Constan- tinople.

With the break of winter all the roads of France and Germany were throngeil with ]iil- grim warriors, on their way to the various camps. The ui^heaval ,-ui|.a-> cd, if po--il.le, the ..utpouring of the Fii>t Cru-ade, in so much that St. Bernar.l found occasion to write to the Pope, saying: " Villa-cs and castles are deserted, and there are none left lint wid- ows and orphans, whose husbands and parents are still alive." Evervwhere men were seen

the field. Peasants abandoned their oxen still harnessed to their carts. Tradesmen quitted tlieir places of barter. Lords were seen issu- ing from their castles. l'ric>t- left the village chuivh, and monks the moiia-tcry. Every class of society contriliutcd a full quota of its best men fin- the rccovci-v of i:de-sa and the rescue of the Holy Scpulcher.

Xor did France and Germany only send fiirtli their hosts with the sacred badges of red on their sh.inlders. England, though rent with the strife' between the usurping Stephen and the aspiring Plantagenets, and Italy, dis- tracteil with the quarrel between the papal

■16

UMVERSAL JflSTOL'V. — THE MOULh'.X WOULD.

rfif

FrioslaiKl, C.)lf.-nc, Tliurii)-iti. iin.l Saxoiiy all reuunnrvi] xUv Ini|.(nal aiiiliority, and touk up ■dvm:' to iiiaiiitaiii ih.ir indepeud- euce. Bcfiirc tlii- dillii-ulty cunld he ^^et- tled, the KniiHi-,,,- ua> .'alh-d \uU, Iialy, on account nl' ili.- d.aih "I' the ('..untr-s (.!' Tuscany, wlm l,,,,!!,. allied h-r ivaliii to tl,.. Church, in-tca.l of i., ilir (inpiiv, a< had Ihcii previonslv a-iTcd. Henry succeeded in rrcciiv- ing TiKcany. and al-o in installing a new Pope of hi- own app-fnitnient in place of Pascal, who had died. The French and Italian hi-hop-, h.,wver, now nia.le eonnnon cause, and el.^eted anollier pontitf, l.y whom Henry wa- exconnnunieated. Ihit the ful- mioation of >ne]i a lian had already lieconie less terril.le than ol' old, and the act wa< ig- nored liofli In' Henry himself and Calixins, who came to the pai)al chair in 1 Ih^.

Foiu- years later a great diet was convened at Worms |i,r the linal settlement of the di- pnte hetween the Popes and the ( ierman Km- perors. The (piestion was laid before the hody aud a decision was reached to the effect that henceforth the investiture of bishops with the ringan.l .'rosier should remain with the Poi)e ; but all nominations to the epi-copal office should he made in the 1-^mperor's presence, and the camliihite- >honld receive their tem- poral aiithoritv i'rom him. Such was the cel- ebrated Cnii-iinhit .;/' l('r.,-;)/s, by which the quarrel between tln' papal and imperial parties was settled for a perioil of tifly years.

In 11 iT) Henrv V. died at I'trecht, in Holland. Acconling to popidar belief, the jud'jnient of Heaven was upon him for his unnatural eonduct towards his father. He went down to the grave without an heir, and

death. n\< haughtiness aral .'old t.inper had alienated ,v.n hi- p<r-onal followin-, and the church wa< little di<po-ed to halhiW the >epul-

cher of one who l,a<l eii.leavored with all his mi'jht to foi-ee her into -nbmi>Mon.

li.-nrv V. wa. lh.' la-t ..fthe llohc-nstaufen ],rine,.-. ' Ti„. national diet which wa-^ sum-

for a c bv eivi of Woi nomina

II.

lion

f the En.pena- I' prerogative he ■rick of Hoheu- icen berpieathed But in the war

In li:;:; he ; Pope Inuo- ^ agreed bate of sion of

Tn«'

lerlook to ,,l.lain of I-hvd if ai the e-tates which had that prin.v by Henry V. ich followed the Emperor was iged to giv.' up the contest.

I'wa.- crowned 1,\ is hi- humililv th hureh an annua: nnds f,r the p liv which he virtually ac- nowledged him-elf a vassal of the Romish See. It was at this epoch that the violent and disgrae.'ful feud liroke out between the rival Pope- Innocent and Anaclete. Lothaire was in dutv hound to take sides with the former, while ihe latt:r was snpp,,rted bv l;,,ger II., the Noiinan king of Si.aly. In 1 IMT the Em- peror conducted an armv into Southern Ittdy, and gained some .-ue,,— c- cixar the ojipe-itinn. But before the campai-n could be hrou-lit to

Lothai

to <i

On

to return r he was ed in the

attacked with a fatal malady, Brenner Pass of the Alps.

When the national diet was convened for the choice of a successor, the most prominent candidate for the throne was Henry the Prnitd, duke of Bavaria. In addition to his hered- itary claims to the throne, he had greatly strengthened his cause by marrying Gertrude, the only daughter of Lothaire. The great pirominence of Henry, however, acted against him in the diet ; f jr the electors were jealous beforehand of one wlio seemed likely to prove an emperor in iiiet as well as in name. They accordingly turned from the able and haughty Prince of Bavaria, aud in violation of the pre- vious settlement elected Coktrad of Hohenstau- feii. To this action Henry, who was himself a mendier of the diet, would not assent; and when the Emp( ror elect und( rtook to force

m.llle	1 alter his ,.|,	■tion was m..re i	ivorablcto	him ii	to sul)mi-i.	n, he rai.-ed an army of
the 1 timi'	apal parlv t lad been con	lan auv which v.ai.Ml hi (i.aana	ihr a long ,V. After	iv-ull	•""' "'''"f "	war. P.efore any decisive died, however, Hemy the
a stoi	nv ,-,— ion tl	■ choice of the .	lector- fell	Pr 1	died, and t	le claims of the Guelphic
upon	LoTlIAlui:, I	nkeof Sax<.nv, \	boat once	n..n-e	de-cended	o his ne])hew, afterwards
evinc	■,1 his servilit	v to the chur.-h	,y heg-ing	known	as Henrv tl	e Li.iu. The brother of

lie imu 'ii" '; latter party in ti":-

Wticlfll^!!'-!.

iir •:.■'

lle-r

ofEJr-:: ■ kk:.

afi^r:!/- iliiJer-::i:, /' : tleblili:-'.'

the fr-t kill •• 10 a [iriijii-r r (li3mrt"fl:''

konMrtiU'.i

a f.w ;;; "■ siE- ■ Etr; , tlf|<\;

Till' faifi.-; Ike ^JlriL.' :. ■; cafel at V..^: gatldfanaiira siJe till- 5 , ,

ofF.'_, piil • , Peirrii;..!! hi il,. ,.• ■ , tlaa lias rj,.

.^ »*.*»"•***>. V. *^*,K

THE CRUSADES. — THE KIXUDO.U OF JERUSALEM.

the Lite duke coutiuued the war with Cniirad of Hoheustaufeii, and iu the course (if time the cause of the Cavariau priuce- hei-uue iileu- tified witli that "f the papal parly, while that of C.-.urad was ,-p.iii-ed hy the iiiiprriuHsts throughout C^erniauy. From this time forth the name of Guelph was used to designate the former, and Ghibellixe to denote the hitter party iu tiie haig and violent struggle which en-uVd.

The coiitlirt lietweeu the Guelphsaud Ghib- belliues luokc out with the year llo'.l. and continued for centuries together, lieing the most obdurate and persistent contest known in the history of the ^Middle Ages. It was in the sixth year of the reign of this Conrad of Hohenstanfeu that the I'liri-tian principality of Edessa was, as alrea<ly narrated, captured by Xouredtliu and liis Turks. Let us then after these long digressions — necessary to an understanding of the condition of aflhirs of the leading states of Western Europe, during the first half of the twelfth century as well as to a propier appreciation of the origin and character of the three great Orders of Knight- hood, destined hereafter to take so prominent a part in the conduct of the Crusades — re- sume the story of the second uprising of the European Christians under the inspiration of the preaching of St. Bernard.

This distinguished abliot began his work in the spring of 114(3. A great assembly was called at Vezalay, and Bernard, clad iu the garb of an anchorite, stood on the hillside out- side the walls and harangued the multitude. Among those present were the king and rjueen of France, together \vith all the most distin- guished barons of the kingdom. Not even Peter the Hermit was more successful in kind- ling the cnthnsiasin of the throng at Clermont than was thr -r^'at preacher of Clairvaux of rousing the assendily of Vezalay. When his oration was concluded the host was in the white heat of passion and raised the wild cry o{ Dleu Ir T' '(/ .' with all the ardor of the first Crusaders. Kin'^- I.oiiis flung himself on his knees bef ire thi' orator and received the badge of the cro~~. (^Jueen Eleanor also gladly ac- cepted the token, and the barons and knights crowded and surged around the speaker until he was obliged to tear up his own vestments to supply the sacred emblem for their shoulders.

er places iviuce and France w

.■rm to Sin

scene was repeated. • was roused from its )n tire, but when St.

was hard to rouse from his ( icniian iimnobil- ity. Not until the eloipinit abliot pau-cd in the mid.-t of mass and expatiated on tin- -uilt of tho>e who refused to fly to the rrscuo of the imi)criled cross <lid the apathy of Coiu-ad give ]i]:\cv to emotion. Ilis eyes brought forth the witness of tears, and lie meekly and cour- ageously assumed the cro,--. The German barons followed the exampl.' of their sover- eign, and the w-armth of the -jnw whieli had been kindled at Vezalay was felt in the som- ber castles of the Xorth. l-:ven the women of Germany armed themselves with sword and lance and took the vow of the cross.

Thus were the king of France and the ruler of the German Empire lirought into an alliance against the distant but hated Infidel. It was agreed that their armies, sotting forth iu tlie spring of 1147, should remlezvous at Constau- tinojile.

With the break of winter all the roads of France and Germany were thronged Avith jiil- grim warriors, on their way to the various camps. The upheaval surpa,->eil, if po->iMe, the outi.ouring of the Fir.-t Cniside, in so mucli that St. Bernard found occasion to write to the Pope, saying: "Villages and castles are deserted, and there are none left but wid- ows and orphans, whose husbands and parents are still alive." Everywhere men were seen wending their way to the places appointed by their leaders. Shepherds left their flocks in the field. Peasants abandoned their oxen still harnessed to their carts. Tradesmen (ptitted their j.laces of barter. Lor.ls were seen issu- ing from their casth-. I'rie-t^ left the village church, and moid<^ the niona-tery. Every class of .society contrilmted a full (piota of its best men for the recovery of Edessa ami the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher.

Nor did France and Germany only send forth lh. ir hosts with the sacred badges of red on tlieir sliouhlers. England, though rent with tlie strife between the usurping Stephen and the aspiring Plantageuets, and Italy, dis- tracted with the quarrel between the papal

1^1

u-.*^^^.*.«^4*>»:

^#'^^

fl»

UMVEUSAL HISTORY— THE MoDKUS WORLD.

ami imperial parties, both alike seut Ibrtli their bauds of warrior kuights to join tlie armies of Capet ami Ilohenstaufea.

The Enipcrnr c^ialili-hcd liis head-quarters at Ratisbon. ll.iv uvit -alliL-red his dukes aud barous, arinrd for llu- di.-taut fray. Hither came Bishop Otli". «\' Krisiyeu; Duke Fred- erick Barliai-.j-sa, of Suabia, nephew of Con- rad; the Manpiis (if .Mcintferrat; tlie Duke of Bohemia, and many other dukes aud barons, brave and notablL'. A liundred thousand war-

KN	r.nTS cm
riors were	here	c.
at the he:	d, til
the East.
Empei	,r E	iia
AlexiuS;	vas I
zautiura,	ind	o
1.)y the cr	l>adi

cr of the Greeks of By- ainbassadors were seut

■\'<. aiinonni'inc their a]i- proarh to ('on-lnntinn|,l,.. :\Iaiiy w,Te the ],roi;-ioiis of iViriid-lilii made by the wily Emperor of the (jreeks to the hardy warriors of Enro]>e, and many were the secret messa- ges which he at the same time seut to the

Asiatic sultans, apprising them of the move- ments of their foes. It became the policy of Comnenus, as it had been of his graudsire, to play double with the Christian and the Sara- cen, to the end that his own iiiliie,-ts might in any event be subserved.

\Vhen the Crusaders at last reaeh<-d Con- stantinople, they were received with outward blandishments and iuward hostility. Conrad and his chiefs had discernment enough to per- ceive the actual sentiments with which they were entertained ; aud, although it had been agreed that tiie German army should await the approach of the French at the Eastern capital, so keen was the resent- ment of the leader-s that they hastened their departure, and crossed the Bosphorus ^ into Asia.

^ No sooner were the Crusaders beyond

- the sea than the hostility of the Greeks, ~- which had been hidden under their du- plieitv until now, began to show it.self in a manner not to be mistaken. All the towns were shut and barred against the army of Conrad, and tlie Crusaders began to suffer for provisions. Greek hucksters from the top of the walls bargained with the hungry knights outside, to whom they let down baskets in which to receive the silver paid for their meal— and the meal was foiuid to be adulterated with an eipial ]iart of lime; nor diil the impudent traders, from whom the German chiefs were obliged to secure their supplies, for- "" bear to utter against their customers such taunts and insults as plentiful arrogance behind a wall might safely discharge at

Worse than this was the perfidy of the Greek guides, whom Comnenus sent out to lead the Crusaders to — destruction. Know- ing well the lines of march, these su))])le,

cen M'onts full information of the coui>e to be taken liv the ( iermaii army. 80, in addi- tion to mi-jnidin'j- the forces of Conrad, the (ireek- purpo-elv le,l them into dangerous ],la.'.-, wher,' an'ibuH-a.les had been carefully laid bv til.' enemy. At la-t, however, the river Meander v\a> ivaelie.l, and there, on the ,.piM.-lte bank, the :\lodem.- had gathered in gix'at ibive to resist the pa>sage. And now

THE CRUSADES.— THE KIXGDOM OF JERUSALEM.

"19

followed one of the most extraordiuary epi-niKs of the H.ilv Wars.

The -Meander was barely fordahle, if f.-rd- able at all, hy iufautry. Conrad, howcvrr, eager to reaeh the foe, and believing that his men could swim or struggle through tlie deeper part of the current, drew up the Cru- saders on the hither bank, exhorted them to heroic battle, and gave the order to ])hinge into the stream. The commaml was oiiryed ■with alacrity, and so great a nundier uf war- riors rushed into the river that the current was broken above and the waters ran away from below, leaving the bed almost as dry as the banks. Great was the amazement of the Moslems at this, to them, miraculous phe- nomenon. Believing that their enemies were aided by supernatural powers, they made but a feeble resistance, and then fled in a route. The Germans pursued the flying foe, and slaughtered them by thousands. Years after- wards their bones might be seen bleaching in heaps along the bank of the Jleander.

The effect of the victory was very inspir- iting to the Crusaders, who began to draw the fallacious inference that they were invincible. From the Meander, Conrad took his way in the dii'ection of Iconium. Still at the mercy of his Greek guides, he was led into the defiles near that city, where the sultan had collected an immense army to oppose his further "proiiress. "While the Germans were ro-ang their way through a narrow pass, thev beheld above the hill-crests the spear- ncads cV-d turbans of what seemed au iunu- meraole host of Moslems. Great was the disadvantage at which the Crusadei's were placed in the battle which ensued. Encum- bered with heavy armor, it seemed impossible for them to reach and smite the light-armed Saracens, who swooped down on them from above. It was not long until the line of march was blocked up with the dead bodies of German warriors. Thousands upon thou- sands were slain ; and Conrad had the infinite chagrin of seeing his army melting away under the blows of an anemy who, from his inacces- sible position, suffered .scarcely any losses.

After struggling vainly and courageously against the fate of his situation, the Emperor perceived that his only hope lay in a retreat. He according withdrew the remnant of his

that anv .v.,l from

the and

inrees from the detiles, aw

back in the directiim l>y whi(

It was with the greatest di

pdrtiou uf the German army

.lestructi.in. The Turkish ",

tiank and rear, and every >t

compact cohimn of the (.vi'

weary remnant was cut down witliout mercy.

Slowly and desperately, Conrad made his way

back across Asia Minor, and finally reached

Constantinople. Nine-tenths of his warrior

knights had perished under the javelins and

swords of the Moslems.

Doubtless the fatal folly of the Second Cru- sade consisted in the failure of the French and German armies to form the intended junction at the Eastern capital. Nothing could have lieen more disastrous than the jn'emature ad- vance of Conrad before the arrival of his allies on the Bosphorus. In the mean time King Louis of France, repairing to the abliey of St. Denis, took from above the altar that cel- ebrated banner called the Oriflamme, and bore it with hin. as his standard.' Together with Queen Eleanor, he obtaineil permission to de- part from the kingdom — a fact illnstrative uf the strong ascendency of the Freneli church over civil authority in tlie twelfth century. The queen, who, before her marriage to Louis, had as Princess of Acpiitaiue lieen thoroughly imbued with the culture of the South, took with her the refined ladies of her court, and a baud of troubadours to eidiven tlie tedium of the expedition. The first jxiint of rendez- vous was the frontier city of ^letz, and here were gathered by hundreds aud thousands the barons, knights, and warriors of the kingdom. The early autumn was occupied with the ad- vance to Constantinople, where Louis aiiived with his army about the beginning of October.

On reaching the Eastern capital the French were received with all the fictitious ardor which Comnenus was able to a<suine. His professions of friendship were unbounded, and for a while Louis and his knights l.elieved them- selves to be the most cordially entertained of any soldiery in Christendom. By and by, how- ever, the king learned that Comnenus was of

^The old national banner of the Cajietian kings was called the Oriflamme, from liavinir its edges shaped like flames of fire, and Ijeing attached to a staff of gold.

UMV1:J!SAL niSTORY. — THK MODKRX WORLD.

V Turks,

destrurtin,, ,.!■ tlir W.-i. in ain.i. -. Such was the iudi-iialinii ,,[' thr I'lvn.-h kiiiL^lil- that they were lain tn fall ii|m.ii thr l-^a<liiii caiiital and snatch tlic .-c.pirr Jr.ini tli.- hand.-- of the treacherous Cireek. A (.•niincil was held aud prudence aud moderation hardly jjrevailed to hold back the wrathful haruus from then- purpose.

Comnenus soon perceived the change in the sentiments and demeanor of his guests, aud fearing their presence in the city, sought a means of securing their departure. He ac- cordingly spread abroad the report — known to himself to be false — that Conrad and his Ger- mans were gaining great victories over the Sar- acens in the regions of Iconium. The French were thus fired with emulation, aud the leaders fearing lest the honors of the Crusade should be gathered by Conrad aud his barons, urged an Immediate departure. Comnenus soon had the gratification of seeing King Louis ami his army on the other side of the Ijo>i)hoius.

Xot far iKid thr Freni'h advanced into Asia ]\[inor until iniclli-incf caiiK' of the over- whehning disaMcr wlii.li had b.falleu the Ger- mans in the (Iclilcs of Iconiuni. The news, how- ever— forsurh was thr s|iirit of the age — damp- ened not the ardor of the wailikr French. Not only did they press Iniward to meet the enemy, but they became over-eontident, and took but little precaution either in eanip or marching. They made their way through LaoJicea with- out eneouiitoring the Moslems; but beyond the limits of llii< province lay a mountainous re- gion, peculiarly favuralile to the tactics of the Turks— and here the latter had gathered to oppose the Christians.

It was now the fate of King Louis to be overtaken and intiapped in precisely the same

manner as C ail hail been at Iconium. In

the defih's beyi>nd Laodicea the careless French encamped in a position esi)ecially favorable to their nun de-irn.'tion. While the Crusaders wen. in the u-ual confndon of the camp, the Saracen- >mMeHlv appeared bv tliousan.l- .m ' u-l,ed down with y(dls aud upon the astounded French. complet... The main body as in a i>odtion where ad- 1 battle were all alike well-

X\v

The .urpri- of Louis's : vance, retrt

nigh impo.-.dlile. The horror of the scene that ensued ua- urealer <'\i]i than that which had lieen wiln«',"ed in the pa,-s of Iconium. The gorgo weic -.ion filled with the mangled bodies of the clii\aliy of France; and upon this bleed- ing ma,-s of humanity huge rocks came crash- ing down from the precipice above.

The king behaved with the greatest valor. Collecting a body of his best knights he charged the enemy, and secured a jjosition from which after nightfall he made his escape and rejoined all his soldiers who luul succeeded in extricat- ing themselves from the defiles. Reorganizing his forces as best he could he theu made his way to the Greek city of Attalia, where he was received with the usual treacherous civil- ity. The French encamped without the walls, and negotiations were opened between the king and the governor of the city. The latter ottered to furnish a fleet and convey the French to a i)lace of .safety ; and although the .squad- ron was only sutticient to receive the king, his nobh'> anil cavalry, he accepted the pro- jMisal and embarked for Ai.cioch. As to the foot-soldiers of his army, they were left to their fate before the walls of Attalia. The Greeks would not receive them into the city. The Saracens spared none who fell within their jiowcr. (iiailually the French were reduced to a lianilfuL Some turned Mohammedan, (ithei,- died in de-pair. The rest were dispersed or slain. With the exception of those who accompanied the king to Antioch none were left to tell the story.

In the early spring of 114,'^, Louis aud Eleanor with their Kniiihts reached the city of Antioch. This old capital of Syria was now governed by Itaymond of Poitiers, uucle of the queen aud grandson by marriage of Boemund of Tarento. This relationship secured to the Fi-ench a cordial reception. Amid the [ilentv ami sunshim' of the palaces, and under the branching trees of Antioch, the horrors of the expedition were forgotten, and Queen Eleanor's troubadours tuned their harps and sang the songs of the South. She who was herself the center of this romantic revival gave way to the admiration with which she was oppressed, and lulled by the soft airs of Syria, behaved ni.t al'iei- the manner of a queen, for- got her e,-pou<als. ].r(pvoked the king's jealousy, and was bv him carried otf to Jeru.salem.

ml

^']i;^^p\mw^^'''^'^'^WW\^''^^'^W

ۤ

QltEN EI LWliK Wll HLK 1 KoL LAboL K-. — iJi luu I j ousUm. Liu

umvehsal history.— the moderx wored.

Here Lnui.< was received with great enthu- siasm. Ill the eity he niei (/..iirail, who, ai'ter his retreat to t'on-taniiiioiiie, hail put on the sandal-shoon, taken the -eallnj,-.-hell and gone as a pilgriiu to th.- Ilnly Ciiy. ]5au.\vin- III., the young ruKr of .leiiisdeiii, was thus en- abled to entertain on -Mt. Zioii the king of France and the Gernian Emperor. It was not to be presumed that tlie younger of the three princes would allow >nch an oiiportunity to pass without impreveineiit. He called a coun- cil of the great Christians of the East to assemble at Acre for the consideration of the interests of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Louis and Conrad both attended the assembly. ]\Iany projects for the further establishment of the cross in the East were debated before the coun- cil, and it was tinally determined that an ex- pedition should be undertaken by the combined armies of Syria against the city of Damascus.

The German Emperor and the kings of France and Jerusalem were appointed as lead- ers. The campaign was begun with alacrity and zeal, and the patriarch of the Holy City, walking before the army, carried the cross as the source of inspiration and the earnest of victory. On arriving at Damascus the Cru- saders encamped in the orchards and gardens outside the walls, and immediately began a siege of the city. For a while the investment was pressed with great vigor and every pros- pect of success. It seemed certain that the old capital of the Caliphate would be wrested from the followers of the Prophet, and added to the Christian dominions in the East.

But as the hour of capture drew near, the richness of the prize, seemingly within the grasp) of the allied armies, proved the ruin of the enterprise. For who should have the Queen Citv of the desert when the capture should be etll'eted? Conrad an.l Louis decided that Da- ma-ens ,-hould be given to Thierry, Count of Flanders; but the barons of Syria, nnwilling that the Western leaders should gain such a complete influence over the Christian states of the East, refused their assent, and demanded the city for one of their own number. In the hour of possible victory, violent discord broke out in the camp of the besiegers. Ayoub, governor of Damascus, learniuLr of the quarrel, made haste to avail hiuKelf of the folly of his foes. He so iiiana-ed an intrigue with the

byruiii party m tiie ( iiisaders camp that the grip of the investment was presently broken, and the whole enterprise was quickly brought to uotliing.

For a brief season the minds of the Chris- tian warriors were now occupied with the pro- ject of an expedition against Ascalou. But both Conrad and Louis were in reality anx- ious to return to Europe, and the second ex- pedition was abandoned. With the coming <jf autumn 1149, the king of France took ship at Acre, and retiu-ned to his own realm. He was accompanied by a small fragment of his once splendid army, and was received with lit- tle honor by his subjects. His bearing ever afterwards was rather that of a monk than that of a king. Queen Eleanor little aijpre- ciated the alleged heroism of her husband, and still less his monastic manners and behavior. Tired out with his conduct and ill success, she separated herself from him, procured a divorce, and retired to her own province of Aquitaine, whic'li no\v reverted to her as a dowry.

Very little was the king aftccted by this infelicity. He satisfied himself with circulat- ing the report that while at Antioch the queen had fallen in love with a horrid Turk, named Saladln, and that even then she had been dis- loyal to the royal bed. By this means he hoped to be revenged, and to destroy the pos- sibility of a future marriage between Eleanor and any Christian prince. Xot so, however, the result. The charms of the queen had lost none of their power. Scarcely had she left Paris on her way to Aquitaine when the Count of Blois, through whose province she was pass- ing, arrested her jJi'ogress, and attempted to wed her by force. She managed, however, to escape from the snare, and made her way to Tours, whei-e almost the same scene was en- acted by the wife-seeking Count of Anjou. Again slie withdrew from the ambush, and proceeded to Poitiers. Here a third lover awaited her coming. Young Henry Plantage- net of England, handsome, accomplished, and royal in his bearing, proved a better wooer than his fellow-princes of the continent. Xor did the fact that he was several years the junior of the queen militate against his suc- cess in winning her hand and with it the dueliv of A.|uitaiiie.

A> to tlie Kniiien.r Conrad, he tarried in

THE CRUSADES. — THE KIXGDOM OF .JERUSALEM.

his i)iigrim yurb a j'ear longer in Pak'.<tiuL-, and tlieu remnied with a .small body of his followers to Gerruauy. The Secoud Crusade, undertaken with so much enthusiasm and eclat, preached liy a saint and commanded by an Emperor and a king, had proved to be among the most abortive of all the projects of fanatical amliition. Not a .-ingle permanent advantage had been gained by the ijuarter of a million of French and German warrior's who flung themselves into the mountain passe.s of Asia ilioor as if Europe had no graves.

Notwithstanding the collapse of the Second Cru.sade, the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, under the rule of Baldwin III., for a while held its own against the assaults of the Mo.s- lems. The king was at all times able to call to his aid the feudal lords and warriors of his own dominion ; and lieside these the Knights of the Hospital and the Temjihirs were ever ready to rally at his summons. He was thus able to make a fair defense of his own king- dom, and at the same time to strike an occa- sional blow at some stronghold of the enemy. The capture of Ascalon, which lunl been pro- posed by the German Empror and King L(juis after their failure bef(ire Damascus, was un- dertaken and successfull}' accomplished in 1153 by Baldwin and his warriors. After a sucee.-^s- ftd reign of eighteen years, he ilied from the effects of poison administered by a Syrian physician, in 1162, and left his crown to his brother Aljieric, a prince who was unfortunate in having an ambition greater than his genius.

On coming to the throne, the new king of Jeru.sdeni at once projected an expedition into Egy]}t. In that country the government of the Fatimites had become a thing of contempt. The Calii'hs themselves had little influence, and the actual power was disputed bv ambi- tious viziers, reckless of all interests save their own. At the time of the death of Baldwin ni. , two rival viziers named Dargan and Sa- ner, contended for the supremacy in Cairo ; while their master, El Hadac, was passing his time in the voluptuous indulgences of the ha- rem. When the cpiarrel between the viziers was at its height, Sanor appealed for aid to Noureddin, who, after wresting the principal- ity of Edessa from the younger De Courtenay, had become sultan of Dama.scus. Not unwill- ingly did this distinguished Moslem hear the

1 a power-

thc allied S defeateil ■ "'^^^ I'l-'^s-

appeal from Egypt. With ; his own interest, he sent tint ful army, and though at tli force of Syrians and Egypti by the troops ,,f Daruan, tli ently .slain, and .Smor e>tabli>lieil ni authoritv. As soo„, however, as sue,vss was a.'hievcd, Syraeon, eomniander of the army of Noured- din, instead of withdrawing to Damascus, lie- gau to behave like a coucjueror, and Sanor discovered in his late friend a foeman more to be dreaded than his former rival. Alarmed at the situation and tendency of affairs, the vi- zier bethought him of those terrible Crusaders I who had conquered Palestine. With all haste ' he dispatched messengers to Jerusalem and ap- pealed to Almeric to send an army into Egypt and aid him in expelling the Syrians. The Christian king was not slow to avail himself of the fatal opportunity. A force of Crusa- ders was at once dispatched to the a.«sistance of Sanor, and Syraci.m was driven from the country.

The defeated Syrian general at once re- paired to Damascus and reported to Noured- din. The sultan hereupon sent word to the Caliph of Baghdad inviting him to join in a formidable expedition against Egypt, with a view to the extermination of the Fatimite dv- nasty and the transfer of the K-yptian Cali- phate to the Al)ba-Mde-. The riniH.r of the proposed invasion was carried to Sanor, who, in great alarm, sent the intelligence to the king of Jerusalem, imploring him in the name of a common cause to foce the armies which were coming hither for their destruction, and offering him forty tliousand ducats as the price of an alliance. T.i make assui-ance ilonbiv sure, Almeric insisted that a jjersonal inter- view must be had with the Caliph of Cairo ; for Sanor was only a subordinate and might not be able to fulfill his agreement. Hugh, earl of Ce.sarea, accompaiued liy a Knight Tem- plar, was .■^ent on an end)assy to Egypt, and was conducted into the palace of El Hadac — a jilaoe wliere no Christian had ever set foot before. Here the eyes of the Christians were greeted with such a spectacle of splendor as they had previously beheld oidy in dreams. With much hesitation the Caliph permitted the warriors to look upon him seated on his throne of yold, and then ratified the conditions made bv

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERy WORLD.

tlu- vizier with tlie kiii^. Alimiic was already j on lii> iiiai-ch toward.- ligyjit, and on coining- near Cairo, wa^ joinrd 'oy tln' army of the viceroy. Svracon \\a- nn-t and defeated in battle by the allit d inrc- of the Christians aud the Fatimiir .Mo-1, m-. Tlic enemy retired ffrom the couiilrv and AlnjerieV army returned to Jerusalem laden uith -old and presents.

Had the Christian king he.-n content with what he had now achieved, all would have still been well. But the sight of J-^-ypt with her stnri.Ml ina-nres and the knowiedge of the condition of imliicility into which the government ..f I hat count'ry lia.l fallen, iu- tlame.l the mind of Almeric with the pas- face of Ids I'ecent treaty witli the Caliph, to make an inva-ion of Egypt; Imt, before un- dertaking S(.i important and peiilous an enter- prise, he had the pr\ideiiee to >eek aud obtain an alliance with Comneini-, lanperor of the East, whose ilaii-litir he liad taken iu mar- riage. Fortitie(l witli the piondse of assist- ance from hi- fiihei-iiidaw, lie deliberately broke \\\< promi-.' with VA Ha. lac, and began an expedition into tlie country of his recent allies. Tliis peilidious proceeding, however, was bv no mean- heartily ratified by the kni-hts and wanioi- of Palestine. The Grand :\Ia-ter of the Templars entered hi- proi,-t a-ain-t the .li-lionor of cau-de-lv violating a treaty; but the lb,-pita]l.i>, le-s -en-itive to the point of honor, and actuated by rivalry of the oppo-ing <>r<ler, corditilly supported the king. Almeric was by no means to be turned from lii- ].uipo-e. At the head of his army he marched into Lower Esypt, took the city of Bell.ei-, and l.nrned it t.. the -round.

In the mean time, however, the -ultan of Dama-cus wtis himself planning an invasion of Ivjvpt. perceiving the eft'eteness of the Patimite dyna-ty, he was thoroughly con-

•nin.xation of the land of the Pharaohs to lltc Ea-t.-rn Caliphate. While co-itating hi- -clH'tne-, tlieaml.ilionsNoured.lin was amaze.l on receivin- iVom the E-vptian Caliph an earnest mes-a-e to I'oine to his aid against the enemies of the Pn.phet. who were already in the country \\itli an army. Quickly as IH.ssil.le the .-ultan, ivjoieing at the news, ,li-i,alched an armv aero- the desert t.. se-

cure whatever was to lie gained by war or diplomacy in the African CaliiHiaLC.

]5efore the arrival of this army, which was led by .Syracoii, the vizier 8au(u- had beaten the king of Jerusalem at his own game of duplicity. The crafty Egyptian sent to Al- meric an embassy, ofl'ering to give him two millions of crowns if he would aliandon the invasi,,n. Dazzled with the sj.lendid prosjiect, the king -too.l waiting while tlie Egyptians fortitied their cities, and otherwi-e i)rej)ared for defense. When he awoke from his reve- rie, he heard on one side the derisive laugh- ter of the Fatimites, and on the other the blasts of Svracou's trumpets c.Jinin- u}) from the desert. "

Almeric, perceiving his condition, turned ab(iut, not without a .show of valor, aud oltlred battle to the Syrians. But Syracon wa> warv of the Chri-tian warri..rs, a'nd de-

<-lined to tight unt	1 «■	Kit	tim	e he ha	1 .'ilected
a jiinclion with tl	e ]•	,-yi	tia.i	-. TJM	kin- of
Jein-alem, finding	hit	is,4t	111	al.leto	■ope with
the uidted armie-	of	,i-	ti le	, witlal	ew from
the isthmus and r	■till	led	to	he llol	\ < itv.
It would have	be,	II si	ir	.-e,| th:	t hi-'late
exiierienees wi-re <	)f ;i	sort	to	cure th	■ f.lly of

not so with th.. ambitions ]nince. In-tead of falliii- back u| [.■feii-ive m.^a-iii,- he at

till' banperor Comucnus to join him iu the iiiagniticent project of the conquest of Egypt. If the fulfillment had been equal to the prom- ises made by the wily Cireek to his ardent son-in-law, then indeed not only Egypt, but the world, might have been subdued. Com- n.iins, howevi'i', had no thought of hazarding an-lit in the intercut of the kingdom of Jeru- salem. He tliirefor<^, after the manner of his race, promi-i^il and promised and did nothing. Tlie di-appointed Almeric returned to Jerusa- l.^in -till haunted with the vi-ion of the gold and tr.'a-uivs whi.^li his eml-a-.-adors had .-ecu in tlie palace of El Iladac.

\'cry soon after the withdrawal of the Cliii-tian army from E-ypt the ambitious aud -iicce— till .*^anor met an inglorious end at the liand- ot' Syracon, who had him seized and put to deatli. The office of vizier was transferred

THE CRUSADES.— THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.

On his death he was succeeded by his nephew, jiamed Sallah-u-deen or Saladix, destined ere- long to become the most famous of all the leaders in the later annals of Islam. This young iMoslem chief was by birth a native of Kurdistan, who had drifted westward out of ■obscurity and joined his uncle's army in the two invasions of Egypt. His military genius first revealed itself in the defense of Alexan- dria, which he conducted in so able a manner as to win the applause of the Jloslem leaders. This episode, together with the influence of Syracon, procured for the ambitious young Kurd the viziership at his uncle's death, nor was it long until, by his aliilitles, his intelli- gence and far-reaching plans, he had made himself the real, though not the nominal, master of Egypt.

Even at this early period he had conceived the design of uniting in one all the domiui(JUs of Islam in the East. As a measiu'e inaugur- ative of so bold a plan he presently caused one of his followers — a priest — to go into the principal pulpit of Cairo and ofler prayers, substituting the name of the Caliph of Baghdad for that of the Fatimite. Such was the auda- city of the business that it succeeded. The people were either dumb or indifl'ercnt. As for the Egyptian Caliph himself, he was secluded in his palace and knew not what was done. A few days afterwards he died a natural death, and one troublesome obstacle to the success of Saladin's schemes was removed. He then caused the green emblems of the Fatimites to be removed from the mosques and palace of Cairo and to be replaced with the lilack badges of the Abbassides. Thus silently, and as if by magic, the descendants of Ali, who for two centuries had held sway oxer Egypt, were overwhelmed, and tlu-ii- dynasty extinguished by a parvenu Kurdish rhiettalu lilowu n\) from the desert.

Saladiu, now emir o{ Egypt under the sul- tanate of Xoureddin of Damascus, abiiled his time. While his master lived he deemed it prudent to remain in loyal subordination. But when in 1173 Xoureddin — one of the greatest and best Moslems of his times — died, Saladin threw away all concealment of his de- signs, and putting aside the minor sons of the late sultan, usurped the government iiir him- self Such was the brilliancy of his coup de

main that all stood paralyzed until the work was accomplished, and then ajiplaudt-il the thing done. In a short time SalaiHu had united in one all the Moslem states between the Nile and the Tigris. He it was who was now in a position to look with a malevolent and angry eye upon the figure of the Cross seen above the walls of Jerusalem.

In the mean time, while Saladin remained in Egypt waiting for the death of Noureddin to open the way before him, the king of Je- rusalem died, and bequeathed his crown to his son, B.U.DWIN IV. This young prince was atHieted with leprosy, to the extent of being wholly incapacitated for the duties of govern- ment. He accordingly, withoitt himself re- signing the crown, committed the kingdom to the regency of his sister, Sybilla, and her hus- band. Guy of Lusigxan. This event hap- pened in the same year in which Saladin, by his stroke of policy, had made himself master ot Islam— 1173.

The consort of Sybilla soon showed his in- ability to bear the eai-es of state. His con- duct wa- sn little worthy of his portion that the l.an.iis of rah^tiiie tunic.l fiom hiiu with

the marhinatioii> ,,r Kayinoiid 11., ,.f Tripoli", whose mi-fortune it was to In- no more virtu- ous than he wliom he opposed. The lords and knights of the kingdom were thus divided into factions, whose partisan selfishness boded no good to the Christian causi' in tin- Ka>t. At fength the leprous Baldwin 1\'. was oblioed by his vassals to make a nrw xttliim.-nt >A'

tlie kingdom, which hr rtirrU'A I.V alH,li~hill-

the regency of Sybilla and hor iin>l,and, and lje>towiug the crown ujion liri' ^ou liy lior former husband, the Count of :\Iontf.rrat. This prince, who, by his uncle's abdication, took the name of Baldwin V., was himself a minor, anil was for the time committed to the guardiau- shiii of Joseelyn do Conrtenaw son of that

din had snatched the Principality of Edessa. At the same time of the settlement of the crown of Jerusalem upon Baldwin V. the cus- tody .if the tortri'sses of the Holy Land was intru-tr.l to the Hospitallers and the Tem- jilai-, and the general rc-encv of the kingdom to Count Kaynion.l of Tripoli.

Soon after this a.ljii^tmeiit of a«air> Bald-

■2r;

UyiVKESAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

1 «a. .luickly fol- ural lakiug-uti' of was thus broutrht Ifi- uf uature and rcircnt Kaymoud.

win IV. died, an.l liis dcatl lowed by the proliahly uimat Baldwiu V. The j^ettleimut to naught, partly by the (jn partly by the crime of the Svbilhi hereupon reapiieare( au.l. support,..! by the I'atriaivh of tlie city, pmeured the .•onniatinn nf her>elf and ( niy of Lusig-nan as Kiui: and l^ieeu of Jerusalem, This procedure led to eivil war. JIauy of the barons refused to acknowledge the new sover- eigns, and took up arms umler the lead of Raymond, and with the ostensible object of

raising Isabella, a sLster of Sybilla, to the throne of ralestino. Such was the bitterness of the strife that, although the queen by lier prudent and conciliatory measures succeeded iu winning over most of the insurgent uoi)les, the remainder iu their implacable distemper allied themselves with Saladin ! Thus when the storm of Jloslem fury was already about to br.ak u[ion the kingdom won from the Intidols by the swords of Short Hose, Tancred, and (ioiUVry, the day of wrath was hastened bv the tri-ason of those wdio wore the sacred

CHAPTER >^C1I.— FALL Oh^ THE CROSS.

HO.M	he .'^upernals would
destro	V thev first make
mad.	So it was with the

Chri-tians of Palatine. At the very crisis when Saladin, after settling the atiairs of Egypt and Sy- upon the kingdom of Jerusalem, that disaster was precipitated l>y the rashness of a conscienceless baron of the Holy Land.

In the year 11 ■'^ij a certain Reginald de Chatillon, an adventurer more fit to be called a robber than a kni;jlit, iMl upon a Moham- medan ca.th- on the borders of the Arabian desert, and having cajitured the place made it his head-quarters, from wdiich he sallied forth to plunder the caravans passing back and forth between Egypt and ]\Iecca. Hearing of this lawdess work the sultan, Saladin, with due rccard to the existing treaty, sent a mes- sage to the kinn' "f Jenisaleni demanding redre-s for the outrages cmuuitted by his vassal. Guy of Lusiguau, wdio had lately receiveil the crown, was either unable or un- willing to punish Reginald for his crimes, and Saladin was left to ])ursue his own course. He immediately put himself at the head of an army of eighty thousand men and began an invasion of Palestine.

The march of the Moslems was first directed against the fortress of Tiberias, the most im- portant stronghold of the Christians in the

northern part of their kingdom. It was all- imi)ortant that King Guy should save this outpost from falling into the hands of the Tureomans. He accordingly mustered his t'orees for the conflict and proceeded in the direction of Tiberias. His whole army num- bered no more than twelve hundred knights- and twenty thousand infantry, and even this small force was shaken with quarrels and ani- mosities. Raymond of Tripoli was accounted a traitor, and the king himself was considered a coward. Yet upon such a force tinder such a Commander was now to be staked the fate of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem.

It was midsummer of 1187. The two armies met iu the plain of Tiberias. Events soon .showed that Saladin was as superior in skill as he was in numbers. During the first day's l)attle he succeeded in forcing the Christians into a position where they could procure no water. He then fired the neighboring woods and almost sufibcated his enemies with smoke and lieat. On the following morning he re- newed the battle with great fury, and although the Templars and Hospitals, as well as the foot, fought with their old-time bravery, they were surnnuided, hewed down, piled in heaps, exterminated. All the principal leaders of the Christian army were either slain or taken. The Grand Ma.ster of the Hospitallers was mortally wounded. He of the Templars, the Mai-ipiis of Montferrat, Reginald de Chatillon, Kirn: <'uv himself, and a host of nobles and

THE CBUSADES.—FALL OF THE CL'OSS.

tuights were made ^Ji'isoner?. The scene that €usued well illustrates the spirit aud temj)er of the crusading epoch aud the character of war aud victory iu the twelfth ceutury.

Hardly had the dust aud noise of the bat- tle passed when the captives were led iuto the presence of vSaladiu. With a smile the p-reat Islamite received the tremljling- king, and after the manner of the East tendered him a cup ■of cold water. Moved either by fear of poison or by the desire to include another with himself in the friendly act, he of Lusignan accepted the cup, but passed it to Chatillon. There- upon the rage of Saladiu shot up like a flame. He declared that so far from Reginald's shar- ing his clemency he should then and there ■embrace Mohammedanism or die like a dog. It was the Christian robber's time to show his mettle. He haughtily spurned the condition of escape by apostasy. Thereupon the sultan ■drew his cimeter and with one blow struck off his head.

It appears that Saladin rightly appreciated the character of the Templars and Hosiiitallers. AVhile he was all courtesy to the king — pol- troon as he was — he was all severity towards the Knights. To them he now presented the same alternative which he had put before the audacious Reginald. Not a man of them blanched in the presence of his fate. They could die, but apostatize never. Their vows of knighthood and loyalty to the Cross were stronger than all the bonds of kindred, all the ties of affection, all the hopes of mortality. To them the Prophet was Antichrist, and his religion the gateway to hell. The two hun- dred and thirty captive Knights stood fast in their integrity, and were all beheaded.

The battle of Tiberias shook the kingdom to its center. Nearly all the fortresses had been emptied of their garrisons to make up the inadequate army which had met its fate in the North. Saladin was in no wise dispose.". to rest on a single victory. Tiberias itself fell into his hands aud then Cesarea. Aero, .TafFa. and Beyrut went down in succession. Tyi-o was for the present saved from capture by the heroic defense made by her inhaliitants, led by the son of the ca]itive ]\[ar<|uis of Moiilfcrrat.

Finding himself delayed by the olistiiuK'v of the Tyrians, Saladin abandniicd the siciio and pressed on to Jerusalem. Sad was the

plight of the city. Fugitives from all parts of Palestine had gathered within the walls, but there was no sense of safety. The queen was unable to conceal her own trepidation, to say nothing of the defense of her capital ; and when the enemy encamped before the walls there were already moanings of despair within.

None the less, there was a show of defense. The summons of the sultan to surrender was met with a defiant refusal. The garrison made several furious sallies, and fourteen days elapsed before the Turks could bring their en- gines against the ranij)arts. Then, however, the courage of the besieged gave way and they sought to capitulate. But Saladin was now enraged, and swore by the Prophet that the stains of that atrocious butchery of the Faithful, done by the ancestors of the then Christian dogs in the City of David should now be washed out with their own impure blood. At fir.st he seemed as relentless as a pagan in his rage ; but with the subsidence of his jJassion he fell into a more humane mood, and when the Christians humbly put them- selves at his mercy, he dictated terms less sav- age than his conquered foes had reason to ex- pect. None of the inhabitants of Jerusalem should be slaughtered. The queen, with her household, nobles, aud knights should be con- veyed in safety to Tyre. The common people of the city should become slaves, but might be ransomed at the rate of ten crowns of gold for each man ; five, for each woman ; one, for each child. Eagerly did the vancjuished sub- mit, and the Crescent was raised aliove the Holy City.

Thus,"in 1187, f.'ll Jerusalem. The fierce nature of Saladiu rdaxi-il iiiidir tin- influence of his victory, ami he bigaii nunc fully than befiire to manifest that magnanimity of which he was capable. By the concurrent testimony of the Christian and IMohammedan writers, his cimdurt was sm-li a< to merit the eulogies which |H.st.-ritv lias s.. fn-.'lv bestowed. It

appears that no drop of 1	>]on,l was shed after
the capitulation. lu-icai	-if liuteheriiig ten
thousanil of the inhaliit.	iit< within the pre-
einots of the Temple a>	the Crusa.lers had
• lone iu 1(>'.»1), he >pan.d	all \\hn Mibniitted.
Th.- frightened queen w:	s treated with cou-
Hd.-ration. As she and	lier train withdrew
thi-i'ugh *'"=■ gates of the	city, weeping after

UNIVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODKHX WORLD.

the mauuer of women over their misfortunes, he forbore not, touched as lie was with the spectacle of their misery, to shed tears of sym- pathy. He endeavored to soothe the princesses with manly and chivalrous words of condo- lence. Nor was his conduct towards the cap- tured city less worthy of praise. The ransom of the common people was enforced with little rigor, or else not enforced at all. Finding a group of Hospitallers still plying their merci- ful vocation about the Church of St. John the Baptist — though at first he was enraged at the sight of their hateful badges — he left them un- molested in their good work of healing the sick and succoring the distressed.

As soon as the captive queen and her com- pany had withdrawn in the direction of Tyre, Saladin made a triumphal entry into Jerusa- lem. The golden cross which stood above the dome of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher was pulled down and dragged through the streets of the city. The - reat ^h is. |ue of Omar, which now for eighty-ei-lit \ r;ir~ had been consecrated to the worship nf (inil and Christ, was reded- icated to the worship of God and ^lohammed. In order to remove all stains of defilement from the sacred edifice, the walls and courts and portals were carefully washed with rose- water of Damascus.

The other towns of Palestine quickly sub- mitted to the victor. Nazareth, Bethlehem, Ascalon, and Sidon were successfully taken by the Moslems. Of all the Christian pos- sessions in the Holy Laud only Tyre re- mained as a refuge for the scattered fol- lowers of Christ. To that city the garrisons of the other towns and fortresses were jier- mitted to retire, and its walls were soon crowded with the chivalry nf the East. Here, moreover. Prince Conrad, son of the captive ^Marquis of Montferrat, was still dis- tinguishing himself by his courageous defense against the enemy. \"w strongly reenforced by the gathering nf tin- Christians into Tyre, he was still m.>n. able to keep the ^Moslems at bay. So 'jrcat was his popularity, that the inhabitants voted him the sovereignty of the city ; and ^vhen the captive king of Jeru- salem, who, on condition of perpetual renun- ciation of the crown, had been set at liberty by i^aladin, attempted to enter Tyre, the peo- ple rejected him with contempt, and would

not even permit him to come within their walls. Meanwhile the victorious sultan, well satisfied with tht- results of his conquests, re- turned to Damascus, and there, amid the delights of his palace and the cool shadow of the palms, found time to meditate, after the manner of a true .Saracen, upon the vicissitudes of human aft'airs and the glori- ous rewards of war. Here he remained at peace until the winds of the jMediterranean wafted across the Syrian desert the news of belligerent and angry Eumiie ]UT])ariiig her armor ami mustering her warriors tor the Third Crus.4.de.

For great was the consternation, the grief, the resentment of all Christendom when the intelligence came that the Holy City had been retaken by the Turks. The fact that the In- fidel was again rampant in all the places once hallowed by the feet of Christ acted like a fire-brand on the inflammable passions of the West. It was not to be conjectured that the Christian states of Europe would patiently bear such an outrage done to their traditions and sentiments. The first days of gloom and sullen despair which followed the news of the great disaster quickly gave place to other da3'3 of angry excitement and eager preparation for the renewal of the conflict.

By this time the crusading agitation, which had begun in the very sea-bottom of Europe- a century before, and, after stirring up first of all the filthiest dregs of European society, had risen into the higher ranks until nobles and princes fell under the sway of the popular fanaticism, now swept on its tide the greatest kings and potentates west of the Bosphorus. Of all tlic Irading sovereigns of Europe, only the <'liri^tian rulers south of the Pyrenees — who were themselves sufficiently occupied with- the ^Mohammedans at home — failed to coope- rate in the great movement which was now Oi-ganized for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Infidels. Henry Plantagenet of Eng- land, Philiji II. of France, Frederick Barba- rov<a of (.Termany, and Popos Gregory and Clement, all alike vied with each other in pro- moting the common cause.

Nor had the people lost while tlie kings had caught the enthu.';iasm of war. The pop- ular impatience c.aild not await the slower

preparat

)f prudent royalty making ready

THE CRVSADES.-FALL OF THE VU0S6.

'29

for the struggle. Thou«\u(ls upou tliuu,-;iiuls of pilgrim warriors, uualile tn ri.'.straiu their ardor, Imrrieil to thr seaports (jf the Mediter- ranean, aud euiharked at their own expense to imperiled Palestine. The maritime Repub- lics of Italy, more than ever before, came to the front as the carriers nf the numerous bauds that now urged their way to the East. iS'ot only the ports of Italy, Southern France, and Greece furnish an outlet for this tumultuous movement, but those of the Baltic, the North Sea, aud the British Channel in like manner sent forth their hosts of warriors.

So rapid was the accumulation nf the Cru- saders at Tyre that, by the beginning of 11NI», the alleged King (iuy found hinisulf at the head of more than a hundred thousand men. Such was the zeal of the host that the leaders were urged on to undertake the siege of Acre. It wa< this niov,.in..nt whirh minrd Saladin fr.mi his ,ir.anis at Dama^n,., and H.undrd the tocsin for the renewal of war. A\'itli a great army, the sultan set out for the relief of his beleaguered stronghold, and it was not long until the Christians were in their turn besieged. With great diligence, however, they fortified their position, and, while on one side they continued to press hard upon the walls of Acre, on the other they kept Saladin and his host at bay.

Meanwhile a Christian and a Mohammedan fleet gathered to participate in the struggle. While the Jloslem shij)S brought relief and supplies to the garrison of Acre, the Christian ships did the same for the Crusaders. For the reeuforcemeut of the latter, Europe continued to pour out her tens of thousands, while be- hind the ^rnslLin army were the iiirasm-eless re- sources of the (k'siTt and the East, •'■■o numer- ous became the Christian host that supplies failed, and the terrors of famine were added to the horrors of disease. In like manner, though in a less degree, the jNIohammedans be- came sutierers from their excess of numbers; and in both armies abused nature cooperated with the destructive energies of war to re- duce the battling multitudes. jSTor is it likely that in any other of the great struggles of human history so terrible a waste of life was ever witnessed as before the walls of Acre. It was estimated that the Christian losses reached the enormous aggregate of three hun-

dred thousand men, while those of the Mos- lems were but little inferior, and then the siege was iiulecisive. Such was tiie afterpiece of the struggle between Isaac and Ishmael !

Even this awful conflict and carnage was but premonitory of the real battle which was to come. For in the mean time the great potentates of the West were preparing for the struggle. First of all in the work was the aged but still fiery and warlike Frederick Barbarossa, Emperor of Germany. Already for forty years a vet- eran, he flung himself into the breach with all the enthusiasm of youth, moderated by the prudence of manhood. A great national fete

peri)r and vowed the vow of the cross.

Of all who had preceded him, not one was Barbarossa's equal in genius and generalship. Hr car. fully weighed the peril> of the great uiHlertaking, and provided again>t its hazards. In mustering his forces he would accept no vol- unteer who could not furuish the means of his own subsistence for a whole year. A German of the (iennans, he would not intrust himself aud his army to the mercies and rapacity of the ri>an and \'enetian shiiwnasters, but de- termineil to take the old land route by Avay of Constantinople ami Asia ]\[inor. His army in the aggregate, exclusive of unarmed pU- grims, numbered over a hundred thousand men. Of these, sixty tlioll^and wei'e cavalry, and of tliese fifteen tlioiisui.l w.iv Knights, the flower of the Teutonic Order. The Em- peror had with him as a leader, his son. tlie DukeofSuabia, together with the dukes oi' Aus- tria and ^Moravia, and moi-e than sixt\- other distinguished [.rinces and ban.ns. The great army was tliiaon-hly di~i'iplined aud .-upplied, and the host move.l forward with a regularity and military subordination wliich would have been creditable to a modern commander.

In travertin- tlie Gn^ek Em],ire, Fred- erick met with the same double-dealing and treachery which had marked the course of the Byzantines from the first. At times the fury of the German warriors was ready to break fiirth and consume the ])erfidious Con- stantinopolitans, but Barbarossa, with a firm hand, restrained them from violence. Shar- ing their indieiiaticju, however, he refused to acce])t the invitation <if the reigning Csesar,

UNIVERSAL IIISTOL'Y.—THE MODERN WORLD.

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CEOSS.

Isaac Angelas, to visit him iu his cai)itaL AVith an eye single to the work iu hand, he crossed into Asia Minor, and began the her- culean task of making his way towards Au- tioeh. Iu this movement he was opposed, as his predecessor had beeu, by every inimical force in man and nature. He was obliged to make his way through heated deserts and dangerous passes with the Turcoman hordes darkening every horizon and circling around every encampment. But they were never able to take the old hero oft' his guard. He overcame every obstacle, fought his way through every peril, and came without seri- ous disaster to Iccmium. Here he was con- fronted by the sultan, whom he defeated in battle, and whose capital he took by storm. By this time the name of Frederick had be- come a terror, and the Moslems began to staud aloof from the invincible German army.

Here, however, was the end of Barba- rossa's warlike pilgrimage. While moving for- ward steadily, he came, in Cilicia, to the little river Calycaduus, where, ou the 10th of June, 1190, he met his death. But Tra- dition, with her usual painstaking obscurity, has not decided whether he died of a fall from his horse, or from carelessly bathing, when overheated, in the ice-cold waters of the stream.'

Evil was the day when Frederick died. It was soon discovered to what a great de- gree the success of the German invasion had been due to his genius. The Moslems had properly judged that the leader was the soul of the Christian army, and, learuing of his death, they returned to the charge with im- petuous audacity. Disease and famine began to make terrible havoc among the German soldiers. The command devolved upon the son of Barbarossa, who was in many respects worthy of his father's fame. Slowly the Cru- saders toiled on, harassed bv the almost dailv

1 Frederick Barliarnssa. the Red Beard, is the national hero of Germany. The folk-lore of that story-telling land has preserved a tradition that he did not die, hut, returning to Europe, en- tered a cave at Salzhnrg, where he went to sleeji. There he sits nodding until to-day. But whenever Fatherland is endangered, he wakes from his slumber, comes forth in armor, and is seen on the battle-field where Germans are fighting, terri- ble as of old.

onsets of the Saracens, whom to reprl was liut to embolden for another charge

At last the worn-out warriors rearhcl An- tioch. Niue-tenths of their number had per- ished, but the remnant had in them all the courage and steadfastness of their race. The Principality of Antioch was at this time hekf by the forces of Saladiu, and their uumljcrs far exceeded those of the Crusaders. Neverthe- less the German Knights, disregarding their numerical inferii.rity, fell lioldly upon the Moslems and scattered all liefore them. Anti- och was taken, and the Saracens retreated in the direction of Damascus.

Having achieved this marked, albeit unex- pected, success, the Crusaders pressed forward to Acre. They were received with great joy by the Christian army, but the force was so wasted by sickness and continuous fightiug that the addition to the numbers of the besieg- ers was scarcely noticeable. In a short time the gallant Duke of Suabia died, and the mag- nificent army of Barbarossa was reduced to a handful. The leader, however, did not j^erish until he had had the honor of incorporating into a regularly organized body the Order of Teutonic Knights, which had hitherto held a precarious and uncertain course since the date of its founding, as already narrated iu the preceding- chapter. A papal edict followed, putting the new brotherhood ou the same level with the Hospitallers and Templars, under the sanctiiin ancl encouragement of the Church.

At this juncture a new figure rose on the horizon — a warrior armed cap-a-pie, riding a powerful war-horse, brandishing a ponderous battle-axe, without the sense of fear, stalwart, and auilacious, a Crusader of the Crusaders, greatest of all the medieval heroes — young Richard Plantageuet the Lion Heart, king of England. In that (■ountry Henry 11., foun- der of the Plaiitagenet dynasty, liad died in .July of 11S9. The siege of Acre was then iu progress, and Frederick Barbarossa was on his march to the Holv Land, King Henrv him-' self had de^inMl to -hare in tlu- glory of deliv- ering .lerusalcni from the Turk-, hut the troubles of his own kingdom al.sorbed his

attention. Greatly was I least angered, bv the con Piehard and .Toiiu. The strong, the latter enuiiing.

aMlirioi;, or at •t of his sons, rmer was hcad- d both di>l.,val

gu^tus ,,f FraiicM — a

and witli >ni,i..|l,in- cf

In vain ,li,l i\u- Kn

l.ivak thr attarhni.nl 1

CXIlKh-SAL HISTORY.-^THK MODEJiX WORLD.

1.1 kin^. Kirhanl had cou- ivady lor ,■ all'r.'liun iMi- riiilip An- l.r.-ii' arra -a i.niK-r of Id- nun a-v, th.ir loR

.edition to tlie East. It had lat he and Philip should juiu X'azeluy, and thither iu the Ml aiMhu'ity. siiniim i- of IIIKI both king.s repaired with

king en.leavor to thrir ai-nii. -.' England \vas left to the care 1 hi,< heir and the of Bidioj, Hugh (.f Durham and Bishop Loug-

Fn-nch niiinaivli. Th. y continued to vow , ehanip of Ely, while the guardian.-liip of the

eternal frimd-liip and to i-esolve that they French Kingdom was intrusted to Philip's

would light the Inlidil- together. Even wheu queen and ministers.

Heury went lo war with Philip, he had the Arriving at their reudezvous, the French

mortitication and horror of finding his sons and English kings renewed their vows of

lis) 1

hi I n h tl \

I I 1 hiid h \\e\ei III w t^ eieith in 1

\ 1 tckno^\ledJred I tl L 3d of Septem w I the lei-t piit of uti.ie-. in the in u nus the En.h h ui 1 I I 1 hi in thei El I I um ot

I 1 It hL nnde

\ 1 tl u 111 n 1 nnie thin

11 1 1 11 1 a ut n a

Vii Ml It tl it it\ thty

I 11 t 1 III t I 1 It tl tin

t t Me lUt in '-leih Phdip

111 L-\ous to Geuoi ^\hKh wis

nikrtion, while Eichaid pio-

' Bitiie dtpirtmg hrra En^kn 1 Eitharl's M (s f ■^^hlch he nn le little ii m c -.ncenlment, 1 ecirae the rccision nt a fimous inci lent and cut- tin^ lejaitee \ceitam F ul^ue of Neuilh azeal- Ubj leulici cf the Crusule uj briided him for his

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE t'A'0>

ceeded to Mai-seilles, to await the arrival of his fleet from England. Tlie Au,n delay wldrli here occurred proved iiitnlerable t<.' his iinjiet- uous spirit, aiid, hiring a few ships, he em- barked with lii- iiniuediate following, aud sailed for Italy. lu the mean time, the English squadron made its way into the Mediterranean, reached JIarseilles, took on board the army, aud arrived at Messina ahead (d' both Philip and Richard.

In Sicily the French and Englidi armies were niaiiitaiiicil duiing the winter. It was not Inng until thr idaud was in a ferment of excitniirnt. Tancred, the reiguiug king, had impri-oned Juan, wiiluw of his jjredeces- sor and sister ,d" Itidiar.l. The English king not only enforced her liberatiou, but seized a

Kic'liard	s dreams had something to do with
the cha	nge iu his aflectious. For at this
junrtun	tiie Princess Bereugai'ia, daughter of
Kiu- S.	neho of Navarre, arrived in Sicily,
r>n,rted	l>y the queeu-mother, Eleanor of
Englun.	. With her Plantaoenet fell deeply
in love,	an.l Pliilip was a-'d,.,,,]v otl'ended.
Nothing	however, culd slay the tide of

castle and gave it to her as a resideuce. permitted his soldiers to help themselves ti best which the i-slaud afforded. \Vlut\ In ties broke out between his furees ami the inhabitants of Messina, aud the lat- ter were defeated, he allowed the city to be sacked as though it were a strongh<ild of the Tuiks. Thc'^e pioceedmgs gieath offended KmL' Phdip, for Tancied wis his \a^^al , but Richaul enfoictd hi- \\ dl and then, m oidei to j)la(. ite the Fit m h kiut;, sent him a pn-i nt ot t«ent\ thou

11 \\ I i-tl

he had e\- K ( ot pei( e

I 1. (d 1, th 1 ' hi- mflu

le -ci

iffi /// km s

sand ounce- cd . toited fiomTuK i He al-o ga\e i -| val to the kni_ht armie-, thu- .k i en( e uid pnpul II Soon itteiu u cult\ aio-e lnt\M Foi -ome time I! engagemi nt \^ ith Piime- V hill of th( 1 \ 1 . l(

siou loi the piiuet— hv\ been one of the thief cau-e- of e-tiangement between him-elt and hi- fathei Hem's Pulnp- the apptaimce ot mothd Kn d mnd.

his \ohiiituousiip-s flhuh he dp-i„ii iteil is the 'kinfi\ thi ft ihiuq!itn'' ' Youi counsel is excellent ' said Richard, " .ind I here and now part witli my three daushter.s forever. I give the first to the Knights Templars; the second, to the monks of St. Benedict ; and the third to wy priests and bish- ops." Foulque was one of them.

lull hil lu.nuiidei 'hilip t 1 iiiun hi- -i-tei the ut toi -ome lea-on the auloi Foi-ooth, his foimei pa-

he i 1 at t II aud j. lined

his t ice to the a i -s 1 t e \cie Richard, on the othei haul ha 1 ill foi tune. Off the

o4

uxJVEnsAL JiisroJiY.—riiE moukux would.

coast of Crete, his sijuadruii was sliattereJ by a storm. Two of bis vessels were wrecked on the shores of Cyprus; and, although he him- 'ielf had reached Khodes when the news over-

took liim tliat the strauded crews had been robbed and detained as jJi'isoners by the Cv- priots. he turned about to avenge the injury. DiKiiibarkin- his trui.ps, he took the capital

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

of the islaud by stnnii, and ]iut the govenior in chains. And, tn add insult to i'jnmniuy, the chains were made nf -ilvrr. The inhabi- tants of Cyprus were made to pay dearly for their aggression, for the king levied upon them a tribute as heavy as their ofi'ense had been rank.

Satisfied with his vengeance, Richard now celebrated his nuptials with Bereugaria, whom he had hithert" firborne to wed, the season being Lent. Wlien the festivities were over, he sailed for Acre. His squadron at this time consisted of fifty war-galleys, thirteen store-ships, and more than a hun<lred trans- ports. On his way to the eastern coast, he had the good f jrtune to overhaul a large ship of the enemy carrying fifteen hundred men and stored with Greek fire. So terrible was the defense made by the iloslem sailors that the vessel, shattered by the conflict, went to the bottom with all her stores. Only thirty- five of her defenders were take alive from the foaming se?.

Arriving at Acre, the English king was re- ceived with great enthusiasm. His astonish- ing audacity and prowess were precisely the qualities needed in the Christian camp before the fortress. On his appearance, notwithstand- ing the serious illness with which he was pros- trated, new life flashed through the dispirited ranks. His battering engines seemed to work with the vigor of his own will. He became the Achilles of the h.ist, whom nothing could resist or divert from liis purpose. The re- peated and unwearied eiforts of Saladin to relieve and reenforce the beleaguered garrison were repulsed as fast as made. The inhabi- tants of Acre found themselves in the grip of a giant. The walls were broken on every side. The garrison was reduced in numbers and driven to despair. Saladin at last gave a re- luctant assent, and Acre, hitherto impregnable, surrendered to the Crusaders.

In the hour of victory the character of Coeur de Lion revealed itself in full force. Without the show of courtesy to Philip, he took posses- sion of the palace for himself He would not brook even a protest against his arbitrary and high-handed proceedings. Perceiving that Leo- pold, duke of Austria, had planted his banner on the wall, Richard seized the standard and hurling it into the ditch, set up the banner

of St. (ieorge in its stead; uor did Leopold dare to express by other sign tiiau silent rage his burning resentment.

The sultan was obliged to make terms most favorable to the Christians. Fifteen hundred captives held by him were to be given up. Acre was to be surrendered, and tlie gai-rison ransomed by the payment of two hundred thousand crowns of gold. The victorious kings agreed on their part to sjJare the lives of the prisoners. The jNIoslem camp iicfore Acre was broken up and the army withdrawn in the di- rection of Damascus. The Lion Heart having detained about five thousand h(jstages, permit- ted the remaining inhabitants of the captured city to depart in peace. And now followed a scene terribly characteristic of tlie bloody an- nals, ferocious spiri.. and vindictive methods of the age.

Saladin fiiiled either through negligence or inability to pay to the victors within the pre- scribed time the stipulated ransom for the cap- tives of Acre. Thereupon Richard fell into a furious passion, and the Moslem Iiostages to the numlier of five thousand weri' leil oui tVoni the walls to the camps of the I'lcneh and English and there beheaded in cold liloiid, and so little was the humanity of the great Crusa- der shocked, that he complacently beheld tlie end of the horrid tragedy, and then wrote a letter in which his deed was boasted as a ser- vice most acceptable to heaven.

The massacre of his subjects provoked Sal- adin to retaliation. He revenged himself by butchering the Christian captives in his hands and seizing others for a similar fate. One massacre followed another until the lineaments of civilized warfare were no longer diseo\-i r- able in the struggle. Nor could it well lie ile- cided Nvhether the Cross or the Crescent was more smeared with the blood of the helpless in these ferocious butcheries.

The news of the recapture of Acre was re- ceived with great joy by the Christians of both Asia and Europe. The success of the En- glish and French kings seemed the well-omened harbinger of the recovery of Jerusalem and all the East. Great, therefore, was the vexa- tion that followed when it was knoAvn that Philip Augustus had abandoned the conflict and left tlie Holv War to others. To this course lie was actuated by a severe illness with

:ri-it..,l .... I . .

flentan.l politic, I'laiJin u.. ,,,. ,i '• ^ '"" ' ^•''■' '''^^ ^^^kl,., a. 1„. w , The latter

- -__' "■'""'■ I" '■- ii.-illv o-raud.

^i:U£ADED.

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CliOSS.

The former \yas shrewd, cautious, wise, a liiiif; rather thau a wai-rior. Such qualities as his were disprized by the age, while those of the Linu Heart were the ideals of the times in which he lived. But Philip could unt l,ear the praise aud enthusiasm with which liichard was everywhere greeted, much less his arro- gance aud caprice, of which the oue was intol- erable and the other past aiiprehension. Per- haps it was well after all that the French king withdrew at the time he did fr(.im an al- liance which must soon have resulted in an open and probably fatal rupture. He left the scene which had brought him little per- sonal glory, repaired to his own (loiiiiiii,,ns, and presently exhibited a perfidinus di-pii,~ition by attacking the dominions of his recent ally.

By the retirement of Philip from the con- test Richard was left iu the srde leadership of Christian affairs in Syria. All of the French forces retired with tlieir king except a division of ten thousand men under the Duke of Bur- gundy. Finding himself deserted liy ITh i>ld- time boon-companion, the English king pre- pared to renew the war. With an army of about thirty thousand warriors he left Acre aud proceeded along the coast in the direction of Jafllt. The English fleet, laden with sup- plies, accompanied the march, but the pngress of the expedition was by no means iniclu'ckcd by adverse forces. The enemy gathcn-d in great numbers aud hovered with >lcipl('.~s vigi- lance on flank and n-ar. Fur tiftei-n days the Christians advanced under an alninst ciinstaiit shower of arrows from an enemy who durst not come to battle. At last, however, the sultan resolved (for his army was now increased to great propoitious) to hazard a general en- gagement. When on the 7th of September, 1191, the Crusaders had come near the town of Azotus he ordered a charge of his whole host upon their position. The conflict that ensued was one of the most remarkable of the Jliddle Ages. The mere weight of the !Mos- lem myriads pressed the Christians into a small space, and here from all directions, except from the side of the sea, a shower of arrows that darkened the air rained upon them.

Smarting under these missiles the restless but undaunted Knights eagerly desired to return the charge of the foe, but the genius of Rich- ard shone out starlike. With a courage and

calmness that W(juld liave done credit tn Na' leon he ordered hi- wari-ini> tn .-tand f;i>i ui the Turks had eniplie.l tluir .piivrrs an.l fl to make the charge. Si.i, when Sahidin's h. had exhausted their missiles upon the will-ni impenetrable armor of the Crusader,-, 1 Christian ranks were suddenly opened and 1 Kniuht> l>ur-t forth like a thunderbolt ni

the imp	.(•ted	masses	of the M	,slenis. I	earful
was the	revel	ge ul	ich those	steel-clad	warri-
ors U(i\\	tiM,k	up..n	the inso	ent foe.	Seven
thousani	lof tl	le nobl	est of the	Turkish c	avalry
\vere hewn d	iwn on	the field	The S:	rarrns
fled in	dl di	ectidu	~, an,l on	Iv the sp	.■,1 of
tlirir ll<	rses s	ived t	leni fron	the swor	Is and
luittle-axes of	the C	usaders.
Aftr	tlii-	si-nal	victory.	Richard contin-
Urd his	man-	1 to.b	rth, whirl	city was	alian-
dnnrd 1	y Sa	a.lin ;	t hi- ap,	niach. C	esarea
was also	" reta	ien b\	the Chr	stians ; m	r is it
improba	,le tl	at if t	le king'<	wi-h to a.	Ivance
at once	on Jerusale	u ha<l Ix	en secom	ed by
his subordinates th	e Holy Sepulcher	might
have Ix'	n wrested a	.ain from	its defilers	. The
Frrnrh	laron	s, llllW	•vcr, in-i-	ted that tl	le bet-
tvv p(,li.	v wa	s to t:	rry on tl	e coast, 1	ehuild
the ruin	■d inl	tn->M-		vt' the re(	ipture

Tlr

Ch

IS tool-

of Jerusalem for the next • golden opportunity was thu- witliout impr<ivement, and thi ishly rented on their laurels.

With the opening of the .spring of 1192 the Crusaders were again rallied around the ban- ner of Plantagenet for the great original pur- pose of retaking the Holy City. All the Knights took a solemn oath that they would not abandon the cause until the tomb of Christ should be reco-\-ei-ed. Tlic army proceeded from the coast as far as the valley of Helirou, and it seemed to the ^Moslems that the day of flite had again arrived. Jlany fled from Jeru- salem, aud Saladin himself gave up all for lost. Strange and inexplicable, therefore, was the event. The Christians, already in sight of the city, halted. Was it the treachery of the Duke of Bur-uu.lv ? Was it the whim of the king? Had he and Saladin come to a secret uuderstanding? or did the military genius of Richard warn him of the insuffi- ciency of his resources for such an undertaking as the siege of the city? Did the news from England, telling him of the intrigues of his

in. r>F I ION IN IIIF PAITI L Ob A70TCa_DrttWU u> i.iistJivi- Dore

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

treacherous brother Jolm, who was tn<lravnr- iug in his absence to lU'privc him (if thr kiiiu'- dom, prevail to reverse his jihuis ami dcstniy his hopes? or was it one of those unaccount- able failures of will which, in the supreme hours of the lives of the greatest, have so many times supervened to lireak the knees of the demigod on the tliresliold of his highest ambition ? None can answer.

Here in the valley of Hebron, with the towers of Jerusalem in view, the Lion Hmrt called a council ! Ten of the leading barons were caUed upon to decide whether the siege of the city should be undertaken or deferred. It was decided that the present prosecution of the enterprise was inexpedient, and should be given up. Great was the chagrin of the army when this decision was promulgated ; and if appearances might be trusted, Richard was himself as much mortified as any (pf his chiefs. With slow and discontented footsteps tlio Eng- lish warriors and their Syrian allies made their way back to the coast, and Jerusalem was left to the perpetual profanation of the Turks.

The supposition that 8aladin was in collu- sion with Richard in the abandonment of his enterprise against the Holy City seems to be contradicted by the conduct of the sultan after the fact. He eagerly followed the retreating Christians, and sought every opportunity to strike them a fatal blow. While the Crusaders were on their way from Jaffa to Acre, a host of Moslems assailed the former city and gained possession of all but the fortresses. Many of the inhabitants and garrison were cut down in the streets. Richard was already at Acre, and busy with his preparations to sail for Europe, when the news came of what the Turks had done at Jaffa. Enraged at the sultan for this aggression, he at once took ship with a mere handful of Knights, and returned to Jaffa. Here he found the Christians still in posse.ssion of the citadel, and doing their best to keep the Moslems at bay. With the very excess of reckless daring the king, on coming into the shoal-water, jumped out of his boat and waded to the shore, followed by his war- riors. There was no standing against such valor. The Saracens who lined the beach were amazed, and gave way before the brandi.shed battle-axe of Plantagenet as though he were the Evil Genius of Islam. In a short time

tlie assailants of Jail'a escaped IVoni )he euvi- roiuueiits of the town, and lied to the hills for safety. The entire fore," of Riejiard, iuclud- iug the defenders of the city, amounted to fifty-five Knights and two tlioiisainl infantry; and yet with this mere liandfu! lie defiantly pitched his camp oiiliidr <>f thr inill.<, as if to taunt all the hosts of Saladin with the implied charge of cowardice.

This was more than the Turks could stand. On the next day, perceiving the insignificance of the force from which they had fled, they returned with overpowering numbers and re- newed the battle. From the fury of their on- set it seemed that they had determined to de- stroy Richard at whatever cost to themselves ; but the English hero grew more terrilile with the crisis. He fought up and down the shore like Castor on the fielil of Ti'oy. Neither nundiers nor coura-v prevailed t(; stay his fury. He charged a whole s(piailron as though it were composed of boys and women. His pathway was strewn with cleft skulls and head- less trunks. He was in the height of his glory. Appalled at the flash of his death- dealing weapon, the greatest warriors of Islam fell l)ack from the circle of destruction. They lowered upon him from a distance, but durst not g'ne him battle. Not until the shadows of the Syrian twilidit gatliereil over the scene did Richard au.l his Kniphts ahat.' their furi- ous onsets. The Moslems ha.l had euougli ; they retreated from before the city, and the siege was abandoned.'

We have now come to the close of the Third Crusade. The exploits of the Lion Heart in Palestine were at an end. His tre- mendous exertions in the battle of Jaffa brought on a fever oi' which he was for some time pros- trated. His eagerness to return to Europe was

' Pei-haps no other warrior ever excited so great personal terror in battle as did Richard Coeur de Lion. His prodiL'ious dei'.ls in fight might well be regarded as wlnilly fiititi"ns were it not for the concurrent testimony of iHitli Christian and Mo- hammedan writers. Tradition ever afterwards preserved a memory of his dread name and fame in the East. Syrian mothers were accustomed for centuries (if not to the present day) to frighten tlieir refractory children with the mention of his name; and the Islamite traveler, wlien his horse would suddenly start by the way, was wont to say, Ciiidnt In que ce soil le Roi BIchartf That is, "Think'st Ihon that it is King Richard?"

BATTI.E BEFORE ACRE.— Drawn by Gustave Dor,',

THE CRUiiADES.—FALL OF THE ClKKSS.

increased by every additional item of news which he received from his o^YU kingdom. A conspiracy had been formed by the faithless Prince John and Philip Augustus to rob him of his crown ; and the Emperor Henry VI. of Germany was not without a guilty knowledge of the pl(jt. iMoreover, his recent triumphant defense of Jafla had so increased his iuHu- ence in the East that the aged Saladin, whose sands of life were almost run, was more than ■willing to come to an understanding with the ■Crusaders. A treaty, or rather a truce for three years and three months, was accordingly concluded between him and Plantagcuet, which, if both had lived, might have had in it the ■elements of permanency. It was agreed that Richard should dismantle the fortress of Asca- lon, the same being while held by the Chris- tians a constant menace to the peace of Egypt. On the other hand, Tyre, Acre, aud Jaffa, with all the sea-coasts between them, should remain to the Crusaders. Antioeh and Tripoli should not be molested by the Turks, and all Christian pilgrims who came unarmed should have free ingress and egress in visiting the holy places of Palestine, especially those in Jerusalem. Having concluded this settle- ment, Kiug Richard embarked from Acre in the autumn of 1192, and started on his home- ward voyage.

The great Crusader was now destined to rough sailing aud hard treatment. His fiime had filled all Europe, aud nearly all the monarchs of Christendom were in a league of common jealousy against him. After making his way through many st(jrms at sea into the Adriatic, his vessel was wrecked near the head of that water, and he was cast ashore in the neighbor- hood of the coast-town of Aquileia, iu the do- minions of Leopold, duke of Austria. That personage had been among the German ]irincps engaged in the siege of Acre when Richard first arrived in Palestine. On a certain occa- sion the English king had torn down the duke's banner, aud had struck him an insulting blow which he durst not resent. It now happened that Plantagenet, disguised as a pilgrim — for in that guise he hoped to make his way in safety to his own dominions — was brought into the presence of the offended dnke, who recog- nized him by a mark which no disguise could hide — his kingly bearing and profuseness.

Here, then, was an opportunity for revenge. But avarice jjrevaUed over malice, aud hous- ing to share in the large ransom which was sure to follow the imprisonment of Richard, the Duke of Austria sent him under guai'il to the Emperor Henry VI.

Of all the i^eople of England, Prince John was most rejoiced at the news of his brother's capture. Otherwise there was great grief throughout the kingdom. John sent abroad the lying report that the Lion Heart was dead, aud his confederal.', the king of France, made an invasion of 2\(]i-mandy. The Engli>li liar- ons, however, remained loyal to Richard, aud defended his rights during his absence.

At the hands of the Emperor Henry, Richard received every indi-uity. He was put in chains and thrown into a dungeon. Kothing but his alnindance of animal spirits saved him from despair. But the prisoner was a man of so great distinction and fame that the Emperor durst not destroy liim, or even Continue to persecute. A diet of the Empire was presently held at Woi-nis, and the princes, showing a disposition to demand of Henry a reason for his course, he had Richard conveyed to Worms to be disposed of. As a justification for his own conduct, he accused the English king of having driven Philip Augustus out of Palestine and mal- treated the Duke of Austria. He also cliarged him with having concluded with Saladin a peace wholly favorable to the ]\Ioslenis and against the interests and wishes of Cliristen- dnni. The dei'cn.e of Richar.l again>t these calninniationv was iu every way triunipliant, insomuch that .some of his judges were ex- cited to tears by the eloquence aud pathos of his story. It was impossible to convict such a prisoner in such a presence. Never- tlieless, the spirit of the age permitted the Emperor to exact of his royal ]ui>oner a ransom of a hundred lli.iu-and marks as the price of his lilicratinn. Richanl was also obliged to give hostages as se.'urity for the pavment of sixty thousand marks additional on his return to his own country.

On hearing tlie news that Richard wai asain at liberty, his brother John and Philip of France were iu the frame of mind pecul- iar to a wolf and a fox when a lion is turned into then- keep. The king of Frauce at once

UNIVERSAL HISTOilY.— THE MODEHX WORLD.

seut word to liis ally to take care of himself as best he could. The coufederatcs uext at- tempted to bribe Henry VI. to detain Richard for another year, and that money -making ^o\- ereign ^yould have gladly accepted the bait but for the interference of the Pope, who threatened him with excommuuicatinu should he dare further to molest the greate.-t cham- pion of the Cross.

Richard's fricnd.s in England were mean- while exerting themselves to raise the re- quired ransom. In order to secure the amount a general tax was levied, and, the sum thus raised being insufficient, the noldes contributed a fourth of their yearly income, while many of the churches gave up their silver-service to be coined for the king's re- demption. "When the sum was secured, Queen Eleanor herself took the money to Germany, and lirr great son was liberated.

In March of ll:i4, the king arrived in England. He had lieen alisent from the kingdom for four years, the last fifteen months of which he had been held as a prisoner. Great was the joy of the English people, not only in London, but throughout the realm, on again beholding their sover- eign. There was a burst of loyal devotion on every hand, and the king in the midst of aci'laniations miglit well forget the perils and hardshiiis to which he had been exposed. As for Prince John, who was as timid as he was treacherous, he availed himself of the first opportunity to rush into the apartment of his famous brother, and, flinging himself down at his feet, anxiously pleaded for for- giveness. It was not in Richard's nature to withhold a pardon from his abject brother; but he accompanied the act with the laconic remark to some of his friends that he hoped to forget the injuries done to himself as soon as John wo\dd firget his pardon!

Richaril took \\\y iirccaiition to have him- self recrowiK'd ; lor lir Imd been a prisoner. As soon as the aliairs of tlio kingdom could be satisfactorily scitli'd, lie ci-ossi-d over into Normandy to defend that province against the aggressions of Philip. For the remaining four years of the king's life he was almost con- stantly occupied in preparations for war, or making truces with the French, who had neither the good faith to keep a treaty or the courage

to fight. In the year 11:J!» the report was spread abroad that a treasure had been dis- covered on the estate of the Viscount of Li- moges. He being Richard's vassal, the king claimed the treasure, but the viscount would yii'ld only a part. Thereupon Plantageuet Wfut with a band of ^\arnors to take the castle of his rcfrartoiT sulijcct. One day, while surveying the defenses preparatory to an attack, he incautiously walked too near the wall and was wounded by an arrow. Though the injury was .slight, a gangrene came on, and the king was brought to his death. Before that event, however, the castle was taken and all of its defenders hanged except Bertrame de Gourdon, who discharged the fatal arrow. He was taken and brought into Richard's presence to receive sentence of his doom. "What harm have I done you," said the king, "that you sliould thus have attempted my death?" " You killed my lather and brother with your own hands," said the prisoner, " and you in- tended to kill me. I am ready to sutler with joy any torments you can invent, since I have been so happy as to destroy one who has brought so many miseries on mankind." Rich- ard was so imjiressed with the boldness and truth of this answer that he ordered Bertrame to be set at liberty. His soldiers, however, were less merciful, and as soon as the king was dead, his slayer was executed.

Before he expired Richard changed his will, and being childless, bequeathed his kingdom to his brother John. Hitherto he had made a provision that the crown should descend to his nephew, Prince Arthur of Brittany, son of Geoflrey Plantagenet. On the 6th of April, 1199, Richard breathed his last, and in his death was greatly lamented by the English nation, whose name he had made a terror as far as the corners of Asia.

At the epoch of the Third Crusade it was the ini-l'oi-tuni' of the Christians of Palestine to be I'ciit liv faction. One party embraced the adlierents of Guy of Lusignan, and the other the followers of the valiant Conrad, count of ]\Iontferrat. "N^lien Richard and Philiji were at Acre the former espoused the cause of Guy, and the latter that of Conrad. After the departure of the French king, how- ever, Richard, finding the country on the verge of civil war, and perhaps discovering the-

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

J43

worthlessuess of Lusignau, concluded to recog- nize Courad as king of Jerusalem. Guy was reconciled, or at least conciliated, by the be- stowal of the crown of Cyprus. But this set- tlement was of short duration. Courad w'as murdered in the streets of Tyre by two of the Assassins, a new sect of fanatic Moslems, 'whose leading tenet was to destroy their ene- mies by secret murder. The destruction of "Conrad, however, was charged to the old enmity of Richard, and the factional bitterness of the Christians was increased by this false accusation.

After the death of Courad his wid(3w was married to Count Henry, of Champagne, who in \irtue of the union was by common consent made titular king of Jerusalem. This settle- ment tended to allay the malignant imrty strife which had prevailed in Palestine, and, together with the successes of the Crusaders at Acre and Jaffa, gave promise of an actual resti;)rati<ju of the kingd<jiu.

This favorable turn in the tide of affaii-s was promoted by the death of Saladin. This most distinguished of the later Moslems died a few months after the conclusion of his truce with Richard, and- left his Empu'e to his three sous, who soon established three distinct thrones at Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo. The solidarity of the Caliphate was thus broken, •and the Christian kingdom, or rather the pros- pect of its reestablishment, gained greatly by the division. The bad tendency of Moslem affairs was still further increased by the con- duct of the great Caliph's brother, Saphadin, who, stronger than his nej^hews, wrested from them a large part of Syria, and in 1193 organ- ized it into a government of his own.

It \vas with some imjiatience that the C'hris- tians of Palestine awaited the expiration of the three years' truce concluded by Creur de Lion with Saladin. The dissensions among the Moslems gave good ground of hope that the kingdom established by Godfrey might he restored, and the Holy City recovered from the Turks. This feeling was especially potent among the Temjilars and Hospitallers, whose profession of arms had little glory in the "weak, piping time of peace" which fol- lowed the Third Crusade. It became the pol- icy of the two Oi'ders to promote every move- ment in Western Europe whicli looked to a

renewal of the holy war. In 1194 they induced Pope Celestiue UI. to proclaim another Cru- sade, and the same \vas preached in Germany, France, and England. At this juncture, how- ever, there was no such exciting cause of an uprising as had existed on previous occasions, and the French and English refused t" ai;itate. In Germany a cause was found in the p( rsdiial ambition of the Emperor, Henry VI. A\'ith- out great breadth of mind, he was nevertheless capable of that sort of avarice which could look with eager and covetous eye upon the treasures of the East. It was one of the curses of the iMiddle Ages that the rulers of Chris- tendom generally preferred to replenish their coffers by robbery rather than bj' the encour- agement of industry and frugality among their subjects.

Henry VI. brought the whole Imperial in- fluence to bear in favor of the new Crusade. The German clergy assisted in the work, and a sufficient agitation was produced to draw together a large army of volunteers. Three formidable bodies of warriors were fitted out and were dispatched in succession t.i Acre. On arriving at this stronghold of Syrian Chris- tianity the spirits of the Europeans, especially of the Knights, revived, and a momentary enthusiasm was kindled which perhaps under great direction might have led to great results.

When it was known to the Moslems that new armies of Christians were arriving in the East they quickly made common cause to repel the invasion. Saphadin was chosen as the leader most likely to succeed in driviuL'- the German Crusaders out of Palestine. < >n the other hand, the chiefs wlio comniamled the Christian h...t .juanvled an,l dividrd their forces. Dui-iii- the years H'.I.V.m; a series of indecisive conflicts ensued, in which, though the Germans were sometimes victorious, no permanent results were reached in the way of reconr|uering the country. As a general rule the Turks were unable to confront tlie Knights in liattle, but the former were for the most part a light-armed cavalry, that fought or fled as the exigency seemed to demand, and which it was almost impossilde for the mailed war- riors of the Xorth to licat to the ground.

After two rears of this desultdrv warfare the EniiH.rnr died, and tlio prinee. and prehites wh.i ha.l ecnnnanded his annies in Palestine

1-14

UXIVER.'SAL HISTORY. — THE MODERX WORLD.

retumea tc Europe. The ninvmuiit luul af- fectt'd but slightly the (h'stinii- "f thr cijuflict in the East, aud the mo.<t critical aiitluir:^ have not diguitied the expedition l.y iiumlicriug it among the Crusade^. I'criiap- a >li.:lit M.lidity was given to the all< i^t d ■' kiiii^doni," whi'di now, under the ride of the nominal kini;, Henry of Champagne, included within its lim- its the better part of the coast of Palestine. In 1196 Henry died, and soon afterwar.ls his accommodatin-- ciui'cn, for tlie third time a widow, was married to Almcric (jf Lusignan, successor of Guy in the kim^dom of the Cypriots. A union was thus ettected Ketween the two sovereignties, and the joint rulers were desiu- nated as the King and (^uei'U of .Jeru-aiein and Cyprus.

In the year ll'.IS the papal crown passed from Celestine to Innocent III. Tlie latter was one of the most able and amliitious PontiHs recently regnant over cliri-tendoni. Sdon after his ai'- cession he determined, if pos.~ilile, to ickinille the expiring fires of religious zeal by priiclaim- ing a new Crusade. He became niore largely instrumental in the movement that followed than any of hi? predecessors since the days of Urban had been in arousing the Christians of Europe to comairrent action against the Infi- dels. He wrote to all the e'hristiau riders of the West, urging them to rally to the Cross and to assist the holy work he had in hand, eitlier !:)y themselves enlisting for the war, or by contributing a part of their means for the glorious enterprise. As to the Church, he ex- acted of all the ecclesiastics in Europe a tithe of one-fortieth part of their revenues, and at the same time, by his messengers, he urged the laity to give in like manner a liberal per centum of their incomes.

So eflii'ctive were the measures thus origi- nated that the papal cofters were soon filled to overflowing. At this juncture a popular preacher appeared who, like Peter the Her- mit aud St. Bernard, was destined to enforce and energize the will of the Pope by an ap- peal to the nia-i-. Pi-etendiug to have reve- lati(jns from heaven, this fanatic priest, whose name was Fouhiue of Xeuilly, went abroad loudly and vehemently preaching to the ]ieo|>le and calling upon them in the name of all things sacred, to enlist in the holy war. To convince them of his mission he performed miracles.

and as a linishmg touch to the spectacular, he exhibited Iiiin.<rlj' as an example of devotion and sacrifice ; for he had formerly been a dis- tinguished libertine.' The fiame of excite- ment roM' higli under the appeal- ol' tlii- dra- matic orator, and thousan.ls in France and Flander> rushed forward to take the cross.

>.'ow it was that the gallant Couut Thibaut of Chamiiagne, and his cousin. Earl Louis of Bl..is. fircl the French chivahy liv their ex- ample. At a great tot count's province in the nobles publicly renounci' the knightly ring for tlie

,t hele

d.'cls of

-t servi

hundreds emulated bad-e of di-tin-ui- -Monttort, spread in

the

Fl;

by their devotion, and ni.lcl knights and n..l,les ■ by putting on the red arfare. Among the most number was Simon de ]\Iante. The excitement . and Count Bahhvin, a l.rother-indau ,,f Thiliaut. enlisted with a great company of chivalry. Other famous leaders also appeared: from Italy the ^larquis Boniface of Montferrat; from Germany, the bishop of Ilalberstadt ; from Hungary, the king. Such was the beginning of the Fourth Ceu.sade.

As a means of jiromotiug the cause two great councils weri> held, the one at Soissous and the other at Compeigne. At these meet-

aud disasters which the former Crusaders had undergone, by taking the sea — instead of the land — route to Palestine. It was also de- termined as a necessary part of this policy to employ the fleets of the maritime Republics of Italy as the best means of transportation to the East. Especially did the princes turn to the Venetians, whose navy w-as by far the lar- gest and most efficient in Europe. The lead- ers accordingly sent ambassadors to the veteran Venetian doge, Henrico Dandolo, now ninety- three years of age and blind as a stone, but still fi're.l with the zeal and spirit of youth. The councils of state were convened, and aft-

' It was this Fouliine whom Richard Plantagenet horrilieil witli the proposition to give bis three daughters, Pride, Avarice, and Voluptuousness, to the Templars, the Benedictines, and (he priests!

THE CBUSADES.—FALL OF THE CliOSS.

erwards the citizen? were called together in the great square of St. JIark. Here iu tlic presence of the assembled state of Venice the French barons knelt before the majesty of the people, and besought with all the fervor of el- oquence the aid of the Republic in the ]-ecov- ery of the holy places of the East.

The Venetians heard the petitions with favor, and agreed to furnish a navy for the required service fur the sum of eighty-five th(jusand silver marks. For this sum it was stipulated that Venice should transport to any designated coast of the East four thou- sand five hundred knights, nine thousand esquires and men-at-ai'ms, twenty thuusand infantry with hursrs and accdutirincnts, and provisions for nine nmnth^. The fleet set apart for this service iiuinlirnMl fifty galleys, being perhaps the lust vi>m1s then afloat in the ]\Iediterranean.

Great was the joy of the gathering Cru- saders of France on learning that the '\''ene- tians had agreed to transport them to Pal- estine. Soon, however, the ardor of the chivalry was cooled by the untoward circum- stance of the death of their- chosen leader. Count Thibaut, of Champagne. This posi- tive loss, moreover, was greatly aggravated by the jealousy and hrart-l>nrnings of the French barons, whose mutual rivalries pre- vented a choice of any one of their own number to the command of the expeditinn. It thus happened that a foreign prince, the Marquis Boniface of ^lontferrat, was chosen as leader of the Fourth ( 'rusadc ; a!id thus it happened, also, that what with the em- bassy' to Venice, and what with the delays incident to the bickerings and disputes of the barons, the space of two years elapsed from the tournament of Champagne to the gathering of the Crusaders at Venice, pre- paratory to their departure for Syria.

When at last, in the year 1202, the wai-- riors of the Cross were mustered in the Place of St. Mark, it was found that many, through the abatement of zeal, had remained at home, and that others were less willing, or, perhaps, less able, than in the first glow of their enthu- siasm, to pay the subscriptions which they had made to meet the Venetian indebtedness. Less than fifty tliousand marks of the whole sum could now be secured. The dooe and

;is of the Republic reft ture of the fieet until

it became apparent that the Crusade, even after two years of preparation, must lie aban- doned because of non-compliance with tlie

the doue hini-elf 'eanie fi.rward witli a meas- ure of relief. He proposed that instead of the present payment of the remaining thirty thousand marks, the Crusaders shmdd assist

him i on th.

Zn

ijiorts

cing the revolted >

of Dalmatia. If they would

and, in that event, he w..ul.l liim.-elf assi the cross, liecome a soldier of Christ, and (

I duct the A'enetian fleet against the

j of the Syrian Infidels.

, This advantageous proposition, though it seemed to ilivert the Crusaders from their original purpose, was gladly accepted by them. Indeed, such was the situation of affairs that they had no alternative. At this juneture. however, a new complication arose which threatened to annul the whole com- pact. Tile inhabitants (jf Zara had, after their revolt, nunle haste to put themselves under the protection of the Hungarians. The king of Hungary was himself one of the pro- moters of the Crusade, and had taken the cross. Pope Innocent III. now interfered, and forbade the Crusaders to turn their arms against a people who were umler the pro- tection of a Christian king, engaged in war with Inridils. But the Venetian republicans stood li-< in awe of tlie papal authority than ,li,l th.' feii.hd bar.ins fr.mi bevon.l the Alps. Not cai-ini:- whether their a.'tioii was pleasing or dis|.le.-i-ircj- to His Holin. — , they went ahead with the enterinisi', and prevailed with most of the lea.lers to join them in the ex- pedition. The :\Iar.|iiis' of ^b.ntferrat, how- scruple-, acconipanv the expedition. The fleet of Venetians and Cnis^iders d,. parted under comman.l ..f the blind <.ld do-e, who, though seeing not with his i-yes, perceived with the inner .-iiiht the exigencies of the campaign,

'■i^> UXIVEIl.'iAL HISTORY. — THE MUDEliy WORLD.

■\n\ iliicLtcd In- 1 kl- with -ii i Z ii i | GieU w i- tli( ui_ti il tht. Pope wlun he

th ii.h out (t the -ti 11. t 1 itiL--L- 111 kuiK 1 1 thi tliiii d u( li\ hi- ill- bt limt

Liu ipt_ « I- l)c-R_nl la 1 tiUii iltLi a h\e | childitu Hl cxc mmuuic itcd both \ ene

di\- in\e-tmciit ih Im - f th i 1 Hi u- tun- lud Cm il i hut v,\un tht Fitnch

nihil Unit- wiK 1 11 1 1 ut th( t itih iti n , bn ii- went lininlih ti E in. ml ikdired

A\ 1 till wn diwii unl the nt\ it i It _i\ui ti Inn cent thin inuiteiKt f ii thin evil

up In pilla.c. ! dud, he jiantul tluiu a paiduii mi tht con-

TEE CRUSADES.— FALL OF TEE CPOSS.

ditions that they should restore to the iieo- ple of Zara the booty of which they had been robbed, and that the alliance with the refractory and perverse Venetians should be at once broken off. It was, however, in a manner impossil^le for the barons to comply with these conditions. They were so entan- gled with the Republic, that to break the league was to give uji the Crusade and vio- late their knightly vows. Simon de ^Nlout- fort, however, more fanatic than the rest, heeded and obeyed the papal injunction. As for the other Crusaders, they went into winter quarters with their allies at Venice and Zara.

During the interval between the capture of the Dalmatian fortress and the opening of the spring of 1203, circumstances oc- curred which led to a complete change of the original purpose of the Crusade. A new condition of affairs had supervened in the Eastern Empire which excited the hostility of the Western Christians to the extent of making war on Constantinople instead of the cities of Syria. The Comneuian emperors were now represented in the person of Alex- ius, who had conspired against his brother Isaac, whom he had deposed from the throne, deprived of his eyes, and thrust into a dun- geon. The son of Isaac, who also bore the name of Alexius, was but twelve years of age, and was spared by his victorious uncle.

This young prince made his escape and fled to Italy, and, when the Crusaders gathered at Venice, he had sufficient penetration to see in the host there mustered the possible means of his own or his father's restoration to the thi-one of the Eastern Empire. He accordingly laid his cause before the Chris- tian princes, and besought their aid. His petitions were strongly backed by the influ- ence of his brother-in-law, the Duke of 8ua- bia. During the interval, when the barons of the West were lying inactive at Zara, the negotiations were continued, and both Crusaders and Venetians were won over to the idea of a canipai'jn against Constantino- ple. Indec.l, >o far as the sulijects of the doge were concerned, not much was wanting to inflame the motives already existing for war. For a C(Uarter of a century a rivalry had existed between Venice and the capital of the East. At one time, the Emperor

Manuel had confiscated all the property of the Venetians in the ports of the Empire. At another, the ships of the Venetian mer- chants had made a descent uimiu several of the Byzantine islands and laid them waste. By and liy the Emp)eror adopted the policy of encouraging the Pisans, the rivals of the Venetians, by conferring on them the carry- ing-traile of the East. This act was worm- wood to Venice, and she awaited an oppor- tunity of revenge.

The aged but ambitious Dandolo now per- ceived that by espousing the cause of the young Alexius against the usurping uncle of the same name the wrongs of the Republic might be avenged and her commercial advan- tages restored in the Eastern ^Mediterranean. It thus happened that the prayers of the Prince Alexius were supported not only by the Duke of Suabia, but also by the still more powerful voice of the doge.

Such was the temper of the age, that though the attention of both the Crusaders and Vene- tians was thus diverted to the enterprise of a campaijii auain^t C<aistaiitiii<i])lr, neither party of tho .■onf.^lrrat- wa> di-pn.,,,! to do so with- out fir>t ixtiirtiiig i-vtiy pos>ilile advantage from the young prince in whose interest the expedition was to be ostensibly undertaken. The Imperial lad was led on under the stimu- lus of hope to make the most flattering prom- ises. He agreed to pay the Crusaders two hundred thousand marks for the restoration of his imprisoned and sightless father to the throne of Constantinople. He also promised to heal the fatal schism of the Greek and Latin Churches, to the end that spiritual unity might be attained throughout Christendom under the Pope of Rome. He would, moreover, when the affairs of the Empire should be satisfacto- rily settled, either himself become a Crusader or else send out a division of ten thousand men at his own expense to aid in the recovery of Palestine. Furthermore, he would main- tain during his life a body of five hundred Kni-hts in the Holy Land, 'to the end that the Turks mi-ht not again regain their ascendency.

Jleanwhile the usurper, Alexius, had been on the alert to prevent the impending inva- sion of his dominions. He at once set about the work of arraying the Pope against the scheme of his enemies. The pajial sanction

•4S

UMVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODEUX WOULD.

11 th.- cnnriicts of uin this the .-efU- n l,i.lal^ain^t tadi uthL-r ii.iw a|iiieai\'d that the miL:i'i- Alexius was -will- lii'iuU'iicy of the Greek ■t of Itome. The East- :ly sent ambassadors to ilen'il the submission of lis as the iirice of pajial It was already angered id the Crusaders them- •efractory a sjjirit as to Since, therefore, in ty I if the cliitrcli was to ui»iiiii of the schismatic

was an important taetMi the Middle Ages, and t lar princes were wiuit tn as in a market. It n elder as well as the vdii iug to sell out the imlei Church for the supimrt em Emperor accnnliugl Pope Innocent am the Byzantine Chi interference. Iiu with the Veuetiai selves had .shown incur his displea either case the sol be attained l.y the Greeks, the Pope readily, even eagerly, es- poused the cause of the Emperor against the prince. The Crusaders were forbidden to dis- turb the peace of a Chri.-tiaii dominion. The tyrant of Constantiuni.le was promi.sed the protection of Koine. She. and not the barons and knights, would heal tlu- M-hi-iu of long- suflering christendimi. If any would di.sobey her mandate, let them remember the terrors wherewith she was wont to afflict those who set at naught her wislies. Legates were sent to Zara to acquaint the teiu|ited army with the will and purpo.se of the Holy Father.

Little were the Venetians terrified by these premonitory mutteriugs from the Vatican. They openly disregnrde<l the interdict and proceeded with their jn-eiiarations for the ex- pedition. The Crn-adcrs proper heard the papal voice with more respect, but with them there •\^as a division of sentiment. The more scrupulous were disposed to heed and obey the command of the Pope, but the greater num- ber, either regarding themselves as hopelessly involved and comin-omised with the Venetians, or else influenced by the lu-tful hope of repair- ing their fortunes out of the treasures of Con- stantinople, chose to stop their ears and follow their iuclination.s.

When the papal eiivovs jioreeived that their mission was fruitless they left Zara, took ship ami >aileil fir Syria. In doing SO they bade all follow who wouhl tight for the Cross and obey the voice of the C'hurch. Not a few of the barons and knights acee])ted this opportu- iiitv <.f escaping iVoiii all entanglements and goiiiL' on lioard with the legates, departed for

Palestine. The remaining and more adventur- ous p.irtiou of the Cru.saders silently defied the rope, cast iu their lot with the Venetians, and iiKele ready for the campaign against the Ey/,antine eapital. Chief among those who thus joined their iortunes with republican ^'eiiii'c ill pivtereuce to papal Pome were the Maniiii- of .Moiitferrat, the counts of Flanders, 151. li-, ami St. Paid, eight others of the lead- ing French barons, and a majority of the war- riors who hail originally embarked in the Crusade.

The expedition which was now set on foot against Constantinople was the most iiirmidable armament which had been seen in the Mediter- ranean since the days of Pompey the Great. The squailron included fifty galleys of war, one hundred and twenty horse-transports, two hundred and forty vessels for the conveyance of the troojis and military engines, and seventy store-ships for the supplies. The force of Crusaders on board consisted of six thousand cavalry and ten thousand f lot, ami the Vene- tian soldiers numbered about twenty thousand.

It now appeared that Alexius Comnenus was much more of a diplomatist and intriguer than warrior. During the whole progress of the expedition which was openly directed against his capital he made no attempt to stay its course or prevent its entrance to the Bos- phorus. The harbor of Constantinople was found to be defended by only twenty galleys ; for the Greek admiral, Michael Struphnos, brother-in-law of the Emperor, had broken up the vessels of his master's fleet in order that he might sell for his own profit the masts, rig- ging, and iron which they contained. When in the immediate face of the peril the propo- sition was made to build a new navy, the eunuchs of the Imperial palace to whom the keeping of the parks and hunting-grounds had been intrusted refused to have the timber cut] Such has ever been the folly of those effete des- potisms which have survived their u-sefulness.

Kor did the people of the city of Constan- tino show much interest in the crisis which was evidently upon them. Like voluptuous idlers floating in the Bay of Biscay, they recked not of the gathering storm. AVhat to them was a change of masters? The tyrant Alex- ius was in a measure deserted to his tate.

(ireat. however, was the strength of the

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CIIOSS.

74f>

city before whose walls the men of the West were now come with hostile purpn-e. There rose the massive raiupaits .if .-lunr ; there the lofty turrets of palaces aud basilica— a splen- did show of beauty, magniticeuce, and streugth, such as the Crusaders had uever before beheld.

At first the fleet was l.roii.-ht h< anchor on the Asiatic side of the eluiinu'l. Fur a lew days after the landing the forces of the doge aud the Marquis of ^Mootferrat, who may be regarded as the commauders of the army, were allowed to rest in Scutari, aud whUe they were here reposing, negotiations were opened by the Emperor. He offered to expedite the march of the Crusaders into Asia ^Miimr! They were not going in that direction. IIi- waniccl them agaiust any disturbanc' in \u< (Idinininns. It was for the express piirpusc of (li-tiirbiiiu- his dominions that tliry had conic, llu thn-at- ened them with the Pope. The I'opc ha<l al- ready done his w(.r>t. Un the other hand. th.. doge and barons warneil him to i-onn' down from the throne which he had u-iupcd nnder penalty of such punishment as the soldiers of the Cross were wont to visit Ulxai the op- jMisers of the will aud cause of olfended heaveu.

After these mutual fidniinations the Cru- saders prepared to cro>- to the other side of the strait. They ran-vil thein-elves in six di- visions, anil, pas.-iuu' across tln' channel, scat- tered the Byzantine forces which were drawn up to resist their landing, and captured the suburb Galata. The great chain which had been stretched across the mouth of the harbor was broken, and the few ships remaining to the Greeks captured and destroyed.

The assailants now found themselves before the huge walls of the city. Constantinople was at this time the most strongly fortified metropolis in the world. The act of the Cru- saders in undertaking the siege of such a place is perhaps without a parallel in the annals of audacity. Their forces were only sufficient to inved one side of the ramparts. Their provis- ions were regarded as good for three weeks' subsistence. If onlv the physical conditions of the situation should be con^i.lered, then in- deed mi-ht Alexius and his officers well look down with indifference and contempt upon the puny preparations outside the walls. But the menial conditions were different.

To the Crusaders delay would be fatal. They accordingly exerted tht m.-elves to the utmost to bring on the crisis of an a— ault. In this work the Venetians vied with theji- allies in the prodigious activity which they di-- jilayed. It was determined to a-siil the walls from the si.le of the sea and in the pans ad- jaceut. With herculean endeavor the Cru- saders succeeded in filling up the ditch and thus were enabled to bring their engines to bear uj)on the fortifications. In a few days the walls had been sufficiently injured to war- rant the hazard of an as>ault. Tlu' Mind old doge of Venice took his station on the raiseil deck of his vessel, an.l with th.. banner of ^t. Mark above his hea.l, dire.-ted his men in the attack by sea. The \'enetian ealleys were brought to the beach iiuiuediately under the walls. Drawbridges were thrown from the nKi-t> to the top- of the niiiipaits, and for the

then with a rush and a sliout the liattlements were surmounted. Twenty-five towers were carried by the marines of Venice, and the banner of the Itepublic was jilanted on the sunnuit.

The Crusaders in making the atlaek from the land-side had met with poor .-n(«e->. The breaches made by their engines ]iro\ed to be

less complete than had 1 ii thought, and

those who had been set to defend this part of the walls were (if the history may be credited), a body of Auglo-Saxou and Danish guards whom the Emperor had taken into his service. Very different were these brave and stalwart warriors of the N"orth from the supple and de- generate Greeks, who had inherited all the vices without any of the virtues of their ances- tors. The Crusaders were confronted in their impetuous charge by tlu'si' resolute and ]iow- erful soldiers, aud were unable to iuvak into the city.

As soon, however, as the doi^e was victori- ous fiviin the side of the sea, he made ha^te to fire the part of the city which was in his power, aud then hurried to the succor of his allies. On the appearance of the Venetians, the LTuards and Greek cavali-v \\]mk by sheer force of numbers, had almo-t sun-.i\nided the <-hivalry. and were assailing;- tlu' hard pressed Crusaders in front and .m lioth tlanks, fell back quickly and sought safety within the

7.)U

UXIVEESAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

walls. Night came on and the allies auxiously awaitcil the muniini: to renew the .-^truyiile.

But Alexiu.s was nut nmre tyrant than pol- troon. In the darkness df midnight he roblied the Imperial treasure-huiise, gathered together his terrified followers and fled from Constanti- nople. With the coming of dawn the Crusa- ders were amazed to see issuing from the city an emliassy which, making its way to the camp, informed the Ijarons and the doge that Alexius had fled, that the blind Isaac had come from his dungeon and was on the throne, and that he desired the immediate presence of his son and deliverers in the city. In answer to this message, two I)arons and two Venetians were sent to congratulate Isaac on his restora- tion, and to notify him of the conditions which Lis son had made, in accordance with which they had come to effect his deliverance and restoration.

Great was the shock to Isaac when he learned of the hard, almost intolerable terms ■which his rash l3ut loyal boy had made with the mercenary soldiers of the Cross. But he was in the grip of an appalling necessity, and there was no alternative but to ratify the con- ditions imposed by liis masters. All was agreed to. The young Alexius made a triumphant entry into the city and was jointly crowned with his father. For the moment there seemed to be an end of the .struggle and the beginning of a lasting peace.

The character of the Latins and Greeks, however, forbade any permanent concord be- tween them. The coarse vigor of the one, and the pusillanimous spirit of the other, made it impo.ssible for them to harmonize in interest or purpose. For the time, the Greeks were obliged to yield in all things to their conquerors. The Patriarch of Con- stantinople was constrained by the compact and the i)resencc of the Crusaders to do his part l.y im.clainiiim- fn.m the Church of St. Sophia tlio M,l, mi-ion of Ea^t.-ni chri.-t.-n- doiii to the Komish See. This was, perhaps, the most intoleral)le exaction of all to which the peojile of the city were subjected. Their hatred of the heretical faith ami ritual, which they were obliged to acct-pt, \vas transferred to the young Enijicror .Mexin-. in whose in- terest the revolution hail been arconipli-ln-d.

Nor was his own condiict sueh a> to allav

I the antipathy which was thus aroused. During his two years' s(journ in the camp of the Crusader-, hr had become thoroughly im- bued with their manners and spirit. Their carousals and debaucheries were now a part of his life as much as of their own. He W(juld not, perhaps could not, shake off" the rude and intemperate habits which he had thus acquired by contact with the boisterous .soldiers of the West. Under the force of a disjMsition which had now become a second nature, he continued to prefer the license and nproar of the Crusaders' camj) to the refine- ments and ceremony of the palace and court.

It was not long until the re.spect and es- teem of his own countrymen had been so com- pletely forfeited by Alexius that he found it necessary to retain the Latin warriors in his capital as a means of suj^port. Nor did they appear reluctant — so greatly had their ferocious morality been corrupted — to postpone the ful- fillment of their vows in order to enjoy the winter in Constantinople. IMeanwhile their self-confidence was in a great measure restored by the pardon received from the Pope. Both they and the Venetians, after their capture of the city, had made such penitential professions to the Holy Father that he gladly extended full absolution to his wayward and refractory children.

During the winter the time was occupied by a portion of the Crusaders with an expedi- tion into Thrace. Alexius himself accompa- nied the barons on this campaign, and his absence from the city, together with that of the INIarquis of Montferrat, was made the oc- casion of a disastrous outlireak. The Latin warriors, tircil of inaction, fell upon and almo.st extcrininatc(l a I'olony of ^loslem merchants, who had long enjoyed the protec- tion of the city. The Mohammedans made a brave defen.se, and the Greeks came in large numbers to the rescue. In like manner the Latin paity in the city rallie.I to the supjiort of the Cru.>aders, an<i the battle became a slaughter. In the niid-t of the conflict a fire In-oke out which continued to rage for eight days. One-third of the beautiful city was reduced to ashes. The multitude of Greeks thus dispossessed of their homes were c'xa.-peiated to the last degree; and. falling n]ion the Latin residents of the city, whom

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

they rejrarded as having instigated the oiit-

the camp nf tlio t'ni>adei-s.

The cireuiiistaiiefs uf the depositiou and murder of ly.v.u- and his son Alexius in a conspiracy hrailed liy Angelus Ducas, sur- namcd Monrzoutle, and the assumjitiou cjf the crnwu by the latter; the wrath nf tlie Crusaders on learning of what was done; the second siege of Constantinople ; the cap- ture and pillage of that city ; the desecration of the churches; the overthrow of the Greek Empire, and the establishment of a Latin dy- nasty in the capital of the Eastern Ctesars, — have already been narrated in the Ninth BiKik of the preceding Volume.' As soon as tliis work was accomplished, the Western revdlutinnists set about the partition of the spoils of an empire. As to the vacant throne of Constantinople, the same was conferred on Balilwin, count of Flainlers. The new em- peror-elect was raised on a Inickler by the barous and knights and liornr on their shoul- ders to the Church of St. Sophia, where he was clothed with imperial puiple. The ;\Iar- quis of Montferrat was rewarded with ^Mace- donia and Greece and the title of king. The various provinces of the Empire in Europe and Asia were divided among the barons who commanded the Crusaihis, Imt not until three-eighths of the wdiole, inelndi}ig Crete and most of the archipelago, had Ijeen .«et aside tor the Kepublie of Venice.

As Mion as the divi-iou of the territorial and other spoils had been effected, the barons and knights departed with their re.spective followers to occupy their provinces. As to the two fugitives, Alexius Angelus and Du- cas Mourzoufle, both usurpers and both claim- ing the Imperial dignity, the former soon fell into the power of the latter, and was deprived of his eyes; while Mourzoufle himself was seized by the Latins, tried and condemned, and ea-t headlong from the lofty summit of the Pillar of Theodosiii-. A new claimant hereupon arose in tho poison of Theodore Lascaris, wdio, possessing more of the quali- ties of heroism than any of his predecessors of the preceding century, obtained the lead of the anti-Latin parties in the East, and became a formidable obstacle to the progress 'See Book Ti'nlh, ante pp. 37.5, 376.

and permanency of the Lai in . in a marvelous manner, unl'o Christians and .Moslems, the o of the Fourth Crusade was nit and forgotten. The inijmlse ol expired west of the Bosphorus of theehivah'ous liarous and kr and Italy foil upon the heads o tireeks instead of the crests (.f Islam.

The interval between the Fi Crusades was noted for the exti tacle of an uprising among ciiildren of France and (4er

Thius, ike bv

Byzantine varriorsof

to inosi- oi ins own age. ihr apiM-a yrruA to l,oth sexes. Heaven hail th,. w.ak things of this worl.l to conf mighty. The ehildrrn of Chri-lrnd to taki- the Holy Sepulelur from thr Another peasant boy named Xiehl.la^ the rrtVain in Germany and nui>t<re(l of inn.Mvnts at Cologne. Around tl cal standards of tlieso two >triplin-- \ ered a i:reat multitude of lio\-s and u

idels! ik ui;

mi.labl,. than shrp]„,rd	s eroiiks, set out under
the san-tion of a r-.yal	edict to liallle with the
Moslems of Syria.	End.aiking from 3[ar-
scilles tuidrr tho lea(	of a t'vW pious tools.
older but no wi-^ir tlia	1 tlieniselve^, tli.'y Came
to a miMiablc .'ud l.v	-hipwreek on the' i.-laud
of San Pirtro. Sn.'h	wa.- the s.,-eali.il CllII^
3)Ui;n's CinsAi.i:— on	of the strangest and
m..,-t ab-nrd spce(a<-les	recorded in history.
Thrre still remain 1	1 be recounted the an-
nals of the la-t four	novenients of christen-
dom against the Turks	The conijuest of the
Greek Empire was etti	cted in the year 1204.
Never was there to all	human seeming a more
unfortunate diversion	of an enterprise than
that which turned the	Fonrth Ci-nsade against
Constantinople instea.	of .Teru<alem. The
condition of the Island	e dominion in the East

was at this jtmcture preei-i ly -mh as to invite a renewal of the efl()i-|s of the Christians for the n.-overy of the Holy Citv. Egypt was dreadfully scourged with ' i.estden.'e an.l fam- ine. Syria was rent with the disputes and turmoils of the succe.ssors of Saladin. Every eircum>tance seemed favorable to the restora-

THE nin.DREN'b CKL-SALjE— Druwi

-nS7^!K/s'//i(j-lMm

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

tiou of Christiau supremacy, not only iu Pal- estiue but in all the jirincipalities which they had formerly held. Aud yet of all the advan- tages atibrded by the general condition of affairs, the Syrian Christians secured no more than this: a six years' truce with Saphadin.

Meanwhile, Almeric and Isabella, titular king aud queen of Jerusalem, both died ; aud the shadowy crown of that alleged " kiugdom "' descended to the Princess Maey, daughter of Isabella by her former marriage with C'onrad of Tyre. It was, however, deemed e#.seutial by the barons and knights of the West that the young Queen ilary should be strengthened by the arm of a husband, and the choice be- ing left to Philip Augustus of France, that monarch selected the Prince John, son of the Count of Brieune, as most worthy of the honor. Accordingly, in 1210, the prince de- parted for Palestine, claimed the hand of Mary, aud with her was jointly crowned.

When the truce with Saphadin expu-ed, the Christians refused to renew the treaty, and hos- tilities were presently resumed. It soon ap- peared that King John, with tlie handful of knights whom he had bmnglit with him frmii Europe, was unable to reprl tlie encroachments of the Turks. In lii< di-tress he wrote a pa- thetic appeal to Pope Innocent III., beseech- ing him for the love of the fallen Cross again to rally the Christians of the West for the sal- vation of Palestine. His Holiness was most ready to unilertake the enterprise. Although he was at present profoundly engaged in the work of suppressing the heretical Albigenses in the south of France, he sent a fovoralde answer to King John's appeal, and issued a letter to the Christian rulers of Europe, pro- claiming a new Crusade. He also directed the ■clergy of all Christendom to urge forward the ■ laity, should the latter lag iu renewing the Holy War. The fourth council of the Lateran

the august liody to undertake uwrv iiiorc the great work of snijiugating the Inhdels of Syiia. Such was the origin of the Fifth Crusabe. The leaders of the new expedition to the East were King Andrew of Hungary and the Emperor Frederick II. Besides the armies led by these two princes a third was organized, consisting of a mixed multitude of Germans, French, Italians, and Endish. King Andrew

set out with his forces iu the year 1216, and wa- i'liiicd on his route by the dukes of Aus- tria and Bavaria. On reaching Palestine the Hungarian mimareh made sonir disidtnrv in- cursions into the JMoslem territorirs, but boidrs ravagiug undefended districts accoiuplishrd nothing honorable to him.self or hi- cnumrv. He soon abandoned the enterju-isr, gathiicd his forces on the coast, aud reembarkcd tor Europe. The Germans, however, wlm had accompanied the expedition, refused to ri-iurn, and joined themselves with the knights of Palestine to aid them in defending whatever remained of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Other bands of warriors like-mindiil with themselves arrived from Germany, and the fjrces of the Christians were so augmented that it was re- solved to make a campaign against Egypt. That country had been reduced to such a state by nnsrule, liuiiiiie. anil pestilence as to have become an especially inviting held for foreign invasion. There only wanted the addi- tional fact of storied wealth aud ti'easure to inflame to the highest pitch the cupidity of th,. mereenary chivalrv of the We>t. 'Xor could it be denied that even troiii a military point of view the cumaust of Ei:\ i>t was an

titt

Xi

important, it not a necessary ante that of Syria.

In the year 1218 an armament at Acre left the Syrian coast and against Daniietta, at the mouth of The Chi-istiaii f.ives were landed before the city, and the place was at once besieged. An assatdt was made upon a ea>tle in the river, and though the a>sailaHts were lieaten back, so furious was their oiimI that the defemlers of the castle were teiiitied intn a capitulation. A short time afterwards the news wa- borne to tlie ('liri>tian camp that their great enemy, Saphadin, was dead, and the dread which they ha.l hitherto felt of Syrian assi.-tance to the EL:V],liau- wa> dismi--ed. Another eireum- staiiee llivorable t<. the (Vn.-adei's was the

Enrop, chief 1

jm

, Franc	e heade.l 1 ■, and En
Nev.rs	and La M
rSalishu	ry. Anuid.
the fore	>s of tlie 1
re thus	augmente

UXIVEIISAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX WORLD.

elenieut of di.^cord and danger -was introduced in the jealousies and intrigues which at once sprang up among so many eminent .leaders. Within the city were the ravages of disease and famine, yet the residue of the courageous people held out for seventeen mouths. "When at last neither passive endurance nor actual bravery availed any longer to keep the Cru- saders at bay, the latter Inirst into the city and found themselves in a metropolis of death. The other cities of Egvpt wore greativ alarmed l.v the cni.tni- ■ ■ !>-- ' •■ - T'-

sui-e the conquest of Palestine. Both the sul- tans were anxious for peace. He of Damascus denjolished the fortifications of Jerusalem and joined with his brother in ofl'ering to cede that city and all Palestine to the Christians on the single condition that they should withdraw from Egypt. Thus at last, itjjon the camp of the Crusaders, pitched on the sands of Lower Egj-jit, arose out of the Syrian desert the glorious sun of success, flashing hLs full beams on the satires and Necropolis of Cairo.

Tl,.. i,nir..eM„-..-i..nTi,..H --.1.1-,- of the Cross

<ECKOfOLlS OF CAIEO. r the pninting of P. Miirilhat.

consternation spread throughout all Syria, and for once the Christians were completely mas- ters of the situation. For the time they might have dirtat.'d to tlie terrilied [Moslems what- ever terms they chose to otl'er. ]\Ieanwhde, Coradinus and Camel, two sous of Saphadln, both weaklings, had been seated on the respec- tive thrones of Damascus and Cairo. It were hard to sav which of these two princes was now mure .-criously distressed. Camel saw his stronghold wrested from his grasp, while Cor- adinus remembered that the Crusaders were only warring in Egypt with a view to making

were anxious to accept the terms "which were offered by the brother sultans. ^Tiy should they war any longer since the scpulcher of Christ and all the sacred pilaces of the Holy Land were now freely, almost abjectly, offered by the cowering representatives of Islam ? The king of Jerusalem, the French and English barons, and the Teutonic knights, eagerly fa- vored the conclusion of a treaty. But the Templars and Hospitallers, together with the Italian leaders, influenced partly by theii' in- sane lust for the treasure-hotises of Egypt and partly by the stu^aid bigotry of Cardinal Pe-

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

lagius, the legate of the Pope, vehemently op- posed the conclusion of a peace, and over- rode the wishes and wise counsels of the allied chieftains. Whenever the latter would urge the immense and definitive advantages of the proposed cession of Palestine with the conse- quent recovery of the Holy Sepuleher and every thing for which the blood and treasure of Europe had been poured out like water for a hundred and twenty-five years, the blatant Pelagius would bawl out with imperious incon- sistency that the soldiers nf the Cross should never compromise with Infidels. The result ■was that the auspicious opportunity of ending the Holy War on terms most satisfactory to every sincere knight in Christendom, went by unimproved, and instead of withdrawing from Egypt the Crusaders passed an inglorious win- ter in the captured city of Damietta.

Perceiving that their enemies were inexor- able, the Moslems rallied from their despair and employed the interval in recruiting their armies and planning campaigns for the ensu- ing year. With the beginning of 1220, the army of Curadinus came out of Syria and was joined to that of Camel at Caii'o. The in- competency of Pelagius, and the outrageous folly of his course, were now fully manifested. While hesitating to attack the Lslamite armies, he permitted his own forces to remain in the vicinity of Damietta until with the rise of the Nile the Egyptians deliberately cut the canals on the side next the Isthmus, and inundated the country. On a sudden the Christians found themselves in a world of waters, swell- ing higher and higher. The crisis was over- whelming. The bigots who were responsible for it were obliged to send a humble embassy to the sultan, and to offer him the city of Da- mietta for the privilege of retiring from Egypt. The sultan accepted the offer, but took care to detain as a ho.stage the king of Jerusalem un- til what time the embarkation should be ef- fected. The miserable and crestMlen Crusaders took .ship as quickly as possible and sailed to Acre. So completely was the host dispirited that great numbers of the warriors abaudoue<l the enterprise and returned to Europe.

The broils which hail so many times dis- tracted the counsels and defeated the plans of the Christian princes in the East were now transferred to the West, Great was the mor- 46

tificatiou of Christendom when it was known what might have been, and what was, accom- plished in Egypt. It seemed necessary to find a scapegoat, on whose head might be laid the sin and ignominy of the foilure. Popular in- dignation with a due apprehension of the facts pointed to Pelagius, and great odium was set against his name. But Honorius III., who had now come to the papal throne, defended his legate from the aspersions of his enemies ; and, in order that the blame might rest upon some one sufficiently eminent to bear the dis- grace. His Holiness laid the charge of failure at the feet of Frederick II. That distinguished and obstinate ruler had promised, but had not fulfilled. In 1220 he had gone to Rome in a triumphal fashion and had been crowned by the Pope, who had every hope that the eccen- tric Emperor would become an obedient son of the Church. Now it was said by the papal adherents that the Emperor, after taking the vow of the Cross, had failed to keep his cove- nant, and had left the suffering Crusaders to their fate among the floods of Lower Egypt.

It soon appeared, however, that Frederick was not to be moved by such imputations of dishonor. The Pope accordingly changed his tone, and undertook to accomplish by jxilicy what he could not effect by upbraiding the iiniioiial Crusader. He managed to bring it ab..ut that Herman de Saltza, GJrand ^Master of the Teutonic Knights, should bring to the Emperor from the East a proposal from King John of Jerusalem that his daughter lolanta sliould be given to Fredei-iek in marriage. The scheme amounted to this, tliat the king- dom of .Jerusalem should liecome an appanage of the German Empire. John of Brienne was most willing to give up the shadowy distinc- tion with which he had been honored and to escape from the perils of Syrian warfare, and Frederick was e(|ually willing to accejit a trust made p:datal.lc bv Midi a ;;it\ a^ the Princess lolantn. Accenlin-lv, in the year 1225, the pri.ject wa> ceinplcied. ami tlie Emperor .sol- eiiuilv bouml liinisell' to lead an army to the Helv Lan.I fer the re.;>tablidimeut of the kiu-dom i.lauted by Go.ltn'y in the City of Ziou.

The event allowed, however, that Frederick was slow to fulfill what he had .so readily prcinii-ed. .\ period of five years elapsed and

CXIVEliSAL HISTORY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

still he was uot leaih to ileimt iui the La-t Pope Houoiiub died and ^^a^ '^iRceeded b} Gregon IX , \\hu (_-]» u- d with zed the cn-

Hib HuhoL- excommumcated him, and finally loibade him to do the \eij thmg ^\hich he hid so lon„ utu^ed to iindeitake Thi- last

^^-;3

terijii^t which hi- pi 1. tee accomph-he<l I n l-eroi to ffo foiw nd |i\

it inedto j iiKiMiip --eem- to hi\e ainu-ed the peiTeise

tli( Till- f'leihiuk h\ tlie h\\ of coiitiadiaion, foi set-

<i-uiM.ii, I tiii_r It inu_ht l)oth the thitit- and the inter-

TEE CRUSADES.— FALL OF TEE CEOSS.

diets of the Pope, he collected a small squad- ron and departed for Palestine.

The armament with which the Emperor, still under the ban, set out on his mission con- sisted of only twenty galleys. Those who had had experience in the long-continued wars with the Infidels were excited to contempt on wit- nessing the departure of the ruler of the Ger- man Empire with such a force on such an ex- pedition. It was not long, however, until their contempt was turned into wonder at the extraordinary success which attended the arms of Frederick. Notwithstanding the anathemas of the Pope, and the unwearied eftbrts of that potentate to defeat his plans and cover him with disgrace, the Emperor made all speed to Acre, and there with his handful of soldiers prepared for the reconquest of Palestine. Both the Hospitallers and the Templars, acting un- der the commands of the Pope, withheld their support, and Frederick was left with only his own trooiis and the Teutonic knights. Such, however, was the vigor of his movements that many of the Sp'ian chivalry were impelled by a sense of shame, even against the papal in- terdict, to join their German brethren in their struggle with the Infidels.

Having made every thing secure at Acre, Frederick courageously set his forces in mo- tion toward Jaffa. Contrary to expectation, this stronghold was taken from the Turks, re- fortified, and garrisoned. It appears that Frederick, more wise than his predecessors in the Holy War, had conceived the project of playing off the sultan of Damascus against his brother of Cairo, and of gaining through their conflict of interests and ambitions what the other Crusaders had failed to reach — the recovery of Jerusalem. But before he was able to achieve any results by this shrewd policy, Coradinus died and Camel was left without a rival to contend with the German invaders. Frederick, however, was not to be put from his purpose. He pressed forward from Jafia in the direction of the Holy City, and the Infidels fell back before him. Bethle- hem, Nazareth, and other important places were taken without a battle, and so great was the alarm both in Jerusalem and in Damascus that the sultan made overtures for peace. Thus, against all expectation (unless it were his own ), Frederick found himself in a position to dic-

tate terms almost as favorable as might have been obtained by the conquerors of Danuetta. Nor has any one ever been able to discover the nature of the motives which he was able to bring to bear on the sultan to secure so fa- vorable a settlement. It was stipulated that henceforth all Christians should have free ac- cess to the Holy City ; that the Mohammedans should approach the temple on jNIoriah only in the garb of pilgrims ; that Bethlehem, Naz- areth, and other recent conquests should re- main to the Christians ; that the peace should not be broken for a period of ten years.

Great was the wrath of the Pope on hear- ing of the victory of the excummuuicated prince. The whole power of the Church was rallied to deny and explain away the signal success and good fortune of FiX'd- erick. The latter, however, was now in a position to laugh at, if not despise, his ene- mies. Preferring to consider himself unde'- the ban, he determined to celebrate his coro- nation in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Nor durst the Moslems offijr any opposition to the ceremony. The Emperor accordingly entered the city with his train of Teutonic Knights and .soldiers, and, repairing to the altar, took therefrom the crown and placed it on his head; for the patriarch of Jerusa- lem, fearing the Pope, refused to perform the crowning, nor would the Templars and Hospitallers be present at the ceremony. Thus, in the year 1229, the Fifth and least pretentious of all the Crusades terminated with complete success. The victorious Em- peror returneil t" Arrr, and then set sail for Europe, f illowed fiy tlie plaudits of his own countrymen, but jeered at and scandal- ized by the papal party throughout Palestine. It had already come to jiass that Rome looked with greater aversion and lintri'd upon a hereti- cal and disobedient Cliristiau than upon the worst of the Infidel Turks.

Such was the anger of the pajial party against him liy whom the rest(irati(in of Christian influence in the Holy Land had been achieved, that no efforts were niade to conserve the fruits of his conquests. Not satisfied with this negative policy, the ad- herents of Gregory began a series of active aggressions against Frederick, looking to the undoing of his Imperial title, and the sap-

UXIVEIiSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

plug of the loyalty ui' his suhjccts. Bitter were the jiersecutious whieli were directed against him. When the Empress lolanta died at the birth of her sou, the auti- Geriiian j.arty insisted tliat tlie child sh..uld be discarded along with its fatlicr, aud that the crown of Jerusalem should be given to ^ Alice, daughter of Isabella aud Henry of Champagne. The latter claimant went over from i'v|inis ti> Syria to set up her preten- sions, wliercup.in, in ll'oO, a civil war en- sued between her adherents aud the sup- porters of Frederick. The party of Alice had greatest numerical strength, but the | Teutonic Knights remained loyal to their Emperor, and more than counterbalanced the advantage of his enemies.

After the strife had continued for a sea- sou, a reconciliation was effected between Frederick and the Pope. The settlement was without any sincere foundation on either side, but was sufficiently meritorious to bring about a peace in Syria. But in that coun- try the mischief had already been accom- plished. More than half of the time of the truce concluded by the Emperor with Sul- tan Camel had alread}^ run to waste, and nothing had been done towards securing the conquests made by the Germans in Palestine.

Perceiving their opportunity in the quar- rels and turmoils of the Christians, the Sar- acen emirs of Syria disclaimed the compact which had been made by their sovereign, and renewed hostilities. They fell upon the outposts which had been established by Fred- erick, and drove away the defenders. Pur- suing their successes, they attacked and mas- sacred a large body of Christian Pilgrims on their way from Acre to Jerusalem. Less atrocious, but more serious in its consequences, was the defeat of the Tcnqihirs, who had undertaken an expedition aminst Aleppo. So terrible was the loss inflicted upon the KniLihts, that a considerable period elapsed lict'on- tlii'V could rally from their overthrow. One disaster followiil another, and it soon liccanie apparent tliat, unless a new Crusade should be speedily undertaken, the Holy Land would be entirely regained by the Infidels. The same Church which had so recently, by neglect and positive opposition, thwarted the efforts of Frederick for the restoration of the

Christian kingdom, now exerted itself to the utmost to organize a new expedition against the Turks. A great council was called at Spok'to, where it was resolved to reuew the Holy \Var, and the two orders of Francis- can and Dominican friars were commissioned to preacli the Crusade. It appeared, however, that the mouks were lukewarm in the cause, and it was soon known that the moneys which they procured for the equipment of armies were finding a lodgment in their own coflers aud the papal treasury at Rome.

In this way seven j-ears of precious time were squandered, and still no relief was brought to the suffering Christians of Palestine. In the interval their fortunes had constantly run from bad to worse. At last the sultan of Egypt, incited thereto partly by the news of the preparations made in Europe for renewing the war, and partly by the hope of restoring- his own influence throughout the Moslem do- minions, raised an army, marched against Jerusalem, ejected the Christians, and shut the gates of the city against them.

When the news of this proceeding was car- ried to Europe the people were everywhere aroused from their apathy. Not even the self- ish aud sordid policy of the Pojie and the uKjuks could any longer avail to check or

' divert popular indignation from its purpose.

I The barons of France and England assumed the Cross, aud in spite of j)apal ojiposition and- interdict, the Sixth Ceu.^ade was organized.

I In order to make sure that their object should

! in no -wise be thwarted the English nobles' met at Xorthampton and solemnly recorded their vows that within a year they would in ppri'on lead their forces into Palestine.

Nor were the French barons of highest rank less active and zealous in the cause. Count Thibaut — now king of Kavarre — the Dnke of Burgundy, the counts of Brittany and jMontfort were the most noble of the leaders who sprann- forward to rally their countrymen and arm them for the expedition. They even outran the English lords in the work of j)rep- arati..ii, and before the latter were well on their way the French were already at Acre preparing a campaign against the Moslems at Ascalon. The latter were driven liack, and the French, grown confident, divided their

' forces. The Count of Brittany plunged into-

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS

■the enemy's country, made his way victoriously to the very walls of Damascus, aud returned laden with booty. The effect of this success, however, was presently worse than a reverse. 'The counts of Bar and Moutfort, emulating -the fame gained by the Lord of Brittany, led their forces in the direction of Gaza, and were •disastrously routed by the Moslems. De Bar was slain aud Moutfort taken prisoner. The king of Navarre was constrained to gather up the remnants of the French army aud retreat "to Acre.

In these expeditions led by the banms of France the Hospitallers and Templars took little part. It was evident that the Knights had no sympathy with any movement by -which glory might accrue to others than them- :selves. Finding in this defection of the two military orders a good excuse for such a course, the French nobles collected their followei-s, :and taking ship from Acre returned to Europe. In the mean time the more tardy but more resolute English came upon the scene which the .coutinental lords had just abandoned. They were led by one well calculated tii achieve great victories, even by the termr of his name — Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry III. of England, and nephew to the Lion Heart. Such was the fame of the Plan- tagenet that on his arrival at Acre he was al- most immediately placed in control of the .affairs of the kingdom, and as the hopes of the Christians rose, the fears of the ^loslems were excited.

Nor was the great Earl Richard slow to avail himself of the various comlitious favora- ble to success. It happened that on his arri- val in Palestine, the sultans of Cairo aud Da- mascus had fallen into dissensions, and were pursuing diflerent policies with respect to the Christians. Richard, emboldened by a knowl- edge of this fact, at once demanded of the •emir of Karac the restoration of the prisoners taken by that high Turk in the battle of Gaza. When the emir refused or neglected to release his captives, the English forces set out towards •Jaffa to enforce compliance, but the jMoslems durst not resist cue who carried the terrible sword of Plautagenet. The prisoners were liberated before the Christians struck a blow. 'One success quickly followed another, until ■with little bloodshed all that the Crusaders had

contended for since the capture of the Holy City by Saladiu was accomplished. The hum- ble sultans made haste to renew their offers of peace. Richard acceded to their proposals, for these were all that he or the most sanguine of the Western princes could have desired. It was solemnly agreed by the Moslems that Je- rusalem, with the greater part of the territory which had belonged to the kingdom in the times of Baldwin I., should be absolutely given up to the Christians. In addition to this prime concession it was stipulated that all cap- tives held by the Turks should be liberated without ransom. Thus by a single and almost bloodless campaign, headed by the English priuce, w^ the reconquest of the Holy Land at last effected. The Crescent was replaced by the Cross in the city of David, and Richard and his barons, well satisfied with the result, departed for their homes. The immediate care of Jerusalem was left to the Patriarch of that sacred metropolis and to the Hospitallers, who undertook the rebuilding of the walls. As to the crown of the kingdom, the same was de- creed to Frederick II., who had previously assunieil the somewhat dubious honor in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher.

For the moment, it now apjicared that the epoch of the Crusades was closed with the complete triumph of the Christians. The es- sential question at issue had been decided in their favor. It happened, however, that just as this auspicious state succeeded the ceutury and a half of war, a new element was introduced into the Syrian im.blem. The story of the great invasiim of Genghis Khau and his iMonguls has already lieen recited in the j)receding volume of this work.' It is only necessary in this connection to note the fact that in the overthrow of the Persian Em- pire by the jMonguls, the Corasmius of that region were driven from their seats of power to make room for the conquerors. These Co- i^assmins made their way to the west at the very time when the victorious Earl of Corn- wall was reestablishing the kingdom of Je- rusalem. Within two years after that event, the Persian brigands, acting under the advice and guidance of the Emir of Egypt, himself justly offended by some hostilities of the Tem- ]ilars, broke into Palestine twenty thousand

'See Vol. II., Book Tenth, pp. 378,

UXIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEL'X WORLD.

btiODj^ lod iiutki the It i	1 111] 1 th 11 hKt
Bubacin -et it nxu.ht	ill ml t \\ 11 in
peace The Ho i it ilh i	h I 1 11 t \ft uc
eeeded m u t ini_ th	w ill t Jeiu lleui
and the iii\ 1 1 i iinin 1	It h duet ted thei
maieh i_ iiii t th u in	L 111 1 1 ^'*^'-l *Ji '1*'
fen>e the Km ht il in 1	11 l/i n t hn iitt
In thf A 11 1 4 il	( 1 1 nun i] ] iir
bet iL th nun 1 i ii i| iii	1 1 III 1 «nl u

th 1 11 h k (elite barbarians had II 111 1 il tme luce the dawu of liis- 1 I 1 t ti\ then cciuse, the Kuitrhts in I th M 1 m joined then- forces ; 1 mil t I Njt iiiuk common cause ( 1 I 111111 I-stu 1 casual glance iii{ HI 11 f th twr confederate ar- il 1 n t I 111 1 h \\ th • complete and

re'ii^tauce fh n t 11 wi 1 i n t Initdi n haidh ejutl 1 1\ th nil I 1 1 the M lems b\ the ainn t (t lii(\ In thi^ m «tince (_hii tnn in 1 M himmedm weietieated with no discrimination. Xor did the savages desist from their work with the destruction of human life. The churches were robbed and desecrated : the tombs, broken open and rifled ; the sacred places, profaned. Jerusalem, al- ready desolate, was converted into a waste.

( hii t an! tin Pi ij het The original antip- athi f Chi I tnn iiid AI km had given phte t-i other c n liti n f h utility in which the rid time anta in m ( f C ross and Cres- cent were forgotten.

The confederate army of Knights and Syr- ian Moslems was presently induced by the pa- triarch of Jerusalem and other zealots to risk a battle with the combined forces of Coras- mins and Egyptians. Xever was there a more

THE LRUiiADES.—FALL OF THE t'llOHS.

7(;l

complete and niiuous overthrow than that to which tlie Christians were now doomed. Tlieir entire forces were either killed or jfcattered. The Grand blasters of the Hospitaller.- and Knights Templars were both slain. Only twenty-six Knights of the Hospital, thirty- three of the Temple, and three of the Teu- tonic Order were left alive of the whole Chris- tian chivalry of Palestine. The blood-smeared and ferocious victors made haste to seize the fortress of Tiberias and Ascalou, aud every other stronghold of Eastern Christendom, with the exception of Acre. Here were gathered the fugitives from all parts of the Holy Land, as to a last rock of refuge. Nor is it likely that even this medieval Gibraltar of the East would have been able to escape the general fate but for the fortunate quarrels which broke out be- tween the Corasmins aud their Egyptian allies. But this unnatural league came to a natu- ral end. The Emir of Egypt sought a more congenial coinbiuatiou of his forces with his fellow Moslems of S3'ria. Meanwhile the bar- barous Corasmins continued to devastate the country as far as Damascus, which city they capt\ired and jiillaged. The effect of this ter- rible devastation was to arouse the half apa- thetic Jloslems from their stupor. With a heroic effort they rallied a large army, con- fronted the Corasmiu hordes in the Desert near Damascus, and routed them with tremendous slaughter. The invaders were driven entirely out of Palestine, aud Syria was relieved of her peril.

To the Christians, however, the destruction of the Corasmins brought uo advantage. The Moslems had not reconquered the Holy Land to deliver it gratis to the followers of Christ. The sway of Islam was restored in Jerusalem, and the Christian kingdom continued to be bounded by the fortifications of Acre.

As soon as this deplorable condition of affairs was known iu Europe the same scene which had been already six times witnessed in the Western states was again enacted. In 124.5 Pope Innocent IV. convened a general council of the church at Lyons, aud it was resolved to undertake another crusade to restore the Cross to the waste places of Palestine. To this end it was decreed that all wars among the secular princes of the West should be sus- pended for a period of four years, so that the

comliiued energies of all might be devoted to a great expedition against the Intidels. Again the jareachers went forth proclaiming a renewal of the conflict, aud from Norway to Spain the country resounded with the oulcrv of the monks.

In (ieruumy the old bitterness between the Emperor Frederick II. and the pai)al party had broken out afresh, and the etfbrts of the zealots to rekindle the fires of a holy war were not of much avail. Time aud again the Im- perial forces and papal troops were engaged in battles in which the aiiinio>ity of the German Knights, l)eating with battle-axe and sword around the standard - wagons of the Italian zealots, was not less fierce than were the sim- ilar conflicts of the Christians aud Islamites iu Syria. In France and England the flame of crusading enthusiasm burst foi-tli with brighter flame, and many of the greatest nobles of the two kingdoms ardently espoused the cause. Thus did William Long Sword, the Bishop of Salisbury, the Earl of Leicester, Sir Walter de Lacy, and many other English Knights, who armed themselves and their followers for the conflict. Haco, kiug of Norway, also took the Cross, aud became an ardent pro- moter of the enterprise, but before the expe- dition could depart for Syria he was induced by reasons best known to himself to abandon the cause. Most of all, however, was the cru- sading spirit revived in France, in which realm Kiug Louis IX., most .saintly of all the medie- val rulers, sjiread among all ranks of his ad- miring subjects the fire of enthusiasm. It was under his devoted leadership that the Seventh Crusahe was now undeitaken.

The island of (.Cyprus was appointed as the place f)f rendezvous. Thither, in the year 1248, repaired the barons, knights, and sol- diery of the West. King Louis, leaving his government iu charge of his mother, Blanche of Castile, departed with his warriors and became the soul of the enterprise. As in the case of the Fifth Crusade, it was resolved to make a descent on Egypt, and to conquer that country as the gateway of Syria. Nothing could more clearly illustrate the blind folly, recklessness, and infatuation of the military methods of the ]\Iiddle Ages than the c(nirse now pursued by St, Louis and his army. With a siui:ular (li.-re-;ar.l of the lesnin of the recent

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

{)ast, the Crusader.s jiruceeilol airainst Dami-

etta, there to repeat in ahiidst every particular

the blimdering disasters of the fifth expedition.

The force with whieh tlie French king set

' ^--^^'

BATTLE OF GERMAN KXIGHTS ANI Drawn Ijy N. Sanesi.

able ever seen in the East. The fleet contained eighteen hundred vessels, and the army num- bered two thousand eight hundred Knights, seven thousand men-at-arms, and about sev- enty-five tliiiusand infantry. IJut never was

an c.\i)edition attended with worse fortune. The squadron was caught in a storm and scat- tered. On arriving before Damietta the king was accompanied by only seven hundred ot his KniLihi-, ;iihl lii- other forces were < oiic-pondmgly re- hited On the shore tilt -ultau hadgath- 1 icd an immense linn to ojipose the 1 indmg ot his ene- mu- Such was the .iiia\ and such the ^\ .11 like braying of the tiunipets of la- 1 im tliat the lead- ( 1 - admonished Louii not to at- tempt debarkation until hi-> strength -hould be increased b\ the ai rival of his dispersed ships. But he was by no means to be deterred from his purpose. With a courage that would have done credit to the Lion Heart he ordered s vessels to ap- oach the shore, sprang into the waters with the ori- tlamme of France above his head, \\aded with his res- (ilute Knights through the surf, and attacked the Y^ g y p t i a n army. Such was the hero- ism of the onset that the iMoslems gave wav in dismay be- lore the incredible charge and fled, first to and then from Damietta. That city, which since its previous caiitiirc liy tlii' Christians had been converted into a >tioiiL:li"M, was taken without serious resistance, but the Infi- dels, before retreatiiiLr, set fire to th

commer-

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

cial portion of the emporium, and the flames destroyed all that was most valuable tn the captors.

It was the peculiarity of the military tem- per of the Islamites of the thirteenth century that they sometimes fled from shadows and sometimes fought like the lious of the desert. There was still in them a residue of that fiery valor which they had displayed in the days of Omar the Great. At the present juncture, after flying from a fortress which they might

Christians found themselves closely invested and in danger of extermination. It was well for them that their scattered fleet, most of which had been driven into Acre, now ar- rived with reinforcements. At the same time William Long Sword and his English chivalry reached Damietta, and joined themselves to the forces of King Louis. The French, thus strengthened, might have sallied forth with a strong prospect of raising the siege and scat- tering the Moslem array.

r"

=i-^i«?#-j;fe£?^^^^

LANDING OF S.MNT LOUIS IN EGYPT.

easily have defended, they suddenly turned about in great force, and the Christian army in Damietta was in its turn besieged. The Sultan Nejmeddin, great-nephew of Saladin, now occupied the throne of Eg^-pt; nor did he fail to exhibit those sterling qualities as a soldier which niiirbt have been expected in one of so heroic a lineage. Himself suffering fi'om disease, he hastened to Damietta, put to death fifty of his officers for having in so cowardly a manner given up the city to the invaders, took command in person, and soon reversed the fortunes of the campaign. The

Much valuable time was wasted in inac- tion. At length it was resolved by the Chris- tians to make their exit up that branch of the Nile on which Damietta was located, and force their way to Cairo. As soon as the Sloslems discovered the movement, they threw their forces along the river, and strenuously op- posed the progress of King Louis's army. After much hard fighting, the Christians reached Mansoura. Here a terrible conflict ensued. Before the city could be taken, it was necessary that the Crusaders slioiild cross the AshnK.un canal, and this was held bv the

UNIVERSAL mSTORY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

\w>t lit' the I.-^huiiile w the Count nf Arti.i king, jiutlifriiiu' am the Kiiiglus of Jm ceeded in forcing lii tlie verv faee of tht H.mI into Mai.-.ura. art.-.l with .li~r,vli.

At hist, however, V of the French 1 the bravest of ml France, suc- !■<.- the canal in who turned and ronnt had now

well; lint, in-l. ;i.l of yi. Ming to the prudent counsels of Williani Long Su.inl and other cool-li,ad,(l l.adri-, he ra-hly and impetli- ou-lv pin-Mird tho flying f.H- into the town. The otlirr Knights, not to he shamed by his valor, pre.-.-ed after him, and the whole disor- gauized mass of mingled ^loslems and Chris- tians rolled through the gates of Mansoura.

lu a short time the Infidels perceived the folly of their pursuers, and made a rally in overwhelming numbers. He of Artois and his ra-h followci-s found themselves surrounded. Valor availrd not. The count himself, Long ^word. and the (n-and ilaster of the Templars, were all either killed outright, or hewed down in blood. The Grand Master of the Hospitallers was taken prisoner ; nor would any of the force have escaped but for the opportune arrival of the king with the main army. The Christians succeeded in holding ]\Iansoura, but the vic- tory was comparatively fruitless.

At this juncture Nejmeddiu died, and the sultanate passed to his son; but, before the latter was well seated on the throne, the pow- erful Bibars, general of the ^Mamelukes, ob- tained the direction of affairs, and presently took the crown for himself. Under his direc- tion, the Egyptians now took up their galleys from the Nile above the Christian camp, and drew the .same ovcrlanil to a position between the Cru.?aders and Damhtta. In this wise, the army of King Louis was left in precisely the same predicament as the Knights of the Fifth Crusade had been aforetime. In a brief period famine was added to the horrors of disease in the French camp, and it became evident that, unless a retreat could be effected to Damietta, the whole fiive woulil be destroyed. Daily the aiidacioii< Intid.ls. emboldened by the near prospect (if surciss. narrowed their lines and renewed their a>sanlts on the failing Chris- tians. When tlie latter began their retreat, the vietoriou- ^fovlcni- eaiitured the camp.

the stragglers were cut off, and the main bcjdy \\a< tiirowu into confusion, overwhelmed, annihilati-d. King Louis and his two re- maining brothers, the counts of Aujou and Poitiers, together with a few other nobles, Were taken prisoners, but the remainder, to the nunilier of at least thirty thousand, were massacred without mercy.

The son and suceeJs.,r of Xejmeddin was named T.mran 8hah. By him 'King Louis and his fellow captives were treated with some consideration, and negotiations were opened with a view to securing the ransom of the prisoners. But, before the terms of liberation could be carried into effect, a revo- lution broke out in Egypt by which the lives of the captives were brought into imminent peril. The Mamelukes, that fierce baud of Turcoman horsemen, revolted against the government, and Touran Shah was slain. His death was the extinction of that Kur- dish dynasty which had been established by Saladin, in place of which was substituted a Mameluke dynasty, beginning in 1250 with the chieftain Bibars.

At length avarice prevailed over the thirst for blood, and Louis should be liberated for the fortress of Damietta, which was still held by the Christians, and that all his living fol- lowers should be redeemed for four hundred thousand livres in gold. In order to obtain the first installment of the ransom, the sor- rowing but still saintly warrior-king was obliged to borrow the requisite sum from the Knights Templars. Damietta was sur- rendered to the Moslems, and Louis, with the shattered remnant of his forces, took ship for Acre.

]Most of the French barons and knights, however, considering their vows fairly ful- filled by their sufferings in Egypt, sought the first opportunity to return home. As to the king, no such course was to be thought of His pride and religious zeal both for- I bade his retirement from the lands of the Turk until he had done something to re- quite the Infidels for the destruction of his army. Entering Acre, the pious monarch at once set about the work of reorganizing the small band of warriors who still adhered to hi< fallen fortunes. Of those who had I survived the ill-starred expedition, and of resi-

,T OF ARTOIS IN TUF HATTLK i<V M \N I Ivl

L'XirERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

dent Christian soklier.s iu rak-.stiiie, he col- lected an aruiy of nearly four thousand men, but with this handful he was uuable to under- take any important campaign. Nevertheless, his energies were successfully directed to the scarcely less essential work of repairing the fortifications of the few places over which the Christians could still claim authority. The walls and fortress of Acre were greatly strengthened, and Cesarea, Jaffa, and Sidon put in a state of tolerable defense. In this way the king succeeded, in the course of four years, in making more secure the little that wa.s left of the Latin kingdom in the East.

The hopes of Louis grew with the occa- sion. The Egyi)tiau and Syrian Moslems quarreled and went to war. S(i bitter was the feud between the new Mameluke dynasty and the adherents of the Kurdish House at Damascus, that the French king was able to obtain from the former the release of all his prisoners still remaining unransomed with the sultan of Cairo. Jlore hopeful still was the promise which he secured from that ]ioteutate of a recession of Jerusalem to the Christians. Nor is it to be doubted that, if the war be- tween Egypt and Syria had continued, the king would have accomplished a great part of what all Christendom had fought and prayed for for more than a hundred and fifty years.

But the early reconciliation of the warring Moslems served to bla.st all expectation of .so happy a result. The sultans not only made peace but combined their forces to crush the rising hopes of the Syrian Christians. The latter were so feeble in numbers that no suc- cessful stand could be made against the Infi- del hosts that ha<l gathered on every hand. All the fortresses, excejit that of Acre, were again given up to the Moslems, and even the gates of that stronghold were threatened by the triumphant soldiers of the Crescent. At length, however, the Islamites withdrew with- out seriously attempting the reduction of Acre, and this movement on their part, together with the news which was now borne to Syria of the death of the king's mother, gave him good excuse fir rctii-iiiL' fmni the unc(|ual ron- quest. In V1:A lir t<..>k >V\\< at \rv,-. and the Seventh Crusade wa> at an md.

Though in a iiiaiiiKi- barren nt' jui^itivc re- sidts, the exiieditiMU df Saint Li.ui- in Tali--

tine had done much to shore up the tottering fabric of the Christian kingdom. Perhaps, if he had iu his turn been well sujiported by the states of the West and by the three great Or- ders of Knights, a more permanent result might have been achieved. But the Templars and Hospitallers had now forgotten their vows and given themselves up to the mercenary and self- ish spirit of the times, to the extent that the Cro.ss was shamed rather than honored Ijy their support. ^loreover, a state of atiairs had su- j)erveued in the West unfavorable to the main- tenance of the Christian cause. The Venetians, Genoese, and Pisans had fallen into such bit- ter rivalries as to preclude any possibility of a united effort in any enterprise. These peo- ples had grown wealthy and cosmopolitan, and had ceased to care about the ditterent religions of the world. It was enough that those with whom they held intercourse should desire mer- chandise and possess the means of purcha.se. For these and many other reasons the discour- agement to the cause of Eastern Christianity was extreme, and all who were at once thought- ful and not blinded by religious fanaticism could but see in the near future the probable and final expulsion of the Christians from the remaining fortresses still held by them in Syria. As soon as the new Mameluke sultan Bibars was firmly seated on the throne of Egypt, he began a career of conquest. He made expe- ditions into the Moslem states of Syria, and compelled them to submit to his sway. He then carried his ravages into the territories .still nominally belonging to the kingdom of Jerusalem. This movement served the good purpose of hushing for the moment the dis- sensions of the Templars and Hospitallers who had recently been breathing out threats of mutual destruction. They now united their ho.<tile forces, and did as much as valor might to resist the overwhelming forces of the sultan. As a grn. ral rule tlir Knight- f.ii-lit t.i the last, rcl'uMii- to a|».-tatize. dying rather than aban.JMii the faitli. In ll'ii'i a liody <if ninety of theM. invinriMe ^^-M■v\<>v- del'ended the fort- ress (it A/j.tus until the last man was killed. Till' Ti'inplars aeted with as much bravery as they of the Hns|iital. In the year following the ea]iture i.t' A /..it Us, the jirior of the Order nt the Teniple made a courageous defense of .•^a|ilioiii\ , and finally capitulated on a promise

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

of honorable treatment. Sultan Bibars, how- ever, violated his pledge, and gave his prison- ers their option of death or the acceptance of Islam. All chose death, and gave up their lives as a seal to their fidelity. Before the year 1270, all the inland castles belonging to the Orders, including the fortresses of Cesarea, Laodicea, and Jaffa, had been taken by the In- fidels. At last, in 1268, the city of Antloch was captured by the ]\Iamelukes. Many thou- sands of the Christians were massacred, and no fewer than a hundred thousand sold into slavery. For a while it seemed that Acre it- self would share the fate of the Syrian cap- ital ; but the opportune arrival of the king of Cyprus, and the still more opportune preva- lence of the tempest in which the Egyptian fleet was well-nigh destroyed, postponed for a season the final catastrophe.

Such was the imminent doom now impend- ing over the Christian power in the East that the Eomish See was at last awakened from its slumbers. The news of the capture of Anti- och produced something of the same shock in Western Christendom which had been felt on so many previous occasions. The zeal of Pope Clement IV. cooperated with the devotion of Saint Louis to revive the flagging cause. Nev- ertheless so completely had the impulses of fanaticism abated that three years were con- sumed in preparation before the now aged French king was able to gather the armies of the Eighth Crusade, and set out for the East. On the 4th of July, 1270, the expedi- tion departed from the port of Aigues-Mortes, and came to Sardinia. Here it was deter- mined— such being the king's own wish in the premises — to make a descent on the coast of Africa with a view to the conquest of Tunis. For it was believed that both the king of this country and his subjects might be converted to Christianity.

Such was the extraordinary nature of this enterprise that many of King Louis's barons tried to dissuade him from the project. But the piety of the king, backed as it was by the interested motives of his brother Charles of Anjou, now king of Xaples and Sicily, proved superior to all objections, and on the 24th of July the squadron was brought to an- chor in the harbor of ancient Carthage.

At this epoch the kingdom of Tunis was

torn by faction. The royal or Saracenic jiarty was opposed by the Berbers. It appears that King Louis had hoped to prolit liy this dissen- sion and by espousing the cause of the Sar- acen ruler to bring him and his countrymen to Christianity. The presence of the French army, however, had the effect to heal the breach in the African kingdom, and both par- ties made common cause again.st the invaders. The king of Tunis raised a powerful army to drive his officious friends into the sea. He desired neither them nor their religion. For the time no general battle was fought. Both parties avoided it. The Moors knew, and the Christians soon came to know that the climate of that sun-scorched region would avail more than the sword in the destruction of a Euro- pean arm}'.

Pestilences broke out in the camp of the Crusaders. The soldiers died by hundreds and then by thousands. The air became laden with poisonous vapors. The dead lay unbur- ied, for the living were sick. Many of the noljlest of France yielded to the blight. The counts of Vendome, La Marche, Gaultier, and Nemours, and the barons of I\Ioutmorency, Pienne, and Bressac, sickened and died. The king's fiu-orite sou, the Duke of Nevers, fol- lowed them to the land of shadows, and then Saint Louis himself fell before the destroyer. The few who remained alive eagerly sought to save themselves by flying from the horrid situation and returning to France.

In the mean time, however, another train of circumstances had been laid which led to a continuance of the Crusade after the death of King Louis and the ruin of his army. The barons of England, also, hearing of the fall of Autioch, had felt a generous pang and taken the cross for the rescue. Prince Edward Plan- tagenet, son of Henry III., and heir of the English crown, rallied his nobles to aid the French in the salvation of the Christian states of the East. He was supported in the work by five of the great earls of England, and a fdi-cc (if lords and knights numbering about a tliini-antl. With this .small but spirited army Edward set out from the kingdom which he was soon to inherit, and landing on the Afri- can coast joined himself and his brave follow- ers with the army of King Louis to aid in the conquest of Tunis. The French forces, how-

UMVERSAL HISTORY.-THE MODF.nx WORLD.

'• ciuimie the Crusade by embarking for the

ever, were already in the pan-s of di.vH.Imiun and when, after tlie death and funeral ..t Saint Louis, Edward an.l hi- .arl.^ trird t, persuade the siek and ilvin- M.Jdi^ r- ,,r Fi,,,,

East, tliey^ refused to proceed. Kot so, how-

ever, the Enorlish. With a steady

Iiarl,,|l„.irrar,.

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

to Palestine and thus redeem the Eighth Cru- sade from taihire.

lu the autumn of 1270 Edward and his ■warriors arrived at Acre. The Christians of that forlorn outpost of the Cross were greatly inspirited by the coming of their English friends, led by one who bore the terrible name of Plautagenet. The Moslems conceived a wholesome dread of the Knights, -who had just arrived from the AVest. The Sultan Bibars, Avho was already before the gates of Acre, retired in haste when he learned that Edward Pkmtagenet was in the fortress. The scattered Christian warriors of Palestine sought shelter and a renewal of confidence by gathering around the English standard. Prince Edward thus succeeded iu rallying a force of about seven thousand warriors, and with this small army went boldly forth to encounter the hosts of Islam.

Marching iu the directi(m of Xazareth the Crusaders soon fell in with a division of the ^loslems, whom they defeated and dispersed. Proceeding to the boyhood home of Christ they took the town by storm and slaughtered the inhabitants with an excess of ferocity which might well have signalized the deeds of the first Crusaders. The Christians took up their station in Nazareth, but were almost im- mediately attacked with dreadful diseases, more fatal than the swords of the Moslems. Hun- dreds of the small army fell victims to the pestilence. The prince himself fell sick, and while confined to his couch was assailed by cue of the Assassins. The wretch, under pre- tense of giving Edward important information, gained access to his tent, and while the latter was reading the pretended credentials attacked him with a poisoned dagger. Plantagenet, however, was not to be extinguished by a mur- derer. Springing from the couch he seized his assailant, threw him to the earth, and transfixed him with his own weapon. The prince's physician then excised the poisoned wounds of the prince and his vigorous consti- tution prevailed over both his injuries and the pestilence. So greatly, however, were his scanty forces wasted that a further continuance of the conflict seemed out of the question.

The news now came from England that King Henry IH. was sick unto death, and the prince's presence was necessary to the

l)eace of the realm. Hr u.-c.nliugly d,,t,.r- miued to avail liiiiisilf of tlu' civiTtiuo made by the sultan, who perhaps m.t knowing the condition of Edward and his handlul of war- riors, and entertaining for tlicm a sahitarv respect had j)nn)osed a truce tni- a ]ii rind df ten yrars. A settlement was aiToidin-lv made on this liasis, and after a residence of Inuite.n months Prince Edward retired from Pale-tine. The success of his camj)aign had been such as to secure another resjiite to the tottering fabric of Christianity in Syria.

Ill the year 1274 the Pope's li-ate in Pal- estine, the Count Tliibaut. was elected to the papal throne with the title of (iregory X. Himself familiar by Imig and i)aiiiful oliser- vation with the deploiablc condition of Chris- tian attiiirs in the Holy Land, he at .mee re- solved to lio as much a> hiy in tlir power of the pontitt' to n.use the states of Ivirope from

of his elevation to the papacy, convoked the second council of Lyons, and there exerted him- self to the utmost to induce another iijirising of the people. The efloit was in vain. Tiiough several of the secular princes pr(jniisc(l to lend their aid in a new movement to the I^ast, their pledges remained unfulfilleil, and with the death of the Pope two years afterwanls the whole enterprise came to naught.

For eight years the Syrian Christians re- mained unmolested. This <ibservaiice by the JNInslems of the treaty made with Prince Edward was due, however, rather to the dis- •sensions of the Islamites than to any considera- tion of a compact which they knew the Cliri.s- tians to be unable to enforce. After the death of Frederick II., in the year 1250, the crown of Jerusalem had been conferred on Hugh of Lu.signan, king of Cyprus, though his claim to the mythical dignity was controverted by Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily. The latter by his recent victory over Count Manfred of Xai>les, whom he defeated and slew in the decisive battle of Beuevcnto, had become the leading actor in the afiliir^ of Italy. Tlie new sovereign was, howevi-r, so fai- as liis Syrian dominions were concerned, a nicic pliaiitfun. No attempt was made by him to r.covcr the Holy City or any other of the lost possessions of Christendom in Asia. Indeed, the Latin power ou the coast existed only by sufl'erance. In

UyiVKHSAL IlIHTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

ef.a-e the	expiration of the
u traders own- :ui.!	[living their voca- villa-f- of Pales-

sak-in, wa.s taken and garrisoueil by the Mos- lem.*. From year to year he continued his aggressions until the mere foothold in the for- tress ot Ariv \-;i- nil that remained under the ^^^^^ -^-^^^^ shadow of the I'ro.ss

i3Wt -' -^=0- in Syria.

It was a strange siiectaele even in

•auding Christians. After demanding re- ■s and obtaining none, the sultan of Egypt

sliort the existing order by raising an y and renewing the eonfliet. The Latin [losls were cut off one by one until Trijioli,

last remainips fief of the erowii of .lei-u-

the Christians thus 1 1 nt up in a single t( «u, still display- ing the spirit of i_'jiession. It is the duty of History to lecord that the

I i^t Crusaders iu Palestine were as bla^e and reckless a^ the first. Kot- withstanding their feebleness, these htiange warriors of the Middle Ages a\ ailed themselves

I I e\ ery opportu- L\\U to sally forth and attack the Mos- lem merchants T\hom chance or in- t icst drew into the \Rinity of Acre. Ihi^lioliey wascon- tnuit 1 until the.Sul- tui Khatil, then

enn^ed at the au- d leIt^, not to say 1 tifidv, of these re- ni lining soldiers of the Cross, swore liy tilt name of Allah and his Prophet that he would ex- terminate the last Christian dog within the limits of his dominions. He accordingly drew out an immense army of two hundred thou- sand men, and in 1291 pitched his camp before the walls of Acre.

Perhaps at this time there was gathered

F\F\TO

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF THE CROSS.

of Eunipi

•e.l

within tlie defenses of the hi>t :^tn>nL:h'il<l of

Christendom in Palestine siieli a ni,hinfir,>{'\ plf

as never before or since was ei'ii^riL:at(.d in a city. Almost every nati<. represented in the multiti the streets. So great was the diversity of tongues, races, and n'liuii'iis that seventeen independent tribunals were instituted in tlie alleged administration of justice. It was Gog and ^lagog with the immense throng between whom and the swords of Khatil's Mamelukes only the walls and towers of Acre interposed.

Such was the distraction of counsels prev- alent in the city, that no adequate measures of defense cotdd be carried into eflect. The ramparts were imperfectly defended, and the crowds of non-combatants soon came to under- stand that safety lay in the direction of escape. In a short time the ships in the harbor were crowded with those who were fortunate enough first to perceive the situation and avail them- selves of the opportunity. This' process of debarkation went on steadil}' until it appeared that Acre would be left without an inhabitant. But the knights of the three military orders and a few other warriors, to the number of about twelve thousand in all, showed a differ- ent mettle.

Perhaps nothing more heroic has been wit- nessed in the annals of warfare than the reso- lute and unwavering courage displayed by this band of European and Syrian chivalry in de- fending the last fortress of Eastern Christen- dom. For thirty-three days they manned the ramparts against Khatil and his twenty myri- ads of Mamelukes. With ever increasing ve- hemence the Moslems leveled their destroying engines against the tottering walls and towers. At last an important defense, known by the name of the Cursed Tower, yielded to the as- sailants, and went down with a crash. The breach thus effected in the defenses opened into the heart of the city. Then it was that Hugh of Lusignan, whom the folly of the times still designated as king of Jerusalem, gathering together a baud of friends and favorites, fled in the darkness, went on shipboard, and left the city to its fate. But the Teutonic Knights, scorning the conduct of the royal poltroon, ral- lied in the breach with an energy born of hero- ism rather than despair, and beat back the Mos- lems with terrible slaughter. The latter rallied

again and again to the charge, and at last the lil.Miling Knights, reduced to a handful, were .A-rilM,i-iic by the Infidel host, and hurled baek- wanls fn.m their post of o|,u-y. In pourr.l tlie savage tides of victoriou> l-laiii, liungry ior blocid and revenge. Thr few iiilialiitauts wh(v remained in the city \\v\f quickly butchcrcil or seized as slaves. In the hist liours, the surviv- ing Knights of the Hospital and the Temi)le shared the dying glory of the Teutonic chiv- alry. Sallying forth from the parts of tlie defenses which had been assigned to their keeping, they chargcMl upon the Moslems, and fought till only svven of the gallant band re- mained to tell the tale of destruction. This remnant of an Order which it is impossible not to admire for its stubliorn exhibition of mediieval virtues gained the coast, and, with good reason, considering that their monastic vows had been fulfilled, saved themselves by embarkation.

For three days after the assault and capture of the city, the surviving Templars defended themselves in their monastery. Here their Grand blaster, Pierre de Beaujeu, one of the bravest of the brave, was killed by a poisoned arrow. His comjianions continued the defense until the sultan, nut uiia|i[ireciative of such heroism, granted thcui hounralile terms of ca- jiitulation. No sooner, hourvcr, hail they sur- rendered than they were assailed with jeers and insults by the infuriated ^Mamelukes, who could hardly be restrained. Enraged at this treatment, the Knights attacked their enemies with redoubled fury, ami fought until they were exterminated almost h> a man. A few, escaping into the interior, continued to smite every Moslem whom they met, until finally, re- turning to the coast, they took ship and sailed for Cyprus.

Such was the last act of the drama. The few ('hristians still clinging to the coast towns of Syria iiiailc their esca|ie as soon as possible, and left the savage ^laiiielukes in complete pos- ses.^ion of the cnuntry. .\fter a continuance of a hundred ami ninety-niie years, the con- test between the Cmss and tlie Crescent had ended in a complete re>tiiratinii of the am'ieiit m/imt through,.ut Syria an.l Asia .Minoi'. The setnilune of Islam was again in the ascendent. The hardy virtues of the races of Western and Nortliern Europe had not been, perhaps could

UNIVERSAL IIISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

uot be, transplanted to the liirthplace of that religious system under the influence of which the Crusader.-- had fluiii;- themselves upon the East. The eolhipse was llital. The spirit, which had so many times iiilhumd the zeal and pas- sion of Europe, Ikk! rxpireil, and cnuld he no more evoked from the sliaduus. Spasmodic- ally, at intervals, for a period of niore than fifty years after the fall of Acre, the voice of the Popes was heard, calling on lethargic Chris- tendom to lift again the standard of the Cross in Palestine. But the cry fell on deaf ears. The nations would agitate no more ; and the j)icture, drawn with such vivid effect in the prei-eding century, of the profane and tur- baned Turk performing his orgies on the tomb of Christ, kindU'<l no more forever the insane fanaticism of the Christians of the West.

It is appropriate in this connection to add a few paragraphs on the effects which followed the Crusades as their antecedent and cause. It is a difficult question on which to express such a judgment as will fairly reconcile the conflict- ing views of those writers who have essayed the discussion. It is natural, in the first place, to look at the relative position and strength of the combatants 'after the conflict was en<led. In general, it may be said that neither Islam nor Christianity was much retarded or pro- moted by the issue of the almost two ceutu- i-ies of wiir. The prospects of the Crescent in Syria and Asia Minor were nearly the same after the fliU of Acre as they had been before the Council of Clermont. The Crusades failed to alter the established condition of Asia ; and it is to be doubted whether, taken all in all, the downfall of Constantinople was cither greatly delayed or promoted by the Holy Wars.

The same may be said of the religious con- dition of Europe. The Mohammedans fought to maintain a status; and to that extent they were successful. But tlii'V seem never to have contemplated llic> invasion of tlie Chri-tiaii continent as a me:i>uic of retaliation. It was sufficient that the soldiers of the C'ro.ss were expelled from Palestine, and limited to such intestine strifes as were native to their own

As to religious o|iiiiioiis, a larger change was effected. At the be-inning of the con- iiiet, both Christians ami Mohammedans en- terlaiiKMJ for each other's beliefs and practices

an indescribable abhorrence. A mutual hatred more profound than that with which the first Crn.^aders and the Infidels were inflamed can hardly be imagined. The fanaticism and liigdtry ot' tiie Christians was more intense in jiroportion as they were more ignorant than the Islamites. They believed that Moham- med was the Devil, or, at least, that Anti- christ whom to exterminate was the first duty and highest privilege of Christian warriors. By degrees, however, this insane frenzy passed away, and was replaced with a certain respect for an enemy whom they found more intelli- gent and less bloody-minded than themselves. From the time of the Third and Fourth Cru- sades it was easy to perceive a change of sen- timent afl'ecting the conduct of the combat- ants. Their battles were no longer mere massacres of the vanquished by the victors. Saladin himself, though .still in a measure under the influence of savage Islam, set the example of a more humane and tolerant spirit. Ill somi- degree his conduct was emu- lated by tiie Cliristians, and the later years of the war were marked by less atrocity and fewer butcheries.

The altered .sentiments of the Crusaders and the ^Moslems are easily discoveralile in the tone assumed by the earlier and later writers who followed the Chri-lian armies. In the older chronicles there i,- .litfus,.! on every page the intense hatred of the author. It is mani- fest that they write of peoples wliom they had not yet seen, of beliefs which they did not understand, of institutions and practices which they had not witnessed. They detest the J\Io- jiammedans as if they were monsters, dogs, devils. P>ut in the later annals of the Crusades there is a change of tone and opinion. The Moslems are no longer the savage and inhuman beasts which they had been represented to be by the earlier historians. The Christians had eome to understand and to a certain degree to appreeiati- tlu' ideas and social customs of the Islamites. Friendly relations spiam:- up in the intervals between the succes>ive ('lu-mle-, and it is doubtless true that the Cliri-tian .Iwellers in the Holy Land freipiently heard with regret and grief the ]iremonitory mutterings of an- other outbreak, by which their moiety of jieace was to lie swept away. Besides this, the later (.'luistian chroniclers have words of uraise not

THE CRUSADES.— FALL OF TEE CROSS.

773

few or stinted for the great ilohammedau lead- ers with whom they had become acquaiuted. Bernard le Tresorier pronounces a glowing eulogium on the character of Saladin, and William of Tyre praises Noureddin in a strain ■of equal commendation. It is evident that by the close of the thirteenth century the opinions of that part of Christendom which had come into actual contact with Islam had undergone a radical change. There are not wanting Chris- tian writers of the epoch who go to the length of drawing unfavorable comparisons between the manners, customs, and institutions of their own people in the West and those of the more refined Mohammedans. The historical treatises and letters of the later Crusaders are thus found to express sentiments and opinions which would have been horrifying in the last de- gree to the contemporaries of Godfrey and Baldwin.'

It will be seen, then, that the general ten- dency of the Crusade was, so far as ideas and beliefs were concerned, in the direction of the emancipation of the human mind. Though the Holy Wars were begun under the impulse of religious fanaticism, though they were con- tinued for the express purpose of making re- ligious zeal the criterion of human character and conduct, yet year by year the despotic sway of that fanaticism and zeal was loosened and the mind set free in wider fields of activ- ity. The change of place and scene had a marvelous effect upon the rude imaginations and confined beliefs of the Crusaders. They saw Rome, the mother of mysteries. They saw Constantinople, the wonder of two continents.

' The following paragraphs from Sir John ^Man- deville will illustrate the altered tone of the later Christian writers relative to manners and merits of the Moslems. Sir John thus, in 1.356, narrates the story of his interview with the sultan, and of the sentiments which they interchanged:

" And therefore .shall I tell you what the sul- tan told me one day in his chamber. He sent out of the room all manner of men, both lords and others, for he would speak with me in private : And there he asked me in what manner the Chris- tian folk govern themselves in our country. And I answered liim, ' Right well ; thanks to God.' And he replied, ' Indeed not so; for the Christian people do not know how to serve God rightly. You should give pxample to the lewd folk to do well. V>nt yr.ii L'ivr thcin rxMiiiple to do evil. For your v"'"!'!"' n|"'U iV-tival days when they should gn to chun-h to s.-ivi- ( <in\, then go they to taverns,

They .«aw Jerusalem, and found it only a Syrian town hallowed by nothing save its associations. They observed the riches and elegant manners of the Moslems, and thus by degrees were weaned from the domination of those ideas which had impelled them to take the Cross.

As to the Papal Church, the influence of the Crusades was more baleful than beneficial. There is no doubt that the ambition of Greg- ory was sincere ; nor are we at liberty to sup- pose that Urban II. was actuated by other than a true zeal for the honor of the Cross. But the Holy Wars had not long continued until the Popes discovered in the situation a vast source of profit to themselves and the Church. The principle of a monetary equiv- alent for military service was admitted, and it became the custom with the Crusaders to pay into the papal treasury large sums as a satis- faction for unfulfilled vows. This usage, if not the actual beginning, was at least the pow- erful excitant and auxiliary of the sale of in- dulgences by the Church. The principal of buying exemption from military service was extended to other classes of service ami duty: and the plan of purchasing the removal of penalties, both past and prospective, became almost universally prevalent.

Another fatal consequence flowing to the Church from the Crusades was the subsequent misdirection of the zeal and fanaticism which she had evoked against the Infidels. When papal Europe ceased to agitate against the Moslems, it became a i|uestion with the Popes to what end tlie forces whirh ha<l been ex- pending themselves in warfare with the Turks

and remain there in gluttony all day and all night, eating an<l drinking as lieasts that have no reason, and wit not when they have enough.' .... And then he calloil in all the lords whom he had sent out of his cliamlur and there he showed me four that were graudn's in that country; and these told me of my ccunitry and of many other Christian countries as truly as if they had been there themselves. And they spake French right well ; and the s\iltan also, wliereof I had great marvel. Alas! it is a great scandal to our faith and our law when they that are without the law do thus reprove and underrate us on account of our sins. And truly they have good reason. For the Saracens are ijood and faithful. For tliey keep ])erfectly thi' commandment of the Holy Book .\I-K(irau. whirh God sent them by his messenger M"liani i\. to whom, as they .«ay, God often re- vealed his will by the angel Gabriel."

(\\IVi:];SAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

cousuiued-

oi)en

.1 nut wholly

t\v(i channels

■1' ami private

rivtical. The

th.

ipremacy of the ]'al.-r riie horrid crueltir,< turies Europe \va.s td

', were reteralile m a xpired and nialitrnaut It;- rpoeh, niisdireeted

ently en^ned, every circumstanee lavored the eanse i>f a^pirini: rnvaltv as atrainst that of the frudal n.ihles.

iStill more striking, however, was the influ- ence of the Crusades in promoting the growth and develojjnieut of the free municipalities of Europe. First of all did the maritime Kepub-

■1 th.

■tns

tud

jected for opinini large measure t" energies of the ( against the eleari science of the age.

Among the political etlects of the Cru- sades, the most marked and important was the stimulus given to monarchy at the ex- pense of leudalism. At the outlnvak of the Holy Wars, Europ,. was fen.lal ; at tli.-ir close, she had become monarchic. Not that feudal- ism was extinct; not that monarchy was com- pletely triumphant; but the beginning of the new ordei- of things had been seeni-ely laid, ami thi' extinetiim of the old system was .mly a tjuestiou (if time. The events whieli led to this residt are easily apprelien.h.d. The Cru- sades were the very whe.d under which feu- dalism mi-lit be most eflectually crushed. The movement at the first was headed by feudal barons, but there was a survival of the fittest. Th.- littest l.,.-ame kings. The rest sank out of sight. AVhile the Crusades were thus bringing princes to the front, a process of transformation was going on in the home .states, out of which the pilgrim warrioi-s had lieeii recruited. Here the smaller il.-fs wen> rapidly aliM.rbe,! in the larger. The great and powerful barons -jrew towards the kingly estate, and {hv f.-eble lords lo.st their importance with their lands. At the close of the Crusades, the kings of the Western states found themselves op]Msed by a less numerous nobility ; and many of the surviving grandees were barons of low^ degree, or knights of shreds and patches. In the contest that pres-

L;realne>s under the agitati(jn of the Northern stales. It is in the nature of war that it makes heavy drafts upon commerce and raanufac- tiucs. The latter produce and the former cnn veys to the destined field the arms, muni- tions, and enginery necessary to the success of tlie ixpedition. Before the Council of Cler- mont the Italian Republics had already grown to such a stature that they were ready to avail themselves of every opportunity to get gain. During the i)rogress of the Holy Wars these- sturdy niaritime states sprang forward with rapid strides and took their place among the- leadiug ]».wers of the West. The general up- heaval of Europi'an society contributed won- derfully to the pro.-perity and influence of the seafaring republicans who, caring but little for the j)rineijiles involved between the Christian l)arons and the Moslems, were ready with ships and merchandise to serve whoever would jiay for the use of their wharves and fleets. Dur- ing the latter half of the thirteenth century i nearlj' all the pilgrimages and ex|)editious to the East were conducted in Venetian vessels, tlioueh the ships of Pisa and Genoa competed with iheii- more prosperous rivals for the car- rying tiade with the ports of Syria, Egypt, and .V.-ia Minor. The squandered wealth lifted l>y religious fanaticism from the j)roducts of the peasant labor of France, England, and Germany iouiid its way to the Venetian mer- chants, and into the swollen coflers of the Ro- mish See.

Not only did the crusading expeditions inure to the benefit of the Italian Republics, b\it also to the general commerce of the West- ern states. The naval enterprises were con- ducted with so great success by the merchant sailors of Italy that trading-ports were estab- lished in the Levant, into which were poured and out of -which were exported the riches of the Orient. ^Merchandising became the most profitable of all pursuits. Not only the cities of Italy, but those of Germany, of England,.

THE CIIUSADES.—FALL OF THE CBOSS.

and of the North of Eurui)f, f^lt the life-giviii.u imjjulses of the new cotuinerce established with the East, No other circumstauce between the time of the dowufiill of the Roman Emjjire of the West aud the (h)ul)le discovery of the New World aud an all-water route to India, did so much to revivi' tin' (lni-niant (•iiiiiniri-cial spirit of Europe as did the Ilwly ^\■ars of the twelfth aud thirteenth centuries.

Perhaps the influence of the Crusades, as it respects the diffusion of the learning of the East, has been overestimated. It has been the custom of writers to draw an analogy be- tween the effects of the con<inests of Alexan- der the Great an,l th..-e which followed the ■establishment nf tlie Latin kingdom in the East. A closer examination of the facts de- sti'oys the parallel. The comparative barbar- ity of the Crusaders, their want of learning .and complete depravity of literary taste, for- bade the absorption by them of the intellectual wealth of the peoples whom they concpiered. JSven in Constantinople the French liamns and knights appear not to have been afli?cte(l by the culture and nfinenieiit of the city. Only their cupidity was excited by the splemhir and literary treasures of the Eastern metropolis. It does not appear that the Crusaders, even the most enlightened of the leaders, were suf- ficiently interested in the possibilities of the .situation to learn the language of the Crreeks. The literary imagination of the invaders and •conquerors of Palestine seem not to have been excited in the midst of scenes which might have been suj^posed to be the native sources •of inspiration. Poetry followed not in the wake of those devastating excursions. Art •came not as the fruit of war-like agitation, or to commemorate the exploits of mediteval heroes.

Perhaps the greatest single advantage flo\v- ing from the Crusades was the establishment •of intercour.«e between the Asiatic ami the European nations. Hitherto the peoples of the East and the West had lived in almost complete ignorance of each other's manners, •customs, and national character. Traveling became common, and the minds of men began to be emancipated from the fetters of locality. ]Many Europeans settled in the East, and be- ■coming acquaintid with the .Vsialies, dillii^.d a knowledsre of tlu- Orient aiuoni: their own

ishe.l be- lu states. eeu the

pro-

countrviuen. Relations were tw,...n"the M..slem and the EnihasMi^s were sent l.iaek and toi-tl, be- the ]M(]ngol emperors and the kings o AW'stern nations. More than once it wa; lio>ed that the Christians and the Mongols should enter into an alliane.', an.l that the <'in>ades should be continued by tliein a,::ainst the conunon enemy, the Turks. The impress made upon the mind and destinies of Europe by these relations of the Christians and the IMohammedans, is thus descrilied liy the distin- guished historian, Abel Remusat:

" i\Iauy meu of religious orders, Italians, French, and Flemings, were charged with dip- lomatic missions to the court of the Cireat Khan. Mongols of distinction came to Rome, Barcelona, Valetia, Lyons, Paris, I-ondon, and Northampton, and a Franci-scan of the king- dom of Naples was archbi.shop of Pekin. His successor was a professor of theology in the University of Paris. But how many other jieople f illowe<l in the train of these person- ages, either as slaves, or attracted bv the desire of i.rotit, or led l,y curinMiy into regi,.iis hith- erto unknown! Chanee has i.reserve.l the names of .some of these; the first envoy who visited the king of Hungary on the part of the Tartars was an Englishman, who had been bani-^hed from hi> country for certain crimes, an.l «lio, after having wandered over Asia, at last entered into the service of the IMongols. A Flemish Cordelier, in the heart of Tartary, fell in with a woman of JMetz called Paquette, who had been carried off into Hungary ; also a Parisian goldsmith, and a young man from the neighborhood of Rouen, wlio had been at the taking of Bel-rade. In the same eountrv he fell in also with Russians, Hungarians, and Flemin-s. A >in-er. called Bobrrt, after hav-

•nd

A T:

:h	Eastei	n Asia, returned
th	■ catht	dral of Chartres.
in IV.	isher < Fair, nk, w	f helmets in the Jean de Plancar- th a Russian gen-
ill	T nl. any ii	•, aud who acted erchants of Bres-
Ta	stria, rtary.	ii'.-..nipanie.l him <)tli.'r> returned
;u-	-ia : tl	-•y w.av (;,.noese.
	. Tu	' A'en.'tians, mer-
e	,ad l,r.	ught t.. Bokhara,

LMMU'y \L IIISIOUY.—THE MODKRX WORLD.

foUowul 1 Mduol mil, I ill nl l.\ ll(iul- aguii I kli ul.ilu 111 s 1 iiiui 1 luiiu yrar.-^ iu Chilli 111.1 1 11 til \ 1 mill. I uiili \M^K from the l.i. ii Klun i li 1' !• ""I ^'ff'i- •wards \\eiit in. k i th l\liiii i ikin, with them tht -.111 1 n 1 th. li miiuh. l iIr' rilt- brat.MJ ^Flu . r I Hi I .'Utt m.ut kli the C.jurt .it kh nihil 11 t . 1 tmu to \ ciucl Trav- els of this 11 ituiL WLic not less hequeiit in the following; (cutui}. Ot this numbti aie those of John Arui.kMlle, an Eu^lish ph\Mciau; O.leri. 1. 1 11 111, Pcgolettl, Guilkauiue de BiiiiM II 111 1 -L\eial others.

•■It inn \m111h vupi)o-((l, thitth.M travels of whi. h lliL lULinoi} is pit^eivcd, toiiii iitit a

MARCO POLO.

small part of those which were imdertaken, and there were in those days many more people who were able to perform those long journeys than to write accounts of them. Many of those ad- venturers must have remained and died in the countries they went to visit. Others returned home, as obscure as before, but havinp: their im- agination full of tho thinp-s they had seen, re- lating them t.j thiir faiiiili.'s, with iiiiicli exag- geration, no .liiiibt. lint l.'iiviii'j lichin.l them, among many ri.li.'iil.nis talil.'s, useful rec.iUcc- tions and tia.liti.m- .-apalil.' i>f bi'iiiiiv.:- tVuit. Thus, in (ienuauy, Italy, aii.l France, in the monasteries, among the nobility, and even .lnwn to tlie lowest classes of society, there were .k-

p...ite.l many pnri.nis mmmIs ilestilied to bud at a Muneuliat'lat.r p.ii.Hl. All these unknown

trv iiit.> .lisialit n-i.iiis, l.n.ii-lit l.a.-k other pke,.. ,,r kinA\kMl-.. i„,t I,-- pi-e,-i.,iis, and, \vitli..iit l..-iii,- aware ..f it, nui.l.- ex.-liaiiges

By th.-se ni.aiis, ii.,t ..iily the tralHe in the siiks, i-oivlaiii, aii.l oth.r .■oiiiiiio.lities ,,f Hin- dostau, beeani,' i.ioiv .xt.'iisiv,. aii.l pra.'ti.'able, and new paths wvw op. ned to e.pinnu-reial in- dustry ami .■ntirprisi' ; Init, what was more val- uable still, ton iijn inaiin.is, unknown nations, extra. ir.linaiy pro.lii.-ti.piis, presented themselves- ill ab.in.laii.'e to tli.' iniii.ls of the Europeans, whi.h, siii.v the tall of the i;..niaii eiiii.ire, lia.l

been begar beaut

.M,

to the

w.iii.l. Ih.y h.'iiaii to stii.ly tli.' arts, tlie re- li-i.iii-, th.' laneiiages, of the nations by whom it was inhabit. .1 : and there was even an inten- tion of t'stablishing a professorship of the Tartar- language in the university of Paris. The ac- counts of travelers, strange and exaggerated, indeed, but .soon discussed and cleared up, dif- fused more correct and varied notions of those distant regions. The world seemed to open, as it were, towards the East; geography made an immense stride ; and ardor for discovery became

the new form assum.

Eurojiean spirit of iii.ilh.r heniisiihere.

if .AI;

th.

longer seemed an imjirobalil.' was when in search of the Zi| Poll) that Christopher C.ilunilii New AVorl.l."

j\Iany dispnt.'s have occurred relative to the discoveries aii.l inventions alleged to have been brought iiit.i J'air.ipe by the returning Cru- saders. It stall. Is t.i reason that things kiiowu in Asia, an.l unknown in the W.st, wouhl be revealed to the pilgrim warriors, an.l by them reporteil to their ciuiitryiiii'ii. It should lie reni.'iiil„r..I, h.iwever, that the big.itry of tlie Criisa. Ill's knew no bounds. They went to Asia as ,h ^tmijn-g^. They beat to tlie earth, with uii.li-.Tiniinating hatred, both man and his w.irks. It was their theory and belief that all things .M,,liainiii.Mlan were "of the I)..vil. Act- inn- un.ler this bliii.l an.l superstitious fanati-

THE rnUSADKS.—EMlLAXD AND FRAXCK IX TIIK 13TII (EXTUir.

ci.-iu, tliev were little disposed ti merit, mueh less to eopy the adv Asiatic discoveries in art and seiei been said that those Lireat laetors

mariner's coin|iass— xv.Te known in the epncli of the ( 'rii>ades, and tl reason to doiiht tliat >urh was : case; but it would perhaps he dilH( that a knowledge of these sterlini;

ail	ed ill Europe iV.in, l	he Ch	istian
'■'	tiirnin- from I'ale.tin.	. It ^	as in
rte	•nth and fill, ■.■nth e.	nliirie>	that
lis	began to employ the	eompa	S-, to
til 1 t	;■ "^l;l"^2 milvill.	1 ""•!"■>	•s of Per-
	unor'lud'pm.'nd'fnm	ol''>ne	1 arts
■'■	M-eeeded, I , y a eoiisid,	•ahle 1	■liod,
ua	iutroduetiou among t	le uatio	n.s of

Chapter XCIII.— Enqlanlj anid Krance in the

THIKTEEXTH CENTUKV.

a hrief sketch of the his- tory of England aii.l France in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the former cmntry, be- giuning 'with the accession of the House of Plantagenet, we come, in 1154, to the reign of Henry H. This distinguished prince was the son of Geoffrey Plantagenet and Matilda, daughter of Henry I. Though no Crusader himself, he gave to the Holy Wars the great- est of all Crusaders in the person of his son, the Lion Heart. The reign of Henry ex- tended to the year IIMI, an<l was on the whole a time of distress and trouble.

The middle of this period was noted for a violent outbreak between the civil and ecclesi- astical authorities of the kingdom, the former headed by the king, and the latter by the cel- ebrated Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Can- terbury. On the one side were arrayed most of the barons and lords, and not a few of the clergy, including at one time the Arehhishop of York ; while on the other were marshaled most of the bishops and priests, backed by the whole power of Rome. From the peculiar structure of English soeiety it happened that the common people, who wen' grievously op- pressed by the barons, were all on the side of the church as against the king. By them the Archbishop of Canterbury was regarded as a friend, champion, and protector, and they looked to him as to one able to deliver them

from the woes of secular despeitism. Becket himself had been a soldier, and besides the reputation which he had gained in the field, he bore the name of one of the ripest scholars of the age. He had been the bosom friend of Henry Tlantagenet, and hy the influence of that sovereign had heeii raided through suc- cessive grades of ecclesiastical preferment to the archbishopric of Cauterbiir}-. His break with the king may be dated from the year ll<i4, when, by setting himself in antagonism to a series of royal measures known as the "Constitution of Clarendon," he incurred the monarch's undying enmity. The great preb ate's opposition was without doubt based upon a sincere devotion to the cause of the English commons, no less than on the purpose to maintain the independence of ecclesiastical authority.

In the beginning of the quarrel. King Henry withdrew his son from the tutorship of Becket, and placed him with the Archbishop of York. By and by the rojie interfered, and Becki't was at the first onleied to cease from his opposition to the iiuasures of the king. Henry procured the archbishop's trial by the piarliameut of Northam])ton, and he was obliged to fly from the kingdom. !More than four hundred of his relatives were driven into exile ; but Becket, having surremlered his au- thority into the hands of the Pope, was rein- stated by him in all bis former and several additional dignities. The measure was openly canvassed in the Romish See of excoiiiinuni-

77.< i-yi\i:j;.>AL iustohy.—the moderx world.

the cliurch. The 1 lUu h wtMi w i^ i~ (h Ciulubun In tht. e ul> juil.t 1170, a su-

stinate as his euemie~ H( hid the coiunatiou jjeifacuil icLOuciliatiou wjn patched uji between

of his son Heury remauded to the Aiehbi^hop the king aud the pielate, but Hein> gave

of York, thus open! \ dtii\m_ tlie ]iiiuuc\ of '•ome ot hi^ k-> ^luijjuIuu^ ))uun-. to iinder-

Ml-RUKR OF THOMAS A KEi'KEI imuvn l.y L. 1', Ia'.vcu.K-i kc

THE CRUSADES.— ENGLAXD AM) FHAXCE IX THE 13 TH CEXTUHY.

stauil that Tlioma.s a Becket's exit from the world \vuul(-l be a fact uio.-st pleasing to him- self. Hereupon Regiuald Fitzurse, William de Tracy, Hugh de Moreville, and Richard Brito made a conspiracy against the archbish- op's life. On the 28th of December, 1170, they met at the castle of Rauulph de Broc, near Canterbury, aud were there joined by a body of armed men ready for any business, however desperate. On the following day the leaders, who appear to have desired to stoji short of taking the prelate's life, had an in- terview with him, aud tried to frighten him out of the realm. But the soldier j^riest was not to be terrified, and on the evening of that day, the conspirators forced their way into the cathedral, where Becket was conducting ves- pers. They first attempted to drag him from the church, but the bishop tore himself from their clutches aud knelt down at the altar, already bleeding with a sword gash in his head. His assailants now fell upon him with fury, aud dashed out his braius on the floor.

Though the king's party had thus freed themselves from the presence of their powerful enemy, the spirit which he represented was not so easily extinguished. The jieople of Knaresborough rose in their wrath, and the slayers of Becket were obliged to fly from the kingdom. Everywhere throughout England the tide rose so high against Henry that he and his dynasty were threatened with over- throw. The king of France took up arms and the Pope threatened excommunication. The king, however, escaped from the danger- ous situation by taking a solemn oath that he had not been privy to the murder of Becket ; but even after this he deemed it necessary to make a further atonement at the altars of the irate church. He accordingly made a pilgrim- age to the tomb of Thomas a Becket, and after fasting and praying at the shrine of that mar- tyr received a flagellation on his naked back at the hands of the monks. After this public mark of his submission and penitence the ex- citement subsided, and Henry forljore to give further cause of offense to the ecclesiastical party.

The king now found time to resist an inva- sion of the Scots. The latter proved to be unequal to the enterprise winch they had innlertaken. Henrv defeated them, compelled

the king of .Scotland to .-unvudur a jiart of his dominions and himself ami liis sous to do homage for the remainder.

On the death of King Henry, in llMI, the crown descended to his eccentric ami laiiious son, Richard the Lion Heart. On tiie oc- casion of his coronation an insurrection broke out in London, aud the hated Jews became the objects of a popular vengeance which C(juld not be easily ajjpeased. At t!ie first the new king sought to stay the fury of his subjects, and afforded some protection to the hunted Israelites. But when Richard, by nature large- hearted and generous, departed on the great Crusade, the persecutions l)roke out afresh, and extended into various parts of the king- dom. It was the peculiarity of the times that the brutal religious fanaticism of the people of Western Europe burst lorth with indiscrim- inate madness against all those who were, or had ever been, the enemies of Christ. The Jews were as much hated in various parts of the West as were the ilohammedans in the East. England was the scene of several butch- eries hardly surpassed in any age of barbarism. Three years after the crowning of the Lion Heart the city of York witnessed a massacre of unusual atrocity. Hundreds of the Jews were slaughtered without nieny. Their dis- tinguished and kind-spirited rabbi, with a large number of his people, was driven into the cas- tle of York, where, attempting to save them- selves from destruction, and despairing of help or compassion, they slew their wives and chil- dren, fired the edifice, and perished in the flames.

The earlier years of the twelfth century were a stormy and agitated epoch — a kind of ]\Iarch-month of English liberty. In the clos- ing year of the preceding centennium King Richard Coeur de Lion died, becjueathing his crown and kingdom to his unheroic and con- temptible brother John, surnamed Sansterre, or Lackland. The latter came to the throne with all of the vices and none of the virtues of the Plautagenets. The Lion Heart had been induced in the last hours of his life to discard his nephew Arthur, of Brittany, in favor of the unprincipled John, who was already intriguing against the interests of England. Phili]). who liad lieen the jn-otector of Prince Arthur, aliandoned him on the accession of

' ■■'" t'A7 1 'Eli^A L HIS TOR Y. — THE MODERN WORLD.

Jului til the throue, ami a treaty was made ' ter, Blanche fif Castile, should be married to between the French and English kings by j Louis, the Daujihin of France. Arthur was which it was agreed that the niece of the lat- | to be given up to the lender mercies of his

:£e^"

LiEATlI OF THE KABBI ANiJ THE JtV Iirawn by H. Leutt^raaim.

THE CRUSADES.— ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE 13TH CENTrRY.

r8i

Arthur marrkMl the 1 his futher-iii4aw es- deil him ill the hostil-

is takt

uncle. Thi.s settlei a fulfinmeut. V daughter of Pliili poused his cause ities which eiisueih

Shortly after this chau-e i.t part of the French kint;-, Art I prisiiiier by his uncle John, and was sluit up in the castle of Bristol. The English king, with his usual perfidy, gave orders to Hubert de Burgh, governor of Falaise, to which place Arthur had been transferred, to put the prisoner to death ; but the heart of Hubert tailed him in the execution of the order, and King John was deceived with a false repurt of the prince's execution and funeral. The peii|ile nf Brit- tany also believing that Arthur had been mur- dered, rose in revolt, and Hubert, in order to save himself from odium and probable de- struction, was obliged to divulge the truth.

Great was the wrath thus enkindled against the unnatural king. The barons of England refused to join his standard, and Philip, mak- ing war upon him in the French provinces belonging to the English crown overthrew his authority and drove him out of Novmandy. That great duchy, after having belonged to England for more than three centuries, was torn away and united to France. So great an offense and injury to the English crown had not been known since the days of Rolio the Dane.

In the ninth year of his reign. King John fell into a violent quarrel with Pupe Innocent III. The matter at issue was the choice of a new archbishop for the see of Canterbury. The choice of the Pope was the distinguished Stephen Langton, already a cardinal of the Church. The appointment, however, was vio- lently opposed by John, and, in 1208, Innocent laid the kingdom under an interdict. But the punishment was insufficient to bring the mon- arch to his senses. He continued his career of injustice and folly, making war on the peoi)le of Wales and Ireland, and filling his coffers by confiscation and cruel extortion. On one oc- casion he called together all the abbots and abbesses of the religious houses in London, and then deliberately informed them that tiny were his prisoners until what time they should pay him a large sum of money. So flagrant was the outrage thus perpetrated against the

honor and dignity of the church, that the Pope jji-oceeded to excommunicate King Jolui, and to absolve his subjects iVom their oath of allegiance. The Holy Father, in his wrath, went to the extreme of inviting the (. Ini-tiau ])rincesof Europe to unite in a crusade aiiaiust the au.lariou. an.l disobedient king ..f Kn-land. Philip ,,f France, as the secular head <.f West- ern Christendom, was especially besought to uixlertake a war; and he was by no means loth to seize the opportunity of increasing his own power at the expense of his fellow prince.

This movement, however, aroused the ire of the English barons, who, though the}' heartily detcstid their king and his policy, were not at all disposed to yield to the settlement of their national affairs by the French. Philip pro- ceetled with his preparations for the invasion ; and King John, taking advantage of the re- action among his subjects, collecteil a large army at Dover. Just before his departure, the French monarch received from the Pope, by the hands of the legate Pandulf, a mes- sage to abandon the undertaking! For, in the mean time. His Holiness had nnule an offer to the refractory John that, if the latter would accept Langton as arclibishop of Can- terbury, and resign the crown of England into the papal hands, the Pope would restore the same to him, and would forliid the inva- sion of his re:dm by the Fri'iich. These terms were accepted by the base Plantagenet, who laid down his crown at the feet of Pan- dulf. This haughty cardinal is said to have kicked contemptuously the diadem which had once been worn by William the Conqueror. Satisfied with this act of abasement, he then replaced the dishonored crown on the head of the alleged king.

Great was the rage of Philip on receiving the message of the Pope. Fearing to disobey, an<l unwilling that his military preparations should come to naught, he diverted the expe- dition against the territories of Eai'l Ferrand of Flanders. The latter immediately ap})lied to King John for help : and that monarch, responding with an unusual show of alacrity, scut a large s(|uadron to aid the Flemish earl in liiaintaiiiinir his independence. A battle was tought between the English an<l French fleets, in which the armament of Philip was either destroyed or dispersed. So signal was the dis-

UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

up

.|i^<.

It appears that Julm ^vas c-razeil by his vic- tory. Eager to follow up his advantage, he purposed an invasion of France ; but his bar- ons, though havinL^ nn alfcTtiim for the French, and very willing to <j:" to war to maintain the honor of England, were in no wise disposed to follow the banner of an unpopuhi king on a foreign expedition. John wi^ theiefoie obliged to forego his pi-ojcct. But thoULdi

In a short time, however, the English king received intelligence that his ally, the German Emperor, had, in 1:214, been "decisively de feated liy the French iu the great battle of Bouviues. Seeing that Philip would now be able to concentrate all his forces against the English, John made haste to eonelude with that monarch a five years' tiuee. and (juickly made hLs way back to England.

The L-hnd duiing the king's absence had become the ^cene of a trie it commotion The biioii^ tiioiou.hJN (li-.n^tid \Mth Iohu'^%aeil-

unsiippoi-ted hy his iiohles ami l>\ tin t( of his kingdom, lie still s.mglit 'to , in hit3 retaliatory purpose against tin 1 king. He accordingly sought an lihiUM Frederick II., Emperor of (ieimin\ v.hom it was arranged to make an un i-i France on the east, while John \\ould ,1 same in the ]irovinees iidjaeeiit to tht (. h An English annv, i.Kele up in lai_. in, of the n-fus,. of the kinu-lom, \n ,- „ ingly land.MJ at I'oito,,, and an exp, ditio beuun into .Vniou an.l Briltanv.

l<uu^ ,.un-t hna uid tiu lno^e- IHImI Ml, li li, idu i\ thit 1r (juultd ],o\\uliil but diJ, \d Hib|tas I 111. ton Juit til, ^111, ti,.n of the ih, iiiMm,,ti.m 111,1 pl,.^,,l him , iM, 111,1 111 ..111. I. i.l. 1 IIu

hnt.i -i_ii.,l b\ H.iiiv 1 xNluuin \\,i, -et f.,ith ni.l .1111 iiit,,,l b\ th, i..\ d M il the 11. ht 111,1 pii\il,..-.,t 1 nji^limui h. iin.le It the bi-i> ot I 11, w Bill ot Ki.ht- \\huh he

THE CRUSADES.-EXGLAXD AXD EHAXlE IX THE 13TH ( EXTiliV. 7s:i

drew up and wliirh the Iwrous detcrmineil tn maintain with their .-wimls. >Sucii was the laniim.s (h)eunient known as M.veiXA Ciiauta — the Great Charter of Euglish Liberty.

When the king returned from Franee the demand was made of him by the barons that he shonl.l siiin their iusti-umeut. This he re- fused to do, and endeavore.l to oppose li.ree with force; but finding his banner almost de- serted, he came to his senses and consented to hold a conference which had been proposed by the Earl of Pemljroke. On the 15th of June, 11^15, a meeting was accordingly held at a place called Ruunymede, between Wind- sor and Staines, and there tlie king was obligeil to sign the C'harter.

In general terms Magna Charta was intended by its authors to prevent the exercise of arbi- trary authority over his subjects by an En- glish king. The royal prerogatives were lim- ited in several important particulars, so that the despotism which had been so freely prac- ticed during the feudal ascendency, became impossible in England, save in violation of the chartered rights of the people. The great document thus wrenched from the pusillani- mous John consisted of sixty-three articles, most of them being negative, defining what the kings of England might not do as it re- spected their subjects. Of positive rights con- ceded and guaranteed iu the Charter, the tw(j greatest were the Habeas Corpus and the Right of Trial by Jury. The first was that salutary provision of the English Common Law by which every free subject of the kingdom was exempted from arbitrary arrest and detention ; and the second, that every person accused of crime or misdemeanor, should be entitled to a trial by his peers iu accordance with the law of the land. The right of disposing of prop- erty by will was also conciMlcd, and in case no will should be made, it was provided that the goods and estate of the father should descend to his children by the law of inheritance. On the negative side there were interdicts against outlawry an<l banishment, and against the seizure of the ]iropertv of freemen.

It should not be supiiosed, however, that popular liberty, in the niodein sense, was se- cured or even contemplated in Mauna Chaita. True it is that many invaluable ])riiieiple- and maxims were assumed bv the barons, and that

■t. r. Lut tlie feu- ill iveo^nize.!, and

nored. Ahliou.h it wa- provide.l that no /rnninu .-hnuld be .ei/,,.d or diMres-M.I in bis pei->nn or property, but litth- wa. -aid ,v-peet- ing the ridit. and i,nn, unities of the hdmrin^ classes of Englishmen. Unlv a sin-le i-lau,-e of Magna Charta was intendi.l to .-eeuie to the peasant those immunities and piivile-es which in every civilized country are now reganled as his birthright. It \\a< enacted that 'cni ,i rii4te should not be deprived of his carts, plows, and implements of husbandry. So great was the difference between the .spirit of the thirteenth and that of the nineteenth centurv !

Notwithstanding the humiliation eif King John at Runnymede, he immediately sought opportunity of avenging himself on his bar- ons. Great was his wrath on account of the Charter, and at those who had compelled him to sign it. The barons were little alarmed at his preparations and oaths of vengeance ; but with an army of foreign mercenaries he re- duced them to such extremity that they in their folly invited Prince Louis, the heir of France, to come to their aid, and promised to reward him with the crown of iMigland. The fortune of war was turned ai^ainst the king and he was obliged to .-hut hiniH-lf up in the castle of Dover. In the mean time the bar- ons grew tired of their French protector, and many of them rejoined the standard of John. The latter again entered the field and marched into Lincolnshire, where he was attacked of a fever, and died on the Ifffh of October, iL'Ki. It was .luring the rei-n of King John, who has the bad reputation of being the wor,-t sov- ereign that ever reigned over England, that the great outlaw Robin Hood began his career as a bandit. It apjiears that the true name of this generous bri-and wh.., until the year 1247, set tlie laws at .letianee an.l m,.asured sw.rds with England, was Roliert, earl of Huntingdon. The legend recites that iu his youth he attended a great tiutrnament in an-hery, wh.av bv his skill lie exeite.l the erivv of some rival noblemen, who had the

he turned

7S4

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

upon thtiu aud ^hot du\^n ~L\tiU ot llu a numbei He then made hi- c~l ipt into ^1ki- 'v\ood foie^t, ^\heie he btcame the htad <it a band ot outla\\- hke hiiu~ilt Iheii jnaLtice wa^ to ])illa4e the t-tntc^ of the iich, to the \\eahh-s and titkd pti-imaTje^ tJie piocted- and

pui-ut 1 1 \ tin III ii\ R 1 m ini	hi- men that
llit\ _niiMl I _i U 1 |uliti)i p, iMnI- m-omuth thit hilh.K	comniemon
tnc it hi- exphnt- aud chu di iiin.-t pripidar literature of the tii	became tlie les. and have
ever .-^iiiee rciiiaini'd as a witness in whicli even a laul.-- l.rnitiict	,.f the esteem nr i- held by
au oppressed people. On the death of the kin? tl sceuded to bis eldest son, Ilenrv	e riuwii .1,- uf Winelies-

tLi wlij took the title of Henry the Third. Beiu.'- I nlv eight years of age at the time of hi- tithti"s death, the management of the kiu_dom was intrusted to the Earl of Pem- lAe The latter had the wisdom during his mini-tiation to eontirm the articles of Magna Hit I and by this means those English bar- j had still adhered to the fortunes of Piince Louis of France were won back to the royal cause. Louis, though his orces were greatly reduced, ventured on a battle in 1217, in which he was so di-astrously defeated that he was glad to escape with the remnant of his fol- lowers from the kingdom. Two years atterward the Earl of Pembroke died, and his office of protector was given to Hubert de Burgh.

"When King Henry reached the age ot sixteen he was declared capable of conducting the government. In the tolluwing year, 1224, Philip of France died and was succeeded by his son Louis, but the latter soon after passed iway and the crown descended to his -on Louis IX., who being a mere child \\as left to the guardiaushiji of his mother, Blanche of Castile. Perceiv- ing the exposed condition of the French kingdom on account of the minority of Lodis, King Henry determined to in- \ iile France and attempt the recovery t Xormaudy. He accordingly raised 1 large army, aud in 1230 undertook in expedition against the French. But ht soon showed himself to be of little c mpetency for such au undertaking. • )ue disaster followed another until in the course of a few months the king '^ was glad to give up the enterprise and

leturn to England. In his matrimo- nnl adventure he was scarcely more foitunatt than in war. In his search for a puui he chose Eleanor, daughter of the Earl ot Pio\ence, who brought with her into Eng- land a letinue of friends, for whom impor- tant jilaces in the government were provided. A great offense was thus given to the English barons, who would not quietly brook the eleva- tion of strangers and foreigners to the chief otlices of England.

While the king was thus exhibiting his folly

THE CRUSADES.— ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE 13TH (ENTCRV.

lie also showed his weakness. Nearly all his administrative acts were marked by a spirit of narrowness and bigoted imprudence. Popes Innocent IV. and Alexander IV. were not slow to perceive the advantages which might be gained for the Church by an interference with English affairs. Italian ecclesiastics were ac- cordingly insinuated into the principal religious offices of the kingdom, and these became the agents to carry out the papal will and pleas- ure respecting questions which were purely English. In 12.55 the Pope conferred on the king's sou Edmund the title of King of Sicily, hoping by this means to induce the English nation to espouse his own cause in a quarrel which he had had with Mainfroy, the .Sicilian monarch. But the English barons, more wise than their sovereign, refused to be inveigled into the Pope's scheme, and the enterprise was about to come to nought. Hein-y, however, finding that no inducement cnuld avail with his refractory subjects, undertook to raise the money for the Sicilian expedition by a means as novel as it was outrageous. He caused to be drawn bills of exchange against the prelates of England, and gave these bills to Italian merchants for money pretendedly advanced by them for the war. The prelates at first re- fused payment of these forged accounts, but since the ecclesiastics were not supported by either the king or the Pope, who made com- mon cause in support of the fraud, they were obli'/t'd to give up the contest and pay the Italian bills."

The effect of these measures was to revive the antipathies of the English nobles against the king. A new rebellion broke out in 1258. Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who had himself been one of the king's favorites, headed the insurrection. The insurgents gathered in such strength at Oxford that Henry and his son were obliged to sign a treaty, by which it was agreed that twenty-four of the barons, includ- ing the Earl of Leicester, should be constituted a sort of commission to reform the abuses of the kingdom. The legitimate work of reform, however, was soon abandoned for the assump- tion of the right of government by the barons. The nation was thrown into a state of turmoil, which continued with unaliated violence for al)out six years. The struggle is known in history as tlie Wars of the Baikins, and

>a,-truus e^)ochs Louis IX. of (ivcs than were iuies, made un-

constituted one of the nm

in the annals of Enghu

France, actuated by noblei

common in the princes of

availing efforts to bring about a peace lietween

Henry and his nobles; but neither wcnild the

one yifld to rcasun iir the other to patriotisni.

Not until the y,ar 1264 did events assume such form as to promise a settlement. At that time Prince Edward, heir to the En- glish crown, born to greater candor than his grandfather and greater ability than his father, came forward as a leader of the royal forces, and for a season it appeared that the insur- gent nobles had met their match. ^lany of the Ijarons, seeing with pride the .spirit and valor displayed by their prince, went over to his standard. At length a battle was hazarded with the forces of De ^lontfort, but the result was exceedingly disastrous to the royal cause. Edward's army was defeated and himself cap- tured, and sent with his cousin, Prince Henry, a prisoner to the Castle of Dover.

The Earl of Leicester was now master of the field. He at once conceived the ambition of making himself king of England. To this end he seized the royal castles not a few, and presently allowed his ambition to reveal his purposes. At this juncture, the Earl of Glouces- ter appeared as a rival of De ]Montfort, and began to plan his overthrow. Leicester per- ceived that the heart of the nobles was turned against him, and began to bid for a renewal and continuance of their sujiport. All his acts were done in the king's name. As a sop to Cerberus, he set Prince Edward at liberty. Gloucester established himself on the confines of Wales, and De Montfort, having proclaimed his rival a traitor, and assuming the office of jirotector to Henry and Edward, set out to overthrow the insurgents. When nr;iring the camp of Gloucester, the latter niaiuiLicd to open communications with Edward, and the prince made good his escape, and went over to the barons." Jlany of the nobles followe.l his .'xanipl.., and Lei.'vst, r was ,,l,]ip.,l to send ill all haste to London for an army of rem- foreenients commanded by his son, Simon de ]\[ontfort, the younger. The latter was inter- cepted on the way to join his fathei-, and was drri-ivrly drirawA bv Prin.'e Kdwanl in the lialtle of K,-iiiluo,lh.' A -.mrral rii-ai.r,.„ient

''^i5 UXIVEIISAL HISTORY.-THE MODERy WORLD.

iollo«t.l at Est^Kim, 111 wlu.h tli(. Eail ut .iiii,,u. tin .l.l.att.l l.,i,<., nnjo about to l.e Leice-tei wa- loiit^-.l, and In- i<.iu- .li-puM.l tut .l-.uii U a m,],Iiu, hut declaied his iden- Kiu4 Henn, who «a~ uinMlhu.l\ (ktauuil I tit\ in tinu to m\( lii^ life Both Loir-p'^ter

THE CRUSADES.—EXGLAXD AND FRANCE IX THE 13 TH CEXTUKV.

and his .-(ju, the youuger Montfort, were .-hiiii in the battle.

The story of Prince Edward'.s departure fnr the Holy Land, to take part iu the Eighth Crusade, has already hcin narrated iu the pre- ceding pages.' This event ha})pened in 1270. Henry III. had nnw ,,eeupied the throne of Englan.l for fll'ty-foiir years. His -..vernnient was as feeble as himself was dt-ei-epit. Tlie land was full of violence and di>ii-e.s. His nephew, Prince Henry, sou of Kiehard, the king's brother, was assassiuated by the exiled sons of Leicester, who had survived the battle of Evesham. Richard died of grief The barons de-pi-ed their suverei,-n, and h.oked

of his death. Kiots and violence prevailed iu many parts of the kingdom. At last, in Xo- vemlier of 1272, the aged and despised Henry died, being then in the tifty-seventh year of his reign.

Prince Edward, on hearing the news of his father's death, set out from Palestine, and arrived in England iu 1274. His presence — even the knowledge of his coming — tended to restore coufideuce and order. He began his reign with the enactment of many salutary regulations relating to the police of the king- dom, and other measures of public safety. He was greatly distressed on the score of means with which to administer the govern- ment, and, in his embarrassment, adopted a measure which came near producing a civil war. He appointed a commission to examine into the titles by which the barons of the king- dom were holding their estates, with a view to the couitscatiou of any which might prove to be illegally held. The commissioners had not proceeded far, however, until they came upon the Earl of Warrenue, who, when summoned to produce his titles, deliberately drew his sword from its scabbard, and, laying his hand significantly on the hilt, replied: " Tim is the instrument by which my ancestors gained their estate, and by which I will keep it as long as I live." This answer reported to the king had the effect of putting an end to the project of fine and confiscation.

In the vear 12S2 an insurrection broke out in Wales." The people of that country ha<l illy brooked the conditions of peace which

Edw:	nl	lad imj	osei
tie ot	E^	eshani.	L
count	ryn	en in t	le ii
a climax	in a ai	eat
were	tot.	lly del	.•ate
and	lis	brothel	Di

\\n\r-.

A

King Edw:

?lf In M.

pnjmi of the

'See ante,

■d for claiming the crown for tiling the terms of peace he e the people of Wales a prince uutry, and when the eomlition was accepted he presented them with his own son, who had been born a few davs before iu the Welsh castle of Caernarvon. To this babe was given the title of Prince of Wales, which has ever since been borne by the eldest sons of the kings of Eugland.

While Wales was thus acquired by con- quest a jilaii, ].artly the product of natural

tion, was brought forth with a view of adding the crown of Scotland to that of England. In that country King Alexander HI. had chosen for his queen the sister of the English mon- arch, and of this union the only issue was the Princess Jlargaret, who was married to the king of Norway; and of rt/.s union only a little daughter survived, who became the heiress of Scotland. In 12.'<(i Alexander died, and the Norwegian priiiee>,- inherited her grandfather's dominions. Edwar<l now^ proposed that his new-born son and the infant queen of Scotland .=hould be betrothed, and the proposition was aeeepted by both the king of Norway and the Seotti,-h pailiament. It thus appeared that the union of the crowns of England and Scot- land was about to be etl(?cted. But destiny had prepared the event otherwise. The Nor- wegian princess on her way from the country of her liirth to the kingdom which she had inherited was taken ill on shipboard and died at the Orkney Islands. This unfortunate occur- rence produced great grief throughout the three kingdoms f)f England, Scotland, and Norway. The union of the former two ivalnis was post- poiie.l for three huiidre<l year>, and such was the distraction of the Scottish councils that no fewer than thirteen claimants of the crown apjieared in the field. While feuds and tur- moils jirevaileil <in all sides it was agreed to rel'er the settlement (if the succession toKing

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.—THE MODERN WORLD.

Edward, who, after weighing- tiie relative rights of Robert Bruce and John Baliol, decided iu favor of the latter. The English king, with an eye to his own interest, requii-ed that the Scottish castles should be put into his hands before rendering his dt'cisiou. The result was that Baliol, wlm had little of the nature and qualities of a king, liecanie a mere puppet iu the hands of the English monarch, who pro- ceeded to settle the aflaiis of the Xortheru kingdom actoidnig to hi> wdl and purpose. Hereujiiin an ni^uiiKtmn lnok( out, and Ed- ward, mauluug acKi-^ iUl boidti, defeated

(hiienue under this fiction of doing homage for it than riiilip refused to make the promised restitution. So deeply at this time was Edward involved iu the complications relating to the crown of Scotland that he was unable to re- cover by force what he had lost by the craft and subtlety of Philip the Fail-. Such was the condition of afiairs in England from the begin- ning of the thirteenth century up to the time when, by the capture of Acre, the Christian kingdom iu the East was finally overthrown. Let us then refer lu-iefly to the course of France iu the later pdocIis of the

the Scots in the great battle of Dunbar. Baliol surrendered hiin-df tn the victorious king and was detained in captivity for three years, after which he was pcimitted to retire into France. It was at this ,'|Hi(li that the province of Guienue, which ha.l d.scended to the English crown from the old (^iieen Eleanor, who had possessed that realm on her marriage to Henry n. , was regained by the king of France. Gui- enne owed fealty to the French crown, and Philip the Fair persuaded Edward to perform the act of homage as a recognition of that relation, at the same time iiroml>iii- to restore the province as soon as the fomial act \va.- done. But no sooner had Edward re-igned

Crusades. In 11 M> Philip II., surnamed Au- gustus, inlierited the French crown. Such were his talents and ambitions, and such his impatience niidcr the restraints imposed on his kingdom by Feudalism, that he set himself to work after the manner of a politician and statesman to overthrow the feudal princes and to build upon the ruins of their privileges and liberties the structure of regular monarchy. What might have been his success but for the condition of affairs in Syria it were perhaps useless to conjecture. It will be remembered that Philip, before coming to the throne of Fi:nic<\ lia<l f'orine<l an attachment tc) Prince Itii-hard Plautagenet, and that the two princes.

THE CRUSADES.— ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE 13TH CENTER V. 7>^y

in ordfi- to vex and ili.-itract the luiud uf Kiut; Henry II., of England, had made a great parade of theii- alleged friendship. After the two royal youths acceded to the thrones of their respective kingdoms their attaclitnent continued and led to an agreement between

them to undertake that p

great Crusade of which an account has already been given in the pre- ceding pages.'

After Philip's return from Palestine, in which country the breach lic- tween him and his ( 1 1 time friend had becoiiK irreparable, he nmlt haste to attempt the d' struction of the mteie-t^ and rights of the Lion Heart in Westeiu Eu rope. To this end he made an attack on ISoi mandy and incited the unworthy John Liilv land to seize on En. land, though both ( t these schemes weie th feated and brought i<< nought. But not untd the foundation of mfanite mischief had been 1 ii 1 between the kmgdi lu^ of France and Eu^dind Philip continued hi- machinations against Coeur de Lion untd tin. latter, having obtauK 1 a tardy liberation at tlu hands of the Genu lu Emperor, made his w u as rapidly as possiblt in the du'ection of his o«n kingdom. Heaiing that his friend had been set

at liberty, Philip sent a hasty message to John of England to take care of himself as best he could, for the devil was unchained !

As soon as Eichard had reestablished his F.uthority in the kingdom, he sought to avenge

out, and continued without abatement almost to the end of the century. In 1194 a deci- sive battle was fought at N'endome, in which Philip was disastrously defeated. His money, .piiiiULic, and the ivrni-,1. of til.' king- ,lom were

himself on the pei-fidious Philip. W: ' See ante, p. 73'2.

broke

In the mean time the French monarch be- came involved in a quarrel with the Pojie, which ])lunged the kingdom into still deeper distre.«s. Tlie king's first wife, Isabella of Hainault. had

' It is noteworthy of the character of the times that lip to the battle of Vemloine it had been the custom of the feudal kind's of France to bear about

rao

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

died in llitl, and two years afterwards Pliilip had taken as a second ijuecn the Prineess lii- geberge of Denmark, lint the iJaiiish lady SdOD fell under the displeasure (if her hird and was divorced. The sns|iici(iii was not wanting that the kiiit,' had aln-ady turned a longing eye upon ]\Iana, the daughter of the Duke of Dalmatia, and that the discarding of Inge- berge was attributable to that circumstance. These pioccediusjs weie highlj disj^leasiug to Pope Innocent III , and he oideied the abio- gation ot the miniaj;t \Mth IMiiia and the restitution of that \Mth the duoucd lu^ebti^e

crown after the death of his uncl^, Richard Plantagenet. King John, refusing to obey the summons, was declared guilty of murder and felony, and his province of Normandy was said to be forfeited. Philip lost no time in asserting his claim to the countries of which he hoped to deprive his rival. Laying siege to the Chateau Gaillard, he succeeded, after a rigorous investment of many months' duration, in 1 educing the place to submission. The rest ot Noiman(h was easih subdued The whole dueh\ w is ^\u■-ted tiom the imbecile John and his sutLL— ois toie\ei Foi two bundled and

Philip refused obedience, and His Huliness laid the kingdom under an interdict for the space of three years. At last the French mon- arch was obliged to yield, and the discarded queen was brought back to Paris.

In the early part of the following century, Philip summoned King John of England to come to the French capital and answer to the charge of having murdered Prince Arthur of Brittany, the rightful heir to the English with them from place to place the royal archives. It now penetrated the thick skull of the age that a permanent depository of such records was a ne- cessity of the situation. Philip Augustus accord- ingly directed the construction of a suitable builJ- ing in Paris for that purpose.

ninety-three years Normandy had been a part of the English dominions, and would doubt- less have so remained but for the pusillanimous character of the king, whose duty it was to de- fend his continental possessions.

Philip now went on from conquering to con- quest. The provinces of Maine, Touraiue, and Anjou were successively taken, and added to the French domains. In 1213 the king, sup- ported by Pope Innocent III., undertook the invasion of England. The miscarriage of this expedition, and the diversion of the campaign into Flanders, have already been recounted in the preceding narrative.' The battle of Bou-

■See anle, p. 781.

THE CRUSADES.— ENGLAND AND EE'ANCE IN THE 13 TH LENT UK Y. 791

vines i-L'salteel in a complete uvertlirow of tlie Flemish aud German auxiliarie.-^. The counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken prisoners, and were confined, the one in the tower of the Louvre, aud the other in the castle Pirou.

It was at this epoch that the religio-civil war with the Albigeuses broke out in the Miuth of France. From the year ll'mi to li'l-^, the best portions of the kingdom were ravaged with a ferocity that would have done credit to the Mamelukes. The harmless fathers of French protestantism were made to feel how cruel a thing the sword is when backed by religious in- tolerance. It ought not to be denied, however, that in the outbreak of the war the papal party had a ju>t cau-e of comiihrnit. In iL'O.^ tl

>:-: \

was suc- iig under 1 tile war

son. In IL'L':] Philip II. died,

ceeded by Louis VIll., wlm,

the instigation of the Pope, reU'

against the Albigeuses; but his sliort reign

was terminated by his death in 1220.

After a three years' continuance of the stniiiiiie Paynioud VII. was induced by the, distresses to which his people were .subjected to purchase exeiiiptiou from further persecu-

I tiou and relief trom the penalties of excommu- nication by the cession of a portion of his ter- ritories to the king of France and by adopting as his heir to the remainder the brother-in-law of Saint Louis. The Albigeuses. ^\ere thus deprived of the i)i(itt ( ti.m of the , ounts of

I Toulouse, and to till up the cup of bitterness

ft

PEI.sri UTIOX OF THE Ai.Bir,E\SES

Pope's legate, Peter of Castelnau, was mur- ' wliieli the pa

dered under circumstances which gave Inuo- ties to <liink,

cent III. good ground for believing that the | of Horror, w

heretical nobles of Southern France were re- | termination,

sponsible for the crime. Suspicion was di- | cutions to w

rected against Ravmoud VI. of Toulouse, ami subjected, tli

a crusa.le was pivaehed against him and his survive,! to (

people. Ly makiii- a humiliatin- submission, and .ven aih

the Count of Toulouse saved himself I'roiu the a.lheivnis .if th.'

impending blow: and tlir erusadiuu ai'uiv was ,iiily in Southern

turned against the vismunts lii.g. r of .Vllii, pait- of Italy aui

Beziers, Carcass.inue, and Ras,/„ wlio.e lanils The course of

were laid waste and contiseateil by Simon de reign of Saint I

Montfort. Eaymond thus gai 1 time to re- ski'tehed in the :

new the conflict, which was c tinned until Si'venth I'rusaile

1218, when Sim.m was kille.l in the .-i,.-e of y.ai- the king n

Toulouse. :Most of the coiKptests made l.v .Inlv of 12.')4, ai

:Montfort were vr..vvvv,\ l.v Kavinon.l and hi- <t...-, I.e-an an

al party now mixed for the here- he In,|uisitioii, with its Chamber s ori:ani/,e.l to comjilete their ex- Xotwithstandiug the fierce perse- ieh these early protestauts were name of the Albigensian sect V close of the thirteenth century, the beginning of the fourteenth, thi' jiartv were still found, not •in Frane,., but also in secluded

aint

Aft.i

the ally the

UXIVEBSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEIiX WORLD.

marked by much pomp aud cureinony. He became a reiormer of abuses in the kingdom, abrogating ojjpressive taxes, reguhiting tlie French municipalities, aud framing new codes of laws. Until a late date the shade-tree was still standing in the Buis de Vincennes under which Saint l.nu\< was w..nt to sit, hearing the ruiuplaiiits of thr poor, and redressing the grievances of those who had suti'ered wrong.

As it respected integrity of character and sincerity of purpose, Louis IX, (iiioy((l the best reputation of all the monai'ili< of his age. So great was his fame for justice and probity, that neighboring princes, when involved in diifieulties among themselves, were accustomed to refer the matters in dispute to the calm temper and

into the hand'- ot the nnper many by the marriage of the daughter of the last Norman king of the Two Sicilies to the father of Frederick 11. , and when this Emperor died the kingdom was seized by his illegitimate son Manfred. Pope Urban I\., regarding the accession of this pseudo prince as a scandal to Christendom, aud offended at the additional power thus gained by the Ghibellines, set up Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX., as king of the Two Sicilies, and in 1265 the

'One of Saint Louis's maxims may well be re- peated: "It is good policy to be just; inasmuch as a reputation for probity and disinterestedness gives a prince more real autliority and power than any accession of territories."

claims of the latter were successfully a.sserted by the defeat of :Manfred in battle. Charles, however, was a man very different in charac- ter from his brother, the king of France. His life and reign were marked by personal ambi- tion, selfishness, and cruelty. His name aud that of liis country became forever afterwards odious ill tlie kingdom which he ruled. Two years after his accession to the throne the Ger- man princes, under the lead of Conradin, sou of Conrad IV., and last representative of the House of Hoheii<taufcn, made an attempt to expel the French from Italy, Init they were decisively defeated. Conradin was taken pris- oner, carried to Naples, and put to death by order of King Charles. When about to be executed, he threw down his glove from the scaffold, appealing to the crowd to convey it to any of his kinsmen in token that whoever received it was invested with his rights, and charged with the duty of avenging his death.

In the year 1258 Philip, eldest son of Saint Louis, received in marriage the Princess Isa- liella, daughter of the king of Aragou. When this union was affected, it was agreed bv the kings of France and Spain that the latter should surrender to the former the towns which he held in the south of France, aud that Louis should give in exchange to the king of Ara- gou those districts of Spain which had been wrested by Charlemagne from the INIoham- medans. About the same time the French monarch secured a large portion of the prov- ince of Champagne by purchase from Count Thibault, who in virtue of his mother's right had acceded to the throne of Navarre.

Having completed the disposition of affitirs in his kingdom, Louis IX. at last found him- st'lf in readiness to renew the war with the Turks and Mamelukes. How the expedition with which he left France in the year 1270 was diverted into a campaign against Tunis, how the plagtie broke out in the French army encamped on that sun-scorched shore, how many thousands perished in anguish and de- spair, and how the aged king himself sickened and died, have already been recounted in a preceding chapter.'

Saint Louis left as his successor his son Philip by Margaret of Provence. This prince was with his father in the siege of Tunis, and

' See ante, p. 767.

THE CRU^ADES.^EXdLAXD AXD FltAXCE IX THE 13TH LEXTURY. 7ii;J

Itke him w i~ attukcil with the plvia lu i I)< JJio-m, thus ». coveriu^ tmni the m.iLuh he tmhaikul lot the ^ai,e ot battk home ami leathed Sicih m the lattci jwit ot ou a t,ihhtt. the yeai 127U Htie hi'^ quecu died, a^ (hd M(aii\\liil

also King Thibault of Xa^aue Mtu> ntlai thi 1 w '^h i distiuguishedpei»ouage»couuected with the c\- I pu-uid iiii pedition, including Alfou-o — the kiu.'s uncle — | a^ tlie hi id and the Couute--, ot Pinxeuct, tell mi tiiu- U> \ i h i-ed iimii the pestilence In the beginning of the lol lowing yeai Philip reached his own do- minions, bearing ^ itli him in «ad piocessiou the dead bodu t 1 i queen and lii- I il \ The ue\\ ^ \ i i n ascended the thmue ■with the title ot Philip III. , and recei\ ed tlie surname of the Bold In liis pi)lie\, he mu- tated the methods of liistathei T\MMtais after his letuin to France, he took in marriage the Piincess Maria of Bi abaut In the mean time, he h nl raided to the position of chief minister ot the kingdom a certain parvenu named Piei i< de la Brosse, who-i former vocation ot barber ha.l little m- ommended him ioi afiairs of state. Xot long after the kingS marriage, De Brosse conceived a violent hatred for the queen, and resolved to com- pa.«s her downfall In 1276, Prince Louis.

died, and the circumstances were such as to favor the false accusation that Queen Maria had caused his death by poison. For the

mtioi aud

duist not aci Inm lit tvcel

, Chuks„t Aiipu, 11 .w king of 11 - w is puisuuj^ his schemes of ition Desnmg to be letraided >t Listiiu thustcndom, he pui- th. _i uiddui_lit.i ot (tu> of

ji I Mr\T

the king's eldest son,

ippeared that her cause

time it

less, but a valiant brother came forw after the manner of the age, challc accuser to a mortal combat. The

s hope- ■d. and. :-ed the

titl

Lusi_n 111 th Tht etttct of this

a iiudizement w

a h sf ( f enemie c\l 1 him ti m th M u t ill th 1

kui„ ot JfcUisilem. [In 1 measuies of self- 1 up aiound Charles ill 1(1 iispii icy to I 111 V _ iK 1 il mas- 111 N I] lis mil Sicily I It thi iin.nnic of tM it 1 istei 12X2.

r94

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

"With fatnl jn-ecision, tliou-h the plot had l}eeii iu preparatiou for the space of two year.s, the diabolical jjlot was carried out. The massacre began in Palermo, and si)read from town to

the .Sicilian Vespeiis— a fitting prelude to the massacre of St. Bartholomew.

In the year 1285 Philip the Third found it necessary to undertake a war with Pedro, kin^

town, wheivvrr the Fn'iicli li ments, until at least ei.uht X\\> people had been butchered. Tl rage against human life is kim

,^'on. That ruler had ])resnmed to set iiilit till' settlement sanctioned l)v the by which tlir i-rowu of Aragon was to

lU Prince Charles,

th,

THE CRUSADES.— ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE 13 TH CENTURY.

French king. The expeditiuu undertaken i)y Philip was, however, attended with disaster. A tleet which had been sent out with provis- ions for his army was captured by the Ara- gonese commauder, De Lauria, and the French ti-oops were left without supplies. It miw appeai'ed, moreover, that the health of King Philip had been ruined in the African cam- paign of his father. Despairing of success, he attempted to withdraw into France, but, on arriving at Perpignan, he found it impossible

into Aragon. For a while, he was withheld from his purpose by the mediation of King Edward of England, whose daughter had been married to Alfonso of Aragon. But the siood otHee^ of the Engli'^h monarth muld nut per- manently avail to prevent ho-tilita-. A war broke out between the French and Arai;one--e, and continued for some years ^\itliout deci-ive results. At the la-t, the contest wa> ended by the indi jitiidt nee of Aranou, which «as attained withdut material lo-s of territorv.

FUNERAL OF SAINT LOUIS.

to proceed, and died at that place in October j It was during the continuance of this petty of 1286. The crown descended, without dis- and disgraceful conflict that the news of the pute, to his son Philip, surnamed the Fair, [ downfall of Acre, and the consequent subver- who ascended the throne with the title of ! sion of the kingdom of Jerusalem, was car- Philip IV. In him the mild temper and pru- j ried to Western Europe. That event has

ipou as a ])ro])er limit for Hrre, then, uu the lliu'h 1 wln.'h, Inokin- t.. the le wilil and extravagant ides, and, turning to the • eol,,,-al form of Mon- thr ruins of ^ro.li:eval

dent behavior, which had of late characterized the kings of France, disappeared, and was re- placed with violence, avarice, and excess, in- somuch that a strange contrast was presented between the beauty of the royal person and the moral deformity of the king.

At the first, Philip IV. undertook to re- trieve the misfortunes of the late expeditiun

already been fixed the present Buok. •lividing rid.ae tV,, past, we liehdld t drama of the Cvw. future, discover tl avchv risiii- ab.ivi Kunme— the free

ro6

UyiVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

powerful as the cuuservator.^ of public lib- erty, and the convex rim of the IS'ew World seen afar in the watery horizon of the West, — we pause, intending to resume, in the begin-

ning of the following Book, the annals of Germany, Italy, France, and England, from the close of the thirteenth century to the dis- covery of America by Columbus.

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