w-w * »

■ ^ f t i"f

l^;f i. i f t,^ ^^^ ^^- ■

*■ » if ».

K, %.%;«*:

k:4 ^. J;^:i„t\ .. .^.„ ■' #" ?^-^ «'■• *;« St. # '^'

'.■J*»J*^-.

J

UNIVERSITY

OF PITTSBURGH

LIBRARY

fm^mmmm^wim&mi

.^^^^,

a-'^^/'

.V-V.'>-'

^v.v.

.'>>:» ,>.♦;•!

I ■« H «> !• U «

*J,*m*J-*

RIDPATH'S

UNIVERSAL HISTORY

AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN, PRIMITIVE CONDITION AND ETHNIC DEVELOPMENT

OF THE GREAT RACES OF MANKIND, AND OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN THE

EVOLUTION AND PROGRESS OF THE CIVILIZED LIFE AMONG MEN

AND NATIONS, FROM RECENT AND AUTHENTIC SOURCES.

WITH A PRELIMINARY INQUIRY ON THE TIME, PLACE AND MANNER OF THE BEGINNING.

By JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D.,

AUTHOR OF A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC.

Complete in Sixteen Volumes

A NARRATIVE OF MORE THAN SIX THOUSAND PAGES, PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH

COLORED PLATES, RACE CHARTS, HISTORICAL MAPS, TYPE-PICTURES,

SKIETCHES AND DL\GRAMS TO THE NUMBER OF MORE

THAN THREE THOUSAND.

VOLUME XV.

CINCINNATI: THE JONES BROTHERS PUBLISHING COMPANY.

h:

^-o/ /> /■■}' s/ ■r:srnirT!nx

Preface to Volumes XV axu X\'L

HAVE n.nv brought to

it< ilnal fnnu the «nrk <.u

I Ifiieral Histury, the out- < of which were dimly

conceived niauy j-ears ago.

It would be impracticable, and perhaps of little profit, to trace the slow- development of such a \vork from its first con- ception to the final stroke with which at length it is finished and delivered to the public. To the author such a retrospect of processes and combinations must be of nuich personal in- terest, but the reader will be concerned ratlier with the aggregate and final result than with the tedious evolution.

At first view it will appear to the student of history that the Ancient and the Modern World are, in tlieir historical records, of about equal duratiiu and importance. The begin- nings of Ancient History are set, in a general way, about as far beyond the Christian Era as our own times are placed thereafter. To Ancient History lielong the Classical Ages — an epoch of achievement and glory which may well challenge the mo^t brilliant periods of the recent era. But a closer judgment of the rel- ative importance of Ancient and Modern His- tory will show the great preponderance of the latter. This is one of the more important facts which have impressed themselves upon the writer's mind in the preparation of these Volumes. He has come to believe in the great preeminence of the Jlodern Era over the most brilliant epochs of Antiquity. This is said of the aggregate and total achievements of mod- ern times as compared with the aggregate and total achievements of any given period in the liistory of the Ancient "World.

It is from considerations such as these that Modern History has, under the writer's hand and treatment, expanded to a considerable ex- tent beyond the limits originally proposed. This principle has been the foundation of the

jireseut Fi.ur- Volume Edition of the work. A single volume of the iinir, with the first thir.l of tlie second, will be fouml apiaiquiati-d to the History of Ancient Statis and Nations; while all the remaining volumes are devoted to the History of the .Aliddle Ages, the Period of Renaissance, the Revolutionary Epoch, and the Nineteenth Century.

It is in the last-named division that the largest increment and modifications of the ]u-esent edition will be discovered. To the History of Antiquity the Book on the Parthian Empire has been added in \'oluni.. I. As to the history of Greece and Rnnie, ..nly inci- dental emendations and extensions of the nar- rative will be fouml. But in the history of our own century the whole work has been done anew, and on a larger scale.

Another important element in the growth of the present issue of this History i-elates to the part allotted to the most recent annals of our times. By this is meant the nan-ative of affairs in the ditierent nations during the eighth and ninth decades of our century. When the work was first projected. History seemed to have rearhrd a pause with the con- clusion of the Civil War in the Uniteil States and the establishment of the Gernum Empire in Europe. The period which the vrriter was thus obligeil to make at the beginning of the eighth derade i-^ at length ended, and he is now able to pursue his course with tolerable certainty tor a full score of years. Nor have the course and tendency of aflairs during this period been devoid of inter- est from a historical point of view. To this period belong the demonstration of Italian unity; the definitive estaldishment of a German Empire under the auspices id' the House of Hohenzoilern ; the progressiv<. — Imt somewhat broken— march of Eugbsh Lii)eralism towards the establishment of an Imperial federation for the whole British Empire; the vindication of the right to exist on the part of the Thini

I'in.iwri: TO VOL I'M r:

A.\i> xvr.

Kejiulilii' iif Franco; and ))arti('ularly the res- toration of a comi)k'te nali'.nal autonomy in the United States.

It is not needed in tiiis coniieetion l<i liuell in exten^o on the minor nioditications which have suggested tiienisilves in tlie composition of these volumes. It may be thonght that all such departures from the miginal sketch for the production of a literary work are hut-so many evidences of the imperfection of the plan, and that references thereto are in the nature of communications at the confessional. This view, li.iwrvn-. is at once superficial and

incorrect. It ]>r eds upon the assumjjtiou

that a literary production has the character of a mechanical contrivance rather than of an or- ganism. Such a view runs to the efiect that literature and its products are the results of a sort of infallible calculus rather than the phenomena of growth and li^e. As a matter of fact, every true product in the \v(,rld of letters has the analogy of the tree which pro- ceeds from germination by way of expansion, leafage, and blossom, to final completeness of height and form and the bearing of fruit. The fable of the birth of Jlinerva is not re- peated in literary production. Even the poem, most imaginative and immediate of all our mental products, does not spring full-winged from the flames of imagination. No work of art is cnnceiveii in its completeness by a single effort of the niin<l. How much less should we expect a literary work, extending through thousands of pages, and covering in its subject matter the vast panorama of human affairs from the primitive shadows of the heroic ages to the broad revelation of the present hour, to be ])roduced in all its entirety and amplitude in the first concept of the outline I

Frnm tliese considerations, I iiave been willing that this History of the World should be improved according to the laws of growth and development, until it has at length reached its present form and substance. It only re- mains to add a single remark relative to the difficulties of composing a true history of recent events. Contrary to what would seem to be the manifest principles of historical narrative, it is the recent event and not the remote which is most difiicvdt of just treatment. In

the first ])lace, the evidences of the real na- ture of current athiirs are all stained and swollen like rivtdets under the disturbance of last night's rain. The waters are muddy and jierturbed. Their course is difficult to discover. Channels have been produced by the tem- porary deluge, which will p;i.ss with the fort- night and leave no further trace. The true volume of present affairs is difficult to estimate. The senses are confused by portents in the earth and heavens, which nothing signify.

In still another particular the production of current history is greatly embarrassed and distracted. This is the necessity of the writer to constitute a part of that vast society, the movement of which he is expected to de.scribe. He is himself borne along with the current. He must needs feel its fluctuations. Anon he finds him.self in the middle of the stream, or borne at intervals into the whirling eddy near the shore, from which p(jint of view universal nature seems to revolve around him. He is expected to share the sympathies, the beliefs, the passions of the current age. He is ex- pected to be swayed by the dominant preju- dice, to think as his party thinks, to do as the majority do, to dream the prevailing dreams, to see the anticipated vision. He is expected to wear the form and fashion of the times ; to be pleased with the current pleasure ; to smile, to sigh, to weep, to sleep and wake, to go and come, to live and to die, even as do those with whom he is associated in the desti- nies of life. This setting of the writer among the very facts, the tendency of which he is expected to di-scover and describe, is the most serious of all drawbacks to the accuracy and fidelity of his work. I can not hope that what I have written in this Fourth Volume, closely involved as it is with the movements of the current age, shall be wholly free from the coloring of prejudice and the mistakes arising from the personal equation. Doubt- less there is in the following pages much chro- matic and s]iherical aberration ; but I cherish the hope that the reader will find much to have been faithfully delineated and lifted somewhat above the level of the political and partisan distortion which is unfortunately the prevail- ing vice of our times.

J. C. R.

Grke.ncastle, April .

VJO.

Contexts of \'olumi:S XV and X\\.

PREFACE, 1-3

CONTENTS, 3-22

LIST OF ILLTSTRATIONS, 23-27

INTRODUCTK )N 29-30

BOOIv TWENTV-KIRST.— THE UNITED STATES.

Chapter CXXII. — American' ^Iiddle Ages.

(ieneral Historical Outlook after Waterloo. — Transformation of Society. — Aspect of the Nine- teenth Century. — Progress of the United States in Particular.— Sketch of James Monroe. — Policy of the New Administration. — Haj'tian Complica- tion.— DitHculties with the North-western In- dians.— Manner of Settlement. — Admission of Mississippi. — West Indian Piracy. — Question of Internal Improvements. — National Road an<l Erie Canal. — First Passage of the Seminole War. — Jackson's Part Therein. — Cession of Florida to the United States. — First Commercial Crisis. — Admission of Illinois and Alabama. — Missouri Imbroglio. — Tlie Compromise. — Reelection of JNIon- roe. — The AVest Indian Piracy Again.— Question of the South American Republics.- Visit of La- fayette.—Presidential Election of 1824.— Sketch of John Quincy Adams. — Revival of Partisan- ship.—Difficulties with the Creeks.— Deatlis of Jefferson and Adams. — Disappearance of Alor- gan. — Rise of the Tariff Issue. ^Character of the Epoch. — Election of Jackson to the Presidency. — Sketch of the New Executive.— The Political Revolution — Question of rechartering the Bank. — Whig and Democrat. — Tariff Agitation renewed. — Webster and Hayne.— Nullification.— Black Hawk War.— The Cherokees. — Continuance of the Sem- inole War. — Story of Csceola. — End of the Bank of the United States. — Distribution of Funds. — Reelection of Jackson. — Foreign Complications. — Necrology of the Fourth Decade. — Disasters.— Admission of Arkansas and Michigan.— Farewell of Jackson. — Sketcli of Van Buren. — Subjugation of the Seminoles.— Second Financial Crisis. — Independent Treasury Bill.— The Canadian Re- bellion.—Character of Van Buren's Administra- tion.—Election of Harrison to the Presidency.— Statistics and Growth.— Sketch of Harrison. — His Death.— Notice of Tyler.— His Break with the Whig Party. North-eastern Boundary Ques- tion Settled. — Disturbance in Rhode Island. —

Completion of Bunker Hi Troubles in New York. — Ki Tlieir Exodus to Utah, . .

Monument. — Land of tlie Mormons. —

Chapter CXXIII. — JIexkax War axd

Sixth Decade.

The Texas Agitation.— Rebellion and Inde- pendence of the Province. — Question of Annexa- tion.—Election of Polk to tlie Presidency.— The First Telegraph. — Texas admitted into the Union. — Also Florida and Iowa. — Sketch of Polk.— Anger of Mexico. — Question of Boundaries. — American Army on the Rio Grande. — Outbreak of the War. — Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. — AVar Spirit in the United States.— Plan of the Campaigns. — Capture of Monterey. — Expedition of Kearney. — Fremont in the Rockies. — Revolu- tion in California. — Scott Commander-in-Chief. — Battle of Buena Vista.— Capture of A'era Cruz. — Invasion of Mexico. — Battle of Cerro CTOrdo. — Conflicts about the Capital. —Capture of INIexico.— End of the AV^ar. — Terms of the Treaty. — Oregon Boundary Question. — Settlement of the Interna- tional Line. — Discovery of Gold in California. — Rush for the Mines. — Founding of Smithsonian Institution. — Its Organization and AA'ork. — Ne- crology of Fifth Decade. — Admission of AViscon- sin.— The New Caiiinct Otlices. — Presidential Election of 1848.- (^i.-ti-ns Inv.lvrd. -Sketch of Taylor.— Proposition to admit California.— Nature of the Issue.— New Mexico organized. — Passage of the Omnibus Bill.— Death of the Pres- ident.— Sketch of Fillmore. — Retirement of Henry Clay.— Political Sentiment of the Times.— The Cuban Imbroglio. — Failure of Lopez. — Policy of Fillmore. — The Newfoundland Fishery Ques- tion.— A'isit of Kossuth to the Ignited States. — Arctic A'oyages of Franklin and Kane. — Deaths of Calhoun, Clay, and AVebster.— Cuba and the Tripartite Treaty.— Presidential Election of 1852.— Position of Parties.— Sketch of President Pierce. — Question of the Pacific Railroad agitated. — " 3

4 COXTEXTS OF VOLVMKS XV AXI> XVL

Soiitli-\v.v<liTii r.oiin.lary ■letcrmin.-il. -i 'i.rniii'.' I'avis.— Thr War in Mi~sniiri.— Rattlns of Boone-

Ol Iim-ivoiir>,- with Japan. — WorM's Kairal N.-w vill.' and Wilson Civek.— Caj.tuTV c,| l.cxiiiL'tnn.—

Y.irl<. -\\'all<ti- inva.l-s ('.•iitral Anii-ii.a. Is Fi-.-iimnt an.l Halli--ol<.— Ft.rr.-s in Kc-nluc'l<y an.l

.Iftlin.nr.l an.l ,-x.-ciitcil.-Si,,ry nt tli- Martin , ..n tlic Mississippi.— Appariti.jn nl ( irant. — l!fl-

Ko.szta .\liair.— Pi-..j.-ct t.> piuciiasr Cnlia.-'l'li.- n...nl. — .\larni at Wasliin-ton. -McCli-llan Cmi-

O.slrn.l Manifest...- N.'W \\\-.~t..-n. T.iril..ri.'S.- i iiian.l.T-i:. Cliief.-Civali.ui ..I tiir .\i-:iiy ..f tlje

Repeal <.f til,- Mi-s..nn Cniproniise. Tlu-.ri.-s ■ l'..l..M,a<-.-r.all-s Bhiir. -i >p,.raii.,Ms aL.n- the

of li.,nu':as.-Kir.t> ..| ll,e Kausa<.Nel.i-a-ka (•..:;st. FiM KiUvts ..I tl„- War in KnL'lan.l.-

Bill.- fivil an.l .-...-i-.l Tinni H in Kansas. Tie- Ma>.in an.l .-li.l.-ll .-^.-nt .M.ma.I.-.MIaii- .,1 tho

Bonier War.-.<lav.TV (lu.^ii-n in lull F..iv,..- | Tr, „t an.l s„„ ./,„;„/„.- (^i,„.sii,,ns Iiiv.,lve.l.-

I'.isiti..n of Parties in l^V;. Tn.ul,l.-s ..1 the | He. i.n.ili.ms .,f .S-uanl. -Marshall Kxi.elle.l from

(ienev. ,-k,-l. h ..f his Lit,.. Th.- hr.-.l S,.,tt : tnn- ..1 1 i..n,K..n. I'.altl.- ..f I'itt.shnrir Fan.lin-.—

Ileei.si,,n. Tl,.-..ri.s ..f tie- .<npr,-nie ('■nrl ..n ' T.ikiie.' ..f l-lan.l Nuniher T.-n.-Uattle of I'ea

J^laverv. < intl.reak . .1 Tr. .nhl.- u ill. tie- M. .i ne .ns K.L.-. Tie- M.r,:„n,r in Hanipt..n Koads.-

in rtale War in the T,rnt..rv. Fn.l ..1 ih.- l'..al,n l.y the .I/,.,,;/,,,-. Capture .,i Roanoke

l)iHi.■nll^. .\ltaek ..n Anieri.an V.ss,-I in.<..nlh Man. I. N.w IVrn., l;.-anf..r-, an.l F..rt I'nlaski.—

Anieri.a'. I.aein- ..f Fir.-t Atlanli.- Cahle.- .\ew Orl. ans taken l,y |h,- F.-.|,ral I'le.t an-l

Failnre ..1 the' Fnterpris". A.ln,i>>i iMinne- , Ain.y. F..rts .ra.k-.,n an.l Si. Philip. ^ Kirl.y

Notiee of	Irvin- an.l his W..rks (is-ldll	Pi.hne.n.l a	n.l P,-ny\ill,..	— luka. — Corinlh —
C'ii.vi-11	:k CXXIW -Di^iMdN .\M> Civil W.\u.	Fir-, M..v,in l;av..n. r.att i;,-M.it,-. .M..	',- ..1 .Mmfr.-.-sh vein, -his ,,f Ih,	..r..ut:ir,-L..ss.-s an,l - Fa-lern Anni.-s.-
K,-nev	,al of Slavery AL'ilali..n. P.-rs..nal	r.ank-^ ..n t!	!.■ Sh,.nan.l.,ah	.-Fi.,nt !;..val an,l
Lihertv 1		P..rl l;,'pnhli	.•.-.\.lvan.',-..f	the Arn,y,,f■th,■Po-
ecnti.ni «.	i III,- In^n^-_..■nI^. Tie- Kan.^an War.—	t,,n,a.-.-M,-(	■|,-ll.in's Plans.	Y.akt..^^n tak,-n.—
(;r..uin-.'	Ih.stilitv t.. Slavery. p..iili.-al C.nven-	W....rs E.\p.	•.liti..n a'jaiiist	X,.rf,,lk.— Paul,- ,,f
tions ..f	isi.o. ni-rnplion ..1 tie- 1 ^■nl...•ratii■	Fair daks.-	-.\.-.',->M 1	I.,-,- 1.. Conf,-,l,-rate
PaMv.— 1,	:e^nlt ..i Ih.- C.nt.-st. Tie- S,-.-rssi..n	C.nnnan.l.-	Pattl,- ..1 Oak	(M,.ve.-Mec-l,an-,-s-
Sclu'nie.-	Ihama ..1 |iisnni..n. With.lraual ..f	vill,-. -(.ain.	,-,s's Mill. — Wl	liil,- dak Suariii..—
Sonthern	l:.-pr.'s.-ntati\.'s an.l S.-nal.irs lioni	Fiazi,-r's k'ai	ini.-Malv.-rn 1	Ilill. Faihnv ,.f the
O.n-ress.	— Sintini.iit in tie- S, ■.■.->- (■..n\i-n-	iViiinsiilai C.	niq.al-n.— .\.1\-:	in,e,.| l.,.-,,n Wa-h-
tions.--.\	ttiln.le ..1 Stephens. -S.itinL. up ..f the	in-.;t..n. I'.alt	l.-s .if P.nll Ui	ini. C,-nl,-rvill,-. an.l
Provineia	1 C..nle.|.-rat.-(...verninenl. I'.a.-i- C..n-	Chanlillv. -.1	aek-..!! Caplnr.	■s Ilaip.-i's l.-riy.-
feren.-.-.	l.ast Iiays ..f th.- dl.l A.hniMi>lrai;..n.-	I'.attl,- ..f .\ii	ti.-tani. -I.,',- n-
Moven.eli	its in Ch.nlest.in llarlhir. i;pi-...le ..f	MeCU-llin s.	ipe,.<,-.l,-,l hy 1	raunsi.l,..-P,attl,- ,.,f
the >/'(/•	ut th, U..I. .^-k.'l.-h ..i l,in...ln-.- Life	Fredeihkshn	,^._I,,s..-s.-I)	is,-,,nia,;iin._' ()nll,„.k
an.l Cha	raet.-r.- Ills lnan..;nral .\.1.|..". The	,.f Ih.- rni..n	Cans,-.-Calls f	<ir Ki-ernits.-K-niiiK'
N,-n- Cah	ini-t.- Fall ..1 Snnit.r. Kin.lliie.' ..i tin-	th,- l-aiianeii	lalion I'roelaini	;ilion.— Chaiaiter ,.f
War Spir	it.— First Call l.ir V..lnnt.-.-rs. l;|...,.l in	Ih,. .\,t. Ca	ptnreof .\rkan.-	^as Post.-Movenu-nt
P,aUin,or,	..— Se.-..n.l Call f..r .<..llieis. Ki. hne.n.l	,.| (irant a-.;.	linst Vi.'k-hni-	Pi,,jerts and Fail-
nia.l.- tie	• Conf'-.li-rale Caiiitnl ('an-.s ..f llie	iiiis. — Kiinni	nu' lhi. Patter	i,s.-P.atlle of Fort
Civil Wa		(,ih^nn.-l;a>	■ni..n.l. C.iplin	V ..f Ja.ks..n.-Pem-

cn-i-ntv. S,..-ti,,nalisni ,.l th.-' Parti, ■s.-N.irlh. an --i,-,- an.l Captut.-.- Fail ..I \'..n 1 ln,l-..n -Con-

an.l S.',nlh.-rn Svsl,-n,s ..f T.al...r, C.tP.n an.l 1. .l.raU- an.l Fni..n Cavahy l;ai.ls.,f iMiS-fB.—

Cotl.,n <;in. Sla'v,-ry iH-.-p-,.. .le.l in S.,nll„.n. NVw M,-th...ls <.f P,slrn,-ti,m. -Capture of

Society. - Th.- Missouri .\-.'itati..n ami C..ni- str,-i-_dil.- P.nil,- ..f ( hi.kanian.ra.- E.\tent of

proini's,-. - .\nllili.ati..n Th,-..rv. .\ nn.-xati..n ,.f Fni.-n Ih>aM,r.-( iiant in Coniinan.l -Revival

T,-x:,s an.l it- (■..„-. in. •n,-,-s:-Kan.as\,hraska '.l the Fni..n Can-.-.- Lookout Mountain an.l

Bill. -Want ..I Int. r,-..ni-.- h,f,v,-.n th,- N. all,, in Mis-L.nary Pi.lu-.-. l..,-s,s ami Results.-.si..;.^- of

an.l .s..nth,rn Slat-. lnlln,-n.-.- -il S,.,ii.,iial Kie.xvill.-. Tl„- War in Arkansas.— P>ai.l ,.1 ,lohn

Pil<-ralnr.-. Fvil W,.iU ..i I i,iiiaL.-..-u<--. H.i-tility .M-.r-aii. L...ss ..f ( lalv, si,, n.—Fe,leral Failure at

Mc-CK-llan' an.l M..nis in W.-t Vii-.-inia. In.le- th- .-1 Chan, nil. .r>\ ill. -.-Kxtent of tin- I'nh.n

oisivi- Fn-.-au-.m.-nt- in ih-l 1;. ■•_•!. .n. ( ■..n.,iilra- Pi-a-P r. .-P.n.-n.an's liai.l.- Lee inva.l,-s P.-nn-

tion of Arnii.s at Mana-sa> .lnn,!i..n. P.alll.-..f -^ Ivaiiia.- .M,-a.l.- C..iiinian.ls tin- Army .,f the

Bull Run.-Huniili,,li..n ..l th.- .\"..rih.-Th.- C.n- P..Piin.i,-. Patlh- ..1 ( ..-Ityshnr-.- ' iian.i R. pnlse

federate Government at i;iehmon.i. -Sk, l,h of of the C,.nie,ierati- Army.— Truuhles of the t iov-

COXTENTS OF VOLUMES XV AX1> XVI.

ernment. — Conscription Act and Draft Riot. — Suspension of Habeas Corpus. — Lessons and Re- sults of the Draft. — Slierman's 'Work between Corintli and Mobile.— Forest's Raid.— Fort Pil- low.—Tlie Red River Expedition.— Battles of Mansfield and Pleasant Hill. — Damming the River. — Ascendency of Grant. — He is jiromoted to Lieutenant-Generalcy. — Extent of the Union Army. — Plan of the Campaign of lS(i4. — Sher- man's Progress from Chattanooga to Atlanta. — Battles before that City.— Death of WcPherson.— Hood supersedes Johnston. — Siege of Atlanta. — The Capture —Hood's Invasion of Tennessee.— Battles of Franklin and Nashville.— Ruin of the Confederate Army. — Sherman's Marcli to the Sea.— Capture of Savannah.— Advance against Columbia.— Fighting en roM(e.— Capture of Charles- ton.--Fayetteville.— Hampton and Kilpatrick.— Johnston restored to Command. — Averasborough and Bentonville.— Capture of Raleigh.- Negotia- tions of Sherman with Johnston.— Stoneman's Raid.— Results of the Expedition.— Farragut cap- tures :Mobile.— Fort Fisher taken.— Exploit of Cushing.— Work of the Confederate Cruisers.— The Savannah.— The .Svmler.—The iV(is/i!-(7/f.— The Flofi'la.— Other Privateer Craft.— Story of the Alabama. — Her Destruction by the Kearsarge. — Movements of the Army of 'the Potomac. — The Confederacy on the Defensive. — Lull in the East. — Counter-movements of !Meade and Lee. — Grant at the Head of the Armies. — Beginning of the Advance. — Battles of the AVilderness. — Sheii- dan's Cavalry Raid.— Cold Harbor.— Losses of the Campaign.— Grant's Movement by the Flank.— Investment of Petersburg.— Sigel on the Shenan- doah.— He is superseded by Hunter.— Piedmont. — Early crosses the Blue Ridge.- Battle of ]\ronoc- acy.— Defeat of Wright at "Winchester.— Sheridan given Command.— Defeats Early.— Fisher's Hill.— ITnion Disaster at 'Winchester. — Rally and Vic- tory of Sheridan. — Destruction in the Shenan- doah Valley. — Continuance of Siege of Peters- burg.—Spring Hill.- Battle nf Tiv,- r,,iUs — Capture of Petersburg and Richinnnd by tlie Union Army.— Retreat of Lee.— Cunfcdcvate Sur- render at Appomattox. — Terms of Capitulation. — Surrender of Johnston. — Collapse of the Confed- eracy.— Capture and Imprisonment of Davis. — Reelection of Lincoln. — Admission of Nevada. — Question of Finance. — Coin and Paper JMoiiey. — Chase's AVork in the Treasury. — System of Revenue. — Greenback Currency. — United States Bonds.— National Banks and Currency.— IMer- chandise in Silver and Gold. — Lincoln's Second Inaugural. — He is assassinated. — Murderous As- saults on the Government.— Fate of the Conspir- ators.— Character of Lincoln. — His Funeral. — Johnson in the Presidency.— Amnesty Proclama- tion.— Subsidence of the Armies. — The AVar Debt. — Attitude of Foreign Powers toward the

United States. — Mexican Fiascoof Napi>KM.in III.— Death of Maxinulian.— Success of tlie .Atlantic Cable.— :\Ioney Order System estalili^hed in the United States.— Organization ..if ■\Vr>trrn Terri- toiies.— Purchase of Alaska, 100-174

Chapter CXXV. — Epoch of Recox-

.stkuction.

DifHculty between the President and Con- gress.— Nature of the Lssue. — Reconstruction Proc- lamation.— Congress pursues its Own Course. — Civil Rights Bill. — Johnson's Denunciations. — Philadel]>hia Convention. — The President makes a Tour of the Country. — His Speeches. — Alutual Recriminations. — Reconstruclion Plan of Con- gress.— Fourteenth Amendment. — Vetoes. — Plan Civil and Plan Military. — Re.'idmission of the Ten Seceded States. — Affair of the Attorney-Gen- eral.— Dismissal of Stanton. — The Impeachment Trial. — Grant nominated and elected President. — Sketch of the New Executive. — The New Cabi- net.— Completion of the Pacific Railway. — The Fifteenth Amendment. — Story of Black Friday. — Completion of Reconstruction. — Ninth Census of the United States. — Project to annex Santo Do- mingo.— Day of Settlement with (ireat Britain. — History of Alabama Claims. — The Geneva Award.— Great Railway Development. — Burning of Cliicago. — Settlement of North-western Bound- ary Question. — Military Methods in the Govern- ment. — Grant's Southern Policy. — Ku-Klux Epoch. — Reelection of Grant. — Overthrow and Death of Greeley. — Great Fire in Boston. — His- tory of the Modoc War.— Their Treachery.— Re- duction and Imprisonment of the Savages.— Con- tinued Trouljles in the South. — The Louisiana Imbroglio. — Credit JMobilier Scandal and Investi- gation.— Financial Panic of 187o. — Construction of the Ivortbern Pacific Railway. — The Texas and Pacific Line. — Admission of Colorado. — Necrol- ogy.—Coming of the Centennial Year. — The Com- mission.— Buildings of the great Expusition in Pliiladelphia.— Sketch of the Centennial Exhibi- tion and Ceremonies.— Results of the Anniver- sary.—Disposition of tlic r.iiilihngs.— War with the Sioux.— Destruction of Ciistor and his Forces on the Big Horn.- ( ixnilnow of the Sioux Na- tion. — Captuie of the Cliicls. — Twenty-lliiid Presidential Election. — l'..lili.al tJucMions of ]S70.-The Disput,.! I'lvsidency.-.Vppoiiitment of tlie .loint Hi'.;li ( oiiiniissi.in.- Decisi.iii in Favor of Hayes and Wb, •.•In- 174-193

Ch.\pter CXXVI. — L.\TEST Period.

Sketch of President Hayes.— The Inaugural Address. — The Xew Cabinet. — Railroad Strike of 1877. — Riot and Destruction of Property. — Scenes in Pittsburg, Chicago, and San Francisco.— Nez Perce AVar. — Question of Remonetization of Sil-

CO. XT icy TS OF VOLVMKS XV ASI> XVI.

ver.— llist'irv of tlio Stamlar.l 1 of tln! Moiu'tury C'lunarl.-r , Silver-mines. — Nature ■■i tin- I Agitation fortlie Kestorati..ii ..i Sii.rrss .,1 I Ik- Measure. -The (l.-iiiir ..f 1S7S.— (iuestion of tin fax Awar.l a-ainst the riiite.l

tes.-lv Washi

Inst

Xati

-(■eneral I liarac- mal Conventions ates.-Clainis of

of KSMi. I'hitlonns an.l (an.! the Thir.l Party.-Kleetion of (iarlirM an.l Ar- thur.— Measures of tlie Forty-sixth ('..iiuiiss.— Refunding the I'lihlic Debt. - \V.,rl.l Tour of General Grant.— Census of ISSO.— Lesions an.l Deductions therefrom. — Necrology of thr t^iunl- renniuni. — Sketch of President (iarlield. — llis Inaugural ,\ddress.— The New Cabinet.— (Question of Civil Srrvice Reform.— Nature of tlie Issue.— Break in the Republican Party.— AfTair of Conk- ling and Piatt.— Shooting of the President.— Story of his Decline and Death.— The Funeral. — Ques- tions involveil in the Case of Guiteau.— Sketch of Arthur. — Cabinet Changes. — The Star Route Con- spiracy.— The Trial and Results. — Pi'ogress in Physical Science. — Epoch of great Inventions. — Story of the Telephone.— Contributions thereto of Bell. Gray, and Edison.— The Phonograph.— Nature of th.e Instrument. — PossibU- Uses.— The Elertrie Light.— Evolution of tlir Invnition.— Work of lvli-..n.-l;esiilt- oi Kh-rtiir Li-liliug.— Great Stnirtines of the Tiiiirs.-iluil.lirig ..f the Brooklyn Bridge.— tHher Structures of like Char- acter.— Wa.shington Briilge in particular.— Sub- sidence of real I'olitical Questions. — The Tariff Issue.-Considered in Extemo.— V.\\«<>\\v^u ..f the Doctrine of Free Trade.— Theo.y oi 1 i,ri,l,iital Protection elucidated.— Priuciiilcs and I'o.lriiu-s of Limited Protection. —Hi-h I'lotrctiou. I'lohib- itory Tariffs.- Recurniire nf thr Issue- ii, Am.ri- can' Politics.— Position of the rartics.-I litli, ulty of Political Ahgnmentonthe Issue. — Presidential Aspirants of 1884.— The Nominations.— Election of Cleveland and Hendricks.— Political Sequels of

the i;iecl ion. —Retirement of General Sherman from Command of the .-Vrmy. — General Sheridan succeeds Hitii. — Completion and Dedication of the Washington Monument. — Sketch of President Cleveland.— The New Cabinet.— Question of Offi- cial Patronage. — Revival of Civil War Memories. — Epoch of Military Memoirs. — Sickness and Death of Cieneral Grant— Of General McClellan.— Of General Hancock. — Of General Logan. — Of Vice- President Hendricks. — Of Horatio Seymour. — Of Sanuiel .1. Tild.-n.— i)f Henry Ward Beecher.— Of Chief-.lustirr Wait.-.— Outline of the History of the Supn-Mu- C..uit.— Sketch of Chief-Justice Wait.-. A|.|...iiitiiii'nt of Judge Lamar to the Snpi.-i...- [■..-ii.li. .lu.lge Fuller appointed Chief- Jiisti.-.'. li.-:ith .if K. is.-oe Conkling. — Sketch of his Chara.tcr an.l Career. — Labor Agitations of the I\-iio.l.— Causes ..f tlie Disturbance.— Strikes of issi;. — ILiyiuaik(-t Tragedy in Chicago. — Charleston i::iiih.|nak.-. -Nature of such Omvid- sions.— W..rk ..I th.- F.rty-niiUh C..nL'ress.— P.-n- .sion L(-gislati..n. Int.-r.-^tate Comnien-e IJill.— Bad Feature s of the Measure.— Party Politics.— Factitious Issues.— Question of Protection and Reform of the Revenue. — The President's Posi- tion.— Renoinination of Cleveland. — Candidate.? and Platforms of 1888. — Election of General Har- rison.—.\dmission into the Union of South and N.iith Dakota, :\Iontana, and Washington.— Es- taMishini-nt <.f the 1 i.-partment of .\griculture. — .^k.-tch ..1 llanis.Mi.-His Inauguration.- The New Cabinet.— Centennial of the American Re- public.— The Celebration at New York.— Outline of Ceremonies.— Review of Constitutional His- tory.— Philosophy of the Event. — Organization of the Enterpri.se in New York City.— The Anni- versary Proper.— The Exercises in Wall Street.— The Great Par.ulr. Th.- Dan. piet.— Holiday in the City.— Sp.-. 1:1! I'ai-.i.l.- .if May-.lay. — Historical Allegori.s. l-.a-v M..v.-.nei)t ..f th.-' ^lultitudes.— The Sam.,an C..niplicati..n. -C.m.liti..n .>f the Islaii.ls.-Dillirulti.-s of the Ameri.-ans and (ier- niaiis.- Destrncti.m of the War-lleets. — Settle- ment of the Trouble. — Story of the Johnstown FI00.I.— The Pan-American Congress.— The Inter- national Maritime Congress. — Corclusion, 19.3-L'48

ROOK XW'EX'TY-SECOMD.— GRKAT BRITAIN

CnAiTi;i: CXWII— L.\st Two Han

Europe after Waterl.,... shaken. — Napoleon's l.)rc-a. Policy in the Age of Revol dener and the Holy Alliam Principles of tlie Compa.t. tinnance.— Position of lin-i

the Alliam-.-. -The llaiiover-Bninswick Dy- nasty.—(ieorge III. and the Prince of Wales.— The Kegeney.— Accession of George IV.— Sketch of his Life an.l Character.— His Double Dealing.— Li\i-rp. .. 1 an.l ( 'astlereagh.— General Con.litions of ill.- I'.iio.l. — R.-vivalof Revolutionary Spirit. — R.-v..lt auaiiist Fer.linand VII.-He is Supi-nted by till- II. .ly .\lli.-iii.-.-.— Interest of Great Britain in dreek Uevolution. — Independence of (ireece. —

COXTKNTS OF VOLUMES XV AND XVI.

Peel reforms British Criminal Code. — Savagery of the Former Jurisprudence. — Work of Sir Samuel Romilly. — Sir James Mackintosh. — The Acis of 18:26. — Incompleteness of English Reforms.^ Canning Ministry. — Death of the Duke of York — "Wellington Prime Minister. — Repeal of Test Act. — Rise of the Catholic Question.— Outbreak of the Burmese AVar. — Invasion of Burmah. — Siege of Ava. — Subjugation of the Burmese. — The Treaty. — Apparition of Daniel 0"Connell. — First Measures of Catholic Reform. — Removal of Dis- abilities.— Retreat of the Ministry before the Catholic Party. — Passage of Relief Bill. — Humili- ation and Death of George IV. — Note of his Char- acter and Reign. — The Duke of Clarence Heir to the Crown. — Note on Queen Caroline. — Sketch of William lY. — Premonitions of Parliamentary Reform. — Existing State of Representation. — Growth and Evolution of the House of Lords and House of Commons. — Character of the Com- mons.— Jealousy of Royalty thereto. — Historical Vicissitudes of the Lower House. — Vices in the System of Parliamentary Election. — Evils of the British Land System. — Development of Great Cities. — Pocket and Rotten Boroughs. — Attitude of Toryism towards Reform. — Effects of French Revolution of 1830 in Great Britain. — Opposition to the Reform of Parliament. — Fall of the Well- ington Ministry. — Russell and the Reform Bill. — Agitation of the Country. — The Landed Aristoc- racy in Opposition to Reform. — Political Crisis of 1830-31. — Deadlock between the Houses. — How to put down Tory Opposition. — Retreat of the Lords. — Passage of the Reform Bill. — L'npopu- larity of Wellington. — Salutary Effects of the Reform. — Equalization of Representation. — Re- maining Restrictions. — Reformed Parliament of 1833. — Wilberforce Agitates the Abolition of Slavery. — Passage of the Emancipation Bill. — Character of the Measure. — Second Agitation by O'Connell. — Irish Question Emergent. — The Irish Establishment. — Religious Conditions in the Island. — O'Connell proposes Disestab- lishment.— Opposition to the Measure. — Irish Insurrection.— Coercion Bill.— Fall of the Grey Jlini.stry. — Accession of Melbourne. — Abolition of Irisli Bishoprics. — Ascendency of O'Connell.— His Character and Powers. — Question of the Poor Laws. — New Statute on Pauperism. — Passage of the Municipal Act — The Tithe Commutation Act. — Relations of Great Britain to Bclgic Revolu- tion.— General Policy of England in the matter of European Disturbance. — Character of the Mel- bourne :\Iinistry.— Death of William IV., 2.53-27-t

Ch.\pter CXXVIII. — Epoch of Chartism.

Vicissitudes of the Ptoyal Houses. — The En- glish Dynasty. — Descent of the Crown to Vic- toria.— Her Age and Character at the .-Vccession. — The Ceremonies. — Separation of Hanover from

England. — The Young Queen with the Tories.— Lord Brougham. — Lyndhurst. — Other Notables of Parliament. — Continuance of Reformatory Ten- dencies.— Durham's Career in Canada. — Great Extension of the Applied Sciences. — Discoveries and Inventions. — Genesis of Steam Navigation. — First Voyage Across the Atlantic— Applications of Electricity. — Wheatstone's Work. — Railroad Evolution. — Project of the Penny Po.st. — Sir Row- land Hill.— The Post Debate in Parliament.— Passage of the Post Bill. — Premonitions of Chart- ism.— Origin of the Charter and its Provisions.— Opposition of the Poor and Middle Classes thereto. — Practical Failure of the Reform Bill of 1832. — The Real English People. — They clamor for the Charter. — Causes of Disaffection in Eng- land.— Career of Thom. — Heroes of Chartism. — Henry Vincent in Particular. — Popularity of the Cause. — Agitation of the Classes. — Work of the Orators. — ilonster Meetings. — Conflict with the Authorities. — Banishment of the Leaders. — Ebb and Flow of the Movement. — Troubles in Ja- maica.— The Issue in the Home Government. — Overthrow of the ^lelbourne Ministry. — Question of the Bed-chamber. — Absurdity of the Crisis. — Return of Jlelbourne. — Disruption of the Whigs.^ Accession of Peel to Power. — Probable Extinction of the English Guelphs. — Relation of Victoria to the Dynasty. — The JMarriage Project. — Choice of Prince Albert. — His Relation to the Queen and the Throne. — His Part in Public and Domestic A flairs. — His Character. — His Career.— Project of Arbitration for Military Quarrels.— <!>utbreak of the Opium War. — Antecedents of the Conflict. — Rights of the Chinese.- Bad Faith of Great Brit- ain respecting the Opium Trade. — Conduct of the Traders. — Policy of the Government after the Beginning of Hostilities. — Demand of the Chinese Authorites. — Destruction of Opium in Canton. — Sending out of the Fleet — Victory of the En- glish.— Helplessness of the Chinese Government.— Concessions of the Treaty. — The Indemnity.^ Melbourne Ministry weakens. — Beginnings of Public Education in Great Britain. — First Grants of Public Money. — The Educational Societies. — An Annual Appropriation conceded. — Founda- tions of the Modern System laid.— Position of Statesmen on the Project.- Other Important Measures of the Late :Ministry.— The Affair of Stockdale. — Sunday Opening of the British Mu- seum.— Hume defends the Measure. — Affairs in the East.— Rise of Mehemet Ali.— Condition of the Turkish Government. — Conquests of Mehe- met and Ibrahim. — Interference of the Western Powers. — English Fleet in Eastern Mediterra- nean.— Mehemet obliged to yield. — The Treaty. — Attitude of France.— Guizot Prime Minister.—

I Quietus of the Melbourne Jlinistrj". — Peel Prime :Minister.— First News from Cabul.— Philosophy

! of the Cabul Situation. — Interest of Great Britain

'.vy/.'.vyv

Al'

.\1> AVI.

ill AlVhaiii.staii.-Sliah .Soojal. and Dc-t MoIkuu- in.'.i. -Position of Kii.s.sia.-Slur.v ..f Aluxan.k-r Biirius.— .\lliaiii-colKnt;laii(l with Jtost M..liaiii- ,,,,•.1.— Sir W. Ma<-naj.'ht.-n at Cal.ill. — Ilvrat tlie K,-v ..I In.lia.-Maciia..'htrirs Kxpi-iitiniL-Kr- f-islaii.-,- ol tlic- Af).'haa.s.-TaUint: of J.^lalaLa.!.- Siirr.-ii.l.-i- (.f Dost.— Insiim-c-ti.m .4' C'al.ul.— Akl.ar Kluui. -Massacre of tlu- KiiKlisli.-Sur- rciMl.-r of Kli.hiiiston,..— llMrn.rs of il„. Si-,,in-l.— Kotrrat of tlu- lMi-iti\v,.-Th.- \V,„.umi L'iv.-n up.— Total l).-slnicti<.m of tlu- Kii<jlisli.— Doctor ]iry(loii. — KiToVfry of the Kii'.'li.sh.— Kfcaptiuv of Cainil.— K.'scii,. of th.- Kn-lisli Woim-ii— Total of Losses.— I )'CoMii.ll ill rarliaincnt.— His At- li'iidc touanls I'artii-s.— The A<;itatioii for ]!e- j.eal of th.- riiion.-Sk,-t.-h of the Kt-lations of Irelan.l with KiiL'laii.l.— The Act of Viiiou.— Dia- proiiortion of Iri.sh Kcpresentation.— Sulionliiia- tioii of Irish Interi-sts. — Seiitiiiients of the Irish. — rian of O'Connell.— His Power over liis Coiintry- nien.— Hatred of the Conservatives. — The Monster Meetings.— Upheaval of the Population. — A.scend- ency of O'Connell over the Irish.— Question of Physical Force.— O'Connell ajiijeals to Hi.s- tr)ric Memories.— Interference of the British Gov- ernment.—.Suppression of the Clontarf fleeting. — Dis.sensions of the Irish. — Prosecution of O'Con- nell.—Waning of His Influence.— His Death.— Condition of the English Miners.— Parliamentary Investigation.— Passage of Lord Ashley's Bill.- The Factories Act.— EtTort to estahlish Secular T'ni- versities.— The Toll-roads Question.—" Daughters of Kelieeea." -The Mazziiii linhroglio in Lon- don.—( iiaheite and i^ieen Poiiiare. -Question of Piot.-ction and I'lee Trade.— Nature ..f Industrial Conditions in the Mritish Islands. — Lagging of Agricultural Pursnits.-Corn Law .,i KiTO.— Pro- tective Policy of the i:i_d,leeiith Ceiiimy. Great Britain .-onipared willi the Lniied St:,les.-( -mi- trarietv of the two ( ouiH, ies. Lau'-iiiL'..f .Maini- factures in America. -Protective Syst.ie here Reversed. -Giowtli of IjiLdish Manni;,elu. iug Towns.-P.'ena.tment ..f the Ceni l..iw.-Its EflVcts. — Agreement of Whi.js and T..,i.^,„i tlie

ship of the Aristocracy.— Provisions of the Re- form i;ill of ls4i).— Desperate Cmdition of Ire- I land.— Coercion Hill pr.>i>osed.— Position of Parties ! ihen-on. —Defeat of the Ministry. — Interest of (iieat liritain in the Arctic Regions.— Expedition of Sir.lolin FranUlin. — Lneeitainty of His Fate.— lOlli.rts at Keiovery. — Th.- Spanisli Marriage Pinj,-,t. Nature ,,f "the Issue. Vi,-ws and Pref- erences of France.— Tlie Trick of the ilarriage.— (iriat Britain heaten.— Futility of the French Scheme.— Its liidiculous Outcome.- Last Act of Chartism. — European Revolutions of LS-IS.- Op- jiosite Coiidiiions in Great Britain. — Genesis of English Lilierty.— Solidity oi the British Consti- tution. Hopes of the Chartists.— Their Policy.— Tie- M.iiister relilinn.— The Propased Proces- si'.ii. Shall \\i- 1 i-ht '.' — .Vlariii in London. — I'repar.itions f..r I leieiise.— The Procession for- lii.ldeii. — Weak laidiiig of the I-aiterprise. — Sur- vival of Chartist I'rineiples.— Their Foothold in the British Conslil iitiou. I'aiallel in American History. — Divisions of the Irish Patriots. — Rise of Young Ireland. — O'Brien and Meagher.— Other Leaders.— Rally of the Irish Students.— :\Iilcliel and His Party.— Rehellion advocated.— ICll'ects of the French Revolution of 1848 in Ire- land.—Tone of n. ru;i,,l Irish„inii.— The Emer- gency in Parliament.- Mitehel arrested and transported.— Ellecis of the Act.— The Insurrec- tion.—Arrest and ( 'undeiiination of the Leaders.— ('ommutati<iii of the S,-ntiiices. — Consequencea of the Disturliame. — Discouragement of the Irish.— Suhseiiueiit Career of tlie Revolutionists. — Irish Exodus to America. — Problem pf Ireland in the rnite<l States.— Mutual Gifts of the Two Peoj lies.— .Story of the Affair of Don Pacitico. — Palmerston forces a Settlement.— Death of Sir Rolu'rt Peel.— Tendency to Formalism in tlie Church of England.— iv»rra F.crlr.'<i„ Jiediviva.— Project of Pius IX.— opening of the Flaniinian (;ate.- Wrath of the English People.— Ru.ssell's Letter.— Panics ill Paiiiament.— Rome Aided by Political Divisions.-Passage of the Ecclesia.stieal Titles Bill 274-323

the II

l)istre> BriLdit

Lauded A; .1 Is-Hi. Al

.'Connell.-Api.arentllope-

gelicyofthCovermi toCapitulate.— The Al Apparition ,,f Disrael

(•ii.u'TKi: CXXIX— Fia.M Hyi^e r.ujK to

]5ns|.|l(.Kf.s.

The Prince Cmisoit advises First International Exhiliition.— .Ml.eit's Place in Engli.sh Society.— His Mental ClKira.teristics.— He sj.eaks at the Mavor's r.aii.inet, A nta-onisn. wakened.— Phi- losophy ..f the |:,iii,i, Oppo,iti.,ii. -Nature of Enghsii I'n.giv.-. (Injections to the World's Fair. -The l.'oyal ( •oinmission. — Ily.le Park idaw Tan- [ chosen.- Paxi.,i, ;„id his Crystal Palace.— Change f the En- . ill Pul.lic Opinion. — Formal Oiiening of the Ex- y.— Finer- I i.oMtion.— ( lueeii's Account of the Day and the upelsPeel Event.- Duration of the Fair.— Results of the tlirown.— luiterprise.— Siil)se(|uent Ex|)Ositions. — Their Real le Leader- Signilicance.— Ap).arition of Lord Palmerston.—

rnXTEXTS OF VoLl'MK

[XI) A' 1 7.

Sketch of His Career. — His Sympatliy with Na- poleon and the Coup d' Etat. — Favors liuugariau Revolution.— The Queen and Prince ofl'ended.— Lord Palmerstou dismissed. — The Cuup d'Etat makes TTneasiness in England. — Organization of the MiHtia.—'I'''nnyson's Verses.— Dread <<i I'.niia- parte.— Till' Militia I'-ilL-Formation of the In liiy 3Iinistry. — Parliamentary Career of iMacaulay. — Death of the Duke of "Wellington.— Ode of the Laureate. — Disloyalty in the Government. — Glad- stone's First Victory. — Formation of the Coiilition Cabinet.— Ri.se of the Eastern Question.— Its Na- ture.—Place of Turkey in Europe.— Position of Constantinople.— The City falls under the Domin- ion of Islam. — Original Character of the Turks. — Their Attitude towards the Rest of Europe.— The Ottoman Sickens. — Condition of the Subject Peoples in Turkey.— Position of the Russian Em- pire.—Plans and :Mistakes of Czar Peter.— Possible Outlets of Russia to the Sea. — The South-east and the South-west Passage. — Pressure of Russia. — The Ottoman Power. — Error in the Founding of St. Petersburg. — Projects and Dreams of Catha- rine.— Growth and Aggressiveness of Russia. — Apprehensions of the AVestern States. — Condition of Afliiirs during the Reign of Nicholas. — Dec- adence of Turkey. — Czar Nicholas visits <iri'at Britain. — He uncovers his Purposes. — Enijland draws back. — Why Ctre.it Britain desired the Maintenance of the Ottoman Power.— Syria and Jerusalem a Factor in the Problem. — Antipathy of France and Russia. — Napoleon must maki^ "War. — The Religious Question in Turkey. — The Czar makes Overtures to Great Britain. — He dis- covers the Sick Man. — England will not share the Estate. — Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji. — Posi- tion of Lord Russell. — Russell's Construclion of the Treaty.— JMentschikofT's Demands. — Confer- ence at Vienna. — The Porte -will fight. — I'seless Negotiations. — Napoleon's Correspondence with the Czar. — Beginning of War. — AVestern Fleets and Armies in the East.— The Black Sea.— De- struction of Turkish Fleet. — Declarations of AVar.— Attitude of Lord Palmerston.— The AVar Spirit in (ircat Britain. — Palmerston resigns. — His Recall. — His Ccmduct as Home Secretary. — Episode i>f the Cliolera in England. — Pahner- ston's Reply to the Presbytery of Edinburgh. — The Ticket-of-leave System adopted for the Penal Colonies. — Effects of the Measure. — Statute against Smoke and Sont. — Concerning Church Burial 324-;U:"l

Ch.vi'ter CXXX. — Sepoy Rebelliox.

General A'iew of India. — The Indie Race. — First Impact of Europeans on the East. — Sketcli of the Indian Empire.— Appearance of the East India Company. — Character of British Organiza- tion in India. — Relations of the Colonial Giovern- ment and the Native Kings. — Busine.ss of Great

Britain in the East.— The Hin.lns as Soldiers.— Position of the Bengalrse ArTiiy. — Indian Caste ami its Results. — Hauteur uf tlu' liraliniins. — Mohammedanism as a Factur. — Si-|..iys n'dnced in Rank. — Exclusiveness of tlir Sip.iy EU'ment. — liiihrnlty of Discipline in tin- .Vrniy,- Clive and D:illinusie. — Reforms and Pinjects ni the Latter. — Pln>ical Improvements in India. — Shock to Hindu Prejudices. — Change in the Sepoy Arndes.— Story of the Greased Cartridges. — Outlireak of the Rebellion at Meerut. — Spread of the Mutiny. — First Conflicts wdth the English Forces. — Setting up of the Obsolete King of Delhi. — Contagion of the Revolt.— Alarm of the Engli.sh.— Aflairs at Calcutta.— The News in England. — Measures of Lord Canning to suppress the Insurrection. — Bringing of the English Armament from China. — Outrani ordered from Persia. — Saving of the Pun- jaiib from Insurrection. — Stratagem of Montgom- ery.—The Revolt in Oudh.— Crisis at Lucknow.— Death of Lawrence. — Beginning of the Siege. — Cawnpore. — Inetficiency of Sir Hugh Wlieeler. — Terrible Character of the Insurrection. — Appari- tion of Nana Sahib. — Story of Amizulah Khan. — The Nana called to the Assistance of the En- glish.— Horrors of the Siege. — The Capitulation. — Destruction of the Prisons. — Tale of the Prison- house of Cawnpore. — Alurder of the AA'omen and Children.- Fate of Nana Sahib.— Revival of the English Cause. — Efforts to head the Rebellion. — Capture of Delhi by the Sepoys. — Retaking of the City. — End of the Indian Emperor. — Sufferings of the English Garrison in Lucknow. — Breaking of the Storm. — Defi use of the English Ciarrisou. — Approach of Havelock. — The Relief. — Continu- ance of the Siege. — Horrible Condition of the English. — Expedition of Colin Campbell. — His Alarch to Lucknow. — Battles Around the City. — "Dinna ye hear it?"— Raising of the Siege. — AVithdrawal of the (iarrison. — Death of Have- lock.— Final Suppression of the Rebellion. — Luck- now recaptured. — Death of Peel and Hodson. — Ree.stablishment of Civil Authority in India. — Honors for the Conquerors Living and Dead. — Condition of Affairs after the JIutiny. — How to deal with the Insurgents. — Measures adojjted by the Government. — Reorganization of the Com- pany.— Confiscation of tin- Lands. — Policy of Canning. — Opposition thmtn in Iji^hunl.- Tlie Hindus accept the Situati^'n. — Sk.tih c.i tlie East India Company.-lts Cl.aitrrs, Iti^l.ts and Re- Extension of its Aullmrity -Administration of Hastings. — Pitt revolutionizes the Company. — Its Abolition in 1S;!4.— The Government at the Time of the Alutiny. — Transfer of the Company's Authority to the Crown. — OtKce of Ciovernor- General. — The Councils. — The Queen proclaimed Sovereign. — New Era in India. — Orsini attempts Napoleon's Life.— Effects uf the Event in Fug-

*j^y.'i.

((). XT i: XT-

AM) AT/.

in AlVhani^taii.— SlKili Six.jal. ami Dost M..li.iin- in.-.l.— I'lLsiii.,!! iii Ku.^^sia. —Story of Alexander Biiriu-s.— Alliancvoi i;ii;:laiia witli Post Mohaiii- iiK-a.— Sir W. Marna-l.l.-n at Cal.ul.-Ik'iat tlie K,v of In.lia.— Ma.iia-ht.n's ]:xi.iaiti.,ii.-Ke- Pistaiuv of tl.f Al-lia.is.-TaUinfr of Jclalal.a.i.- Siirren.l.-r of Do.-^t.— Insurrection of Cal)ul.— Akl.ar Khan. -Massacre ..f the Kn^rlish. -Sur- render of i:ii.hinsl.,ue.-ll..rrors ..f the .<e,fUel.- Ketreat of the I'li-itives.-Tlie W.juu-n L'iven up.— Total l)eslrueti..n of tlie Kn<;lish.— I»..ctor Krvdon.— Ke.overv of tlie En<;lish.— Kecai.ture of Calnil.-Heseu.' of tli.- i;n;'lish Women—Total of Losses.— (I'Conn. 11 iu Parlianient.— llis At- tituile towards I'arlies.- The Agitation for Re- peal of the rnion.-Sketrli of the Relations of Irel.ind with Kii-laiid.-The Act of Union.— Dis- proportion of Irish Representation.— Suliordina- tion of Irish Interests.- Sentiments of tlie Irish.— Plan of O'Connell.- His Power over his Country- men.—Hatred of the Conservatives.— The Monster Meetings. — Tpheaval of the Population. — Ascend- ency of O'Connell over the Irish.— Question of Physical Force.— O'Connell appeals to His- toric Memories.— Interference of the Britisli Gov- ernment.—Suppression of the Clontarf Meeting. — Dissensions of tlie Irish.— Pro.secution of O'Con- nell.— Waning of His Influence.— His Death. — Condition of the English Miner.s.— Parliamentary Investigation.— Passage of Lord Ashley's Bill.— The Factories Act.— Ellort to estaVilisli Secular 1' ni- versities.— The Toll-road.s Question.—" Daughters of RelK'cca."- The Mazzini Imhrogli.i in Lon- don.— (Jlaheite and (Jueen Pomare. — Question of Protection and Free Trade.--Nature of Industrial Conditions in the I'.riiish Islands.— I.ag-ing of Agricultuial Pursuits— (Mm Law of IHTO. —Pro- tective Policy ni til,- I'i-htcruth Century. -Great Britain cmpand with the Lnited States.— Con- trariety of the two Countries.— Lagging nf Manu- factures in America.- Protective System liere Reversed. -(irowth of Engli.sh Manula.'turing Towns.— Reenactment of the Corn Law. -lis Effects.-Agreement of Whi-S and Tories on the Prote.-tive Syst.-m.-Kelati..n of that System to the Ho,,-,. ,,i Lords. -That P.ody a I.and'ed Aris-

t..cracy. (i Corn Law I Distress in Bright.-Vi lessness ,.I tion.-Plai.' Depen.lenc of Tenor.- Traders sei talus.-Ap, plish IVopl

Ant

-liich:

■n.-Crisi

e .\ri.'Ul		t of Marva-
ato Rot	ii	Ireland.—
.n the 1	111
in Lngl		.-The Free
n.-Tlu-	c.
l.r.^tand,	ng	of the En-

shi|. of the Aristocracy.— Provisions of tlie Re- form Bill of is-lii.- Desperate Cou.lition of Iro- land.— Coercion Bill proi»j.sed.— Position of Parties therein.- Defeat of the Ministry.— Interest of lireat Britain in the Arctic Regions.— Expedition of Sir. John Franklin.— Uncertainty of His Fate.— Ellorts at liecovery. — The Sjiaiiish Marriage Pr..jrct.— Nature of "the Issue.— \'iews and Pref- ereuci's of France.— The Trick of the .Marriage.— Great P.ritain l>eaten.— Futility of the French Sdieme.— Its Ridiculous Outcome.— Last Act of Chartism.— European Revolutions ■jf 1S4,S.— Op- jiosite Conditions in (ireat Britain.— Genesis of luiglish Liherty.— Solidity oi the British Consti- tution.-Hopes" of the Chartists.— Their Policy.— Till' Monster Priiii..n.— The Propo.sed Proces- sion. Shall wr li-ht ?— -\larm in London. — Preparations for li>iin>e. — The Procession for- liidden.— Weak laidin.- of tin- Enterprise.— Sur- vival of Cliartist I'lin.iples.— Their Foothold in the British Constitution.- Parallel in American History.— Divisions of the Irish Patriots.— Rise of Young Ireland. — O'Brien and Meagher. — Otlier Leaders.— Rally of the Irish Students.— Mitchel and His Party.— Rebellion advocated.— Efiects of the French Revolution of 1848 in Ire- land.—Tone of T!i^ {'nllt'il Irishman.— TUe Emer- gency in Parliament. — Mitcliel arrested and transjiorted.— Eflects of the Act.— The Insurrec- tion.—.\rrest and Condemnation of the Leaders. — Commutation of tlie Sentences. — Consequencea of the Disturbance. — Discouragement of the Irish. — Subsequent Career of the Revolutionists. — Irish Exodus to America. — Problem pf Ireland in the I'nited States.— Mutual Gifts of the Two Pi'ojiles.- Story of the Atlair of Don Pacitico.— Palnierston forces a Settlement. — Death of Sir Robert Peel. — Tendency to Formalism in the Church of England. — Saiiria Ecclesia Jiediiim.— Project of Pius IX.— Opening of the Flaminian (iate. Wrath of the English People.— Russell's Letter. — Parties in Parliament. — Rome Aided by Political Divisions.— Passage of the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, •274-323

C'ii.\i-TKH C'XXIX— FudM Hyde P.^rk to

r,...sni,ii:fs. The Prince Consort advises First International Exhiliitinn.— All.ert's Place in English Society.— His Mental Characteristics.— He speaks at the Mayor's Banquet. -.Vntagonism wakened.— Phi- lo.sophy of tile British Opposition. — Xature of I-'.nglisii Pr.igress. — Olijections to the World's Fair. — The Royal Commission. — Hyde Park chosen.— Paxioi, an.l Ids Crystal Palace!— Change in Public Oiiiuiou. — Formal Opening of the Ex- jio-iitioi). — t^ueeu's Account of the Day anil the Event.— Duration of the Fair.— Results of the Enterprise.— Suliseijuent Expositions.— Their Real Significance.— Apparition of Lord Palmerston. —

roXTEXrs OF yOU'MKX ?:V AXD XVI.

^J^'JfM.

Sketch of His Career.— His Sympatliy with Na- poleon and the Coup d'Etat. — Favors Hungarian Revolution. — The Queen and Prince ofi'ended. — Lord Palmerston dismissed. — The Cuup d' Etnt makes Uneasiness iu Eng.and. — Organization of the Militia.— Tennyson's Verses.— Drea.l nf l;,,na- parte.— The Jlilitia Bill.— Formation of the In rby Ministry.— Parlianiontary Career of :Macaulay.— Death of the l>uk.- ..f Wellington.— Ode of the Laureate.— Disloyalty iu the Government.— Glad- stone's First Victory. — Formation of the C'o;ilitii:in Cabinet. — Rise of the Eastern Question. — Its Xa- ture.— Place of Turkey in Europe.— Position of Constantinople.- The City falls under the Domin- ion of Islam.— Original Character of the Turks.— Their Attitude towards the Rest of Europe.— The Ottoman Sickens. — Condition of the Subjrct Peoples in Turkey. — Position of the Russian Em- pire.— Plans and ^Mistakes of Czar Peter. — Possible Outlets of Russia to the Sea.— The Southeast and the South-west Passage. — Pressure of Russia. — The Ottoman Power. — Error in the Founding of St. Petersburg. — Projects and Dreams of Catha- rine.— Growth and Aggressiveness of Russia. — Apprehensions of the AVestern States. — Condition of Affairs during the Reign of Nicholas. — Dec- adence of Turkey. — Czar Nicholas visits (ireat Britain. — He uncovers his Puri)Oses. — England dravi'S back. — Why Gre.it Britain desired the Maintenance of the Ottoman Power.— Syria and Jerusalem a Factor in the Problem. — .\ntipathy of France and Russia. — Napoleon must make "War. — The Religious Question in Turkey. — The Czar makes Overtures to Great Britain. — He dis- covers the Sick Man. — England will not share the Estate. — Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji. — Posi- tion of Lord Russell. — Russell's Construclion of the Treaty.— MentschikofT's Demands. — Confer- ence at Vienna. — The Porte ■will fight. — L'seless Negotiations. — Napoleon's Correspondence with the Czar. — Beginning of War. — AVestern Fleets and Armies in the East.— The Black Sea.— De- struction of Turkish Fleet. — Declarations of AA'ar. — Attitude of Lord Palmerston. — The AVar Spirit iu Great Britain. — Palmerston resigns. — His Recall. — His Conduct as Home Secretary. — Episode of the Cholera in England. — Palmer- ston's Reply to the Presbytery of Edinburgh. — The Ticket-of-leave System adopted for the Penal Colonies. — EtTects ct the Measure.- Statute again.st Smoke and Soot. — Concerning Church Burial, oH-.'A?,

Chaitek CXXX. — Sepoy Kebellion.

General A'icw of India.— The Indie Race.— First Impact of Europeans on the East. — Sketch of the Indian Empire. — Appearance of the East India Company. — Character of British Organiza- tion in Inilia. — Relations of the Colonial Govern- ment and the Native Kings. — Business of Great

Britain in the East.— The llin^Iu^ as Soldiers.— Position of the Bengalese ,\riny. — Indian Caste and its Results. — Hauteur ot tb.' Brahmins. — Mohammedanism as a Factor.— Sepoys n-duced in Rank. — Exclusiveness of tin- ,'^r|.i,y i;ifment. — Ditficnlty of Discipline in thr .\ rmy.— ('live and Dalhousie. — Reforms and Pjujects of the Latter. — Physical Improvements in India. — Shock to Hindu Prejudices. — Change in the Sepoy Armies. — Story of the Greased Cartridges. — Outbreak of the Rebellion at Meerut.— Spread of the Alutiny.— First Contlictg with the Engli.sh Forces.— Setting uji of the Obsolete King of Delhi. — Contagion of the Revolt.— Alarm of the Engli.sh.— Affairs at Calcutta.— The News in England. — Measures of Lord Canning to suppress the Insurrection. — Bringing of the English Armament from China. — Outran! ordered from Persia. — Saving of the Pun- jaiib from Insurrection. — Stratagem of Montgom- ery.— The Revolt in Oudh.— Crisis at Lueknow. — Death of Lawrence. — Beginning of the Siege. — Cawnpore. — Ineificiency of Sir Hugh Wheeler. — Terrible Character of the Insurrection. — Appari- tion of Nana Sahib. — Story of Amizulah Khan. — The Nana called to the .\ssistance of the En- glish.— Horrors of the Siege. — The Cajjitulation. — Destruction of the Prisons.— Tale of the Prison- house of Cawnpore. — Murder of the AA'omen and Children. — Fate of Nana Sahib. — Revival of the English Cause.— Efforts to head the Rebellion.— Capture of Delhi by the Sepoys. — Retaking of the City. — End of the Indian Emperor.— Sufferings of tlie English Garrison in Lueknow. — Breaking of the Storm. — Defi use of the Engli.sh Garrison. — Approach of Havelock. — The Relief. — Continu- ance of the Siege. — Horriljlo Condition of the English.— Expedition of Colin Camiibell.- Hia March to Lueknow.— Battles Around the City.— "Dinna ye hear it?" — Raising of the Siege. — AVithdrawal of the Ciarrison. — Death of Have- lock.— Final Suppression of the Rebellion. — Luck- now recaptured. — Death of Peel and Hodson. — Retstablishment of Civil Authority in India. — Honors for the Conquerors Living and Dead. — Condition of Affairs after the JIutiny. — How to dt-al -with the Insurgents.— Measures adojited by the Government. — BerirgMuization of the Com- pany.—Contiscatiou of tlu- Lands. — Policy of Canning.— Opposition theieto in England.— The Hindus accept the .•Situation. — .^ketcb of the East Inilia Company. — Its Chaiteis. l,'i'_'lits and Re- newals.—Nature of tbi' Company Government. — Extension of its Auiliority,--Adnjinistration of Hastings.— Pitt revolutionizes the Company. — Its Abolition in IS.U.— The Government at the Time of the Alutiny.— Transfer of the Company's Authority to the Crown. — Office of Governor- General.— The Councils.— The Queen proclaimed Sovereign.— New Era in India.— Orsini attempts Napoleon's Life.— Effects of the Event iu Eng-

♦»:♦;♦>

If

(

v*v»%»5

«.%«lb^*>^«

^ ^' # % ir #

10

■\Ti:.\T.

(U.rMi:< AT AM) A']'r.

laml.— opinion ami Policy of rahntrstnn. — Tlio Coiis|iira(y-tM-nMiriier Bill.— Natmi- ■■I llif Mtas- lire.— Its Analo.^'v in Auii-rican Ilislory. — iMllcr- cnce l)ftwi-eii plotting t'liiiu' ami a Krlmiy. — Last Davsof tlic> Paliia-i^tmi .Minisny.-TI,r \Var in fliina.— Reasons of Kii-lan,l an.l l-ran..- i><- Hostilities a^-ainst the Cliinesc.-Il.M,il.ar.lnu-nt of Canton.-Cl.iiia eonipelk-.l to sul.ii,it.-I'al- nierston aniumnces Siifcess. — Iiaruiii ami Tin'

Oriqi,, of SjHcus, :;44-:;:-->

CiiAi-ri;i4 CXXXI— Sfni:A(,K ItrrnKM anu

A.Ml;iJUAN- Co.MI'I.K ATIUN.

The Derby Ministry.— The Jewish Question in Parliainent.— I'rcjmliee ai;aiiist the Race.— Exclu- sion of .lews from Ollice. — Policy of Gradual Enianci|ialMin. — KK-ction of Rotlischil.l and Salo- mons to Parliament.— Nature of the Parliament- ary Oath.— "On the True Faith of aChiistian." — Second Election of the Jews. — Their Admission to the Ihnise —Condition of the British Poor.— Landed Property and Political Kit'hls.— Obstruc- tions to En;.'iisli lieform.— .'^low Progress in Re- formatory Movements— Beating the Law.- Polit- ical Hypocrisy.— Method of Indirection.— Loan- ing Land for Political Uses.— Removal of the Landed Qualification for Membership in Parlia- ment — Colonization of British Columbia.— Ques- tion of the Imiian Islands. — British Protectorate. — Gladstone's Mission -Greek Revolution of 1SG2.— Shall S^nglisli Workinginen be enfranchised? — General Conditinn of British .Society.— Cry of the Common >Lm. — Con.servative Leadership of Dis- raeli—Ascendency of Napoleon HL- Cry of Re- form in England. — Shall the Conservatives lead the Movement '.' — Disraeli proposes a Franchise Act — Which does not enfranchise. — Debate on the Measure.— Rivalry of Palmerston and Ru.s- sell.- The Former becomes Premier.— Tlie New Cabinet.— Cobden's J/o/.— Death of Macaulay.— Sketch of His Career and His Writings.-Straine.l Relations of England with Foreign Powers.— English Views of Napoleon HL— British Dis- trust of the Emperor. — Commercial Treaty with France.— Influence of Cobden. — Abrogation of Duties. — Effects of the Wine-trade in England.— Quesliim of llie Paper Duly. — The Argument. — The Duty abr.lished —Palmerston inherits the Question of SulIVnL'c Reform.— The Lil»eral Bill of ISfiO- Naluie ..f its Provisions.— The Measure withdrawn.— Omi, leak of Troubles willi Cliina.— Shall Briti.sh Ambassadors be admitted to Pekin?- Lonl El-in d.-..tr<.ys the Summer Palace.-Civil ■War in Syria. -Quancl of the Druses and Maron- ites— Murders and Insurrec'tions,— England and France interfere. — Eun.pcMU Protectorate estab- lished in .'^yria- Palmeiston Ministry and Amer- ican Civil War — H<-lationsof the Two C.untries.— America looks to (ireat I'.rilain for Sympathy.— And gelsaSneer.— British Antipathy toSlavery.—

Logii- of tlie Situation. — .\ttitude of (ireat Britain toward the Southern Confederacy.— Declaration of Neutrality.— Sarcasm of Palmerston. — Epoch of Falsehood and Injustice.— Eflects thereof in the I'nited States.— What Excuse might England give for her Conduct?— liuestion of the Cotton Sup- ply.-Blockade of the Southern Ports.— Strained Logic of the .■\merican Government. — Sympathies of the English Workingmen— The Mason and Slidell Episode.— Unlawful Act of the .San Ja- ( ;,.( 1 — PK'cipitate Action of the British Govern- iiiciii. — .\ntipathy to the American Republic. — Enu'hsh Theory of Society contradicted by the I'nited Stales.— Great Britain becomes the Naval Base of the Confederacy.— Fitting out of the Pri- vateers — Their Work of Destruction. — .\merican Pi(.i.-ts — .\damsatSt. James.— " This is War."— Sei|ii<l to the Crui.se of the Alabama. — Organiza- tion of the Geneva Tribunal.— The "Three Rules ' for Neutral Nations. — Decision in Favor of the United States. — Position of British States- men towards our National Government. — Lessons and Reflections.— Danish Complication of 18t)3.— Alexandra of Denmark becomes Princess of Wales.— Napoleon refuses to aid Great Britain.- Last Parliamentary Battle C'f Palmerston. — His Victory and Death. — Domestic Life of the Royal Family. — The Sa.'ce-Coburg Princes and Princesses. — Death of the Prince Consort. — The Queen's AVidowhood. — Russell Ministry.- Out- break of the Jamaica Insurrection. — Antecedents of the Revolt.— FiL'litin;,' at Morant Bay— Sup- pression of the InsurL'i'iUs —Atrocities in the Name of Law. — I!<.-moval of Eyre.— Reformation of tlie Jamaican Gcjveiiimeiit 373-394

CnAi'TEP, CXXXII. — Fkniam.-.m and Dise-s-

TABLI.SHMENT.

Ministry of Lord Ru.ssell.— Cattle PUiL'ue and Cliolria. — Discontent of the Mas.ses. — Position of (ilad^tone and Bright —Proposition for extending the Franchise. — Ministry between two Fires — The Adullamites.— The Derbv Minisn v.-Policy of Disraeli.-ALMtation in the Kingdom.- Work of the ReioiMi l,.;e.;u- -The Hyde Park Riot.- Di.-raeli wouM tiiUe the Wind "from the Liberal Sails— The tjueen's Sj.eech.- The Conservative Reform Bill.— The Measure outdoes the Liberal Scheme.— Passage of the Franchise Act— Its Ef- fect on tlie Political Society of Great Britain. — The Measure extended to Scotland and Ireland.— Condition of Afl'aiis in the Latter Country.— ()ri;;in and Ilise of the Fenian Brotherhood. — Spread of the .Widely into the I'nited States.- Leadeis ui the Orijanization. — The Movement checked by the American Civil War.— Heart of the (Question - Hojies of the Iri.sh Americans — Relations of Cana.la to the Fenian Project— Pur- p.ises and Plans of the Brotherhtjod —The Rising in Ireland. — Ends in Smoke. — Woik of t'ne

CONTEXTS OF VOLUME

Xf> XVL

11

Fenians in Manchester. — The Movement runs its Course in America.— The Canadian Fiasco of 1866. — Rise of Trades Unions. — Philosophy of the Question. — Growth of sucli Organizations in En- glisli Manufacturing Towns. — Terrorism as an Ar- gument.—The Trades Unions given the Right of Existence. — Tendency towards Cooperation. — Abyssinia. — King Tlieodore. — Religious Condition of the Country. — Nature of the Government. — Theodore would wed Victoria. — His Capital City.— The King's Liking for the English Offi- cers.— He breaks with Cameron. — Arrests British Subjects. — Seizes a British Embassy. — The Crom- wellian Rule. — Expedition against Abyssinia.— Capture of ^lagdala and Suicide of Theodore. — Revival of the Irish Question. — Religious Status of the Island.— Protestantism in Ireland. — British Politics affected by the Issue. — Scandal and Anomaly of the Irish State Church.— Necessity of Reform. — Project of Disestablishment. — Over- throw of the Conservative Ministry. — Leadership of Gladstone. — Nature of the Bill proposed. — De- bate on the Project. — Triumph of the Liberals. — Passage of the Disestaljlishment Act. — Other Im- portant ^Measures of the Liberal Party. — Questi(jn of Irish Land Tenure. — Abuses and Outrages of Landlordism. — Project of Land Reform.— Begin- ning of the Great Battle.— Question of Land- ownership. — Historical Antecedents of the Situa- tion.— Efiect of Irish Rebellions.- Home Love and Land Love of the Irish People. — Paucity of Irish Cities. — Dominance of the Agricultural Life. — The System witliout Alleviation. — Hope- lessness of the Irish Tenants. — Autocracy of En- glish Landlordism.— Practice of Eviction. — The Soil cursed by Tenantry.— Discouragement of In- dustry.— More Work, Jlore Taxes.— The Land- lords Absentees. — Control of Opinion by the Upper Man. — Favorable Condition of ITlster. — Gladstone presents His Irish Land Bill. — Its Theory.— Irish Rules Relative to Improvements.- Passage of the BUI, :;'..i.')-41 1

Ch.\pter CXXXIIL — Reforms of the EicaiTH Decade.

Question of Higher Education. — Absence of Educational System in England. — Forster's Edu- cation Bill. — Its Provisions.— Note on Dickens. — Kature of the Opposition to Forster's ^Measure. — • Attitude of the Non-conformists. — The Bill adopted. — Continuance of the Educational Re- form—Conservatism of Universities. — Condition of Affairs at Oxford and Cambridge. — The Reform instituted. — Project for Reforming the Ballot. — Advantages and Disadvantages of Voting Viia Focf.- The Chartist Principle.— Passage of Flus- ter's Ballot Bill. — Proposed Reformation of tlie British Array —Gladstone's Coup.— Nemesis |.in-- sues Great Britain with tlie Alabama Ckuiiis.— Effects of French Revolution of lf<70 in Great

Britain. — The Irish University Bill. — Dublin Uni- versity in Particular. — Queen's University. — Catholic Institutions.— Difficulties in the Way of Reform. — Nature of the (4la<lstonian Measure. — The Debates.— Sriitiinrnts of thr Country.— De- feat of the University I'.lII. — Tin- ( Inv.riiiuent em- barrassed. — Conservative ItiMctiun. — Disraeli Prime Minister. — New Cabinet. — Retirement of Gladstone. — Question of Ritualism. — Canterbury's Bill.— Plimsoll's Bill for the Protection of Sea- men.— Rise of Imperialism. — Outlying British Empire. — Dreams of Disraeli. — Victoria made Empress of India. — Her Admiration for the Prime Minister. — Disraeli becomes Earl of Beacons- field. — Nature of the Change in His Relations. — Beaconsfield at Congress of Berlin. — The Home RuK- Question.— The Home Rule League.— Spread of the Sentiment in Ireland.— Hunger Reinforces the Argument. — Emergency of the Liberal Party.— Gladstone defies the :Ministry.— Parlia- ment dissolved. — Rout of the Conservatives. — Chagrin of the Queen. — Gladstone's Ascend- ency.— Ashantee War breaks out — Condition of Ashantee Land. — Relations with the Fantees. — British Invasion of the Country. — Story of the War.— Sir Garnet AVolseley on the Gold Coast. — Defeat of the Natives. — Cooraassie destroyed. — Submission of the Ashantees.— Trouble with the Zulus. — Cetewayo. — The Boers. — Difficulty about the Transvaal Republic. — Cetewayo takes up Arms.— Zulus repressed. — End of the Prince Im- perial.— Consequences of His Death — Difficulty with Afghanistan. — Pressure of Russia in that Direction. — Exposure of Great Britain on the Af- ghan Border. — Project of an English Emb.issy at Cabul.— Shere Ali.— The English Expedition.— New Treaty with the Afghans. — Insurrection in Cabul.— Dispositi..n >>i Yak<«.l) Khan.— .\fglian Question.— Treatment of the Liberals, . . 411-430

Ch.\PTER CXXXIV. — B.\TTLE FOR Hi i.ME

Kile. The Home Rule Party in Parliament.— Parnell its Apostle.— Other Leaders.— Attitude towards the :\Iinistry.— Beginning of Crime under Suffer- ing.— .\. Coercion Bill proposed. — Nature of its Provisions.— The New Land Bill. — Home Rulers adopt the Policy of Obstruction. — Parliamentary Usages.— Strength of Home Rule Party.— Final Expedient of the Ministry.— Expulsion and Im- prisonment of Home Rule Leaders. — Position of the Liberal Party.— Inclination of Gladstone.— Passage of the L.<ind Bill. — Elicits in Ireland.— Epoch of Outrages.— The .\rn;s I'.iU.- Pre.ssure of the Land League.— The Gladstone-Parnell Trraty.- Fillingof the Irish Juils.— Impossible to liol.l the Crisis. — Sending out of Cavendish as Clii. f Secretary.— His Murder in Phcenix Park.— Effects of the Crime in Kugland.— Straits of the Home Rule Partv. - Dciiunciations in Parlia-

t * jif f

M) A' IT.

i;iiia.-(_

on anil Polirv of V;

rston.-Tlio

I tl,.- Mra

irv. -lUlli'

ure. — lis Analiiny in Auictican 11

Last Days of tlu- I'ahniiston Ministry. Tl..- War in China.— Reasons of Kn-lan.l an.l Fran.,- i^r Ho.stilitii-s ajiainst tlii' Cliinrsc'.— ll'iiiilianlincnt of Canlon.-China i-oiiii...llc.l to sul.uiit. — I'al- nierslon announces Sueecss. — Ilaiwin an<l 'I'hr

Ori.nn 0/ Sj,uu.<, :M4-;;7--'

CiLMTKu CXXXr,— Sfni:.\(;K Rkf-km and

A.Ml.IilrAN C.Mn.l. ATK.N.

Tli<- I'.i-l.y .Mini-liy. -Th.- .I.-wi-h Question in Parliainent.— rrejii.liee ajjain.st the Kaee.— Kxdii- f^ion of Jews from Ollice. — Poliey of Gradual Kmaneipation.— Kleetion of KolhschiUl and Salo- mons to rarliainent. — Nature of the Tarlianient- ary Oath.— "On the True Faith of a Christian."— Second Election of the Jews.— Their Admission to the House —Condition of the British Poor.— Landed Proi.erty and Political Ki^'lits.— Obstruc- tions to Kiijiiisli Peform.— islow Progress in Re- formatory Movements — Beating the Law. — Polit- ical Hypocrisy. — Method of Indirection. — Loan- ing Land for Political I'.ses.- Removal of the Landed Qualification for .Membership in Parlia- ment —Colonization of British Columbia.— Ques- tion of the Ionian Islands. — British Protectorate. — Gladstone's Mission— Greek Revolution of lSft2.— Shall English A\'orkingmen be enfranchised? — General Condition of British Society.— Cry of the Common Man. -Con.servative Leadership of Dis- raeli—Ascendency of Napoleon III— Cry of Re- form in England.— Shall the Conservatives lead the Movement '.' — Disraeli proposes a Franchise Act —Which does not enfranchise. — Debate on the Measure.— Rivalry of I'almerston and Ru.s- sell.— The Former becomes Premier.— The New Cabinet.— Cobden's .Vo/.— Death of Macaulay.— Sketch of His Career and His Writing.s.-Si.ained Relations of England with Foreign Powers. — English Views of Napoleon 111.— British Di.s- trust of the Km])eror. — Commercial Treaty with France.— Influence of Cobclen. — Abrogation of Duties.— Effects of the AVine-trade in England.— Question of the Paper Duty. — The Argument. —

Questi..n of Sulfia-.' Reform.— The Lilu-val Bill of ISliii -Xaline oi its Provisions.— The Measure withdrawn. -( Intl. i.ak of Troubles wilb Cbina.— Shall British Ambassa.h.rs be admitte.l to Pckin'?- I.or.l El-in .l.str.iys the Summer Palace.-Civil War in Syria. Inland ..f the Druses and Maron- ites.-Murd.-rs an.l Insnnvction.s.— Englan.l and France interfere. -Kun.p.an Pr..t.-ctorate estab- lishe.l in Syria —Pali.. eist. .11 .Ministry and Amer- ican Civil War — Kelationsof tin- Two Countries. -- America looks to Great I'.rllain f.>r Syii.),athy.— An.l getsaSneer. — British Antipathy to Slavery.—

L<.gic of the Situation.— Attitude of Great Britain toward the Southern Confe.leracy.— Declaration of Neutrality.— Sarcasm of Palmerston. — Ejioch of Eal.seb.j.jd and Injustice.— Effects thereof in the I'nite.i States.— Wliat Excu.se might England give f..r her Conduct?— Question of the Cotton Sup- j.ly. — Blockade of the .Southern Ports.— Strained L.igic of the .\inerican Government. — Sympathies of the Kiiglisb Workingnien— The Mason and Slidell Epis..de. — Unlawful Act of the San Ja- <-,„/.j.-Precii.itate Action of the British Govern- ment.—Antiiiathy to the American Republic — Eii'.'lish Theory of Society contradicted by the United States.— Great Britain becomes the Naval Base of the Confederacy.— Fitting out of the Pri- vateers — Their Work of Destruction. — .-Vmerican Protests— A. lams at St. James.— "This is War."— Seijuel to the Cruise of t'ne Alabama. — Organiza- tion of the Geneva Tribunal. — The "Three Rules ■ for Neutral Nations. — Decision in Favor of the United States. — Position of British States- men towards our National Government. — Lessons and Reflections.— Danisli Complication of 18f)3. — Alexandra of Denmark becomes Princess of Wales. — Napoleon refuses to aid Great Britain. — La.st Parliamentary Battle of Palmerston. — His Victory and Death. — Domestic Life of the Royal Family.— The Saxe-Coburg Princs and Princesses. — Death of the Prince Consort. — The Queen's Widowhood. — Russell Ministry.- Out- break of the Jamaica Insurrection. — Antecedents of the Revolt.— Fighting at Moiant Bay — Sup- pression of the Insurgents — .Xtrocities in the Name of Law. — Removal of Eyre.— Reformation of the Jamaican fioverniiu^nt, 373-:'(i4

Cii.vfTEi: CXXXir.^Fi:NiANisM .\nd I)im;s-

T.\liI.I>IIMi;NT.

:\lini.stry of Lord Russell.— Cattle Plague ami Cholera. — Discontent of the Masses. — Position of (iladvtone and Bright —Proposition for extending the Franchise. — Jlinistry between two Fires — The .■\dullamites.— The Derbv Ministry.— Policy of Disraeli.— Agitation in the Kingdom.— Work of the Reform l.ea-u.v -The Hyde Park Riot.— Disraeli would tak.- tl..' Wind from the Liberal Sails— The Queen's Sp.-.'.h.- The Conservative Reform Bill.— The Measure outdoes the Liberal Scheme.— Passage of the Franchise Act— Its Ef- fect on the Political Society of Great Britain.— The Measure exten.li'.l to Scotland and Ireland. — Con.lition of Allans in the Latter Country.— Origin an.l Rise ..f tlie Fenian Brotherboo.i.— Sprea.l ..f tl..' S,„i,.(y int.. the Unile.l States - I.eailers ..i lb.' (1. •..ai.i/.ation.—Tbe Movement checke.l by tl..' Ai..,riian Civil War.— Heart ..f the tj.iesti.iii Ibijies of the Irish .\mericans- — Relations of Cana.la to tlie Fenian Project— Pur- I...ses an.l Plans of the Brotherhood —The Rising in Ireland. — Ends in Smoke. — Work of tiie

y:-ym

1

COXTEXTS OF VOLUMES AT .l.V/> .VIT.

11

Fenians in Manchester. — The ^Movement runs its Course in America. — The Canadian Fiasco of ]s(in.— Rise of Trades Unions. — Philosophy of the Question.— Growtli of such Organizations in En- glisli Manufacturing Towns. — Terrorism as an Ar- gument.— The Trades Unions given the Right of Existence. — Tendency towards Cooperation. — Abyssinia. — King Theodore. — Religious Condition of the Country. — Nature of the Government. — Theodore would wed Victoria. — His Capital City.— The King's Liking for the English Offi- cers.— He breaks with Cameron. — Arrests British Subjects. — Seizes a British Embassy. — The Crom- wellian Rule. — Expedition against Abyssinia.— Capture of Magdala and Suicide of Theodore. — Revival of the Irish Question. — Religious Status of the Island. — Protestantism in Ireland. — British Politics afll'ected by the Issue. — Scandal and Anomaly of the Irish State Church. — Necessity of Reform. — Project of Disestablishment. — Over- throw of the Conservative Ministry. — Leadership of Gladstone. — Nature of the Bill proposed. — De- bate on the Project. — Triumph of tiie Liberals. — Passage of the Disestablishment Act. — Other Im- portant ^Measures of the Liberal Party. — Question of Irish Land Tenure. — Abuses and Outrages of Landlordism. — Project of Land Reform. — Begin- ning of the Great Battle. — Question of Land- ownership. — Historical Antecedents of the Situa- tion.— Eflect of Irish Rebellions. — Home Love and Land Love of the Irish People. — Paucity of Irish Cities. — Dominance of the Agricultural Life. — The System without Alleviation. — Hope- lessness of the Irish Tenants. — .\utocracy of En- glish Landlordism. — Practice of Eviction. — The Soil cursed by Tenantry.— Discouragement of In- dustry.— More Work, More Ta.xes— The Land- lords Absentees. — Control of Opinion by the L'pper ]\Ian. — Favorable Condition of LTlster. — Gladstone presents His Irish Land Bill. — Its Theory.— Irisli Rules Relative to Improvenu-nts.— Passage of tlie Bdl, ;;',ir)-l!l

Chapter CXXXIII. — Reforjls of the ElfiHTH Dec.\de.

Questiim of Hiulier Education. — .\bsence of Educational System in England.— Foister's Edu- cation Bill.— Us Pnivisions.— Note on Dickens.— Nature of the Oiipn.sitiim to Forster"s ^Measure. — Attitude of the Xou-coutormists. — The Bill ad..pted.— Coiitinuan.v of the Educational Re- form — Consei vatisiu of Universities. — Condition of Affairs at O.^ford and Cambridge.— The Reform instituted.— Project for Reforming the Ballot.— Advantages and Disadvantages of Voting Vira Ucicf.— The Chartist Principle.— Passage of Fors- ter's Ballot Bill.— Prop.)sed Reformation of the British .\rray — Gladstnne's Coup. — Nemesis pur- sues Great Britain with the Alabama Claims.— Eflects of French Revolution of ls70 in Great

Britain.— The Irish University Bill.— Dublin Uni- versity in Particular. — Queen's University. — Catholic Institutions.— Ditficulties in the Way of Reform.— Nature of tlie Gladstonian Measure. — The Debates.— Sentiments ni the Country.— De- feat of the University I'.ill.— The ( lovernment em- barrassed. — Con.servative Ueaitiou. — Disraeli Prime Minister. — New Cabinet. — Retirement of Gladstone. — Question of Ritualism. — Canterbury's Bill.— PlimsoU's Bill for the Protection of Sea- men.— Rise of Imperialism. — Outlying British Empire. — Dreams of Disraeli. — Victoria made Empress of India. — Her Admiration for the Prime ^linister. — Disraeli becomes Earl of Beacons- treld. — Nature of the Change in His Relations. — Beaconstield at Congress of Berlin. — The Home Rule Question. — The Home Rule League. — Spread of the Sentiment in Ireland.- Hunger Reinforces the Argument. — Emergency of the Liberal Party. — Gladstone defies the Ministry. — Parlia- ment dissolved. — Rout of the Conservatives. — Chagrin of the Queen. — CJladstone's Ascend- ency.— Ashantee AVar breaks out — Condition of Ashantee Land. — Relations with the Fantees. — British Invasion of the Country. — Story of the War.— Sir Garnet Wolseley on the Gold Coast. — Defeat of the Natives. — Coomassie destroyed. — Submission of the Ashantees.— Trouble with the Zulus. — Cetewayo. — The Boers. — Difficulty about tlie Transvaal Republic. — Cetewayo takes up Arms.— Zulus repressed. — End of the Prince Im- perial.— Consequences of His Death — Difficulty witli Afghanistan. — Pressure of Russia in that Direction. — Exposure of Great Britain on the Af- ghan Border. — Project of an English Emba.ssy at Cabul.— Shere Ali.— The English Expedition.— New Treaty with the .\fghans. — Insurrection in Cabul.-Disposition of Yakoob Kluui.-.\fghan Question.— Treatment of tin- Liberals, . . 411-430

Chapter CXXXIV. — Battle for Ho.me Kui.E.

The Home Rule Party in Parliament.— Parnell its Apostle.— Other Leaders.— Attitude towards the IMinistry.— Beginning of Crime under Suffer- ing.— A Coercion Bill proposed. — Nature of its Provisions.— The New Land Bill. — Home Rulers adopt the Policy of Obstruction.- Parliamentary Usages.— Strength of Home Rule Party.— Final Expedient of the Ministry.— Expulsion and Im- prisonment of Home Rule Leaders. — Position of the Liberal Party. — Inclination of Gladstone.— Passage of the Land Bill. — Kllocts in Ireland.— Epoch of Outrages.— The .\iiii.s Bill.— Pressure of the Land League.— The ( iUulstone-Parnell Treaty.— Filling of the Irish Jails.— Impossible to hold the Crisis.— Sending out of Cavendish as Chief Secretary.-His Murder in Phcenix Park.- Eflects of the Crime in KiiL'land. -Straits of the Home Rule Partv. — Ueniiii.ialioiis in Parlia-

^ >_*

COXTF.XTS OF Vl,].rMi:s XV AM) XVI.

ti'.l.— Civil ami liL'ligious Condition ot Kgyi)t.— Trn.U'ney to ]nde]Ji-iiiicnfc.— Kcfornis proposed l,y Mi-henu-t All.— Wusti-rii IntcilVn-ncc compels Kvyjit to he l)i"i)Oiidi-nt on tliu I'ortc— Ihnihiiu Pasha.— His Sncix'ssors.— K^'yjitian \'ii-w of the Furci-n Doniination.-Tlu' i'cwpl.. d.Mnand He- l.iiiu.— Kiseof Kl Aral.i.-KlToits to reach Anton- (.iiiy.- JMir.ipcaii I'l.-. l at .\lr>;an<lria. — Promnlga- tiiiii iif till- New C')ii>litnlion. l-',ngland supports the Kh.-divc.-Sii,vrss ..1 Ara!,i.— iH-nian.ls of (ircat Britain.— i;i..t in A l.xaudria.— The British I'ltiniatMLn.— l-.niul.anliiunl <.i the City.— Tewfik under the Pr..tr,ti..n of Kn^dand.— Defeat of Ai.ilii. His r.;inislinn-nt.—(;overnniental Scheme Appeal tn the ( '.uiiitry.— Triiiiiiph nf tlie Cun- ni Hiitlciin. t (Uiditi'ius of Settlement. — .\ppari- servatives. — I'"lie',- .if tlie new Ministrv. - Salis- tinii of the Mahdi.— Who he was.— Conditions in Iniry (ivenhr..u n.— le-i all ..1 (da.lsii.ne. The the Si.udan. I'aker's Kxidorations— He leaves Ni-wCahinet.— I dadst Mile espouses the Ihiine-lJiil,- le.idou in the South. — Withdrawal of the Foreign Cause. — Hi' juoposes a Bid lor ( ;o\eniiiient of CoiitioK- ( ;,,r,loii iu Khartoum.— His Character

in the l.ilic-ral Banks. I.iheial Ministry over- Surrender and I lealh.— i:ile,ts of the news in

thrown. -rnsettleiuent of theiinestion.-Celehra- , KiiL'l.ind.-The Kvent aid.s the Conservatives.—

tion of Her Majesty's .luhil.e. Bilatioiis of Bullish K.xplorations in Central Africa.— Work of

(ireat Britain to tlie (lovernnieiil of i;'_'ypt, — Bo- j LivliiL'stiine.- He is found by Stanley. — Story of

litieal Conditions in that Country.— British ]n- Kmin BasluL—Sendint,' out of the Relief E.xpedi-

terest in the F;gyptiaii Debt.— Principles <rovern- tion.— Stanley succeeds in his Work.— Revelations

ins; National Indebtedness.- Concern of France in Central Africa.- Conclusion of ^'arrative.-

in the E<:yptian (Question.— The Financial Con- Promise of the Victorian Age, 430-452

ment. — Parnoirs Kcplv.-	Shock to the I
Party.-Lessons of frisi, 1	lections.— Attitud
the Parties.— .Vdvanta^'e of	the Cinscrvaliv,
Attention of the Coveri	inent withdrawn
FVypt. -Partial Suppressio,	of Irisli Di^o,,!,.,
Opposition of the ..ranee	nan. Pas.-a-e of
Francliise Bill. -Troubles	ind Con,,.licati.in
the F.ast.-The War in	lv.'y].t.-The (Inv
Speech. -Defeat of the I.il	eral Budget. -Si-
cance nf the Vote. - Dowl	fall of the (dadsl
.Alinistry. — Relations of ih.	two Barlies to 111
and Foreign Admiulslratlo	1. Maniuis of S
burv called bv the nuee,	.-I'osilion of lb
Rulers in the Crisis.-Hes	talioii of .-alisbiw

BOOIv Twentv-Thiku. — Krance.

CXXXV. — l!.ui;noN Ri'.sTOR.^. '

Vninsula.-Bou.boni	sm n-instat	-d.-Conse-
ces in France.-The	llovahsts w	II tie -All or
ini;.— ".After Us tin	Delueel"	—Death of
-.-Lateral Descent of	theCioun.	— .\ccession

N:i been.'— What Was. Louis Will, iveaius the oi Chailes X.— His Previous Caieer.— E.xpecta- Throne.— Brines back the Pa-t.- 1 'iHiruhies in tion,.. ot tie- Dynasty.— Death of the Duke of His Way.— How he uas re-arded.-lle thanks the P.eiiy. biilh of the Duke of Bordeaux.— Royal- Prince Be.-eiit. Iluniilialioii of 1 lan. ,■. I'i.>suie isiii would outdo Itself.— Question of the F'.states of the i;„,i..'ianl Noble,. BoyaliMu Painpant. of the Nol, I,-. -They demand the F^arth.—Dlffi-

Cnrlail lit of breiieh Teiiii'o.y. -The W.x.vsn .iilties of the .siiuatioii. -Pull for the Relief of the

Oecnpation. Beaction a'_'aiiist the ( iovei nuieiii.— b!niit;iaiit,~. — Plan of Compensation and Settle- Richelieu leads the Chaiiiber.-Mai.piis Des- ment. -The .bsuils i esloi ed,-Rise of Journal-

d — Making Men Press removed. — Bieht. I.eii.and Cent,-,. -T.eatv 'neat by P.ileiit. -Opposition in the Chamber.-

in.— Polignac Mm-

the Turco-Hellenic

joins iu supi.r-ssion of >lave-tnide.— linluo-lio — .\, nie of Boyalisin — Opi.osition to

lUties.- His .Middle Course. Count Viil.le.-.Mteiiliou (harles Weakens -Sloiy of the Alriian W: of France dr dinand VII. ISIL'.- Beviv

of Liberalisii

(■en.,o,>l,i|,	,1 the		■„>.
liinied The	l.X la-	The l.il.e.als	,a„
	de.—	Imbro-lio— .\
Viil.le,-.\lt	ntiou	(harles Weak	ens
estol.Uion o		.\lLUe,s iiivad	■d 1

■ Hoi	• Alh-	its Mat
'ress (	f \"e-	Fire.-
	ees to	Ministi

bv Bonn	lont.— Su	■cess of the
iliiation	-f the R.	valists.-AVe
■ plea.se.-	The Fiv	> Ordinances
ionol Tb	els.— The	Press breaks
llin-of 1	USUI recti.	n— Paris on
lor on	li-ii- Kl	eht of the
ition in	■arm.st.—	rhe SoMiers

tin- lln.lsr.-	ini,-i».int. -A N.'W C	nnslitule.n. Mi	ni.-i
inalily I'l.ilii.	(■leiiacl(a- nf the IIcv.li	ti..n.--InsMiL!eiil	'aris
lit ..1 ClKII-h-S	'I'lii- Sjiliiiix aii}ieais. — Sk	■leh i<i 1.. mis \a|"	l.-.,n
. . 4'i7-jsi3	His hrlatiMiis t.. the 1	Mia^ V. IIis.\.lv	aitil
	ill F..n-iL:ii han.'.s.- His	'..hli.al Wiiliii-js.	— II,
IZEN- KiNC.	cFvIr.l t.. the Constitu,.	U A,vs..,iihlv. -Is	h.in
rl,.nns.-ro|,u-	tr-at.-a l.y the Rriaihlir: ri.-si.lrnlial l-:i,-etiMii ,,l	ns.-^il.aie,. is (;. is is. l...iii.. Nap.	.l.ai
i.His Caivrr —	ehns.ii Pn si. lent. -Is i		I'u-t
1 'i\'ar. - I'.aKlc	His Ministry. — 11. ■ int.	leivs in the .\ 1	.lilS
a. 1. a. — Mi. Ml,.	Italy. -S,.,.ks Fav.i- wi	h le.n„..-Th..
	.Army siippi-.'ssrs P..ina
l'.u'lnn"o'f l,s:';''i	tioii ..1 I'niv.a.sal Sull	a.4...-l'..|H,laiily	,,t t
of the. Past lie Rrvciluli,.!!	Pivsi.I.'nt.— .\nalysis .,f Xai..il.'on the Man ..1 o	III. P.ilhi.al SiliK .1, a-. -Si, all w,. St	in.l
rs..fFian.v.—	l;r.lc.ti,,n?— The (li.i...	ili.ai \ull hav,.	t s.
-The Citizen	P..lili.'al Measui.'s ,,l th	■ l'i''-''l''i'>' ll''	iirti

IVp

surrecti,.n. — -Nap. Yi.ais.— X,.\v C,

COXTKXTS OF VOIA'MES XV AXl> AIT. 13

uties.— Barriea,!,. ,ii th,. .streets.— The San.s,.u- Cir.U'Tr.i: (.'XXX VII.— nF.rr|.,i,ic .\ni) Coup

lottos Emerg,..nt. — .sa,a-,.,l Itight uf Instin-eetinn. — Ii'Et vr

The Govenini,-nt su.pi ,uit.-( 'harles thn.ws

Tubs behin,! liini.-La|-ay,.tte r,.iiiiiian,laiit.— Th,. T'nheir.ie l;,.v,,lnti,.n.— Pi-,,visi,mal Thiv-

Success of th.. hays ,,f .Inly. — Wivi'k ,,1 I'.l,l,a- enine'iit ,.stal,lisli,.,h — Ft.an,-,. i-,.a,.l„'s li,.|Start-

Bourbonism.— Fill 111-,. I i,.siiiii,s ,

Progress of th,. I;,.\ .,liiti.,n. — 1

calleel to the Thr,,ii,.. Final Fli

from France,

Cii.iPTER CXXXVL— Tin: ('

Acce.ssum ,.l lh,. IFms,. ,,i ( larity of L,,nis Philipp,.. — I li, Fi. He accepts th,. Cnnvn an.l h King. — Continnaii,-.. ,,f ih,. .\l'_',ai; of Isly an,l Caplni,. ..f .\l.,l ,.1- Class Predoniinaiit in hi,.i„'li (..,. Under ^laii ]i,.t r,.,-, i._'iiiz.'.l. -l;,.v limits the l;,.,„li,,n. Pi-,.|,-iisi,ii ma,le Ln,Ii,a,,iis, -Syinpalhy uith inC'Linn,.- ( >ii,-li.,ii ,,l th,- F,aVi F.uiMin..' ,,t F,,ilili,ali,.iis at Pan Km- \v,,nl.l ally lliiii.-,al «ilh the .Spaiii>l H,.use.— Isal„-lla an,l lh,. Piin,.,.ss AFiiia may l„ married. — la that Fviait Many Tliin::s niijlit 1„. -

Crisis and liisnir,,-: i,in. — .-^..i ienis Pevolt in Fy-

ens. — Duchess of P.i.iiy in Fa Venili'e.— Fate

Birth of Political Rea.son in France.— Faeti,.ns in ' ,^|il''' — Sliall th," hnipn,. i is,. V- I ,/. / /.,„;„,.,„•/—

the Government.— Popularity ami FTnji,ipiilarity l">^t"rati,,n ,,t the . a|. ,,!,■, ,iii,- |(>iiasly, . 4'.ili-.ilJb

of the Reign.-First Rivalry of Thiers ami (.lui- C'livi'TEK CXXXVIII —Tin: Sj:(o.\t> Em-

zot.— The Soult ."\Fini.stry.— Changes in tlie Cab-

inet.— Republican Attitude towanls the (i,)V,.in-

ment.— Fie.sclii utl,.nipls tlie Fife of th,. Kim.;.— Phil,.s.,phy of the Fu'in-h .sitmHi,.n in 1S.V2.—

Punishment ,,1 th,. ( nii,.-piiat., is.— Symptoms ,,f Nap,.l,-,,ii III. a F,.gitimal,. S,,v,.iviun.~.\hs.ilnte

Reviving Tin].,. rialisiii.-(,,n,lition of th,. Nap.,- l;iL;lits of the Fr,.n,-li Xali,.ii. l;,'st.,iati,.n of

leonic Dvna-tv. l.,-iiis Xap,-,leon P>,,napait,. (lr.l,.i-. - Th,. Fnip,a..r i.-.-rm-.l ali-ait tlie

makes His B,.\v. Tli..< ■liann,.,! Name.-Thelmp,.- .<ii, cssiiin. - H,. tuk,.s i;m..,'ni,. in Mainau'e.—

rial Fiasco at .Str.ishuiLj. — liiipris,iiiment ,,1 F.Miis "Th,. I-anpii'e is P.-a.'.-." -I',.lili."il an.l .s.„.ial

Napoleon.— Pviii,apl,.s ,,1 (,iiiz,,t an,l Thi,.is - (;',ms,.,pi,.n,;es ,,1 th,. Imp.aFil Mai i ia.^,.. -Fran,..e

The Governini.iit (■,His,.i-valiv,..-:\IoU: Mmisliy lH.,'.,ni,.s a Paity in th,' Ciiim-an War. — Mo- overthrown.— i;,.lali.,iis of France with i.ieat ] tiv,s of the Fm].ei.,r.-Sii,.,',-ss .,| tli,. French

Britain— (Inizi.t ,.aliimniate,l. - Louis Phili],i.e Anns. -Birth .,f th.. Pun,-,. Imp,. nal. - Paris

an,l Vietoi-ia. -Jeal,,iisi,.8 about the Throne of -l,,rill,.,l.- Th,. laiipi-n.r s,.,.ks lh,- (i 1-will

.Spain—s.in.iws ,,f l.,,iiis Phili|,pe's Hou.sehold.- ! of Fii^laii,l.-Pi.,j,.,as of .\s-avsinali,,n.-{ Irsinfs Kivalrv ,,f Fi.in,',. and Fic'laml in th,. Fast.-As- ' P.,, nibs i-xpl,.,!,.. — Piini-l,iii..|il ,.f th,. Crinii-

cen,len,-v ,,l th,- I,alt,.r. - l',...lv .,f Xap,.l,..,n lb,- iials.--P,,piilaiity ,,1 th,. Fiiip..r,.r.-rv,,/,/ F.m-

Great br,.mjlil lb,m,. f i St. Ib-lena.-t ,i,,wlh ,,f r„ ,■ ami CrrTii Vnhil:, ,:- -\\u\n\-.\vA,. visils Us.-

Bonapartisin.— I.i.nis ,\ap,.l,.on as an Authoraml Pisin- Anlipathy t.. ( himany.— Th,. (Ip.-ning Ad\-entui,.i-. — Th,. <;,>v,.rnment completes the ( iauie niustb.. pla\,..liii llalw— Ca\ .,nr an.l Xa- French F,,rtili,'ati.iiis.-Tli,. King grows Old, ami |,,,l,-,,n at ( in,..— i liii hi i-ak ,.i lb,. Kiaii,-,,-.\nstrian looks ba,'kw,n-.l.-Tli,. SvMi.in an Aristneiacv. - \Var.-Sn,-e,ss ,if th,. Fivii,-ii Iii\aM.,n.— Treaty Fatal Flaw in lh,. M,,iiai,liy.-Cry ol P.-mnii.- j ,,f Villaliam'a.- Tei ins ,,1 .s,.|tl,.|n,.nt.- Elfcts Failure of th,. Cpii's. Piibliealiou of X,.w His- lli,.r,.,,l Abr,,a,l. — Th.. Fiiipi-n.r's Innuence tories.— The l;,.l,.nn Pamini.t of l.S'4S. -Revolt of waxes.— He joins Great Britain in a War ,.n Pans.— The S,,l, li, as mnliny.— Louis Philippe also China.— Eugenie inspires the i\[exi.. an Invasi.,ii.- casts His Tubs. — All. Ination Necessary.— The Napoleon at Enmity with the Fiiil...l Siahs —Mis- Republic proclaime,!. — Funis becomes 'William jmlges the Situation.— F,illy ,,f .M,.\i,an Selieme.— Smith.— All is over.— Exit House of Orleans.— Monroe Doctrine f,>rbi,ks — Maximilian's Har.l The Fugitives, 4S0-49S Fate.— Keactionagainstth,. Fmi.iiv. — F, ss,,nsfr,,ui

k Ji t

c()Xtj:.\ts of V(,i.i'M}:s xv axd avi.

Koplv. — SlK.ck to th." Iiisli trnl.— Civil an.l Iteligioii; .1 l.■i^i, i:i,-c(i..iis.-Attitu.K. ,

•nt	wit	i.lnnvii
li-	sh 1	•i <..■■.!.• IS.
i (	l'a>.-	iratioiis
vpt	-Tl	,• (liu-v,
il 1 1 nt	u.Il' til.	(ila.i,"l..
<. 1	:inii	s t„ 11. ,1
M.	r.|ii	- ..1 SmI
!•..>	llio]	..f 11..,

Caii.-r.- 11 ln-l:in.l. '	■h.- I'rinu- .Mmi-l.T-s	v,,,.,.,!, —ilirak
ill tin- l.i	..■ral KanUs.-l.ib.-ral	Ministry ov,t-
tlir..un.--l	"nr^i'ttleiiu'ntof tlie(jii	■stion.— Celfbi-a-
ti..ii of 1	,T Majc-sty-s .lul.iK-	■.--Uflatiuns of
(iiviit Biit;	in to tlu- (iovi-rniiuMi	of Kuvpt.-I'o-
liti.'al C...	litions in that Coun	tiv.- r.ritish In-
tcivst in t	„. hVy,,tian I).l,t.-1'	il„-i|,l,.S L'ovri-n-
111- Xati..i	al In.lcl.te.liirss.— C,
in tlu- K-	■ptian gn.->ti..n.-Tl,	l-inanuial Con-

ilitioti of l".>.'yiit.— ■J'l-n.K-ncy to Iii.lc]ii-ii.ii_'iicc.— Kcfonns i>r.>|iosed l.y .MiOieniL't Ali. — \\\-st(-rn IiitrrlVifnco compels K-yi.t to be Dcpen.lont on tlir rortc-lbnihim I'aslia.— His SiuTfssors.- K-y|itian Vic-w of the F.,ivi-u D.miination.-Tlu' iVople ik-nian.l Ke- i..nii.— Uis.-of Kl Arabi.— Klloits to reach Auton- i.iiiy.--i;ur..pean I'lc-t at Alexandria.— Promulga- ti.iii ..f till- Now CoiL-tituti.iii. - ICnglaiiii .supports tlu- Kh.-.live.-.-ii.-.vss ..I .\rabi.— lieiiian.ls of iiivat i;ritain.-l;i..t in Alexan.lria.— The British rilimatiiiii.— r...iiibarilment of the City.— Tewfik uii.l.T till- Prot(-(-tion of Kniu'land.— Defeat of Aiabi. His r.anishiiient.— (iovernniental Selieme .il iMiHrrin. ( '.111.1111.1118 of Settlement. — Appari- tion of tlu- .AlalLli.— Whohe was.— Conditions in the .--;.. 11. Ian.- bakn's Kxplorations — He leaves I i..r.|..n ill the .^.Mitli. — Withdrawal of the Foreign C.iiitr..|. - i;.ii.l..n ill Khartoum.— His Character aii.l r..li,y.-lsb. si.-.'.-d by the Mahdi.— dor.lon's Siirn-n.l.r aii.l 1 i.-alli.- i:il.-.ts of the news in l-:n..dan.l.-Tli.- Kv.-iit ai.ls the C.iiis,-rvativ,-s.— Hritish Kxpl..raii..iis in C.-ntral Africa.-Work of Livingstone. — He is foun.l by Stanley. — Story of Emin Pasha. — Sending out of the Relief Expedi- tion.—Stanley succeeds in his Work.— Kevelations in Central Africa. — Conclusion of Narrative. — Promise of the Victorian Age, 4:M-1.52

				BOOIv '
(■	Il.Vf	i;i:	CXXXV. -^ll.ii 1
				TIllN.
	Nap.	1,-.,	1 aft.-	Waterl.i...— W
1,		-Wl	at W	IS.- L.iuis XV
T	IPJUf	._	".rinszs	back the Past
H	is W		-How	lewasregar.lc.l
P C () i;	th.- irlai	l-ai"	t of 1 l.-a.ls	N.ibles.- l;..yM •n-n,-li T.rrit..i th.- Chaiiib.r

^\VE?^ITY-THI^^^IJ.— KRA.XCE.

:ii(ix Ri:.sTOR.\- '

inan.l Vll. -Abr..-at	..11	,f tlu- C..ll.stitllti..ll ..i	Km
slL>. l;,.vival ol th.-	PaM	-l;.-ign ..( tlu- Pa.l.-	will
c.Tct .s,,ri.-ties, — Iiisu	rr..-	i..n ..1 bs2(l.-l;.-lati..iis	of .1
f Liberalism to tlu- (	'iti.-	-.—Will the Holv Alh-	itSiA
nee interf(-re'.'— It i	teri	-r,-s. C..iigre.ss of V.-	Fn.
ma. — (ireat Britain	.r..t	-sts.- 1- raiu-e agr(-.-s t.i	.Mill
ut down the Spaiiis		volnli..n. -Invasion of	will

Peninsula. — B..iinbonisin reinstated. — Conse- u-.-s in France.— The K.iyalists will be All or ling.- ".Vfter Us the Beluge ! "—Death of s. — l.ati-ial Descent of the Crown. — Accession

iiarlis .\.— His Previous Career. — Expecta- ■ .if tlu- IiyiiMsiy. —Death of the Duke of y. I'.iith ..f tin- Duke of Bordeaux.— Koyal- «..iiM .,111. 1.. Itself.- Questionof the Estates H- N..l.l.->.-TI,ry demand the Earth.— Diffi- .s ..I th.- ^itualu.n.- Bill for the Relief of the .'iaiit>.- Plan . .f C.miiiensation and Settle- i.-Tlu- .b-suus icst.>i.-.l — Rise of .lournal- Tlu- (■.■n-..,~hii. i.Mved— Making Men t bv Paiiiit.— ( i|i|..isili.in in the Chamber. —

l.ib.ials .any tlu- Kl.rti.m.-P.jlignac :Mm- .-P.-lali.ins .,1 Fiaiui- to the Tmco-Hell.-nic

..L'li A.iiu- of K..vahsin— ()ppositi..n to

Mia.-P.ii.r Pi.-si.l,-nt of the Deimties.- ■l,.s W,.ak,ns-st.,ry ..f the African War.— ■I- iiiva.l.-.l bv Bom nil, nt.— Success of the ■.liti.iii. (.|<.iiiiiation of the Kovalists.— We iii.w .1., as wi- pli-asc-Tlu- Five- Onlinances ily,-.\|.).aiili.,ii,,f Thu-i.s.— The Press breaks laiia. I.'s, P.itlliiiL' of Insurrection.— Paris on , The Tri.c.,l.,r on High. -Flight of the St ry.— Revolution in Kariu-st. — The Soldiers

the Insurgents. — The New Chamber of Dep-

TWFj.

CoXTKyiS OF ]-(>Ll'Mi:s X\' AXn .WL 13
) nties.— Barricade ot the Streets.— The Sansru-	Cii.u'Tri: ('XXXVII. — RF.ptT.i.ic .\ni) Coup
I lottes Emergent.— Sacred Right of Insurrection.—	i/fyr.vT.
! Tlie Government swept out.— ( ■hurles throws
; Tubs beiiin.l !iim.-l,:ifayelte ( ■..uiuiandant.—	The T'nheroic l;,'Vo|ntion. -Provisional Gov-
i Success 01 the Hays nl .luly. -Wreck ..1 Elder	erniiM'iit .■stablishod.- Framv loa.'h.'s laa- Start-
Bourbonisni. — Futiuv Iiesiini,.s ni thr Ib.usr.—	ing-point. —A Now CoiiMiiuii,,,,. Municipal
Pro-ress .if the K.'vnhition.— h.juahly IMuhp	Cliaia.-tor of the R, ■volution. - 1 ii.in .jmt I'aris.-
called to the Tlir..ii.'. I'iiud Fh dit ..I clKii'lrs	Th.-.^phinx appeals.- >kotrb of Louis Napoleon.-
from France, 4:.7-4S()	His Kelations to the H.M. as y.-dlis Adventures
	in Foreign l.and.s.- His i'oliti,al Wriliii'js.- He is
Chapter C'XXX\'r. — Tun C'itizen- Kinc;.	eleete.l to the I onstitueiit Assei,,bly.-Is hardly
-Vcci'^^h.u of ihi' IbiU-.' ..f rii-l,-in<;— Poi.u-	treated bv the Repllbliealls.-Sileiiee is (ioldeu.-
	Piesidential Lleetion of Is4s. I.onis Napoleon is
He accepts tin- Chiwu and he.-uui.js Citizen ' King.— C:ontiniian.M. of thr Al-.-iiju 'A'ar.— Rattle	His Ministry.— lie interieivs in tli<- .Mlaii.s .,f II'iIn" ■^('(•I's ]'"'i\'nr wi'ii I'lMin- Tli ■ I'l'-iiili
of Isly and CaptuK' of Ahd" ol-Kador.— Middlo
Class i'n/dnmiiiant in Kionrh i .overument.-The	Army sni.piesses Roman Repnl.li.-anisin.-l liies-
ITnder :\h-iu not iv.-o.^ni/.Ml. -Kevohition of 1n:;!i	tion of Univeisal Snllia:.;.'.- l'w|.iilarily of the
limits the h'iMition. — I'ri'tenf-ions oi Uic I'a-.t
	Napo|e..n the >Ltn of i ),,ier.-SI,all we stand for
■ - p .I,,- .^1' r t) '. D .f . - • f |." •	R.M leeti,,u?— The (Ipposilion will hav it so.-
Buddm:.' of Fouili.ationsat Bmis.-The Citi/.rn	Polilieal Measuies of the Presi,|ent. - He foltltieS
1 Kin- w.Mild ally Himself with the Spani-h	his Adniinistiatioii.— ks-ne Intweeii Ilim ami the
H.,us,-.— l<alulla and the Princess Mana may 1,.-	Asse,,,bly.—(ou. option of tlie re. 7, ,/■/>>/.— A r-
married -In that Kv,-nt Many Thin-s mi:_dit iV —	le.-t of the Depinies. — I'l oelaiual ion oi the Presi-
Balance of Power nnc^t he pros,,rv,_-d. — hman. i:d	.leiit.- The Chamber w..iild stem the Tide. -Siip-
Cri.sis and Insmr.M-; ion. -S,,i ious Pevolt in Ly-
ons.—Duchess of P.riiv in La Vendre— Late	ideiit for Ten Years.— New Constitiilion promiil-
Birth of Political K.-ason in Fiance.-Fartions in	g;ite,l.— ShalltlieEmpireri.se?— IVn r /:,„i,e,an- 1—
the Government. — Popularity and I'npopnlarity	Restoration of the Napoleonic Dynasty, . -l!i!l-,-,(iG
i of the Reign. -First Kivalry of Thiers and Om-	CiiAPTEK CXXXVIII —The ^vjjosd Em-
zot.— The Soult .Alinistry.— Changes in the Cali-
inet.— Republican Attitude towards the Govern-	iTiii:.
ment.— Fieschi attempts the Life of the King.—	Philosophy of the French Situation in bs.52.—
Punishment of the Conspirators.— Symptoms of	Naiioleou IH. a Legitimate Soveieiun. — .Absolute
Reviving Imperialism.— Condition of the Xaj.o.	Ri-hts of the French Nation. Restoiation of
1 Iconic Dynasty. — Li'uis NapoU-on Bonapait.-	(irde,-.- The Knii.eror con, .a lied ab,,nt the
1 makesHis Bow. -Tl.o Charmed Name. -The Inip,-	Sn,v,vssi.,n. — H,- tak.'s lai-i'iii,. in Maniaae.—
rial Fiasco at Strashnr-. — lmpri-onnient of L,,nis	-Til.. Empire is P,-a,.-." --P..I1I i,.il a.el S,„aal
Napoleon.— Principl.^s of (oiizol and Thiols -	Con.seiiuences of the Imp.-iial Mai 1 ia'.;,-. -France
The Government Coiiscrvaliv.— Aloh' MmiMiy	becomes a Party in th.. Ciim.aii War.— Mo-
overthrown.—Relations of France with (.leat	tives of the Em]ier.,r.— Siu-,-,-ss ,.f th,' French
Britain.— Guizot calumniated. — Louis Philijipe	Arms. — Birth of th,- Piiii,',- Imp. ■iial. — Paris
and Victoria.- .Jealousies about the Tin one of	pI,„-jrK.,L— The Emp,r..r s...ks th,- (o.o.bwill
Spam.— Sorrows of Louis Phili|.pe's Hou.sehold.—	of laiLdan,l.-Proj...-ls ..f Assassuiali,,n.— Grsini's
Rivalrv of Fr.in.-,. and En.Lrland in the l-ast.- As-	P,.,mbs ..xpl..,!,-.- Pniiisi,m..|it of the Crimi-
cendency of the l.aUor.-r.ody of XapoU.,,n the	nals. -P..piilai ity ..f th,. Kiniieror.— Cn;di7 Fon-
	,■:.,■ ami < ,v/,7 .V../.;/..-./-.-Ab.bil-Aziz visits Us.—
BonapartiMii. -l.oiiis Napoh-on as an Author and	Ri.siii- Antipathy t,. ( m-i many.— The Opening
Adventnivr. — The liovonimmt comi.Irt.-s tho	(.ame must b,- play.-. I in Italy. -Cav,.ur an.l Na-
French Foitilirations.-TIn- King gi.,ws old. and	|.,,l,-,.u at On,-.- Oiitbi.Mk ..f til,. Kian.-,.-Anstrian
looks Ixirkward.-Tlio Sy-t.-m an Aristooary.-	\Var.-Su.v,-ss .,f th,. Fn-n.-h fnv.isk.n. -Treaty
: Fatal Flaw in llio MouairPy.- (/ry ol Kulonii.—	of ViUalian.'a.- Teinis ,,f .S.(tl,-m,-iit.— Eti'ects
Failure of tlio Crops. Pnbli.ation of Now llis-	lh,av,,f Abr..a.l. — Th,. l'.mp,.i.,r's IiUluenco
tories.- The Uolorin Ban,, net of ly^.S.-Itovolt of	„axes.— H,. j,.ins Oivat Britain in a War .,11
Parrs. -The .^oldiors mutiny.-Louis Philippe al>o	Cbiiia.—Eu-.'iiie inspires the M..Ni,.-auLi vasi, .11.-
casts His Tubs. — .\l.dication Xecessarv. — The	Napolconat Enmity with the rnit,.,l States— Mis-
Republic proclaimed. -Louis becomes' William	ju.lges the Situation. -F.,lly,,f .M. .xi. -an Scheme.—
Smith.— All is over.— K.'iit House of Orleans.—	Monroe Doctrine f,.rbi,ls. — :MaximiIian's Hani
1 Tlie Fugitives 4S0-49S

« #• •

r " » »•' V "^

-^!t^1«^#; V^-

^^O

14

C()Xtj:.\t.

M) .VI 7.

the Frcnoh Klectioiis.— Paris ami the Kniiiiti'.— The KniiM-ror a.l.jiiis the Capilal.— Kiititinisi-s aliroa.l.— TIk- Su,v. Canal in Particular.— I'lac- of that LstliMiiis in til.- llist-.rv .,1 Civilizati..ii.— I.an.l-r.MU,.s an.l Watrr-n.iit.-s iR-twei-n Asia an,! the West. -The Shiltin.,- Ti.k-.s of Comi.m.t.-.-.- Ili.story of Pruj.Tts lor joiniu- th.- .M.-litrrraiR-an iui.i Ke.l Sea.-raiiiir.-saii.l .<iu-(_v.ss.-s of th.- Kiiter- j.risc- Tlu- Wcst.-rti I'ower.s h.-.-oiiit- inti-n-.stud in the Canal ~l>i- I.css.-p.s a|.|M-ars on the -S-ene.— Company o!,L;aiii/,-.l.-.<k,-t,-li of the Work. -Final .'^ucee.s.s of th,- Canal, l.'ivalrv of (iival Britain an.] Kran.v fur its (lu n.-,>hi|..- Kxlrnt of (-..n- ni.-rce thn.iiL-h th,- Ciiaini.-l. Fn-n.-l, Tniv,-r.-al K.\positi..n ..I Isi.:. Cirruni-tanc-s .listr.-.-sin-.: to tin- KnipiM-.-(intlin,> of Kwnts in .<.hliswi- lIol-t,-in. (■onii-..t l<.r the Danish Croun. .\ai.o. h-on no l.,,n..-er .\rl.iter of KnrojM-. -( ;,rn,any ^■ains Control of the Disputed Provine.-.s.— Bi.s- inarek vi.-its XapoK-on -Sketch of tlie .'^even We.-k.s' War.— Revival of Kepnhlicanisni in France. — Pulilic Opinion against tin- (iovcrn- erntnent— Increase of tlu- Army.— ^^treiiL'th of tin- Opposition Vote.— Gamhctta appears.— .Steadiness of the Emperor's Conihict.— (iovernment sus- tained hy a I'opnlar \'ote. — /'/,*;.<(•)(.• and Sencilus- aimnllnm.— Work of the Radical Orators.— Neces- sity of a Foreign War. — Kx])ulsion of Qneen l.sa- bella from Spain.— (Question of her Successor. — Candidature of I.ef)i)old.— France is oflended.— Interference with the Hoh.-nzoUern Project.— The Nature of the French Demand. — Na])oleoii would ami would not, SOT-oio

C'H.\I'TEK CXXXIX.— Fli.iNCO-I'lU-SSI.VX W.VK.

Anger of tlie French.— No German I'lince shall he King of Spam. -" He Rou<;h with the King." — War Inevitahle.— Opjiosition ..f the F'rench Republicans. — Declaration c;f France. — Spirit with which the Struggle began.— Del usion.s of the French Statesmen. — Rising of (iermaiiv. — Plans of the French Emperor.-Hi.s Misinforma- tion.— Vigor of the German Movement —Organi- zation of the King's Armies.— Germany in the FieUl.— Affair of Saarhruck.— Baptism 'of Fire and Other Nonsense.— Tlie Scene changes.— Ger- many becomes the Aggressor. — \'elienienc(?of Her Attack. -Crown Prince in Alsace.- France on the Defensive —Tlie Fanjieror outgeneraled. — Stras- l)urg besieged. — Pattle of Courcelles.— (ieneral Position of the Oj.i.osing Forces.— Battle of Marsda-Tour. — Peril of P.azaine — P.altle of (irave- lotte.— Bazaine coojieil U|i in :^Ielz.— Fury of the Parisians. — French Repuldicans lling Themselves into the Conllict.-l'lan of MacMahon.-He is overruled.— Falls back to Sedan.— Battle, Crisis, and Capitulation. — "My Good Brother." — Najio- leon a Prisoner.— Bismarck whistles a Tune. —

French Theory of Bazaine and Metz. — Position of the Empress. — Upheaving and Downrushing at Paris.— Flight of the Empres.s.- Dnperial Family in I-^ngland.— Proclamation of the Third Rejiub- lic. — " Not a I'oejt of Soil, not a .'^tone of a For- tre.ss." — Radicalism Triumphant.— Frenzy of the New Rei)uhlic.— Advance of the Germans on Paris.— Great Capitulations of Sei)tember. — Ba- zaine becomes a Scapegoat.— Ruin of F'rance. — Heroism of (iambetta.- The German Anaconda tightens. — Battles around Paris. — Del'eat of Bour- haki. — Uproar in the French Capital.— Thiers eleeti-d I'resident.- The New Ministry.— Govern- ment at Bordeaux. — Preliminary Treaty. — Formal Deposition of the Emperor. — Armistice. — Negotia- tions and Treaty.— .Severe Terms of Settlement. — I^'acuation by the Germans. — Vite la Com- )-,«„('.'- Nature of the Crisis.— Sketch of the Com- munal Movement. — Composition of the Com- munists.—The National Guard.— Attair of Pare Wagram.— Embarra.ssment of the Government. — The Regulars join the Insurrection. — .Spread of the Revolt.— Paris in the Power of the Insur- gents.— (lovernment at Ver.sailles.— Emissaries of the Commune Abroad. — Insurrections in Other Cities.— Revolutionary Government organized. — Revival of 17'.)2.— First Battle with the Govern- ment.—National Assembly organizes an Army. — Battle of Mont Valerien. — Reign of Violence be- gun.— Fighting around the City. — Proclamation of the Government. — Progress of the Siege. — Passion and Fury.— Starvation and Burning. — Taking of the City Gates.— Public Buildings fired.— Slaugh- ter of Prisoners and the Suspected. — End of the Revolt. — Dreadful Scenes in the City. — Disi)osal of the Communists. — Political Questions to be Settled. — Prerogatives of the Assembly. — Forma- tion of New Constitution. — Difficulty of unifying Political Sentiment. — Reiiction against the Com- mune.— Treaty of Peace with Germany. — Liberal IMeasures of the Government. — Amnesty for the Bourbons. — Republicans carry the Election. — Thiers chosen President. — Opposition Elements constitute a Majority.— Policy of the Factions. — Payment of War Indemnity. — Dangers to the Ke- I>ublic. — Death of Napoleon III. — Questions of the Executive Office.— End of the Indemnity and Withdrawal of the Germans. — .Secret of the .'Suc- cess of F'rench Finance. — Sympathy with Impe- rialism.—Proscription of the Bonapartes. — Peril- ous Condition of the Government. — Accession of MacMahon to the Presidency.— His Political Sttinding. —Influence of the Imperial Party. — Probable Restoration of Monarchy.— Imperial and Monarchical Factions. — Fixing of the Presidential Term and Ditinitive Establishment of the Re- jmblic.— Condemnation of Bazaine. — De Cissey Ministry.— (iains of the Republicans.— Philoso- phy of the Situation. — Dissolution of the Assem- bly.—Rise of the Ojiportunists.— Party of Order. —

COXTKXTS OF VOLUMES XV AXD XV r.

15

Ascendency of Grevy ami Gambetta. — Death of "The Liberator of the Teriitory," . . . .523-556

Chapter CXL. — Third Republic. Grevy elected Pre-iJent of the Chamber. — Re- publican Cabinet. — Republican Gains in the Sen- ate.— Grevy in the Presidency.— Attitude of the Extreme Left. — Impracticality of the Radicals. — Ministry of De Freycinet. — Power behind the Throne. — Question of the Religious Orders. — Catholic Principles of Action. — Abolition of the Jesuitical Establishments — " Our Enemy is Gler- icism." — Establishment of New Educational Sys- tem.—Resistance of the Jesuits. — Distraction of the Imperialists — Note on Cassagnac. — Ascend- ency of Gambetta. — Rochefortand his Journals. — A Communist Platform.— Gambetta's Power in the Government. — Prince Napoleon.- Decline of the Monarchic Cause.— Decadence of Com- munism.— Effort to reform the Election Laws. — Nature of the Measures Proposed. — Project to abolish Life-tenure in the Senate. — The Gambetta Ministry. — Calling of International Monetary Conference.— American Interest in the Move- ment.—Question of Silver and Legal Tender.— Propositions before the Conference. — Attitude of Great Britain. — Monometallic and Bimetallic Theories. — Meagre Results of the Confeience.— Revival of France from the German War. — End of Proscription.— Change in the Relations of Paris to France— Break between the Capital and the Country. — Injury done by the Commune. — The Third Republic Representative of France. — Death of Gambetta. — Revival of Distrust against the Monarchists. — Prince Napoleon would be Bona- parte.— Expulsion of Imperial Representatives. — Respectability of the Orleanists.— Counts of Paris and Chambord. — The Former represents the Dynasty. — Episode of the Morton Ball. — Elections of 1884.— Gains of the Socialists —French War in

the East. — Question of Marriage and Divorce.— The Roman Catholic Theory. — Bad Working of the System. — Statutes to Stimulate Marriage. — Proposition to Revise tbe Constitution. — Objec- tionable Features.— Crisis of 18.S5. — Disaster to the French Arms in Cliina. — Overthrow of the Ferry Ministry. — The Brisson Cabinet. — Profound Vice in the Governmental System.— Question of Patronage. — Corruption of the Public Service. — Defeat of Civil Service Reform. — Plan of Gam- betta.—Question of the Appointive Offices.— Analogies of France and the United States.— So- cialist Manifesto of 1885. — Great Vote in its Favor. — Republicans retained in Power. — Re- election of Grevy to the Presidency. — Ditlerence between the French and American Constitu- tions.—The Right refuses to Vote. — Monarchists encouraged by the Election. — Conduct of the Princes. — Decree of Expulsion passed.— Procla- mation of the Count of Paris.— Boulanger ap- pears and fights a Duel — Due d'Aumale puts Fire on the Head of the Republic. — Chantilly given to the French Nation. — A German Toy becomes a Political Issue. — Instability of the French Cab- inets.—Badness of Party Discipline. — Attempt to abolish the Sub-prel'ecture. — Freycinet Ministry overthrown —The Goblet Ministry.— Question of rectifying the Boundary of France. — Revenge as a iMotto. — Boulanger and Rouvier. — The Former becomes an Issue. — Appeals to the People.— Is made the Impersonation of Hatred against Ger- many.— Great Scandal in the AVar Office.— Dis- grace of Grevy 's Son-indaw. — The President obliged to resign. — Boulanger stands for Insur- rection.—Sadi-Carnot elected President. — Bou- langer's Star goes down. — An Absurd Duel pricks the Bubble — The Attention of the French called to the Centennial of the Republic. — Preparations for 1889.- Notice of the Great Exposition. — Con- clusion, 550-580

BOOIC TWENTY-KOURTH.— GERlvIANY.

Chapter CXLI. — Nadir of the Father- land.

EflTects of Waterloo in Germany.— Contagion of the French Revolution.— (iain of the Father- land from the New Life West of the Rhine.— The Prussian Monarch would profit by Victory. — Satisfaction of Madame Krudener. — Revival of the Middle Ages.— Territorial Work of the Con- gress of Vienna. — Project of Nationality.— Can We restore the Empire?— Plan of Metternich. — Reforms promised by the Diet.— Establishment of Zollverein — Old Abuses revived.— Comi)osition of the German Diet. — Disappointment of the Ger-

mans,— Spread of New Ideas. — Buml of Wart lung.— Censorship of Press and Lecture-roniu,— Real and Apparent Consequences of the French Invasions. — The Period of Reaction.— Understrug- gle of the People. — The German Rulers admin- ister Husks. — Frederick Wilbam hugs the Arm of the Czar. — Prussia breaks from Austria.— Ori- gin of the Zollverein. — Recuperation of Ger- many. — Revolutionary l\Iovements of 1830.— Unanimity of the German People. — Perfidy of Ernest .Vugust and Louis I — German Genius in Disgrace. — Outbreak of Belgian Revolution. — Causes of the Revolt. — Insurrection in Brussels. — Barricade and Battle.— Provincial Government

16 in\Ti:\rs or v<>i.rMi:^ xv asu \vi.

eslalili^la-l.— Ci-l^'ium ;i.ln,-\i-.s Iml.i.i-ii.U-in-.-.— ' P-lilir~ ..i (.'rowii I'rinoes.— War of Italian Inde-

('..iiil.aris..ii ..f (■..ii.liiii.ii-- ill I'nissia an. I An- |..-ii.i.-ii.i-. — Prussia antaiionizrs KraiK-.-.— The

tiia. Au>triaii<r..«ii-...-st.. l--..r.liiiaii.l I..:.v; VM Italians carry ..n the M..veuH-nt l..r Nati..nality.—

Pi..-.'1-.-ss ..1 I.il.cialism in Austria aii.l Tnissia.—

CilAiTi;i: CXLII. — l-"i:i;i.i;i:l' K William IV. \v,|ii;,„, an-l Ilis 1V..|.U- in A./o.r.l.-r.ir.rts.,i Ilal-

\.v,-<i,,n ..i F,v.l...i.k Willi:,,,, IV.-n,v-iral '•'" N^'ti<.i,ality in G,-n„ai,y. - Uivaliy ..f tl,.' Two

Ii„|.r..v..„,..,.,sin lV„.sia.--A„s,.i,i..„si;,.^inning ' l-.a.lin^ S,at,-s.-!-„li. y ..I Kin:, Willia,,,. n-.Minl

oi tl,.- l:..,^„ -!.il..-,aM;x|..-.-lal ..„s ;m.l .iains.- I (^.„ ^,,.,.,,,, CXLIII.-AmkNI.LN. V or H :n.

Tl,.- l<ii,L'aii.l Il,.->.li..lar-. -I:..„-.-s Maiiili-st.,.—

Shall. .»„.>s„i th._- Ki„/- l'ni.i>M..ns.-IK-c.a>..s Z..LLLi:.N.

t.. lV.i.".-Th.- Cnv.i-.hii. r.st..,-.-.l.->i,„il r Mililarv r.,li.-y ..I K,,,.- Willian,.- Ai.|iariti.,ii

C..n.liti...,s lhp.U:;h..,U (..-nnanv-.-.l-snitiM,, in , ..I ni-n.airU.-Sk.t.l, ..1 his ( a,..,-,.- 1 1 is Vi,.«s

A,lstria.-Pivssu,v..llh,-l'ni>Mani;..v,.rn„u-nt.^ f. .lili.al. - His (..nins a,..l Ai„l,iti...,.- A Uc.-

rr..j,-ct ..I a Nati..nal I 'i.t,-ll.a.ll...k ..I th>- M..n- l..,i„.r ..i !!,.■ Tyiaimic (ml, a-. A,ist,ia s.vUs \o

tw.-i-n tl,.. Frriiih aii.l th.- ( ..-nna,',-. -KlliVt ..t i- l-ar.! Alai. I'.isniankian Virw ..i T,,-ati.s.^

till' N..US..I th.- l;fV..luti..n..I ls|S. Taiih <.l th.- < Mitl.i.ak ..I thi- Kanish War.-S,i, v.ss ,.t tha

T!i.. l'.il..-ial (■hart. •r.-I..., lis ..: P.avaria ivsi-ns.-^ I Wall, Hivi-i-.n ..I the Spoils.— Shall Fre.h-rii-k of

nu-nt.-lns,iriv.ti.,n in IVrliii. Thr Kin- <-..n- r.l l..tn.-.-,, A,i-I, ia an.l Prussia.— Conlcivntv of

<v.l.-s an.l surars.-Pr.,j.-,t ..I rnitv.-I.ilH.ralisiu 'last. in. r.-,i,,s ..I .-,tlhMi„-nt.-Two Power.s can

in th.. l>i.-t,-C..ininill.-.- n.l y,,/.,,',.,.— New Xa- ""I h.-l'nM i„ i .. rn.any. Pc-ire of Prussia for

ti..i,al \ss,.iiihly. — II.M-kir as a I..-a.U-r.— Kci.i-.- ' Halll.-. .\i,-tiia lh,,,ks it a Passing Storm.—

s,-ntativ,-s .•l„,s.'-ii.-KN|..ri,-n.-,- Wantinf:.-( iivat What shah !.,• .l..n,. uill, the 1 iii..hi,-s?-Franc-i.s

Ahiliti.s ,,1 the Frai,kl..it Parliain.-nt.-nan-ers .h.s,-).!, appeals t.. tl,.' S„,a]l,.r Slal.s.-r.isn,aivk

..f The..,i/,in:.'.-Ii,-.i.n.-.ti..n in P.la.k F..re.st.- i is (■..nlially llat.-l.-lle p„ts ,.ut Ills Ilan.l into

Parall.l..I .\ati..nal Parlia„„.„t an.l French Stat..s- i Italy.-The P, ns.„.Ilalian Allian.,_..-Th.- l>i,.tis

the Armistice.— Tuinull in F,anki..rt.-Kvil ('..n- F,.l.l. Patties an.l Victories.— The Crisis hreaks

s.-.pi.ai.-.-s of Vi..len.-...--I;el,..li:..ns in Nii_'hl...r- at K-niuirratz— The (ileal Triumph of Prussia.—

in- States,— Insurivcti.,n in Vi.-nna. -K..s<„th in \'en.-tia <;iven lo France. -Francis .los.'j.h cries

th,. Fiel.l.-l>uthivak..f Ilun-ariaii l;.-v.,hui..n.- out. -I-.i..! .,l the Seven Weeks' Wa,.- T!,.- Ilaml

to the (■zar.-Kisin..'..f th,-' I lun-arian Pcpl,..- I rn,li,-.l.-F..imati..ii of N.-rth-t,,-, man Ini,.,!.-

Surivn.lerof Cei-eyan.l Failur,. ..i the Cause.- Pi.-i.-n,-.- -.1 l;,>„,aivk -W,.,k ..f T,ansl..rn,a-

Invasi.,,. of Italv."-l;isin- ..'f th,- Sar.iin,ans.'- fa.ti..,, ..1 ".\ap.,l,M,a III, -X-.thin- He yaims.-

P-atth- ..f Novara.-Charles AM.ert loi-ns t.. Vi.-. !.„n.„,1>,iii.' Po.je, t.— Tr,-aty of .\.>rth an,l South

t<.r F„,aii,iel.-^Veni<'e i......n.pu-iv.l.-l;,-..,ti..„ in I l.-rmany.- Ati.tu.le of Bavaiia.- Anta-jonism of

Austria. -Accessi..n ..f Framis .h.s,.].h. Uivaliy | th,- M..tlier (■l,ui<.li.-Coiis,.-,iu,ai. es of .<a.lowa in

of Pr,issia an.l .\usti ia.— The Cine <.r th./ other .Vnslria.- The Past on its Kn,-es. — Downward

n,u>t l.a.l (iermany. -Nature of ( ;..v,-riiniei,t. - To'l,.! of the Fiemh Empi.e.-Collapse of the

Th.- Hi.l wouM mak.- Fr.-.l.-ri,-k Ki„p,-r.,r.-ll.- M. -xi. an I'i..|.-,t -Nai.ol,.,.n mate.l hy Bismarck,—

<leclin.-s.-r)isapi...intment ..f tl„- P,-..pl.-.-N.,ll,- Fiai,.-.- an.l I',,iss,a aua,t tl„- ( Ipp,,, tunity -The

in<.'(e....l out ..f IIa|.sl.ur-.-Insurr.-.-ti..ns!l„cir- < ', ,,,..i,.ii .■,,„„. s ..iit of Spam- l.sal„lla an.l Ku-

,lerofthel>ay.-Kn.l.,fthe Paiiiam.nt. Iiilhi>i..n ^■,' , All.-p.-.l Caii.h.latuie of Prim e L.-,.|....l.l.—

therefrom of Pr..._-ivssive I.leas.-The C..11. ■•.•.■ ..f Ii„p..rtan. .■ ..i the Ci lsls.-^^lesti..ll .,f the Ke- Prim-es at Bc-rlin. Austria f..ll<.ws 11. r (.>wn vival ..f th.- I.atm Kaie.-Tlie Pr.iii.>se.l PriLsso- Policv.— Z.,llv,-r.iu .li>s..lv,-.!.-Iii.-ii,al Chara.I.r Spai,i>l, Ar.l, -Climax of the Fi,-iicl, Kmpire.- of th."- Sixth l)e.-a.l.-.-Attitu.le of < i.-rman States Tl,.- l-yna.-ty n,,i>t he rj.hel.l.-Th,- N,-phew an,I ill th.. Crimean War. -lrritati..n of the Prussian hisrn.K- (;i.,mn,.,iil raises the War-.rv.— PL-.,i.le. Kire,ts.,f the (■..„/,<(■/•;/.,( in liermany.- W,ll-,a,.„i,ii, t.-n.l.s to Ba.l-eii..u<;h.-King Will- German F.h/cti.,11 ..i l.s.-).-,. — Attilu.le of the Uul.rs iai,i says S,.i,,eihint; lo Bene..letli,~ France is in- towar.ls I,iheralism.-Ahility..f Human Nature t.j suh,-.l.- I.e P.., >if .says she is rea.ly. - Aliair of r.-vive from Uepres.-i..n.-P,r,-..nal Inlluences in Saa,l.riick.-< •..rman Armies au<l l.ea.lers.— The Ilistory.-General Caus.s Pre.l..minant.-Paral- Invasi..n Irr.si-iil.le.-BreakiiiL- up ..f Fallacies.- ysis of the Kin-— A.c,-s-i.>n <.f William I.— Italy an.l Austria stau.l Alouf.—The Kuin of the

COXTEMS OF VOLUMES XV AXV XVL

French Armies. — Xapolcon becomes a Specter. — Sedan ends the Trageily. — Wreck of the Em- pire.— Germany as an Avenger. — Piiris under Foot. — Tlie Armistice and Treaty. — Enormous In- demnity enacted. — Triumph and Pride of Prus- sia.—Extent of the French Losses.— Events tend to the Estabhshment of a (icriuau Kmpire.— King William proclaimed l",iu|Hinr. The Place and the Occasion.— Tra-.dy oi ihr ('..uiniunc.— Ueturn of Emperor William to Ju aiiii, . . iKM-HL'l

Chapter e'XLIV.— Tin-; ^'l:\v KMrii:r..

True Ori^jin of Piussian ( ireatness.- Geniiany as a Unit.— The New (■oustiliitiou.— A.Uij.talion of the System to the People.— What the Latter expect.— Contrast with English-speaking Peo- ples.— Struggle of State and Church in Prussia. — Opposition of Bismarck to Papal Pretensions. — Expulsion of the Jesuits —The Falk Laws. — Dep- osition and Banishment of the Ecclestiastics. — Premonitions of Socialism. — History of the Move- ment.—Outline of the Socialist Theory. — "Marx and LassalL'.— Results of Their Teachings— Ojipo- sition to the Chancellor. — The Latter encourages the Socialists. — Mistaken Deductions of the Ger- mans.—Incubus of the Military System. — As- sumptions of the Government. — Menace of France. — Hardsliips of German Labor. — Dream of Emancipation. — Diflerence of German and British Theories of Government. — Sympathy of the Ln- perial System with Socialism. — Violence of the Times. — Attempt to kill the Emperor.— Re.cction ensues.— Project to suppress the .Socialists.— Fail- ure of the Measure.— Government succeeds by Intrigue — Discernment of Bismarck. — .State So- cialism proposed. — Nature of the Measure — Suc- cess of the Scheme for unifying Germany.— Phi- lo.sophy of the Contest between Feudalism and Nationality.— Salutary Tiii|ieiial Measures. — Where shall the Lenl, -.•,', i, lit be established?— Revival of Hatred aLMin-t the .lews. -Sorrows ol that Race.— Hebrew Coiuj.Ik atioii of ISsO.— .^nti- Jewish Ebullition ot tlie deriuan I'le.ss — Treitschke's Agitation. — Reply ..f the .lews.— Extent and Character ot the Controversy.— Ques- tion of increasing the German Army.— Era of Jlonstrous Military Establishments — Extent of the Various National Armies. — But We are -Ml Peaceable.— <juestion of the Stamp Duty. — Anom- alous Position of Bismarck. — Do It, or 'We will

resign. — Arbitrary Character ol th Patriotism the Motive.— P.isman Speech.— Startling Assumptions vival of the Catholi,- (lue.iio: Conciliation. — ^Meetin^' of \\\,- 'I'l Motives Ostensible and heal <.l t Liberal Gains in the Elect ion of unmoved by the Result. -Majc Government— The .Vdministniti. The Empire would make pea

-\V.-

.— Th

to abolish Ih.. Mairia-e Laws. -Conrse of th.

Pop<- to th.- lea-man <e,vei- nt.— nne Manne

for (ieniiany and Another f,„- Russia.- -Imlno^li. about the Imi.oilation of Ameiiran l'oik.-l-ni ther demands of the Papacy. Revival of Ani mosity between France and ing of the XorUt-Gcnnan <hi:iit.\ — ]C|pisc Crown Prince in Spain.— A Hair of tl Resolutions. — Bismarck's liedaialion ,,i ject. — Resignation of ;\Iini>ler Saijent.- the German Liberals Concei ninL' tl Business. — Westw-ard A[:iich of ( lio|( many meets the PlaixiU' with Scieiuc for Foreign Colonization. — Mack wanln. many in This Regard.— .\fri. a the field t ions.— Success of the Colonial haiteii Bono? — Age of Colonization passe. I. Greatness a Thing of ( ea many.- A Ih Caroline Islands.— Thivat.-n.d War wit German Passion for i:mi.ji.iti..n.-M..tiv.s f,,r going Abroad.— Vastn.ss .,f the M..vement.— Rigors of the (iermau .Militai v .s^yst.ni. — Expatri- ation the Renie.lv. — Am. li. a th.' (/h.-.m Fiel.l.— Peculiarities of th.- C.iman Im i.-m.iu in Aiiiei- ican Society.— Kl.-cti,,n ..f lss7.-l'..litiial Ai-n- ments of the Day.— Ti innipli of the C.vern- ment. — Influence of the laiipi-i..r.~ I lis W-n.ralile Character. -Other German Vet.i.ms, -What ..f the Future?— Character an.l I'la..- ..f the Crown Prince.— His Political Vi.-ws.- .\ nxhl\' ab..nt the Succession. — Announcein.-nt alnuit tie- I'lim-e's Disease. — ARacefor Lit.-, A:.;.iii\- in tin- Imjierial Household.— Death of !-;iii|..i..r William an.l Ac- cession of Frederick III. Th.- X.-w Ci-..un Prince. — His Character and l'nn.i|.l.s Hecline and Death of th.- Kmper.ii-.-.<..i i.,ws .,f the Empress.— Access!., 11 .,f William 1 1.- C.,n. Iii-

Lask.-r he Snb-

LasU

,f Opera-

..f the pain.—

Booiv Twenty

( 'hatter CXLV. — D.iwx op Nationality.

Italy, Ancient and Moilern. — Close of the Na- I poleonic Era. — Period of Incubation. — Career ol Murat. — Congress of Vienna dismembers the |

FIRXH.— IT.ALV.

C.nntry. -Distill, ntion .,f th.- Parts- Resnlts.-f the l;(-voluti..iiary A..;(-.-T of Man not Extinct.— Restorati..ii .1... store.— Beginning of Insurrections. -C Laybach. — Austria must siiboi'dinau

co.vv/.-.vy.s III- V(iiA'Mi:> xv asi> xvi.

Ii,-v.ilt in I'i.Mlmont.— Charl.-s Albnt I.c'ohk.s ];.-	Siv..-ivi-nty i.f the	Pope.— Rome becomes the
f.viil.-ClKU-U-s Krlix ivsion-a. — I'uuish.ii.ni ..i	Capital ..f Ita"v. — Tii	e King enters the City.— In-
thr li.'i.uMirans.-Stitlin..' ..I I.ilMity. - A j.' .if	di-nati..ii lit tlu- I'.in	tiir — K.aini..niral C.mnnl.—
S,-,-i-.I Societies.— Tlir ('ail.cnari iu I'ai li.iilar. -	,, An- \Vc Infallibl,.?	\V.. aiv, iin.lcr C.-itain Cir-
]'rin.i|,l.-s an.l Ritual ..1 tl.r 1 inU-r.-lidali .ns ,.t	ciiiii.-taniTs. — Fiiiaiu-	ial iaiil.ana-sni.-iit ..1 the
lb,- S.„-i,tv Ir. Civil In.vi-nini.iit. - ll li.rniuisa	(;..vriiiim-nt. — M.'asi	ir.s ..1 iiph..l.lin..' lb,. Xa-
K.-v..liili..iiarv IVnlrr. Ma//,iiii an.l V..iiii^r	ti..iial Cn-.lit.— 1!.,.^,.	..1 th.. I'..p.-. -C.,.npl.-ti..n .'if
Italv. il;.j.-.-'t ,,i Ilu- >.Hi,-ty.- -Ar,-,.s>i.,n .if	th.- M..iit C.iiis Tan	ii..l.-liistiliiti..n .,1 th.. X.'U-
CliaVl.-i Alh.rt.— His l.ilHialiMu rxiiiiL'uish.Ml.^	I>..litical(ir.KT.-l-l.M	1.1 in l'..\'all..y.— Th..Cliiir.-h
Insunv.-ti.in .if Y.^iiii-^ Italy. —n.iml.lican Jii-		l'....tiii-.--r:xpiil-i..n ..f til.-
visi.,ns. - Inllii.Mi.-,- ..1 M..//iiii.--I'r..i.'.>ili.m nf	.I.Juits.-" l"il,'.'n,t'i'.!n .	..f Tlhiiiuht an.l ln.ln>try.--
lii..lMTli. - Maiiz..iii. — Cniiiiii-' ..f Cavin-. —	l'ii-.<t S,-i..iilili.- C.iii-i	■.-<,— Til.- I'., p.- niak.-s liiiii-
Cliaii-.-s in 111.. Papal 1 i. .v.-rniii.iil . l'..li.y ..f	wif a rii>,.iuT,-i:iii.	r.'-n.-.- ..I Italy int., Xati..n-
(;r.-..ry XVI. .\.v >i..n ..I Ti-.s I X.— LIUt .1	ality.— l.hiait.T (Vnt.-	iiiiial of til.- Kill'.''.- K.-i-n.—
ir.i|...s"..l til.- ilimvh. l!.v..lts ..1 ls|s.-l;,.j„il,-	.Mania-.'s in tin- I;.
li.-aii .-II. •.•.-..■.-.. lliiiiuMriaii Krv. .lilt i..n ai.l-;	11. .rs Ii.-ath.-^-Outlin.'	-■..1 lIisChaia.-t..-f.-PiusIX.
Italy. --liiv,i-i. .11 ..1 th.. I'lvii.-li.- I'.|.-at ..l CI, ail. ^s	siiipa-.^s til.- Y..ar.s .	.1 I'.-ti-r.— Celebiati.in of hi.s
Allna-t I'.attl,. ..1 N..vara. .\.m-..-.m. .„ .,f Viri,,r	.lul.il.'.,.- Hualh ..f t	he r..ntiir.— Pecci becomes
laiiaiiii.l. His l.ili.Tal riiiirii.l.-s.-MatiTialli.i-	I.r.j XIII. — Hi,s r..ii.	V tJG2-(3.SO

Cii.u'ri;i; CXIA'I. — \"ii n n: Em \xrKi..	CH.\rTi:i; C.\l>\	11. — m	■MBi:nT Jl.
C..n.liti..n ..f Atlair- in l-T'. TaialL-l ..I (..-r-	Aceessi.in ..f Hiiinb.-rl	I. -His	C..r.,iiati.in A,J-
manan.l Italian lliM..ry.-Cliaia.t.r ..f tli.- X.-u-	(Ir.-.ss.- B(-.iiniiinL: ..f .<.„■	ial A,i;iti	ilii.iis. — .\tti-in|,t
Sovi-reign.— (Jpi....-ili.,ii ..1 til.- i;xtr.-ln..- Kel.ill.-	P, a-as.-inal.- tin- Kiii-.'.-	Ov, ilhi	..w ..1 the Miu-
lieans.— Shall th.- .-ar.linian Kin^.l.ini l.-a.l	istry. -Tl„- Ii.-i,i.-li> Cal		..liti.-al Parallels
Italv?— Th,- Ib.iis.- ..f Sav.,v ,an n..t ivlival.-	«illi (..-iiiiany aii.l Fiaii.	■>-. — Wai	It ,«f Partv Soli-
LeKislali.,n auain-t tlu- Cbu'ivh. - AM..-n.l.-ii..y .,f	ilaiity. - F.l.-.li..ii-.,l Is-ii	.— W,al	in,s>,,f P,;;iitical
Count Cav..nr. -His (i.-nin-; an.l r.,li.-y. -Iiilli-	Hi-.-iplin.-. - l;a.li..alisiii	rcMVv.	l.-Al.so Cleri-
culti>-s in bis \Vay.-l'..--ibl.- riaii.-..-Italian Al-	.■i.-iii. -Chan-.- ill the I	'apal p..	licy.-The Pope
lianc,-. — Alarm ..f .\ ii-li ia.- -h.- lun-t mak.- War. -	calls l,.r l',-,iiniaiv .\i.l.	His l;,	■i.i.-.iitati..ns, —
Gri'hcli D',h„;. Strain. -1 b.-lai i. -n- b.-tw.-.-n Aus-	HisTI,.-,.iy ,,1 llM-'linpii.-.	..luii.-nt.	--l'il-.;iiiiia-j.-s to
tria an.l FraiK-e. C..nf.-i.-n.-.- ..f F'l .iiil.i: ns. -	P.iiii.-.— Th.- P..p.-'s A.M	ivss, — .\l	tlair .,1 ill.- /.../'i
Franee deelare.s War. -Be^innin- of Fr,-u,b In-	ddla A, „oc,',c,V,.—( Sliest	ion of	e-M.-n.lin:^ the
va.slon of Italy.-Montebello, Palestr,,, an.l ^la-	Sufirage.— nilhenltyofob	taiiiinga	P..piilarV..t,- -
genta.— .^M,-,-,-ss of the Allies.— Italian Tnsiirii-c-	lieasoning of the EU-etoi	s.— Pr,i|	...>iti..ii l.,r Fiii-

tions. - -Milan tak.-n. - Battle ,,1 .-..llVrin... - vrr.sal .^iillVau'.-.- Ilazar.l of the i:.--cp.-i ini.-nt.—

Ch.inu',- ..I Nap.,l.-.irs Plans.-Ti.atv .,f Villa- I Shall lb.- Vati,-an obev the Law ,,f th,- Stat,-?-

fran.-a. - ni-ap|...intiiiciit <,f the Italians. -C,-ssi,>n | liiipi..v.-ni.-iil .,f tlu- Xati..nal Fiiian.-,-s.-Paiall,-l

(,f \i,-,- aii-l .-^av,.v t.i Fran,-e.— ii,-n.-ial Lain to ' as itii 1 1..- Hi-t. .iv ■ .f the rnil.-.l Stat,-s -Cr,-,lit of

Italy. !-..i,tiniiiii, f tlu- i;,-v.,lnti,.n. -( lari- ' tli.- t ..,v.-in.ii,-nt lis.-s t<. Par.-l;.-s,iii,pti..n -

bal.'li an.l (•.iv.,ur.— IliHi, nit r,.siti,,n ..1 th.- bat- : Pr.is>.,.Italian Sy,iipatlii,-s. Tlie Is.-hia Farth- t,-r. H.- h..l.ls ba.-k tb.- l;,-pnbli.-an M.,v,-ni,-nl.— I (jnake.-lnt.-i nat'i..nal .b-al..n-y al,<.iit Coiitribu- " W,- ar.- Italv." Sai.linia -jiiiis lb,- Two Si, -i- | ti..ns.-P. „-h,-|. ,i t <liai_-,-s C, ,i i iii.ti, .n.-Applioa- lii-s. - Vi,-t,,r i;iiiaiin,-l b,-,..ni.-s Kin-.'.-Triiiinpb j ti,,n ,.f tli.- N,-w \.^A^^ , .|' Snllia.,-.-. -Failure of the

ofth.- Nali..nal Cau.se. -I.a-t Work .,f C.iv..ni.- Mas.-.-s t,,v,,t,-. niasii f Ti.msil in Moilerii

His l),-ith. -The King an.l < ;.,v,-niiii,nt at Tn- i' Xal s -A^,- ,,| th.- l;ail« ay.- ( ,i, -at Change iu

riu. Shall I;,, 111,- b,-,-., Ill, -the Capital? lT.,r.-n,-e S, „ial aii.l In.liisli ial C..n.lil i. .lis. - I b ,w shall the thi- Int.-riii.-.liat.- Sla-j,-. -\-i,t.,r Fiiianii.l an.l ! P.uluaysb.- ..« ii,-.l, mana-.-.l. an.l .-. .ntrolle.l ?— th,- Cliiiivb. S,-b!,.>wi-..-ll.,l-t,-iii C..mpli.ali.,u ' Dilli-ivlil P,-,isi.,ns in Diiren-iit Stat.-s — Pailway again. -War ,.f |s.,i;.-Italy giiiis W-n.-lia- l.aw in Am, -i i, a. -The I'robl, in in Italy.— State Kl„„-li ,,f A-..itation. H,-f,-at i,f liaiibaMi. With- C,,nti-..l. but n..t Slate Maiia-. iii.iit . -'-Ch..l,-ra drawal ,.f l-|,-i„-li Arniv ,l,-iiiaii.l.-.l. F.a.l Sii.-,-,-ss \-iMtali,,u of |ss4.-The Pla^-ii.- in Napl,-- -Ib.w of til, ■ ll.ilians in th,- Fi,-l.l. -Italy trinniplis with shall the Hisa-t.-r b,- avert,-. I ■•— Kin-'s Flan an.l Pr,i--ia. Til.- Fr.-ii.b Army « ilb.lrawn.-Cbar- P.,i„--s Plan. Chanu-in-.- Vi,-« s ,.f 1..-., XIII.— a,-t,-r of til.- (;.,v,-riim,-nt.- C..n.liti.,n of lb.- Pa- i P..s-il.ility ..I I'.ipal F.-in. .val I., th.- T'hit.-.IStates.- pa.-y. ( .ai ibaMi niak.s a Ibi-h lor l;,>m,-, -Is P,-,iin,- in lb.- \'. .linn.- .,1 I'ePr's P,n,e.— Previ- oblige,! t.i siirr.n.l.-r. l;,-tnrn ..f lb.- I-i.-ii.-b ,,ns F.xp,-ri,n,-,s .,1 th,- l',,p,..— His Attitude Armv.-Sp.rv ..f I'rin.-,- I,,-,.p.>l.l. Fn.l ..f lb,- t.iwar.ls Mankind s,,ll,iis. ni,-.ipp,,intment of French Kmi.ire. Abr.,gati..n of the T.-mi.oial the Fri,-n,ls ,,f Fniv.isil ^ullia-.-e.-Klections of

CoXTKyi

ill tlie n 1.1 Ceni Uv Poiu-

i)F voia'ml:

jiute between the Paparx Logic of the Papal Positi'

I.— International ] ces^-ion.-

-The r.una of Parallel <

v.-on,'ilal,lr ])i>- A-e ul

(.nveniiiu-nt.- Ol.l Wo

.V/'	AT/.
Kii ■aliz	h auil Xi	Ital	■ a Blessing, ith Centurie.s Ten.lenries

Boots: Twkxxv-Sixth.— Eastern Euroi^e.

iPTEP. CXLVIH.

Revelati.i ne.sses the II Madame Kn anee. — Keal cijile of Intc

■ (V.s-ack.— AK-xan.ler wit- .11 01 France.— Influence of

Iio.trine of the Holy Alli- II f of the Compact.— Prin-

applied.— Congress of Aix-

la-Chapelle.— Troppau, Laybach, and Yeroni. — Predominance of Russian Influence. — Internal Improvements of Rii---ia,— Cliaiacter of Alexan- der.— Ascendency of AKttii ni. h in Kiii'.p.-. — Tlie Czar becomes despotic— ('(Hi^taiitine tlie Ibir Apparent. — Nicholas takes the Crown. — Deka- brist Insurrection. — Outbreak of the Persian War.— Gain of New Territories.— The Porte pur- chases Pearc—Aliaiis in P.ilaiid.- (onspira.y .,f 1830.-Battl(- nf the F..ll..«i,,u' Vrar.-Mippivs- sion of the IiiMiuv,ti..n.— SiiireiiiiL;> <.f tlu- O.iiii- try.— Pressure of Russia on Turkey.— Relations ,.f Russia and France.— Break of the Franco-Rus- sian Arch— Egyptian Complication. — Western Tours of the Czars.-Plans and Policy of Niclm- ],,s— II,. disc.. vers a Sick Man.— War in the Cau- casus,— .'Sliainyl overtliiown. — The Czar inake-; Deinan.ls of 'the Sultan -Outbreak of the Cii- niean War.— Theater ..f the Conllict, . . . i;:i7-7n4

PER CXLIX.-C

Siiiope —Western A Turkish Successes- Battle of Alma.— Sel ation. — Beginning of

s- War.

ue-.ti..n.— The C.nlli.t ■ n ..f Turkisli Fle.t at .n the Black Sea.- .11 ..f the Russians. — I the Key of the Situ- ege.— Battle of Balak-

lava.— Fpiso.le of the Tight Brigade.— Struggle at Inkerman. — SufTerings of the Allied Army. — Cap- ture of the :\Ialakh.ifr and Redan.— Battle of Tchernaya. — Russians aban.lon Sebastopol.— The Czar brought to Bav.— Tieaty of Peace.-Terms and Con.litionsof S,.ttl..meiil -General Provisions of the Treaty.— Salutary Influences of the Event — Attitu.le of the I'nited States on Private.'!-- ing ■. . . . 705-71-1

Ch.\pter CL. — L.\sT T\v.5 Alex.\nders.

Accession of Alexan.ler 11.— Ref..rms in the Governmental Svstem. — Emancipation of the Russian Serfs.— Polish Insurrection of 1S63.— Mis- fortunes of the Czar's Situation. — Distrust of the

si. .11	\.l,.pt..,l. F.N.vnti.	— A>sa^
der .	f th.- Di	^•.— Scv
ase .	f tie- Nil	ilists.-
dati.	11 with	til.' o,
Proc	amation.	-Tin- 1
cow.	-Danuei	.lis ('..

3hui f R.-pr .— Arr

s a T.'iir	t.. ?il..s-
.' Nil,.li>	-M.'.ve-
ws.-Tli.'	A.-t of
f the M.u	if.-^to.-

Fin;	1 Destruc	i..n ..1 r..i	ui.l.—
P...li	ce.-Diffi,.	,iltv..l th	• W.'-t	■111 Mill
Stan	1 the C.i	.liti..ii <.f	R.,>>i.	. M.'.-t
Tin-	■e E.npe,	,,i,,. — w,	rk i.f	the T
0.1.'		f.f S,-hl..	-•11.111	-;■■- "I'l'

riaii>-Ca>piau Rai >in.-Ten.lencieS

Cii.vrTER CLI.

Br.-aking up o

1S44.— War ■ .Tii p.. «.■!■. ^ Druses an.l Cretan IiiMU Hol.l on Kill Loss of Iiit.'i

Invasi sault . tion .. chael

a.l.Ts ,.f th.	Caii~e. -.Massacre of
I„'ll..n,s-T	..' <'ii.-is breaks at
	a X.'vv (T..vernment
■CJll ..f < It	!...-( ■..n.stituti..n of
,.• r..rt.' nil	, I'.-vpt.- The West-
ti..n,--W. ak	■iiing of the Tiirki-h
'.- bu.— ia 1.	-.■..iii.'S Aiigr.'.-sive.—
Ill th.' i:a>	.'in Oue^ti..n.-M.;.s-
jaiii-^t th.' <	hri^tiaiis.-Th.' Czar
.s -Th.' L.	1.1. .11 I'rotocol.— Rus-
.ir. Plans ..	Invasion.-Russians
— r.atl.' of	Tundja Brook.-Re-
-iaiK fr..iii I	levna.— Check of the
	a Pass.— Secon.l As-
-The Place	besiege.l.— Capitula-
-< ■anipaign	of Grand Duk.' Mi-
-Ears taken	bv the Ilussian-s.—

* 1^ M

(■(>yTi:.\Ts or voia-mes xv axd xvi.

.11 in PJr.lin.int.— Cliarlcs Allii

Kr])ul.lic-ans.-Sti(lin-

]'iipo. — Rome lic-'omes the

liar.— An- W,- Iiifullible V-\V,

tlir M.iiit r.nis Ti

Cluirlus All.en.-Hi

llun.Mi-ian I:-

laiiia-.s ill ll,r i;.,yal Fainily.-Victor Kman- ■Ks I>.atli.-()iitliii<'..f Ills Chanirte-r.— Pius IX.

ivasioiinltlu' FiviH-li.-I',r,-at ..f Cliarl.s I'.aUlr of Xnvara.-Ac.vssicn nf Virlur .-His I.ilHTal rrinriiilrs. -Mat. 'rial li.i-

CXLVI.— VicT.iK E

('ii.vi'Ti:i: CXIA-IL- III

Italy?— Tlie lI.Hise Lcjiislatinn a-ainst O.unt Cavuur.-His (;,-n ciilti.-s in his Way.-I'ns- liaiuM-, — Alarm 1.1' Au>liia.- Crhhdi A./..,v.-.'Strain.-.l

France .leclaves W:

the (■liiirrh.-.\>r

.Iilir,,l I'aiall.ls

il-niiia-.-s to

■s A.Mi-.-~s-.\irai|- ..I til.' /..

rh 111- <l}!<, I).

Xati.iiial Fiiiaii-.-.-. — I'arall.

II.- Ih.Ms l.ark

W,.- an- Ilalv

lie,.„ne.~ Kiii-.'.-Trinni|.h ti -Last \V..rk nl rav.iir.- ' >!

■s.-Tlie I>.-l,ia F;

Tiaiisit in Mo.iei-n

win. -War ..f

.\iii.ii.a.--Th.

;iMi. Wilh- (■

H.Tlille in the V.

I'etel-'s Penc-i'. -Previ r..l.e.-Mis Attitud.

Mankiii.l s..ftens.-I>isa

French Finpire, --A1

•'■•^3.?

.^M3 ?► »

#.% * ^ *

CoyTKXT-

ISSC— Earthquake in the Riviera.— Interuatii bonds of Italy and tiennany.— Tin' Biuk

1SS7.— Juhilee of the Pop.-.-ivr n.'ilal.h.

pute betwrii th.' I'ai.a.-ynihl tlu- i .nvrniiii.a. Logic of tlie I'apal I'.-ithih — Imp, i-~il.ilily ..f

OLUMKS XV

Sl> XVI.

al ] cession.— The Kingdom of Italy a Blessing.—

.f I raiallel of Fifteenlli and Nineteenth (■enturies.-

s- ' Al'c of CentraHzation,— (ieneml Tendencies u\

- (Hd Wnrld and Xe\v,-]iau-ers of Ova-ni-ani

ROOTv TWKXXV-SirslTH.— EASTKRN EUROPE.

Chapter CXLVIII.	— Ai. M.AS	;xanih:i: I.	AMI
Revelation of th,. ( Madame Kruden.r.-I >, ance.— Real Si^Miilir mc-	,1 F, ..f tl	i.— Alexandt .nr,..-Intlu( of tlir Hoi e Compact.	r wit- • Alii -Prin

ci))le of Inteifeience applied. — Congress of Aix- la-Chapelle. — Troppau, Laybach, and Yerona. — Predominance of Russian Influence. — Internal Improvements of RusMa.-rharactei of Alcxan- dta—Asrend.-ncv of Motteinirh in Kniop,.. -The Czar bcomcs ,i,■spotic.-Con^tarltin,■ the Ihir Ajiiiarent. — Nicholas lakes the Ciow n.— I icka- brist Insurrection. — Outbreak of the Persian War.— Gain of New Territories.— The P.. it.' j.iir- chases Peace.— Affiiirs in Poland.— Cou-pir.iey of ISSO.-Battles of the Following Yeai .->npi.res- sion of the Insurrection. — Sufierin-.- of tla- Coun- tiy.— Pressure of Russia on Turkey.— Relations of Russia and Fiance.— Break of the Franco-Rus- sian Arch — l-'.gyi'tian Complication. — Western Tours of the Czais.— Plans and Policy of Nidi..- las.— He discovers a Sick 3Ian.— War in the Cau- casus.— Shamyl overtlirown. — The Czar makes Demands of 'the .'^ultan — Outbreak of the Cil- meau War.— Tiieater of the Conlli.'t. . . , (,07-704

Cjiai-tei; CXLIX.— Ciii.Mi-AN Wai;.

Essence of the Eastern i lu,.sti,,n.— The Conflict on the Iianube.-Destructi..n of Turkisli Fleet at Sinope — Western Armies on tlie Black .Sea.— Turkish Successes. — Position of the Russians. — Battle of Alma.— Sebastopol the Key of the Situ- ation.—Beginning of the Siege.— Battle of Balak- lava — Eiusode of the Light Brigade.— Stiaiggl.' at Inkerman.— Sufl^erings of the Allied Army.— Cap- ture of the Malakhoir and Redan.— Battle of Tchernaya. — Russians abandon Sebastopol. — The Czar brought to Bay.— Ti.aty of Peace.— Terms and Conditions of Settlement —General Piovi>ions of the Treaty.— Salulaiy Intlueneesof the F.veut.— Attitude of the rnit.^d States on Piivateer- ing ■ ■ • • 705-714

Chapti^r CL. — Last Twc) Alexanders.

Accession of Alexander 11.— Reforms in the Governmental Svstem. — EinancJi)ation of tie- Russian Serfs.— Polish Insurrection of l.'^r,3.— Mis- fortunes of the Czar's Situation.— Distrust of the

del-	,f the 11	ly Seveiitv of till' ('zaraiel C,,ur-
.lali, Pro,	■ f th.- Ni 1. «itb	li'ili>ts,-TI,.''y pi,, p.,.-,' an .\c,,,iiim,,- the lo-.veniinent.- Th,' Imperial .-Til,- C/ar makes a T,,nr t,. M,,s-
<■!,«	1 'an-i	,,iis Cimlitions of the .b.uiiiey.—
	ax aii.l	Ii.'.a.Ience of tlu' Nihiii>t ^b.ve-
mi'ii	.-P, IS	■eiitiou of the Jews.— The A,t of
i.ia,	■— A-t,	111. ling Character of the Mauif.-t...—
	■ ■iih-ssf	.1- Ib.linary Criminals. —I'li.-ii.lly Ke-
latio	IS of tl	■ ( 'zar an.l tlie 1 o'rniaii i''.m[i.'|-.,r. —
Fnu	1 Destiu	■ti.,n ..f P.,lan,l. — i'.p,„'li ..f Spi.'s aii'l
P,.li Stan	e.-I'.lt	.■iilty <,f the W.'-t,'iii Mill,! f. iin.l.-r- n.liti,.ii of Rii.-Ma.-M.'.'liim .,1 the

Cii. B	TTI ,'ak	R	CLI.-	th	IK M ■ .bmiz	vx (If Ti:i: V^ iri.'s.-.Ml.aiii.	VST. 1 In-
Rev.	■ti,,i	;;	-dthe,' -1,,-a.l.	i;.'	Voll,-.- ..f th,'	l;.".:inniii- ..1 i CaiKe.- :\Iassa	ireek ■re of
S.i..	-Th		Philh,'	.'11	.s.-Tl	.' Cii-is brea	<s at
Nava f.ir	Z	-	Fstabli		lent ..1	....-Constituti.	n of
1S44. em 1	— W		.,f tl..' ^Mll p,	';;	t.' will	F,;vi.t.-Tlie <)tt..man Emp	Vest-
Dnr-	■> ai	.1	:\Iai..n	1.'	,--!;, .11	naiiia cmstitu	e.l.-
Civt. I [..,1,1	n Ii	i:	lo.l.e.-	Ui	\\\ ak.	ning of the Ti .-..iiM'S Aggros	rkish
Lo.-s	if I	It		ti	.' FaM	•in (.^lestion.-	M OS-
lem	)iitr		•s a'.;ai	-t	th.' (■	iristians.— The	Czar
dem;	n.ls	R	',lr.'s-. -	-T	le Lol	don Protocol.-	-Rus-
sia vv	11 a	1	... War.	-1	ans of	Invasion.— Ru	sians
on tl	e 1	ai	iil..'.-l	>.a'	le of	Tundja Brook.	-Re-
puis.	of t	1.	Rii^-ia	IS	rom P	evna.— Check	.f the
Inva-	i'-.n.	-			Shipk	a Pass.-Secon	1 As-
sault		'1	y,i.| ■	■li.	Pla.'c	l„.si,.._...,l. — Cai	itula-
tion	,f 1		,aii.-C	nil	'•11'-'"	.f (Tiaii.l I Ink	Mi-
cliael	in	X	sia — K	lis	taken	by the Russians.—

,VUW-«-***>j

20 t()\Ti:\Ts nr Vol.lMi:^ AT .l.V/' .V17.

Progressof the Inva^^ion.— St., ruling niSlu-iiovn. ^ nily.— Kiiibarrassnii-nt ol Orcat Britain nlative Breaking ol tiie Turkisli IVwer.-Aniiistiev.— Thereto.— Rebellion of Arabi Pasha, Whai ~hall Settlement enfonva bv Russia Tlie i ireat l'..w- be his Punishment?— Questions Mil. mill. -I by ers interfere.-Treaty of San St.-lan.. an.l Con- tlie Court. -W..rk ..1 !..•« Walla.-.- al Cuslan- gressof Bcrhn.- -Final Con. lili..ns..i S,. til. -III. •nt.— i tinoj.le — Tli.- S.Tvian l;ail«a>- (■..'a|.li.ati..n. Eastern R..um,-lia ..r-anizc.l. Il..|..-..l lb.- Kef- ' Relapse- ,, I tli,- Turkish ( ...v.-rnm.iit. Th.- I'.ul- ormati..n ..i Turkev. Im|...ssibilji v •■( l;.-i..rm.— -ariaii Qu(-sli..n.— Alexau.ler .,1 llall.-ubm- raised Chan- s in tl..- Su.-,-,-ssi..u. — Kri.l ..1 Ab.lul- t.. th.- Tbr..n.-. -Ih- is ab.lu.l.-.l an.l n-sl.ire.l.- Aziz.- .fu.li.-ial lii.iuiiy int.. tin- .\lann.-r ..1 his M,-na.-.- ..1 Turkish 1 lismembernu-nt.—C.nleren.-e Death. -Ae<-essi..n ..1 Mura.l \'. Ab-liil 1 laiiii.l ..I C..uslantin..i.le.-(_h-n.-ral Vi>-w ..1 the Kastern Il.-Questionuf the Paym,-nt ..1 th.- War In.l.-m- i Sitiiali..n 7JJ-7-1U

BOOIs: TWENTV-SEVENTH. — MIXOR ^>wlERIC^X STATES. Cn.U-TKK CLIL— DoMINlnx <„.- Caxad.V. |...s,-.l.-A,ln,inistrati..ns of Hufferin an.l I.orne.-

(ieo.-r-i .hie-il Positi..ii ..i (■in-i.li -l'r..vin.-.-s I'i^i^'"" '•' P'-htieal Parties. -The .MaeUonald

. I ,V I.-, 'i . y^,. 1,1 ^1 ,, ,.|,j ,i|- I . u.lilisiii ii Miiii-li>.— Iiit.-mal Pevelopment of the Domin-

. ■■ .. t" tit .!;s'..f tl.- S -1.- Its \1...r '"" liistituii.. US an.l Features of Quebec. — Mon-

_SI-1I ('- -.1- Ii.- 1 .nil .ir Fn-'lisli'— tr.al ami her I'ulilir Structures.— Sketch of Mon-

F-tl.i'l.- ..l' liii.' -'l'..lili' il |ii'vi-i..n's~..f the "''''' '""^ '"^''" ''"'"'^'''"'S-— Ottawa.— Franchise

,.' '^. , .' '.' f (I 1 1 f '''ill "' IsS'i. -Iiiilians raised to Citizenship. —

b""' 'i;, i;!',nl'':ih' h.' ':ni:'ti.,n'"'|-,'"m-ii ^"- ■■^ "- '--' l:ehelli..n.-Kx.-,utu:,n of the

r.,s.--,.:i,sinAm,.n.-a. t aus.-s ami Is.,.- . ,f th,- '-''■'• ^'-'y'' "' Ins Uf.- - h.-Mtme ..I the Fr.n.h .-iml III. Han War. Attilii.l.- .,f Cana.la I' i-b. ry i,)ii.->l |. m b.t n .-.n C anada an.l the I iiitcl

l.-s. -T.-mptati.,n t.. Sniii-Ldin-.' an.l Contra- 1.1 Tra.le.-lirouth ..f l;eeii,r...itv, . . 74.>-7G4

h liillm-n.' Chaii<_'.-s.

17111. — Chur

CnAi>Ti-:i{ CLIII. — .Mi:xiro.

Growth of Cana.la.— Relations with the T"nit.-.l I)i(i,-rent Conditions of Civilization bev.m.l the

States.— Rebellion of 1837.— Allair ..f th<- Co.,- Ki,, ( ;,:i„Je. — Plantiie.' of Kuiopean ( i.,vernment Im,.- l>iv.-r>itv ..f Int. -1. -St am..ii-.' th,- Caiia- I j,, .M.-xi.-o. --A.lministiati..ii ..i M.-ii.l..za Kill..

,hans S.-pa,ati.,n ..1 tli<- P,.,vii,.-.-s l'..lili.-al ,,f th.- Vieer..vs. I nt.i nal 1 mpi ..v.ui.-nts ..1 th.- Quarn-lsand th.ir < )i i;iin.-Cai.-.r .-1 Sir l-iamis [ C.,Mi,try.- S.,.' iai 1 iivisi..iis .,f th.- P.-.,|,l.-.-l'.,li,y

Head.— ComiiiL' ..l I... id Hurham llis lla.li.al ,,f Spain with K.sp.-.t I., lu-r Am.-riean Prov-

Methods.— A Xiiliial l;.-v..liiti.iii pi.ip.i-.,!. Pin- [,„.,. i;ir,.,.t ..f th.- Napi.l.-.iiii.- Wars.— Sugfies-

ham resigns nn.l.-r l'i.,--iii.- Th.- s,„|,„.| ;„ \]\^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ i,„i,.j„.||,i,.||,.,. InHu.-in-,. an.l Work .if

Favor.— True I .1.111.1. -r ..I III.- li..mini. ill. l;i-,-,if u„i,].n, ami M..i-.-l.is.-C)\ .-ithiow .if the Xa-

the Popular -\s-.-ml.ly. \.lmiinMiali..ii ..i L,,r.l ti..iial,s.- I!.-sl..rati..n .,1 Spanish Aiithoritv.-

Klgin. -Th- A.t.ii liii..ii.-(iii.Mi.iii ..f a S.-at .if M.^xi. an Kev..lnti..n an.l War ..1 1 ii.l.-p.-n.lence.-

<'"V'-n -nt.-iitta-fta.li.i-.-ii. Pn ,j.-. t ..1 iiiiil iii-j p,,,,,,,,, ,,f p;,,,,,,,,,. Saiila Anna aop.-ais.-ltur-

alllli.- Pi-.iviii. -,-.-. liL.uth .if Piililii- S.-iitim.-iit l,i,i;. i„ Kxil,. - N.-wCiiiiMiliiti 1 l.s.'4 — l-;.-L'in-

in 1 .iv.r .,1 rniiiii. .-li.iy ..I tli.- l.-ioaii lina- ,,i„^. ,,1 l',,|,ti.Ml K.-v.iliiti. .ii-.- .-paiiish Att.-ni]it

Knlar-.-.l S,-al.-.- -.\. t ..f ls.,7. Aiialy.Hs .,t th.- ,1,,,,,-y. -Th.- ,s...-,.,„l C in>titnlion.— Hostility of

G..v.-iiim.ntal Sy-t.-m. .\na|i.-.-i.s with th,- 'W-xa^ T.-xaii War an.l ImlepemU-nce— Santa

rnit.-.l -lat.-M -Pi.ivi-i.iii l.ir th.- A.lmisM.iii ,,1 \„„^, .,,,;„ ;„ p,,„,-r -T.-xas anm-x.-l to the

N.-w Pi.iMn,-,--<.,„l,,„- .it 11,.- lanailiaii T.-rri- ,■„:,,„, .,„,., _ .

h.-iit. <J,i.-sti..ii ..1 F.i,r.,p,aii ln\a-i.,n.-(;r,-at

11 th,- Pritish Km- l.-,„,i,-.- ii,ak.-< War — Aniiiins

pire.— Views i.f l'...uiiii. it. — His. ii.-^simi ..f Imperial i..-r..r. Caiitiii,- ..I I'm bla I

Federation.— I>illi.-ulti.-s ,.1 ih,- Svst,-m pi..- .M,;nar,hv ,-slalili-h,-,l --St,irN

pr,-s	-.-l..i	y.Au	,- .il	<•;„,
thi-	Cnit.-.	1 St;	I'l,-'.'-	- .Mi-
si..n	fr.mi	th,-	11. .1	ll.- 1
the	Futun	- St;	It us .	.f C;

CoyTKXTS OF VOLUMES. XV AXD XVI.

Juarez restored to Authority. — Final BanisUmout of Santa Anna.— Reelection of Juarez.— His Death. — His Influence in Mexican AfTaus. — Ad- ministration of Lerdo. — Hostility of the Church.— Insurrection of 1875. — Diaz Leader of the Insur- gents.— Concession of the Government. — Period of Quietude. — Difficulties on the Rio Grande. — Gonzalez elected President.— He is succeeded liy Di iz.— Growing Sympathies between Me.\icii and the United States, 7G4-771I

Chapter CLIV. — South Amp:kica. Spain is supplanted by England in the New AVorUl.— Geographical Position of the Spanish- American Possessions. — Slow Growth of Civiliza- tion in South America.— The United States of Colombia.^Union with Quito and Venezuela. — Independence of Granada. — Republican Govern- ment established. —Revolutionary Period. — Tre.aty with the United States.— Progress of the Last Decade. — Primitive History of Venezuela. — Dec. laration of Independence. — Epoch of the Civil Wars. — Politic.il Revolutions.— First Notice of Ecuador. — Spanish Yoke thrown oflT.- Foreign AVars and Domestic Insurrections. — In-taliility of Political Structure.— Peru.— Story of Pizai re- Great E.Ktent of the Country.— Loyalty of tin- Peruvians. — Bolivia becomes Independent.— Com- mon Aspect of South American History.— Afiair of the American Ships.— Castilla and San Ra- mon.— .Adoption of Constitution. — .\ge of Polit- ical Violence. — Brazil. — Early Discoveries on the Const.-Primitive Commerce —Colony of Rio de Janeiro — Portuguese Colonies fall to S]iani.— Evil Consequences in Brazil. — The Dutch in South America.— Brazil goes back to I'nrtngal —

Transfer of .Seat of Government. — Rrazil recfive the Fugitive Brangancas. — The Constitution mod Separation of Brazil from Portugal. - Countrv an Kiupiiv.— l),,m IVdro I.-

fied.- The I War Trou) dro 1 Thivi

Fin:!

Alii

Spirit and Accomplishments of the ]Om|ieror. — He visits the United States and Europe.— Rail- way Development. — Establishment of Steamship Lines with North America. — Famine of 1878.^ Struggle with Slavery. — Brazilian Plan of Emanci- pation.— Legislation against the Roman Church. — Establishment of Civil JIarriage.— Cataclysm of 1889. — The Empire overthrown. — Banishment of Dom Pedro and his Family. — Proclamation of the Brazilian Republic. — Place and Importance of Ar- gentina.— First Notices of the Country. — Vice- royalty established. — War with (ireat Britain. — Revolution of 1812. — Administration of San Mar- tin.—Transfer of the Capital.— Las Heras Presi- dent.— Independence guaranteed by Foreign Powers- — Ascendency of Ro-as. — His Tlieory of I ioM'iuinent. — His Downfall. — Civd Commo- tions.— Course of .Affairs in the Seventh Decade. — Greatness of the Arg ntine Territory. — Recent Political Changes. — Parallel between the English and Spanish Peoples. — Epoch of Railway Devel- opment.—Election of 1880.— Settlement of the Chilian Boundary.— Area and Statistics.— Educa- tional Progress. — Geographical Position of Chili. — Her Extent and Physical Character.— Primitive History. — Outline of Events to the Present Time. — Promise of the Republic 779-798

BOOIv XWEMTV-EIGHTH.— ORIEXTAL NATIONS.

Chapter CLV. — China.

Obscurity of Eastern History.— Falsi' llistorii-al Standards.— Our Earliest View of the Chinrsi- Empire and People. — Yu the Great.— Dynasty of Chow. — Dynasty of Tsin. — Chinese Wall.— House of Han— First Contact of the Western Nations with China.— Tartar Inroads.— Christianity intro- duced.—Genghis and Kublai Khan.— Great Fam- ine of Fourteenth Century.— House of Ming. — Invasions of Mantchu Tartars.— Tartar Dynasty establislied.— Interest of the West in Chinese Af- fairs.—British Embassy at Pekin.— Napier at- tempts to open Communication- with Chinese Coasts. — The Opium-trade and the Sequel.— De- .struction of the Opium at Canton. — Declaration of War. — Canton bombarded. — Further Conquests.— Chinese purchase Peace.— Opening of the Ports.— Treaty negotiated with the United States.— Ex-

tension of Foreign Intercoursc.-Kenewal of Dif ticulties with Great Britain. — Local War at Hong Kong. — Sending out of British Squadron.— Canton bombarded. — Question of conferring with the Emperor. — New Treaties with Fore-gn Powers. — Continuation of the Troubles.— Lord Elgin in- vailes the Country.— Battle of Pa li-kao.— De- struction of the Summer Palace. — Chinese Re- gency.— Burlingame in China.— His Great Work with the Government. He goes Abroad as Chi- nese Amljassador. — Tientsin Massacre. — Story of the Anglo-French War. — Career of Gordon. — Rebellion in Yun-Nan.— The Dowager Em- pres.ses — Break in the Alantchu-Tartar Line. — As- cendency of Li Hung Chang. — Establishment of Chinese Embassy at Washington.— Formalities of the Occasion.— Question of Chinese Immigra- tion.— Nature of the Conditions on the Pacific Coast.— Political and Social Aspect of the Issue. —

I'nju.		.IS ail Ar-nni.ii	.^TIm. A
Suiiiii	;irv	ot"C..n.liti..i,>, ;	n.l 1T...|,

CnXTi:XTS OF VolAMIlS XV AM) A'lV.

iT.ity,^ ,.,1...,. ,,i Au-lralia.— Expl

Mi:;'-lS ]iaiu|.i. r.- C..l..ny .,i i;,,t:

.■ouv.T. (■..!.. nizaiinu ..f

nalia, aii.l Nr'.v Z,-alan.l.

ClIAITKUCI.VI.— IaPAX.

ples.-I.ui,.i,-n.y ..I .Ia,.a,„ .>■ ll,M..ry.- tiuns ,,1 (lu- (■ivati..ii Mvtl i.al \:i...r],. iX<U; ..I l|„. Kir.-t I"..|.iilali..i,s. .Iiinii.u T. Bii.Ml,i<iii iriln..hi<v.l. l!,-imnn- .■! I-.' C'llMuMis ail I Ili<r..v,ri.-. U\<,- ,.1 tlu^ l Faiuilir.s-Slni-'l- ..I 111.' .Iai.an.>.- I'li Pow,-r of tlir Va-ai^.-rMaMi-^liiiH-nt .S■A..,;..„<,^•-lllva^i..^- -l Kiil.lai Klian.- of tiK- Sixtr.iitli f.iiliny. Wais with ( liiiia.— Yoilu ),,-.-..„i,.s til.- Capital l;,lati..ns..t th.- A[i- ka.lo aii.ltli.- Sli.,.jiiii.-l-iist (■..nil,-. ti..ii ..f W.-i- cm Nali..iw u itli .Ia|.aii. i:ia..f lV,M-.-uti..ii<.- I>ivi>i..iis ..I .lapaii,-.. S,,. i,lv.-i:-i.i..iia-.- au.l Tyraiiiiy.-S,„ial (■.in.liti..ii ..t Japan t,l ll.-^iu- niii- ..f I'l.-s.-iit Century. \V..ii.l. i iiil I'i...i;u->^ in

Civil War of ISii:;.- TiinmpU ..f Xationality.— Exr..ll.MU-c of Japan. ■<.■ Iii>plav at Ani.,ri,;an CViitrmiial-Kisi- of tlu- Nali,.n -F.ii niati.m of tin- Now Imp.-iial C.nMituti..n.-C..n.lili. .iis an- te.v.I.-nt I., til.' K\cnt. A«ak.iiiii.' ..1 .-tat. <- niaiisliip.->tal.' ..f tlu- .lapaii. .-.• Mln.l al :\lia.Il<.- of ri.->.-iil C.-ntuiv. (i,ii,ki,.-s ..t th.- r.-o:,|,- to Assiniiiatr -Stimulus ..f l-..i.i-ii Intetrouis,-.- Ab.iliti..n of Feu.lalisni. -AM,n.l,n.-y of Young Men -Imperial I'r..j,-rt ..I th.- New Ktame of Government. -Esial.lislim.-iil of tli.- (;,.,ro-:„.— Imperial Proelamation. The Tn^een Revolu- tion—I-Mucational an.l ln.lnsiii.,1 Cn.liti.ins.^ Analvsisof the C..iiMitiiii..n.-Th.- laup.a..r an.l his Place in th.- .-tal.-. Ili-jhls an-l lHUies of Suhjerts.-Tli.- ln,ii.-,ial Di.l rai.ill.l with MaLMia Chaiia. r..u.is <.i tie- T«.. !!..„,->- Iiu;i.-s.,l Mini-tiv au.l C. ,.in. il -C..im-. ..f Law

•f Hart.iL' and \V..rk ..f Van- 11.1. W.-M Aus-

- W.i.U 111.- Au-

.\[it,h.-ll -I!.-

Chaia.-t.-r .if

.s -Iii>. ..v.-rv

. With.lia-.val

an.l A-.-iieul- Im- C..l..nies.-

Ili.ulty ..fp. n-

1..1W ..I l.xp.ii.iuuiv - t> - i:x.ell.-ii.-.- ..I the 1 Japan, . . sl;i-s;2

CiiAi'Tr.i: CLVII.— Ac-TK.A

I.al.- Ii.-vel..i.ui.-nt ..f An-Ii.ilia plant. -.1 Civili/ati.iii. A. Kama-. ^ |

su.h .<lal.-s Sympathy l,.-Hv.-.ii .\u-ii.i!i,i an,

Aiii.-ii.a. -\uMiahaii Display al C.nleiinial Kx

p..-iti..ii -I-lau.l ..r ('..iitin.-nt'^-Ai.-a ..f th.

(•..untiv. li.ii.-ial Chaia. t,-r. -Th.- I'aits hette

kn..wn.'-l'nn.-ipal M.,nntains.-.\,i-.tialian I;iv

ers.-.\uml..-r an.l Cliaia. t.-r ..f th.- I.uk- s.-

Climati.- C..ii.litioii- Vaiiate.n. ..f Teiiii.. latui

an.l liainlall .\iiimals..f Australia. Marsupial

in I'arti.ular. AuMiahan I'.ir.ls -l;i,-hne>s an.

Vari.-ty of V.-j.-tahl.- i.if.-. (iiains an.l Fiuits

Ili.stririuti..ii ..1 (...1.1- ( liaia.ter..f th.- Mm.--^.-

Tlie In.Ii-jeii.,ns Ka,-.- -I'er-^onal ChaiaUei i.^ti.

of the Natives. -Maiiiu-is an.l Cirs|.,nis -Hu.h- Fmaneipalh.n

ness ..f the Ah..ri-in.-s. Th.-ir Pa.-itie T'isp,.-i. l.y rniv.-r.^al

tion. — MarriatreCn.si..nis. — Fii>t K.ir..pean Kuoul- Kra, . . .

oiStuail. Kiil.-ii.ii~.- ..f Biirk.- an.l AVilLs.-Tlie I-xp.-.liti..ii iii-aniz.-.l.-Pi..-_-i.-ss ini.i the Inte- ri..i.- iH-aih ..f the Lea.K-is.-lU-velation of the (■..nliiient. - Kxi..-.lition ..f Waihurton an.l C.ssc- -Sk.-t.h of Xeu- s.mth \Vale.s.-Its His- torical r)evel.,i,ment.-(>ullin,- ,,f the IIi>t..ry .if

menl.-l'olilieal Phenomen.i of the Country.- Imbi.iglio of LS:;:;. -Question of Free Tia.le.- Skelch of Queen.-^hnuL— Product of CioI.I — (.)ut- line of Civil (i.ivt-rnment.— Extent of South Au-tiaha -( iiara. t.-raii.lC..ii.Iiti.,ns,,f Ih.-Cuu- tiy -I;.-iuainiii-4 Pfviii. .- ..I .\ ii^ti .iha- ln^tltll- tl.'.iis au.l Stiu.lni.s .a" .M.-n.,.ui lu- -Skel.-li ...f .Sy.ln.-y. -Th.- riii\.-,>ity. -A.U-laide -Its Buil.l- iii-j- an.l Knll■lp^i^.■~ Tasmania.— (jeneial Con- .liii.-u ..I III.- .\u-tialian Provinces —Relations of (■..l.iiiial an.l II. .lu.- < i. in .-i uni.-nt - ' >u,->ti..ii ..f F.-.l.-iati..ii IVMv.uii.n .-l ll,.- P. 1.- -I'au.ity

.\n-ii.ilians-KNt. nt ..i th.- C..n,mi-i..- -Vi.-l.I..f ...iM -l'i..,lu. I .if \V,„il-i„.ii,-r,il Inil.i-tiial I>.-

v.-l..pni.-nt C li.l with th,- A.Mati.s (lin-tion

..I ( h.-ap I.al.or -l.ans i .-JatiuL' P . Chin.-se Imiui- <..Tali,.n -To.uM.. wiili th.- H<.iii.- ( ;,iv.-i iiiu.-nt -

siJl

i: CLVIIL— CoMLi-

111 ih.- IIi~t..iian -Lea.I

IIl>|.i|V.-.\|,

uh.-ii

1 -Lea.IiuL' Truths ht to 1..- Free -The Human 111 Emau(-i|>ation.-Evil.s of '.-ini.-i.His Theory of Pater- inaleil to Social Forms. — He Necessity of Toleration.— nan. — t'niversal Citizenship :i..ii.— IL.pe of the GoWen sii-.'-S6-i

List or Illustratioxs, \\)LUMiis X\' axd XM.

Fronti:

Washin'gton, 40

s CiTV 4:;

44

PoRTRur OF Lincoln, . . Ueaii-Piece fok United

James Mjnroe,

FiiOXT View of the Cmm The White House, Wami

Jean Lafitte,

JIarqits De Lafayette 45

John Ql-jncy Adams, 47

Andrew Jackson 49

Daniel AVebster, 50

Black Hawk, 51

Osceola, 5:)

The New Patent Office, Washington, ... 55

JLaRTIN A'aN F.IREN . . 5t)

Kverolades of Florida — Land of the Sem-

Ai.exanderH. Stephens, ,

:Ar(

Wi

m Henry Harrison,

Bc.nker Hill Monu.ment, tid

MoR.MON Emrikants in the Desert, (.7

Fall op the Alamo GO

Samlel F. B. Moh^e, 70

James F. Poi k 71

Capti'RE of Mexican Batteries r.Y Osptain

May, 7:!

Fke.mont in the Rocky Molntains 75

General Taylor Com.mandino at Bcena

Vista, 70

Bombardment of San JcAX D'L'lloa 77

WiNFiELD Scott, 78

JIiNERS Of Forty-nine, i<2

Adventurers en route Overland to Cali- fornia, 8:i

Smithsonian Institution, - ... 84

Zachary Taylor 85

Henry Clay SO

Millard Fili.moke, S7

Kane and his Co.mi'anion.s in the Arctic P^e-

GIONS '^0

John C. Calhoun 00

Franklin Pierce, 91

San Francisco and Bay 92

Walker before HIS E.XECUTioN, 93

Stephen A. Douglas, 95

James Buchanan Ofi

Salt Lake City, 97

Landing of the Atlantic Cable, 9s

Sam Houston 99

Washington Irving, 99

.VuRAiiAM Lincoln

Pe.moval of Troops from For

Fort Sumter

Flag of the Confederate .Sta

P^iRTREss Monroe

Jefferson Davis,

Guarding Bridge over the 1 The San Jacinto slopping ti William H. Seward, . . . . Battle of Fort Donels(.in, . Surrender of Fort Donei>o> Battle of Monitor and Mer

iEORGE B. :McClella

Robert Edward Lee,

Battle of Malvern Hill

Stonewall Jack.son in Battle, . . Struggle at the Bridge at Antiet

Ambrose E. Burnside,

Federal Gun-boats Passing A'icksuur(

(iRANT and PeMBERTON — CaPITUI.ATIO Vl. KMU-RG,

Tearing up a Rmlwav,

George H. Thomas

Battle of Lookout ^Mountain, .

Attack ON Fori- Sumtek

Joseph Hooker,

P>attle OF Chanceli.orsville, . . . George (t. Meade,

Pickett's Charge at (^ Bailey's Dam on Red L

FTr\

KG,

II Johnston

James P. M, Piiei Sherman's Marc JIeeting of Sher

David li. Farr\gut

Destruction of the .\lbe.marle, "The Man ON Horseback," . . . Battle of Spottsylvania Court-house,

Death of General Stuari,

Philip H. Sheridan

Sheridan's Arrival at Cedar Creei Explosion of the .Mine before P:ite, Surrender of General Lee

24

LIST OF JLLUSTHATIOXS. volumes XV and XVI.

General Lee taking leave of his .Soldieks, lti4

Salmon P. Chase, liio

Assassination of President Lincoln, .... 1(57

Last Houk of Bohtii, . . KiS

Tomb of Lincoln, Si'iiiNOFiEi.D, Hiii

Andrew Johnson, 170

Review of the Union Army at AVashinotun, 171

Down THE Yi'KON, Alaska, 173

Ulysses S. Grant, 177

Central Paoific Railway, Sierra Nevada, . 17.S The Joint Hioh Commi.-^sion in Session, . . . ISl

Burning of Cmt-AGO, ISi'

Horace Greei.ev, 1S4

Attack on Pe.vce C'ommi.ssionehs hy Moducs, 1S.5

Charles Sumneh, 1S7

I\L\iN BciLDiNG, Centennial 1■',\IM^ITI0N, . . ISS

Independence Hall, IH'J

JIemorial Hall, C'entennial Exi'hsition', . . litO Battle of the P.h; Horn— Custer's Death, . 191

Rctherford B. Hayes, 194

PiTTSBLRG Riot, 195

Launching a Life-boat, 199

James A. Garfield 203

James G. Blaine, i'05

Assassination of President Garfield, . . . 1.'06

Che.ster a. Arthur, -07

Robert T. Lin( oln l'08

Thomas A. Edison 211

East River Bridge

General William T. Sherman, . . . Lieutenant-General Piin.rr' H. Sheri

Ghover Cleveland,

WiNFiELD S. Hancock,

John A. Logan,

.'U

Thomas A. Hendricks, 226

Samuel J. Tilufn, 220

Henry Ward Beecher, 227

Morrison R. AVaite, 229

RoscoE Conkling, 230

Earthquake at Charleston, 232

Bkn.iamin Harrison, 237

Views IN THE City of New York, 240

Old Federal Hali 242

Sub-Treasci'-v Building, Wall Sireet, . . . 243

Tail-i'iece 24.S

Head-piece for (iREAT Britain, 253

Windsor Ca.stle 255

Battle of Xavarino, George ('anni\(;. . . Cathedral hv York, William IV.,. . . . Lord John Russell,.

Daniel D'CoNNELL, 272

Victoria 276

View of Jamaica, 283

Prince Albert, 2S5

Mehemkt .\M Pasha 290

Palacb of Meiiemkt All. 291

PAOE

Dost Moham.med Khan, 294

Akbar Khan 294

Sir Robert and Lady Sale, 295

Arrival of Dr. Brydon at Jelai.ahad, . . . 296

The Khyber Pass 297

Reunion of the Captives of Cabul, 299

Sir Robert Peel, .302

Isle of Otaheite 304

Richard Cobden, 307

The Irish Famine— Scene at the (Jate of a

WOHK-HOUSE, 309

Lord George Bentinck 312

Erebus and Terror Outward Pxiund, .... 313

Elisha Kent Kane 314

William Smifh O'Brien, 317

Crystal Palace of 1851, 325

Duke of Wellington, 330

View of the Bosphorus, 332

Church of the Holy Sepulcher, 337

Lord Palmerston, 342

Ticket-of-Leave, 343

Diamond Harbor, Hooghly, 345

Native Officers of the Bombay .\hmy, . . 346

Brah.mins of Bengal, 347

Port of Calcutta 349

Throne-room, Palace of Delhi 351

Benares, 352

Sir John Lawrence 353

View of Lahore— The English Church, . . .354

British Residency at Lucknow, 355

Grand MosquK at Delhi,. 359

Relief of Lucknow, 361

Attack on the Alambagh, 362

Sir Henry Havelock 363

OuTRAM, Campbell, and Havelock, 365

HoDSON Seizing the Kino of Delhi, .... 366

Mf.morial of Cawnpore 367

Charles Robert Darwin, 371

Geneva, Switzerland 387

Geneva Tribunal, 388

Prince OF Wale.s 392

Jamaica Insurrection, 394

Lord Derby 396

Emperor Themdore (iiviNG AN Audience, . .404

William E. (ii.ADsToNE, 407

William E. Forstek, 412

Charles Dickens 413

Empress of India, 418

259 Earl of Beaconsfiei.d, 419

262 Liberal Ministry hf 1880, 422

265 CooMAssiE, 423

266 Sir (Jarnet AVolseley 424

269 Pontoon Bridge over the Pbah, 425

272 Cetawayo, in English G;arb 426

276 ' Hindoo Kush Mountains 427

Ha

\rah, from Northern Highlands — Ai

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, VOLUMES XV A XI) XVL

Charles Stewart Parnell,

Marquis of Salisbiry,

Gladstone,

Alfred Tennyson,

Palace of the Khedive,

Ahmed Arabi Pasha,

iMODERX LlGHr-HOUSE AT ALEXANDRIA,

Charge OF THE High LANDERS atTel-el-

On the White Xile

Warriors of the ]\Iaiii)I in Battle wi

Khedive's Forces,

David Livingstone

Henry M. Stanley, . .

Tail-piece. Holvhood and Arthur's

Head-piece for France,

Field of Waterloo

Louis XVHL

Chateuabriand,

The Escuri.^l, ,

Charles X.,

Coronation of Charles X.,

Charles Ferdin \ni), Dcke of Berry Casi.mir Perieu,

Metz, ,528

BiS.MARCK accompanying THE CARRIAGE OF XaPOLEON in. TO THE CaSTLE OF WlL-

helmshohe, .')2!1

Camden Palace, Chiseliiurst ."):',0

Cathedral OF .Strasburg, .'ilU

French Soldiers burning their Flags after

the Surrender of ;Metz a?,2

Entrance of the Germans into Orlean Burning of St. Cloud by the Prussian,' Gambetta Starting for Tours, ....

Overthrow of Bourbaki,

Battle of .St. Quentin,

.TuLEs Favre

.537

Sitting of the Delegate Govern.ment at

Bordeau.x, 538

Insurgent Communists Seizing the Guns, . . 540 Barricade of the Port St. Denis, during

the Commune, 541

Barricade, Hotel de Vii.le 542

Bombardment of St. Denis 544

Si ene During the Bo.mbardment of Paris, . 545

Fall of the Vendome Column 546

Supplying the Hungry during the Co.m-

Marquis de Lafayette,

Louis Philippe

Arrival of Louis Philippe in Paris, Louis Philippe takes the Oath, . .

Battle of Isly

Capture of Abd-el-Kader

General View of Lyons,

Insurrection in Lyons

Marie Caroline, Duchess of Berry, . ,

IMarshal Soult

FiEscHi's Atte.mpt to assassinate

Philippe,

Guillaume Guizot,

Duke of Orleans

Dome of the Invalides,

Lamartine

Paris Insurrection of 1.S48

Adelaide, Princess of Orleans, . . . . Proclaiming the Republic of 1848, . .

General Cavaignac,

Arrest of the Deputies,

Victor Hugo

Xapoleon III.,

Empress Eugenie

.\ttempt of Orsini to assassinate Naf

III.,

Suez Canal,

Henri Rochefort,

Isabella IL. of Spain

View OF ^Madrid,

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, . .

Baron Le Bhuf,

^Larshal Bazaine,

Battle OF Mars-la-Tours

A Pftroleuse, 548

Death of the Archbishop of Paris, 549

Last Sortie from Paris 550

Transport of Communist Prisoners in Bre.st

Harbor 552

:\Iahsiial MacMahon, 5.53

I.EiiN (4ambetta, ,554

Louis Adolphe Thiers, 555

La Republique Francaise, .557

Le.)n Say .5.58

Gambetta in the Tribune, ,51)2

Prince Xapoleon, 565

CoMTE de Chambord, 5r)7

President Jules (Jrevy, 571

Prince DE JoiNviLLE, .572

Due d".\umale, 573

A'ersailles Palai e and Gardens, 575

Harbor of Marseilles, 578

Eiffel Tower, 579

Tail-piece, The Angklus, 5S0

The Surrender AT Sedan (Etching) ,582

Head-piece FOR Germany, ,583

Frederick William HI., 586

Battle at the Barricades in Brussels. —

After the [lainting hy Wappeis, 587

Leopold, King of the Belgians. — After the

painting by AVinne 588

Ale.xander Von Humboldt, .591

Prince INIetternich, 593

Berlin Insurrection of 1848, 594

Hungarian Volunteers. — After the painting

by A Von Pettenkofen 597

Arthur Gorgey, 598

Louis Kossuth 599

LIST OF 7/./.r.sy7,M77o.V.s, VoLl'MllS XV AM) XVI.

FltANl IS JOSRPII. OTTO Von Bism.s

PAGE, OF PeTEK the TiKEAT, . ■ 702

704

I'lnN.E I'keheukk or Ai Ar^TiciAN-l'iusMAN Cav.

■ Ti-i;kish Fi Al.MA, . . .

Vc.N M, ritlNlE

Xe\>i;i rifusn

t..n \-..n W.M. Germans lv,mmi

E.MI>EI;..K Will MM

Empekoi: Wii.i.nM Views in Dehi.in, . Prince P.ism m:. ic. . The Chown Prin<i

OH-NT V..N .M,„TK

Ei,u-Ai:i, \-.iN M\-. EMrEUnlt Kkkokhi.

l-.M^ Al:, II OF Hm KniM, I M. Minn Vi.-w s i\|..,l,.ni Vi.-w , .

111.

~s \ I

Taii.-imece-(;ei{mama CS-t

Heaii-i'iece eoi; Itm.v, (155

Gl-ISEIM'E :\Iazzim (i5!l

Alessam.k.i Man/j.ni ceo

MorJ6ka (;iil

Entrance of the Fhenc.h Trcmu-s into Ti. kin,

184S, 002

GcisEPi'E Gariii M.in . .00;!

Camileo Benso |)i CwoiK, CC-t

Battle OF MoNiEKi II... r.OO

Conflict of tin: r.uiix.i; c.i iiie r>ri faihra, . r.OO Battle OF Soi.firin., ci;;

Plevna,

(II ii;n Amai.m -Alt.T K. Konjat,

FoCNTAlN ..r nil Sl.KX,,,,,,, . . .

Prince (;..im. imkoh

CoNSTANTIN.il I i; I l:..M S.FTARI, . SCLEIMAN l'A-II\

Defense OF .^iiii'K \ 1'a-s

RkFFLSE of IMF Gkami Assaclt a

GlNERU. T<.|)IEI!LN

Omar Pasha,

AnHIANoPIF,

Congress of I'.fri.in, 1s7s

Views in Atiifns

Abi)1-i.-Aziz,

Si-ltan's Palace and thic

Tail-piece, 740

Heaii-piece for Minor American States, . 745

-IRCS,

Ni

Landini; of (mrih by (;. P.ioliiit:, Florence, . . . . DfcalP^lmf. Ve Sr. Petfk's lI.iMK, .

ECUMENMM, ('..IN.

Victor Kmsm fi, .

E.XPFLSPIN of.Ifs,

M.i

IR C

Pus!X

Leo XIII

BrIDOK of ."^ANt" AN<iELO, FioME, . .

A Street in Naples

Stairway of itie Si:sat.>riai. Pai u Tmi.-piece. W1N..FI. I.i.,N .IF St. Ms Head-piece kok Kastiofn Imropk, .

Alexander T

Column of AFFx^NlM,R I

Nicholas I • ■

71 Flnians iNVAiiiNi; Canada

rl :\IaF<)FISoF I...RNE,

74 I...RI. Dl FFERIN,. . . . .

r<; Sir .lo.lN .\lE.\ANDER -Ma. DONALD, . .

77 ( 'fI.MiKL .\ND Ka\IP,\|:1S OF (JFEiii^c, ■ ■

TNlVFRslTV OF T..R0N10

75 pAKIIOlFNr IIOCSE OF ()irAW\

7'.l I'..FNTAIN AND AqF'EDCCT, CiTY OF ]\IE.\IC(

si Mhsll/,. ,\I,MDEN

S:; JIKI.INXM. VII

sS City ..f Mi \i...

-!i l.NiiMN. 1: 1.. Cmhedral. City of Me.\i.(

I:mpfr..i: Max. mi

French in nit

730

LIST OF TLU'STEATIOXS, VOLVMES AT AXD XVT.

EXECITION OF MaXIMILLI. JIeJIA and JIlUAMON,

FinsT Steajiei; on- the Ori (iATiiERiNG Peruvian Bari

Belle of Pkiu"

Lima

Isle of Serpents, Bay ok Km he Janeiro,

DoM Pedro I.,

Shelter for Travelers in the Ande Tail-piece— Cliffs of Cape Horn,. . Head-piece for Oriental Xatiuns. . Chinese Types. — Dmwn by K. lumjn

Chinese AVall,

Pekin, the Tartar City, ..... A Street in Canton, . . ....

Porcelain Tower, Xankin

Chinese Opium-s.mokers

Bombardment of Cantun i;v the P.ritish,

Battle of Pa-li-kao,

One of the Gates of Pekin oiven I'p to

Allies

View of Pekin,

Religious Ceremony in Chinese Temple.

Pekin Tragedians,

Chinese Mandarin

Shinto ."^hrixe near Yokohama

Kato Kiyo.masa,

Battle of Kublai Khan wi

ANEsE. — Drawn by F. Lix, .

Japanese Warriors in Ancieni

Japanese AVrestlers,

View fro.m the Bridge of Xipi Japane.se School

^lUNEMITSU ]\IrTSU,

Aum[;alian Natives at Arork

AiMKAiMN (i..Li> Rush, 1S,-,1, .

:\riNES uv SaNDHUUST,

Cradling and P.\nn'ing — .\rsTi

Departure of the Burke ami

dition fro.m Melbiiuhne, .

MusTERiNii Sheep — .Australian

Lord Melbourne,

Public Liisrakv, Xaiional <

Wills Ranch.

CoLLiNN Stkeet, .Melbourne, . The University, Melbourne, . Brisbane from Bowen Terrace View of Hobart from Kangar Tail-piece,

IXTRODUCTION TO VOLUMES XV AND X\'L

F Tve examine the history of the times must recent we shall find it strnngly discriminated from that of the ages more remote. The historical phenomena

of the NiSETEENTH ClCN-

TUEY are separated by a wide remove from the aspects of the eighteenth, and still more widely from those of the centnries pre- ceding. Human events have liecome vastly complex and interdependent. States and na- tions are interlocked and cross-woven in their relations, and the various peoples of the world seem floating in a common current towards a common destiny. Here and there the surface is dotted with vortexes of agitation, and it is sometimes difficult to discern in which direc- tion the tide is flowing; but the historian knows that all irregularity and disturbance are Init seeming, and that the whirls in the river

"Are e.Mies in the mighty stivarn Tliat rolls to its apiiointt'.! .ii.l."

The science of history is lieset with the same kind of difficulty which confronts geol- ogy in considering the latest aspects of the physical world. The drift is more difficult to understand than the azoic rocks. Both the historian and the geologist are confused on account of the nearness and multiplicity of the things demanding attention and classifica- tion. But the puzzle to the historical student is greater than that which meets the student of world-formation. For to the nearness aiid multiplicity of the facts in the geology (if the pleistocene, History must add a certain aggra- vation of complexity which comes of human relations and dependencies. The growing sympathies and community of interests which have become so conspicuous since the opening of the century have interlaced the selvages of the nations, until the general aspect is that

of fine great fact confused with a mass of be- wildering particulars.

At the time of the battle of Waterloo there was not an ocean steamer, a railway car, or a tel- egraph in the world. How, then, could the nations fraternize? Isolation is a result of non- intercourse. In proportion as the means of com- munication are multiplied the common and mu- tual interests of mankind are developed, apathy and suspicion are abated, and the temperature of hunuinity rises to the glow of enthusiasm.

It is surprising to note how in recent times the intellectual freedom and moral compass of men have widened in the triumph over the obstacles of environment. It is impossi- ble that thought and action should ever go back again to the old standards and critei'ia. The movement of civilization is like that of certain kinds of enginery that can go oi]ly in one direction — like that of the power-loom or thresher, the reversal of which is unthinkal)le, except by crash and ruin. The threads of common sympathies carried by the shuttles of intercourse from nation to nation, from shore to .shore, have bound all civilized peoples in a common fate; liut this infinite union of things before distinct and .separate, while it has in- spired the pen of History, has greatly con- fused and pcrph-xr,! the probleius'with which she has had t<. d.al.

But internationality has not yet arrived — perhaps may never arrive. From the past the

peoples of to-day lui The .-pirit of loral

(1 repellant in- >f se-reiiation.

f in the the lasso

vance, even in the era of the (•osmop<ilite. Thus it happens that modern society, like the physical world, is balanced between two forces, the radical impulses born of intercourse and democracy, and the checks of old-time custom and race hereditv.

JXTL'iil'l ( TK

il.I'Mi:

.\ T

yn .VI /.

Ami sii, aftor the

res	•lul.lii	1,' the ai	eie	It .,r,ler-l.nt n;' the
aiR	iellt 1	nier — was	I(	smneil in Jvii' pe. On
the-	Anif	i,-aii si,le	of	the Atlantir the ]n-nni-
las	. ,,„li , ami	liral exp.. the Milir	iiii	■ nt of ..nr fathers stunj ,,f p.vernin.-nt liy the
IHM	pie rn	-e into sire	',i-'	han.'l shap.iiness. For
	ut th	rtv years	tie	,v f.,ll..«,.,l in the geii-
era	1 .lull	ain "of 11		,v uhi.t may be calleil
ail	e,,n,.l	„f M-p..	1 .	ami tliHi liie ehange.l ml >ucial u-nrl.l (h-elare.l
(111	If in	fnll fuyrr
W	it.ll.H	the All	ml	e was iraverseil by a
eb:	iin.-r.	Willi IM.'^	-.•;ii came the railway,
an	1 will	].s4r) hi		u intelli;ience, iiereheil
oil	the 1	iirhtning's	wi	ig, bei;aii to carry the
tn	ssages •place	iif men fi to thn.l.l.	on "'A	city to city, from coun-
	What	then, sh	ill	tlie wiiter or stuilent of
Hi	<tor_v say of ih.-	I'	i-cnt asp.it ami imive-
nieut of	the miiin,	-■!	Tl.at (»ri:aiii/,eil I'ower
is	osiuf^	U liuM.ai	d t	hat Mail isei.niing to the
fore. Tl	e histniiai		11 iL.les the separate and
variable	proKre- .,	S	at. s ami kingdoms; but
he	notes	wilh gre;	t.i	iiiter.'st the emergence
of	iudiv	ulualilv a	111	fi..,l.,m frniii the low
gr	)un(ls	,f ign.aan		n.l slavery. He notes—
111	'11 \vi tte.l i	Ito th.- V	>iil	I Nature has been ad- ■.hiatiou of Humanity,
an	1 tha (i,„ 1	/■•"'■"-■'	y	is tilling his cornucopia
to	the 1) 111 tl	e Books I	nil	piising the Jiresent Vol-

lime it siiall be the aim to give, in brief out- line, a narrative of the course of afiairs from the Treaty of Vienna to the leading events of the current decade. The .story will begia with the progress ami development of the L'nlte.l Stall's, ami procee.l to the historical 111. .v. 111. Ills ..f those iiati.>iis with which our own i.- most intimately assn.'iated— Great Britain, France, (i.riiiany, Italy, Xorthern and Eastern Eur-pp.', the Miii.ir American Stat.s, ami finally the Oriental Empires and Ausiialia. It will be necessary to summarize the causes, e.nirs.'. and results of the several teiiihl.' cniitljiis which have consumed such an .iiiiimiiis part ..f the Mil.-tance of the cen- tiuy — ih.' Civil War in the United States, the Crinieaii War, an. 1 the Franco-Austrian, Fran.-.i l'iii"l:iii. ami Turco-Russian struggles in Kiii-.ip.-; but a> miirli as p.i.ssible of the sjiaee ..f the V..I11111.' will be reserved for the 111..!-.' eh.erl'ul le.'ui.l ..f tli.ise events in which the virtiU'S of p. are ami the triumphs of knowledge are exeiiiplilied. Let the hope be cherished that the hand of him -^vho shall m course of time take up the ever-unfinished work and carry forward the story of human achievement ami a-piiali.>ii into the spleudora of the tweiiti.th e.'iiliiiy, may be guided by a clearer vision — though har.lly by a sincerer trust and purpose — than have iiii.ve.l and sus- tained the jireseut effort t.. supjily, in fair pro- porti.m and truthfulness of matter, the history of the jiiiucipal iiopes and sorrows of our race.

RIDPATH^S UNIVERSAL HISTORY

VOLUME XV.

BOOK XXI. —THE UNITED STATES BOOK XXn.- GREAT BRITAIN

, AliASKA

Jnak '6iucnh|-¥Jrst,

The Uxitki) States.

"^y.yl'A i- :-l-<.^'-r( '^'U' A

Chaf-ter cx::x:ii.— PS.MKK1CAM nuddle: a.ges.

iOULD t	lie	)hserver ta
his stand	iu	aiiv cinisp
iidus Stat	idi	in Wrst..
Eun,|...	tin	virw t

the suinni.-i- ,,f l.si:,, he ^vnuM h,,hul,l arnun.l the hnrizM,, the -uh-i.hnee of a storm which ha.l jn-evaileil for mniv than a quarter of a ceutury. A period of firty years had elapsed since the outbreak of the American Revolution, and of twenty-six years •since the assembly of the States General in France. Through this very considerable ex- tent of time the elemental warfare had in- creased in violence to the close. The liattle of Waterloo may be regarded as the last burst of the tempest, the last tremendous effort of the human storm. After this event the clouds rolled heavily back, and the light of peace, which had already illumined for some time the shores of the Xew Wmld, began to shine fitfully along the coasts of Eurcpe.

There was an immediate and great (•hanL;e

iu the condition of both the Old Wi.rld and

the New. The treaties i.f Vienna and (ih.-nt

marked the close of a liistorical .-purh. There

3

was, at least for the present, an end of oora- niotion and the incoming of political ipiietuile. A sort of calm, half-ominous in its charact. r, supervened, as if the nations wouhl seek rest from the tempests to which they had been ex- pdsed. Tlie date to which we have just re- ferred may be properly used as the beginning of another era in the movement of nKxleru civilization. It is here that we take nur stand, in order to consider, in the current Volume, the evolution of the new order of so- ciety, under the general head of the Nine- teenth Cextury.

In the present Volume it will he our juir- pose to note the course nf events, first in the United States, and afterwarils in tlie Eum- pean nations, from the overthrow of Napo- leon Bonaparte to the current annals of our own day. The reader will, perhaps, from the first be struck with what may be called the nnhernic charartfr ..f the narrative. Trag.'dv mav be said to disappear for a time from hi>torv, an,l, thou-li oniu-dy dors not takr its i.lar,-, w<. >liall look in vain tor tlio

UM I 'KJ;SA L II IS Ton }'. — THK MODERN 1 1 ORLD.

-^i

■ \ ,i..v,i.,	'ill- ;> ii'-^	V iial
,if,l SiHl	ml r:,,,i.l ■ ■> ol' Nnrl IV th.. K.	1, Ai ■v.. Ill

111- to the civilization plaiiti-d ou this

the sea, iu the viudicatiou of free po-

iiistitutioiis as the best form of human

iiic'Ut, lias in the present century and

<i\vii land far niilstiipped any previous

■ment .,f like kind in the hi-h.rv nf the

raee. In llie |Mv>,.nt ,-liapl,r we shall

■ ketch in oullim-, ,f the prudi^io,,.- growth

cinnse of our country. It will he remem-

ii-rcd that iu the preceding Book the history

jf the United States -ivas extended to the

clo.e of the War .,f 1.S12 and

ther.tal.li.dinient of p,ac. hy the

treaty ot (..heiit. We shall iu

thi> place resume the narrative

with the administration of Mou-

roe, the fifth President of the

Repuhli,..

James ^[onroe was a Virgin- ian, lieing the fourth and last of the so-called Virginia Dynasty ^ of I'i,^idciit,>. All the chief mag-

i-tiati - thus fai-, with the ex- c, ptioii of the I'lder Adams, had m, 11 taken from the Old Do- minion .Monr.ie was horn on lie L'^lh of April, ITo.S. His Mill, II loll \va> ohtaincd chiefly at W iHiam and Mary College, tioni which institution he went out, in IT't'i, to hei'onie a soldier of the devolution. He was iu the lialth' ol' 'rn-nton, and received a Dritish hall in his shoulder. He took part, und,-r Lord "^tir- liii-, iu tlie caniiiai-ns of 1777 and 1778, being iu the liattles of l>iaudvwine, Germantown,and ^loiiniouth. In course of time he siudiiMl law with Thomas Jefferson, crnor .if A'irjinia. He served in the Vir- ,a A.-.-eiuhly, and at the age of twenty- •e was a mcuiher of the Executive Council. 17.s:! he was sent to Congress, and while li.- >eivi.-e a,> delegate he he.'aiue convinced he inulililv ot' the Articles of (/onfe.lera- , a. a loin, of government for the Col- ■s. II<. was one of the eailiest, though <\vs the yomi-est, of tlio>e patriots who l|e,l themselves ill helialf of a better Cou- nlion t,,r the rnited .<tate-. .Alonroe was a member of the Con.stitutional

THE UNITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AdES.

Convention, anil in ITlH) was elected .Senator of the United States. In 1794 he was sent as plenipotentiary to Fiance, and was one of those who negotiated with the French Gov- ernment the purchase of Lmii-iana. After- wards he was seat as minister plenipotentiary to the court of St. James. In course of time his views underwent some change from the Federal towards the Democratic type, and he is generally ranked iu the same category of statesmen with Jeflerson and ]\Iadison. In 1811 he was elected governor of A'irginia, and when Madison acceded to the Presidency was appointed Secretary of State. His election to the Presidency lias already been sketched in the previous cliapter. The electoral vote in his favor was 18o, out of a total of 217. His Cabinet was composed as fallows: John Quiiicy Adams, Secretary of State ; William H. Crawford, Secretary of the Treasury; John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War ; Benjamin W. Crowninshield, Secretary of the Xavy; Will- iam Wirt, Attorney-General.

Iu its principles and methods the new Ad- ministration was Democratic. In general, the policy of Madison was adopted and c<mtinued by his successor; but the stormy times which Madison had experienced iu the vici.ssitudes of the war gave place to years of unbroken peace. The animosities and party strifes which had prevailed since the accession of John Adams seemed for a sea.sou to subside. The statesmen who were in the lead in Congress and the nation devoted themselves assiduously to the payment of the national debt. The young Republic found herself burdened, after the treaty of Ghent, with the accumulated ex- penses of the war, and the task of liquidating the debt was of herculean pro]>ortions. But commerce .soon revived. The Government was ■economically administered. Popidation rap- idly increased. At length wealth began to flow iu, and in a few years the debt was fully and honestly discharged.

In the summer of 1817 a complication of some importance arose between .the United States and the little kingdom of Hayti, in the northern ]iart of San Domingo. There were gr<iunds to suspect that Louis XVIII., the newly restored Bourbon king of France, would endeavor to obtain the sovereignty of the island, and perhaps proclaim its annexation to

the French Kingdom. Under the Napoleonic ascendency Hayti had, as we have seen, been for a time under the dominion of France, and there was an attempt to maintain, under the restoration, what had been won by tlie sword of Bonaparte.

In this state of affiiirs, Christojihe, the sov- ereign of Hayti, lieeame anxious to secure from the United States a recognition of the independence of his government. The Presi- dent met the overtures of the Haytian king with fav(n-. An agent was sent out in the frigate Ouigrefis to conclude a treaty of amity and commerce with the kingdom. The Presi- dent had taken pains, however, that the agent so sent should not rank with plenipotentiaries. On this score the Haytian authorities were of- fended, and would not negotiate with an American agent who was not properly ac- credited to their government. For this reason the mission resulted in failure and di.sapiioiut- meut.

The attempt, in the same year, to form a treaty with the Indian nations of the Terri- tory North-west of the River Ohio was at- tended with better success. The imjiortaut tribes inhabiting this region, and concerned in the new compact, were the Wyandots, the Delawares, the Senecas, and the Shawnees. Other prominent Indian nations, inehiding the Chippewas, the Ottowas, and the Pottawatta- mies, were also interested in the treaty and in some degree parties thereto. The subject mat-

ter of the new eomj	act li	id relation to the
Indian lan.ls lying n	.rth o	■ the Ohio River,
mostly in what was	afterv	anls the State of
Ohio. It was at tl	is tini	' that the Indian
title to the vallev .	f tl,..	Maumee was ob-
tained. The re<sin„	and	piirchase of about
four milli(ins of aci	es in	all were accom-
plished ill the tr.-aty	;uidit	may well surprise.
iu the liyht of sub	equen	I values, to know

I that the jiurchase sum paid for this vast and

j fertile tract did not exceed fourteen thousand

1 dollars. In adiliiion to the purchase money,

j however, tin- Dela wares were to receive an

1 annnitv of live hundred dollars, while the

Wyandnt,_s the Senecas, the Shawnees, and the

(Jttowas were guaranteed ten thousand dollars

annually, in perpetuity. The Chipiiewas and

Pottawattannes were given an annuity of three

thousand three hundred dollars, f.r fifteen

40

uyivKRSAL iiisTonv.^Tfii: MoDKRy Would.

years. Ccrtaiu tracts wcrr al-o ri-iivr.l l.y the Ked ineu, amountijii: in tin- n-'jiv-nic ti> alviiit tlirec hmulred tli..usaii.l ;u-iv^. Tho tlu-i.rv (pf tlu' (JuviTmiicnt was ilial in roiirse of time the IniHaiis, liviii;^' on ihm- n-.Tva- tions and surrounded by vast and ])r";^i(s>ive settlements of White men, would he assimi- lated to civilized life, and gradually alisurlu-d as a part of the uatimi. It was not lonu:, however, until it was discovered that the Indiaus had little sympathy with American farms and villagres and American methods of life. The habits of barbarism were too strongly

Illinois to the Gulf, brought under the sway of tho Kepublic.

During this same year tho ( iovernnient was obligctl to gi\c attention to a nest of buccaneers, who had cslalili-hcd themselves on Amelia Island, oH' the north-eastern coast of I'lorida. The piratical estaljlishment had its origin in the revolutionary movements which had been going on in New Grenada and Vene- zuela. A certain Gregor McGregor, who held a commission from the insurrectionary au- thorities of New Grenada, had gathered up a band of freebooters, recruiting his forces, for

mM'^'^M-hil

'^1

Ji.iiJi'li'lilii;'/';':'. = ■■'•-

fixed, through ages (.f heredity, and no apti- tlie m.i-t jiart, tV.mi Charleston and Savannali.

tude for the anticipated change was sei'ii on With the-e lie had fortified Amelia Island, and

the part of the sequestered aborigines. made it a lendi zvons for shive-tiaders and

The admirable working of the American South Ameii.'an privateers. system, l.v which n.'W Statc-s e.,ul<l be a.lded It wa- pe,l,ap> dimly believ.'.l by the au- to the itepublie, was a-ain shown in 1M7, dariuu^ raseai- that tlie well-known sympathy At the elo.e of that year the we-tern portion of the Tnited Stal.s for repnbii.--. and par- of what had be,.n the Mis.Mssippi Territory ti-idailv for the repuliliean tondm,-!.- sliown

I'l' Stat,, of Mis-issi

• wealth

formally admitted. The n.'W ,

contained an area of f,rtv.>ey,.n thousand s,p

miles, and had a<-.,uire.l a population of h

fivethou^and. Tlin- was the whole eastern bank of the Tnited States. They aernnl,i,Mly

of the Missi-sippi, from the Jnnetion of the ceeded to bj,., •ka.de the fort of St. Angus

ith Ame

aek froi!

THE UNITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.

and to deiueau themselves as if tlicif were no civilization and no retrilmtioii wjiicji tiny had cause to fear. The Federal < inviiuuciit, hnw- ever, took the matter iiiidci- advisement. A fleet wa.s .seut against the jiiiairs, and tlie lawless establishment was In-oken w^. A simi- lar assemblage of freeboetei-s on tiu' island (if Galveston, otf the coast nf Texas, was sup- ju'essed in like manner.

It was at the beginning (.f the .M,.iinie Ad- nnnisti-ation that the (jue^tion of tlie internal im|ir(ivement of the n.nntry hist ])resented itself as a praetieal i>sue to the American nnnd. The populatic.u of tlie Kepuhlie liad now taken its western course, and was [lourinu' through the passes of the Alleghenie>, lapidly filling up the country as far as the Father of "Waters. The necessity for thoroughfares and for other physical means of intercourse and commerce was upon the people. The terri- torial vastness of the country brought with it the necessity of devising suitable means of communication. Without thoroULdifares and canals it was evident that the jirodiiets of the vast interior, which civilization was ab<iut to open u]), could never reach a market. It was also evident that in a country where no capital had as yet accumulated the necessary inqirovc- meuts could not be effected l)y private enter- ]irise. But had Congress, under the Uepub- lican Constitution, the right to vote money for the needed improvements?

The Democratic party had from the iirst been a party of strict construction. It was claimed that what was not positively conceded and expressed in the Constitution had no ex- istence in the American system. The Feder- alists, on the other hand, had claimed that the Constitution of the United States was preg- nant with implied powers, wdiich might be evoked under the necessities of the situation and directed to the accomplishment of desired results. Jefferson and Madison had held to the doctrine of strict construction, and had opposed internal improvements under the na- tional patronage. Monroe held similar views, and the propositions in Congress to make ap- ]ir ipriatious for the internal improvement of the country were either voted down or vetoed.

< )nlv in a single instance at this epoch did the opposite principle prevail. A bill was jiasscd appropriating the necessary means for

le construction of a National Koad across le Alleghenies, from Cumberland t.i Wheeling.

This was the great ll alreadv been extended giida to Cundierland,

car

from Wheeling wstward through Ohio, In- diana, and Illinois to Si. Louis. This done, the question of internal improvements was re- ferred to the several States, as a concession to their rights. Under this reference. New York took the lead by constructing a magnificent canal from Buffalo to Albany, a distance of three hundred :ind sixty-three miles. The cost of this iui])ortant woik was more than .seven anil a-half million dollai's, and the whole period of ^Monroe's admiuisti-ation was occupied in completing it.

Another important event of the year 1817 was the outbreak of the Seminole war. The Indians known as Semiuoles occupied the frontiers of Georgia and Alal.ama. It has frequently been difficidt, in the history of our country, to ascertain the exact caii.-es of Indian h(jstilities. It might not be liir from truth to allege that the hereditary instincts (.f war on the part of the savage races .-ouuht expression at intervals in bloody and devastating scenes; Init the land question may, on the whole, be I ascribed as the cause of the larger part of In- I dian hostilities. In the ease of the Seminole outbreak some considerable bodies of half- savage negroes, and also of Creek Indians, joined in the depredations of their country- men. General Gates, commandant of the post on Flint River, was ordered by the Gov- ernment into the Seminole country, and made some headway against them ; but after de- stroying a few villages, his forces were found inadequate to suppress the savages. General Jackson, of Tennessee, was thereupon ordered i to collect from his own and adjacent States a sufficient army to reduce the Semiuoles to submission. The General, however, paid but little attention to his instructions, but pro- ceeded to gather up out of West Tennes.see a baud of about a thousand riflemen, with whom he marched against the Semiuoles, and in the following spring overran the hostile coun- try, with little opposition. It was at this time that General Jackson was given the so- briquet of Big Knife hy the Indians, among

42

UMlKh'SM. lllSTOHV.-'THi: MOUERS WOULD.

this

whom his name ami Ihinc hail wholesome dread.

Important conseijiu'iu'cs fullowcil

son, while cniriiL'f'l in his cxpciliti'Ui airainst the Indians, ha.l entcrcl Flnri.la an.l taken possession of a Spanish post at St. Mai'ks. He gave as an excuse for so dnini: that the place was necessary as a hase of oi)eratious against the savages. The Spanish garrison which had occupied St. Marks was removed to Pensacola.

i^rnM

anied .Arliuthnnt an<l .\.nhrister, were found in St. Marks, and charges were preferred against them of having incited the Seminoles to insurrection.

Niir is it improlialile that the charges were f.undeil in fact. The Englishmen were tried, under Jackson's direction, were convicted of treacherous acts in connection with the war, were condemned and executed. Jackson then proceeded against Pensacola, took tlie town, besieged the fortress of Barrancas, at the en- trance of the hay, and compelled the Spanish authorities to take ship for Havana. These were the events which first exeite<l the ani- mosity of many of the penee-lnxinL' people of the United States ai^ain-t < nunal Jaeksoii, and he was sulijeeted l>y liis eiMinics tn un- measured condeiiiiialiun. The I'n-ident ami Congress, howevei-, ju-tifieil him in his some- what reckless pi'(.eerdiiiL;.~, and liis nputation was increased ratliei- than diiniiii-hed l>y his arbitrary cnndnet. .V n^olutii.ii nf eensnro which was introduced into tlie Ifoiw,- ot' Itep- resentatives was sii|i|in-<>,.d liy a laiL''- vote.

When the news from Florida was home to

Spain, the king entered <■ phiints a'j.'iiiist

Jack.son, but his renionstraiu'e was unhee.le.]. Such were the circumstances which induced the Spanish monarch to give up the hope of maintaining his provinces in the New World. He perceived that the defense of Florida was likelv to cost him more than the countrv was worth. He aeeordi.e.dv pro|,OM.d to cle the country to the Fiiii.d Stat.-. For tin- pur- pose negotiations wiro opmed at Wa-liini^tou C'itv, and on tlie twenl v-econd of F. l.niarv, 1m''.i, a tivatv was .•onelu.h'd. l.v whiej, l.oih

the Floridasand tl nil vin- ishinds wrre snr-

.rendered to the Fnitod Stales. In .■on.-idera- tion of the ce.ssion, the .\nierican (i.jvernmeiit

agreed to relimpiisii all claims to the territory of Texas, and to pay American citizens for depredations committed by Spanish vessels a sum not exceeding five million doUars. By the same treaty the houmiary-line hetween Mexico and the L'lnted States was fixed at the River Sabine.

The year LSI!) may be cited as the date of the lir>t great financial eri.Ms in the United Stat.'s. The American Kepulilic ha.l be.-n j.oor, and the j.eople, as a rule, .small prop- erly holders, to whom capital, as that term is understood in more recent times, was a stranger. At length, however, wealth in- creased to a certain extent, and financial in- stitutions grew into such importance as to make possible a ci'isis in monetary and com- mer.-ial affairs. In 1S17 the Bank of the United States had l)een reorganized. With that event improved fticilities for credit were obtained, and consequent upon the facilities for creilit came the spirit and the fact of siH'culation. With the eiiterini: in of speeu-

eircle of finance ran its usual eoiir-o, until the strain was broken in a crisis. The eontml of the important Branch Bank of the United States at Baltimore was obtained by a band of unscru]Hilous speiailators, who secured the connivance of the officers in their scliemes. About two millions of dollars were withdrawn from the institution over and above its secu- rities. President Cheves, however, wdio be- h.n-ed to the Snperi(,r Board of Directors,

whi

cality of the concern was expo.s,.d. An end was thus put to the system of unlimited credits, and in eoiirse of time the bu.sine.ss of the country swung haek into its accustomed chanmds. But fir a season the financial af- fairs of the United States were thrown into great confusion, and the parent Baid< itstdf was bai-elv saved from suspension and bank- Tin- admi-Mou of Mis.-i-ippi intoth.> Union has alivadv lnou nn-ntionod. Other States rapidly f.llowed. In IMS Illinois, ih,- twenty-

The niw eo„,„,'inwealtir embraced an area of ,,vir .'i.'i,(H)0 s,|uare miles. The population at the time of adMii--ion had reaeheil .17,000. In Doei-n.lior. 1X1'), .\Iahania was added to the

THE UMTED STATES.— AMKUK AX MIDDLE AtiES.

Uuiou. The new State came with a popula- latiou of 125, into, ami an area of nearly 51,000 S4uare miles. Alioiit the same time the Ten-itni-v ..f Missouri was <livided, aii.l the southern part was .iruaiii/.r.l into Arkansas Territory. lu IM'O the pnivinee of Maine, which had been umlm- tin' juiisJietinn of ^las- sachusetts since Uiol.', was separated from that Government and admitted into the Union as an independent State. The population of Maine at the time of admis.«ion reached 29'*^,- 000, and its territory embraced nearly 32,000 square miles. In August, 1821, the great State of Missouri, with an area of 67,000 squai-e miles, and a population of 74,000, was admitted, as the twenty-fourth inemlier <if the Union. But this ad- dition to the Kepuhlic was attenrled with n ^ political agitation sn violent as to threaten the peace of the Unicn and to f letoken a Ion series of events tl effects t \\h\ h haM not Mt (Ini] peait 1 from tlie cuiunt hi tor} of (ur c untn

The difti(nlt\ in que tl n \^ i tht pi ence f h\ti\ in Misouii In 1 Ini ary ISIQ the I ill t organize the 1 iiit i\ was bioUj^ht u) m Congie Ml into Ml soun with them in Congie be admitt 1 pre\ ileiit th sioml 1 tl II A in tl n 111 1 wa iiiti In Ynl f ibill

New York, moved the iiiMrti.. similar to that in the ^Missouri l>i deliate thereupon ensueil, and amendment was struck nut.

ade a motion that hereaft- on of Territories out of itioiial domain whirl, Ik

a clause A heateil propose<l lor then organiza- ■t of the with the

Louisiana purchase, slavery shoidd be inter- dicted in all those portii>iis north of parallel 36° 30'. This proposition was also lost, after a heated discussiou. Meanwhile, Tallmadge's amendment to the Missouri Bill was taken to the Senate, and defeated. As a consequence, the new Territories were organized tvithntd re- dridions in the matter of slavery.

When the Enabling A.'t was passed, the

shuf all

luuhil	In hill	hil	^
tainiug then bun	nil 1	1 itt
The 1 1	le wa It	11	1 11
whethei	a n w '^		li 11
Mth thf	^ tern t	In	hi
in 1	\\hethei 1	In (	11 1
lu h lb	n h nil be pi hi	lilt
III II li 1 1	lit t th T	111 II	il 1
1 1 \ Fi	III I, linn	1 t i	\
111 in\	fiiithei inti	du, tl	n
1111 1	11 1 _i lUting	fieed	om
b n n	1 aihnu	the 1	-e

becani tl V t « In

pe jle (f Ml uii 1 1 1 t 1 th 11 "-tlte C .n-

uin ISO th f mill lb II in t the Ter- iit i\ 1 1 ^t It w 1 1 I 11 111 ii| 111 ( unless. Ih p 1 iti II t I but « I IP ed In the III ai 1 1 xMii I iit\ t th who tr\ored th \ 111 I II t 1 i\ i\ tl 111 th ] 111 be do- III nil Vt th It til h u \ I tl new free St It t Mini « 1 I 1 1 t 1 f 1 iliui ion lilt tl I 111 11 111 i\ th 1 I h\ery 1 11 1^ th I U lit I 1 I tl \ nil ht ppose

th 1 Inn I 11 f M III 1 I II ^t It until till iliii 1 n t Ml nil 1 1 In ^tate h nil 1 11 It \i It i\ 1 1 ite en-

11 1 II III until th K th t 1 1 iiiiM when a 1 ,11 i| 111, th t« II w Sill t tl.-r, n with III 1 th thu willi iit In i\ was

44

iXI\ LA'S [L HIS WRY — THE MODERX WORLD.

l.a>-,-,l. Then upon ^ n ,t i 11, iin- .f Ilh 11. -i,-. Mia.l,. a in ti ii tint li ith ml I i

l.ai-I of 111,' L uiMUM . -M n-Mi" nil .x cptr.l — Ivill- II ith I III. 1 u ill 1 1 llnitN six .l.-iv.'~ ami tin, IV ,n„ii,I - - , 1, " ,~ th. .■.■lcli,-at..l >Il" I I I ( ..Mii Ml~h „. t th

a nieasui-e i-lii<ri\ -iipp ,t 1 li\ tin _n i,ui- anil can-ied tl,i ni_li ( ii_',i" in tl,. [lu-i-ti in efforts nf Hei,i\ ( h\

The iii-ii,ci| il (inliti ,1^ .f til, phn ^^.lt

these: First, the admissiou of i\Ii~«ouii as a slaveholding State; ^serom//;/, the dniMon of the rest of tli( Ijom-iaiia purfha^e b^ the parallel of tliiitx mx di/io- and thiit\ mm uteis; thmllji. tin ilnn— , m of new ^tite~, to he formed out ot th( tuntoi) -outh of that line, with or without -Inerv, a« the people might determine punlhly, the i)iohibition of slavery in all the ni w ^t iti - to be organized out of territor\ noiili it tin diMdinir hue Bv this compromi-( tl,> -Iixun airitition w i- allayed until ls49

IBv the time of which we are here speak-

ing the eHl-ets of the ravages ..f the War of 1>;12 were measiirahly obliterated. The great iv.-.iuiTes and jiossibilities of the country began to ap]iea,-. I'eai-e and ])lenty did their be- lutieeiit Work in the rapiil development of the nation. The li,>t tern, of :\Ionroe in the

tl,.- .\.liiiini.<tration grew into high favor with the people. In the fall of 1820 he was re- elected with great unanimity. Mr. Tompkins, the Vice-President, was also chosen for a seeonil term. l'erhap> at i,o other time in the hi.-t.u-y of our country has the bitterness of par- tisau.ship so nearly ex- pired as in the year and with the event here men- tioned.

The excitement over the admission of Mis- souri into the Union had scarcely subsided when the attention of the Gov- i-i-nment was called to an alarming system of pi- lacy, which sprang up in the early years of the ]iresent century in the West Indies. Commerce became so unsafe in all those regions into which the piratical craft could make their way that an armament was sent out for protection. Early in 1822 the frigate Congress, with eight smaller vessels, sailed for the West In- dies, and during that year more than twenty pirate ships were run down and captured. In the following summer Com- modore Porter was dispatched with a still larger fleet to cruise about Culxi and the neighboring islands. In course of time the retreats of the sea-robbers, who had for their chieftain the great buccaneer Jean Lafitte, were all discovered, and their piratical establish- ments completely broken up. Not a liucca- neer was left aHoat to disturb the peaceful commerce of the seas.

At this period in our national history the Government of the United States was first

THE UXITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.

Vii-'iULxht into relation witli tlie countries of South America. The so-called Reimblieau States in (iiir ueigliboring contiuent ;vere dis- tracted with continuous revolutions. From the days of Pizarro the States in question had beeu, for tbe most jjart, dependencies of Eu- ropean monarchies; but the ties which bound them were broken, ever and anon, witli decla- rations of independence and patriotic struggles for liberty. The situation was so similar to that which had existed between the United States and Great Britain in the time of the R -volution that the Amer- ican Republic fell into natural and inevitable sym- pathy with the patriots of the Southern Continent. Many of the leading states- men of the time found ex- ercise for their faculties and sentiments in speaking and writing in behalf of the struggling Republics be- yond the Isthmus of Darien. Among these Mr. Clay was especially prominent. He carried his views into Congress, and succeeded in committing that body to the principles which he advocated. In [March of 1822 a bill was passed, rec- ognizing the new States of South America, which had decl.v.od, and virtually achieved, their independ- ence. The President him- self sympathized with these movements, and in the following year took up the question in his annual message. He finally reduced the principle by which his Adminis- tration should be governed to the following declaration : That for the future the American continents were not to be considered as sub- jects for colnnizatiuu by any European power. The declaration thus made became f;\mous at the time, and has ever since been known in the politics and diplomacy of the United States as the Monroe Doctrixe, a doctrine by which the entire Western Hemisphere may be said to he theoreticallv consecrated to free institutions.

A social incident in the summer of 1824 gave great joy to the American peojile, and afforded them an oppoitiiiiity to revive and express their gratitmle to Frani-e for lier sympathy and aid in the Kcvohition. 1 ne venerable Marquis ih- Lafayette, now aged and gray, returned once UKJre to visit the land for whose freedom he iiad given the energies of his youth, and had indeed .shed his blood. Many of the honored patriots with whom he had fought side by side came forth to greet him, and the younger heroes, sous of the Rev.

olutiou, crowded arouml him. In every city aud an every battle-field which he visited he was surrounded by a throng of shouting free- men. His journey from place ti place was a continuous triumph. (.)ne of the ciiief ob- jects of his coming was to visit the tomb of Washington. Over the dust of the Fatlier of his Country the patriot of France paid tiie homage of his tears. He remained in the country until September of 182.5, when he ba<le a final adieu to the American people who had made him their guest, aud sailed

40 i\\ivi:i!SAf. insroin:- Tin: .M<)i>i:i:x woin.i).

l):irk f.,!- lii- iialiv hni.l. Al lii^ ,l..parliiiv L- Kiiniin-. Al Pari-, Ani>l.nlaii., an.l Sr.

tlir iViiiaf /;,v„„/«,r,-,„ a naiiM. -,-nilicanI tur J',1. ■-l.uri:-, ihr >o„ ,-.„,tn,ur,l l,i> >luai.;., aud

lui]i--wa> |.iv|,aiMl lo l„.ai liiin auav. Wliilc- tlHi> l.rai.ir ar.,uaiiitr,| with tin' inaiiii.i- an.l

lilMTty ivinain> fi cii.-,-,- tlir \V.-t,'tlM' nam.- i-nlni,-.^ .,1- tlir t )|.l Worhl. Tli.. va>t n,,|„,r-

of LaVavrttr will l.r liallouvl uith patfiolic lui.ith-- u\ l,i> y,.ml, u.-iv ii„,,ruv,.l f. tlie

IVcnIirrtinns.' lulirM .-Xtcllt. lie Wa- .lr>tinr.l to a IMll.lir

IJ.Iniv tlu- -ailin- auav of tlir illuMrinus caivcr. II.' Mi-vnl hi- cnuiitiy a- al.llia>^a.l..l• Flv,„•llll,an, aiioi i,. i- l-|,'M,hiilial .'l.'.'ti..ii ha.l t.. th.' N.'th.'ilaii.ls t.. I'..i'lu-al. t.. I'lii-Ha, !„.,', I h.'l.l. I'nliti.'al .'X. -it. in. lit ha.l n-aii- t.. Ku-ia, an.l t.. Kiii^lan.l. Kv.-n in early p.'an-.l in lli.' .-..nnlrv, an.l ih.-ro was a str.nig lit'.' hi- ahiliti.'.- w.-r.' -n.-li a^ f. .Iran' from (livish.ii .,f ..'ntiiii.nl. riitnrtiinat.lv, t...^ \Va.-irini:t..n tli.' .■xtra..i.linarv praisi' ..f being the ,livi<i..ii a|.|,.'ar.'.l t.i li.' lar-.'ly s.-i'ti-nial tli.- al.l.'st inini-t.-r .,f whi.'i, Ani.-ri.-a e.nild ill it.-; ehara.-t.-r. Si rniii;- |..'r>..iialiti.'s lik.'wise li..a<t, lM-.,in 1774 t.ilM7 his lif.' was .le- appear.-.l in tli.' .-..iit.-i. F..r tli.' first tiiii.- v.,t..l aim. -I uli,.lly t.. .lipL.tnali.- s.-rvi.rs at the naiii.s .,f S.nitli ami Kast ami W.st w.av tli.' varim,- Kiir.,|,..aii Capitals, hear.l, an.l tin- patri,.ti.' .'V ini-lit .li-.vrn the At this tin,.- th.' v.lati.ms ,,f tli.. rnite.l ...vnipt..ins .,f .lan-.a- in th.' p,.liti.-al plira-.-l- Stat.-s ^^vyv vv\\u-A in tlu' .■xtivin.'. In.le,-,1, ngy ..f th.- .lay. J..lin (.hiin.'y A.hiiii,- was tin- n.'W K.pnl.li.' ha.l lianlly y.-t li.-en fully

William II. Crawf.nl, ..t (J.MU-ia, as the iiati.in,-. Tli.' i^.aiin- ..f .I.ilin <,tuin.'y A.lams

ch.,i.-e .if th.' .<.Mitli: an.l Il.nry Clavaml s.-'iin-.l the a.l.ipli..ii ..f tr.aty att.r treaty.

Aiuh-ew .Ia.'k-..n a- tie- f i v..rit.'s ..V th.' \V.',-t. Su.'h was his aenm.n an.l ].atri..tisiii, that in

The eh'.'ti..ii was h.l.l. Km n.'ith.'r .'an.li.late ..y.'i'y tr.'aty th.' rii;hts ami .li,L:nity ..f tli.>

Thus, f.r th.' s.''.'.,ii.'l tiiii.' in th.' liist..ry ,,f the tain.'.l. In f^iC A, lams' was li..n,in'.l with the

e.iniitry, tl,.' .'Imi.'e ..f I'r.shh.iit was, a.'.'.,r,lin- pn.i;'ss.,r^hip ..f Hh.'l..! i.' an.l J!.ll.'s-L.'ttn's in

t.i a ('■•.. iistitiiti..iial pr.,visi.,ii, r.'f'rr.'.l t.. the Ilarvar.l (oil.-.', ..fvlmli he was an aliim-

H..ns., .,f K.'pr.'s.'iitativi's. I!v th.-it Innly Mr. mis. II.' al-.. h.l.l lli.' ..fli.'.' ef I'nit.'.l .^lal. s

A. lams, th.-iiuh imt th.' h.r.'ne.st .'an.li.late, S,'nat..r In.ni .Ma-a.'hn-.'lts. On the a.'.'.s-

was .hily .'l.'.'t.'.l. ^^.r Vi.'.'-l'r.'-i.l.'iit, J.iliu si..n of .Al.mr...' t.i tln' I'r.si.hn.'y, he was ap-

('. (.'alli..iiii, i>f South ('ar..lina, ha.l h.'en p„inteil S.'.'r.tarv ..f Stat.-. All the aiite.'e-

ele.-.'i, liv th,' El.'.'t'.nil ( '..ll.'-.'. Tli. is .'aine >l,.nts ..f his lih'' wir.- sn.'h as t., pr.i.ln.'e iu

t.. a .'..n.'hi-i.m th.' .'i-ht y.'ars ,.f th.' Presi- hi,,, ,1„. ,,,,-,.-i .p.alitl.'al i. -ns tor the Pr.'.-i-

d.'ii.'V nf .lani.'s M.mr...'. ,l..„,.v, t.. whi.'h h.' was ,„,w .'alL-l.

sup.'re.r ..f any man wlm ha.l ...'.'Upi..! the Th.' revival ..f parti-an-hip, th.' aiilm<.sity ef

Pn-i.l.-ntial .'hair h.'f.r ' aft.'r him. It i- „y,.,a party 1. a.l.r.-, .'..nspii ..1 1.. .lisfraet the

II. .t m.ant that in f.ir.'.' .if ehara.'t.'r nr afility .'nnntrv, t.i k.'.'p the piilili.' inin.l fr.mi the

tl. m.'.-t Li-r.-at eni.'r-vn.'i.'S hi' was th.' .-.pial ,.alni pursuits .,f p.a.'.', <ir at l.'ast t.. mar tho

.,f Wa-lnn-t • Liii.'..ln <.r<irant; Imt he l,anm.nv nf th.- nali..n. Prnin this time fnrth

ha.l -.'iiiiis, M'hnlar-hip, -ivat attain nts. pnlitii's h.'-an t.. 1...' e, what it, has I'ver ?in.'0

.'smaii. At th,' a- .1 his hither, .T.ihn A.

Th.' C.'nt.'iinial v.-.ir .'all. iinrv ..f th.' '^ivan'sl ..I tl,,,-, , '.la'v.' tli.'irai.l in ih.' War I

"I '!"■ l"'"l'l' hawk.'.l ami .li.'tati..ii ..f

■hi.'-' C-awf.r.l

(h'n.'ial.Ta.'k-.	.nan.nir ' p'.H.'v ..<
n.l th,:'!-,' was th.' .lilHrent .1.

THE rXlTED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDI'LE ACE.

Ailiaiuistratiiin w. ate, an.l tlirir ma was .ivt-rth

the Lower ][iiuse Wditl

the same in lii< iiian-iiral a. I. In—. Iliit lli; system of pulirv was aiita'^oni/rd liy the tn lowers of .Tark-.,,,, CraufMnL an.l (;allin,i ami their priiici|iles nhtained an aseendeu in the ILaise of Re|.n-seutatives. As a e. sequence, the reciMumondations of the Pri dent were neglected or condemned in Coni;re- anil the system of internal improvements, the advocacy of whi<di Mr. Clay gave the full resiiurccs of his uenius, was cherked.

Up to this time the native Indian- held

the .Mississippi. In Georgia they had a wi.l.' domain. Here <lwelt the 'Creeks, with whom the White men ha.l had rela-

onies. In Is(l-_M;eoruia luid relinquish,.! her claim to the .Missi-ippi t. riit..rv, and the General Government aijrord to pur- chase and to surrender to tin- State all the Cre.-k land- lyin- within her holder,-; but this pled-e had never hem fulfdl.-d. Georgia became seriously di-sati^liod at the neglect of the ( Toxfrnimut to {■aii\ out the compact. The dittii'idty liecaun alarmin-, and the Goveiniuent' was thu- constrained to enter into a n.-w treaty with the Creek cliiefs, by which a cession of their lands in Georgia was finally obtained. At the same time, the Creeks entered into an agreement to remove from their ancient - haunts to new settlements beyond the Mississippi. In all these difficulties the same two uien, had a-itate. prim-iple was inv.lvrd. The Indians have , pendou.-e, and pionc been, as a rule, iniwillin-- to recognize the va- ' ])olicy f ir the unilodC. lidity of pledges mado by thfir ancestors rel- | their voices fir tr.'odou ative to their national lands. Such a thing as perilous days of the K ownership in fee -imph- was unknown ori

inallv among the native ra,-es. Tliev n

nized the ri-ht of ,piit-elaim. -by whirh th..

now occupying the lanils could alienate tlif

own title, but not alienate the title of flwir dp- s(m, eigl

.icenilanfii. For this reason the extinction of as it res

land-titles by the ( fovciiiment for the domains ' w.ov as

punhased from the Indians has alwavs been L'.-publi

difficult.

IS a ift.d

had lived to seo

achieved. Both its highest officia

extreme old a-e

While tht ir the lit'tieth aninvi

iM\-Ki;sAL JnsT<)i:y.-TJu: modklw world.

livi

on.re.l pan but their :

In Sc-iitcniliei- <if llie sainr year a Mri..u-; social disturbance nccui-red in tin- Mate ot :N'ew York. William Mui-oan. a iv.M.l.iit ui the western jmrtinii nt' that .■.iiiiiii"ii\vcahh, having threaten. -.1 in puMi-h tli.- M-n-cts of the fraternity nf Free and Accepted .Masnns, of which order he was a member, suddenly disappeared and was never heard of after- wards. Though many rumors of his where- abouts were heard, none could ever be traced tn an authentic source, and the belief was cuiniauii that either his life had been taken outright or that he had been privately and _mtlv exiled into tlie obscuritv of some

perma

fei:

Xe

lai.l.

ider the a great V York,

foreign country. The M suspicion of having abduc clamor was raised against extending into other parts of the country. The issue between the Ma>on- and their ene- mies became a political one, ami jnany promi- nent men were embroiled in the controversy. For several years the Autimasouic party ex- ercised a considerable influence in the elections of the country. DeWitt Clinton, one of the most prominent and valuable statesmen of New York, had to sufl^er much in loss of reputation from his membership in the Masonic order. His last days were clouded with the odium which for the time iieing attached to the name of the fraternity.

Now it was that in the Congressional de- bates the question of the tariff was raised and constantly debated. The discussions began with the year 1828. By a tariff is understood a duty levied on imported goods. The object of the same is twofold: first, to produce a reve- nue for the Gnverninent ; secondlv, to raise

rtieie on whi.'h the duty t ihe domestic inauutacturer

may lie able to compete I'oibicei-. In a subsequent

AVoik' a fidl discussion of e |iie-enteil. For the pres-

■nl. It 1- >uthc oms-.lutv is le

tliat

lien a cus

the purpose of rais

prie	e of the article on whi	■h tl	e duty is
1, it	is called a protective ta	■itr.
Wlu	ther it is sound policy protect its indusll-ies is n much agitated in ne	!;!?	a nation u,. wldch dl of the
iii/e,	countries. A.- a nil.-,	in' t	le earlier
t- ot	a natii>n'> history jirote	•tive	tai-itfs are
ploy	d, even to tlie extent -n eolllpetition; but W i	of , h lie	leventing hipse of

'f-ee pp, 21. '1-210.

given country the tendency is in tlie opposite direction. Tlic mature peoples, as a rule, have inclined to the principle of free trade and open comiietition among all nations. In the Con- gressional debates of 1828 the friends of Mr. Adams decided in favor of the taritl', and in that year a sehe.lule of customs was iH-ejiared, by which the duties on fulirics made of wool, cotton, linen, and silk, and those on articles manufiictured of iron, lead, etc., were much iiu'reased. This was done, not so much with a view of augmenting the revenues of the I'nite<l !-^tates, as of stimulating the manu- facturing interests of the country. The ques- tion of the tariff has always in our country assumed a somewhat sectional aspect. At the first the people of the Eastern and Middle States, where factories abounded , were favorable to protective duties, while in tiie agricultural re- gions of the South ami West such duties were opposed.

The Administration of John Quincy Adams may be cited as the time when the influences of the Revolution subsided and the sentiments of a new era began to prevail. It was the beginning of the second epoch in the history of the United States, considered as a nation. The Revolutionary sages had fallen out of the ranks of leadership, and a new class of states- men, born after the era of Independence, be- gan to attract the attention of the people and direct the cour.se of the Government. Even the War of 1812, with its bitter ])arty an- tagonisms, its defeats and victories, and its absurd ending, was fading from the memories of men. Xew dispositions and now tastes ap- peared among the people. New issues con- fronted the public. New methods jirevailed in the balls of legislation. The old party lines could no longer be traced with clearness, and old party names were reduced to a jargon. Already the United States Lad surpassed in

THE UXTTED STATES.— AMERTCAX MTDl'LE AGE.

growth aud development the mn.st saiiguiuo expectatious of the fathers. But \vith the ex- tension of territory, the incoming of new States, the springing up of new questions of national policy, conflicting opinions and inter- ests divided the jjeople into parties; and the stormy debates in Congress announced tlie presence of that danger in the American sys- tem which the Father of his Country had foreseen, aud against which lie uttered his most solemn warnings.

President Adams did not succeed in secur- ing a second term. The national election in the fall of 1828 was especially exciting. Adams, supported by Clay, who was then Sec- retary of State, was put forward for reelection. During the whole of the current Administra- tion the mind of the Opposition, or Demo- cratic party — for the distinction between Whig and Democrat began now to be clearly drawn — was turned to Andrew Jackson as the stand- ard-bearer in the contest. In the previous election Jackson had received a larger elect- oral vote than Adams; but the House of Rep- resentatives, disregai-ding the popuhir prefer- ence, had chosen Adams. Now, however, the people were determined to have their way. Jackson was triumphantly elected, receiving one hundred and seventy eight electoral votes, against eighty-three for his opponent. As.^non as the election was over, the excitement w had attended the campaign subsided, and the thoughts of the people were turned to other interests.

Andrew Jackson was a native of North Cariiliiia. He was born on the Waxhaw, March 1.5, 1767. Even in his boyho,,d the evidences of a belligerent and stnnny nature were apparent. His mother's plan of devot- ing him to the ministry was hopelessly' de- feated by his conduct. At the age of thirteen he took up arms, aud was present at Sumter's defeat, at Hanging Rock. Soon afterwards he was captured by the Briti.sh, was maltreated by them — left to die of small-pox. But his mother secured his release from prison, and his life was saved. After the Revolution, hav- ing acquired the meagre rudiments of an edu- cation, he began the study of law, and at the age of twenty-one removed to Nashville. In 1796 he was chosen to the National House of Representatives from the State of Tennessee.

in full t;	ice. In the
mnt.d to	the Senate,
a yeai-, wi	thout making
ote ! Dif	sivtisfied with
igned iiis	seat and re-

Here his turbident and willl'u manifested thcni.-clvcs next year he was pr< where he remaiued for a speech or casting a ■ Senatorial life, he re- turned to Tennessee, lli-^ snbsi i|iicnt career is a part of the history (if the cduntry, jiar- ticularly of the South-west, with which section his name was identified. He came to the Presidential office as a military hero ; but he was more t''»n *^>a*- — " "•■"" "*" g-'^nt ^^^t"-" powers and mflfxible hone \.\ IIi- talents were strong 1 it mi] li iu I Hi iutL^iit\

was unassailable, and his will like iron. He was one of those men lor whom no tnils are too arduous, no responsibilities too great. His personal character was strongly impressed upon his Administration. Believing that public af- fairs would be best conducted by such means, he removed nearly seven hun<lred office- holders, and ap])ointed in their stead his own political friends. In defense of his coiirsi-, the precedent established by JeHersdU wa- pleaded.

Jackson's accession to the Presidency was in some measure a revolutiim, nut only in tlie political. Imt in the social, tone ot' the Ad- ministration. Hitherto all the Presidents had

uyi\'KJ!SAL nisTORY.-rni: modern world.

been im ii	of u	.Mill	h IlIIU	lit
l.tui .^.ntlti	UII I	lu< 1	1 u	1 (\
j)iil)li( ill 111	il	(\ 1	llll	n ,1
pi.l. t .1 ,l\ll Ml\l	1 1 1	'	nl',' ',','	1(1
( 11- 11 - 111 <. \ mil ]>i 1 1 11 I tl, -iiti	111 \ 1 1 11	L.I 1 1 1 il 1 t 1	llll \ii	1 1 1 1 u 1

lent tui.k .^truug gruuuJ.s against issuiug a luw cliarter to that institutiou. lii'licvhig the Bank to be both inexpedient ami unconstitu- tional, lu- leconiinrn.lra llial its .■liailn- 1„. al- i,«.Ml lu ,xi,iic, l,y liiuitati,.!,, in l.s.Hi. ISut

tn.ng aii.l fai--ivaeliiiio- iu its inliii.MHv w<.nl.i Mcl.l wiiliuul a struggle. In l,s;;2 a bill xva.s liiMuglil fnrwai-il in Congress to re-cliarter the Bank, anil the measure was jiasseil. The Piv>i.h-ni. however, vetoed the liill; and siiiee

BAN-IEL WEBSTER.

d many of the his fbi-mer lit

lenient ^ in thi

rv,

iv-id..

ure.s. But hi- a.',-c on the wh..l,-, d. r and culture and viou.sly prevailed mansion.

The re-eliartcri Ignited .States wa- tl.r lir-t i-sue wliieh fronted the neu- .\diiiiiii>lralinn. Tin- I

,iit the Piv-identi f thr Bank of tl

favnr. till' ]>iop.,-ition for a new charter I'd, ami the Bank ceased to exist. It was at the time of Jackson'.? first I'resi- tial tcnii that the partisan elements of the iti-d .'^tale- resolved themselves inlu the 11 which they were destined to hold for II' than a i|iiarter of a century. The ]ieo- bi raiiic divided into the two great factions f Wl,!,i and Democrat. The old Federal arty, under whose direction the Government ad been iir;.:anized, had lost control of na- iniial aliliir- with the retiracv of John Adams.

;ed force until after the War of 1M2, 1 the odiiitu arising from its connection the Hartford Convention gave it a final lis. Adherents of the ancient party still ted thiiiisilves as late as the slavery de- ^ of I'SL'II. W.' have alivady seen how, during Monroe's -econil trnii, an "Era of Good Feeling," as it was called, came about, during which par- tisanship .-eenied ready to I'xpire. Jleanwliile, the old Antifederalists had been metamor- phosed, first into j!-j,iibliciiii.<, a name given in the time of Join, Adams to the Anierieau ehaiiipii.n- of Fiance as against Great Britain. But this name was soon exchanged fiir that of T>eiiii'rnif.<; anil under this title the party I'aiiie into power with Jefferson. Then f illowed the Adinini-tiation- of ^ladison, ^roiiroe, and John (^linev Adams under the -am.- j.oliueal banner. I'mler .V.lams, however, the new po- litical for.'.- w.re alrea.ly at work. When Jack.s.ni b.'raiii.' Presi.lent, his arbitrary meas- ures alarm.'.l tli,> country, and .hove all the eh'inent- of tlu- opp.isiti.m into a phalanx, uii.l.r til.' lea.l.-r-hip of Clay ami W.li-ter. T.i thi- n.'W party organization the nam.' H7i/./ was "iveii, a name taken from tin- old .'^.-..tch

THE UNITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.

Covuiuiuters of the seveutfcutli (jeiitury, wuru by the patriots of the Aiiiericau Revolution to ilistiuguish them fruiu Tories, aud finally ailojjted as the permanent title of the oppo- nents of Jetfersonian Democracy.

With the beginning of Jacksim's term uf the Presidency the tarift' ijiu'stion \vas re- opened, and produced great excitement. In the !^essio^ of 1831-32, additional duties were levied upon manufactured goods imported from abroad. By this measure the manufac- turing districts were ai^aiii I'avnred, at the ex- pense of the agricultural St:iti-s. Suuth Caro- lina was specially ofi'ended. The excitement culminated in a convention of her iicoi)le, and it was resolved that the tariti' law of Congress was unconstitutional, and therefore null and void. Open resistance was threatened in case tiiere should be an attempt to collect the rev- enuis in the harbor of Charleston. One division of the Democratic statesmen took a firm stand in support of South Carolina.

The doctrine of nullification, aud even of secession, was boldly advanced in the United States Senate. On that issue occurred the famous debate between the elixpient Cohniel Hayne, Senator from South Carolina, and Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, perhaps the greatest master of American oratoi-y. The former appeared as the champion of the doc- trine of State ngnts- the latter as the advo- cate of Constitutional suprem..,- ;-t» dl the Vnion.

The question, however, was not<k(iihil liy debate. The President took the matti i in hand, and issued a proclamation dinMn_ th( right of any State to nullify the laws of Con- gress. But Mr. Calhoun, the Vice-President, resigned his office, to accept a seat in the Sen- ate, where he might better advocate the doc- trine and purpose of his State. The President first warned the peojsle of South Carolina against the consequences of iiushiiig further tlie doctrine of nullification. He then ordere<l a body of troops, under General Scott, to ]iro- ceed to Charleston, and .sent thither a man-of- war. At this display of force tlie leaders of the nullifying party quailed, and receded from tlieir position. Bloodshed was happily avoided , and in the following spring the excitement was allayed by a com]n'omise. Jli-. Clay brought forward, aud secured the passage of.

a bill providing for the giadunl reduction ,,f the duties complained of, until, at the end of ten years, they should reach a >iaiidurd which would be satishictory to the South.

While these measures wcii' (ji-eupyin- the attention of Congress an Indian war luoke out on the Western frontier. The Sae.s, F,,xes, and Winnebag..s, ,,f Wi^-onsin Territory, he- came ho.stile aud took up arms. They were incited and led by their iamons chief, lUaek Hawk. Like Tecumtha, and many other saehenis who had preee.h.d him. he believed

\ \^ ^ -ij.e^^'J'^

tions in a confedeiao a_ un-t the Whites. The lands of the Sai s and the Foxes hmg m the Rock Rnei countn of Illinois, had been purchased by the Government twenty-five years previously, but tlie Indians had not re- moved from the cede.] territory. At length, however, the white .settlements approaelied, and tiie Inilians were required to nive p, i,-,-es- sion. But a new race of warriors had now arisen, who di.l not feel the force of a eon.- ],art made liy their fathers. They aeeonlingly ivfused to -ive up their lands,' ;,nd l.eean:'e hostil... Tlie (iovrnni.-nl insist. mI on the ful- fillment ..f the treatv, and war broke out.

CXI VERSA L HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

The ir'iveru.ir nf Illin...i~ calle.l init the nulitiu. Gt'iicral Sr.. It was scut, with nine cuiiipaines of ai-tiUci-y, to the .-ite of Cliicago. His force was overtaken with the cholera, which had made its appearance iu the country, and Scott was uual)le to cooperate witii General Atkin- son. The latter, however, carried on a vigor- ous campaign against the Indians, defeated them in several actions, and made Black Hawk prisoner. The captured chieftain was taken to Wa.shington and other great cities of the East, where his uuderstauiling was opened as to the power of the nation against which he had been foolish enough to lift his hatchet. He was then liberated. Returning to his own country, he advised his people of the uselessness of making war on the United States. The Indians soon abandoned the dis- puted lands, and removed into Iowa.

Difficulties next arose with the Cherokees, of Georgia. These people had reached a tol- erable degree of civilization, and were certainly the most humane of all the Indian tribes. To a considerable extent they had adopted the manners and customs of the whites. They had opened farms, built towns, rstablished schools, set up printing-presM'>, and formulated a code of laws. As previously -tatid, tlic Government had promised tlu' Statr of Ccu-- gia to extinguish the title of the Indian lands within her borders, in compensation for her ces- sion to the General Government of the territory of Mississippi. This pledge, however, had not l)i-cn fulfilled ; and the Legislature of Georgia, growing tired of the delay in the removal of the Indians, passed a statute abrogating the In- dian governments within the borders of the State, and extending the laws of the Common- wealth over all the Indian domain.

It was also enacted that the Cherokees and Creeks .should not have the privilege of n.-iug the State courts in the attempt to main- tain tliiir ri;^lits. The Supreme Court of the

r„itod Slat.-,	li(i\vever, declared the latter Miial. The Indians made an	anibuM-ade
appeal to tl... ]• terlrre. Oil t the removal of yond the .Missi> stances which 1	■r.-i.lfiit, but he refused to in- ic (-..ntrary, he recommended the Chen.kees to the lands be- -ippi. Such were the cireum- ■d, in the vear 1>!.S4. to the	another b; F,.i-t Kin-, storehouse, ing with a poured in
organization of i of national re-	hr lM.i\N-Ti;i:i:rr(.uv,asasort ..ratio,, In,- th.- l„oken tribes.	wai-d and ~ s,in, only t

It was with great reluctance that the Chero- kees yielded to necessity. Though they had been paid more than five million dollars for their homes, they still clung to the land of their fathers. It was only when General Scott was ordered to remove them bv force that they yiehled to the inevitable, and took up their march for their new liou,,-. in the West.

The c.juflict with the Seminoles of Fhirida was still more serious. In this case also the difficulty arose from the attempt of the Gov- ernment to remove the nation to a domain beyond the Mississippi. Hostilities broke out in 1835, and continued, with little interruption, for four years. The chief of the Seminoles was Osceola, a half-breed of great talents and audacity. Acting under the old Indian theory, he and Micauopy, another chieftain of the nation, declared that the Seminole treaty, by which the lands of the people had been ceded to the General Government, was invalid; that the fathers could only quit-claim their own rights, and could not alienate the rights fif their descendants. So haui;hty was the bcar- ing of O-sceola that Geneial 'Thompson, the agint of the Government, ordered his arrest, and jiut him in irons. O-sceola dissembled his jiurpose, gave his assent to the old treaty, and was set free. But, as might have been fore- seen, he immediately entered into a con- spiracy to slaughter the Whites and devastate the country.

In the meantime. General Clinch had made his way into the interior of Florida, and fixed his head-quarters at Fort Drane, seventy-five miles south-west of St. Augustine. The In- dian-^ gathered in such numbers as to threaten this p.ist, and .Major Dade, with a hundred and seventeen men, was sent out from Fort Brooke, at the head of Tampa Bay, to succor General Clinch. After marching about half the dista,,ee, the division of Dade fell into an ill were slaughtered exiMpt l\v same dav Osceola, with

re General Thompsi>n was din- lany of friends. The Indians ii-de",-ous fire, and rn.lie.l for-

,1 fit

■ards

THE UXITED STATES.— AMEEICAX MIDDLE AGES.

m's 1 in- fVdiii tlie wot with a force

could bring support. General 'I body was pierced by fifteen balls, ai his nine companions were kilh-d. Clinch now marched out from I'o and on the :jlst of December fou-l

tlio battl.-i^eld Indians made

battle with the Indians on the banks of the pulsed with severe losses. Two i Withlacoochie. The .savages were repul.sed, the strug;:lin;;- ('reeks, who still but Clinch fell back to Fort Drane. | the country, bei:an hostilities, but

In the following February, General Scott took command of all the forces in Florida.

In

easily subdued, and compelled to seek their reservation beyond the Mississippi. The 8erai- meantime. General Gaines was advanc- , noles, however, held their own in the interior,

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

ami ill Octohcr .)f ISotJ Governor Call, i>t' Florida, iiiarclicd airaiiist them, willi an army of luo tliousUHl iiKm. He overlook the Jli- <liaii- ill the Wahoo >\vanni, a short (li.<tanee from the se.m,. of DadrV ma-a.iv. Here a batth- ua~ lou-ht, and iho linliaii^ were de- feated uiti, h.-avy lo,.-,.>. d-JM-y were ,,hli.-ed

aft.-rward< >alliod forth, and fai-lit anotln-r l.attl.. on nearly tho .anie ,-ronnd.' A secon,! time- th.y w.-re .Irf.at.d, th-n-li not deei- sively, ami tlir war eontiiiu.d into tlie f..llow- iug Admiiii-trati.m.

^TLirniiiL' to civil affairs, we lind that tlie j anininMtv of th,. Prr.i.l.mt a,-ai.i~t the United ! State- Jlank had -iveii a (iiiirtiis to that in- j .stitution. His veto of the re-eharter of the } Bank has already heeu meiitioued. Not .sat- isfied with tliis, he determined that tlie stirjdus funds which had aeeuniulated in its vaults j shonld U- .li-trilmted a. - the States. He

l»-li,-vinL' him-olf 1. h,. in ih- ri-ht. lir did not hesitat.. to tako the iTsi,on>il,ihty. In Oetuber, ].-<:!.3, he -ave nrd.r- that the ae- euniulated fund> of the ::r.at r.aiik, ainount- iiiL^ to fully ten million tlolhu-, ,-le.nld he di.- trihuted among certain State Hanks which he deMgnated. The measure wa. higii-hande.l in the la>t degree, and evoked the mo.st violent <j|i|)osition. The Whigs denounced the mea.s- iM'e a- of incalculable mischief, unwarranted,

arhitrarv. .langerous. A coalition was for, 1

in the Senate, niider the lead.rshi], of Cal- houn, Clay, and Webster, and the i'reM.lent's di.stributiug officers were rejected. A niea>ui ;.• of censure was also passed against him, but ! the |.r..|iosition failed in the House .,f Uepre- | seiitativi'-. Such was the outcry throughout I the country that the Administration appeared ' f.r a sea-nn to he ainc-t In-ulled. T-ut the I'n-ideii, wa- a- fMrle- a- he wa. .ell-willed and stul,l..i-u. He held on hi^ coui-e nn- mnved l,v the .■lauior. The rev.lution of ,vii- .suresto,M|o„ ihe JMurnaUofthe.S.iiate f,r f.iir year., and ua- th.-n .xpunged from the record throuidi tin- inllmnce ,,f .S-natnr Thomas H. Benton, of Ml--ouri.

The di.-lribmion ..( the surplir- fund- to tlie varinu-: Slate I'.anks wa- followed, in l.s;;i;-:;7, bv a linancial panic, tli.> nio.t ,-eri- ous which ha.l vet .,eciirr.-d in the hi.torv of

the country. Whether the removal of the funds and the panic stood to each other iu the relation of cau.«e and eflect was one of the political questiou-s of the day. While the Whigs charged that the arbitrary measures of the President, liy disturbing the finances of the c.untry, lia.l" precipitated the cri-is, the Democrats answered that the Jiank of the United States, with it- miiltif.rm abuses was its.df the can-,. .,]■ the financial <lislr.-s-. It wa- claimed by the latter partv that -rn-ii an institution wa. too powerful and de.potic to exist in a free ( i,,vcrnnient. The I'rc.i.lent himsclt' was but little concerned with the wrangling over this question. He had but re- cently been re-elected for a second term, with Martin Van Buren for Vice-President, instead of Mr. Calhoun.

Before the end of his first term in the

exhibit. -d in full tnive in a complh-atin,, with France. During the .Xapoleonic wars the commerce of the United States had suti'ered ill .-cveral in.stances, through the recklessness of Fivmdi commanders, and certain idaims were thii- held bv the American Cnvernnieiit against the Fren'ch Kin-dom. The .,ue.tion of a settlement had been agitated many times, and in Is:!! the king of France had' a-reed to pay five, niillinii delhirs for the allege.l in-

werc dilatory in makiiiL: payment. The' mat- wrath of the Aimaican Pre.idcnt broke out, and he sent a recommendation to Congress to make reprisals on the French commerce. He also directed the American niinister at Paris to demand his pas.^ports and come home. These measure, had th,. desired effect, and the

indemnity wa< pr ptly paid. About the

same time the (inveriinieiit of Portugal was

We may here pau.se to note some of the calamities with which the country was afflicted in the decade extending from l.s.'JO to l.'^40. Several of tho-e .tate-TOcn and hadei- wh.) remaine.l from the Kevoliitionary ep,,ch fell, in these years, under the hand of death. On the fourth of July, 1831, E.x-President Monroe passed awav. He, like Adams and JetTensou,

In ihc'fiiUowi

Charles Car-

THE UXITKD STATES.— AMERJCAX MIDDLE AGES. -yb

roll, of Carrollton, the last surviving signer of valuable buil<lings more uoble ami imiiosiug

the Deehiratiiiu of ludepeiulonce, died, at the structures — -which are likely to outlast the

age of ninety-six. A short time afterwards \ century — were soon erected.

Philip Freiieau, the poet of the Revolution, de- j During this decade two additiimal States

parted from the laud of the living. Thebardhad came iuto the I'niou. In Jiinr, l>i:;t5, Ar-

reached the age of eighty. On the twenty- kan-as, with its fifiy-tw.j th..u>;iii.l xjuare

fourth of June, !«.•«, John Itanddph of Roanoke died in Philadeli.hia. He was a man admired for his talents, dreaded for his ■wit and sarcasm, and respected for his integ- rity. In 1835, Chief-Justice ]\Iai-shall breathed his last, at the age of fnirscore vears, and iu

Uiilrs and [lopuhition nl srveiity ihuii-aiid, was admittfd. In thi- fdll.jwing Janiuuy, Michi- gan Territory' was organized as a State, and added to the Union. The new comnKHiwealth l)rought a population of one hundred and fiftv-seven thousand, and an area of tifty-six

the next \(ii Tx Pi -i h nt Mili n « in i th u ml pin

with tht t iK t u_lit\ h\< Mu 1 I s 1 ,u n ] t t!, VliMii

T I these I i-es it lite mu^t 1r ill Itw i it tli \ iiii| 1 t A\

<li-i^tcis to jiiip. it\ Oil th i\t nth t ^\ 11 illi Th

De embei IMi i hi l.i k ut in tl 1 u i i/ 1 I \ tl it f 1 1 i

put of New Y il ( it\ ml liil m i I ^ th mm ii I i \

thllt^ acies of bnilliii_~ Pn hiiii li 1 ii 1 t li il ml

tu nt\ nuu h inse- an 1 piopeit\ \ilu(d it i\ ii - t f itli witl

ei.htein rnilli n d ilhi- WLie con-unu 1 Tu^t ot tli Til in i:

one \eti afteiwiid the Pttent ofhce and Po-t the I nit 1 ^t it \

cfhie it Washington wtie destio-\ed in the I as th \ 1 1 1 1 ii

same mannei But upon the luins of these I tn i.iiiist iIk 1

It Vl~ .1	1 1 h the
Il 1	1 f 11 uel
11 111 1 11	11- 1 tue
1 lit W 1	1 11 1 tei
1 «1 1 1 h	Il miked

'M
p.Lnics.	Th.. 1
travfil	n ill.- .-1

I yj I -EliSA L HIS TO I! ) '

THE MODERN WOULD.

■w V,„k.

,~ rhn>VH

■.mir Min- Wh.n hh

^^

-^

canir the .■aii.lKlalc (nr the Vir,-I'ivsi.lci].'y in 1S82, ami was electcil. Fmir year.s later be led the power- ful party to which he be- longed, and succeeded Gen- eral Jackson in the highest office of the nation.

The J-^eminoles of Florida

id not yet been subdued.

lie cnniniand of the array

eral Hcott to General Jessup. In the fall of that year Os- ceola came to the American camp under a flag of truce; lint, being suspected of ticaciicry, was seized by the autlKPiities and sent to Fort ^biiiltrie as a prisoner. Here he languished for a year and died. The Sem-

ceived the siippm-t n	f th.. n.-w Whi..r party.	inoles wer.' greatly ilisheartened by the 'oss
As to the Vic(-l.iv>i,	.■ii.-v, i>.. .„,.■ s,.-ure.l a	of their .•lii.'ftaiii,' but c.ntinu.Mr th.' war.
majority in (h.- Klrc	I.,rnl C.ll.r... an.l the	In Decniber, ].s:;S, (■.,l.,nel Za.'hary Tayl..r,
Cili.ice drvnlv.'.l .HI th	■ S,.nat... r.y that 1).h1v	with a force of over a th.uisan.l men, ]ieiie-
(■|.l..n.'l i;i.-hnr.l M.	.l.,hi,s.,n, „r'Kciitn.-kv,	frati-.l the Everglades nf Fl.iri.la, an.l route.l
was .liilv .•l.vt..l.		the savages from their lairs, .Vl'ter unjiaral-
Martin Van F.nn-	, w:,s lM,n, at Kin.h-i-	l.'li'.l sufferings, he overt. mk th.' main b.i.ly.
hook. New ^'l.l■k, (m	ih.' oth .it D.'.vmb.r,	..n Christmas .lay. lu-ar Lake ()keech..bee.
17.'<2. His c,liu-ati..ii	wa- liuiitc.l. He stu.lie.l	Here a hard battle was f.iught. an.l the In-
law an.l liccame a p..l	ili.'ian. In his thirtieth	ilians were defeated, but n.>t until a hundred
year he was elected t	1 the Senate of his ua-	and thirty-nine of the Wliites lia.l fallen. For

more than a year Taylor paigu in the swamp^^. Tl

THE UXITf:i> STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.

tinur.l his ca

men was finally broken, ami in iS-'ill the chiefs sent in their submission. They signed an addition il tieat\ , but iftei all, theii it nio\ il to the ^^ e-~t \ms m idt A\ith much le hi t UK e lud k]^^

11r hi t Mil it the II « Vlnnni-tiition ■ni- miiktl b^ lu thei hum ul cii-is in tlit

rh,

been

issues of irredeemable i)aper were issued to increase the opportunities for fraud.

It was a time when the new lands were rapidly taken up. The ]ia)icr moiicy of the banks -waMeceivable at th \ iiious hmd-otiiees, and spetulitois made i in h, with a plentiful sujiph it bills, to seeuie the l.est lands. Geu- ei il Jiikson still Piesident, seeing that an nils un 1 ciiiitn(_> iicti\(d in excliange for tla nitioud djmuii wis likdy to defraud the

T

^4^..

^t^ ^^ .<

great prosperity. The national debt had been entirely liquidated. A surplus of nearly forty million dollars had accumulated in the treasury of the United States. We have already seen how this surplus was distributed by the Gov- ernment among the several States. Money became suddenly abundant, and speculations of all sorts grew rife. The credit system sprang up and prevailed in every department of business. The banks of the country were multiplied to nearly seven hundred, and vast

Government out of millions of dollars, issued his so-called SpECIE_CLaCIIIiAEj by which the land agents were directed to receive nothing but coin in payment for the lands. The ef- fects of this measure fell upon the country in the first year of Van Biireu's Administration. The interests of the Government had been secured, but the business of the country was prostrated by the shock. The banks at once suspended specie payment. Mercantile houses tottered and fell. The disaster swept through

."jS

uxivkhsal histoi;y.—the modeus would.

every avenue of tnule. In ^larrli aii'l Aiail of 1837 the failures iu New Yoi-k and New Orleans amounted to nearly one liuiidnil ami fifty million dollars. A eoniniiiiee of the business men of the former city besought the President to rescind the s])ecie circular and call a special session <if Conirrcss. The former request was refused and tiie latter couiplied with, Init not until the disasters of the coun- try, rather than the clamor of the committee, bad appealed to the Executive.

When Congress convened, in the following September, many measures of relief were brought forward. A bill authorizing the issue of treasury notes, not to exceed an aggregate of ten million dollars, was passed, as a tem- porary expedient. The President proposed, and had presented to Congress, his plan, under the title of the Ixdependext_Tkeasury Bill. By the provisions of this remarkaijle pi'oject, the public funds of the nation were to be kept on deposit in a treasury to be established for that special purpose. It was argued by Mr. Van Bnren and his friends that the surplus money of the country would drift into the Independent Treasury and lodge there; that by this expedient the specidative mania would be effectually checked. It was thought that extensive speculations couM not be carried on without a superfluous currency. The philo- sophical basis of the President's plan was a separation between the business of the Gov- ernment and the general business of the country.

The Independent Treasury Bill, however, though it passed the Senate, was defeated in tlie House of Representatives. But iu the following regular session of Congress the bill was a second lime presented, and passed. In the meantime, however, the business of the country had in a measure revived. During the year ISoS a majority of the banks resumed specie payments. Conimereial affairs as-:\inie.l their wonte.l a-peet. Rot trade was -^till par- alvze.l. Eiil<r|.n>e.. ,,f all kinds lauLMiished,

tion was hiain The well-k

was carefidlv adh

Discontent the Admini.

century nf our national existence. In 1837 a slight di>iurliaiiee occurred which involved to a certain extent the relations between the United States and Canada. A portion ot' the peojjle of that Province had become dissatistied with British rule, and a revolt was orpmized, with a view of the po-MJ,!,. establi-hment of independence. The movement excited the sympathy, and even the aid. of many of the American people. In New York -onie ^peeial encouragement was given to the insurLrents. From that State a party of seven liundred men, having taken up arms, seizeil and forti- fied Navy Island, in the Niagara Kiver. The Loyalists of ("anaila attempted to capture the place, but faileil. They succeeded, however, in setting on fire the Caroline, the supply-ship of the adventurers. Her moorings were cut, and the burning vessel was sent over Niagara Falls, a spectacle to men. The event created much excitement, and the peaceful relations of the United States and Great Britain were somewhat endangered. The President, how- ever, issued a proclamation of neutrality, dis- avowing the action of those who had given aid to the Canadian rebels, and forbidding inter- ference with the affairs of Canada. General Wool was sent to the Niagara frontier, with a sufficient force to quell the disturbance in that quarter, and to punish the disturbers. The New York insurgents on Navy Island were ol)liged to surrender, and order was presently restored.

The event just mentioned was one of the most exciting of Van Buren's Administration. For the rest, the period was commonplace. The political parties were left to supply the materials of popular agitation. The question as to Van Buren's Mieeessor in the Presidency was raised at an early date. The canvass .if candidates wa- wai'ed in a bitter spirit. The measures cf the Administration ha<l been of a chararaeter to provoke the sharpest political antag"iii>nis. Tlie Whigs were now animated witli the h(jpe of victory, and made haste, nearly a year before the election, to nominate General Harrison for the Presidency. < >n the Democratic side Martin Van Buren had no competitor; but the unanimity of his party could hardly conqtensate for the blunders and liiqiopularity, not to say misfortunes, of his AdministratiM,,.

CHRONOLOGICAL CHART No. IX.

The Hiheteenth CEKTUf.v. I'rom the .kre.ssiuii of Victoria to tiie Friincd-i'nissjnii War.

4CHS. The "m*

L'lieroke iued. iiitted it

UNITED STATES.

t_Jreat political t

Begin uing of II

S-jT. Andrew Ja

The i'resid.

lids of the Creek Indiana.

Ijiison, Vice-president.

; Specie Circular.

Df the United States, rations of Harrison an : United i

5.3. Katie's Arci

53. Survey of a Intercourse i World's Fan 54. The Osteu< 54. Passage of

I's Administration, ■toes tlie Bank Bill.

Webster-Ashburto I Rhode iai Oistu . The Mo -I. tnven 45. Adn

IV York.

ENGLAND.

n.ls'-, pu

■cures. Rl iglou dies.

FRANCE.

VIghau war.

I'-eb. 10. ..xe-Coburg-tiutha,

I Abd-el-Ka. rtressof II.i

bly. Bee. Enters li:

President

>iapoIeoii III.

PRUSSIA. 31- Higel! p'i'i i ios 01

M. Schleierm.icli

:15. Wm. Von Humboldt, philosopher i

37. Archbishop 01

is confined in lortress oi Jiiiuaeu. ■40. King dies, a. 66. , gg Frederick 'W^illlatn IV. succeeds. 45. Schlegel, philosopher and critic, d representative gt

clogne, Ibrbiddii

47. Kingestablis

t Berlin. War with Uei.mark. as t 60. Neauder. historian ai 53. Kodowitz, genei

AUSTRIA.

.TCliiiiilld succeeds, IVIar. 2.

48. Insurrection in Vienna. I.atour killed. King flees. 49. Gorgev surrenders, Au

48. R. Blum shot. Emperor abdicates; his nephew, Bern flee to Turkey,

PranclS Joseph, succeeds Dec. 2. ^g stfiu.s, cS'mpos^rfdfel

48. Hungarian war. Austrians defeat Hungarians at 50. Bem dies at Aleppo.

Szaikszoandat Mohr. &s. Marsbi

49. Budtt-Pesth taken hv Windischsratz. Jan. 5. 69. Metti

Bem deieata .-\n~- 1 .r. ;ii I [ ■ i [inmi^^tadl. 69. Wnr'

49. Hungary dechu.. ' \irill4. Kossnth. goVr. Lor

49. Ku.vsia joins .\!i- I ii ■ imu, conimander-in- 60. Em

chief, defe^u, 1' i : ,,1, l'enip^<war. lil. Li

GERMANY.

15. Ormt hUellecl}ial 19. Jacobi, pliil

15. Coufeae.ac:

a. Prussia, Ger- '20. Austriaand Pru-si t ,- Holsteln, and confederati.)n. May I

imbourg. 25. Jean Paul Kic

Kotzebue, dramat-

at Frankf Zollverein

lovelist and philosopher, philosopher, and poet, dies established among North

42. Heeren, historian, dies ". Tumults t Colognes

Hesse-Cassel i

ah. \Vi 5.5. Battle 65. Sebasl

POLAND.

1 falls. Sept. Ve'' nc- ti

Skruznet'ki. s, ■16. Poian

ITALY.

SPAIN.

DENMARK.

5. Eugene Beauliar

Charles Felix,

39. Christian VIII

■Vi. Emperor'dies, a. iig. Alexander 11., March 2			"• .«;;;-ears-M 61. Death of Prince of Poland.
11 Charles Albert. '" 37. Leoparfii poet, dies. a. S9. 47. Kiii!j.a.lopts liberal reforms. 4S. lonstitulinn proclaimed. 4S. Invasion of Lonibardy. War with Austria. 49. King defeated at Xovara. '•'■ J'r'o"wn"o fon Victor Emanuel II. 49 Radetzky defeats king at Milan. Pence. Ai	^.SSfii Mngmta.ivn

63. Frede 63. Greot

50 Danes deli

iwith Japan

Eehellioii in Utah,

be first Atlantic cable.

idmitted.

Brown Insurrection

lof soulli Laruiiua

)pi Florida Alal ama (

61-65. Tlie ureat civil War.™ '^' Capture of Fort Sumter.

. _ Procla The seven Daj-s b^ittles a Siese of Victsburg. Battle of Cliickamauga. Battle of Chancellorsvilh Lee invades Pennsvlvani, Battle of Geltysuurg.

65-69. Johnson's Adminisu Reconstruction ol'tlie anesty Procl-imali

I of the Civil War. lern States undertaken.

Schuyler Coifa.x ^'ice-president. 19. Completion of the PaciHc Eailvvay.

70. Ninth Census of ihe United States. 71. Treaty of Washington.

Great development of the railroad systen Burning of Chicago. 72. Settlement of tlie North-west boundar: Re-election of Grant. The Modoc War. 73. Civil disturbances in Louisiana. Disastrous fina]u-ial panic.

tial election. Hayes.

ior> ; piemn

Napier, general

67 Passage of Rel i

Michael Faradai

aiashesenfiaULb

3 "War against Ai \

erbj (Toryipremit

il Prince Albert con o t 62 Great distress in L i Serious troubles u I 63 Arthur Hugh CI 63 Lord Elgin go\eu I

63 William Makepe le 1

65 Troubles in Irelai 1 fr n I e

Corpus suspended in Ireland 65 Lord Palmerston prem

iLord Clyde) 66 Atlantic Telegi ITT

--- -- Oct 10

able successful^ laid from Bav (Ireland) t Heart Conteni Nenfoundli

eiijamin Disraeli le i Disestablishment o '0 Hill passed for p < ^1 -sales of comu ii

71_\\ E tladsu

31 1 o Ji.0 Pas age oft:

Turkey Peace i

ith Mev

Blot Savant d i3 Despretz sav

'. adds to French Pro\

61 Libei

allj ofsardini exed Mar 24

CO March feat of inv

wounded by assassin

ucceeds Jan 2

fSu^n

s, Duchy of Na

War with P

At the I Nachod.

opened by emper

'with^Italiiui Prussians, J u

Empiror elected king olHungarj- Pesih.

1 Hungarian diet.

;zby dies, a. 92. ily and France.'

lick

's^y

-any established.

blosser. historian, dies

i Sleswick-Holstein against

54. Sehelling, philosophe

61. Schlosser. hi£ _ _ _

64. Maximilian, king of Bavaria, dies. Succeeded by Son, Lud-wig II. 66. Formation of North German Confedera

70. North

Fra:

71. The

n of the Southern States i i support Prussia in the wi

61. Princ 62. Jew- el Cou

ation-2u,000,l 3. Bhael Gortsc

ntral .

I and Turkey. ity of Paris, versary of

nder Niipoleon III. and king.

■nca. July 12.

yielded to France. Tuscany

War with Naples and Picily, which votes to join f . Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Wodena, Parma, :

Naples, and Sicily form kingdom olllaly. . Recognized by PJngland. C«>iint Cavoar, statesman, dies. a. 52. 62. Garibaldi ireimblican i invades Papal States, i tured hy ^o

Rail« ay ovs Tax riot.s.

Emperor of France gi

, June IS.

ceded to 1

Italy provin

i Papal States from neut, taken prisoni ioutCenis opened.

:ert to Italy.

the capital of the kingdon

Mazzini.

jption of Mount Vesuvius.

volt. O'Donnell I Ferdinand VII., (

>d' hv Cliristian IX

dur'hiesof Sleswick-Hol- I Prussia.

64. Ijuppel laken by Prussians, April

Naval baitle ofl Heligoland, ^la^

.64. Wai ended-Denniaifc ceding to

April 10. and Hols

ers to sell the islands c

I rnited States.

ited from military dut

THE UXITED STATES.^AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.

The campaign of 1840 was the most ex- citing which hail j-et oecurred in the history of the United States. Van Buren was blamed with everything. The financial distresses were laid at his door. Extravagance, bribery, cor- ruption— everything l)ad was charged upon him. Men of luisiiirss ailvcrti>i'il t" pav >ix dollars a barrel fur flour if llarrismi ^h..uld be elected, three dollars a barrel if Van Buren should be successful. The Whig ora- tors tossed about the luckless Administration through all the figures and forms of speech, and the President himself was shot at with every sort of dart that partisan wit and malice could invent. The enthusiasm in the ranks of the opposition rose higher and higher, and Van Buren was overwhelmingly defeated. He received only sixty electoral votes, against two hundred and thirty-four for General Har- rison. After controlling the destinies of the Government for nearly forty years, the Dem- ocratic party was thus temporarily routed. For Vice-Pi-fsident, John Tyler, of Virginia, was the successful candidate.

In the last year of Van Buren's Adminis- tration was completed the sixth census of the United States. The tables were, as usual, re- plete with the evidences of growth and pro- gress. The national revenues for the year 1840 amounted to nearly twenty millions of dollars. At this time that important statis- tical information, for which the subsequent re- ports have been noted, began to appear in its full value. The center of population had in the last ten years moved westward along the ihirty-ninth parallel of latitude from the south fork of the Potomac to Clarksburg, in the present State of West Virginia, a distance of fifty-five miles. The inhabited area of the United States now amounted to eight hundred and seven thousand square miles, being an in- crease for the decade of twenty-seven and six- tenths per cent. The frontier line circum- scribing the population passed thr(jugh Michi- gan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and the western borders of Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana, a dis- tance of three thousand three hundred miles. The population had reached an aggi-egate of seventeen million souls, being an increase, since 1830, of more than six millions. It was found from the tables that eleven-twelfths of the people lived outside of the larger cities and

■teid and a	m, and not in ac-
he.y„r,„/ol	civili/.ation rather
reuse of (■/(	I'liMtij. For since
ge of the	l»ipidation of the
increased	by so much as one

towns, showing a strong preponderance of the agricultural over the manufacturing and com- mercial interests. One of the most cheering lessons of the census was found in the fact that the wonderful growth of the United States was ii CnimUttinn-] than ill an li<'M) tile averau country ha person to the square mile!

The common judgment has been that the Administration of Van Buren was weak and inglorious. Doubtless it was characterized by few important episodes, and was controlled by principles some of which were bad; but he and his times were unfortunate rather than vicious. He was the victim of the evils which followed hard upon the relaxation of the Jack- sonian methods of government. He had neither the will nor the disp(jsition to rule as his predecessor had done. Nor were the peo- ple and their representatives any longer in the humor to suffer that sort of government. The period was unheroic ; it was the ebb-tide between the belligerent excitements of 1832 and the War with Mexico. The financial panic added opprobium to the popular esti- mate of imbecility in the Government. "The Administration of Van Buren," said a bitter satirist, "is like a parenthesis ; it may be read in a low tone of voice or altogether omitted without injuring the sense!" But the satire lacked one essential — truth.

William Henry Harrison was by birth a Virginian. He was the son of Benjamin Harrison, signer of the Declaration of Inde- pendence ; the adopted son of Robert Morris, financier of the Revolution. He was a grad- uate of Hampden-Sidney College, and after- wards a student of medicine. Attracted by the military life, he entered the army under St. Clair; was raiiidly pnimcited; became Lieutenaut-Governiir, and then Governor of In- diana Territory, which office he filled with great ability. His military career in the North-west has been already narrated. He was inaugu- rated President on tiie 4th of .Marcii, 1841, and began his duties by issuing a call for a special session of Congress, to consider "sun- dry important matters connected with the finances of the country." An able Cabinet

G4

i'XIVEJlSAL HISTORY — THK MODERX WORLD.

wu.< „r-aniztnl, at tliu hfud ui uliich ua.- Dau- iel Webster as .Secretarv of State.

Kvervthiiig pnmiised well for tlie uew Whi- A.lniiiii>iruti(Mi ; but l)elore Congress eniiM eMiivciic. the venerable President, beud- Iml' lUMl.r tin- \veii;lit of >ixty-eiL'l)t years, fell sic'k and di.-.l, jii>t on.' ni.'.nth after his

an ov.-nt had nreurn-d in Anienrari history. rror,,nnd and nniversal grief was manifested

On the (nh of April, ls41, John Tyler took tlie oath ot office and lieeanie Presi<ient

ot tlu I nited '^ute^ He A\ as a statesman ot coii^ideiable distinction, a native of Viigima, a giaduate of William aud Maiv College At au early age he left the profession of law to enter upon a public career. He was chosen a member of Congress, and in 1825 was elected Governor of \'ir'_'inia. From that position he wa> sent to the Senate of the United States; and now, at the age of fifty-one, was called to the Presidency. He had been put upon the ticket with General Harrison through motives of expe'diencv; for, although a Whig in most of his political priiieiples. he was known U, be hostile to the United States Bank. Aud this

hostility was soon to l.)e maiiife.-ted in a re- markable manner.

On the convening of the special session of Congress the Whigs were in high spirits. One of the first measures proposed at the session, which lasted from May to September, was the repeal of the Independent 'J'reasury ]^,ill. A general bankrupt law wa< al>o brought for- ward and [las.seil, l)y which a great number of ins(jlvent business men were released from the disaliilities under which they had fallen in the recent financial crash. The next measure — a ite scheme of the Whigs — was the re- chartering of the Bank'' of the United States. The old charter had expire.l in L'^ob, but the bank liad continued in operation, under a charter granted by the State of Peun,sylvania. A bill to re- habilitate the institution in its national character was now bnjught forward and passed. The President interposed his veto. Again the bill was presented, in a modified form, and received the sanc- tion of both Houses, only to be rejected by the Executive. This action produced a tiital ru])ture between the President and the jiarty which had elected him. The indigriant Whigs, baffled by the want of a two-ihird.-' majority in Congress, turned upon him with storms of invec- tive. All the members of the Cabinet except Mr. Webster resigned their seats, aud he retained his jdace only because of a pending difficulty with Great Britain.

A contention had arisen relative to the north-eastern boundary of the United States. The territorial limit in that direction had not been clearly defined in the treatv of 1783, and the commission- ers at Ghent, in 1814, had contributed little to the solution of the difficulty. Like most of the other matters v.hich were presented for the consideration of that polite and easily satisfied convention, the fixing of the boundary in question had been postponed rather than settled. It was agreed, however, at that time, to lefer the establishment of the entire line between the United States and Canada to the decision of three commissions, which were to be formed under the aus])ices of the tw(j Governments. The tir.-t of these bodies accomplished its work successfully, by

THE UNITED STATES.— AMERICAN MIDDLE AGES.

Go

awarding the United States the islands in the bay of Passamaquoddy. The third coniniis- sion performed its duty by fixing tlie true boundary-line from the intersection of the forty-fifth parallel of latitude with the river St. Lawrence to the western point of Lake Huron. To the second commission was as- signed the more difficult task of settling the boundary from the Atlantic to the St. Law- re-nce ; and this work they failed to accom- plish.

Thus, for nearly twenty-five years, the b o u u d a r y of the United States on the uorth-east remained indeterminate. At times the difficulty became so serious as to endanger the peace of the two nations. Finally the whole matter was referref t.. Liird Ashburtoii, acting on the ))art of Great Britain, and Daniel Web-ster, the American vSecretary of State.

The discussion be- tween the two diplo- matists was as able as the subject was intri- cate. ' Finally the bnuudary was def- initely established as follows: From the mouth of the river St. Croix, ascending that stream to its west- ern fountain ; from that fountain due north, to the St. John to its source on the watershed between the At- lantic and the St. Lawrence ; thence in a south-westerly direction, along the crest of the highlands, to the north-western source of the Connecticut; and thence down that stream to ftnd along the forty-fifth parallel to the St. Jjawreuce. By a second agreement of the commissioners, the boundary was established

from the western point of Lake Humn, through Lake Superior, to the uorth-westeru extremity of the Lake of the Woods; thence — confirm- ing the treaty "f Oetnlier, IMS— southward to the forty-ninth iiaiallel of latitude; and thence with that parallel to the lioeky Mount- ains. This important settlement, known as the ^^ JESTER- A.SHBUKT'2N TREATY , Was com- pleted on the 9th of Au-ust, 1842, and was

thence with that i

JOHN TMFP

ratifie.l by the S. month.

In the year 1; arose in the Stati

the 2()th of the same

<43:

le Uh

miotic trouble 1. For nearly two centuries the ecvernnient of that Com- miuiwoalth had rested up..n the old charter granted by Charles IL There had l)een in Rhode Island, since the earlier Colonial times, a certain residue of loyalism unfavorable to

ryivEnsAi. iustohy.—thk modern world.

repuUlicau institutions. Aiuuni: ctlu-r things a clause iu the aui-iL-nt Av.uur iv>t riding the right of suflViige to ].rn]„ii\ -h-M. is of a cer- tain grade still kept il> i-la.-r. With the de- velopment of free institutinns under nur na-

gain,-d the a-r,.n,l,.nrv, and ihe pmp.-iliwu wa< ina.h- tu ahnli<l, the re-trietinii ..n the suffrage iu the Cm-titntion <.f tlie State. The event sh..u-<-d that the ].e,,ple were al- most uiiaidiniius \'><r the change. ]jut in le-peet t tl til n_' the same

theu \M I 1 u liM 11 One faction, kn wu I th I iw II 1 Oi lei party, pro- C(el 1 in 1 1 hiue with the old Constitu- tion tj ch o L '^tiiuitl W King IS Governor.

The other faction, called the Suffrage party, acting iu an irregular way, elected Thomas W. Dr.rr?

In M.ay of 1x42 both parties met and or- ganized their rival governments. The Law and < )nler party und'-took to suppress the fac- tion of I)orr. 'I'he latter in turn made au at- temjit to capture the State ar.seual. The militia under Governor King's officers, how- ever, drove the assailants away. About a month later the adherents of Dorr again took up arms; but this tiiiii' they were dispersed by a detachment of national troops, which had come into the State. Dorr thereupon fled from Iihoile Island, l)ut .soon afterwards re- turned, wheu he was caught, tried for treason.

convicted, and sentenced to imprisonment for lil'e. He was ottered pardon ou condition of taking the oath of allegiance to the established authorities. This he stubbornly refused to do, and was kept in confinement until June of l.'<4.'), when he was liberated without con-

lu the year 1x42 was omipleted the Bunker Hill Jlonument. As might well be expected, the event called forth an unbounded enthu- siasm, not (jnly in Boston and Massachusetts, lint throughout the country. The foundation of the great shaft had beeu laid on the 17th of June, 1825; the corner-stone being put iu place by the venerable Lafayette, wdio was then visiting iu the United States. Daniel Webster, at this time young in years and fame, delivered the oration, while two hundred Rev- olutionary veteran.* — forty of them survivors of the battle fought on that hill-crest just fifty years before — gathered with the throng to hear him. Rut the work of erection went on slowly. All ire than a hundred and fifty thou- sand dollars were expended, and seveuteen years elapsed, before the grand shaft commem- orative of the heroes living and dead was fin- ished. The column was of Quincy granite, thirty-one feet square at the base, and two hun- red and twenty-one feet in height. The dedi- cation was post]ioned until the ne.xt succeed- ing anniversary of the hattlo. On the 17th of June, 1843, an immense multitude of peo- ple, including most of the survivors of the Revolutionary War, gathered from all parts of the Repulilie to partici]iate in the cere- monies. Air. Webster, now full of years and honors, was again chosen to deliver the ad- dress. The dedicatory oration was one of the mo.st able and eloquent ever pronounced in the L^nited States. Xew luster w\^s added to the fame of the orator. The exercises were con- cluded with a ])ublic dinner, given in Faueuil Hall, tbe cradle of American liberty.

In the last years of Tyler's Administration the State of New York was the scene of a se- rious social disturbance, arising from certain disputed land-titles, and going back in its ori- gin to the Dutch occupation of New Nether- land. Until the year 1840, the ilescen. hints of Van Rensselaer, one of the old Dutch pa- troons, had held a claim on certain lands iu the counties of Rens.selaer, Columbia, and Del-

ryj\i:nsAr. history.— tiii: MouKRy worli)

i\v;irc-. In lifiuiilati'in of •liiitiiiiu-il to receive fVom

the laniieiv wen- \\ ana rehellca. Fm

.^^1

ark 1 :,• 1X1 with

fr.

M'ttI

'1'

the Mc,

New V.,rk. In thr h

party h,..-a,n,. >u l-.l.

their fi-llow-teiiaiit.- \vl

Tiie payiug reuteis w

feathers, and d

tict-rs wt-re M-nt to ;

tli.-ni they kiUed. 1

ities of the f^tatc were invoked

dislurljances, and the excitements at 1

suljsided. To the present time, however,

lias never been any fnrmal adjiir-trnent (

difticnlty.

To the same ei)oeli nf ■ hi-tory l>t

tlie beginning of the tioiibl nions. The latter, under t their prophet, Joseph Smith, made their Hr>t important settlements in Jackson County, Mis- souri. Here their numbers increased tu tit'teen hundred. Ehited with the suere>s (if their colony, they began to say that the great West was to be their inheritance. Tlie anti-ilormon people of the surrounding country became ex- cited, and determined to rid them.selves of their neighbors. The militia was at length called out, and the JNIormons were obliged to ieave the State. In the spring of 1839 they rrosseu the ^Mississippi into Illinois, and on a high plateau overlooking the river, laid out a new city, to which they gave the name of Kauvoo, meaning The Beaiitlful.

Here they built a splendid temple. Agaia

,-rs of tlie Suini- inrrea.ed diti;'rei,t parl-nf the Uuil.

piijinlation of ten thou.~ai •a-e of tlie jSIormons and tlu

uhI about, and the t«n purti. lie. Some law- ena.-ted bv S

• addi-

leUL'th

The

jiecul-

of the

yi

iiviet the er V,-ith the r :>ak nf viole ■eM.d, take

, the -JTth

Xauvi

.f thee: . Siidth . Cartli

i-lKir.-ed uith ce

t was believed

were powerle

to and the out-

,f Nail

>t Mm,

..pen U,e

ll.,stillli In the f,

n Illin..i>,

unc-, 1.S44, a mob gathered, il door-, and kdled the pris- : continued during the snm- owin..; y.-ar the .diarter of led by the Legislature. The d of maintaining their ibot- nd the great majority deter- miiierl to exil.' th.ruselves beyond the limits of

to llie far West. I]i S.'ptendier, Nauvoo was cannonadeil for three days, and the remnant of the ^loinion- ulio had remained were driven forth to join their compauious in exile. They came ui> with the main company at Council Blufis, Iowa. Thence they dragged them.selves wearily ^vestward, crossed the Eocky Jlouut- ains, reached the basin of the Great Salt Lake, and founded L'tah Territory. Such were the lieginnings of a complication, which, after the lapse of nearly fifty years, has not yet yielded I to the force of logic, or the logic of force.

(1 of :\IeNieo afterwards, to keep Texas

terposing an im-

nitry between the aggressive Anier-

d the Mexican borders. At length,

ever, a large laud-grant was made to Moses

\u>tin, of Connecticut, on condition that he

tie three hundred American families

Till- grant was

his son Stephen, with the privilege

THE VXITED STATERS.— MEXlCAS WAR.

JO

UXIVKRSAL UlST(tin:-TlU: MODEHX WORLD.

of iimnigrants. It \\a> lliu- tiiut the t'ninnla- tions of Eugli>li (■ivilizali'iii wnv laid within the borders of Texas.

Owing to tlir ,,i.|.i-.-..-iv.- jiniiry of the .Mex- ican Government, and |iei-lia|i.- to the inde- pendent spirit of tlie dexans theni>eives, the latter, in the year fsdo, iai-e,l the standard of rehellion. War lu-..l<e ,,ut I.elueen the parent 8tate and the revolted province. -Many a,l- veuturers and some heroes from the United States rushed to the scene of action, and e.s- poused the Texan cause. In the first battle, fought at <;..ii/.ales, a thou.sand .Mexi.-ans were defeated l>vaTexan f .ree (d' half the numher^

new State was aekuowdedged by the United States, by Great Britain, and by France.

l'"rom the first there was an ulterior object on tlie jiart of the Texaus to gain admission into the American Union, ^'o sooner had they become independent than they ap])lied for a jilace as a Htate in our liejadjlii-. At first the proposition was declined by President Van IJnreii, who feared a war with 3Iexico. Ill the last year of Tylei's Administration the rpiestion of the annexation of 'Jexas wa.i again agitated. The population of that Ke- public had now incresised to more than two hundred thousand souls. The territory em- bra.vd an area of two hundred and thirty- seven thonsanil square miles, a domain more than five times as great as the -State of Penn- sylvania It was like annexing an empire.

The issue here jjresented became political

in its bearing. It was the great (jnestiou on

the peojile divided in the Presidential

leeti,.n of 1.S44. Xnr will the thoughtful

the cluM- of the century, fail

s old ciuesti f aiinexati.m

■ol.h.in nf .lavry. Freedom ,te> had f und a' vent in the

....kil.L'	even lM-yoi„l the K-eky
d to th,	Parilic; but slavery and
	ed to be hampered (Ml the
Wnidd	not Texa.- open t.i the
-titlltin	i" a field as broad an.l
that 1	is-e-eil liy tlie >."ortherii
Id i)..t	lie e.|ui].Mi>,. between the
the Ul	ion be thus luaintaiiied?
we nu	y >ee the 1 lot tola iva.-oii
le .d'tl	e Smith as a rule favored
n, and	why the propositiim was
1 imich	coldness in the North.
roject \	as favored by the Denio-
MM-d llN	the Whi-s; so tliat here
le.dllllil	g of that -eetinnaliMu in
wliieh	has not yet disapiieare.l

David CiMekett. an ex-Cimgressman of Ten- nessee, and a faiihais hunter of beasts and men, was killed. In the tbllowing month was fouj.t llie deeidve battle nf .<an .Taeiiito. in whieh a Hiiall Anie.ieaii army, eommanded bv General Sam lIo„-tun. annihilated the hosts of Santa .\nna, and aehi.ved the freedom of Texas at a blow. The independence of the

ite leader, electeil, and the Presidei

, e.|nally matched in strength, of 1.S44 surpassed in excite- uhieh had hitherto been known . .bmie- K. Polk, of Ten- t f'liwaid a- the Democratic ■ tlie Whigs ehose their favor- nry Clay. The former was hoi)e of the latter of reaching was forever eclitised. For

THE UNITED STATES.— MEXICAX WAR.

Vice-President, George :M. Dallas of Peuusyl- vauia, was chosen.

An incident of these days is worthy of special mention. On the 29th of May, 1844, the news of the nomination of Polk was sent to Washington City from Baltimore by the magnetic telegrajih. It was the first despatch ever so transmitted, and the event marks an era iu the history of civilization. The in- ventor of the telegraph, which has revolu- tionized the method of transmitting informa- tion and introduced a new epoch in history, was Professor Samuel F. B. ]\Iorse, of Massa- chusetts. The magnetic principle on which the invention depends had been known since 1774, but Professor Moi-.'e was the first to apply that jii-inciple to the benefit of men. He began his ex- periments iu 1832, and five years later succeeded in obtaining a patent on his invention. He had, iu the meantime, to contend with every species of prejudice and ignorance which the low grade of human intelligence could produce. After the issuance of the patent there was a long delay, and it was not until the la^t day of the session of Congress in 1843 that he obtained an appropriation of thirty thousand dollars. With tliat appropria- tion was Cdii^tructeil, between Baltimore anil Wasliiiiutnn, the first telegraphic line in the world. Perhaps no other sintfle in- vention has exercised a more beneficent influence on the welfiire, advancement, and happiness of mankind.

With the convening of Congre~^ in De- ceml)er, 1844, the propositimi to admit Texas into the Union was formally br(jiight forward. During the winter the question was constantly debated, and on the 1st of March the hill for annexation was passed. The President immediately gave his assent, aud the Lone Star took its place in the constellation of American States. On the day befiire the inaucruratiou of Polk, bills for the a.lmission of Florida and Iowa were also signed ; but the latter State, the twenty-ninth member of the Union, was not forniallv admitted until the following year.

James Knox Pdlk was a native of North Canilina, Imm November 2, 1795. At the at;c of eleven he removed with his father to Tennessee. In 1818 he was graduated from

the University of North Carolina. In the years of his earlier manhood he was the pro- ti'ije of Andrew Jackson. His first public otfice was a membership iu the Legislature of the State. He was afterwards elected to Con- gress, where he served as member and Speaker for fourteen years. In 183'.) he was chosen governor of Tennessee, and from that j)osition was called, at the early age of forty-inue, to the Presidential chair. At the head of the new Cabinet was placed James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. It was an otfice reiiuirini;

thr tlir.'ateiiiuL'- ouestioii with

nexati Texas, But t

cour.se ))\ir=ue Pr.M.l.

and the union was an accomplished le Texan autlnu'lties kuew well which tlip <;o\t'rnnient of Mexico w A (l.-pntation was sent at once t( ■ntot the United States, re<iue-.tinL; IV be immediately despatclu-d for ion of the new State. It wa- in

An-

> of fact, the ould .the that

UXIVEBSAL inSTURV.— THI-: MODERX WORLD.

dience to this petition lluit ( icm-ral /arliary Taylor was ordered to uiarcli Iron, Caini. -l.-s- SU]), in Wi-stcrn Lnui-iana, tn.,r(ii|.y IVxa.-.

■n,<. n.d .lU.-sliull al i^Mlr iMUVrrU that Slato and M.-xi.-o ua> on,- nf l„,nndancs. IV,-ha|.< iho l.an- ta,-l ..f the aunrxation of -lVxa> tu Il.o Unit.-d State- would l.avo heen

have dirtatcd llio Ik lundaiydine l)etween lier own trrnl-n.s and tlio>,. ..fTexas. Tlie foun- dation of ,h.. ,,nanvl had hoon lai.l as early as the M.'xi.-an Urvolulion of ls2\. I'.y that evt-nt Mrxir,, had sliaken off h.-r .IqH-nd.-nre on Soaiii. and had rearransred her eivil admin-

it herself. In doin

g ■■^"

unitfil in one the two ]irovinces of Coahuila and Texas. These wero the frontier Mexiean States east of the Rio (iran.le. Over the united provinces she had established a eommou government, and this government was main- tained until the Texan Reliellion of 1836. Texas, lieina; successful in that struggle witli Mexico, naturally claimed that her own inde- pendence, so achieved, carried with it the in- dependence of Coahuihi, and that therefore the territory of the latter provinci' liecame, hy the act of revolution, an integral part of the new- Texan Repnhlic.

The same views were held hy the people of Coahuila. The joint Legislature of that jiro- vince ami of Texas passed a >tatute, in De- cemher of 1.S36, declaring the integrity of the two States, under the name of Te.x.as. Mexico, h.iwever, insisted that Texas onli/. and not Coahuila, had revolted against her antimrity, and that therefore the latter State was still rightfully a part of the Mexican domiiuons.

It thus happened that Texas, now a State in the American Union, claimed the Rio Orande as the western limit, while Mexico was determine.l to have tin- Nneees as the sep- arating: line. Th,' t.a-riton- between the two

l^iit.MJ Stafs made a proposal t.. have the ditHenltv -ettled by negotiation, but .Mexico s<-oi-ufullv refused. ' The'refusal ^vas coii^trn.Ml liv tln' .\iuericans as a virtual confession that the Mexic-an Government was in tlie wrong, and, ujion this conviction, continued to claim the Rio Grande as the true boundary. In- structions were sent to General Taylor to ad- vance his army as near to that river as eir-

camistances would warrant, and to hold it against aggression. Under these orders the Aniciican army was moved forwanl to Corpus

ClMIstl, at tlie" niouth .,f the Nuec.s. „l„.,e a camp was e>tal,lish,-d ; an.l theiv Tavlor con- centrated his hove, to the number' ,,f lour tlion-and liv hundred men. Such was the s,tualionofatlldi>at the clo.e of liie year ls45. .\[ the beginning of the following year a critical step was taken. General Taylor was onlered t(j move forward to the Rio Grande. It was known that the .Mexican (iovernment had resolved not to receive an American am- bassador sent thither to negotiate a settlement. It was also learned that a Mexican army had been gathered in the northern part of the Re- public fir the invasion of Texas, or, at any

rate, t copy the di.-pnted territory between

the two rivers. On the Mb of March the American army was thrown Ibruard from Corpus Christi to Point Isaiiel, ..n the Gulf of .Mi'xico. .\t that place Taylor established a (h'p.'.t of supplies, and thence pressed for- ward to the Rio (irande. He arrived at that river a short distance aliove the mouth, and took a station at the town of Matamoras, where he erected a fortress, named Fort Brown.

On the 2(ith of April, (ieneral .\rista, who had arrived at Matamoras on the day before Taylor's appivaeh, and had taken commacd of the ^Mexican I'orces on the frontier, notified the American commander that hostilities had I bcL'un. On that dav a company of American dra.-oons. under co.umand of Captain Thorn- Ion, was atta.-ked by a body of Mexicans who had <-ros-e.l the Rio ( irande into the disputed t.a-ritorv. The .\mt ricans lost sixteen men in killed aihl wounded, and were ohligetl to sur- ren.ler.

Such was the outbreak of the war. While tlie troop of Mexicans just referred to crossed ihe river above the American camp, other bodies made a cro.ssins below, and threatened Tavlor's communications. That General, i'ear- ing for his supplies at Point I.saliel, hastened to tlic place and strengthened the defenses. The fort opiHisite Matamoras was left under command of Major Brown, with a garrison of three hundred nieu. The return of Taylor to Point Isabel was witnessed hy the ^lexicaus i acro.ss the river, who supposed the Americans

THE UNITED STATES.— MEXICAy WAB.

were retreating from the country. Great ju- bilation ensued. The Bepuhlican Monitor, a Jlexican newspaper of ^Jlatamoras, published a flaming editorial, declaring that the cow- ardly invaders of Mexico had fled, like a gang of poltroons, to the sea-coast, and were using every exertion to get out of the country Ije- fore the thunderbolt of ^Mt-xicau vengeance should fall upon them. Arista himself shared the common delusion, believing that the Americans had receded from the contest, and that it was only necessai-y for him to bombard Fort Brown in order to end the war.

In the mean time Taylor Lad strengthened his situation at Point Isabel, and ^et out with trains and an arm> of t\\o thou-and men tj return to Foit Broun. The^rex- icans had now, to the number of ^ix thousand, crossed the Rio Grande and taken posses- sion of Palo Alto This place lay di- rectly in Taylors route. At noon, on the 8th of ]Ma} , the American >. came up, and the battle was opened A severe engage- ment ensued, last- ing five hours, in " ^ which the 3Iexi

cans were driven from the field, with the a hundred men. The American artillery was specially efficient. It was observed from the first that the fighting of the Mexicans was clumsy and ineffectual. Four Americans were killed and forty wounded, among the former the gallant Major Ringgold, of the artillery.

The battle of Palo Alto was indecisive. On the following day General Taylor took up his march for Fort Brown. Within three miles of that place he again came upon the Mexicans, who had rallied in full force to dis- pute his advance. The place selected for their second battle was called Re.=aca de la Palraa. Here an old river-bed, dry and over- grown with cactus, lay across the road along which the Americans were advancing. The

Mexican artillery was planted to cominaiui the approach, and for a wliil.' the American lines were severely galkil. ,V charge was or- dered, however, under Captain May, who commanded the dragoons. The ^Kxicau l;iai- teries were captured, and (.nncral La Vciia was taken at the guns. The ^b-xicaiis, aban- doning their batteries, flung away their ac- coutrements and fled. Isor did they pause until they had put the Rio Grande between themselves and their pursuers. General Tay- lor again took uji his march, and reached Fort Brown witliout further molestation. He found that that place had been constantly bombarded ti(mi Matamoias during his absence. A brave dt_fense hid betn made, but IMajor Brown, the

ss of

commandant, had fallen, i^uch was the be- ginning of the Mexican War. a struggle des- tined to be replete with ilisa.-tt r- to the Mex- icans and with victories to thi' American forces. The news of what was (hiiie on the Rio Grande carried wilil excitement throughout the United States. The war spirit flamed high. Even party dissensions were for a while hushed, and A\niigs and Democrats alike rushed forward to fill the ranks. The Pn si- dent, in a message to Congress, threw the onus of the conflict on the lawless soldiery of Mexico, alleging that they had shed the blood of American soldiers on American soil. Con- gress jn-omptly resixmded, and on the 11th of Jlay, 1846, declared that "war already ex- isted bv the act of the Mexican Government."

L'yiVEllSAL niSTOnr.—THE MODERN WORLD.

Ten inillion.-; of dollars worf iironiptly placed at the disixwil of the Tresideut, and he was authorized to accept the services of fifty thou- sand volunteers. In all the States war nieet- intrs were held, and such was the zeal for the contiict that three hundred thousand men are sai.l to have oth'red themselves for 'the

A plan for the invasion of Jlexico -^vas made hy ( u-iural Sec.u, Conimander-iu-chief of the army. The American forces were or- ganized in three divisions: the AuMY or THE West, under Cleneral Kearney, to cross the Rocky Mountains and eoncjuer the northern iMe.Kican provinces; the Army of the Cen- ter, under General Hcott himself, to march from the Gulf c<jast into the heart of the en- emy's country; and the Akmy (.if Occupa- Tiox, commanded by General Taylor, to sub- due and hold the districts on the Rio Grande.

To General Wool was assigned the duty of mustering in the volunteers. By midsummer he had succeeded in despatching to General Taylor a force of nine thou.sand men. He then established his head-quarters and camp at San Antonio, Texas, from which point he sent forward the various divisions of recruits to the field. Meanwhile active operations had been resumed on the Rio Grande. Ten days after the battle of Resaca de la Palma, Gen- eral Taylor crossed the river and captured Matamoras. He then began his marcli up the right bank of the river into the interior. The Mexicans had now felt the impact of Amer- ican metal, and grew wary of their antago- nists. They fell back t./ the old town "^^.f jMonterey, which place they fm-tified, and against which Taylor now began to advance. The latter, however, was unable to leave the Rio Grande with the weak army inider his command, and was obliged to tarry until August before his force.s were sufticiently strong to justify the advance. At the latter date he found himself at the head of over six thousand men, and ])roceeded against Mon- terey. He reached the place on the 19th of September, and immediately began an in- vestment.

Jlonterey was held liy a ^Mexican army of ten thousand men, vnider General Ampudia, but the small American force be.sieged the place with great vigor. On the 21st of the

month an a-ssault was made, in which the Americans, led by General Worth, carried the heights in the rear of the town. Here was situated the Bishop's Palace, a strong building commanding the entrance to Monterev; but the place was carried on the 22d of Se])tember. On the morning of the 23d, Monterey was as- sailed in front by the divisions of Generals Quitman and Butler. The American storm- ing ])arties charged irresistibly into the streets, and reached the Grand Plaza, or public square. In a short time they hoisted the flag of the Union, and then routed the Mexican forces from the biuldings in which they had taken refuge. They Ijroke open doors, charged up dark stairways, traver.sed the flat roofs of the houses, and drove the enemy h) an igno- minious surrender. Ampudia, however, was granted the honors of war, on condition that he vacate the city, which he did on the mor- row. The news of this signal victory of Gen- eral Taylor ami his army still further aroused the euthu.-iasMi and warsjiirit of the American people.

After the taking of Monterey, news was carried by the Mexicans to Taylor that nego- tiations for jieace were in progress at the cap- ital. He accordingly agreed to an armistice of eight weeks, during which hostilities should cease by both jiarties. But the matter was a mere ruse on the part of the enemy. They desired to gain time for warlike preparations. It was at this juncture that the celebrated General Antonio Lojiez de Santa Anna was called home from Havana, where he had been living in exile. He was at once made Presi- dent of the country and Commander-in-chief of the ]\Iexican armies.

In the course of the autumn a force of twenty thousand Mexicans was raised and sent into the field. When the armistice had expired, General Taylor again moved forward. On the l.'nh of Xovemlier the town of SaltiUo, seventy miles siiuih-west from Monterey, was captured by the Americans under General Worth. Soon afterwards, Victoria, a city of Tamaulipas, was taken by a division under General Robert Patterson. To that place General Butler urn Monterey, on a march The latter place had, how- ever, in the meantime, capitulated to Captain Conner, commander of an American flotilla.

presseo i<irw; against Tami

riJ£ USITED STATES.— MEXICAN If'.l/.'.

General Wool now set forward in person from San Autonio, Texas; euteied ^Mexico, and took a jjosition \sitlim siipp(]itui^ distance of Jlon- terey Geueial ^eott aiimdat this )iiuitiue, and assumed the Loinui.unl in i_lin.t ot tlu American armies.

In the meantime, tiie Aiiin ot tlie West, under General Keaiuey, had sft nut toi tliL conquest of Neu Mexico and Califoinia Attti a long, ^\earisome march, this divisiun leatliKl Santa F^', and .m the 1 Sth of Vu-ust c u.tm.d

On that far coast stirriny; events hi while happened. For four yenis Coh C. Fremont had been explriiu^r th west of the Kocky IMountains. He h \ the American flag on the hij:,hest jiei gieat lange, an<l tlieii set out t i "^ and afterwards fu ()r(L:iin. li in t ttuitnn be turned s,,atlnvard int ( whi 11 on aniMug, he received des] i i iniiiu bun lit tbt impending war with Ih _i It ih.ntnnr tb.Mvn, „ ,

ul mean- nd J hii

kbes m Mtxico

K

■fl

and garrisoned the city. There was no further resistance within the limits of New Mexico. From Santa Fe as a base. General Kearney, with a bndy nf f ..H hun.ln.d dra-oons, set out (111 Ills niinvh to the Paciti.- cast. After pro- ceeding three hundred mik-s, he was joined by the famous Kit Carson, who brought him in- telligence that California had been already snbdned. Kcarnr-y thereupon sent back the larL;i-r part nf his fnrces, and with only a hun- dred men. made his wav U< the Pacific.

r(s]) in-ihiJitie- and began to arouse the Amer- ican lesidents of ( difnrnia to a rebellion a_'ain-t the autboiitv of Mexico. In this work h( w is sii I 111 riie frontiersmen of the

Sic 1 iiiK It \ dl \ _ ithered around his stand- aid an<l the Lunpii_ni was undertaken against the ]Me\ican authoiities. In several minor engagements the Americans were nnifirinly siircessfu], and the autbority of FreiiKuit was rapidly extended over the greater part of Upiier and Central California.

UyiVEh'SAL JIISTOHY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

While these evcnis \vcrc liLiii|u'iiiii-- in the North-west, Commmlnrc Sluai, ..f tin- Amer- ican Navy, liad iiinlcrtnkiii a similar wnik in the S„uth. Aniviii- at lli.' toui. nl .M,,i,. terey, on the <'..a>t, alMHii ,i-lity luih- huuI, of .San FraiicLseu, he caiitniv.l \Ur |,h,re. At the extreme southern pai-t nl' liie St;iti', Coni- nioilore Stockton eaptnre.l Sari Die'jn, and then assume,! eomman.l of ll.e l'a,-itir S,,,,a<lron. It was the news ot-the>,. events whiel. n,.|,ire,l Fremont to exertions in the North an,l (enter. He hoist, -.1 tlie American tia- ev,iyuhere; joine,! Sloat and St,.ckt,in, an,l a.lvan,;,,,! against J.,is Angeles, wliich was taken with little oppiisition.

Before the end of the summer, California was c,)niinere(l. In N,)vember, General Kear- nev, with a linn,lred ilragnons, arrived, and joini',1 liis forces witli those of Fremont and Stockton. Al)outamonth later the Mexicans, seeing the meagreness of the forces by which they had been overawed, rose in rebellion, and the Americans were obliged to take the field. On the 8th of January, 1847, a decisive battle was fought at >San Gabriel, in wliich the Mex- icans were coiupletely defeatiMl, ami the autiior- ity of the United States cstablishe,! on a per- manent basis. Thus was the imjierial (hnnain of California wrested from the Mexican TJev- ernment by a handful of courageous adven-

turers, marching from place to place with their lives in their hand.s.

( )n leaving New Mexico, Kearney had left

Am,ri,'an tores. He, t,,,,, h^-rame an a,lveu- turer. With a boily of seven hundred men, he marche,! across the enemy's country from Santa Fi' cii route to Saltillo, a distance of m,,re than eight humlred niil.s. On arriving at tlic l;io (uan.le, he louglit a battle with th,' .Mexicans, on Christmas day, at Bracito. ill' then cr.issed the river, captured El Paso, and in two months pressed his way to withiu twiiity miles .if Chihuahua. Ou the banks of Sacramento Creek he met the Mexicans in overwhelming numbers, and on the 28th of No- vember, inflicted upoQ them a disastrous defeat. He then marched un- opposed into Chihuahua, a (it\ , f more than forty th, ii-iiid Hihabitants, ami hnall\ leached the di- vision of General Wool in safety.

j\Iean while General ''I ott, on his arrival in Mexico, had drawn down the luei a large part of the Aim> of Occupation, to join him on the Gulf, fii the conquest of the Mexican capital. After the withdiawal of these ^ ti,)ops fiom Taylor, and

while the remainder were left in an exposed condition, Santa Anna, perceiving his advantage, immediately moved against Tavlor with an army of twenty thou- sand men. The American General was able to oppose to this tremendous force not more than six thousand men. After furnishing garri.sons for Saltillo and Monterey, Taylor's effective forces in the field aniounteil t,i l)ut four thou.sand eight hundred men : but with this small and resolute army he mandie,! ,mt b.,l,llv t., m,M.t tlie Mexi.'ans. A fav,.rable battle-irnmn,! was ch,i.sen at Buena Vista, four mi],'s suutli ,a- Saltillo. Here Tayhir posted hi- army, an,i awaited the onset.

( )ii the 22,1 of February the Mexicans came

THE UMTED STATES.— MEXICAN WAR

pouring through the gorges aud over the liills, irorn the direction of Sau Luis Potosi. On approaching, Santa Auua demanded a sur- render, but was met witli defiance. The real Ijaitle began on the moniiug of tlie 23d. The Mexicans first attempted to outfiank the American position, but the attempt was tliuarted by the troops of Illinois. A heavy division was next thrown against the Amer- ican center, but this attempt \\asalso repelled, •chiefly by the eflectivtni'~s of Captain Wash- ington's artillery. The Mexicans then lell with

with volleys of grape-shot. A successful charge was then made by the American cav- alry, in which the losses were severe. Against tremendous odds the battle was fairly won. On the following night the Mexicans, having lost nearly two tliousand men, made a precip- itate retrc-at. The American loss amounted, in killed, wounded, aud missing, to seven hun- dred and forty-six. This was, however, the last ot General Taylor's battles. He mjou attei ktt the field and letuined to the United btatc-. whtit he wa^ lecuved with giea.t eu-

1

trii at foice S,M ,nd E, ^1		tht t <>t
\Nas f,,i a \\ Keutuik\ a	hil d	Ml--
breach ; tin bravely to tl	111.	-ii|,|,
enemy '\\a> , of the stiui:	-I''	th.
charge upon but the gui columns of	tl nr	. lut

in lift when th. thn-ii-m H. w i- ni.l. . .1 ni tlu i»ipulni es-

lun- 1. tii,_ uii.l. 1 tiiint th. li. 1.. lit 111. NN II

n mhI til. inn\ On tli. 'Hh ..I Mii. h ls4, (uii.iil S. ..tt

hut til. tio..|.- ..t hum. ...11,, I., I 1 ..mipi.t nni\ ottu.he

^^.l. iilh..] t.. th. tli.Mi-in.l m, ii 1 ni.l, ,1 t.. tli. Miuth ..t V. n

in.l Iii.luiii . ,111. (ill/ 111,1 ,,it.i..l n|M„i til, li-t , inipii.ii .,f

il th. .m-. t ,il th, th. w II 111 llii,. ,ln~ A,i , ( 1117 n i- m

i.k In th. .11-1- M-t,,l iMii, II,- w.i. ,,,„n,.l It 1 .li-l in.e

11- iin.l. 1 tun,. II- ..t.iLlitliiiii.h ,1 \ 11,1- 1,1,1 1, mil, ,11 i.l, ^^ i- l,t

"t ( i|,tim r.M,_ Lim Oiitli, \ II, 1-1,1, A,i i( iii/\( i-,l, I, i,,l,,l

1- wiie -(itt.u.l will, h In.l 1«, 11 . ii.tul li\ "^iiimiuth. Luly

cyiVKj.'SA I. histohy—thi: modeux

;'aiis was li il frnni

iskc-ts

The

ited t(i lour hundix-d ami tliirty-oiie ;

if tlie ]Mexicaiis to fully a thousaud.

Santa Anna liarely escaped with his life,

leaving; liehind his private papers and his

U'onden hij !

The way thus opened, the victorious army pressed onward to Jalapa. On the 22d of the mouth the strong castle of Perote, crowning the peak of the Cordilleras, was taken without resistance. Here the Americans captured an- other park of artillery and a vast amount of warlike stores. Frnm this point General Scott turned to the south, and ltd his army against the ancient and sacred city of Puebla Though the place contained a population of eighty thousand, no defense was made or at- tempted. It 1- on( of tli( striking episodes of modem lii^tiii\ that a handful of invaders, \\o thousand miles fioni their homes, should thus march un(jpposed through the gates of a great foreign cit} . On the 15th of May the array was quaiteud in Puehla. General Scott now found hi^ fout^ uduced to five thousand men, and decmod it piudent to pause until re- iiitoK I n]( 111- ( iiiilil uatli him from Vera Cruz. At tlii^ juni tuiL negotiations were again attempted ; Imt the foolish hardihood of the ^Mexicans prevented satisfactory results. By midsummer General Scott's i-einforcenients ar- rived, >wellinL:- his ininiliers to eleven thousand men. T^eaviiiu" a Miiall t;ariison in Puebla, he M't nut, on thi' 7lh III' Aiii^ust, on his march fur tlie ea|iilal. 'i'lii- nuiti' now lay over the nest iif till- ( 'iTililleias. Strong resistance lad lireii e\|iieliil in llie ]iasses of the mouiit- liii-; Imt the ailvaiH-e was unopposed, and the \iii. lieaii aiiuv, sweepini;- over the heights, .Mikeil iliiwii 111! the valley nf Mexie.,, Never lad a snl.lieiy in a foreign hui.l beheld a M-amler sciiie. Clear to the horizon stretched I most liviu- laiiilscape of green fields, vil- aL'es, ami laki -- a pietniv too beautiful to be

ills fV

THE UNITED STATES.— MEXICAX WAi;.

town of Ayotlrt. To thi> place the army now- pressed t'orwan.l, descemliiiL'' tVum the iiiduiit- ains. Thus far the marrh had l,.-, n ahnxj: the great uatioual road from Vera Cruz to Jlexico. The remaiuder of the route, however, was occupied with fortifications both natural and artificial, and it seemed im}His>il)|p to continue the direct march further. The army accord- ingly wheeled to the south from Ayotla, around lake Chalco, and thence westward to San Augustine. By this means the army was brought within ten miles of the capital. From San Augustine the approaches to the city were by long causeways across marshes and the beds of bygone lakes. At the ends of these causeways were massive gates, strongly defended. To the left of the line of march were the almost inaccessible positions of Con- treras, San Antonio, and ^lolino del Rev. To the front and iK-youd the niar>h. >, and closer to the city, lay the jiowerful bulwarks of Churubusco and Chapultepec. The latter was a castle of great strength, and seemed impreg- nable. These various outposts of the city were occupied by Santa Anna, with a force of fully thirty thousan.l M.'xicans. The army of General Scott was not one-third as great in numbers, and yet with this small force he con- tinued to press on against the capital.

The first assaults were made on the 19th of August, by Generals Pillow and Twiggs, at Contreras. About night-fall the line of com- munications between thi-- fortri>- and Santa Anna's army was cut, ami in tlip ilarkness of the following night an assailing column, led by General Persifer F. Smith, moved against the enemy's position. The attack was delayed until sunrise, but at that liour the American column rushed forward with inipctimsity, anil six thousand Mexicans were driven in rotit and confusion from the fortifications. The Amer- ican division nunibered fewer than four tlion- sand. This was the fM victory of the mem- orable 20th of August. A few hours later Genernl Worth advanced on San Antonio, compelled an evacuation of the place, and routed the flying garrison. This was the necoinl victory. Almost at the same time General Pillow led a column against one of the heights of Churubusco. Here the ^Fexicans had con- centrated in great force; but after a terrible assault the po-itiou was taken by storm, and

the enemy scattered like chatf. This uas the f/,/n/ triumph. The diviMm, ,,r General Twiugs a.lde.l ixjowth victory by storming and hold- ing another height of Churubusco, while the fifth and last was achieved by Generals Shields and Fierce. The latter coufnnited Santa Anna, who was coming with a laree arniv to reinforce his garri.-oiis, and turm il him back with large losses. The whcile of the Mexican army was now driven into the tortificatii.ns of Chapultepec.

On the following morning the alarm and treachery of the Mexican authorities were both strongly exhibited. A deputation came out to negotiate; but the intent was merely to gain time for strengthening the defenses. The terms proposed by the Mexicans were preposterous when viewed in the light of the situation. General Scott, who did not consider his army vaiiiiuished, rejected the proposals with scorn. He, however, rested his men until the 7th of Septendier before renew- ing hostilities. On the morning of the 8th General Worth was thrown forward to take jMolino del Rey and Casa de JIata, which were the western defenses of Chapultepec. These places were defended by about fourteen thou- , sand Mexicans ; but the Americans, after los- ' ing a fourth of their number in the desperate onset, were again victorious. The batteries were now turned on Chapultepec itself, and on the loth of September that frowning citadel was carried by storm. This exploit opened an avenue into the city. Through the San Cosme and Belen gates the conquering army swept resistle.ssly, and at nightfirll the soldiers of the Union were in the snburlis of ^[exico.

During the night Santa Anna and the offi- cers of the Government fled from the city, but not until they had turned loose from the pris- ons tW'O thousand convicts, to fire upon the American army, (hi the tullowing morning, before day-dawn, a deputation came forth from the city to \ic'j: tor mercy. This time the mes- seni^ers were in earned: but < Jeneral Scott, wearied \\\ih tritlin-. turned them away with disgust. ■■Fnrir.inl!" was the order that rang along the American liius at >unrise. The war- worn regiments swept into the lieaiitifiil streets of the famons city, and at m-vcii nVh.ck the flag of the Unite.i States floated over th.' halls of the Montezumas. It was the triumi.hant

80

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

eudiiig of one of the most brilliant and strik- ing campaigns of modern history.

The Amerit-an ami}-, as compared with the hosts of Mexico, had been but a handful. The small force which had left Vera Cruz on the march to the capital had lost considerably by battle and disease. ^Many detachments had been posted rn miitv to hold the line of coin- municatious, and for garrison duty iu places taken from the enemy. The army had thus dwindled until, after the battles of Churubusco and Chapultepec, J'ewnr than six thousand men. were left to enter and hold the capital. The invasion had been remarkable in all its par- ticulars. The obstacles which had to be over- come seemed insurmountable. There were ■walled cities to be taken, fortified mountain- passes to be carried by storm, and frowning castles with cannon on the battlements to be assaulted by regiments whose valor and im- petuosity were their only protection and war- rant of victory. Yet the campaign was never seriously impeded. No foot of ground ouce t.nken from the Mexicans wa.s yielded by false tactics or h)st by battle. The army which accomplished this marvel, penetrating a far- distant and densely peopled country, held by a j)roud race, claiming to be the descendants of Cortez and the Spanish heroes of the sixteenth century, and denouncing at the outset the American soldiers as " barbarians of the North," ■was, in large part, an army of volunteers — a citizen soldiery — which liad lisen from the States of the Union and marched to the Mex- ican border under tlie Union flag.

Santa Anna, on leaving his conquered cap- ital, turned about witii his usual treachery, and attaek.Ml the .Vinei-iran hospitals at Puelila. At thi^ plare al.out ..i-litreii hundred of the Ainerieau siek had been left in charge of Colonel Childs. For several days a gallant resistance was made by the enfeebled garrison, but the besiegers 1„-1.1 out until General Jo- sejih Lane, on his mureh to the capital, fell upon them and dr(jve them away. It was the closing stroke of the war — a contest in which the American-, had gained every single vic- tory from first to la>t.

The vmv eudrd with the c.niiplete over- throw of the military pnwer .if Mexico. Santa Anna, the President, was a fiiL;itivc. It was manifest to all the world that the war had

ended, and it only remained to determine the conditions of peace. Never was a nation more completely prostrated than was the Mexican Kepublic. In the winter of 1847-48 Ameri- can ambassadors met the Mexican Congress, in session at Guadalupe Hidalgo, and on the 2d of February a treaty was concluded between the two nations. The terms were promptly ratified by the two governments, and on the 4th of the following July, President Polk is- sued a proclamation of peace. By this im- portant treaty the boundary-line between Mex- ico and the United States was fixed as follows: The Rio Grande, from its mouth to the south- ern limit of New Mexico; thence westward along the southern, and northward along the western boundary of that Territory to the river Gila ; thence down that river to its con- fluence with the Colorado; thence westward to the Pacific Ocean. Thus was the whole of New Mexico and Upper California relinquished to the United States. Mexico guaranteed the free navigation of the Gulf of California and the river Colorado from its mouth to the con- fluence of the Gila. In consideration of these territorial acquisiti(ms and privileges, the United States agreed to surrender the places occupied by the American army in Mexico, to pay that country fifteen million dollars, and to assume all debts due from the Mexican Government to American citizens, said debts not to exceed three million five hundred thou- sand dollars. It was thus that the territory of the United States was spread out in one broad belt from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

On the north, however, the boundary-line between the American Kepublic and the do- niiiii.ms of Great Britain had never been defi- nitely determined. The next question which the United States had to confront was the de- termination of this line, and in doing so they were ol)liged to deal with an adversary very difi^erent in character from Mexico. The Oregon boundary had been in dispute from the first deeaiie of the century. By the terms

Iietwe.ai the' ruited S|;U,.s and t le British Dominions had lieen carried westward from the north-western extremity of the Lake of the W,.ods to the crest of the Kocky Mount- ains, but from that point to the Pacific no acrreemeut could be reached. As earlv as

THE USITED STATES.— MEXICAN WAR.

1807, auJ agaiu iu 181S and LsiiH, the United States bad formally claimed tlie parallel of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes; but tliis boundary Great Britain refused to accept.

By a convention held in August of 1827, it was agreed by the two powers that the vast belt of territory west of the Eocky Mountains and between the parallels of forty-nine degrees and fifty-four degrees and forty minutes should remain open indefinitely and impartially for the joint occupancy of British and American citizens. Great Britain named the forty-ninth parallel as the true boundary, and stoutly maintained it. By the agreement just referred to the difficulties between the two nations were obviated for sixteen years ; but thoughtful statesmen, both British and American, became alarmed lest a question of so much importance, not settled on any permanent basis, should yet involve the two nations in war.

NeootiatiiiDS were accordingly renewed. In 1843 the American minister resident at St. James again proposed the parallel of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes; but the proposition was rejected. In the following year the British ambassador at Washington again suggested the forty-ninth parallel as the true boundary ; but to this the American Government refused to accede. At this juncture war with Mexico broke out, and with it came the prospective extension of the territory of the United States to the south-west. The views of the Admin- istration in regard to the north-western bound- ary were relaxed with the prospect of Texas, Kew Mexico, and California. Here again we see underlying the controversy the still greater question of American slaveiy. If the United States had maintained its claim to fifty-four degrees and forty minutes as her north-western boundary, they would have acquired a terri- ritory in that region, inaccessible to slavery, and extensive enough for ten free States as large as Indiana. The Government, then strongly doniiiiatcd liy pro-slavery sentiments, looked with little or no enthusiasm upon this prospective enlargrnieiit of free territory, .so that while the Adiniiiistration was struggling, by the Mexican War and by purchase, to procure a south-western empire for the spread of human slavery, she permitted the opportu- nity to obtain a free north-western empire to pa," unimproved.

The matter involved came to an issue on the 15th of June, ls4t), when the question was definitely settled l)y a treaty. Every point in the long-standing controversy was decided in favor of Great Britain. In the many diplo- matical contentions between that country and oiu- own, the United States have alwavs been al)le to maintain their jio.^^ition, with this single exception of the north-western boundary. The complete surrender to the British Government iu this particular was little less than ignomin- ious, and can be accounted for only on the ground that the Government of the United States, as it then was, was indifferent to the extension of her domains in the direction of freedom. However this may be, the forty- ninth parallel was established as the inter- national boundary, from the summit of the Rocky Mountains to the middle of the channel which separates the Continent from Van- couver's Island; thence southerly through the middle of said channel and through Fuca's Straits, to the Pacific. Vancouver's Island itself was awarded to Great Britain, and the free navigation of the Colinid)ia Itiver was granted to the Hudson liay Company and other British subjects on the same conditions as tho.^e imposed on citizens of the United States. The treaty was totally unfavorable to the interests of the American Republic, and was denounced by many as actually dishonor- able. It is certain that better terms might have been demandetl and obtaiiieil.'

Within a few days after the signiiiir of the treaty of peace with ]Mexico, an event occurred in California which .spread excitement through- out the civilized world. A laborer employed by Captain Sutter to cut a mill-race on the American Fork of Sacramento River discovered some pieces of gold in the sand where he was digging. With fnrtlier search, other particles were found. The mw- spi-, ad as if borne on the wind. From all ipiarters adventurers came flockino-. Other exploiations led to further revelations of the preci.ius metal. For

' S\icli was tile iii.liiiiiation ot tlie rqiponents 01 this tnMty -e-iHvially tin' IcaMd-s of the AVhig pavty-tliat the i.olitical l>attle cry of - F;ft,j-fom- Fdriii. or Fight." liecaiiie almost as jiopular a motto as " Fm: Trade and Sailorf^' F.uihh'' had been in tlie AVar of 1S12.

UXIVERSAL HISTOKY.-THE .MODERN WOULD.

cries— no limit t<> the cumntity ot' ^oid, wliicli nii.<,'ht he had for picking up. Slrasrirliug gold-hunters sometimes gathered in a lew hours the value of live imndnd dnjhu-. The intel- ligence went tiring thr-u-h thr States to the Atlantic, ami tlu-n tn ih.- ciid> ..f the world. Men thousan.ls nf miles away were crazed with excitement. Workshops were shut up, business houses abandoned, fertile farms left teuautless, offices deserted. As yet the over-

d. Nor is their

has never been overe richness yet exhausted.

In the year 1846 au Act was passed in Congress for the organization of the Smith- soNi.\N Institution at Washington City. Twenty-two years ]n-eviously au eminent Eng- lishman, a ciii-mi,-! and iihilanthropist, named James Smitlisnn,' had dii-d at Genoa, bequeath- ing, on certain conditions, a large sum of money to the United States. In the fall of

MINER- llF FUKIY-NINK

land rnutfs to California were scarcely dis- IS.'^S, by th.' death of Smithson's nephew, the

covrr.'d: ncverthi'l.-s, tlmusands of eager proceeds of the estate, amounting at that time

adv.ijtmvr^ started tV.Mu th<' States on the to 851.1,000, were secured by the agent of the

In,,-, ],,„- journev :„■,■,... the ,„..i,„tains and National Onvoi-nment, and deposited in the

plains. Ix'f..,-.' the rod of 1n:,(», S:,„ F,-aii- mint. It liad been provided in Smithson's

ei-ro had -,-o\vn f,o,„ n „,!-.■,:, hie S|,;,„i<h will tl,at tlio br,|,ip-^t should be used for the villa-v of lints to a city of tiftrci tholl^,^,ld

had a populatio,, of i,,oi-e than a (piartpr of a ;,',',1,V /',','!';r'l/.l ■,'."' ' \ftrrwaivl, ni 1,U ow„ a.-co,,l

millio,,. The ii„po,taii.v of the gold-mines i,,. ,.i„,^,, the i,a„.c of his i-,|.„t,-.l latla-,-. Hu-l

of California to the i,,dustri.-s of the country S,u,ili. I'nkr o, .\.„ lliimil.irlan.l.

(1. in 17S6, ,■ name of

TTJE JXJTKD STATES.— MEXICAN

83

establiAment at Washington City of "an in- stitution for tlie increase ami difTusion "f

Tlie Act of Establishment provided that the

nstitntion to be founded from 8mitlison"s be-

|uest should be named, in liis honor, the

SmitliH.nian ln>titution : that th- same

I should be und.T the ininicdiiitr .■mitn

Pres-

nt, Vic.-.pn-id.Mit, Jnd,-(- ot' the Su-

]irini.-ii>al officers

Xatiiinal Government; that the

niau fund, amounting at that

■rued interest, to S(ioo,OOI),

out the _u it k-i_n^ 1 the tt-tat i an nn} k phn of oijimziti n n i^ piepaiel b> T hn Quinc} Adams, laid bef le Congie«-, an 1, iftti some modifications, adojjted.

84

L'i\IVER.SAL niSTORY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

Prolessor Joseph Henry, of rriiicotmi C(j1- lege, was choseu secretary of the iiistitutiou, and the plan of organization was speedily and successfully carried out. The result li;i> heeu the establishment in the United .Statr.- of one of the most beneficent institutions known in the history of mankind. The Smitlisonian Contributions to Knowlnhje already amount to nearly thirty volumes cjuarto, and the future is destined to yield still richer results in widen- ing the boundaries of humau thought and increasing the happiness of men.

On the 8th of June, 1845, Ex-President Andrew Jackson died at his home, called the

H.-

Nashvill,

Tl

IM.^

seveuty-eiglit. On thi' L':.d of l-d Es-Presid'cnt John (,)uin<-v Adani.^ di.'<l, :il the Citv of Wa-l,in-tnn. Aft.T his rclinnicnt from the l"iv.id,.u<-v he had Invn rlmsen to

body he iKid ili-plaved the ninst reniaikal.le abilities and |,atii(.lisin. There I,,' a.-.|nired

Ele,iU,-nt." At the time ef his de.-ease he was a member of the ib.n-e of Representatives. He was struck with pai-alysis in the very seat from which he had so many times eleetiitied the nation with his fervid and coi:ent oratory.

In 1«4S, Wisconsin, the last of the five great States formed from the Territory north- west of the river Ohio, was admitted into the Union. The new commonwealth came with a population of two hundred and fifty tliousand, anil an area of nearly fifty-fijur thousand square miles. In the establishment of the western boundary of the State, by an error of survey- ing, the St. Croix River, instead of the Missis- sippi, was fixed as the line, by which Wiscon- sin lost to Minnesota a considerable district rightfully belonging to her territory.

The vast extension of the National domain and the increase of internal interests in the United States, now fully justified the estab- lishment of a new Cabinet ""=^_ office, known as tlie De-

- -=^^=--_ partment of the Interior.

This was done near the ch.'.e of Polk's Adnjini-s- tiition lo the three oii_inal departments of th( Government as oriran- izt lun 1> 1 theAdniinistra- ti n t M ish.iieton had h 1\ been ad<led the ll t Postmaster-Gen-

1 I in 1 Secretary of the \ i\\ I he Attoiney-

(nncid (f the United stiles hnl also come to be lecognized as a niem- bei of the Cabinet. The duties assigned to the De- piitments of State and Treasury had now become so manifold as to require a division of labor and the establishment of a separate office. A cer- tain part of these duties were acconlingly as- signed to what was at first known as the Home Department, and soon afterwards the Depart- ment of the Interior. In the beginning of the following; .\ilniir,'stration, the new Secretary- shin was lir,-t tilled liv General Thomas Ewiug,

Oh

lere the leading events of the Ad- ,11 of Polk. Near its close the peo- e, as usual, much excited about the to the Presidential office. Instead ididates, three well-known personages ented for the suffrages of the people.

THE UNITED STATES.— MEXICAN ir.4A'.

General Lewis Oass, of ilichigaii, was nom- inated by the Democrats, and General Zach- ary Taylor by the VN'higs. :\reanwhile, the

had ai-ou^ed to consid.Tubl.' vi-m- tho ;inti- shiviTV si-ntimfUt nf tin' cnmitiT. At the first this seiitiim-nt was i-xiav>M.a in Hinple ..p- position to the cxkii^uit ,,f >hiv.Ty into the theu unoccupied national dnmaiiis. As the representative of this sentiment, and the party founde.l thereon. Ex-President .Mai tin Van Buren was l,n.i,-lit forward as the Free-Snil candidate f.r the Presidency. Tlie partieiihir circumstances which gave rise to the new party, destined in future times to \i\\\\' so important a part in the history of the country, may well be narrated.

.AL.st of the i>sues on wliieh the Free- Soil party was iiased grew out of the Mex- ican War and the terms of the treaty witli which it was concluded. In b^4i'>, Davi'l Wdmot of Peun-^h mil inti In 1 int Cou^res a bill to pi hi t ' i , lu ill lli ten it t\ which mi_ht 1 m 1 I \ ti it\

WUll M XI ill! PI Itl II \\ 1 th

kc\ t dl tint en n 1 n tli hii t | p iti m t ) the exttu 1 in it h\cn lii bdl w Is defeated but the vh icites f tli mea uie then(ef(ith cillel thf W w M l Pi )M t inied them else iiit i ] iit\ an 1 in Tune f 1^4s n nun it 1 \ in Biuen t 1 the Pie i leuc\ The leil c n te t h->\\e\ei Itv betneeu Genei lis (_ \ss an I Tnl 1 The i iti n of the ^\ hi^s an 1 the Dem ( i it n the pi ti n t sH\ei\ epetiuK m it uhti nt th 1 i rit(iies naduota ^et been cleaih lehm 1 and as a consequence the electi n w is left m consitlei able raeasuie to tuin n the personal populaiitv of the two candid ites The memory of Geueial Tajlois recent mc tories in Mexico, and the democratic aspects of his character in general, prevailed, and lie was elected by a large majority. As Vice-Presi- dent, jMillard Fillmore, of Xew York, was chosen. Thus closed the agitated and not in- glorious Administration of President Polk.

Zachary Taylor was a Virginian by l)irth, a Kentuckian by breeding, a soldier by pro- fes.sion, a Whig in politics. He was born on the 24th of September, 1784. His father was Colonel Richard Taylor, an officer in the Kev-

oluti(man \\ u In tin \. ii 17^") the tlmll^ removed to Iv( ntm I \ whin tin titlmdied In the ^^ II I 1M-' \oun. 1 nlo, distin- guished him-tlt in til. \ ith u, t (speiiilh in the deten-L ot loit Hum ii i_ iin-t the Indians. In tin *^i niiiioli \\ ii li hue i urn spieuous put ibit hi- _i( it(-t Known was won in Mexico In tli it <oiillht k coidmi; to the popnhi i ~tiiii itioii In out-luned (xen end Scott ind hi- popiiliiil\ nnde eas> his way to thePu-id. IK \ I lis i. put ition, which was stri, th niihtin w i- i ini ,1,1. iiid his Hi- V. with I 1. Ill w il it the iiuestion

about h\ei\ in the Itiiit lie L ilif inn the Eldoiado of the ^^ t wi th ii in t the dispute -whHli n w li Ic ut with in creased violence.

In his first message the new Presi.lent ex- pressed his sympathy with the C'alifbrnians, and advised the formation of a State Govern- ment preparatory to admission into the Union. The people of California pr.miptly accejued the suggestion, and a conv.aiti.in ..f delegates was hel.l at M.mterey, in S..ptenibcr of ISAd. A constitnti.in jn'ohibiting slavery was framed, submitted to the ])eople, and adopted with but little opposition. Under this instrument Peter

[■xjii:j:sal nisTonv.-THK modfaix world.

Huiiiet \\a- ck( teil i. <

Geueial A«-eml)l\ \\i

20th (,f D..tinlHi, IM'

M.

an.l nppo.^ed by th<.se of the .irP.uu.l of upi,o.iti,m was that Cnnii,n.iui<e Line, iu il. rxtmM cili.-, ero-e.l Calitni-nia. \\h.nl,; prulH.se,! rotate was n,,,-,! to th.- slavery, au.l this hy an Aet of ( no T.'n-itoriai h-i>huinn eouhl a

he removed. Tli.- reply resentatives was more ni Thev said that th.- ar-iiii of tiu- hill foraduii-ion piu-t, and nut the whole

slavery .should Xorth'ern Rep-

)])oneut .nlv to:

]Mi--ouii Conipiomi-e had i£<pect only to

I oni-iana Puichase, and that California

Id II t In ic_Midt<l as nicludtd iu that pur-

-I th It till pi i| h it the pioposed State

III in\ I M lit li mil 1 then Constitution

Hit till iii-i h ( - "^iii h w I* the hssue. The

iti- ^H w iiiou and nioie violent, until

sti)iilit\ ot the I nmn ^\as seriously

ifRcultie- ihtamed

<it ui

arose with re-

\ the ^lexican

I ]S'eW Mexico

Ki domain- hut the claim was

lit people ot i^auta Fe, who de-

te go\einmeut A serious issue

-ed hetween the State and the

i\ i(ipiiiiii_ till inteifeience of Con-

r.\ till- tiiiii tin jii ojile of the South

111 il hid hi_iin to (lamor huidly and

\ \Mth 1 1 -pi It to till i-iaje of fugitive

It \s 1- .laiuud tint th. houdmeu of

luth fleeing In m *ei\ite were received,

i-sing the holders of the fiee States, by

ioni-t~ and weie aided in efieeting a final

ill III thill ma-tei- A nainter-cry was

li\ tla opponents of sla\ery, who de-

d that in the Distiict oi Columbia at

wheie the national authonty was para-

, wheie no State Constitution guaran-

le exibtence of the institution, the slave-

-hould be abolished. The controversy

-(.d in heat along the whole line, and

\\a« e\ei}wheie manife-ted between the

- a spiiit of suspicion, leciiniination, and

It this tpoch that the illustrious d lor the last time as a in the councils of his as he had come liefore, peacemaker. His known ironiise, especially on sec- ipie>tions within the L'nited States, was more maiiirested in full force. In the : of is.'.d. while the ipiestions above re- 1 to were under Imt disciussion in Cou- Clav was appointed chairman of a com- • of thiitieii, to whom all the matters ■ ili-eii>siou were referred. On the 9th logical. of May in that year he reported to Congress the eeleluated (;)mnibus Bili., Covering most of the points in dispute. The provisions of this ii.ipoitant bill were as follows: Fh;t. the

th. The	Ile.ir eon-p	y Llay apj.t ieiious li-u!
Missnnri		ry. He cai
. the Pa- u-t of the	in III, liredi'	■charaeter ot leelioll fir o

^P'

THE UNITED STATES. — THE SIXTH DECADE.

ailiuissiou ut' Calitornia as a free State, under the Constitution already adopted ; semiul, the formation of new States, not exceeding four in number, out of the Territory of Texas, said States to permit or exclude slavei-y, as the people thereof should determine; thinl, tlie organization of Territorial Governments for New Mexico and Utah, witliout conditions on the question of slavery; fourth, tlie establish- ment of the jiresent hoinidary-liue between Texas and New ^Mexico, and tlie payment to Texas, ibr surrendering New Mcxiro, the sum often million dollars from the national treas- ury; fifth, the enactment of a more rigor- ous law for the recovery of fugitive slaves ; sixth, the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia.

With the report of the Omnibus Bill to Congress the debates broke out anew, and seemed likely to be interminable. In the midst of the discussion that ensued, and while the issue \vas still undecided. President Taylor fell sick and suddenly died, on the 9th of July, 1850. In ac- cordance -with the provisions of the Con- stitution, Mr. Fillmore at once took the oath of office and entered upon the duties of the Presidency. A new Cabinet \^a^ also formed, with Daniel Web'-tei at tli head as Secretary of State. Notwitl standing the death of the chief maiii-tiati the Government, as in the ca«e of tl: decease of Harrison, again moved o without disturbance.

lu Congress the discussion of the Con promise measures continued until autumi when the views of Mr. Clay, sustained as ^- ' they were by his own eloquence, at length prevailed. On the 18th of September the last clause was adopted, and the whole received the sanction of the President. Hereupon the ex- citement throughout the country rapidly abated, and the distracting controversy seemed at an end. Viewed in the light of subsequent events, however, the peaceful condition that ensued was only superficial. The deep-seated evil remained. At this time there were very few, if any, American statesmen wlio had di-r.-nipd the bottom of the tmuble whii'li had aiisen from time to time for more than a quarter of a century, and which was destined, in spite of all compromise, to appear and reiippear until

it .should be cut from the Ixidy of American life with the keen edge of the sword

Tin the present, howevei, theie «as quiet The Compiomi-e lets of lh3t) \m h tla I i^t and ptihip- the gieitest, of tho . tcinpnuN pa(-ih( nittsuies which \\eie ou^iiiitcd md cauad thiough Conj,it-b b> tht genius ot Hlum Cln Shoith ifteiwuds h, bide

adau to the Senitt md M)u^ht ithi^bdo\ed A^hlmd I buet u t fioiu tin iiduou^ c lies oi jiublic lite

Tht pi=sitre of the Onuiibu-, Lul wis stiicth \ piibtuitl ittluiniit 1 lit (.\ tut soon

showed that the iiwinl coii^ation^ ■\\eie alteied b} its pio\i~ions Public opinion wtsMituilh the vameasbefoie In the Not th appeared a general, indefinite, and growing hostility to slavery: in the S,,utli. a fixed and resolute i.urpo-^. to defend aii<l to r.rtfiid that institution. To the I'roideiit, whose party was in the ascendency in nio>t of the Free States, the measure was fatal. For, although his Cabinet had advised him to >igii the bill, the Wliigs were at heart o|i|iosfd to the Fugi- tive-Slave Law ; and when In- gave his assent, they turned coldly from him. In the Whig Convention two years afterwarils, although the

8S

r\n-f:RSAL history.— the modkux

miD.

y\\>- ill. Wliil..

till- (l.l.atis I'll iIk- (_ciiipr(inii.<e

the atltiili..ii lit' the i-..iintry was tunieil with

less atteiii|it was inaih- liy a few Anieriean adventurers to gain possession of that ishiuil. It was tliought by the iusurrectiouists that the Cubans were ready to throw off the Spanish yoi<e and to appeal to the I'uited States for ainnxatiiiu. In order to eueourage such a

movement	General	X
American	soldier, .	rg
the South	and (jn	tl
efiecte.l a	an.ling,	wi
of f,ll„we	s, at \'i	nl
There was	howevei	, 1
Neither th	> Culians	th
snl.liels in	the isl:	lid

fz, a

l)anr

Ln,„.z and Havana, trii It was eo sage .if I'res unusual al)i

the Department of tlie Ii Agriculture; liheral a|.|, provenient of riveis and of a national a>\lum fni- seamen; a permanent duties on imports and d of American manuf commnnii-atiMii liitwe.-n the

1 of :Mav, 18.10, onsiderahle body •\ port of Cuba. Awi in liis tavor. -nor the Spani.-li ,1 tlie insurgent's and Lopez was obliged to seek safety ling to Florida. But he was not sat- h his e-X]ierience as a revolutionist. llowiiig year lie renewe.l the attempt.

of four hundred an<l eighty le laniled in Cuba. They ttacked, defeated, and cap- vhelming force of Spaniards, ringleaders were taken to iidemned, and executed. 1 that the first annual mes- Fillmore was a document of ;\[any important measures were diseussed and laid liefore Congress for the considi^ratiou of that boily. Among these were the following: A system of cheap and uniform postage; the establishment, in connection with

the Pacitic

terior, ofaBurean ..f

(ipriations for the im-

larliors ; the building

li-abled and destitute

tariff, with specific

liscrimination in favor

nres; the opening of

Mississippi and

ticnltirs ill California; an act f^r the retire-

aiid navy; and a btiard ot' commissiones to adjust the (daiiiis of private citizens against the • iovernment of the I'liiied States. Only two ot' these recommendations— the asylum f.r sailors and the settlement of the land claims in California — were carried into eiiect. For the President's party were in a minority in Congress, and the majority refused or mg- lected to approve his measures.

At this epoch, still another and serious tronlile arose between the United States and (ireat Britain. According to the existing treaties between the two countries the coast fisheries of Newfoundland belonged exclusively to England, but outside of a line drawn three nules from the shore the American fisherinan had eijual rights and privileges. In cour.-e of time a contentinu .sprang up between the fishermen of the two nationalities as to the location of the line. Should the same be drawn from one headland to another, so as to give all the bavs and inlets to Great Britain? or should it be'ma.le to co„f„m to the irreg- ularities of the coast'/ I'lider the latter con- struction, American fishing-vessels might sail into the hays and harbors, and there ply their trade. P.iit this privilege was denied by Great Biirain, and the ipiarrel arose to such a height that lioth nations sent men-of-war into the contested waters. The difficulty began in 1852, and extended over a period of two ytars. At length reason triumphed over passion, and the difficulty was happily .settled by negotia- tion. The right to take fish in any of the bays of the British possessions outside of a marine league from the shore was conceded to Amer- ican fishermen.

The summer of 18.52 was noted for the vi-sit of the Hungarian patriot, Louis Kossuth, to the United States. He made a tour of the country, and wa< everywhere received with

that Austria and Russia had united against Hungary, and had overthrown the liberties of that land. Kossuth came to America to plead the cause of his country and to conciliate pub- lic opinion in behalf of the cause which he represented. He also sought to obtain such

1st ;

iient of the land dif- those favc

Hm

Hi

THE UNITED STATES. — THE SIXTH DECADE.

missiou was highly successful, aud although the loug-establisheil policy of the United States, uot to have entangleiueuts aud alliances with foreign nations, forbade the Government to interfere in behalf of Hungary, yet the i)eople in their private capacity gave to the cause of freedom in that land aliumlant contributions. To this epoch in our history belong the first endeavors on the part of explorers to make known the regions about the North Pole. Systematic attempts were now made to enter

of Franklin, but returned without Henry Grinnell, a wealthy meichant York, fitted out several vessel-, at hi^ peuse, put them under connuauil ot J^n Ue Haven, aud sent thciu to tlit ^ in vain. The G(jvcrnMRMit emit tn d aid. In l«5.3au Arctic s,,ua(li n \\ i^ . and the commaii.l "ivm to Di LM Kane; but tliis expedition al- >, thiiu_l scientific results, returned withmit tht ery of Franklin.

success. of NeN\

■ lUipi:

I K.

and exploie tht \ 184.5, 8ir John Fi ^n English seamen, ade 1 ery to the extreme N possibility of a pa« a sea into the Pacific unknown distance m tint liiectim but the extent of his succe^ ^\as ue\ei a«cei tamed Years went by, and no tidings came from the daring sailor. It was only known that he had passed the country of the Esquimaux. Other expeditions were at length sent out in search Vol. IV.— 6.

mtete t

hil Ie\ t 1 the n 1^1 t his lite His

eaine tne an 1 zeil ml piweis of lebate placed him in the front rank of American ora- tors. As a statesman, however, he was wed- ded to the destructive theory of State Rights; and the advocacv of this doctrine asjainst the

90

UXIVEBSAL HISTORY.- THE MODEUX WORLD.

siipremacyofCougressaud the nation has placed Government to enter into a Triparlite Treaty, hiiu on a lower level than that of his great so-called, in which each of the contracting ua- conternponiries, Weljster and ('lav. At the tions was to disclaim then and forever all in-

age <	f sixty-eight	he f.-ll fn.i,	hi^ ph,	._■. like a	tention ..f rraiiiii
scarrt	<1 oak of tl	■ fu-ot. m-\		-.' again.	pr..|.osal Mr. ]•
Then	followed th	• d.ath of t	l„- I'lVM	l.iit. al-	al.l.-.t pap.Ts ,
read J	mentinii.d	ThMi, . n	h. -I^th	.f Jan.',	I).|.artiiiciit ..t
tie. <	He.in Cia ink to i.-l	, liaMii^ h Oil the L'4t	lljlt hi- 1 ..t ill.	1 i~t l.at ..||..U11I^	Hiilain an.l 1-^ ('ill, a was f..r.-i..
Or[<.\	. 1 th. ilhi>l	11 .11. Dam.	W. I.M.	1 .I1..I at	m.-nt: that the
hl~ h pl.u-e	of Seciftai	-hliel.l, Ma y of State,	-adu.Mt ma.le \	t^. Th. I. ant hv	ri,il,-.l Stat.-, a p..litic; that en

.f (•

T.i th

.,f th

■ death, wa- conferred on Ed\\; III EuL.pe the ni w. of L.M»

1...I faith NN.iMJ.l hf kept with Spain an.l with all nath.ns, hut that the Fe.liTal Government did not recognize in any Enropean power the right to meddle with atiairs pui'elv American, and that, in ac- crdance with the d..ctrine set forth hy President M..nr.i,-, any .-u.di interference would he regarded as an ati'ront to the sovereignty of the United States. Snch were the last matters of importance cm- necte.l with the Admini>trati..n ..f Presi- .l.iit Filln...r.'.

The lime now drew ..n f..r an..ther Presidential election, ami th.- |..ilitical ])arties marshaled their f.irces tor th.- cn- t.->t. Franklin Pierce, ..f New Ham,,-

^^\

\, u ( )i 1.

the Goverr iiffected t.)

Fian.-. um anil

It. of (4reat r.iit.

lieve that til.- <

pnrp.>se of th.- rnil.-.l Stat.-^ wa- t.i ae.piire

C'ld.a hy .-on, pi, -I— that tin- .Vin.-ri.-an (;..v-

of Lopez.

Acting upon this theory the British and French ministers pr..)insed to the American

■\VinH.-lil S,-.,lt as theeli.,iee..f the Whigs. 'J he .pu..ti<in at i.-->ue, so tar as one c.uld he f.iimulated, was the Gompromise Actsof l.'-SO. But the parties, strangely enough, in-tead of being divided on that issue, were for once agreed as to the wisdom and justice of the measure. Both the Whig and Democratic platforms stoutly reaf- firmed the principles of the Omnibus Bill, ' by which the dissensions of the country had

he,-n .piiet.-.l.

The phil,,s.,phi.- eve may di>c..ver in this nnaniniitv th.- .-xa.-t e..n,liti..ns ..f the univer- sal rev..lt a-aiii>t tie- jiriiM-ipl.-s s.. >t..utly afiirnie.l. G-rtain it is that when the tw,. po- litical parties in any modern nation agree t.) maintain a given theory and fact, that theory and fact are destined to speedy overthrow. The greater the unanimity the more certain the revolution. It was so in the present in- stance. Although the Whigs and Democrats agreed as to the righteousness of the Omnibus Bill, a thir.l party arose whose members,

THE UNITED STATES.— THE SLYTH DECADE.

■wliether Whigs or DeiiK.icrats, doubted denied the wisdom of the Compromise of 1850, and declaretl that all the Territories of tiie United States ou-ht to l.c five. .T,,hii 1'. Hale, of New Ilaiuiishirf, was \<i the candidate of this Free-.'j'^il party, and the largeness of his vote showed unmistakably the approach of the coming sturm. Mr. Pierce, however, was elected by a luiiHlMmir iiKijnrity, and William R. King, of Alabama Vice-President.

Franklin Pierce was a native of" ?s Hampshire, a graduate of B(jwil()iu (Jii a lawyer by profession, a politician, a general in the Mexican War, a statesman of considerable ability. Mr. King, the Vice-President, had for a long time rep- resented Alabama in the Senate of the United States. On account of failing health he was sojourning in the i-laml of Cuba at the time of the iuaugurati'>ii, and there received the oath of offirv. Growing still more feeble, he retu his own State, where he died on tlie l^tl. of April, 1853. As Secretary of Stat,' under the new Administration, William L. Marcy, of New York, was chosen.

At the epoch of the accession of Pierce to the Presidency, the attention of t country began to be called again to tl necessity of improved means of conimmi cation between the East and West. Pvai roads had now been extended across tin- older States of the Union and had at length reached the Mississippi River; but the vast territories lying west of the Father of Waters were still unexplored, except by the .slow-going movements of primi- tive times. The question of a Pacific rai was now agitated, and as early as the sui of 1853 a corps of engineers was sent oi the Government to explore a siiitaV At the first the enterprise was regard' majority of the people as visionary; but intelligent minority discerned clearly euougl the feasibility, and indeed the inevita cess, of the enterprise. In the same year of sending out the engineers the disputed ary between New Mexico and the Mexican province of Chihuahua was satisfactorily set- tled. The maps on which the former treaties -with Mexico had been based were found to be

Pein, of tl„ W II ol 1-

squadi.m juto the b.n

warned to depart, he ex]il.i

officer* the sincere decile ot tin I

to enter into a coniniercial treaty with the

Emperor. Atter much delay and hesitancy

on the part of the Japanese Government, con-

UMVERSAL IIISTOL'V.— THE MODEKN WORLD.

bet«,.-i,tli:, Penv. A I

.f ilu- riiiic.l Si

was s(i(.n f..llnu,,l l,y the still ,-ivater tililuis- l.riii- (■xiic.liti.ms <,r (inuial William Walker inlo Ciitral Ai.uiira. This an.larious an.)

II iillic(i- laiil lief'ore iniscni]n

V fiiihi iIk' President , in l^'^l.

lir tiovernment of , in I'alil.

■V ..r ace,.|.tiii,>:- the San Fnii

l' until thcsprin.uof , < )1,1 Call

llirt.-.l. The ,,rivi- man-he.l

■ent ..n La Paz, in Ih.xNin- siiiiiiL:, he

TS",4 that a tivaty ua- .11, leo-es ..f ,-ni,n„.iv,. unv l Ani.-iiran vr><.l>, an.l tuo p aesiLiiiate,! lia- llaar n<e.

While these events NV.Te for Ka.t the s.eon.l WoiiuV i'air was ,,|.en.Ml, in the Ci v.-lal Palace, .New Vmk. It was the

■re >tan.lawl ..f rev<.ll. lli< hand, li..w..v,a-, uen .- , s,'alt,-re,l an,l l,ll„M-ir ina.le |.ns,,ner. 1.

,1. ^ot satistied ui

arcliitecture. In and glass. Tl arts and niannl \vere ].nt .m . buildin-. The (.r the «hnl.-

twn, and with this haud- lid pnieeeded to Central Anierha. lie was now

'insur::en't native,-, and with Ihe-e he f..uj,tan,l

l^V,. In the .see.in.l .nnlliet, at Viroin Pav,

1,.. natir.n. The s

ni. snn.n.er, when his Hillucnr,. had lieeonie s„ oi-.at that he was ,.leet.'.l l'i,>idrnt ,if Meara- uiia. Soon afterwards there was a change in \ i:iiat insurrection ensued luntv, and the nther Central s. a>'si>t..l l)V the Vanderhilt whns'e rights he had uainst him. He was ,,veiihn>\Mi. and i.n the 1st (if May, 1857, was ai:ain made prisimer. In a short time, ho\v- e\-er, he was l',Mitl(i(.>e, and, making his way to New < >i leans, he sneee.'deil in organizing a thinl ,nn,panv of a.lv.ntuiers- men whe ha.l cv.rytliin- tn' ^ain and nothing to lo>e. On the I'otli of Nnvrmher l)e was successful in reaeliing I'nnta A renas, Nicaragua, but within le,-^ than a iiHmth he was obliged to surrender tn Cnmin.idoiv Panhling. ..f the United States Navv. He wa> taken as a eaotive tn New

THE UXITKD STATES— THE SIXTH DECADE.

York, but, regaining lii> hi his scheming, and in June Central America for the tli commanded a ( mi-id army he made a (U duras; but the Pit- sisted by a Biiti'-h powered and captured nearly the whole baud. On the 3d of Sep- tember, Walkei ^^ as brought to trial by a court-martial at Trux- illo, was condemned and shot. The cour- age with which he met his fate has half re- deemed his forfeited fame, and left after times in doubt whether he shall be called fa- natic or hero.'

To Pierce's Ad- ministration Inlnll.-

the episode in Am i icau history km luii i- the M.VRTrx Ko-^/i v Affaiu. .Ala 1 tin Koszta had been a leader iu the Hunga riau revolt again-t Austria, iu l<S4i) After the suppression of the rebellion he fled to Turkey, whence he was demanded bv the Austrian Government as a refugee aud traitor. The Tuiki'-h authorities, however, refused to give him up, but agreed that he should be sent into exile to some foiviiiii laud, ue\ei ti upon (.-hdr^e the Vnitid bt

.ll.l.	tol	( W	til hi.	kt N , ,
lit	<.ii	lUMJIo	Hnn	pi. .1111
lit an	.f-ua	iiat Nt.	o^,l-	and N

IS of

iplete Tur- >imer ened

'The poet Joa(iiun been a member uf AA i invasion of Central Auu i balnieil the memory of Ir Wilh Walker in Nica,,, conciliate the good (ii>iir

nit hnn on boai Tin Ameiiean oihci. K<i-7ta's ielea--e ,

94

VM VERSA L niSTOHY.-rHE MODERN WORLD.

ThereuiKUi, C;i]it;iiii Duncan

loaded his guns, juiinted tluiii vessel, aud was al)()iit tu niak( it was a-ret-d l.v all parties tli W- |.nt in ,l,arj.. of lU- Fn-, until liisnatinnalltv >l.nnld \m In tlii> CMnditinn ..t

-inn x„ r.an.n r at Wa>hin.u-- the Anieric-au espoudence on

dec

tion was i^iviii kwv Un- < Hiilsenian— the An.-trian n toil — and William L. M; Secretary of State. The the sulijeot was one of the ablest discussions on record, and extended, before its termination, to almost every i|nestinu afli-ctiug naturalization and citizenship, and, indeed, to many other important topics of international law. Mr. Marcy was completely triumphant in his argu- ment, and Kn>zta wa< remanded to the United States. Of .-" nineh iinp.atauce is the life of one mail, when it involves the great question of human rights.

The bad state of feelings cherished by Sjiain towards the United States after the invasion of Cuba by Lopez did not readily subside. In 1853-54 the jjeaceable relations of the two countries were again endangered on account of Cuban complications. President Pierce be- lieved that, owing to the financial embarrass- mentsof the Spani-sh Goveinnient, Cuba might now be purchased at a lea.-onalile price and annexed to the United States. It can not be doubted that there had existed for some time, on the part of Democratic Administrations, a covert purpose to obtain possession of Cuba, and this again with respect to the institution of slavery. For a quarter of a century the South, embodying the slaveholding sentiment, had seen with alarm the overwhelming growth of the North and of the free institutions cher- ished by the Northern people. Against this, Southern statesmen had sought to op]).i=e the machinery of the Government; and niany were the devices adopted to prevent that natu-

ral course of atiliir- which poi	tended the lim-
itation of the -lave-y-t.-m.	The desire to
purchase Cuba wa> o„e of tl	ose devices by
which it was hoped to keep n	) the equipoise
of the South an.l of the .-yste	n of slave-lahor
on the one side, as against llu	North and the
system of free-labor on the oil	cr.
The duty of adjusting th	e delicate vvh-

tions of the United States and Spain with re- sjiect to the i>Iand was intrusted at first to !Mr. Soule, the American Minister at Madrid ; but afterwards James Buchanan and John Y. ^lason were added to the Commission. A con- vention of the anibas.?adors of the various Governments concerned was held at Ostend, and an important instrument was there drawn up, chiefly by ^Mr. Buchanan, known as the Ostend ;Masifi:sto. The (hjcument was chiefly devoted to an elaborate statement of the arguments in favor of the purchase and annexation of Cuba by the United States as a measure of sound wisdom to both the Span- ish aud American (iovernments; but nothing fif practical importance resulted from the em- liassy or the manifesto. The logic of events was against the purchase, and the question at length lapsed.

The time had ik^w come for the territorial organization of the great domains lying west of ]Miiinesota, Iowa, and Jlissouri. Already into these vast regions the tides of immigra- tion were pouring, and a government of some kind became a necessity of the situation. One must needs see, in the retrospect, the inevitable renewal under these conditions of the slavery question as the most important issue which was likely to affect the creation of new Ter- ritories and new States.

In January of 1854, Senator Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, brought before the Senate of the United States a proposition to organ- ize the Territories of Kansas and Neliraska. In the bill reported for this purpose a clause was inserted providing that the people of the two Territories, in forming their Con- stitutions, shmdd decide for themselves whether the new States -•-hould be free or slaveholding. This was a virtual repeal of the Missouri Compromise; for both of the new Territories lay north of the parallel of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes, above which line it had been provided in the ]Mi.-souri compact that slavery, m- involuntary servitude, should not exist.

What the ulterior motive of Senator Doug- las was in thus opening anew a question which had been .-ettled with so great difficulty thirty- three years before, can not well be ascertained. The friends <if that statesman have claimed that his action in the premises was based upon

THE UXITED STATES.— THE SIXTH DECADE.

a theory that all the Territories of the Union should, as an abstract and general proposition, be left entirely free to decide their domestic institutions for themselves. The opponents of Douglas held that his object \va> in this covert manner to open the \a^t domain of Kansas and Nebraska to the in-titiitiou of slavery, and that thereliy lit- hoped to ■secure the ever- lasting gratitude of the South, to the •-u]iport of which he looked in his a.>-pirati(iii^ fur the Presidency. However this may be, the etilct of his measure in the Senate was inevitalile. At a single stroke the old settlement of the slavery question was undone. From January until May, Douglas's report, known as the Kan- sas-Nebraska Bill, was debated in C'ongre-^. All the bitter s.-rtiolial antagoniMu- (.f the past Nvere aroused in full i\<rrr. The bill was violently opposed by a majorit_y of the repre- sentatives of the East and the North, but the minority from those sections, uniting with the Congressmen of the South, enabled Douglas to carry his measure through Congress, and in May of 1S54 the bill was passed and received the san<'tioii of the President.

No s(joner had this act for the organization of the two Teri'itories been passed than the battle which had been waged in Congress was transferred to Kansas. Whether the new State should admit shivery nr exclude it, now depended iip(jn the vote df the people. Free- State men and Slave-State men both made a rush for the Territory, in order to secure the majority ; and both parties were backed by factions throughout the Union. As a result, Kansas was soon tilleil with an agitated mass of people, thousands of whom had been sent thither to vote. On the whole, the Free-Stale partisans gained the advantage on the score of immigration; for their resources were greater, and their zeal no less. But the pro- slavery party had a corresponding advantage in the prtixiniity <.F the great slave State of Missouri. With only a modest river between her western borders and the prairies of Kansas, she might easily discharge into the Territory a large part of her floating population, to be re- manded when the i.urpnse for which it was sent across the boun(hu-y had been subserved.

At the Territorial election of November, 1854, a pro-slavery delegate was chosen to Congre.ss, and in the general election of the

following year the same party was triumph- ant. The State Legislature, chosen at this time, assembled at the town of Lecompton, and organized a Government and framed a Constitution permitting slavery. The Free- Soil party, however, declared the general election invalid on account of fraudulent vot- ing. A general convention of this party was held at T.ipeka, \\h<-re a Con^itution exelu.ling -la\ery \\a- adopt( d. A lival (Government

tween the tw" faetinn-.

From the aut\nun of l-Soo until the follow- ing sunniK r the Territory was the scene of constant tuiniud and violence. On the od of

September the President appointe<l John W. Gear}', of Pennsyhania, Military Governor of Kansas, with full jinwers to rest<ire order and punish lawlessness. < )n his arrival warlike demonstrations cens.il. and the hostile parties scattereil to their lionies. Meanwhile, how- ever, the agitation having its center in the Territory had extended to all ]iarts of the Union. The questions thus rais<(l were those on which the people of the Uniteil States divided in tlie Presi.lential election of l.Soli.

There was now no lack of an issue. James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, was nominated as the Democratic candidate. By planting himself

uyivi:i;SAL history.—tuk modern world.

THE IMllh sj \11S—1HE SIXIH ]>I( \DL

subject mattei of the dt u-k the destmie'! of the hhukin for a eonbiflei ible jxu "I tl Ameutin p( ople Dml ^ and hid been held i~ 1 -1 IX Emei-(ui nt Mi-nmi i mu. Stites uin\ In c .,11 . ot 111,1. ] 1,1. m.neil t > 1!." k Mm 1 III111..1- ,1, wiid>, lu 1<S3(. t . 1 ..It ^11. llii,_ M lu these iemi)\ lU ^1 .tt w , tik. 11 il sla\e AtthelUtei pli, ehi m.l 11,,.,. who hid beeu bought 1)\ th. -iii_i miiiied Two chihheii \\u. b..ii, ..1 in_. ui.l then th. vh..l. t,i,iiU w. bi, k t..st L.iui^ 111.1 -.1.1 l)i..l N,

,t Ml

.. Ill	pint lilt to	l^'ll) \\ I- HI	(.>ll-tlUltl..|i ll 1	1.1 \..l,l 111 th.-
It It	.i,_|..- u\	1 pIllH.Il- -l\	i--.u,t, luMi.	~.,1 111, ^„l, II,
tt. lit	l.ll .,t tlK	];. mil— A\ n	11. ^.b..ll (,i	. I.ini.l ( ,1,,,,
u l^	I N._|.,	bill 111.1 ( It	. 11 — ,,11. nil.. 1	uliil. lu., ,- ,„1
\ 1 I	.It. Ill 1)1	it.s— TikL.^	AI.I . Ill 111.1	( ,lltl~-.ll- .llt.ll
1 111	11. I l,lt..l	111. d,tIM,.II	,.t ll,. I,l,l..l	IN Ul,l. h U 1 U

/. ll..ll-l\ 111- t..l

th. .h. tuiii .,t the C.uit

It will bo leiiieiiibeiPil thit

oue cHiise

til, ■-	i|,i.	11. Cult ..t
th.	I n	t..l •-'it.-.
ill,,, 1..I ll	tlu ..lit	iiiitt, 1 h\
AftLl	the	DemoLi iti.
tuumi	ihiu	185b anil the
acces-	(III	)f B,i(.h\uxii
M th.	Pi	-i.h 11, \ th.

p.,lt,Ul. t.,1 ^UlU^. I

qiiietii> to the d.Ktimes ^'

ot th, Fiee S.nl piit:\,

nil 1 th. .1. . 1 I ,11 wi- it

„ii,, i-,i..l Ill^[u.h

1,S57, Cliiet - Justice

Rig-er B. Taiie_v, speaking f..i- th.' ('..iirt, ,1..

cided that negroes, whether fV.'.' or slav.', ,,'./■

nut rlliy'iK of thr Unlh.l St,ifr.<, ,„„/ //,„/ //,,■

Cn„!.l ».,/ hrrniHP .olrh l„, .,„,, ;„-,„rss /,•„„„,, ^, //,

Cin4lt,if;,>„; that 1111, ha- tli." law^ ..f th.' riiii.'. States a negro eoiihl ii.'iih.a' sii.' nor ln' sii...] and that therefor.' th.' ('..iirt ha.l 11., iiiri-.li,' tiou of Dred S.'ott's ,-ui-e; that tli.. slav.' wa to be regarded simidv in th.- li-lit ..f n |..'i

That

:iv,dv Til.

.1 thet

bv th.' :\b.iii ■v ha.l is.'ap,'. ■,.f th.' Unit, iselves ill win

'Ssible c..lllltr\

,f rtah Terri- '.'iipi.'.l alna.st ir Latt.r-Day lallv fn. Ill the it.'s, aii.l had

American iii.li.'ial s\

sonal chattel, an.] that he inii. from place to pla,:'e bv his own, piece of propertv : that the d to the slaveholder the ri-lit <,f through any State or T.rritorv an.l of returnins: at his will \ .'state where slavery was r,','.iL an.l that, therefore, the ^Nlis-oi of 1.S20, as well as the C..iiipr..ii

.v.'.l Thus far Briohani Y tl„.|- an.l r;ovcrnor. ha.l.

. At l.n-tli, h..v la.h' t.. .xt.'ii.l th ..v.r th.' T.'rritoi-} I,.' florin.. 11 Pr..ph« h.a.l ..f th.' theo, in tl,.' a.lministr: iiiinitv ..f ^b.nn..r v.'rv ililK'ivnt tn.i rritnri.'s, „,„1 man

UXIVEESAL HISTORY.— THE MDDEUX WOULD.

When the Fe.lfral Jiiaue ,m,- -eiit out in 1857 to preside in tlie Tcrrilmy, he \\a~ re- ti-ted, insulted, and driven \inlujtly In^ni the seat of justice. The other ottieial^ of the Federal (iovernmeut were in a like manner expelled, and the Territory Iircanie the M-ene

of a reigni	.f terror.	Tlie Mniniouv idaimid
in JListificati	m <.f thcii	action that the otticei^
^\ho had 1h,	n -ent Ml	t to govern them were
of ^o Inu a	ehara.-t. r	a- h) conimaml no re-
sjioi-t. But	theexrUM.	«a~ deemed in>uffieieut,
and Brighai	. Youuu	«a~ Mip( i-idcd in the
Government	l,y All,	d Cummnij, Sup, iin-
tendcnt of I	i.dian Atn	11- ..u the UppM .Ml--
souri. Jud'	e Delana	i;. EekeK, of In.hana,

mand of Colonel Allieit Sidney Johnston, were obliged to find quarter- on Blaek's Fork, near Fort Bridges.

In the meantime, the President dispatched Thomas L. Kane, of Pennsylvania, with con- ciliatory letter- to the Mormons. Going by uay ol' ('ahf.nna, he i,a.-hed Utah in the

iu bringing about an understamling between Governor Gumming and the Mormons. In tne latter jiart of May, Governor Powell, of Ken- tu( k\ , and ^[ajor JMcCulloch, of Texas, arrived

was appointed Chief-Justice of the Territory, and an army of two thousand five hundred men was sent to Utah to put down lawlessness by force.

Brigbam Young and the IMoniion elders were not, however, disposi-d to yield without a struggle. The antagonism of the people of the Territory was excited to the highest degree. The American army was denounced as a horde of barbarians, an<l preparations were made for resistance. In September of 1857 tlie national forces ent.red the Territory, ami on the Cth of October a cmpany of Mor- mon rangers attacked and destroyed most of the supply trains of the army. Winter came on, and the Federal forces, under the com-

at tic h. ad ipiarters of the army, bearing from the I'li-ideiit a jiroclamation of pardon to all who would .-ubniit to the national authority. The Mormons in general accepted the overture. In the fall of this year the army marched to Salt Lak. City, but was alt( luaid- (piartered at ( '.imp Floyd, forty miles di-tant. At this place the Federal forces re- mained until order was re-tored, when, in May of 18fi(), they were with- diawn from Utah.

Meanwhile, in 1858, an .Vmerican vessel, sail- ini; innocently up the Paiaguay Riser, on an exiiloiini; expedition, wa- tired on by a jeal- ous garrison. Repara- tion for the insult was demanded, but none was given, and the Government of the United States was obliged to send a fleet to South America to obtain sat- i.sflictiou. A civil commis-sioner was sent with the squadron, who was empowered to offer liberal terms of settlement in respect to the injury. The authorities of Paraguay quailed before the ap]iroaching fleet, and suitable apol- ogies were made for the wrong which had been committed.

The vear 1^")8 was memoraljle in the his- tory of the United States and of the whole world for the completion and laying of the first Teleuraphic Cable across the Atlantic Ocean. It was on the 5th of August iu this year that the great enterprise was successfully

THE UNITED STATES.-

completed. The work was; iliir in a lari.^o measure to the energy and genius cf ( "vnis \V. Field, a wealthy merchant (if Xiw Ynric City. The first cahle'was one tlmusand six hundred and foity miles in l.n,-th, ext.ndiu- from Trinity Bay, NeNvfoundhmd, t- Val.ntia Ray,

Ireland. Telegraiiliir r muuicatinn was thus

established for a lirief sra>on Intwr.-n the Old World and the New, and tli.- tiat.anal greet- ings of peaceful nations on the two sides of the Atlantic were fir tin- lir-t tiiuo transmitted through tiie depths of the m-h. rntnrlunat.ly, however, the eahle whieh, as at fir-t em- ployed, was ill adapted to its pur|Mi.<e. In a short period it was paitei] cm a net, and the enterprise was thouudit liy the unhopeful to have end. d in failui,

In isos the Tdiitoiv of Alnnu-ila wa- organized and admitte<l into the I'aion The area of the new State \\as a litth moii tli.m eighty-one thousand ■-fpiare niih -, and u- po[i- ulatioQ at tla d iti of idnn-ion iliout i hun- dred and htt\ thouMud In the follow uig year Oregon, the tlmt\-thiid State of the Union, was admitted, bringing a population of forty-eight thousand and an aiea of eighty

-THE SIXTH DECADE. Texa

as a General in the War for Texan inde- ence has already been mentionecl. His career had been marked by the strangest vicissitudes. He was a \'iiginian by h, but his youth had lieeu hardened among the mountains of Tennessee. He gained a military fame in the Seminole W u and - on b\ the f ice of his chai-

Kx^

Ttel 1 M t 1 lltl. d dl	tinct	ion He
w \s elected << \i im i ( t	1( nn	(ssee hut
while m the full tid. t 1	111- 1	(.1,(1. l,(\
hw life wa- '-uddenh \u	hi 1	w 1 with
a ilome^tic calannt\ the n.	ituie	ot whuh
his ne\ei been fulh a-t	eltu	md He
Middenh i,-iu,udhl-,thee	ktt	his home,
iiid <\di 1 hini lit ini n^	the	Lheiokee
Inliin^ ml u ,. | i - nth	(1(1	t. d as one
ot then (hi 1 \lt iw ii	Is 1,	. went to
Texas loin. 1 il Vn n '	11 1 1	it\ theie,
be(.ame its h i 1 i ml w i^	,h	s, 1, Pusi
dent I f th. ^tite iftei	the	siueessiul
stin__l( f 1 iiKhiu.hiKP	H.	-i^as next
sent In tlu Lej.ishtuu	I t	T(xis to
lepiesent the new Com		^ ilth m
the Senate of the Unitei	1 St,	ates. lie

thousand s,[i,aie miles It was ,,n tin 4tli of March in tliw Neai that Gem lal Sun Houston,

(loo) uxivi:hsal iiistohy.-tiik moders would.

lu the year iSo'.t dicl Wasliiii-tnn Iiviiii;-, an ackiKiwlctlgmeut of the jxiwer and origi

who might at tlic time fi' his .Icatli lif i. -aid.'.! nality

„rr,vali„L' for his iialivr lainl a litenuT rank thmis

ainuim thenatinns,,f lu.Hlcrn liinrs. Onlx.th llial a

si, Irs of the Athiiitir his „anio ha^l lircmie doMin

fan,iliar as a hnuM.lml,! uoni. Ho it was. Wall,

olll

lir,.sci

reviou.s of Ell-land and

\niericau genius. When ]\Iurray,

kseller of Lomhm, was i)1)liged to

:,■ inanns,-ri|.t ,if JSrarrhri,!,,,- Hall,

l,a,l n,,t yot ,-,Mn, tlio sum ,.f a fiiinoas, it was n,. |,,n-or d,>iil)tful i,'ri,'an lit.a-ary -.niu- ha,l apiu.ared,

iniivor>al nM-,i;;niti,,n. ]':xcc])t Sir

lini,-s lia,l ivcfived s<i niniiili,;ent a his labor.

/."i

Cmat-tkh cxxi\^ —disunion and civil war.

■r tho direi'tion of the n such a manner attack

]Mian\vhili', in Kansas tlie controversy, ever u<i\ 1m ( inie constintl^ and aiioii, lir,jke out with addeil heat. But ni,)ie heated th,' I'lC'-Soil party gradually gained the upper )(lie\edb> the liainl, an, I it became evi, lent that slavery would Territory. ]!ut an issue 11 civatcl between tli,' .North and In the former the antislavery I became intense. It set- In -oni, ,it tied into a niiirirtinii which might not be ited. In the S,iuth, on the otluT lian,!, the conviction grew that it ua- tli,' settle,!

I'lit,

,. tl

i tn,'ir |ie,aiiiar in- stitutions. Sneli was the alarmiui: e,,n,liti(m of alliiirs when the time arrive, 1 f,ir li,>ldiiig teenth Presidential ehction. The ex<at,'iiient, as usual, rose l,ii;h. The Five-

■]nihlican. A great c, invention

that party was held in Chicago,

Mirahain Lincohi, of Illinois, was nomi-

I'n-i.lency. A |datf,,rnM,t priiici-

,,li|i,,siti,in t,> the

In the ml, ,,f April tl,,' D,' aali,' ,-,m-

,■.1 at (■harl.st,,n, S,,utl, ( 'aro- ,iner had the bo,lv e,,uvned istractiim of coniis.'ls was ap-

]iar,]ii. Ill,' delegates were ili\i,l,Ml mi the n, and, after niii.-h il.-bating the iiartv was ilisriiptiMl. The

THE UXITEf) STATKS.—DISUMOX AM) ( I\IL UAIL

delegates from the South, utialilc to olitaiu a distinct expression of their views in the plat- form of principles, ami -eehiL; that the Northern wing of the party was detennineil tn iKHiiinate Senator Douglas — the great delendei- ..I |in|.ular sovereignty — withdrew from the eonveiitiou. The remainder, embraein^ nmst of tlie ileieuates from the Xorth, continued in se>>ien, haUoted f,.r a while for a c^uididate, and on the 3d of .May a.ljnnrne.l to jiahnnme.

In 'that'eity, on the IMh .,f dune, the dele- gates of the Xortheni w inn; of the paity reassem- bled and chose Doughis as their slandanl-hearer in the approaching canvass. The seceding dele- gates adjourned, first to Richmond and after- wards to Baltimore, where they met on the 28th of June, and n.miinated Jnhii ('. I'.n ■■kinrid-e, of Kentucky. The Amenean, ..i- Kuow-Xothing, party had hy this time Inst sumethin- of its distnietive leatnres, and t.iuk the name of Con-

(I tl

•h tl

The Republicans now -ained hy their compactness and the distinetness ,,f their ut- terances on the slaveiv (jui.siinn. M<i-t ol'the old Al.oliti.iiii-ts. theu.uh hv far uunr radical than the RepuhHeans, ra.-t' in their tnrlunes with the latter, and supported Linenhi. The result was the triumphant election of the Re- publican candidate, by the votes of nearly all

S(aithern States was for the most |,art uiven to Breckinridge. The States of Viri;inia, Kentuckj', and Tennessee cast their ballots, thirty-nine in number, for Bell. Douglas re- ceived a large popular, but small electoral, vote, his supporters being scattered through all the States, without the concentration neces- sary to carry anv. Thus, after having con- trolled the destinies of the Republic for sixty years, with only temporary overthrows in 1840 and 1848, the Democratic party was broken into fragments and driven from the field.

The issue of the Presidential election had been clearly foreseen, and the results were anticipated, at least in the South. The Seuth- ern leaders had not hesitated to (h'clare, iluring the campaign, that the choice of Lincoln

would be regarded as a just cause for a ilisso- [ lution of the Union. Threats of secessii.u had been heard on every hand; but in the North such expressions were regarded as mere |ii,!it- ical bravado, having little loini(hitiuu in tiie actual purposes of the Southern peeph-. At any rate, the Republicans ,,t' the pei.idous North were not to be deterri'd lV<im votiui'- according to their political eonvi.'li.ms. They crowded to the polls, and their favorite received a plurality of the electoral votes.

At this time the <iov(rnment, so far as Congress and the Executive were eiuicerued, was under the control <.l' the Douglas Democ- racy. A majority of the memliers of the Cabinet, however, and a large number of Senators and Representatives beh.n^eil to the Breckinridge party, and had imlnhed frnni a pro-slavery education all of the tire-eating propensities of the ixtreme Sduth. Such members of Congress did not hesitate openly to advocate the principles nt' seeessien as a remedy for the election of Tiiicoln. In the interim lietween the fall of ISC.O and the ex- piration of m-. Bu.'hanan's term uf ,,tHce, the animosity .d' the Southern l.'ad.rs reached a climax. It was foreseen hy them that with the ensuing spring all the departments ef the Government would pass under llepuhliean control. The times were full of pas^nu, ani- mosity, and rashness. It was seen that, fnr the

States — was possilde ; hut that

should

ig Ad- .1, dis- ■ of the

n.ealtit ,ire. lie was not [irofe.ssion, a dis- -, ho denied the t at the same time ,.d with the Con-

postpone ministration shonl.l he i uninn wouldheinip.^-sihle President favored the m. him.self, in principle o unionist. On the contr right of a State to secede, he declared himself not ; stitutional power neccssar; by force. Sueh a theor\ sufficient of itself t(] paralyze the remaiinng energies of the Executive — to make him help- less in the presence of the emergency. The interval, therefore, between the Presidential election in Xovember of 18(10 and the inau- guration of Lincoln in the following spring, was seized by the leaders of the South as the oppor- tune moment for dissolving the LTniou. I The event showed that the measure had

if eoVt

unent was

102

UMVEESAL niSrOJlY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

beci. (.ucfulh pupiiul Tlu aduil x\ ik nf seci — •ion \\a^ hi^iiii j~ Jiiitrlit li \\ In c ii an iKipitKl inS,utli( iiolun lli> cia (liMini. n ],r cliMtH- . t tint ^lit ln.I >lu. iIm, 1 m tlu cnil.i- t..i tlmlN N. n- md u i. n w u i.l\ t„ lun-t f ith HI ihnu> <»n llu 17th (f D.<,.nlKi l^(>(i I , u\ nti n <li Mn liN the pt.-ih ( t "- nth( 11 Inii L-~ mill 1 it ( liul.^ t 11 mil iftii tliKi ili\^ nt ii i\ (li-( u-^ion, )u"i 1 1 uMliiti 11 lint till I iiKin hitheifo tMMinj 1„ l\\(.ii '-iiilh e 11 Imi anil tht (ithei i-i 11.^ nn.ld tlu 111111. ot tht I nittil Matc',

Ol Vlll.ll 1 U l^lll" hl.l It « IS 1 vt, p „t

ue thiniMhc- fullv

v. \.

ALFXVNDER H 'STrPIIFhS

vei-al di^coiil Tin ai tmn ua^ (oiitmious. The sentiment of diMiiiion v,,,, i,l like an

^h ii tinii till I lit 111 jiow iiu' States were almost niuiiiiiuonslv in sii|iport of the measure. V,v the hr-t of FeUniai-v, IMII, six other

-M,.H~~i|i|,i, Flo

Lo

Texas — hail passed ordi- iiaiiees of si.epssion similar to that adopted by South Carolina, and hail withilrawu fromthe Union. Nearly all the Senators and Repre- sentatives of those States, following: the lead of their constituents, whom they themselves liad instigated in their course, resigned their seats in Congress, returned to the South,

osed

di-uiii 11 ili.l 111 I 1] 1 11 ill the conventions, and thai xoi,,. un< nnheanl. The hot- lit nUd Itid.i- ill till -eeis>ion enterprise luvhed togethti, ciinnig \vith them the en- thusiastic suppoit ot the planteis and the ■\ounfr politicians ot the Snnthein States, and

a lon-ideialih niiiiiiit\ \ ote was east against di-iinion A few speakers boldly denounced tlie measuie as dislo}al, bad in principle, ! uiuous in results The course of Alex- andei H Stephens, afterwards Yice-Presi- dmt ot the Confederate States, was pe- tuliii Hi ippeaied in the Georgia coiiveiilion, among a people with whom his voice had hitherto been prevalent in all matters atli?cting their interests. He undertook on the floor of the convention to stem the tide and to prevent the .=e-

a,h

Ued

lis intenti the convi

tioii anil his .^tate, but at the same time s|iiike against secession on the ground that the measure wa.s imjtolitic, miivv^e, iiinJ likehi to be disnMrou^ in iVs results. Not a few other prominent men in differ- ent Jiarfs of the South held the same view; but the op|ii>site o|.inion prevailed, and sceession was readily and eiithusiastieally aei.implished.

/ The formation of a new Government fol- lowed fast on the heels of disunion. On the 4ih of February, 1861, delegates from six of the seceded Statei"~Itffiembled at Montgomery, Alabama, and proceeded to form a new Gov- ernment, under the name of the Confeder- ate States of America. On the 8th of the month the organization was completed by the election of Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, as provisional President, and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice-President. On the same day of the meeting of the Confederate Congress at Montgomery, a Peace Conference, so-called,

I\\T CI r\TION' OF TFFFFP^iiN D \M^ ^T ArO\Ti,nAIFRY

104 lyiVKnsAL nisioRY.-'iin: Miii'i-ns world.

assembled in Wa.-liin-ton City. I)rl,L':itt# pell. .1 in nturii. Thus in gl..,„n aii.l ,-rief an.l

from twcniv-nnr Stale- wviv la.Miit. ami llie tliu ui.lnavals nlu-vnluli.in, tli.- AdiuiniMialinn

optimists nnIiu c.inpnM.l the l.n.ly ,-till .li. anicd of .lan.ts llucliaiian drew t.. a (•l..^(•. S,i,li

of p.acr. Tlii-v prcpartd .•citain annii'lnit-nls was the dreadful condition of allairs iliat it

to the Cnu-tiluiii'ii nf tlie lidud State>. and was ilcenied juiident for tlie new Pioident U.

the >aine were laid l.efn.e ((.n-rt>s, with the approach the Capital without recogidlinn. Foi

rce,iuini<iidalioii that thev he adnpud. That the lii-t time in the hi^t-ry ..f the iiati-n, the

hedv. lie>ldv leathered Irnni th.^ people, aii.l Chief .Ma,i;iMrat<- of the lieptd.he .lipp.d int.

\Va,d,in;:t..n Cil

h,- S,,utheri, l.a.h r.-. ■■■aw lilll.- h...l t.. the s,.nal sitety.

nirn. lMlati..o^,an.l lh.C.>iif.r.nee.li>perM-.l The new Chief Ma-i.-trat.- was a man f.

ti..al r.-ulls. the h..ur an.l f-r the ep..cl,. II..

I was .-till ri,.-i.l.ait, an.l the thr..wn t.. ih.^ fr..iit hv th...-e i.m.-. >, was >lill nn.ler th.' .lire.'ti.m ..f in ih.^ a.-n ::af, h-k so tnuch hk,. I'

th.. I).-,iMHiali.- party; hut !!,.■ .■nniitry >..-m...l Ahraham \.\ur.,\^^, the sixt.M-nth I'n.-l.l.nt .,f

on th,' ver.^e .,f ruin. It app. ar. d ' that the th.. Cnit, .1 Sial.s, was a K. iitu.'kian hy hirth :

Ship .,f State was purp..>elv .-t.'en.l .lir...llv hnrn in ih.. .■..untv La Ku.', ..n the iL'lli ..f

f.r the r.-.-k.. In th.' Kx.c'utive ] ),partinen't F-hruary, 1 MM). Hi,- anc.->t..rs ha.l imtni-ratcd

th.r.. wa- a .'..mpl.te paralv,-is. The ar.nv ddth.r fnmi l;....kinuham County, Vir-inia;

ha.l iM.n ,-. nt in .leta.-hm..|,t- t.i r..m..te tr.ait- l).ith liilh.r an.l na.ther were Virginians by

The tinan.-ial . i.-.lit ha.l run .hiwii t.. the 1..W-- <-v.r, K.nlu.-ky was simply a territ..rial ex-

e.-t .1,1.. The (;.,v.rnm.nt was nnalile to t.m-i,,u w , -I wanl ,,f th,- MM J ),,u,iid,,n. The

twelv,- ]„.r ,..ent. Th,- ,liv.-i>.- ,-,,.in-.-ls ,,f l,i< M-urily, It app.-ars that the fandly were poor

fri, n.l- ha.l .li,-tra,-t.-,l tl„- rr,--i,lent. He li, -- t,, the la>t ,l.-L;r.-e— m,-re ha.-kw.,.i.ls p.-.,ple of itat.-.l, an.l kii.-w 11., t Hhi,-h wav t,, turn. With ; the |,,w,->t .,nl.r. In 1 SIC, the Ihtli.-r, Th.,inas th.- ,-x.-,-pii,,n .,t F.,rl- Sinnt.'r an.l M,,ultrie, : Lin,-.,ln, r.-n,.,v..l t,, Sp.-neer .-ounty, In.li- in Charl.-t,,n harh,,r, F,,it Fi,-k,-ns n<-ar Pen- ' ana-.j"-t ll"" ■•dniitt.-.l int., the rid.,n-an.l

.si.-,.la. an.l F.,rtr.- M,,hr,„-, in the Che-a- hnilt a .-akin in the w....ls near th.- pres-

].eake, all the imp,,rtant naval p.,rt- ami p,,>ts .-iit villa-.- ,,f C.-ntryvill.-. Thi-^pla.-.- was

in tie- -,-,-e,le,l Stat,- ha,l li,-.-ii .-eiz,-,l hv the th,- .-,-,-n,- ,,f Tin.-.iliiV li,,yh 1— a .-..nstant

C,,nr,-,l,rate autlen ili,-. ,-v,-n h.-f.-r.- ih.- ,,'rL:au- strui:ijl,- with p.,v,rly. har.l.-hip. an.l t.,il. At

izali,,n ,,f th,-ir ( I, -v.-rnm.-iit. M.anwhile. in tin- a-.- .-f MXt.-.ii we tln.l hini mana-in.i: a

far-,, If Kan-a- th,- |,,<-al warfan- ,-,,ntin n,-,l t,, f-rry a,-r,- tl;.- Ohi.,. ,,pp.,-it.- th.- .n,,ulh of

l,r,-ak .,ut at ftful int,-rvak : hut th.- Fr.-e An.l, i-,,m Cr.-,-k— a .-. rvi.-.- f.r which h<- was

Stat.- partv ha.l at la-t -ain.-.l a pl.-te ].ai,l ,-ix .l.,llar> a ln.,nlh. In his y,,nlh he

ase,i„l.n,-v', an, I the ,-ailv a.lmi.-,-i..n ,,f th.- r.-.-.-iv. .1, in th.- a,ijL:i.-,L:ate, al..,ul .,!..- y. ar'.s

n,-w C,m'ini,,nwealth, with tw., a.hlith.i.al -.1 lin-, w hi,-h was all he ever ha,l in the

l;.-pul>li,-an Senat,,i>, was a f,ir.-;;,ine i:t>\\- wav ,,f fhiiiial . .Iu.-ati.,n. lu the year of his

elu-i,,n. maj.rity h,- r.in.,ve,l with his fatlier's family

With the h.-i:inniim- ,.f th,- new year, the t,, the N,,rtli F,,rk ,,f the .Saiiffanion River, ten

I>r,->i,l.-nt r.,u-,-.l him-.-lf Cr a m..ment, an.l miles wot .,f H.-.-atur, in lilin.,i.-^. H.-re he

ma.h- a f.-ekh- att.-mpt t., reinf.,rce and pr,,- au,l his fath.-r huilt an,,ther l,,,>: h.^n,-.-, an.l

vi,-i,,n th,- -ani-,111 ..f F.,rt Sumter The op..n,-.l an.l fenced a farm. Her.- Ahraham

steam. -r St.tr nf llir IF,-,/ was a.-.-.,i,lin-ly sent T>in,-,,ln, pu-hiiii;- f .rth from th.- anc.-sti-al

,,ut with men an,l Mippli,-: hut th.- C-.idh.ler- ,-al,in, k,'-an for himself the har.l battle of

at,- w,-r,- lnlurm,-,l ,,f all that was ,|,,ne, and life.

ha,l n,. tn.ul

As tlu' >team,-r a|,i.r,,ache,l the harbor of

The un,-lear,-,l l,,re>t, the unkn,k.-n .-...il, ppr,,acne,i me naruor oi ,,,|^^, .^.^^^^ ,^,jj.|. ^^^^^ ^^^^.^^^ ^^^ lumherer's axe;

Charl,-t,,n -h,- wa- tir,-,l ,,n by a Confederate ^j,,, |..,j,i,| that o'erbears the boatman's toll, batterv, iilant.-,] f,ir that purpose, and com- The prairie, hiding the mazed wanderer'stracks,

THE UMTED STATES.— DISUXIOX AM) CIVIL ]VAR.

lO.j

'The amhuslied Indian, ami the Such wore the nee<ls that heh

Rough cuhnre; liut^riic If but their h^toeks );.

■ ti nit ma\ rtli an.l .-

Lincoln served as a flatbuatmau ou the Mississippi, and after a trip to New Orleans returned to New Salem, a town twenty miles from Springfield, and became a clerk in a country store. At the outbreak of the Black Hawk War he was elected captain of a com- pany, and went on a campaign into Wisconsin. From 1833 to 1836 he tried business for him- self, but a dissolute partner brought him to bankruptcy. He then began the study of law, for which he had always had a preference ; soon gained the attention of his fellow-men, and rose to distinction. His peculiar power, manifested at all periods of his life, of seizing the most difficult thought, and presenting it in such homely phrase as to make the truth ap- preciable by all men, made him a natural leader of the people. In 1849 he served in Congress for one term, where he distinguished himself as a humorous speaker. As candidate for the office of United States Senator from Illinois in 1858, he first revealed to the nation, in his great debates with Senator Douglas, the full scope and originality of his genius. Two years afterwards he was nominated and elected to the Presidency. On his accession to office he was fifty-two years of age. He came to the Presidency under such a burden of care and responsibility as had not been borne by any ruler of modern times. On the occasion of his inauguration he delivered a carefully pre- pared address, declaring his fixed purpose to uphold the Constitution, enforce the laws, and preserve the integrity of the Union. From the first it was the policy of his Administration to ignore the action of the seceded States as a thing in itself null, void, and of no effect.

At the head of the new Cabinet was placed William H. Seward, of New York, as Secre- tary of State. Salmon P^ Cliase, of Ohio, was appointed Secretarv of the Treasury, and Simon Cameron Secretary of War; liut the latter, in the following January, was succeeded in office by Edwin^^M. Stanton. The Secre- taryship of the Navy was conferred on Gideon Welles. In his inaugural address and first official papers the President outlined not only

his theoretical, but his practical policy. The latter was, in brief, to rejiossess the forts, ar- senals, and public property which had been seized by the Confederates, and to reestablish the authority of the Federal Government in all parts. The first military preparatimis and movements were made with this end in view. Meanwhile, on the 12th of March, a Imdy of commissioners from the seceded States sought to obtain from the National Government a recognition of their independence, but the negotiations were of course unsuccessful. Then followed a -ecoiid attempt on the pait of the Gii\(.inment tn u iiili'in tin _aiii-'in at Fnrt

IBRAHAM LINCOO

Sumter; and with that came the beginning of actual hostilities.

The defenses in Charleston harbor were held by Major Robert Anderson. His whole force amounted to but seventy-nine men. Owing to the feebleness of his garrisons, he deemed it prudent to withdraw from Fort Moultrie and concentrate his whole force in Fort Sumter. By this time Confederate volunteers had flocked to the city, and powerful land-batteries were built around the harbor, Ijearing ou Sumter.

When it was known that tlie Federal Gov- ernment would reinforce the forts, the author- ities of the Confederate States determined to anticipate the movement by compelling An- derson to surrender. On the 11th of April,

TEE US IT ED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

General P. T. Beauregard, comiiiaiidaot of Charleston, sent a flag to Major Anderson, de- manding au evacuation of the fort. The Major replied that he should hold the fort and defend his flag. On the following morning, AprilJ_2th, at half-past four o'clock, the first gun of the great War was dischar2_ed from a Confederate battery. A terrific bombardment, of thirty-four hours' duration, followed. The fort was reduced to ruins, set on fire, and obliged to capitulate. The honors of war were granted to Anderson and his men, who had made a brave and obstinate resistance. It ap- peared, however, in the sequel, that no lives were lost, either in the fort or on the shore. The Confederates in their initial movement were thus completely successful, and obtained control of the harbor of Charleston.

But the effect was against the aggressors. The news of the capture of Sumter spread through the country like a flame of fire. There had been on the part of the people a vague expectation of violeuce, but the actual shock came like a clap of thunder. The people of the towns poured into the streets, and the country folk flocked to tlie villages, to gather tidings and comment on the outbreak of the war. Gray-haired men talked gravely of the deed that was done, and prophesied its consequences. The general efl^ect of the capture of Sumter was to consolidate opinion in both the North and the South. On either side the sentiments of the people were crystallized into a firmly set antagonism, which could only l)e broken by the shock of battle.

Three days after the fall of Sumter, Presi- dent Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteers, to serve three months in the overthrow of the secession movement. Two days later, Virginia seceded from the TJnion. On the 6th of May, Arkansas fol- lowed the example, and then North Carolina on the 20th of the same month. In Tennes- see, especially in East Tennessee, there was a powerful opposition to disunion, and it was not until the 8th of June that a secession or- dinance could be forced upon the people. In Missouri the movement resulted immediately in civil war, while in Kentucky the authori- ties issued a proclamation of neutrality. The people of Maryland were divided into hostile

parties, the disunion sentiment being largely prevalent.

Meanwhile, the volunteers from the North began to make their way to Washington. On the 19th of April, when the first regiment of the jMassachusetts volunteers was passing through Baltimore, they were fired upon by the citizens, and three men were killed. This was the first bloodshed of the war. On the day before this event a body of Confederate soldiers advanced against the armory of the United States at Harper's Ferry. The officer in command hastily destroyed a portion of the vast magazine gathered there, and then escaped into Pennsylvania. On the 20th of the month another company of Virginians as- sailed the great navy-yard at Norfolk. The officers commanding fired the buildings and

ships, spiked the guns, and withdrew. Most of the cannons and many of the vessels were afterwards recovered by the Confederates and turned against the Government. Virginia was soon filled with volunteers from the South, and in a short time Washington City was in imminent danger of caj)ture.

The first duty of the Government was to secure the Capital. This done, the President, on the 3d of May, issued another call for sol- diers. The number of the new call was set at eighty-three thousand, and the term of service at three years or during the war. A tltct was equipped and sent out to blockade the South- ern ports, and on every side were heard the nnti.-s nf [ii-eparation. The si)irit of the pe(jple luul been thoroughly aroused, and a great war thundered in the horizon. Already the South- ern Congress had ajourued from Montgomery,

ryiVFL'SM, iiisToi; v.—nii: moukilx

in: 1.1'

to meet, tlu> 2()tli ..f.Iuly, at KiclmKiinl, wliicli was chosen as tin- cai.ital of tlic CoiifVdfracy. To that phu-e ha.l alna.ly .o,,,,. Mr. Davis and the oflicers of liis Caliim-l. I"i- ih- piir|.n.-<- of directin<.' the atlairs of tlic ( o.winni.in and army. So stood the antagonistic p- iuri> at the beginning of June, 1861. It \va- now .vi.l.nt to all men — slow indeed had tlicy Ihi-h to lie- lieve it — that one of the greatest contliets of modern times was impending over the United States. Let us look briefly into the tai-ses which ))rodnccd the Rebellion and h-d to the Civil War. yC The first and most general of these causes wa.s'^f/ie different eonHruction put upon the Na- tiowd Cmwtitiitlon by the people of the North and the South. -^A. difference had always existed as to how the instrument was to be understood. The question at issue had respect to the rela- tion between the States and the General Gov- ernment. One party held that under the Constitution the Union of the States is indis- soluble; that the sovereignty of the Nation is lodged in the central Government; that the States are .subordinate; that the acts of Con- gress, until they are repealed or pronounced un- constitutional by the Supreme Court, are bind- ing on the States ; that the highest allegiance of the citizen is due to the (ieneral Govern- ment, not to hi< State : and that all attempts at nullificati..n and .li-union are in their nature disloyal and treasonable. The other party held that the National Constitution i- a compact be- tween sovereign Siatis ; that tie-'' States con- stitute a conf.'deracy. or what the Germans would call a Sl„aln,hi(inl ; that tor (vrtain rea- sons the Union may he di.'jsolved by the States; that the sovereignty of the nation is lodged in the individual States, and not in the central Government ; that Congress can exerci.se no other than delegated powers ; that a State feeling aggrieved may annul an act of Con- gress ; that the highest allegiance of the citizen IS due to his own State, and afterwards to the General Government; and that acts of nullification and disunion are justifiable, revo- lutionary, and honorable. The theory was, in brief, that the Cnstitntion itself provided that the States, umler the Constitution, might ab- rogate the Constitution as it related to them- selves, and thereby dissolve the Union.

Here was an issue in its consequences the

most, fearful that ever disturbed a nation. It struck into the very vitals of the Government. It threatened, with" each renewal of the agita- tion, to undo the wliolr civil structure of the I'niteil State.-. For a Ion- time the (larties wiio (li>].uted about the meaning of the Con- stitution were scattered in various sections. In the earlier history of the country the doctrine of State sovereignty had, indeed, been most advocated in New England. With the rise of the tariff question the local position of the parties was reversed. Since the tariff— a Con- gressional measure — favored the Eastern States at the expense of the South, it came to pa.ss, naturally, that the people of New England, and afterwards of the whole North, passed over to the advocacy of National sovereignty, while the people of the South became wedded to the doctrine of State rights. Thus as early as 1831 the right of a State to nullify an act of Congress was openly advocated in South Carolina, and by her greatest statesman in the Senate of the United States; and thus also it happened that the belief in State sover- eignty became more and more prevalent in the South, less and less prevalent in the North. The general efl^ect of this localization of the two theories was to engender sectional jiarties, and to bring them ultimately into conflict.

The second general cause of the Civil War was the different ystemsof luh<n- In f/e X,nth and ill the Soiitli. In the former sections the labor- ers were freemen, citizens, voters; in the latter, bondmen, property, slaves. In the South the theory was that the capital of a country should own the labor; in the North, that both labor and cai)ital are free. In the beginning all the colonies had been slaveholding. In the East- ern and IMiddle States the system of slave- labor had been gradually abolished, lieing un- jirofitable. In the five great States formed out of the Territory North-west of the River Ohio slavery was excluded by the original Jeffersonian compact, under which that terri- tory was organized. Thus there came to be a line of division drawn through the Union east and west. It wsis evident, therefore, that whenever the question of .slavery was agitated a sectional division would arise between the parties north and south of the dividing line, and that disunion and war would be threatened. But the danger arising from this source, and

THE UXITED STATES.— DISUNIOy AND CIVIL TCI/.'.

indeed from the first uciRTal cause aliDve luentioued, was iucreaseil, and the discoi-d hi- tweeu the sections aggravated, l.y srvvial sul)- ordinate causes.

One of these was, at the time cdusidered, merely an ineiileiit of inihistrial progress, naiiielv, tlie invi:xtii>n of Tin: coxTdN-oix. In ITilS Eli Wliitney. a young collegian of JIassachusetts, went to Georgia and resided with the family of Jlrs. Greene, widow of General Greene, of the Revolution. While there he Iiecanie much interested in the ditii- cult process of picking cotton by hand: that is, separating the seed from the tiber. So slow was this process that the production of upland cotton was nearly profitless. The industry of the cotton-growing States, however well it promised in the mere production of the plant, was rendered of no eti'eet liy the tediousness of preparing the jn'oduct fir the market. Mr. Whitney, with the inventive curiosity and skill of his race, undertook to remove the dif- ficulty, and succeeded in constructing a gin which astonished the beholder by the rapidity and excellence of its work. Cotton in the seed, submitted to the action of the ma- chine, was separated to perfection and with great facility. From being profitless, cotton suddenly became the most profitable of all the staples of the South. The industry of the cotton-producing States was revolutionized. Whitney obtained patents on his invention; but the greed for obtaining and using his machine was so great that no courts could or would protect him in his rights. Before the Civil War it was estimated that the cotton-gin had added an aggregate of a thousand millions of dnllai-s to tiie revenues of the Southern State-. .Tu>t in proportion to the increased profital>leuess (if cotl-m, slavedahor Iiecaiue iiu- pnrtant, slaves valuabl,., and the sy-tem of slaverv a fixe.l and deep-n,oted in-ritntinn.

Shi've ownei-hi|. ni-p. than .'Ver l.efnve was nnu- imbedded in Suulheni sn,-i,.ty. The M^a- ration betwe-n the lalu.ring and tlie u:.ii lal».r-

l)nt it was a sepamtinn of <-.,i,dlllu:,. Tlie ]nv-,.nt eenei-alinn nf phniters and slaveholders had inh.a-ited that cnndilion. They had grown

as a i-ightfiil an. I iiere-~iu-y part of llie best sucial .ireauizalinu in llu- w-rld. Seeln- them-

selves manifestly lifted they came to look uj lalior and free-labnrers tempt.

-^taut

of such a result was, as we have already seen, fully manifested in the MissouKi Agitation of i8-_'0-21. Threats of dissolving the Union were freely made Imth in the Suiitli and the

rejection of Missouri as a slaveholding State; in the North, because of the proposed enlarge- ment of the domain of slavery. When the Missouri Compromise was enacted it was the hope of Mr. Clay and his i'ellow-statesraen to save the Union by removing forever the slavery issue from the politics of the country; but their success was tenip<jrary, evanescent. It had remained for Mr. Lincoln himself, in the opening of his great debates with Senator Douglas, to announce to the nation the ulti- mate irreconcilability of the opjKising elements in the American system. '/ Hedeclared_that a house divided against itself can not stand: that the institution of slavery, to carry oui the analogy, must either become universal ir. the United States, or else, by limitation, be put in such a condition as to lead to its ultimate extinction.

Next among the subordinate causes of the Rebellion and the Civil War should be men- tioned the Nullification Act.s of South Carolina. These, too, turned upon the in- stitution of slavery and the profitableness of cotton. The Southern States had become cotton-producing ; the Eastern States had given themselves to manufacture. The tariff measures seemed to favor manufiicturers at the expense of the producers of raw m;iterial. :i[r. Calhoun and his fiien.ls proposed to

a]id thus Inrciiig an His measures thiled ; was fennd iieces.sary iiim.isilies which had

;i;xA-ri(ix or Tkxas, rgenient of the d.imain

USJVEIISAL HISTOKY.-THE MODKES WORLD.

110

Those who opposed tlie :\Iexicuu War di'l so, ii'Jt so much because of the injustice of the conflict as because of the fact that tliereby the area of *laverv wniild br vastly exleiuled. Then, at the <-in.-u nf tlic War, cam.' the enormous acquisition -f t.iiii.uy in thr Smitli-west. Whether tlir ,sniir>l,..ul.l b,- mad,- into fr.-e ..r slavehnldin- Stat.., «as thr <iur.tinn next aeitate.l. This ,...ntrnv,.rsy led tn tlie i.a.sa-c of thr On, nil. us Uill, by whi.-li a-ain, f..r a brief peri...l, th.' cx.'il.in.nt was all,iy.-.l.

In 18o4, as w liavr s.:M-n, th.- KaxsaS- NEBRA8KA 111 1,1, was i>assed, Tliereby the Mi.ssouri Compromise was repealed, and the whole question opened anew, Meanwdiile, the character and civilization of the Northern and Southern people had become quite different. In population and wealth the North had far outgrown the South. In the struggle for territorial domain, the North had gained the larger advantage. In 1.S60 the division of the Democratic party made certain the election of Lincoln, a professed Free-Soiler, by the votes of the Northern States. The people of the South were exasperated at the choice of a Chief ^Magistrate whom they regarded as in- different to their welfare, or positively hostile to their interests.

Returning, then, from these sul)ordinate to the more general causes of the Civil War, we note, in the next place, the want of intercourse between the people of the North and the South. Obeying those cosmic laws by which the population of the earth has always been distributed, the people of the States west of the Alleghenies had been carried to their destinations in channels flowing from the east to the west — never from the north to the south. The arti- ficial contrivances had been arranged along the same lines. The great railroads and thor- oughfares ran eastand west. All migrations had been back and forth in the same course. Be- tween the North and the South there had been only a modicum of travel and interchange of opinion. The people of the two sections had become much more unacquainted than they were in the times of the Revolution. From this want of intercourse and familiarity, the inhabitants of the two sections, witln.ut in- tending it, had become estranged, jealous, suspicious. They misrepresented each other's beliefs and purpo.ses. They suspected each

(1 tiie lier all

M.iKsty aii.l ill-will. Before the

h ha.l ennie to L...k up..n each in the li-lit of (litierent nati..n-

A I..urtli geiiiral <-ause was found in the piihUrntiiiii mill iiijhi, iin i,f sectional booh and irritiiiij.<. I)iiriii:j the tuenty years preceding the war, many \\..rl^. were published, both in the Nmtli ami tli.- .^..iith. whose popularity (lependiil wlinlly ..r in part on the animosity tw.. >eetinns. Such b.iiiks

existing betwi-eii the tw.. -ectinns. Si were frequently lill.-.l with riiljetile ami tiilse- hood. The manners and customs, the language and beliefs, of one section were held up to the contempt and scorn of the people of the other section. The niimls of all classes, especially of the y.iimi:. were thus prejudiced and poisoned. In the North the belief was fos- tered that the South was given up to inhu- manity, ignorance, and barbarism ; while in the South the opinion prevailed that the Northern people were a selfish race of men, mercenary, cold-blooded Yankees.

Again, the eril Influence of demagogues may be cited as a fifth general cause of the war. It is a misfortune of repulilican governments that they many times fall under the leadership of bad men. In the United States the dema- gogue has enjoyed special opportunities for mischief, and the people have suffered in proportion. From LS.oO to 1860 statesmanship and patriotism were at a low ebb. Ambitious and scheming men had come to the front, taken control of political parties, and pro- claimed themselves the leaders of public opinion. Their purposes were wholly selfish. The welfare and peace of the country were put a.side as of little value. In order to gain power and keep it, many unprincipled men in the Smith were anxious to destroy the Union, while the demagogues of the North were williiiM- t.. abuse the Union in order to acc<.ni|ili-li lli.ir purposes.

Ad.li'.l t.. all these causes was a groicing

public uf .<la

"J'<"'

thr North against the institution

■-■• If,

hostility inborn and inbred against human ehattelhood as a fact. The con.-ei. nee ..!' thi' Nation was roused, and the belief began to prevail that slavery was wH.ng per se, and ought to be destroyed. This opinion, comparatively feeble at the beginnings

THE UXITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR

of the war, was rapidly devcloiicl, and had ' detachment of Cnnfrderates, iindrr th.' <;„u-

nnich to do in deterniiniDg tlic iliivciinn and maud <>i' General ;\Ia,:;iiidi r. On ihr lOih i,f

final issue of the contlict. Siirh, in Inief. June a liody nf Union inmps wa> :^ent I.. di<-

were the principal can-.- wliirh l.-d to the lod-e tlu-m, hut was rrpnlsL-d with con.-id.ia-

Civil War in thr Tnit.-d Staf—one of the hi.. 1,,-. Such was the ..p.-nin- s.-.^nc in Oj.l

most terrible ami lil.M,.iy stiit.s <.f m.i.lfrn \'ii-ginia.

times. West ..f the nionnlains the con.|U.>t .f the

AVe shall now enter upon a hrief summary Stat.' had lieen un.l.rtaken hy l.un.ial (i.inije

of the principal events ..f tli.' struggle be- B. :McClellau, de-tin. -.1 t.. iie a c.in>pi.ai..us

tween the North ami South, h.'tween the figure of his ep..ch. In the latter jiart of

Fnh.n under the Constituti.ai, ba.-ke.l hy the May, General Th..mas A. M..rris, cmnumding

machinery of the (-hiverument at Washington , a force of Ohio ami In. liana troops, a.lvan.e.l

FORTRESS MONROE.

and the populous Northern States on the one side, and the machiuery of the new Confed- eracy established at Richmond, backed by the forces of the South and the whole power of the ancient slaveholding system on the other. The war proper may be said to have opened on the 24th ..f :\Iay, 1m;1. On that .lay the Union army crosse.l tli.' Pot. .mac from Wash- ington City to Alexandria. At this time Fortress Monroe, at the mouth of James River, ■was held by General B. F. Butler, with twelve thousand men. In the immeiliate vicinity, at a place called Bethel Church, was stationed a

from Parkersburg to Grafton, and on the .3d of June came up.m the Confederates at Phi- lippi. After a brief engagement the Federals were successful, and the Confederates retreated toward the mountains. It was at this juncture that General ^ri'( 'l.dlan arrived in jjerson, and

nett, the defeate.l C.nifederate comnian.lcr, fell back with his forces to Cheat River, wliere he made a stand, l)ut was a sec. mil time de- feate.l an.l hiniMdf kille.l in battle.

Un the 10th of August, General Fl.ijd,

unnndiiiii i .l(tvliii mil.x Imm .m,(.,i (...,. I il 1. M.I 111^ , III. Iltli ..I --, I

uxiVERSAL nisTOL'V.- Tirr: modeux wokuk

( M I

Thel-iiioM annv at Alexan- i> cniuluaii.lr.l l,v CiMial liuiii Mr- . an.l <;,.i„ial rall.i-M„ ua~ MatioiK-.l It nf Wa-l,ili-l..n In ualrh J.,l,ii>l(Mi'^ ..III-, ill ..r.l.T ihal III.- lall.T liii-lit not iiiii.'li..ii uilh lK-auiv;janl. ill,. ISlh ,,r July 111.- F,-.l,ial army l.iruanl. Tw.. .lays all.-i-\vanl> an uii- iMt (■iiL.^ai:riiii-iit t.i.'k jilac-e betwccu vill.- and Jiiill Itiin. The rnioiiists .i-.->M-,l iin. ami i.ii tlif iiKiniiuu- of the

ilof CVlouel L 21st of J

upon tho Confc.

■ui- \\ ,11 ,. . ni 1,1. I -u.1.1, n iml .-u.^^cessftilJ stronyly i..,M.-,l li.-lweei) Bull Kuii aii.l .Manas- -. t 11 1 I ,1. ti, limoit ot L,.iir,-,K-i-ati?s sta-'^sas Junction. Ik-re a\'em'r;rt' I'latll.- . hmk-.I.

to A\iiRhc-.tc. lliu- far \ petty enoagcnii lit- tin- pi 1.1 -luuni-h. -, .it 111. ...nlli.-

ii.,\\ cum i.u til. hi-l -I

Il III \\.

.1 >>,i. ,. liil,,l il Mini

til, Oi iii_, hull il t".ni

.1 ,,t \l. Mn.lni \i, ih . 1 (..n. I il I..-, pli ] I. lin-to

geii

coiitiiuiiug with great severily until ii....ii.lay. Up to that time the advantage ha.l li.-.-u with McDowell, and it seemed not unlikely that the Confederates would suffer a complete defeat; but in the crisis of the liattle General Johnston arrived with n.-arh' >ix tli..ii>aii.l fr.-sh tr.mps from the ."^h.-iianiioah \'all.-y. The ti.le .if victory turned immediately, and in a short time McD.jwell's whole army was thrown back in rout ami confusion. A panic spread through the l'ni,in forces. The army had been followe.l out fr.mi Washington by a throng of non-combatants. Soldiers and citi- zens became mixed together, and the whole mass rolled back in disorganization into the defenses of Washington. The losses were ueaily equal, being on the Union side 2,951, and on the Confederate side 2,0.")0.

The chagrin an.l humiliation ..f the N.irth were extreme, an.l th.- S.uitli was c-.puilly elated on account of the Confe.lerate victory. For a while the Feiloral Government ;va8 more alarmed about the safety of Washington Citv than it was coni-ern.-.l ab.mt the capture of i;i,-liiii..n.l. In the latt.-r (-ity, ..n tli.- .lay lu-f.n- II,.- l.atll.-, til.- n.-wC..iif,-.i.-rat..<o,vern- „,i.,,t ha.l l..-.-,i f..niially organ i/.-.l. In the Soiilli.-ni ('..ii-i-.-,-, Ilu-n- asM-n,li],-.l, were many iii.-ii ..f .ii-liii.,:ul,-li,-.l ahiliti.-s. J,-ti;-rs,.n Davi-, Ih- l'i-.-i.l,-nI, wa< a ihr-si-lil,-.! and tal,-nt.-.l mail. Hi- .-xp.ri.-n. .- wa- wi.l,- and tlion.nL^li ill 111.- aliair- ..f SiaU-, an.l hi- n-pu- tati.-ii as a .-.l.li.-r, . arii.-.l in ll).- M.-xi,-an War, wa- faiily go ..1. 11.- lia.l s.-rv.-.l in l,..ll, II, ,11-.- ..r'llu- ^'alLiiial C.ii^iv-s an.l as a iii.-iiilu-i- ..f Pivsi.leiit ri.-r.-.--- Cal.iii.-t. His tal.-nts. ,l.-,-i>l..ii .,f chara.-t.-r, ai„l ai.l.-nt ad- y,.racv of .^late l!it;hts ha,l nunle him the

THE uyrrrj) states.— the civil

AH.

113

iialuial, if not tlie inevilalili-. liailer of the .South in the impending cuntiict.

After the battle of Bull Kun, tliere was a lull in the military operations of the East. In Missouri, however, hostilities l)roke out, and were attended with important eonseqnenees. That Commonwealth, thou;:h a slaveholdiiig State, had retained its place in the Union. A convention had been called liy Governor Jack- sou, in accordance with an act of the Legis- lature, but had refused to pass an ordinance of secession. But the Missouri disuniouists were numerous and powerful. The (iovernor favored their cause, and they were little dis- posed to give up the State without a struggle.

Missouri became a battle field for the con- tending parties. Federal and Confederate camps were organized in many parts of the State, and hostilities bmke <nit in several places. The Confederates, by capturing the United States arsenal at Lil)erty, in Clay County, obtained considerable supplies, arms, and ammunition. They thereupon formed Camp Jackson, near St. Louis, and the arsenal in that city was endangered by the activity of their proceedings. At this stage of the game, however. Captain Nathaniel Lyon appeared on the scene, and sent the arms and stores in St. Louis up the river to Alton, and thence to Springfield, Illinois. Camp Jackson itself was soon afterwards attacked and Inoken up liy the same vigilant officer.

Meanwhile, the lead-mines in the south- western part of the State became an object of great importance to the Confederates. In order to secure possession of the same, they hurried up large bodies of troops from Arkansas and Texas. On the 17th of June, General Lyon encountered Governor Jackson at the head of a Confederate force, at Booneville, and gained a decided advantage. On the 5th of July the Unionists, under command of Colonel Franz Sigel, were again successful in a severe engagement with the Governor at Carthage. On the 10th of August the hardest battle fought thus far in the West occurred at "Wil- son's Creek, a short distance south of Spring- field, Missouri. General Lyon made a daring but rash attack on a much sui)erior force of Confederates, under command of Gcnei-als McCuUough and Price. Th- F. dc,al< at first gained the field against heavy odds, Imt Gcn-

ei-al Lyon was killed, and his men retreated, his command falling to .'-Jigcl.

After his victory, Piirc pn sscd northward across the State to Lexiiivion, on ila- Missouri Kiver. This place was h.'Kl by t«o thousand six hundred Federals, under comniand of Colonel Mulligan. A stubborn defense was made by the ganlson, but .Mulligan was obliged to cajiitulate. Price then turned to the south. The Federals i-allied, and, on the Kith of Oc- tober, Lexington was retaken. General John C. Fremont, who had now been appointed to the command of all the Union forces in Mis- souri, followed the Confederates as ftir as Springfield, and was on the eve of making an attack when he was superseded by General Hunter.' The latter retreated to St. Louis, and was in turn superseded by General Henry W. Halleck, on the 18th of November. It was now Price's turn to fall back towards Ar- kansas. The only remaining movement of im])ortance was at Belmont, on the Mississippi.

After the declaration of neutrality by the State of Kentucky, the Confederate General Leonidas Polk, acting under orders of his Government, had led an arni\ into the State and captured the town of Columbus. The object of the movement was to give support and countenance to the Confederate cause in Kentucky; for the Southern sympathizers in that Commonwealth were numerous and active. Polk planted batteries at Columbus, so as to command the Mississippi, and the Missouri Confederates gathered in force at Belmont, on the opposite bank of the river. In order to dislodge them. Colonel Ulysses S, Grant, with a brigade of three thousand Illinois troops, was sent, by way of Cairo, into Jlissouri. On the 7th of November lie made a vigorous and successful attack on the C(jnfederate camp

'The command was taken from Fremont on account of his attitude towards the slaves. Thus far the Government had professed tliat .slavery should not be interfered with, even in the States held by mihtary occupation, (-ieneral Fremont held the opposite view, and marched upon the Confederates not only as a military connnander, lint ns an emancijiafor. He issued a ]>idi-Iama-

vet

,]\ri

it was accordingly re]ie\ reason whicli at a later liave been no rea-on at

THE rXITF.I) STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

at Beliuout,but General P-lk tlnvw nint'.irw- nieuts across the river. 'I'lir i]nii> ni' the liat- teries on the Kentucky -iile were l.r,,u;;ht ti> bear on the Union position, and (iiaiit, afti-r his success, was obligeil ti> fall hai^k. Such, in general, were tlie militai-y njinatiuns in tlic West during the summer and fall of IMU.

For a while after tlie haltle <>f liull Kun the Government at Washington was ahnost paralyzed. It was put on tlie defensive. The bridges over the Potomac had to be vigilantly guarded lest, by a dash rif cavaliy, the Ca[u- tal might fall into the hands of the (.'..nfeder- ates. A brief season of great depression ensued ; but the reaction was correspondingly vigor- ous and salutary. As soon as the panic had subsided the Administration redoubled its en- ergies, and troops from the Northern States were rapidly hurried to AVashington. The aged General Scott, still retaining his place as Commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, unable to bear longer the bur- den resting upon him, now retired from active duty, and General George B. McClellan was called over from West Virginia to take com- mand of the Army of the Potomac.

It was soon evident that as an organizer and disciplinarian the young commander had no superior. By the middle of October the forces under his command had increased to a hundred and fifty thousand men. Nor was it any longer the mere rout of volunteers which had rushed forward to meet defeat at Bull Run, but a compact, well-disciplined, and powerful army. On the 21st of October a brigade, numbering nearly two thousand men, was thrown across the Potomac at Ball's Bhiff. The movement, however, was not well supported. Nor had adequate means of retreat been prepared. The Federals were attacked on their advance by a strong force of Confederates under General Evans, were driven to the river, their leader, Colonel Baker, killed, and the whole force routed with terrible los.s. Fully eight hundred of Baker's men were killed, wounded, or taken.

From the fii'st it was seen by the Federal Government that the command of the sea-coast ■was an es.seutial of success. Accordingly, in the summer of 1861, several important naval expeditions were sent imt to maintain the in- terests of the United States. One i.f these,

under command nf ('(mu Inre Sti-iiiMliani and

General Butler, pin,-,r,led t,, i|,e X,„tli ("aro- lina coast, and, on the 2'.lili df Aii-ust, cap- tured the forts at Hatteras Inhl. On tli.' 7ih iif November a .second anuanicnt, ri.iinnandcd liy Ciimmodore Dupont and '>(ni'ial Thunias AV. Sherman, ent.-ivd the harl.or ..f Port Rnyal, and tnok lA.its Walker and Beaure- gard. Hilton Head, a point most advantage- ous in operations against Charleston and. Savannah, thus fell into the power of the Gov- ernment. Ai-dund the whole coast a blockade was established, which s i bei-anie so rigor- ous as to cut off all commerce and communi- cation between the Confederate States and foreign nations. It was in this juncture of affairs that a difficulty arose which brought the United States and CJreat Britain to the very verge of war.

Ever since the expansion of the cotton- producing interest in the Sontliern States the factories of England had been in a measure dependent upon the American cotton-fields for the raw material which they employed. Around this tact many other indnstiial inter- ests of Great Britain rln.-tei-ed. It was, there- fore, a serious calamity to the English factories, and to English industrial welfare in general, when the Southern ports were closed by the Federal blockade. A state of j.uhlic feeling supervened in Great Britain very linfavorable to the United States, and strongly sympathetic with the Confederacy. In the meantime the Confederate Government had appointed James M. Mason and John Slidell, formerly Senators of the United States, to go abroad as ambas- sadors from the Confederate States to France and England. Before the ambassadors left America, the blockading squadron had closed around the Southern ports, and the envoys were obliged to make their escape from Charleston harbor on board a blockade runner. Having made their way from that port, they reached Havana in safety and were taken on board the British mail steamer Trent, for Europe.

On the 8th of November the vessel was overhauled by the United States frigate San Jacinto, commanded by Ca|itain Wilkes. The Trent was hailed and boarde.l. The two an;-

the S,in J,„

THE rXITi:]) STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

tou, and imprisoned. Tlic Trrnf pinccrdrd uu her way to England. Tiu' -t-iv <>{' tln' iii>ult to the" Britisir flag was told, and the wlioh. kiugdom burst out in a Idaze of wratli.

The sequel soon showed how little disposed even the most civilized nations :ur tn ii;;::ird consistency and right when their pnjudico iiic involved in the question. For maily a hall'ecii- tury the Republic of the United .States had stoutly contended for the exemption from insult of neutral flags on the high sea, and the Amer- ican theory had always been that tlu' free flag makes free goods, contrabaml of war <iidy being excepted. On the other hand, Great Britain had immemorially been the most arro- gant of all the civilized States in the matter of search and seizure. She had, in the course of her history, insulted almost every flag that had been seen on the ocean. Yet, in this particular instance, the jiosition of the parties to the Trent affair was suddenly reversed, under the influence of passion and prejudice. At the first, the people of the United States loudly applauded Captain Wilkes. The House of Representatives passed a vote of tlianks to him, with the presentation of a sword ; and even the Administration was disposed t" defend his action. Had such a course been taken, war would have been inevitable; l-i- Great Britain, with equal inconsistency, had flung herself into a passion for thealleg'il insult to her flag and sovereicnty.

The country was saved fiom the pn ' however, by the adroit ami far-reaching; ■ i plomacy of William H. Seward, the Secretary of State. When Great Britain demanded reparation for the insidt and immediate lilier- ation of the prisoners, he replied in a mild, cautious, and very able pa|ier. It was con- ceded that the seizure of Mason and Slidell was not justifiable according to the law of nations, and a suitable apology was accord- ingly made for the wrong done. The Confeder- ate amba.ssadors were liberated, put on board a vessel, and sent to their destination. The action of the Secretary was both just and pol- itic. The peril of the war went by, and Great Britain, without intending it, was committed to a policy in regard to the rights of neutral flags, which she had hitherto denied, and which the United States had always contended for. So ended the first year of the Civil War.

Washington. Another arniv, .■..uinuiii.icd i,y

Ceneraf Buell, was stati d at l.uuisville,

Kentucky, and it was in this drpaitnient that the first military movements of the year were made. Early in January, Colonel Humphrey Marshall, commanding a force of Confeder- ates on Big Sandy River, in Eastern Ken- tucky, was attacked and defeated by a de- tachment of Unionists led by Colonel James

and more I- loULhl at Mill Spring, in the =ame ^cctmn of the ^tate. The Con- federates were commandeil by Generals Crit- tenden and Zollicoffer, and the Federals by General George H. Thomas. The battle was hard fought. Both sides lost heavily, and the Confederates suffered defeat, which was ren- dered doubly severe by the death of Zollicoflfer. These operations were followed fitst by still more vital movements on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. The former stream was commaniled at the southern liorder of Ken- tucky by Fort Henry, and the latt'er Ijy the more important Fort Douelson, ten miles

LXJVERSAL HISTORY.- TllK MODKRX WORLD.

south of the Touuessee line. At tlic Ijegiu- iiing of the year a i)lan was formed liy the Federal officers fur the eai.tnrc of U.th these jihices. Early in Febriuny, ('niiiiiindiirc Foote was sent up the TeiiuessL-e, with a tlotiUa of gun-boats, and at the same time General Grant moved forna-.-il lo cociperate in an at- tack on Fort Henry. Before the land forces ■were well in jjosiliou, however, the flotilla, unassisted, compelled the evacuation of the fort, the Confederates escaping to Donelson. ]'",ii;hty-three prisoners and a large amount of stnns were the trophies of the victory.

After their success, the gun-boats dropped down the Tennessee, took ou stores at Cairo, and thf-n hetran the a-( > nt ot the ( unibiilind

7^

Grant pressed on from Fort Henry, and as soon as the flotilla arrived began a siege of Fort Donelson. The defenses were strong and well manned by more than ten thousand Con- fedi ratc^, iimlfr General Simon B. Buckuer. Gr.iiit's fniccs numbered nearly thirty thou- sand ; but the wenther was extremely bad, the wintfi- not y.t brokcii, and the assaults on till' t'.irtiticiitioiis |H rilo\is in the extreme. On

war, and all the magazines, stores, and guns of the fort fell into the liands of the Federals. It was the first decided Union victory of the war. The immediate result of the capture was tlie evacuation of Kentucky and the cap- ital of Tennessee by the Confederates. Nor did they ever afterwards recover the ground thus lost.

Following up his success at Fort Donelson, General Grant now ascended the Tennessee River as far as Pittsburg Lauding. In the beginning of April a camp was formed on the left bank of that stream, at a place called ^_j3iiilol;^Chjjrcli. Here, on the morning of the 6th of the month, the Union army was sud- d. nh .itti. k. d b\ th.- Confederates, led by

'uiierals Albert S.

I hnston and Beaure- t.d. The shock of ' onset was at first I M -istible. All day I iij- the battle raged I til tremendous -1 luuhteron both sides. 1 lie Federals were ^i.idually forced back IK III r and nearer to the Tennessee, until tilt \ were saved by til' uun-boats in the mil. Xight fell on the '-cene with the con- flu t -tdl undecided, but m the desperate crisis (ieneial Biiell arrived from Nashville with strong reinforcements. Grant, however, by no means despaired of gain- ing the victory, even unaided by the fresh ar- rivals. During the night he, with General William T. Sherman, made arrangements to a.=sume the offensive. General Johnston had been killed in the battle of the ])revious .lav. liea 11 regard, on whom the command

iiiv

Fo

successes. On the contrary, as the as renewed on the morning of the rything went against the Confed- id thev wet-e obli-id t.. fall luirk in ■at to Cnrinth. The ln->e- i,| killed,

weiiiideil. and iiii-Hng in tiiis dreadful conflict Were nmi-. than ti ii tlpmsand on each siile. There had never bef.in" lieen such a harvest

full

THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

119

of death in the countries this side of the At- lantic.

On the Mississippi also the Unionists were gaining steadily. After the evacuation of Columbus, Kentucky, the Confederates pro- ceeded to Island Number Ten, a few miles below, and built thereon strong fortifications commanding the river. On the western shore ■was the town of New j\ladrid, held l)y a Con- federate foice from Missouii Against thi^ place an t \pe dition was mide by General John Pope, with X body of West ern troops, v, hile at the s 1 m e time Comm dore Fo.ite de scended the Mi sissippi with hi flotilla, to attitk the forts ot the island. Pope was entirely sue cessful in his movement, and gained p sses s i o n of N e \\ Madrid. riiL land forces thtn cooperated with the gun -bolts and for twent> three days Isl and Number Ten was vigoi o u s 1 y bom barded. On the ' Union arinv it Shil disasters ot the piecedinj; da^ and were pui suing the Confedeiates beyond the Tennessee the garrison it Isliii 1 ^umbei Ten nunil nii_ about five th usin 1 wtie made piis ii i i war. By tin stnl iii^ suu iss the jNli i i] | i was opened ti ni il \ i f ii nth i M iii phis, and II th (th t 111 t 11 uii, Tun that citv wistikeii in th tl 1 1 t (. iiini 1 i Davis. '

Early in the vear (u'li.-nil Curtis had

pushed forward through MisMiuri, entered Arkansas, and taken a iiosition at I'l'a Kidge, among the mountains in the north-west angle of the State. Here, on the 6th of March, he was attacked by the. Confederates and Indians, twenty thousand strong, under cimi- maud of McCullough, jMcIuto.sh, and Pike. The conflict lasted for two days, at the end df which time the battle was decideil in favor <if the Federals. McCullough and Mc- intosh were both killed, and their broken forces fell back towards Texas. The Union losses were also severe, and the battle was compara- tively barren of results.

Ou the day following the con- flict at Pea Ridge, an event oc- curred at Fortress Monroe which ar changing the character

-^n - \

A

'/V/{;

'\ \^

while the ^ tl im the

f nn \\ w ufiie Vttir the destruction of the I\ )it(lk na%\ \ ud the Confederates had raised the P^nited 'states frigate Mrrrimac, one of the sunken ships md had plated her sides «itli in 1111].. n tl ilil u-iiior ,.f iron. At this til tl I I I I II t ua> lyiii- at Foitiv>s U 111 When th.' r.|iii|.iii.-iit ot' llie Mrrri-

n, ui oiiiplrte, she was sent ilown 1<. attack ml I tl-nv the s,,lla.lfnll. Keaellill- that , Il II the S,|, ,,f Maivli, the M.rrim.,,;

ill 1 I N the Cniitederate. the T/V;/;,,/.,, he^aii the woi-k of <lestnielioii. and two nowiaful

r.\ni:]:>M. iiJST<>i;y.-TJiK M<iiiEi;y would.

imhrrin

this, ,r, uf jiiliar

.hips, th: sent to the I...U. CapUin^Johi. !■:! New York, h:,.! war vessel, NNith a -in.de n.uiia tower .,t' iron exposed ahove the waier-liiie. Tlie tower ^vas made to revolve .o a> to l.riii- its siugle heavy guu to bear on the enemy in any direction. Excejjt \\ben the port-hole was thus momen- tarily exposed to an enemy's shot, the strange craft appeared invulnerable to any missile which the skill of man and the force of explosives had ever hurled. This vessel, called the Monitor, ^vas offered in the service of the Gov- ernment, and at length steamed out fiom New \(ik foi Foltle^^ Monioe. It happem 1

Koanoke Lland. ( the squadron ivae: fortifications on the carried, an<l the ga

ind

rathe 1 than w i^ intend d th it Eiic-Mm- ship arrived iu Hampton Roads at the very time when the Virginia was making havoc in the Union fleet. On the morning of the 9th the two iron-clad monsters came face to face, and turned their terrible enginery upon each other. After fighting for five hours, the Vityjiiia was obliged to give up the contest, and return badly damaged to Norfolk. Such was the excitement produced by this novel sea-fight that for a while the whole energies of the Navy Department were devoted to building monitors. Other events at sea were eciually important. Early in February, 1S62, a strong land and naval force, under command of General .\mbrose E. Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough. was sent against the Confederate garrison at

th uf the month destination. The vere attacked and s, nearly three thou- sand strong, were taken prisoners. Burn'ide next proceeded against New Berne, North Caro- lina, and on the 14th of ^larch captured the city, after four hours of .severe fighting. Pro- ceeding southward he reached the harbor of Beaufort, carried Fort Macon, at the entrance, and on the i.lth of April took posse.ssiou of the town. On the 11th of the same month Fort Pulaski, eoinmauding the mouth of the 8a. vannah Kiver, had surrendered to General Gil- moie This impoitant captuie resulted in the ellntud bljekideof the empoiium of Georgia. A ~till greater re- ■\ei^e now awaited tlie Confederates, at New Oilem^ Early iu Apnl a powerful squad- r n commanded by Genci il Butler and A(h_ mil il_Ftri'a<rut, entered Ml i--ip]ii, and pro- 1 1 tip the river as is Forts Jackson St Philip, thirty - fiom the Gulf. _uns of these forts, t d on opposite 1 ic- of the Missis- pjii completely com- nniide<l the river, and ob^tiuctions and tor- pedoe- hil b(en plinte 1 m the channel. On the \xt.\i of April the Federal fleet, coin- prising fortv-tlve vessels, was brought into position, and a furious bombardment of the forts was begun. An incessant shower of mis.?iles was for six days rained on the fortifi- cations. Still the forts were but little injured, and Farragut undertook the hazardous enter- prise of running past the batteries. In this he succeeded. The chain which the Confed- erates had stretched across the river was broken, and their fleet above was overpowered. On the next day the Federal squadron reached New Orleans, and the city yielded. General Butler became commandant, and the fortifica- tions were manned with fifteen thousand Fed- eral soldiers. Three davs afterwards. Forts

THE UXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

121

Jackson aud St. Philip surrendered to Admiral Porter, who had remained lielow and prose- cuted the siege. The control of the Lower Mississippi, with the metropolis of tlic South, was thus recovered by the Federal <-Toveni- ment.

After Douelson and Shiloh, the Confeder- ates in Kentucky and Tennessee were much disheartened ; but tliey soon rallied from their discouragement, aud renewed the struggle. An invasion of Kentucky was planned, and two strong divisions — one led by General Kirby Smith, and the other by General Bra.v- ton Bragg — entered the State from East Ten- nessee. Smith's army pressed forward as far as Richmond, Kentucky, and there, on the 30th of August, attacked the Federals, rout- ing them with heavy losses. Lexington was taken, and then Frankfort ; and Cincinnati was saved from capture only by the extraor- dinary exertions of General Lewis WaUace. The army of Geueral Bragg advanced from Chattanooga to ^lunfordville, where, on the 17th of September, he captured a Federal division of four thousand tlvc hundr.-il \nr\\.

From this point Bmug pre-rd on toward Louisville; but Geueral Buell made a forced march from Tennessee, aud arrived in that eity only one day ahead of Bragg. That one day turned the scale. The Unionists hence- forth had the advantage, and the Confederates were turned liack. Buell's array was swelled to a hundred thousand men by reinforcements pouring in from the Xorth. Tlie General took the field in the beginning of October, the Confederates retiring before him to Perryville. At this place, on the 8th of the mouth, Bragg was overtaken, and a severe but indecisive l)at- tle was fought. The retreat aud pursuit then continued to East Tennessee, the Confederates sweeping out of Kentucky a train of four thousand wagons lailen with the spoils of the campaign.

Meanwhile, in Septemlior stirring events had occurred in Mississippi. On the 19th of that month a hard battle was fought at luka between the Federal Army, under Generals Rosecrans and Grant, and the Confederate force, under General Priee. Tiie latter suf- fered a defeat, losing in addition to his killed and wounded, nearly a thousand prisoners. General Rosecrans now took post at Corinth

with twenty thousand men, while General Grant, with the remainder of the Federal forces, proceeded to Jackson, Tennessee. Per- ceiving this division of the army, the Con- federate Generals, Van Dorn and Price, turned about to recapture Corinth. Advancing for that purpose, tliey rann- upon tb.o Fud,_-ial ile- fenses ou the S.l'of O.-tober. Another hotly Contested battle ensued, which ended, after two days of heavy fighting and heavy losse>'^ ou botli sides, in the repulse of the Con federates.

The Mississippi River was now operi to thg Federals aliove and below; but in the middle, namely, in the latitude of Tennessee, it was still held with a firm grip by the Confederacy. To relieve this stricture now became the prin- cipal end of the Federal endeavors. Geueral Grant removed his head-quarters from Jacksou to La Grange. General Sherman was now at Mein|iliis, anil it was the purpose of the two

LTniiMi nmanders to cooperate in an etli)rt

again-t \'iik~liiirg. The movement promised

to br Ml ;— fill, but, on the 20th of Decenib.-r,

General Van Dorn sinvrded in cnltiii- < Jraiii's line of suiiplies at Ilojly S,, rings, ami ohlig.-d hiin to fall back. General Sherman dropped down the river from Jlemphis as far as Yazoo, where he effected a landing, and on the 29th of December made an unsuccessful attack ou the forts at Chick.asaw Bayou. The result was exceedingly disastrous to the Federals, who lost in killed, wounded, ami prisoners, more than three tlnmsuid nn-n. The enter- prise was abandoned, aiul the defeated army returned t„ th ■ fleet (if gun-bnats in the Mis- sissi|,|.i.

The inilitarv ojierations ,,t' the year in the West were <Iestiiied to eii.l with the great battle of ^[urfreesborough. After his success- ful defense of Corinth, General Rosecrans had been transferred to the command of the Army of the Cumberland. Late in the fall he established his head-.piarters at Nashville, and there collected a powerful army. General Bragg, on his retreat from Kentucky, as above narrated, threw his force into Murfrees- borough. Thus the two Generals found them- selves face to face and only thirty miles apart.

Late in December, Rosecrans moved against his antagonist, and on the evening of the 30th came upon the Confederates strongly posted on

i:yivKj:sAJ. iustohy.-tue modern world.

Stone River, a sliort ilistaiice IMurfreosborougli. Diiriuir tlie

l.y UoMMTaiK r,„it.-.,i|.lat.Ml tl,,- fom-.s on the l.-fl in mi.-1, nil.nl. the Coufc.l.-ratr ri-1,1 win... ^ ridge, l)ef(ii-c a>.-iMaiirf cniiM In- the west si.l.- n|' il„. riv.r. li

battle was the rxart r, tri

ado]>tP(l bv i;uMcran>. P.rfnn CoiiiVMha-alV. w.T,. heavily i,ki-h dee. on tlir iHt, and in il,.. ,-.n\ battle bepui wiili a tuilMU-

,.. ini- With ..nh

)Vcr\vhelniinL' victory by the heroism ,i.<ion (it ficiieral William B. Hazen. •n hiinilred men, he stayed liu- onset until tin- Fcili lal lines were restored. At iiijliltall inoir than >cveu thousand Union M.l.li.T- w, ,v n.i-Mii.^ iVoni the ranks.

(nMi.Tal KoMMTans. howv,-,-, was by no

N.-w-V.

ILi

:.o-i,.,l, «lth shorten. mI Inir. and every ii^r the .li>|.oHlion for li^ht. The day ua- .^|ient in in- in the . deei.-ive skirinisiiinn- ami artillery lirin.ir at lonji range. Early ou the morning of the 2d the conflict broke out anew on the east

>f Sto there wa> teintie c-annnna.lin- in th;

	STINFIWLI T\rr
divisior	1 ..f AI ( . k n th.
M.'Cool	k's a] ! d t n h li> w 1
heeded	by Ki-cu in» wh li
the re:	d natni. f tli ( nl
After ; uo(,nda	a teriibl ^ti I.J win V, th \ ni n iijit «

center, and h t . ifti i d( -ih i ite ii_hti was obliged to i dl biek t> a new p I'-it Here, howe\ei lu i dlied lus foice«, and I

\ lust with Mnrfreesl,

■ti r Tullahonia. The U

- ^\ in th.. tw.i l.attl.s wa> lu.. th..nsan.l five

hun.hv.l an.l tliirty-tliive killed, seven

■" tlmn^anil tw., hnn.liv.l an.l f.ity-rive

Uni ,n 11. ht w,.nn.|..l. an.l n.^arly tinve tli.,usan.l prisoners.

It lii-t un That of th.. <'..nl..hrati.s am..unh.l in kille.l,

1 I il n 1 el..v..n th.insand men. 3)\^^ ^ 1 0 J)

I h t 1 nnld In th.' meantime, a grfat cain/aign had

>hitl 1. 1 t li..en in progi^ss in tlie East, in its pn^jiara-

ti 1 1 ih lions iii.>r.- extensive an.l in il- nsults more

n <.n id ih-truetiv.' than anything which lia.l been

r. .hid ii.ht witnesse.l W.St of the Alleghenies. The Army

.f th.. P..toinac hail not been idle, an.l ..ther

livisi.nis of the Union and Confederate forces

la.l converted Virginia into a battle-field.

his groun.l unti! <r(n. i tl IJo-. ci in» i. i.liu t. 1 The first stirring movements of the year were

his line ..f 1,

W hil ihi- w nk wi- _ m.

valley of the Shenandoah. Desiring to

on, the ConfLdei Uts w.u lnnh i)iL\LUtLd occujjy this important district, the Federal

THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

V

Government sent forward a strong division under General X. P. Banks, who pressed his way southward, and in the hist (hiys of ]\Ian.'h occupied the town of Harris. Jiiliurg. On the other side, General Stonewall Jackson was sent with a force of twenty thousand men to cross the Blue Ridge and cut oft' Banks's retreat. At Front Royal, ou the Shenandoah, just be- fore the gap in the mountains, the Confeder- ates came upon a hody of Federals, routed them, and captured their guns, and all the military stores in the town. Banks had succeeded in pass- ing with his main division to Strasburg, where he learned ^

of the disaster at Front Royal, and immediately turned ou his retreat down the valley. Jackson pursued him hotly, and it was only by the utmost exertions that the Federals gained the northern bank nf the Potomac.

It was now tlie turn of the Confederate leader to find himself in peril. General \ Fremont, at the head of a ^ strong force of fresh troops, ^ had been sent into the valley '- to intercept the retreat (jf the Confederates. Jackson was now obliged to save himself anil his army. With tlie ut- most celerity he receded up the valley and reached Cross Keys before Fremont could "^ '

attack him. Even then the I

battle was so little decisive that Jackson pressed on to Port Republic, where he fell upou the division of General Sliields, defeated it, and retired from his brilliant campaign to join in the defense of Richmond. It was the first of those rapid and successful movements which revealed the military genius and daring of St(jnew'all Jackson, ileanwhile, on the 10th of March, the Grand Army of the Potomac, numbering nearly two hundred thousand men, thoroughly disciplined and equipped, and com- manded by General McClellau, set out from the camps about Washington on a campaign against the Confederate Cajiital. It had all

the time been the theory of tlie National Government that the capture of Richmond was the principal object to be attained in the war. It was only after many and severe re- verses, after the rise of a new group of com- manders, and a better apprehension of the nature of the conflict, that the theorj' was changed, and the Confederate armies, rather than the seat of their Government, became the objective in the plans of the Union Generals. McClfllan's advance proceeded to Jlanassas

a /

Junction, the Confederates falling back and forming new lines of defenses on the Rap- pahannock. At this stage of the campaign, however, McClellau changed bis plan, and em- barked a hundrr,! and twenty thousand of liis men for Fortress Monroe, with a view to ]iro- ceeding from tliat point up tlie peninsula lie- tween the James and York iiivers. The transfer of the troops occupieil the time to the 4th of Ajn-il, when the Union Army left Fortress ]Monroe for Yorktown. The latter place was held by a garrison of ten thousand

-,(,... f'i^

UMVEBSAL HISTonV.—THE MODERN WOULD.

Confederates, under General MaL'iiK yet with so small a force ^IcClellan's was delayed for a whole month. It

rts, lad

ith

the Army of the

Pot^

of the militar General to ov enemy, and to presence. At 1 town was take Army nioyed ti the Confed.rat were defeated ' afterwards a tl

pec

/s of

lllr	caiiti.	u iu his
4lh	nf Ma	y, York-
ai	d the	Federal

d lo Willi

d, hut

th ^eyere lws.es. Four days •d engauemeut occurred at AVest Point, at the contluence of the Mat- tapi>ny and the Pamunkey. Here the Con- federates were again oyerwhelmed and driyen

back. The \yay n<i\v lay open to RichiiKiinl as for as the Cliick;di.Miiiii\-, ten milis nnith of the city. Tlu- I'liinn Army nndird tliat stream without fiirtlh-r n-i-taiice, and crossed at a place vA\i;\ ISottmns lind-c.

While this moyrnient Nva< in prou'ress, Gen- eral W.Mil, roiiiniandant nf Fortress ]Monroe, had, (111 the imh nf ^[ay, led an expeditinn against KiHtMk ami i-eca])tared that town from the < '"iitidfrates. The garrison with- drew on tin- I'ninii (ioiieral's approach, and marched oti' to Ji. ill in the defense of Richmond. On the follnwiii-- day the iron-clad Virginia was blown up, to save her from capture by the Federals. The James River was thus opened for the ingress of the National trans-

IMcClellan now advanced on Richmond, ami when but seven miles from the city was attacked, on the olst of May, by the Confed- erates in full force, at a place called Fair Oaks, or beven Pines. Here for two days the battle raged, till, at last, the Confederates were driven back. The Union victory, however, was by no means decisive. The ( 'onfeilei-ate loss was greatest, amounting to nearly eight thou- sand in killed and wounded, while that of the Federals was iu excess of five thousand. Gen- eral Joseph E. Johnston, Commander-in-Chief of the Confederates, was severely wounded, and his place at the head of the army was filled by the ajipointment of General Robert E. I.,ee, a man whose military genius from this time to the close of the war was ever con- spicuous. He became the chief stay of the Confederacy until the day of its final collapse

After the battle of Fair Oaks there was a in the fikditing for a short time, and Mc- Clellan determined to change his base of sup- plies from the White House, so-called, on the Pamunkey River, to some suitable point on the James. The movement was hazardous in the last degree. Xor wa> it fairly begun until General Lee, discoyeiiiiM the purpose of his antagonist, swooped down on the right wing of tlie Uniou army at Oak (iiove, an<l an- other hard-f lught battle eiiMied, without deci- sive results. On the following day a third Iful engagemeut occurred at jMechanics- ville, and this time the Federals won the field. P.ut on the fallowing morning Lee renewed the struggle at a place called Gaine-s's Mill, and cniiie out victorious. On the 28th, there was but little fightine. (»n th.- 2!)th, McClel- lan's army, still in iiioiion for the change of base, \vas twice attacked — iu the forenoon at Savage's Station, and in the afternoon in the White Oak Swamp — but the divisions defend- ing the rear-guard of the army were able to keep the Confederates at bay.

On the 30th of the month was fought the desperate but indecisive battle of Glendale, or Frazier's Farm. On that night the Federal army reached IMalveru Hill, on the north bank of the James, twelve miles below Richmond. McClellan had thus receded about five miles

THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

UyiVKNSAL HISTOBY.— TEE MODEBX WORLD.

Ill a I' C'apit.

urn, (li

[lis ,M

( (II

ll,.- ;

Ul

Tliiu.igl

>>inll of tlK

hi-t degree.

1 Lee's shat

Fnrsrvci:

leanl alnmsl

lu!Mi.-a i..,ua

the day tlie stni--Ie to,- tl„. p.,

higli grounds \va< furiuus in tin

Not until nine o'.-lnck at iii-iit >

tered enlunms tall liark .xlian-tc-

days the roar ef liattir had ln-ci

without cessatidu. N" ^udi drca<lful seenes

had ever hefure Ijeen enactdl on the American

Continent.

MeCIeHau was clearly victorious at ]\[alvcrn Hill, and in the judgment of after times might have at ouce made a snceessfvd advance (lU Richmoud. Lee's aiiny was shattered, and McClellan was still suprrior in numhers. Xor could it be doubted that the Union army, uow inured to fighting, was read}' and able to con- tinue the struggle. Its commander, however, ch.i.r. a- u-uai."tlie h-s ],a/,anl,.iis cum-se. On the 2,1 of July he r.'lircd with hi^ army to Harrison's Landing, a few miles down the river. The great campaign was really at an end. The Federal army had lost on the ad- vance from Yorktown to this point, in its progress, fully fifteen thnii-arid hhmi, and the capture of Richmond, the great object for which the expedition had been undertaken, seemed further otf than ever. The losses of the Confederates had been heavier than those of the Union army, but all the moral effect of a great victory remained with the exultant South.

General Lee, perceiving that Kiehmond was not likely to be further molested, immediately formed the design of invading ISraryland, and ca])turing the Federal Capital. The L'uion tn.(i|)< between Richmond and Washington, nuiiihcring about fiftv thousan<l men, were under command of Ceneral John Rnpe. They were in scnttend ditaehnients at various points from Frederiek>lnui; tn Winchester and Har- per's Ferry. Lee moved forw^ard about the middle of August, and Pope began at once to concentrate his forces as rapidlv as possible. On the -iOlh ..f the n,onth he put the Rappa- hannock between hi,- army and the advancing

(.'onfederates. ^Meanwhile, General Banks, while attempting to forma junction with Pope, was attacked by Stonewall Jackson, at Cedar ^^ountain, where nothing luit desperate fight- ing .saved the Federals from a complete rout. While Pope was still engaged in gathering

with hi^ division, cai a Hank movement, reached i\Ianassas Junction, and captured the men and stores at that place. Pope, with great au- dacity, now threw his army between the two divisions of the Confederates, hoping to crush Jaeksou before Lee could come to the rescue. On August the 28th and 2!tth, there was ter- rible but indecisive fighting at ^Manassas Jmii^ioii, on the old Bull Run battle^grouhd, and at Centerville. At one time it appeared that Lee's army would be completely defeated, but the reinforcements wliich Pope expected, a strong division under General Fitz John Porter, did not reach the field in time, and Pope was defeated. On the 31st of the month, the Confederates bore down on the LTnion army at Chantilly, fought all day, and won a victory. Generals Stevens and Kearney were auK.ng the thou.suids ,,f brave men who fell from the Union ranks in this battle. On that , night Pope withdrew his shattered columns as rapidly as possible, and took refuge within the defenses of Washington. He immediately re- signed his command, and his forces, known as the Army of Virginia, were consolidated with the Army of the Potomac, which had now been recalled from the peninsula below Rich- mond, and General McClellan was placed in supreme command of all the divisions about Washington. Thus ended in dire disaster what is known as the Peninsular Campaign.

After his successes, both defensive and of- fensive. General Lee pressed on to the Poto- mac, cro.ssed that river at the Point of Rocks, and on the Gth of September captured Fred- erick. On the 10th, Hagerstown was taken; and on the l.jth, Stonewall Jackson came upon Har|)er's Ferry, and frightened the command- ant, Colonel Miles, into a surrender, by which the garrison, nearly twelve thousand strong, became prisoners of war. On the previous day there was a hard-fought engagement at South ]\Iountain, in which the Federals, com- manded l.v (;,nerals Hatch and Doubledav, were victorhms. .McClellan's whole army was

THE UNITED STATES. — TEE CIVIL WAR.

127

f I	^ee, who, ou
ck	to Antietrtin
l)..>i	iim ill the
the	■e was sharp
th	■ Union and
' at	term Kin the
tlu	Shar|)shurg

aow iu the immediate rear i the uight of the 14th, fell h; Creek, aud took a strong vicinity of Sharpsburg.

Ou the following nmrning but desultory lighting betweei Confederate cavalry. In thi Federal advance, coming in oi road from Keedysville, received tlie opening volleys from the Confederate guns along the Autietain ; but night came ou, and the conflict was postponed. With the morning there was great activity of preparation in both armies. Later in the day the corps of (ieneral Hooker, who commanded ou the Federal right, was thrown across the stream which separated the com batauts, and biought into a favorable po'^itK u for action. luthisquu ter of the field, the Con federate left, u n d e i command of Genei il Hood, was assailed and driven back a fen mdis iu the direction of Sharpsburg. The le-^t of the day was spent in an irregular cannonade During the night, Gen- eral jNIausfield's coips crossed the Antietam, and joined Hookei

Ou the morning of the 17th both aimies were well iu position,

the Federals being strongest in uumlier, and the Confederates having the advantage of an un- fordable stream in their front. It was of the first importance that General MeClellan should gain and hold the four stone bridges by which only his forces could be thrown to the other side. General Burnside, who was or- dered to take the lower l^ridge, cross over and attack the division of A. P. Hill, en- countered unexpected delays, and was re- tarded in his movsments. On the right, Hooker renewed the battle at sunrise, and until late in the afternoon the conflict raged with almost unabated fury. Here fell the valiant General Mansfield and thousands of his com- rades. At last Burnside forced the lower

crossing, aud carried the battle far up iu the direction of Sharj)sburg ; but the Confederates, beiug reinforced from other parts of the field, made a rally, and the Federals were driven back nearly to the Antietam. It was only by terrible fighting that Burnside succeeded in

stream; liut on tlic ap]>ro;u'h of darkness the greater part of the Union Army ha<l gained a safe lodgment between the river and Sharps- burg. The Confederate forces still lield nearly the same ground as in the morning, and it seemed that the final struggle was reserved for the morrow.

On that ,l:iv, however, ( Jeneral .MeClellan

acted on the detensive. It was another of those fatal delays for which the military career of that General was uiifoitunately noted. During the 18th two strong divisions of rein- forcements, under Generals Humphreys and Couch, arrived, and it was resolved to re- new the attack on the following morning. But in the meantime (ieneral Lee, wiser than his antagonist, had availed himself of the de- lay, withdrawn his shattered legions from their position, and recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. The great conflict, wliich had cost the Union Army an aggregate of ten thousand men, had ended in a drawn battle, in which there was little to be praised except the heroism of the soldiery. To the Confederates,

128

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

however, tlie result was equivalent to defeat. 1 The ptomised iipiising of the people of 3Iai}- land in behalt of the Confuliiate .aii^e did not Ofcui and (.. m i d J « w . Mi.mI to

which 111 th. -Ii 111 -in ( .1 1 III nth hid < .-t hini ah,ut tu.ntN ti\c th u- in 1 ni. n ( ).i tlu

in-piitd h\ the iu(i\i_ment'- ind d< -ji iti hts ot th I niiiii toraniaiider puM u- to the battle hid liLUi -.oielv di-ipiioiiitul |

It w 1- htc 111 OLt.h.i befoie Geneial Me- , Clellaii, lollouiuj, the iLtitatiiig Coufedeiate*, I

^ff:-^^f^^^^

aixain euteied Viif^iuia and leached Ile(.tolto^^n The temper of the National Government \\a<? «till a-a<^M^e and it ^^-l, hoped thit hif.iie til. < niiii_ . t NMiitii th. mm nnjit a.ii-i he thi .VM, t lun.l i.iin-t liwhinnnd Thi I'm. n t mm nidi I vti|| |ii(feiiLd to advance hv the ioiit< wliiili li( hid taken the pieviou-, epiint; iinkin_ hi 1 1, of Mi]iplie-atWestPoint,oiithe rmiiink. \ lint thi~ (.bn ^^1-,lhvet.d to 1a tlip \.lmini-ti 111 n mi th. Liomid thit^Wi-h 1 luntiin ( it\ w ul.l thu- he aLMin uii..\(i..l and e\po-f.l t> i i nnti i una-i.in . ii th. pait of the ( ..nh.hi iti- M.Chllui M.l.h.l

to the jirotest of the President and the Cabinet, altutd hi-, plans, and cho«e Alexandria as his IwNe of opeiations Fi.ini tin- ji.iiiit it was jii.iposed to go foiwaid li\ a\ i\ . t tli.' Orange Raihoad thiouirh Gulp. | p. i t ( nii-.h.nsville, 111.1 th. lift b\ tin Anjiiiii t.iitral to its inn. ti n NMth th, lin. uu hm^ from Fre.ler- Rk-lmi_' t.i liuhm.m.l

The whole mouth of Oetobei, however, was w a-ted w itli dela} , and No\ ember was well besiun bifiiie the Fi ili lal Geueial, with his uiii\ t I hull. li. .1 ami t\\. nt\ thousand men, aim miict-.l huiiM„lf itad} l.ii the forward m.i\ement. On the 7th of the month, '^-^ just as the Union

ir t.i his de- spatches, was about to begin the cam- paign, he was super- seded and his com- mand transferred to General Buruside. „dit or wrong, the ( -ident at last 1 the decision t General Mc- (_hllan was a man

iibtd in piflimmiiies II Kqiubhi- to \ictoi\ 1 ht |ilin of the campaign was now imme- BuuiMile decided to form a ni u hi- . t -upplies at the mouth of Acquia ( 1 .k tift\ h\e miles below Wa-hington, and fi nil tint jioiiit to foice his way, by battle, 1 thiounh Fiedeiicksbuig; but again lit iiio\enieiits weie much delajed, and that, 11) wli. II e\ei \ tliinu depended on celerity. A

-t 111 ]iiepaiations for crossing I. Ilk Geneial Lee thus found

to di-co\ei the plan of his an- I 2:athei his aimy on the heights

.if Fie.leiRk-buig. He chose

.h-|int. th. pi-sacje of the Union

ii\. 1 lint 1 ithei allowed the

little m.ile-tation, to take their _dit bank of the Ilaiipahaniiock. I of Decembei, the Union army

THE UXITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

was brought into position, with its several di- visions stretching from the village of Falmouth t(i a point opposite the mouth of the I\Iassa- liiiuax, aljout three miles below. Tiie pimtnons were laid in front of the corjis of General Franklin, who held the Federal left, and by this means the army was transferred, without serious opiMsition. In other parts, the Con- federate sharp-shooters disputed the laying of pontoon bridges, and the crossing of the Fed- ei-als was considerably delayed. But by the nightfall of the 12th the army ha<l been safely trausferred to the other side of the river.

On the morning of the 13th of December a general battle began on the left, where Frank- lin's division was met by that of Stouewall Jack- son. At the first, a charge made by General Meade was successful, and a gap was opened in the Confederate lines, but the movement was not sustained. The Confederates rallied, and the Federals were driven back with a loss of more than three thousand men. Jackson's loss was almost as great, and in this part of the field the result was indecisive. But not so in the ceuter and on the right. Here a portiim of General Sumner's men were ordered forward against the Confederates, impregnably posted on a height called Marve's Hill. They were mowed down by thousands and hurled back in col]fa^ion, while the defenders of the heights hardly lost a man. Time and again the as- sault was recklessly renewed. A part of Hooker's corps, led by General Humphreys, came forward, charged with unloaded guns, and ill fifteen minutes one-half of the four tllou^and brave fellows went down. Nor was the useless carnage ended until niaht came aud closed the conflict.

General Burnside, rasidy [latriotic and al- most out of his wits, would have renewed the battle, but his division commanders finally dis- suaded him, and on the night of the 15th the Federal army was silently withdrawn across the Rappahannock. The Union losses in this terrible conflict amounted to a thousand five hundred killed, nine thousand one hundred wounded, and sixteen hundred and fifty pris- oners and missing. The Confederates lost in killed five hundred and ninety-five, four thou- sand aud sixty-one wounded, and six hundred and fifty-three missing and prisoners. Of all the imj)ortant movements of the war, only that

of Fredericksburg was undertaken witli no probability of success. Under the plan of battle, if plan it might be called, nothing could be reasonably exjiected but repulse, rout, and ruin. Tluis, in gloom, disaster, and humiliation, ended the great Virginia cam- paigns of 1862.

It is now clear, in the light of the retro- spect, that liad the war continued for another year with the same general results and tend- encies, the Confederacy must have succeeded. The revolution which had been attempted would have been accomplished and the Amer- ican Union dissolved. It was now the aim and determination of the Confederate Govern- ment and of the military leaders to hold out, if po.<sible, against the superior resources of

the North until they -hould compel the Na- tional Government to}iLld tiie contest. The war itself had ulw grown to unheard-of pro- portions. The Southern States were draining every source of men and means in order to support their armies. The superior energies of the North, though by no means so nearly exhausted, were greatly taxed. In the pre- vious year, on the da}' after the Ijattle of Mal- vern Hill, President Lincoln had issued a call for three hundred thousand additional troops. During the exciting days of Pope's retreat from the Rappahannock, he sent forth another call for three bundreil tlinusand, and to this was soon added a requisition for a draft of three hundred thousand more. IMost of these enormous demands were promptly met, and it became evident, in the spring of 1863, that

ryiVEESAL HlSTOnV. — THE MODERN WORLD.

ill respect to resources the Feiler;il (ioveru- ment was vastly sujierior to the Ccuitediracy, and to this element of strength and encourage- ment was added the reccllictinn ot the great Union success which had attend, d the National

the can,,.;

W,

ry, 1863, the most nies — the

Emancii'mi	.N I'l	11 1. AM A IK IN. The war had
hee'n liegiin . defined intei	nd « ti'in I	igr.l thn.- far uith no well- n the j.art nf the- (iovern-
mem to free	the >	laves of the Snuth. Pivsi-
dent Li.icoh	him	elf ha.l >aid in his pul.lic
papers that	he w	,ul.l >ave the Union aith
slavery if he	couli	. liut n-ifhniif it if he must.
Mcanwhilr, 1	nwcv	•r, lioth the Administration
and th.. l;.	|.U1,H	■an partv throughout the
country had		to Io..k with -reater and
Still greater	di>fa	vor on tile in>titntiou of
slavery. Dt	ring	lie progress of tlie war, the
sentiment of	ahnl	tion had grown with great
rapidity in t	R- Xl	rth, and among the soldiers
iu the field.	WW	n at last it hecame a military

necessity to strike a hlow at the labor-system of the Southern States, the step was taken with but little hesitancy or opposition. The preliminary proclamation of freedom to the slaves had been issued by the President in September of the ]irevious year. In the paper which he sent forth on that occasion, be warned the people of the Southern States, that uidess they laid down their arms and returned to their allegiance to the National Government, he would, at the expiration of ninety days, issue a proclamation of freedom to the bondmen. His warning was of course met with disdain on the part of the Soutli, and the Kmancipation Proclamation was accordingly i»ued. Thus, after an existence of two hundred and forty- four vears, the institution of African slavery in the United States was swept away.

The military movements of the new year began on the Mi-.-issippi. (ieneral Sherman, though defeated at Chickasaw Bayou, was liy no means idle. After that event he formed a plan for the capture of Arkansas Po.st, on the Arkansas River. At the very beginning of the vear an expedition was sent out for that purpose, the land forces being under command of General John A. ]McClernand, and a flotilla under Admiral David Porter. The Union

forces entered Arkan.sas, and reached their destination on the 10th of the mouth. After a hard-fought battle with the Confederates, a Union victory was gained, and on the next day Arkau.sas Post surrendered, with nearly five thousand prisoners. As soon as the work was accomplished, the expedition was headed for Vicksburg, iu order to cooperate with General Grant in a .second effort to capture that stronghold of the Confederacy.

A second time the Union army was col- lected at ^Memphis, and embarked on the ]\Ii»i-.-ippi. A landing was effected at Yazoo, but the capture of the city from that direction was found to be impracticable. The first three months of the year were spent by General Grant beating about the half-frozen bayous, swamps, and hills around Vicksburg, in the hope of gaining a position in the rear of the town. A canal was cut across a bend in the river, with a view to turning the channel of the Mississippi and opening a pas.sage for the giin-lioats, Init a flood in the river washed out the works, and the enterprise ended in failure. Then another canal was begun, but was pres- ently abandoned. Finally, in the beginning of April, it was determined at all hazards to run the fleet past the Vicksburg batteries. On the night of the 16th the boats were made ready, and silently dropjied down the river. It had been hoped tliat in the darkness they might pass unobserved ; but all of a sudden the guns burst forth with terrible discharges of shot and .shell, pelting the passing steamers; but they went by with com])aratively little damage, and found a safe jjosition below the city.

Gratified with his success. Grant now marched his land forces down the right bank of the ^Mississippi, and formed a junction with the squadron. On the 30th of April he crossed the river at Bruin.sburg, and on the following day fought and defeated the Con- federates at Fort Gibson. The evacuation of Grand Gulf at the mouth of Big Black Kiver fillowed immediately afterwards, and the Union armv swept freely around to the rear of Vicksburg.

On the 12th of IMay a strong Confederate division was encountered at Eaymond, and after a severe engagement, was repulsed. At this time General Johnston was on the march from Jackson to reinforce the garrison at

13-J

UNIVERSAL JIISTOUY. — THF. MODEIiX WOULD.

Yicksburg. Graiit'.s right wiug, uiiJer Sher- man aud McPherson, eucouutered John.-iDn's advauce on the 14th of the month, ami a severe battle was fought. The Confederates were defeated, and the city of Jackson ^Yas captured Wy the Uniimists. By tliese successes (ieu.ial <inim ,:l,Iaiiir.l j,.,.-,H.>Vmi, ,,f tlie cm- niuuiealions helweeii \'irk.~l.urg an.l the inte rinr, and (ieueral IVniberton, who commanded th.- Cuufederate army in the city, was cut off. He must now either repel the Federal army

,,r be .■nnpe.l up in Virksburg. He accord- ingly .sdhed out with the greater part of his forces, aud im the IGtli met the Union army at Champion Hills, on Baker's Creek. Here another battle was fought, and still another at Black River. In both of these the Federals were deci.-ivcly victorious. It only remained for Pemberton to fall Inick with his disiieart- eued forces within the fortifications of Vicks- burg. The city was immediately invested.

On the 19th of ^lay General Grant attempted to storm the Confederate works, but the attack whicli he made on that day was re- ants were again hurled back, with still greater destruction of life. In these two unsuccessfid as.=aults the Union losses amounted to nearly three thousand men. Grant perceived that Vick.sburg could not be taken by storm, aud began a regidar siege, which was pressed with ever increasing rigor. It was not long until the garrison was placed on sliort rations, aud then a condition of starvation ensued. Still, Pemberton held out I'oi- more than a mcmth, and it was not until the 4tii .if July that he was driven to surrender. By the a<t of rapit- ulation, the defenders of Viek>bui-L:, marly thirty thou.sand strong, became pri-oinas ot war. Thousands of small arms, hundreds ot' canuon, and vast quantities of ammuuitinn aud war- like stores were the otlier fruits of this great Union victory, liy wliirh tlie National Govern- mentgaiued more and the Ciuifederacy lost more than in any other jirevious struggle of the war. It was a lilow from which the South never recovered.

The commau.l of the Depa Gulf had now been traiisfernd from (Jem Butler to General Bank>, ami the latter conducting a vigorous campaign on the Lo

of tl

Mis-is.-ippi ]-"arly in January he set out from his luad ipiaiters at Baton Kouge, advanced into Louisiana, reached Brashear City, aud gained a deei,-ive victory over tlie Confeder- at,. foree at a plare ealhd P,ayou Teche. He then returned to the ^lississijijii, moved norihwaiil to IN.rt Huil-on, invested the place, and b(t:aii a sic;:e. The beleaguered garrison, under General Gardner, made a stout defense, aud it was not until the 8th of July, when the news of the fall of Vicksburg was brought to Port Hu.lson, that tlie commandant, with his

obliged to eajiitulate. It was tin. last (,f those successful movements by which tlie Missi.ssij)j)i was freed from Coiiledeiate control, and opened throughout its whole length to the operations of the Union Army. The strategy and battles by which the great river had ijeen recovered reflected the highest honor upon the military genius of General Grant. From this time forth the attention and confidence of the people of the North were turned to him as the military leader whose sword was des- tined to point the way to the final triumjih of the National cause.

It was at this ejiocli of the war that the feature of cavalry raids became, on lioth sides, an important element of military operations. Perhaps the initiation of such movements may he referred to Stonewall Jackson's campaign down the Shenandoah Valley, iu the summer of 18()2. Later in the same year, after the battle of Autietam, the Confederate General, J. E. B. Stuart, commanding the cavalry wing of the Army of Northern Virginia, made a dash with a troop of eighteen hundreil cavalry- men into Pennsylvania, reached Chambers- biiiy, captured the town, made a comj)lete circuit of the Army of the Potomac, and re- turned ill siifety to Virginia. Just before the investment of Vicksburg, Colonel Benjamin Griersoii, nf the Sixth Illinois Cavalry, struck out with lii> eoniinand from LaGrange, Ten- nessee, entered Mississijipi. traversed the State to the east of Jackson, cut the railroads, destroyed much property, and after a rajiid course of more than eight hundred miles, gaiueil the river at Baton Rouge. By these laids the border ciuiutry of both sections was kept in i.erj.etual agitation and alarm. With the iiro[.'ress of the war, such movements be-

THE UMTED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

came more aud more injiuioiis. The com- manders aud soldiers in the same learned to perfection the art of destroying the resources of the enemy. Their destrm-tivc <kill was directed chiefly to the anniliilaiion of rail- roads. This work becanie a new militarv art,

division of the Confederate General Forrest, was surrounded, captured, and sent to Libby prison. In the latter part of June, Roseerans resumed activities, aud by a series of flank movements succeeded in crowding General Bra2g out of Tennessee iuto Georgia. TJie

^^-.i

;raxt and pemberton— capitulation of v

and so skillful were the raiders that miles on miles of track aud road-bed were destroyed in a single day.

After the battle of ^lurfreesborough, Gen- eral Roseerans remained for a season inactive. Late in the spring the command of Colonel Streight made a raid into Georgia, met the

1 alter, ami left bank

Union General Chattanooga, o nessee.

Duriug the summer months heavily reinforced by Johuston, sippi, and Longstreet, from Virginia. On the 19th of September he turned upon the Federal

took post at jf the Ten-

Bra gg was from IMissis-

THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

army at Chitkainauga Creek, iu the uorth- we^t augle of Georgia. Diiriug the lirst day a hard battle was fought, but night fell ou the scene with the victory unde- cided. Under cover of darkness the Con- federates were strongly reinforced by the ar- rival of General Longstreet, who was stationed with his army on the left wing of Bragg. The Confederate right was commanded by General Polk, while the center was held by Ewell and Johustou. The Federal left was commanded by General Thomas, the center l)y Crittenden, and the right by McCook. The plan of the Confederate commander was to crush the Union line, force his way through the gap in Missionary Ridge, capture Rossville and Chat- tanooga, and annihilate Rdsecrans's army.

The battle was renewed at half-past eight o'clock on the morning of the 20th, the Confed- erates coming on in powerful masses, and the Federals holding their ground with unflinch- ing courage. After the conflict had continued for some hours, with varying successes, the National battle-line was opened by General AVood, acting on mistaken orders. Long- street, who was over against this part of the line, seeing his advantage, thrust forward a heavy column into the gap, cut the Union army iu two, and drove the shattered rii;lit wing iu utter rout from the field. The bnint of the battle now fell on General Thomas, who, with a desperate firmness hardly equaled in the annals of war, held the left until nightfall, and then, under cover of darkne.ss, withdrew into Chattanooga, where the defeated army of Rosecraus found shelter. The Union lo.sses in this dreadful battle amounted, in killed, wounded, and rai.ssing, to nearly nineteen thousand, and the Confederate loss was equally appalling.

The victorious Bragg now pressed forward to the siege of Chattanooga. The Federal lines of communication were cut off", and for a while the army of Rosecraus was in danger of total destruction. But General Hooker ar- rived with two army corps from the Army of tlie Potomac, opened the Tenne.ssee River, and brought relief to the besieged. It was at this juncture that General Grant was promoted to the chief command of the Western armies, and assumed the direction of affairs atTTiatta- nooga. Nor was there ever a time iu the

course of the war when the change of com- manders was immediately felt in so salutary a measure. General Sherman arrived at Chat- tanooga with his division, and the Army of the Cumberland was so strengthened that of- fensive operations were immediately renewed. The left wing of the Confedei'ate Army now rested on Lookout Mountain, and the right on Missionary Ridge. The position was seem- ingly impregnable, and it required a courage almost equal to hardihood on the part of the Union commander to attack his antagonist. General Bragg was u<,t onlv .-ontident of his abUity to hold his lines aua'uist anv advance

that might be made, but even contemplated the storming of Chattanooga. But the posi- tion of the parties, their attitude towards each other, was destined to Ije suddenly reversed.

On the 20th of November, Bragg gave notice to GJeneral Grant to remove all non- condjatants from Chattanooga, as the town was about to be bombarded; but to this the Union General paid no attention. On the contrary. General Hooker, on the 23d of the month, was thrown with his corps across the river below Chattanooga, where he gained a footing at the mouth of Lookout Creek, facing the mountain. From this position he was

lot;

i^^jVERSAL iiist()i:y.— the mohkhx wnnij).

ordereil to hold liimself in readiness to make an ;i-<ault on tlie following niorniiiLT. Hooker was sii[i[ioi-t<'d hy Generals fJeary ami Osterhau?, and the remaindei- id' tli.- Union army was kept in a state of activity, in ordi'r to prevent the Confederates from scmiing rein- forcements to Lookout Mountain.

At the beginning of the engagement a dense fog hung like a hood over the heights, et^i-i'tnally concealing the movements of the Federals. The charge began between eight

of the mountain the troops sprang forward witli irresistible energy. It was such a scene of daiHitless heroism as has rarely been por- trayed in the record- of liattlc The charg- ing columns, stru'j-ling aL'ain-t the obstacles of nature, facing the munlcroii< tin- of the Con- federate guns, coulil not 111- rlicckrd. The Union flag was carried to the top, and iicfore two o'clock in the afternoon Lookout ]Mount- aiu, with its cloud-capped summit overlook-

he town and river, was swa

with

>r

and nine o'chn-k, and in the space of two hours the ranges of the Confederate rifle-pits along the footdiills were successfully carried. It had been General Hooker's ptirpose to pause when this should be accomplished, but the enthusi- asm of his army rose to such a pitch as to suggest the still greater achievement of carry- ing the whole Confederate po.sition. Taking advantage of the fog and the spirit of his sol- diers, Hooker again gave the command to charge, and up the almost inaccessible slopes

OT-T ^rnrxTAiN.

Federal sol.liers. The routed Confederates re- treated down the eastern slope, and across the intervening hills and valleys in the direction of Missiouarv Ridge. Such was the event of the 24th of Xovendier.

General Grant had reserved the main bat- tle for the morrow. During the night of the 24th, General Bragg concentrated his forces, and prepared to defend his position to the last. He now perceived that instead of being the attacking party he was himself to be assailed

THE UXITKL) STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

with the whole resources of tli.' F.'.l.Tiiis. On the morniug of the 2.")th, IlooktrV virtorious troops were ordered to [iror.-r.! down the slopes of Lookout, cross the Chattanooga, and renew the battle at the south-western terminus of Missionary Ridge. General Sherman had, in the meautirae, built pont'ion liridizos over the Tennessee aud the ChirkaiiiaiiLia, thrown his corps across those streams, and gaineil a lodgment on the north-eastern declivity of the Ridge. General Thomas, commanding the Union center, lay with his impatient soldiers on the southern and eastern slopes of Orchard Knob, awaiting the result of Sherman's and Hooker's onsets.

The latter General was slow in strikinu- the Confederates; but at two o'clock in the after- noon the signal of an artillery discharge from Orchard Knob announced the beginning of the assault along the whole line.' The com- mand was instantly obeyed. The thriiliiiL,' scenes of Lookout Mountain were again en- acted on a more masuificeut scale. The Fed- eral soldiers were ordered by Grant to take the rifle-pits at the foot of Mis-ionary I!idi;-o, aud then to pause and re-form for tin- |>riiiri|):il assault; but such was the clan of the ariii\-, such the impetuosity of its impact, that, aft-T carrying the rifle-pits, the column, of its own motion, pressed forward at full speed, clamber- ing up the slopes aud driving the Confederati'S in a disa<trou* rout from the summit of the Rid.'o. Xo more brilliant operation wa- wit- ness'_'d during the whjle war. Nor was there any battle of which the results were, on the whole, more decisive. During the niglit Gen- eral Bragg withdrew his shattered columns, and fell back in the direction of Ringgold, Georgia. The Federal losses in the two great battles amounted to seven hundred and fifty- seven killed, four thousand five hundred and twenty-nine wounded, aud three hundred and thirty missing. The los-: of the Confcdi'ratps in killed, wounded and prisoners reached cen- siderably beyond ten thousand. The conflict was so decisive as to put an end to the war in Tennessee, until it was renewed by General Hood, at Franklin and Nashville, in the winter of 1864.

While these important movements were taking place at Chatlaiio,.;:a, (ieneral Biirnside

Tennessee. (Jii tlie 1st ot' September ho had arrived with his command at Iviioxville, where he was received liy the pe(i|ile with lively sat-

'The reverberations of Grant's six shotted guns from Orchard Knob were the signal of the beginning of the end of the Confederacy.

been largelv pervaded with riiioii sentiments.

The Federal army had 1 n i.ui.'h reunited

by the mountaineers of tliis region, and the people in general looked forward to the over- throw of the Confederacy as the recovery of their liberties and fortunes. After Chicka- mauga. General Longstreet was detached from the Confederate army and sent into Ea.st Ten- nessee, to counteract the movements of the Unionists. On his march to Knoxville he overtook aud captured several small detach- ments of Federal troops, then invested the town and began a siege. On the l2i»th of No- carry Knoxville by storm, but were repulsed with heavy losses.

All this time General (irant had h.ok.-d with the utmost solicitude to the progress of events in East Tennessee, ami thi' Administra- tion had been equally anxious lest the veteran Loiig>treet should achieve some yreat sn.'.vss by his campaign. As soon as lirag- tell back from Chattanooga, General SluTinaii marched to the relief of Burnside ; but l.efore he could reach Knoxville, Longstreet prudently raised the siege and retreated into Virginia.

In the meantime, the Confederates had re- sumed activities in Arkansas and Southern Mis'souri. In the early part of 18(33, strong bodies commanded by Generals Marmaduke and Price, entered this country, ;nid on the 8th of January reached ami attticked the city of Springfield. They were, however, repulsed with considerable losses. On the 11th of the month a second battle was fought at the town of HartsviUe. with the same results. On the 2(ith of April, General Marmaduke assaulted the post at Cape Girardeau, on the Mississippi, but the garrison succeeded in driving the Con- federates away. On the day of the surrender of Vicksburg, General Holmes, with a force of nearly eight thousand men, made an attack on Helena, Arkansas, but was defeated with the loss of one-fifth of his men. On the 13th of August, in this summer, the town of Law-

];^>!

UXIVERSAL HIST()in: — THE MODERX WORLD.

ckr.l

ullc.l

reuce, Kan>;i>,

luiudred an.l t<.rty ii.i

of desperate iMlows. li-

(iuantivll. On the lOth'of SriKcnilier, tlie

F.-deral (ieu.Tal Si,..k- ivadied Link- K..ek,

tlu' eapital of Aikan.sis, ,-ai.tnn-.l the eity, and

r.>t(.ivd the Natiniial authoiitv in the State.

But the .i;rfale.-t iai<l ot' the year was re- served for tlie Confederate General Morgan. He organized a calvary army, uunihering three thousand, at the town of Sparta. Tennessee, and at the bead of his eoliunn .-truck out f.r

in his rear a large i'orce, under (ieneral Hob- son, pressed bard after.

^lorgau now made a circuit through south- eastern Indiana, crossed into Ohio at Harrison, j)assed to the north of Cincinnati, and then, becoming alarmed, attempted to regain and recross the Ohio. But the river was guarded by gun-boats, and the raiders were driven back. Morgan's forces began to melt away ; but he pressed on resolutely, fighting and tlyins, until he came near the town of New ];i-l-ii. \\1kiv h.' w:i~ Miri-iiii.le.l and captured

te

the invasion of K(	ntuckv, Indiana, and Ohio.
As he passed thro	,-li Kentucky he gathen-d
strenirth. Tin- lai	::.■ (.'onfederate element in
that State contril.i	ti'd to bis resources in men
and means. MorL	an reacbed the Oiiio Rivei
at Brandenburtr, c	•ossed into Indiana, and l,e
L'an his march to	the north and east. Tlu
Home (iuards of t	ic Statr tui-ncd out, but llu
movement of the	Confederate f.nv was <.
uncertain and ra]	id tliat it wa- dillicuh t.
cjipck i\Iorgan's	.n,-iv- II'' was rcM-t,.,
seriouslv at Corvd	ni and at ntluT pninl^, and

by the brin-ade of General ShackeHord. For nearly four months Morgan was imprisoned in the Ohio penitentiary. [Making his escape from this ].lace. he fled to Kentucky, and finally succeedeil in reaching Richmond.

AVe may now pause to glance at some im- ])nrtant movements on the sea-coast. On the 1st of .Tannary, General Marmaduke, by a brilliant exploit, captured Galveston, Texas. Bv thi- means the Confederates .secured a much needed port of entry in the South-west. On the 7th of April, Admiral Dupont, with a

THE UXITED STATES— THE CIVIL WAE.

139

powerful fleet of irou-clad.s, iiimlf an attempt til cajiture Charleston, but the sijuaih^ou ;vas driven back much damaged. In the latter part iif June the siege of the city was begun anew liy a strong laud force, under command of General Q. A. Gilmore, assisted by a fleet under Admiral Dahlgreo. The Federal army lirst effected a lodgment on Folly Island, and then on Morris Island, where batteries were planted bearing upon Fort Sumter, Fort Wagner, and Battery Gregg — the latter at the northern extremity of the islaml.

After the bombardment had continued for some time. General Gilmore, on the 18th of July, made an attempt to carry Fort Wagner by assault, but was repulsed with the loss of more than fifteen hundred men. The siege was resumed and pressed until the 6th of Sep- tember, when the Confederates evacuated Fort Wagner and Battery Gregg, and retired to Charleston. Gilmore thus obtained a position within four miles of the citj', from which he could bombard the wharves and buildings in the lower part of the town. Meanwhile, the walls of Fort Sumter on the side next to Mor- ris Island had been pounded into powder by the land batteries and the guns of the moni- tors. The harbor and city, however, still re- mained under the control of the Confederates, tlie only gain of the Federals being the estab- lishment of a blockade so complete as to seal uj) the port of Charleston.

We may now turn to the consideration of affairs of the Army of the Potomac. In the spring and summer of 1863 that army, so un- fortunate thus far in its career, had been en- gaged in several desperate conflicts. After his fatal repulse at Fredericksburg, General Burnside was superseded by General Joseph Hooker, who, in the latter part of Ai.i-il, moved forward with his army in full ioive, cro.ssed the Rappahannock and the Rapidan, and reached Chancellorsville. Here, on the evening of the 2d of May, he was attacked by the veteran army of Northern Virginia, led bv Lee and Jackson. The latter General, with extraordinary daring, put him.'^elf at the head <if a division of twenty-five thousand men, filed off from the battle-field, outflanked the I'ninn army, burst like a thunder-clund uimiu the riirht wing, and swept everylhing tn di- struction. But it was the last of Stonewall's

I battles. As night came on, with ruin impend- ing over the Federal army, the great Confed- erate leader, riding through the gathering darkness, received a volley from his own lines, anil fell mortally wounded. He lingered a week, and died at Guinea Statimi, leaving a gap in the Confererate raidcs which nu other man could fill.

On the morning of the :;d the l)attle was renewed with great fury. The Union right wing was restored, and the Confederates were checked in their career of victory. General Sedgwick, however, attempting to reinforce Hooker from Fredericksburg, was defeated and driven across the Rappahannock. The Union Army was crowded between Chancel-

JOSEPH HnnKER.

lorsville and the river, where it remained in the utmost peril until the evening of the 5th, when General Hooker succeeded in withdraw- ing his forces to the northern bank. The Union losses in these terrible battles amounted, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, to about seventeen thousand, while that of the Con- federates was less than five thousand. So far as the eastern field of action was concerned, there was never a time when the Union cause ajipeared to greater disadvantage, or the Con- federate cau.se more likely to succeed. The campaign, taken as a whole, had been the most di-^a>tn>u^ of any in which the Federal Army iiail a- yrt been engaged.

The defeat of Hooker, however, was to

140

UXIVERSAL niSTollY. — THK MODERX \Vi)l!I.I>

some extent niitipntiil hy il cavalry raid of General Stni^ officer crossed the r;aii|.a]Kiiiii..<-l 29th of Aju-il i.ushed f.Twunl \vi

hat (A-iilral l;aih'..a.l, and da>hiii,L;- on to llit- the Cln.kahoiiiiny. H,- suece,-,!,,! in cutting ( k-n- of ; eral Lee's eonHniiniealions, swept around

THE UNITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

141

within a few miles of Kieliniond, and on tlic 8tli lit' ]\Iay recrnssed tin- IJai)i)ahanuock in safety. Td this time alsn ludnngs the success- ful defense of Suti'olk, on the Xausemond River, by General Peck, against a siege con- (hvted by General Longstreet. The Con- federates retreated from the scene of action on the very day of the Vuioii disaster at Chancel- lorsville.

Great was the elation of the Confederates on account of their successes on the Rappahan- nock. General Lee now determined to carry the war into Maryland and Pennsylvania. In the first week of June he threw forward his whole army, crossed the Potomac, and captured Hagerstown. On the 22d of the month he entered Cham- bersburg, and then pressed on through Carlisle, to within a few miles of Harrisburg. The militia of Pennsylvania was hurriedly called out, and thousands of volunteers came pouring in from other States. General Hooker, still in command of the Array of the Potomac, pushed forward to confront his an- tagonist. It was evident that a great and decisive battle was at hand. General Lee rapidly con- centrated his forces near the vil- ^^ lage of-Getfetshurg^ca.pital of Adams County, Pennsylvania, while the Union Army was likewise gathered on the highlands beyond the town. On the very eve of battle the com- mand of the Army of the Poto- mac, and of all the Federal forces, wa- transferred from General Hooker to General George G. ^leade, who hastily drew up his army the hill country in the direction of burg. After two years of indecisi fare, it now seemed that the fate

Hagerstown, and the struggle began. In the afternoon both divisions were strongly rein- forced, and a severe battle was fought for the po.sse.«siou of Seminary Ridge. In this initial conflict the Confederates were victoiioiis, and the Union line was forced from its position through the village and back to the high grounds on the south. Here, at nightfall, a stand was made, and a new battle-line was formed, reaching from the eminence called Round Top, wbere the left wing of the Union

through Gettys-

ve war- of the

\nd perhaps of the American Republic was to be staked on the issue of a sinL;le

< )n the morning of the 1st of July the I'liioii advance, led by Generals Reynolds and Beauford, moving westward from Gettysburg, encountered the Confederate division of Gen- eral A. P. Hill, comincT uiion the road from

army rested, around the crest of the ridges to Cemetery Hill, wbere the center was posted, and thence to Wolf Hill, on Rock Creek. The position was well chosen and strong, and the whole Union army, with the exception of Sedgwick's coriis, wa- hurried forward into jilace during tlie night. The Confederate forces were likewise brought into position on Seminary Ridge and on the high ground.s to the left of Rock Creek, forming thus a semi- circle about five miles in extent. The cavalry of both armies hung upon the tiauks, doing

rA/I//.si7 HISJOHY — Tin MODI r\ WOULD.

effiauL ^ i\iu lull lui ll\ i>utuii itiii_ lu the iiniM c iillict- lit tlR tuitt i

Oil tlu III iiiiii^' (if Jiih 2 1 ih limit; w IS begun li\ (i( IK I il I ii_-ii( I in tlie(-<.nled eritt ii_'lii 1 h It I iiiiii II 1 I 111 \etl firward with ini|ittu it\ ml 1 11 uj u the L uion left uniki Guieijl '^uklo The '•tiuggle in this put of the helil wT-- f i the pos>eb-ion of Gieat tud LittU K luii 1 lup^ iml iftei tern ble fighting, which lifted until ^i\ o clock in the e\euing these --tioni; positinus lemained in

It w lb fcund tint, ( ii the wIimI,.. tlir pi.-ition of the two annus hid not bcin nialciially chiuged 1)\ the cuiflic t, altlioiiu'li nciiily liirty thoueind Lnion aii<l Cunfederatc- dead and w lunded aluiiK Ikhc evidence of the purtc-n- tiius chancier of the battle.

A generil \h\\ of the field and of the sit- uation showed that the National forces were wis(h netiiig nil the defensive. The Confed- ( ntt linn w i- linking an invasion. It had cdiiie t I I w ill Hid must break thrnigli or

-■^-L?"

\ ^fm\

i^^ ^4

ILK OI erETl\.-

the

mds of

Federals. Ii

L'enter the , siit!i'r defeat. The burden of attack was

battle was also severe, lasting for the greater part of the day, and being waged for the mas- tery of Cemetery Hill, which was the key to the Federal position. Here, too, notwithstand- ing the despi'i-ate assaults of the Confederates, the iiit<-grity of the National line was pre- served till nightfall. On the Union right the Confederate onset was more successful, and that wing of the Federal army, under General Slocum, was soim-wliat sliattered. But by ten o'clock at iiiLdit, wlini the tiirhtinir had ceased.

therefore upon Lee's army, and from this he did not flinch. In the darkness of night both Generals made strenuous preparations for the renewal of the struggle on the morrow ; but with the nmniiiig Iinth seemed loath to begin. Doulitlfss both were woU aware of the critical nature of the conflict. The whole nation, in- deed, discerned that the crisis of the Civil War hail been reached, atul that, perhaps, before sunset the issue would be decided for or aL'aiiist tlii> .\iih ri.-an I'liioii.

THE UMTEl) STATES. — THE CIVIL

AE.

The whnle foren.M.n of tlie speut iu prepai-atiiiiis. There

.r Ji

tie fight- av there

ing, aud that hut desultory. At was a lull along tlie whole line. Then hurst forth the fiercest cannonade cvir knnwn on the Aineriean Continent. I'litil after two o'clock the hills and siirroundin- country were shaken with the thundt-rs of nu.re than two hundred heavy guns. The Confederate artil- lerymen concentrated their fire on the Union center, at Cemetery Hill, and this place became a scene of indescribable uproar and death. The Union batteries, under direction of General Hunt, drew back beyond the crest, in order to cool the guns, and also for economy of am- munition. The consequent slacking of fire was construed by the Confederates as signifying that their cannonade had been successful; and then came the crisis. The cannonade ceased. A Confederate column, numliering nearly twenty thousand, and about three-fourtlis of a mile in length, headed by the Virginians, under General Pickett, moved forward for the final and desperate charge against the Union center. It was doubtless the finest military siu-ctai'le ever witnessed west of the Atlantic ; but the onset was in vain, and the brave men who made it were mowed down with terrilile slaughter. The head of the Confederate col- umn reached the Union line, but there sank into the earth. Then the whole was hurled back iu ruin and rout. Victory hovered over the National army, and it only remained for Lee, with his broken legions, to turn back towards the Potomac. The entire Confeder- ate loss in this, the greatest battle of the war, was nearly thirty thousand ; that of the Fed- erals, in killed, wounded, and missing, twenty- three thousand one hundred and eighty-six. It was strongly hoped by the Government that when the Confederate charge was broken and the retreat begun. General Meade woidd be able to spring forward from his position and perhaps complete the war bv destroying tlie forces of his antagonist before they could re- cross the river; but the condition of the Union army would not permit of such a mov-e- ment. General Lee accordingly withdrew his forces into Virginia, and the Federals took up their old position along thn Potomac and the Rappahannock. Such were tlie more important military movements of l.*(i:l

ccumu-

inhiii

Meanwhilr. ntlier difhcultic: lated like iiDUiitaiiis arnuml t

At the time it was imt >.. .l.iiilv .-cen as it was afterwards that the war iiiii-t m.hh tiid ..,■ National bankruptcy viisuc The last call i- >• V(iliintei.rs had not lifen fully ,in-t, and tli.-i.- were not wanting those in pt.rtions of the North who purposely impeded the gathering of new forces. The anti-war party became more bold and open, and denounced the meas- ures (if the Government. On the 3d of Mari'h, ].S(i3, a Conscrii-tion Act was passed by CViugress, and two months afterwards the President ordered a general draft of three hundred thousand men. All able-b(jdied citi- zens between the ages of twenty and fortv-five were subject to the requisition.

The measure furnished fuel tor the fires which the anti-war party had kiii.lle.l in the North. Bitter deiuiiKiati.iii. of the Govern- ment and its policy were heard in the Border States, and iu some places the draft-officers were forcibly resisted. On the 1.3th of July

va:-t mob ro>e in anus in tlie city, .Iciuolished the buildings which were occupied by the Provf>st :Marshals, burned the Colored Orphan Asylum, attacked the police, and killed about a iiunilred peojile, most of whom were negroes. For three days the authorities of the city were set at defiance. On the second day of the reign of terror. Governor Seymour arrived and addressed the mob in a niild-mannered way, promising that the draft should be sus- pended, and advising the rioters to disperse. But they gave little heed to his admonition, and went oil witli thr woik of dotiii.'tion. Gen- eral Wool, comman.lfr of tlu' mihtary district of New York, then took the matter in hand; but even the troojis at his disposal were at first unable to overawe the insurgents. Some volunteer regiments, however, came troiiping home from Gettyslmru The Metropolitan Police Companies were comjiactly (U-ganized, and the insurrection was put down with a strong hand. The news of the fall of Vicks- burg and the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg threw a damper on these insurrectionary ]U'o- ceedin-^, aii.l acts of domestic violence cease.], Neveitliele-. tile aiili-war Spirit eontimie.l to e.xpre-- it-elf in parts of the N..rth, and iu

ISlVEIu'iAL ElSTOllY.-THE 3I0DERN WOULV.

THE UXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

order to counteract it, the President, ou the i 19tli of August, issued a proclamatiou sus- jieudiug the writ of habea.-< corpus throughout thi- Uuiou.

Oue of the lessons of the hour was the in- sufficieucy of the couscripliou as a metliod of filling the Uuion army. That army was com- posed of volunteers who had espoused the cause of the Government with a tolerably keen sense of the principles involved and a fervid patriotism for the flag of the Uuiou. The introduction, into this great army, of re- cruits taken by the draft was a process quite foreign to the sentiments of the people. Only about fifty thousand men were added directly to the National forces by conscription. But in other respects the measure was salutary. It was seen that the Government would not scruple, in the lost resort, to draw upon the human resources of the country by force. Volunteering was greatly quickened by the draft, and the plan of employing substitutes be- came generally prevalent in the last year oi the war. Such, however, were the terrible los.ses by battle and disease and the expiration of enlist- ments, that in October of 1863 the President was constrained to issue another call for three hundred thousand men. At the same time it was provided that any delinquency in meeting the demand would be supplied by a draft in the following January. By these active meas- ures the columns of the Union army were made more powerful than ever. With the approach of winter the disparity between the Uniiin and Confederate forces began to be ap- parent to the whole world. In the armies of the South there were already symptoms of ex- haustion, and the most rigorous conscription was necessary to fill the thin, but still coura- geous, ranks of the Confederacy. It was on the 20th of June in this year that West Vir- ginia, separated from the Old Dominion, was organized and admitted as the thirty-fifth State of the Union.

We come now to consider those movements by which the war was ended. The military operations of 1864 began, as in the previous year, in the West. In the beginning of Feb- ruary, General Sherman left Vicksburg with the purpose of destroying the railroad connec- tions of Eastern ^Mississippi. JIarching off' toward Alabama, he reached Meridian on the

1.5th of the mouth, and tore up the tracks of the railways from jNIobile to Corinth and from Vicksburg to Montgomery, for a distance of a hundred and fifty miles. Bridges were burned, locomotives and cars destroyed, and vast quan- tities of cotton and corn given to the flames. General Sherman had expected the arrival at Meridian of a strong force of Federal cavalry, under cnmmand of General Smith, advancing from Memphis. The latter made his way into Mississijipi, but was met, a hundred miles north of Meridian, by the cavalry army of Forrest and driven back to Memphis. General Sherman, disappointed by this failure, retraced his course to Vicksburg, while Forrest con- tinued his raid northward into Tennessee, where, on the 24th of IMarch, lie occupied Union City. He then pressed on to Paducah, Kentucky, where he assaulted Fort Anderson, in the suburbs of the town, but was repulsed, with the loss of three hundred men. He then turned back into Tennessee, and came upon Fort Pillow, on the Missis.sippi, seventy miles above Memphis. This place was held by five hundred and sixty soldiers, about half of whom were Negroes. Forrest, having gained the outer defenses, demanded a surrender, but was refused. He then ordered an assault, and carried the fort by storm, in the course of which nearly all of the Negro soldiers were slaughtered.

In the spring of 1864 occurred the Red River expedition, conducted by General Banks. The object of the movement was the capture of Shreveport, the seat of the Confederate Government of Louisiana. The plan em- braced the advance of a strong land force up Red River, to be supporte<l by a fleet of gun- boats under command of Admiral Porter. The army was arranged in three ilivisions. The first, numbering ten thousand, advanced from Vicksburg, under command of General Smith; the second, led by General Banks in person, proceeded to New Orleans; while the third, under command of General Steele, set out from Little Rock. In the beginning of March, General Smith's division moved forward to Red River, and was joine.l by P..rt.'r with the fleet. On tli.' 14th of the m.aith, the advance reached Fort de Russy, which was taken by assault. The Confederates retreated up the river to Alexandria, and on the 16th

(■XI\i:i;SAL IflSToL'V — TJIK MODEUX \V<)1!L1>

l)os>il,lc. Til.. Ilnlilla |„-or..,,l,.,l U], tllr Mivam t(.«anlShnv,-iH„t,aii,l tl„- hind loivt-s uhirled oil' in a ciiviiit to tlie Irft.

On tlic rSth (if April, when tiie advance brigades were appniachiug the town of Mans- field, they were suddenly attacked by the Confederates in fnll fn'ce.and advantageously

difiiculty that the flotilla descended the river from the direction of .Shreveport, for the Con- federates had now j)lanted batteries on the banks. AVheu the Federal rrtn-al had pro- ceeded a-^ \\\ is Alewnliii tl m \ ni nt was a-ain ( li. 1 r 1 b\ tli 1 I i < f the

i-iv.-r. Th, uit , 1 ,1 1 1 i thit the

gun-bnats (_ ull n t 1 I tl i 4 i K Ihe squadron wis hnUh su(d fioin its penl bj the skill of Colonel Bai!e> , of '\\ iscon«in He constructed a ]\m icioss the luer iiising the water .so th a the \essels coid I bt il iti 1 o\cr

^^

.EVS DAM ON RED RIVER.

posted.	A short	and b]ood\	battle t
in which the Federals were	^omjilett
The vie	tors made	a vigorou	5 piirsui
ri,-a^an	t Hill, ul	rre th.-y	were ni

CnvrnMl th,. r.trr:	t tn ll„. rivrr. X.'arly
thousand men, t\	.nty pieces of arliller_\
the supply liain-	• if the Federal army
lost in these di-a	<trnus battles. It was

The whole expedition broke to pieces, and re- turned as rapidly as possible to the Mississippi. When General Steele, who had, in the mean- time, advanced from Little Rock toward Sjneve- port, lieard of the Federal defeats, he with- drew, after several severe encounters with the Confederates. To the National Government, the Red River expedition was a source of much shame and nmrtiHratiun. General lianks was relieved of his (■(.mnian.l, and General Canl.y was appointed to succeed him.

The time had now come when the evulu- tion of military talent consequent upon the

THE UMTED STATES.— THE CIVIL U'AIi.

■war reached its climax in tlie ascemlency of General Ul_ysses S. Grant. By degrees, through every kiud of hardship and contu- mely, that commander had emerged from the obscurity which surrounded him at the begin- ning of the conflict, and stood forth, in silence and modesty unparalleled, as the leading figure of the times. After Vicksburg and Chatta- nooga, nothing could stay his progress to the command-iu-chief. Congress responded to the spirit of the country by reviving the high grade of Lkutewnit-'aeHcraK and conferring it on Grant. This brcmght with it the appnint- ment, by the President, on the 2d of Marcii, 1864, to the command-in-chief of the laud and naval forces of the United States. No few 1 1 than seven hun li 1 thousand Union sihiui^ were now to mo\e it his command. The fii t month after his app nit ment was spent in plan ning the great t vn paigus of the >cu These were two in niun ber. The Army t the Potomac, under immedi ate ciimmaud of Mea le and the Genenl n chief, was to a h n upon Richmond, till 1 fended by the ai ii \ t Northern Virgin 1 1 un der Lee. At the ^inie time General .Sheimiu commanding the army at Chattanooga, now numbering a hundred thousand men, was to march against Atlanta. It was defended by the Confederates, under General Johnston. To these two great movements all other militarv operations were to be suiiordinated. Grant sent his orders to Sherman for the grand movement which was destined to end the war, and the 1st of May, 18(;4, was fixed as the date of the advance.

On the 7th of tliat month General Sher- man moved forward from Chattanooga. At Dalton he was confronted bv the Confederate array, sixty thousand strong. After some manoeuvering and fighting, he succeeded in turning Johnston's flank, and obliged him to

fall back to Eesaca. Two hard-fought l.attles occurred at this plan', on tin- 14th and ITith of May, in which the I'nion army «as vic- torious, and the Confederates obliged to re- treat by way of Calhoun and Kingston to Dallas. At the latter place, on the 28th of the month, Johnston made a second stand. He intrenched himself and fought valiantly, but was again outnundjered and outflanked, and comi)elled to fall back to Lost Mountain. From this position also he was forced, on the 17th of June, after three davs of desidtory fighting.

The next stand of the Confederates was made on the Great and Little Kenesaw Mount-

ains. From this line, on the 22d of June, the division of General Hood made a fierce attack on the Union center, but was repulsed with heavv losses. Five days afterwards General Sherman attem]>tod to carry Kenesaw by storm. The assault was made with great au- dacity, but ended in a divadl'ul ic|iulse and a loss of nearly three thousand men. Sherman, undismaved bv Ids reverse, then resumed his former tactics, outflanked his antagonist, and on the •'>d of July compelled him to retreat across the Chattahoochee. By tlie 10th t,f the mouth the whole Confederate army ha.l been fiirccd lini'k within the defenses of Atlanta.

A >]fise immediately ensued. Atlanta was a place of the greatest importance to the Con-

148

CMVKJ.'.sAI. IllsToJlY.-^rHK MOIiEUX WORLD.

federacy. Here were located tin- hkk shops, fbuudries, car-work? and drpiits ..t plies, upou the possession nf wliich >'i depended. The Confederati> (lnvt •niiiiini in the nieantiine, lieeoini di- iti li 1 wit niilitar\ polI(^ c f (ti ni i d I |h 1 F hi That t mti II- iiid -I il ml . inni in h i adopted tlu phii f lillii. huk hit I superior fiiu I ~ it "^h iniiii it i ntiiitiii lines, and ot 111 lint 111 11)^ h\ i - 1 1 i t I policy, the (h>tiiiK-

this method was not pleasing to the authorities at Richmond, and when Atlanta was besieged Johnston was superseded by the rash but daring General J. B. Hood. It was the policy of the latter to fight at whatever hazard. On the 20th, 22d, and 2Stli of July, he made three despirate assaults on the I'nion lino aroniMl Atlanta; but was iTpiils.Ml in .■ach en-a-etiieiit with dreadful losses. It was in the beginning of the second of these battles that the brave General James B. McPherson, the bosom

friend of Generals Grant and .Sherman, and the pride of the Union army, was killed while reconnoiteriug the Confederate lines. In the three conflicts jnst referred to, the Confederates 1 -t more men than Johnston had lost in all lii^ masterly retreating and fighting between C Inttanooga and Atlanta.

1 he siege of the hitter city was now pressed \\ith great vigor. Sherman tightened his grip fioni day to day. At last, by an incautious niiAenient, Hood separated his army; the I'nioti commander thrust a column between the two divisions, and the ininudiate evacuation of Atlanta foil., wed. On the 2d of Septem- lier, ."Sherman's army marched into the captured city. Since leaving > Chattanooga^ the Federals had

lost in killed, wounded, and miss- ing fully thirty thousand men, and the Confederate losses were even greater. By retiring from Atlanta, however, Hood, though he lost the city, saved his army. "^ He now formed the plan of

striking boldly northward into Tennessee, with the hope of com- ] idling Sherman to evacuate (Jeorgia. But the latter had no notion of losing his vantage ground, and after following Hood north of the Chattahoochee, he turned back to Atlanta.

Hood swept on through North- ern Alabama, crossed the Tennes- see River at Florence, and ad- vanced on Na.shville. General Thomas, with the Army of the Cumberland, had in the meantime been detached from Sherman's army and sent northward to con- front Hood. General Schofield, who com- manded the Federal forces in the southern ]iart of the State, fell back before the Confederates and took post at Franklin, eighteen miles south of Nashville. Here, on the SOth of November, he was attacked l,y Ho..d, wlinin, after a hard-fought battle, h,' held in check until nightfall, when he escaped across the river and retreated within the def(>nses of Nashville. At the latter place. General Thomas rapidly concentrated his

THE LLXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

149

forces. A line of intrenchmeuts was drawn around the city on the south. Hood came on, confident of victory, and prepai'ed to be^in the siege by blockading the Cumberhmd ; Init before the work was fairly begun, (General Thomas, on the 15th of December, moved out from bis works, fell upon the Confederate army, and routed it, with a loss of killed, wounded, and prisoners of fully twenty-five thousand men. For many days of freezing weather, Hood's shattered and disorganized columns were pursued until at last the rem- nant found refuge in Alabama. The Confed- erate army was ruined, and the rash treneral who had led it to de^ti uc- tion was relieved ot his command.

On the 14th of ^ I vember, Geneial Shei- man burned Atlanta and began his famous M\f( h TojrHR Sra. Hisainn of veterans uumbeied sixty thousand men Be lieving that Hood's aim^ would be destiojed iii Tennessee, and kuo\\in_ that no Coufedeiatet<ii( t could withstand hnii in front, he cut his coniniu nications with the Jv( abandoned his bi^t supplies, and stiuc k boldly for the sea ei more than two luiu and fifty miles iwa\

Neither Sherman himself nor General Grant had any definite plan as to the terminus of the campaign; but the one had self-reliance, and the other was calmly confident of the result. The country also had come to know its leaders and to trust them in every hazard. When Sher- man left Atlanta, and was lost to sight in the forests of Georgia, he was followed by the un- wavering faith of the Nation.

As had been foreseen, the Confederates could offer no successful resistance to his prog- ress. The Union array swept on through jNIacon and Milledgeville; reached the Ogee- chee, and crossed in safety; captured Gibson and Waynesborough ; and on the 10th of December arrived in the vicinity of Savannah.

On the loth. Fort ^McAllister, below the city, was carried by storm by the division of Gen- eral Hazen. On the night of the 20th Gen- eral Hardee, the Confederate commandant, es- caped from Savannah with fifteen thou.?and men, and retreated to Charleston. On the following morning the National advance entered, and on the 22d General Sherman made his head-quar- ters in Savannah. On his march from Atlanta he had lost only five hundred and sixty-seven men. The month of January, 186.5, was spent by the Union army in the city. On the 1st of February, General Sherman, having garri- soned the })lace, began Ids march against

PCH TO THF

Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. To the Confederates the further progress of the invasion through the swamps and morasses of the State had seemed impossible. Now that the veteran legions were again in motion, alarm and terror pervaded the country. Governor Jlagrath had already summoned to the field every white man in the State l3e- tween the ages of sixteen and sixty; but the requisition was comparatively inefiectual. Nevertheless, the Confederates formed a line of defense along the Salkehatehie, and pre- pared to dispute Sherman's march northward. It was all in vain. The passages of the river were forced, and on the 11th of the month the Confederate lines of communication be-

1.30

ryjvKh'SAi, nisniuY.—THK Moj>i:i;y world.

tween Cliarl<-stoii and Aiii:ii>la w.iv nit ..t On the next .lay ( )iaiiLM Imr- \va-- taken 1j till" ScvcMtcuMith' Cori.^. On llir 14th tli fui-.l.- an. I hii.lires ot' ihr CmLfanr wvw ca

ti.in ..1' Cdlnniliia. S.v.ral .livi-i..,i> pn-^x- i-apidiv i;.i-\var.l: lanl-r- wnv thravn acro: th.. lin.a.i a.,.1 Sahida Uivn-. an.l tli.- raiiit.

.Ma\

A- -Mdu as it hecaiuf fertaiii that Cokiinbia inn-l tall into the hands of the Federals, Geii- <-rai Hai-dt-e, eoniinandant of Chaideston, detei- inined X<< abandon that citv alsu, and to join (naiei-als Beamx-ai-d and Johnston in North Carolina. Accordingly, ou the day of the <'apture of the capital, guards were detailed to destroy all the warehouses, stores of cottou, and depots of supplies in Charleston. The torch was applied, the flames raged, and cnn- sternation spread throngliout the city. The great depot of tlie Norih-wrsterii Railway, where a large quantity <if powder was stored, caught fire, blew up with terrific violeuce, and buried two hundred people in the ruins. Not until four squares iu the best part of the city were laid iu ashes, was the conflagration cheeked. During the same night. General Hardee, with his fourteen thousand troops, es- caped from desolated Charleston, and made his way northward. On tlie morning of the l<Sth the news was b.irne to the Xatiunal forces of James and M>n-\~ Islands. In the f..r..n(M,n the .'^lai- and Stripes were again i-ai^.l over Forts Snniter, Hiplev, and Pinck- nev. Mayer .Ma.'l,eth surrendered the city to a company which was si-ut up from M<irris Island. The work of savin- whatever might l)e rescued from the flames was at once begun, the citizens and Federal soldiers working to- gether. By strenuous exertiiiiis, the jirineipal arsiaial was save.j ; a depot of rice was also preserveil, and it- eonients ilistributed to the poor. Colonel Stewart L. Woodfof.l. of New York, was appointed ndlitary ( lovernor of the

have been expeeled were soon /stahlished Ih-

tween the soldiery and the \ pie.

Columbia was, next after Atlanta, the

great arsenal of the Confederacy. Here were the machine-shops and foundries .so necessary tip the South in the i>rosecaition of the war.

pnblie prnjiiaty, and then imiuediately re- iieweil his march northward. The cour.se of the I'nion tinny now lay towards Charlotte, North Carolina. The Natiomil forces swept

where a junetion was efll-eted with the Tweu- tieih Corp-, under Slocum. Cro.ssing the (ireat I'edee at Cheraw, Sherman pressed on towtird.- Ftiyetteville, where he arrived with- out serious hinderance, and on the 11th of jNIarch took possession of the town.

^Meanwhile, on the 8th of the month, an exi-iting epis(]de of the campaign had been -npplied liy a dashing battle between Gen- erals Hampton's and Kilpatrick's cavalry- forces. To Hampton had been as.signed the duty of defending the rear of Hardee's col- umn on the retreat from Charleston. Resolv- ing to intercept him, Kilpatrick cut through the Confeilcrate lines. But the next morn- ing the Union officer was surprised in his quarters, attacked and routed, himself barely- escaping ou foot into a swamp. Here, how- ever, he suddenly rallied his forces, turned on the Confederates, and scattered them in a brilliiint charge. Hampton also made a rallv and returned to the onset. But Kilpatrick hehl his ground, until he was reinforced by a division of the Twentieth Corps under General Mitchell, when the Confederates were finally driven back. Kilpatrick then conducted his forees. without further molestation, to Favette- ville, whei-.. the other divisions of Sherman's tirmy ha.l alretidy arrived.

After the ovei-throw of Hood, in Tennes.see, General Johnston had at length been recalled to the command of the Confederate forces. His influence on the destinies of the campaign now licL'an to be felt in front of Sherman. The advance of the Union army was rendered more ditlicult by the viL'ilance of the Confed- erate Gencfiil. At .Vverasborough, on Cape Fear River, :i short distance no'-th of Fayette- ville, Ceneral Hardee made a stand, bu't was repid-ed with considerable los.s. On the IDtb ofMtireh, when Sherman was incautiou.sly approacdiin-- Iji'iitonville, the advance wad furiously a>saile<l by the Confederates, and

THE UNITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

the Lui u iimj ittei ill its 1 ittl ^ lu 1 ^ t lie seemed foi awhile lu d\nn;ei of defeat Bit the hiillnut fi htin f the Ini i a f G iienl Jeftei u ( D 1 tl e

the eul i tie „i It 1 i 1 i 1 1 ei (xeieral •^heimio met hw tutt^ iii'^t till euteiel luto 1 tntinn n t ouh 1 i the ^muulei t the 1 -

11 d two da^s afteiwai lb "^heimiu eiiteiel

& 1 1 1 iioiieh unoi ] e 1 H

h\ a tiong columu f ^ 1

Geuertl ^ h fiel 1 u 1 1 1 U

tn tin lei Geueiil lem lie I

aimy now tuinel to the n lth^\e%t an 1 i

the 13th of Ajiril entered Ealeigh. This wa

t 1 - e taku

( 1 1 1 ^t I 1 1 VI It the ml lie t Mm ut fi Iv x\ ille, at tl e hea 1 of and men. The expedition crossed the

CMVKliSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

aiii.<; W'ilke.sborough was captured, and Stone- man lorced his way across the Yadkin, at Jonesville. It had been the plan of the cam- paign that the Union cavalry should make a diversion in favor of Sherman, by penetrating the western districts of South Carolina. But that coiiiniander, hy the celerity of his movements, had ahvady reached Goldsborough, in the North State, and was in no need of Stoneman's help. The movement of the latter, therefore, became an independent expedition, the general object being the destruction of public property, the capture of Confederate stoies, and the tearing up of ndwa^s

luinnifj; tn tin Noitli tlu L nion troopers

now tix\ei^ed the western end of >sciith Caro- lun md enteied Cauoll (.ouut\ \ irginia. At Wjthevdle the iaihva\ wt^ torn up, and then the whole line was de^tio-\ed fiom the bridge over New River to within four miles of Lynchburg. Christiansburg was captured, and the track of the railway obliterated for ninety miles. The expedition next turned to Jack- sonville; thence southward; and then struck and destroyed the North Carolina Railroad [ between Danville and Greeu.sborough. The track in the direction of Salisbury was torn up, and the factories at Salem burned. At Salisbury was located one of the great Confederate pris- ons for captured soldiers. It had been the aim

of Stoneman to overpower tlie Confederates and liberate the prisoners ; but the latter were removed before the arrival of the Union cav- alry. The town, however, was captured, and a vast store of ammunition, arms, provisions, clothing, and cotton fell into the iiands of the raiders.

On the lyth of April, a .livisiou of Stone- man's force, under ]\Iajor Jloderwell, reached the great bridge by which the South Caro- lina Railway crosses the Catawba River. This magnificent structure, eleven hundred and fifty feet in length, was set on fire and completely destroyed. After a fight with Fur- geson's Confederate cavalry, the Federals turned back to Dallas, where all the divisions were concentrated, and the raid was at an entl. During the progre.ss of the expedition, six thousand prisoners, forty-six pieces of artillery, and immense quantities of small arms had fallen into the hands of Stoueman's men. The amount of property destroyed, and the damage otheiwiee done to the tottering Confederacy, could not be estimated.

Gieater still in importance were the events which had occurred on the Gulf and the At. lantic coast. In the beginning of August, 1864, Admiral David G. Farragut bore down with a jiowerful squadron upon the defenses of M(]liil( The entrance to the harbor of that tit\ «a^ commanded, on the left, by Fort Games, and on the right by Fort Morgan. The haibor itself was defended by a Conf'ed- eiate fltct and the monster iron-clad ram Ten- II' K Oil the 5th of August, Farragut pre- piud foi battle, and ran past the forts into the harbor. In order to direct the movements of his vessels, the old Admiral mounted to the maintop of his flag-ship, the Haiiford, where he was la.shed to the rigging. From that high perch he gave his commands during the battle. One of the Union ships struck a torpedo and went to the bottom. The rest attacked and dispersed the Confederate squad- ron ; but just as the day seemed won, the terrible Tennessee came down at full speed to strike and sink the Haiiford. The latter avoided tiie blow, and tiicn followe<l one of the fiercest conflicts of the war. The Union iron-chuls closed around their black antagonist, and bat- tered her with their beaks and fifteen-inch bolts of iron, until she surrendered. Two days

THE rXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

afterwards Fort Gaines was taken, 23d of the month, Fort Morgan w to capituhite. The port of .Mol.il

etlk-tuallv M'Hlr,! up to the Collf.lr

Not h-» iinp.i.-tant to tlio Vm.,>> tlie eaptinv of l-'.a-t Fish,.,-. Tlii. f .rtress (■o,ni,ian.l.',l th,. ,.„;n.or,. to River ao.l Wilmin-ton — tlio la-t >o:i bvtheC ;MhTaI,-S[al..s. In I ).■,•,■„

Admiral 1	'..rti^r ^va^	>.ait
erful Am	■riran m.	Kuln
siege and	lake the	III.
a force o	f -ix tho
acconipani	ed the ex	ledit
The armament came
and on th	? dav befo	re CI
bardment. the work	T. 1- bv Stn	m'.'''
Weitzel, u	ho led the	eolui
to the fort	to reeoiH	oiter
assault CO I	hi only e	id ii
his army.	O.ncral	r.utl
same cone	aHon, an	1 tho
doned. A	dmiral V	a-trr
before the	lort with	bis
forces, ui	lor Ibitl	er, 1
Monroe.	The onto.	mo u
hurailiatin	■■ to tho	Nali
earlv in J:	niiar\- llir
to Wil,„i,	'Jtoll, UIK	lor (

ded tl structi.

s party, except

Pod,

■ f'tlie U

l-S to p	oy ni
d State	. Ihi
Confrd,	i-aov H

emmes where

In tho pn-vi	ms
p .\„.<hr;/lr ,	in '
1 s:;, 11(10. 1	Ii

It

the last >oa-poi-t held by the Confe.lerates, and theii- nutlet to the sea was thus forever closed, The control of Albemarle Sound had been obtained in the previous October. The work was accomplished by a daring exploit of Lieu- tenant Gushing, of the Federal navy. The Sonnil was at the time commanded by the tremendous Confederate iron ram, called the Alhemnrle. Cusliin<r undertook to destroy the dreaded vessel. With a number of daring vol- unteers he embarked on a small steamer, and on the night of the 27th of October entered the Roanoke. The ram lay at the harbor of Plymouth. The approach was made with great difficulty. Gushing, however, managed to get alongside, and with his own hands sank a terrible torpedo under the Confederate ship, exploded it, and left the ram a ruin. The brave adventure cost the lives or capture of 10

Gontl'derate war-ve-~el< e.mld no lom^er be sent abroad. Another plan, th.a-efore, had to be adopted to maintain the Confederate cruisers. In tin.' emirt;cney, tlie enussaries of the South souL^ht the -liip-yaid.^ of Great Britain, and from that vantage-giound began t.. build and e.pnp their privateers. In spite of all remonstr.iiiees, the British (.iovernment connived at this proceeding, and here was laid

idations of that ditfieultv which w.as t,, cost the treasury 'of En-land

,0(111. It was in the harbor of Biver- ateer Florida was fitted out. Sailing from thence, in the summer of 1862, she succeeded in running into Mobile Bay. Esca|iing from that port in the following Jan- uary, she de-troyed fifteen Union merchant- men ; was then caiitiired in the harbor of

the for destined to ( SI."), 000, 000. pool that the

i5y uyjiEB!SAL nisTony.— THi. y:()i>i:i;s wmn.K.

Buhia, Brazil, ami Nva> l.rou-ht into Ilainplon Stat,., >1.<- luvn- on,-,- ini, ,v,l a (■..nr...lerate

Roads, wluiv, in- an a.vi.Knlal cnlli-,M„, Au- im.ii, l.ia ,<,nunu..l <.n tlir l,i-h ^^ea, caplnrin-

«as s,.nl \u ii„. l^.ttonL .Mcanuliil.-, ihr an.l lunnin-

^'.uM/w, ihr f>/»>7.,, il,.. ,s7„„.n/,/.«/,, an.l Kaily in llir .Munnirr ,,f lsi;4. S.-mines

tiir Chirk., „„n„i.,. all l.uilt al ll,.- >lii|.-.N anl> ..f sail.-.l into ti.r liar • ni' ri„.,-lM,ni-, France,

Cla-ow. Sr,.llan,i, ,-..,].,, 1 m -,.,, and nia.l.' an.l ua^ I.,1|.,nv.-.1 ihitli.T hv (-.[.tain J.,lin A.'

^r.al hav.K- uitl, th.^ ,n.r.-|,an,-l„|,~ .,t tl,.- \Vin~l..u , .-..nin.an.l.r ..f 1 1„" M.an.. r 7.'. ,„-.<a,v/e.

l-n,l..l Sint... Wh.n l-.tt Fi^li.r ua. cap- Th.- Fi.n.'l, ( ;,,v.nnn.-nt -av.- ..nl.-is 'to

tni..l,tl,.- (lilrhfin.nnj., Mn. 1 an. .1 h.f .1, i|, .-all.-.l S.-nmu-- t., l.^aw th.- j....!, an'l ..n tin- li)tl, ..f

tlir 7;,//„/m.>v,, u.iv l,l.,un np l,v tin- C.nr.'.l- .Inn.' he siil.-.l .int f. -ivr his anta-..ni>t

eialL's. The Ge-./yut \\a,- .aplnn-.l m LsGo, • battlt-. feeveii iuik-.s Ironi the ,<h..iv, th._- two

DE-TP,t'iTtO\ OF THE ALr.l:M ARM-:.

ninl th.' Shn,an,U,.,h .•..ntiiuf.l alip.a.l nntll th.' .•!..>.■ ..f th.- \vai-. -+ -— l;nt hy tin- th.. .n..st .Ipstnn-tiv.- ..f all th.' C..nr.-.l.-1-ate ve<-^cls was the fain..u> Ah,},„,na. built at Liv.:T|)0()l. Her c.iininainl.-i- "as Captain Sianines. the same who hail ei-nis.-.l in tlic Siiniter. A inai<ii-ilv of the crew of th.- Alabama were British 'snhjeets. H.-r arma- ment was entirely British, an.l wln-n.-vcr .x-.-a- sion required, the British llai;- was rarrie.l. In her whole career, iiivolvini: the .1. -tru.-th.n ..f sixty-six vessels, and a loss of t.n milliMii dollars to the merchant-service of the rnit..l

,.,-at.- l.atth- ..f an h..nr"s ,lnrati..n, the h,nn„ ua< >hatt.-.-.-.l an.l sunk. Seii.nies

a part ..f hi- ..th.-.rs an.l ,t<-w were pieked l.y ih.- Kn.Jish ya.-ht /^- ,,-/,.,(/»./, which liad 1.-' ..nt fV..,n th..' harlMir t.. witness the hat

w. re i-airn-.l t.> S.,uthanii.tiin. an.l set at rtv.

.•eni..nts ,,f l.sCi-l-Oo, in all parts of the I ..x.-..|>t at the center. We turn, then, to .-liii.al an.l final campaigns of the Army he I'otomac, and of those divisions of the

THE rXITIJ) STATES.— THE VIVIL WAR

National forces immediatelv	■ associate.! tlin-.
with. After the great liatt	:le of <;etty^lMll;
the shattered Confeilerate eo	lumns under (in
eral Lee were withdrawn iiil	o tl,.. SlM.naiidoM
Valley. He was f.Uowed 1	ly tlio I'liioi, ,•:,'
airy under the command oi	f (ienerai (.^rr-
who pressed after the Cm	federates, and :

81iepherdsto\vn gained ^ the division of General eral Meade himself, with the main body of the Army of the Potom le entered Virginii neai Berlin, and mo%ed toi ward through Lo\ctt^ ville toWarreuton The Blue Ridge was thus again interposed betw een the two armies It was the hope of Mea<le to preoccupy and hold the passes of the mount Tin--, and to strike his .lutag- oiiist a fatal blow uheu he should attempt to le- lurn to Richmond But Lee's movements weie marked with his usual caution and sagacitv He first made a feint of crowding his aimy through Manassas Gap, anil succeeded in di aw- ing thither the bulk of the Federal foices to contest the passage He then, by a rapid maich southward, gained Fiout Royal ami Che-tei Gip,

and reached C nip \n i m safety. Geneial Mi ade, sorely disappointed in his e.Kiiectations of a battle and took up a position oi A lull now ensued fn. Both the Union an,l Coi much weakened by tli.- numbers of troops to taki of the South-west. Froi street's wliole corps had aid of Brasrg, who was h

in Tennessee. Perceiving that list Has weakened, GeiHial Mead.

bank ..f the IJapi.Ian. aii.l liinis.

■^locnins eor])S were with.lrawn t .• of the Potomac, and Meade, in .bilged to act on the defensive ■ were rapidly filled with reinf.ir.

; t.. llie I..war.l's

skillful ii,u his

th,- Fe.l- Brist..w

Hei

150 LMVEnSAL HISJOUY.— TIU: MODKHX WolH.U.

turn, fell hack, an.l the Iw. unai.-.^ ui \:x<i iu-cliief, wore tn l,f-iii the liiuil Ftru-de with

came \n re.-l for i1h- uiiiler, iIh- nih- at ( ui- tlie veteran:^ of l.ee.

j„lM r, ;,ii(l llie nih, r .,!, the upiirr Kappa- <-)ii the lir.-t .lav ,,f the a.lvane... (iraiit

|,.,n„..,-k. er.isse.l the Itapi.lau an.l enl.ar.l ih,- Wihler-

jilaee iu thi> pail cf llie HeM uiilil the arrival thiek.t^, ^ve^t nf ChaiK-ellorsvilh-. Tlu- rnhm

of General (Jraul a> (■..nHiiaii.l.r-in-rhief. army was ininie.hately cnfrontnl an-l altark.Ml

He tuek hi- stall. m at th.' h. a.l ..f the Army hy tlie C.iihil.-rate.s. Thr..u,uli iIh' •')th, Cth,

„f th.- r..t..ma.-; htil nlaiii.d d.neral Mea.le an.l 7th of May the figluin- e.mtiime.l in. ■.•.<-

in imm.Mhate .■..miiiaii.i. Th.' rampaii;ii whieli santly, with terrihle losses on li.ith si.le-; hut

n..w .n-u.-.l ua< ..n.> ..f ih.- iimsl ni.'in.uahl.. in th.> results were indecisive. L.'c ntiiv.l wilhiii

f

^4

s.IOTTS\I\ \M\ ((It Rl-HOt St.

for the closing narrative of the war. The I movement nn the left iu the flirection of forward movement of the Armv of the Poto- §iwnsvJvajHJr--CiTOrt House. Here followed

mac was coincident with the advance of SI

man in the West. Fr,,m th.. \<\ ..f M

18»U, the riii.in anac.in.la li.'-an t.i tiLdit,.ii

folds ever more ri

body of the Confederacy. On th.' ^d of the I Bnt the losses of Lee, w

month, the National camp at Culpeper j fensive, were less dreadful

was br.iken up, and the inarch on Richmond j antne.niist

was begun. In three successive summers the I Meanw

Union army had been beaten back from that Sheri.lan fi-..in tl

metropolis of the Confederacy. Nowahnndre.l s.^nt him .m a

and forty thonsand men, led by the General- Hank ..f L.e's a

mornm.ir of the 9l]i to the night of

TJth, .111.. ..f the bloodiest struggles of the

Til.. Fi'ihrals L'aiiied some ground, and

(leneral J.ihnH.n w:is i-aptured.

on the de- tlf.sc of his

rJeneral Ornnt ha.l detached

thi- Armv of th.. r..t.iinac. and

.■avalry rai.l an.un.l the h-ft

' id nL'ainst Kiclinn.nd.

THE UXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

Till' inuvemeut was executiil cclrrity aud zeal for which Siii.| IjecDine taiuou*. After cm-sii Anna he succeeded in retaldnu federates a large detachnnMit <if ers. Ou the 10th of :Mav he ^' at a place .m Yellow Tavern hy .,(■ (Jeiieral J. E. B. Stuart, an airy l.attle ensue.l, in wliich th< were defeated with cnsideralile in,i;- (ieneral Stuart hiniM^lf. \\]v wounded on the field.

After Spottsylvania, (Jrant the left, crossed the Paiuunkey town, and came to a place called twelve miles north-east of Rich on the 1st of June, he m ide an attack on the Ci nfedeiate hue~ hut

Mud Ini deid oi f)i. tlu C

to change his base of sup]

r>ii

Here

.-li-nn:: divisi,,n tVoni Fnrtrc.- Monnn., and .,n th.- r.th nf Mav had tak.M ISiiniuda Ilun- dr.Ml and City I'.'.int. at th.. nrnulli ..f the Ap- pnniattnx. Advan.-in- a-ainsl rel.a.d.urg, he was met on the Kul, l,y the corp- of ( i.Mieral Beauregard, and .hiven hack to his pn-nlon at Bermuda Hun.lrcd, whce he was ohlii^.d to intrench hiiusrlt' and act .>n the <h'lcn-ive. On the l.-itli ..f June, (icncml (uani, then en- gaged in his change of hase, l)r<.uglit his wlioh' armv into junction with Butler, and the ci>mhined forces moved against Fetersbur

puKe ot the FedeiaK \Aas complete, but the\ held their lines ashrmh

Since the beginuini; of the campaign the losses of the Army of

the Potomac, including the corps of Burnside, had i-eaclied the enormous aggregate of sixty thousand. During the same period the Con- federates had lost in killed, wounded, aud prisoners about thirty-five thousand men.

Whether or not General Grant conceded at this time the impossibility or, at least, the impracticability of taking Richmond by direct advance and assault from the north, may not be well determined. At any rate he decided

' General Grant, in his Memoirs, says: "I h.tve always regretted that the last assault at Cold Harbor was ever made. ... No advantage whatever was gained to compensate for the lica\ y loss we sustained. Indeed, the advantuL'cs, other than those of relative losses, were on the C'onfed- erate side."

On the 17th and 18th, several assaults were made on the Confederate intrenchments, but the works were too strong to be carried in that manner. Lee's army was hurried into the defenses, and l>y the close of June, Peters- burg was regularly inveslc<l \\>v a siege.

A branch cainpai-n had, in the in<antime, been nn.ler wav in the Shenan.loah Valley. On moving forward tVeni the Kapidaii, (gen- eral Grant had despatched Sigel n|i the valley with a force of eight tlKUisanil men. On the 15th of May, while the latter was advancing southward, he was met at New ]\Iarket, fifty miles above Winciiester, liy an army of Con- fclerate cavalry, inider Oeneral P.reckinri.lge. The Union force was attacked an.l muted, and

158

J M I -E]:sA I. u IS TO /,' ) '. thf: M( idkrx wo r l d.

far, I ,1 the ( 111 siuiiil \l

fnlU II 1 .

for, t I Init tin In

il. Tlir >i'iuuiiiii, liii\v('vci% was alariiiiii,-. Early, wiili a force of iiisaii.l 111(11. coiitiiiiRMl his cdurse ami nil the ."nil (if July, crossed ic. l-'-iir ilay^ alp-iward he met 1 i.f (niinal L.ui> Wallace, on the anil (liuvc liiiii liark with wri(His t the .■li..ck, piviii 1.1 the Cnfed- tlu- vail r (if ^\'alhlc(■ and his com- ■il Washington and Baltimore from capture. Early dashed up within ,L:uii>liot of these <-ities, then or- dered a retreat, and on the 12th of the month, led hack lii^ foires across the Potomac, with vast iliiaiilities of plunder.

< Jeneral Wright, who was now put in commanil of the forces in the valley, set out in pursuit of Early, and followe.l him as far as Wiiirhester. Th.-re. on the 24th of July, he struck the Con- federate rear, and gained a par- tial victory. But Earlv wheeled

till ti

ueu Fil-

>'l

( nt 1 lit ( 1 nl lit t 1 m lut Penns^h tnia buiuedClnra- beisbuig and letuinel lutj the \ ilh\ h len with ] iK

' 1 ill ( 1 nt w I _uitly

\t 1 t \i 1

retreat ai-r	OSS the m	omitain	s into We;	s| Vi
The valle^	; was till		1 exp.wd	t'l
federate ii	iva-ion f	V the	• east.
T 11.	.w har.l	pr,....d	at P. te	r<liii.i
me.liat.'lv	.l.'-patel	le.i (i, T>l,,	■iHTal ]• I'i.l'..'	;arlv
th<. vall.■^	;. iiiva.l	1- l>llle ,■ M:ilN	laii.l. an
Wa-hiii-l.	III Citv	. Tim	- u-.Hil.l	the
federat.' 1	'^■ii.^i-al	eompel	(o-ant	to
hi- L'l-ip ..	n Pet.T-		1 .il-der t	.. sa
Kati.uial (	■aiiital.	But'tl	le meliaci

It ^vas the illiant otticer to

.ps 11. ,w placed under iiiMilv f.rtvth.msand,

le litth of Se]itcml.er that Sher- 11 Earlv's armv at Wiueliester.

THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

Here a liard-fim. Confederates wvm lowiug up his ail' a seconrl time I'Vc

1<J

1.1-

\\lii, h th( liuittul .t tlu 1( \\ iminiinu I il. I u ^, « is iitttih I 111 ( hitt had gneii .itliinc; fioni dtstiiR

the L'L'd (.f the month ,_ in, nut,

Fish.T's Hill. 'Ih. I--Ulh 1,1 111,

;vas madf upon th. ( miti di i it. - : trenclied jMisition in,l tin I nioii \ , complete. TliPii , inn oni i.t tli< episodes of tlie w n in whnh th Shenandoah \'alli \ on, storedifmses of tin ( 'i, ravaged. The C omm im Sheridan orders to -pm tion that might an\ Ion. of subsistence to tin > work was fearfulU wtll torch, and axe, iiid sword, there was iioth ing left between tlu Blue Ridge and the Alleghenies woi t h ■» fighting for. >[ i.l dened hy this destni, tion, and stiuig li\ lii- defeats, the vcti i ui Early now rallied hi- forces, gathered \\h it reinforcements li t could, and once nmie entered the valk\ Sheri<lau had in the

meantime set hi*; sm

army in a strong pobi-

tion on Cedar Creek, a short distance from Stras- burg, and feeling secure in the situation, had gone to Washington. Early had now eveiw- thing to gain, and the o|,p(ii-tiinity seemed to offer. On the niorniiig of the lUtli of October he cautiously ajiproaclii'd the Union camp, sur- prised, burst in, carried the position, ca])tiired the artillery, and sent the routnl troops in confusion towards "Winrjicstcr. The victors pursued as far iis Middi.town ; tlicn believing themselves eoniplctily tiiiiuiphant, paused to eat and rt'st. ^ieai, while, on the ]irevious

thuu U his ^ dl	1. n. \\..l	In u iiispn ilion b\
us pieseiai, tun	ol upon	Ik i-t.i„i-l,..| ( n
fedti ites iiul _ 1	n..l .„.	t th, i„o t M.n 1
M.t.llUs ot th.	Ml 1 „	1\ s llll,\ \N is dls
n th. X .11. \ ol	,.,1 lt\ h. •-h. n.	\ 1- tl,( iiiil ot stiite ,.1.1,1,
II,\,ii. thus	.1. ,i..l	h. hiiu/i.n ot ^ 11
.11,11 ,,,.1 full .it	..iihil.n	. Ill Ih. sn..,~~ .,t
^luiniiiis _i, ,1	.Xl..llt,o	1 t.i the sti, (ti mt

sit si, mix d.iwii to th. iintstment ot Pe- iiu VII till ,i,.l \\,nt. 1 long the «iege [Ills-. .1 With \ ii\,ii_ sn... - As eiily I. .Oil, ,,| hiU 111 iti.i„pt hi.l been 1. 1 . iii\ th. pl ,. . li\ -t.nn, V mine xjilo.!..! 1,1, 1,1 . n. .it th, t.iits Hid lu ltiii_ .,il,, 11,11 s|,| 1,1. I. lu 11,1 to Lun the

,~ ll„ ,11 „1 I,, u, \.l u is i.puKe.l,

night. 8h..ri.lan	hn.l		e.l t.i Winchester,
au.l was, at the	time	of tl„	r.iiit .if Ills army.
on his way fr.	,1 ll	at p	ace to the front.
While ri.ling f..i	war.!	he 1	■ar.l the sonii.l .if
battle, spurre.l	on t	ir tw	'Ive miles at fu"
speed, met tlie	paid.	■stnii-	c fugitives, ralli.-.l

wilh sei'i.iiis hisses. Then the siege went steailily torwanl until the l<8th of August, when a .livision of the Union army seized the Wel.lon P.ailroa.l. The Confederates made several desperate assaults, in the hope of gain- ing their lost groun.l ; but they were beaten in their stnigglcs, ea.'li army losing thousands of men. On the '2xtl, of SeptHinber, the Fed- erals storme.l Battery Harrison, on the right bank of the James, and the next day General Paine's briga.le of e.ilore.l soldiers carried a pow.'i-ful r.-il.inbt on Spring Hill. The 27th of Oetoli.'r wit,„ss...l a bl.i.Hly battle .m the Boydton mad, south of Petersburg. Then the Union army went into fpiarters for the winter. The accressive struc'Lde was not renewed until th,' .-hise ..f F.'bruai-v. On tl„. I'Tth of that in,iiith. General Sheriilan, >\ ho had issued

from tin. Sh.MUUi.luah Vallry, rain( forces of Grurral I'.arly al Wavn defeato.lthcin,aiMlth.ii.i..inr.l lh-<' i„,l,i,.ra,lVu.,>lH,r^. J)un„^^Ia, G.nwal (nam ronlinn..! l- pn.>.

UMVEHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

he a -lult il n_ tin wh I liii lu fi iit oi IVt ],, 1,111.' ml tin « ik u I ( UH 1 Ihr ,.r- .in a ui 1 \ il >i ^^\^^ 11 li i 1 1 "i_ ni

•s, 1,.

v.lni, Hirlnuun.l. On th.' l-t -fA|uil th,- work l,.-an uith a ^,'V.iv haltl,' at Fivo rork>, ci.i the South M.h- Kaii-

-Q.

-^i^^^^'ll VJ5&''

' ^^.Vi^^^T'rf .^'^M.

*^AC ^«at«.*f*^ifa, -» ^ " V'-'

\^

llultlK'CoIlt.MU'

				the tieiiHiHlou.- l.h.\v. On
				that iiidit he, with hi> army
&;.				and the niemhcrs of the
				('ni;t. derate Government,
T"'				th .1 troni Fvielimond, and
Q*				on the next inorniiit: that ,.itv, a> \m11 as rrtci>luir<r, xvaVentnvd hv the Federal
				,,,„y. The ^^arehnu.es .,f ,1„. ■iU-lated capital were
^i-				fired by the retreating Con-
11 r iiK				federates, and, notwith- standing the ertorts of the
I 11 11 1 ,n ti 1	1	1 li.l	>, th.	■ hetter part ..f tlie Southern
It		tlu	■ he-'	inninii: of the swiftly coming
1 I lid.	^	ow \	va> it	perceived by all men that

tlir <al:istr,>i)lie was at liaihl, ami suite cuuld last l)nt a f.'W days Lii;.

Gtiii ral .I(iliii>tiin ou its enierariici' liiia. But that army was dJstiiicd t'iiKT,i:r. The Coiife.leratrs. flyin-

tei>l)uru-, joined tlmst the ivt

Itirhinnnd'at Amelia ('nnit Il-u-e,

tile otHrer liaviiiK the sain.' in ,-ha'i- isldy mistaken Ids ,,nlei- an.! driven )■,) thr ,lirrrt;„n of I >., nnHr. Xrall^ of the C.ntederate army, n..w -rnv less, had t.. he di-pei-ed thronuh tl

THF VXITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

nd that the I render ..f Lee's armv. T- tl

IS t.

.1 ui

ino- heart of Lee, wer delay.

The victorious Federal^ meanwhile pi on in fidl pursuit, aud on the mc.rnimj n t3lli nearly the whole of the Lniou arm\ at Jettersville, on the Danville IJailmad, : to strike the Confederates at Amelia. .'• dan still pressed on liy the hit Hank t^ west, in the <lireetion' ..f Deatun-ville.

ca up with hisdivisi,,n l,v wav..f the.^

Side Kailn.a.l to 15urke's Station. Le, haek to the west from Amelia Co, n't II and reached Deatousville ; Init here he i the vigilant Sheridan planted sijuai-ely i

to ad.lim: that the oeeasinn for the sni

,.f the Arn.y of Northern Vir-inia ha

o- arrived.

to (_>n the 8th the process of snrrou

■e- hemndii- in the ConliMlerates went

■ m forward. On tlie momin- of ihe

lis it I.eeame known that tlu' k'ft wi

lit I'liinn army had ,-eeiired the line of t :.l- , l.ur- Kaili'oad— when the wiveks

IIS street's veterans attenipitinu' to eovi If I treat were confronted and drivi n

le- Sheridan— the .smil of the Conf.iler

ry failed him. Seein- the ntt.^r nseles

lii further struggle, he. <eiit fienerai (rr:

k- asking for a meeting jireliiiiinary

mrs

-. The division of Ewell. si r, was tliin- a-ainst the Fedc-i

Kil

.1 L.-e

■e, hut

(h.r of

ot vet

Long- ek bv

leader ss of a

der. The LTniou conn iplied with the request.

At tw,

it Apponiatto>

the

Ilo

was agreed that General (.Jrant .- proposition in the form of a mill which General Lee could retiiiii swer. The Union con, mamlerae.M Up aud presented the following n.

d. It ,iit his

Yir:;inia on tl all the officers

caiitured. The policy of Lee was still to make a detour to the west and south, around the Federal left; and by strenuous exertions he iiianageil to gain the Apponiatt<..\- at Fariii- ville, ero.ssed to the northern bank, aud Inirned the luidges. He would thus interpose the river as a barrier between himself and his re- lenth'ss pursuers; but it was all in vain. Hop- ing against hope, he made a desperate effort to holil the Lynchburg Railroad, but Sheridan arn was there before him. Ou the 7th of April and the Confederates had their last slight success 'ipl in l)attle. Fvr a moment the flame of hope was rekindled only to be blown out in despair. On that day General Grant, then at Farm- Jionie" n/.t to l,e ville, addressed a note to the Confederate com- anthoiity so Ion- niander, expressing a desire that the further [ and the laws in foi efl'usion of blood might be .saved by the sur- '■ V. s.

Tnit^a St

private

162

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

THE UyiTED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

To this menioi sponded as follows:

Head.

iluiii Genera' Lee

KTERs Army of Xorthern "I

\'iR(nNiA, A]iril '.>, is;n.">. r General— I received your Irttrmf ilns.latr, containing the terms oi tlie suricndrr 'il' llic Army ot" Northern Virginia, as [.i-pommI l,y yen. As they are snbstantiall>- tlie same a- tlh.sr .x- pressed in your letter of thr sth instant, liny are accepted. I will [.nHc-.l t.. .lcsi..;natc tlu-

effect. ^ ■ ., -1!. K. Lee, (icncral.

With the downfalr of Lee's army, the collapse of the Confederacy was complete. The destruction of the military power meant the destruction of everything upou which the South had depended. In the narrative of Sherman's march northward from Savannah to Raleigh, we have already recounted the end of that great campaign. The surrender of Johnston followed on the 26th of April, and on the same terms which had been conceded seventeen days previously by Grant to Lee at Appomattox. In the overthrow of their two great armies, the Confederates themselves saw the end of all things. The work was done. After four dreadful years of bloodshed, devas- tation, and sorrow, the Civil War in the United States had ended with tlie cnniplt-te triumph of the Union cause. It only remained to extend the Federal authority over the Southern States, and to revive the functi<ins of the National Government througho\it the Union.

After the surrender of Lee and Johnston, there was no serious effort to prolong the re- sistance, or to reorganize the Confederacy. General Lee bade adieu at once to hi^ war- worn vetei'ans, and rctii'ed with .shattered fortunes to private life. Mr. Davis and his Cabinet made their escape from Richmond to Danville, and there for a few days ke]it up the tbnns of government. From Dan- ville they tied into Xorth Carolina, and were then scattered. The ex-President with a few friends, made his way through South Carolina into Georgia, and encamped near the village of Irwinville. Meanwhile, the Union cavalry in that region were on the alert to make prisoners of the fugitives. The capture was finallv effected on the K'th of May, bv a division <d" the command of General

ht of these,, ire partieul

Wilson. It appeared, it that the Administration, mo President Lincoln, would have conniviil at the escape of Davis from the LTuited States. But the capture was made, and the distinguished pi'isoner was on the hands of the Government. lie was at once taken as a captive to Fortress ^[onroe, and was there kept in confinement until ^lav of ISCiT. He was then removed to Kielunnnd. to be tried on a charge of treason. Soon afterwards he was admitted to bail, Horace Greeley and otlier eminent Union men going on his bond. The cause remained un- tried for about a year an<l a half, and was then dismissed from court. It thus happened that the legal status of that eii-or, fault, or crime, which the Confederate leaders had committed, was never legally determined, but left rather to dangle contenticuisly in the political sky of after times.

We may now review the course of civil events as they had occurred in the National Government in the last j'ear of the war. In the autumn preceding the downfall of the Con- feileracy the Presidential election had been held, and Lincoln had been chosen for a second term. As Yice-Pre.sident, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, was elected in place of Hannibal Haiiilin. The oppo.sing candidates, supported by the Democratic party, were General George B. ^[cClellan, and George H. Pendleton, of Ohio. There had been a time after the out- break of the war, when the spirit of party was so much allayed as to warrant the hope that the common cause of Kepublicans and Democrats would not be further iniperil.d liy political animositv: lait parlisan>liin soon

flanie(l up again, ami tlie North became a scene of turmoil. The Deiiiociatic leaders grew more and more rampant in their denun- ciation ; first, of the metho<ls upon which the war was conducted ; and then, of the war itself In the I)eiiioeratii' national convention at Chicago a nv-ojiition was actually passed as a part of the platform declaring the war a failure, and demanding a cessation of ho.stili- ties until the arts of statesmanship should be exhausted in attempting a peaceable solution of the trouble. In General McClellau the jiarty f uind a candidate to whom both the war Democrats and the anti-war faction could be attached.

^^-^-^r_5^~xj-s^?^ }y^^ >

THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

165

l..f..at Li,	coin,
il.l liut V	1.1 iu
I's iiiajorit	• was
viiiiX (inl_\	the
UT. and"	New
•.,liiig the	elec-
, ill accori	lance
iv,l a Cou	■^titu-

But the whole eftoit much lo:^s to stop the wai coufusiou ami failure. Li very heavy, ^McClellau States of Keutucky, D. Jerse)'. Iu the sumnn.r tioii the people of Xevada with au act of Concre-^s, )

ConiiiK.invrahli was pn.claiincl as the lliirty- sixtii State. .ftlie riii..n. Tli.. -..1,1 an.! silver mines of Xeva.la were .l.-v..l..p,..l witli sii.'li

rapidity tiuit they s i >iii pas-.'.l tln.s... ..f

Califoruia iu their yield -.f i\u- iiivi-i,,us metal. Duriug the progress ..I' tli.' ('i\il \\'ai- tin' question of fiuance was, after tlie aetmd mili- tary operations of the field tin m -t i ii^ with which the Go\einmeut ii 1 1 t) ( iit nd At the outbreak of the touHitt, e\en in hue the actual outbreak, the fimneiil titdit ot the United States had sunk t . thf 1 lut -t ( Mi I]\ the organization of tli. iiim ml tli ii t\ \ the expenses of the N iti n d < . \ . i nun iit li i 1 at the very beginning, been >-wellid t> \n enormous aggregate The piice of ^"^ il.l ml silver, as always happens in such eraei_i nc k '• advanced so rapidh that the icdemiiti u li bank-notes in coin --oon became imp i^^ilil. On the 30th of Dccembei, IsOl, the binks ,,l New York, and afteiunids those of the wli ile country, suspended specie pi\ mints Iht premium on gold and -ihei m-i hi_li( i ind higher, and it soon becime e\i 1. iit tli it th ^ metals could no longer sul,su\t the puipi-t of a currency.

The situation ^\as as novel a^ it ^\ is ti \ in_ Fortunately, the destinies of the tieasun wne in the hands of a man of genius Salmon V Chase, the Secretary, faced the issue, ami began to devise a series of expedients, which, in the course of time, entered into the financial history of the country, and, as they were tested liy ex- perience, became imbedded in tiie National monetary system. Old things rapidly passed away, ami all tliinL;s lii>i-aiii. n.'W under the Secretary's ban. Is. As a teni|i.irary expedient he sought relief liy issuing Treasury Notes, re- ceivable as money, and bearing interest at the rate of seven and three-tenths per cent. The expedient was successful; but by the beginning of 1862 the expenses of the Government had risen t.> nmre than a million dollars a dav, and

other measures, vaster and more permanent, had to be devised.

In order to meet the tieiiKn.l.nis iltimnd, which were iuee>saiitl\ iii-m_ ( n_ii-s, on the recoinmeudati.m ..I tli. "^.(iitin of the Treasury, made ha:-te lo pi. \ id. in InternAlL Revenue. This was ma. I. up limii tuo gen- eral sources; first, a ta\ on iiiiiiiiiluitiiif^, in- coine.i, and s(il(ii-ir.<; ami sniiii.l i ^fmiij) <liiti/ on all legal d.ieumeiits. Vs mi.,i, istl,,. .\.tim of revenue was providid f.u aimtlRi step was taken iu the issuance b\ tin ti. isiin nf a hundred and fifty million^ ..i .l..lliis m n..n- interest-bearini; Legal Iindlk Xoils ol the

United States, to bt used is mom ^ '->ULh was the beginning of that famous eurrency, which, under the name ol' (lrriiili,i,-L:<, bore up the Nation during the war, survived the shocks of the Revolutionary epoch, and continued, after the subsidence of the conflict, to consti- tute one-half of the paper money used by the peojile of the Ignited States.

But the Greenback currency, its issue again and again as the emergencies multiplied, was not of itself sufficient. A third great measure recommended by the Secretarv, pro- vided fir by Congress, ami earriiMl out suc- cessfully. \vas the issuance and sale ..f United St.vte.s Bunds. These at first were niaile re-

UXIVFHSAL IHSTOnV. — TirE MODERN WORLD.

leeniaiilc at ;ui\

tivi- V.

thi^tiict, callc.l III,. FivK-TuKNiv I'.om- T interest upnn tlicni \va> lix.d at -ix |hi- cc payable M-mi-aniiuallv in -mM. Ih.- iv< shnu,.,l that th.. claux- luakm- lli- int.T pavaWlf ;,( unUI, ralli.M- than in lii.' Civcnha

r, anil in a ,|.o^,..l al.oiit and tlir Xa-

>k tl hi.-li

.M.

.1 silx

and

by tlic' < aiiil nn.lci	ovcrninciit foi-tv years	fron	dat.	Tl	(• iiiter-
.•St <.n thi	■< scrii's was	lixc	1 at t	V,- |.	■r ceut,
ami linlli	piincipal a	1.1 i	ltlMV>	Wi'l	(■ made
pavablr ii	<M,in. It b	can	■ til,.	|H,]i,.	• of the

groat and small, swam honeetbrth fur about seventeen years in an ocean of self-sustaining' l)aper money. The jirecious metals bicanie

onds.

rate b.mds into the lonL^-tinie, h,v

As the Five-Twenties lieean,.- ivdeemable they | ti

verteil into Ten-Forties, and wlieii, in couise li of time, the latter fi^ll due, they were in turn W converted into the Four-Percexts, whicli eon- V. stituted the third generaiissiie. AthiM.wlieii \ r< the cre.lit of the ( Jov.rnnH.iit was fully T reestablished, and its ability deiii.,nstrated u to discharge its debt to the la-t farthini Three-AND-A-Half Percents, and tinall Three-Percents, were provided for, int which form the great debt was mostly coi

nl jnl.ber. of thi

heCix	il Warn
•onllie	, the X;
nillio, hat h	sofdoll 1,1 Ihe w

,1 iv:

Meanwhile, the old hanks of the United States disappeared. It became necessary to provide for the people sometliing in the place of those local institutions, by means ,>f ^vlli(dl the ordinary business of the eoiinti y inu>t be transacted. An act was a,-i-or,lingly passeil for 111,' ,>lalilisliinent ,.f NAri,.XAl,' Uanks. i

Til,' slituti,.n ,.f th,s,. wa> p,','uliar in the

la-t il.'give. P.ut th,- ,-vent justificl the wis- [

d,)m ,d' th,' measure. The new financial iusti- | Sonthi-rn Stat,'s, ex

tuti,iiis wer,' b,)rn out ,if the exiL'encv of the I " witii inaii,',' towar

s.' Xnr,'an it well b,' ,l.,ubted

V ,',,iitinu.',l thn.ngh an,.ther

icar national baiikrn|iti'y niu.st iiave ensued.

On th,' 4tli of .^[ar,'h,' Ls(;5, President Liu-

rii,' bri,.f a,i,lr,'>s whii-li li,- ,l.'liven-,l ,in that

iim'.',l liv a .-n'at man in H,- s,m,d,t by ealni an, I alino ran,','s to ,'all ba.'k lr,,iii the ' the infatnat,.! imm,|,1,' ,,f tl his ,',,nnlrvin,-. ', with ,'harity f.

The

Bank .\,'t ,.f ^lav. l-f,',', |,i,, st,'ad ,,f 'jol,!, tl.,' n,'w ban Xali,.nal ]5nn,ls a- tli,' ba.-is ,,f

in- an,l ,l,.p.,sitin- with th,' T, Unit,'.l States the rciiiiMte an,

(elf,«-l,i|.

It will

„,n.l~, Three ,1a

e W	.rk ,,f	lealing t	he Xa-
i;	•ing pnl 1„- Fni, ,1 that	tii-al an at this t	1 social me the
1;;;;	th, li,,\	thr.M.s, V ev.'r, tl	as n,it ,' niili-
(',,	iC'.h'i'a, ■acuati,	n of Kii	,rok,'n. hmuud

THE UNITED STATES. — THE (IVIL WAR.

by Lee's army, the President visited that city, CI inferred with the authorities, andtlien returned til Washington. But, in the stranL'p vicissi- tude of things, the tragedy of liis nwn >;iil life had already entered its last act. On tin- rvi ning (if the 14th_of April he attended fund's Theater with his wife and a party of friends. As the ]ilay drew near its close, a disreputable actor, named John Wilkes, Booth, stole unnuticeil into the President's box, leveled a pistnl at his head, and shot him through the brain. Lincoln fell foiN\aid m his '•eat, was borne tioiu the buildiui; linaeied m an uneouvtious statt until the follow uil nioiiim^ and dud It was one lit the tieate-t tia_idiisot nudiin tinii the m i-t itiotiiius and diabolical nun

ein hi-tiii\ Ihe assassin leaped out of the box upon the st iLP, escaped liilo tht duklie-, u,d Hid

It was imniedi- ati h peiceived that a nuiideious Con-

with .Ml	s. .Mary E	Surratt,	at wh(	se house
the plot	was formed	were a Is	. coiidei	iiied and
cxi-cmcl	. :\Iichacl	(TL^uigh	in. Dot	tor Sain-
iicl A. Muilil. and	^alllllrl .	\riiold	vere seii-
teiiccd t	1 iniprisoiii	lent for	lite in	the Dry
Tortugas	, and Eihv:	i-d Span.u	ler lor ;	term of
six years
Thus	ended in d	U-kliess, 1	ut not	n shame,
the strai	ge career i	f Abialu	in Liiii	iln. He
was one	of tlie nios	t reniaik	llile me	1 of any
age or	country— a	mail ill	whom	he qual-
ities of	geuuis a	id mini	ion -11	-. weie
stiangeh	minuled	IL w	- innil	lit fai-
Mjited,"	and lesiilut	e th lUJ	ittul 1	ilni and
|u^t, pa	RUt, telide	hen till	mil 4H	at The
	it hi- ikath Loii-ii 1.	tul his	memoiy.

^l4 .\ltf-;l#^

^5^%

thf	(t I	1 mm. lit U atioii At	~Ji	^,	--
a-		£.
thi	-i II 1	111 houi 111- mniiliiei, JTj		c	y	/
ot	,1=-^
11 11 I'll til	lid Mil	L.wi-1'ixue ( h mill 1 ot
Set bv	let. an	l^ Neuaid, ^^ho accident, sprang	had bee upon the	\'	l-.lbh	1 f
the am	sic 111	; man, stabbed h ide his escape ii	im iii-li I to the 11	llto	deat TI	•
cit\	w	is wild with ala	111 and	\ei		t.
Th' Ian	tel 1, :	■graph tla-hed th,	news thr. alarm ai	11^1 1 r:	out tl ee ra	:
ev(	rvw	here. Ti- 1- of	■avaliwaii	1 th	. piili,	e
of	W'a	shington departe,	in all d	iree		o
hni	t il	iwii the coii-pirat	us. On	lie	2r.tli 1	f
Al	ril.	Biioth was f.nnd	coneeale,	in	a liai	„
	th	of Fredericksbui	L'. Eefn-	n-	to -n	r-
rer	iler	he was shot by	Sergeaiit	'.o-t	■ II ( 'i	r-
bet	t, a	111 was drafftred fi	rth from	he	inniii
liu	lilii 1 1	-to die. PlWell .m-ed. Ill- felli	was can-lit	ovs	Dav	1.
E.	H(	rrold and George	A. Atzeri	tt, t	ogetl,	•1-

..■^••

iK:;

.iK-

'M^0

I at of

The funeral ,,agean never liefbre ei|na From city to city, i mourning people fo

nations rose the shanie-svmpatliv i dark crime tliat eai Lineoli, fell at ai

	•nni	1 o	d	■ath.
pre		1 on	a	scale
th	■ N	ew	^^'	orld.
vas	pri	cess	OI	, the
his	rem	liiis	to	their
iiigt	eld.	F		1 all

1G8

vmvehsal jijsTojn'.—TiiE modkrs would.

be apcomplislu'.l. Wlm hut Liurnln, in ^^uch | A a crisis, was iitteil tin- siicii a. wcjrk'/ His teni- ! per, after tlie overthrow of Lee, showed coii- chisivclv the treiul of his thoughts and syiu- patliirs— liis sinrnv ,lr>ir,. for pMnec, liis love

for ;ili liion of ;ill >.• The U..1-.1S ..f ,,„.|vy Wl.rn til.- vil.- iniml.

T..ll,MUL'llH..I |„-;lr,

Wliat.' AiM uiti

rh,> death of T.iiieoln made iieee-arv ledlaleeh.vatio,, ,.r Aiulrew .TohiiMm t'o

The ol.l \V,,rl,l an.l tlie Neu, fr..in sea to sea, , he t.n.k the,.atli of office, .-uid eiilend at one

ftlen.l oiii- \..ii-f .,t symi.athy and shame! | upon liis duties as Ciiief Mai:i>trate. He w£

Son- liiMit, M, stopjied wlien it at last beat free ; I

Sad life, eut >.liort jnst a*^ its Irinmiih came! ' ' From the London Piufh ,,[ May C, 1SG.>.

THE UNITED STATES.— THE CIVIL WAR.

ir,9

a native of Xorth Carolina, born m Rxloiph on the L'llili of December, 1808. Hi b)>hooa was passed in jioverty and neglect The funi!\ was obscnre in the last degree xud tl sou had no advantages of educati u Vt the age of ten he was appreuti 1 t x tailor. In 1826 he removed th 1 mother to Tenne.ssee, and settled t ( i ville, in that State. Here he was inuu 1 to au intelligent lady, who taught luni to write and cipher. Here, by dmt t native taleut, force of will, and ^titi th of character, he first earned the \\>\ 1 1 i of his fellow-raen. Here, through tjd in I hardship, he rose to distinction, an 1 ait i holding minor offices, was elected tJ C n gress. As a member of the United St ite* Senate in 1860-61, he opposed «ece lou with all his vehement energies, e\en altet the Legislature of his State had Uchi 1 Tennessee out of the Union.

On the 4th of March, 1862 J hn u was appointed Military Govei'noi of Te nessee, and entered upon his dutie at

Xash\ille He be- -=- — — — -

gan his adminis ^ tiatiou and earned ^- out his measuies - with all the \ and

an 1 eleete 1 t th ^Ii Hamlm ^ the Piesident 1

Vire-

rH

H-v in place of ragic death nf uddeiily to the a iin } tion of responsibilities, second

nly m importance to those which Line In had borne at the outbreak

t the war. In his first Congressii)nal message Piesident Johnson recommended a I licy of extreme severity toward the cimI and military leaders of the C nfederacy. The merciful tones of' I inc In were no longer heard from tl e ^^ hite House, and for a season theie w as quaking and dread through- c ut the seceded States. On the 1st

t Fel rnary, 1865, Congress adopted xn au endment to the Constitution, by which human slavery was abolished ai d forbidden in all the States and Ttnitcries of the L^nion. By the ISth of the following December the amendment had been latified by the

nature. There was no quailiuL n [it compromise. His life was frequenth i 1 ti 1 1 but he fed on danger, and grew stion^ ui 1 the onsets of his enemies. He held the efhc

1 en t Lu In cnni lete the w

<1 althoutrh the institution of 1 h> pieces at the touch of the It was deemed neces-ary to ik by statutory and Con~titu-

of Governor until 1864, when he was nominated tioiial enactments. Thus were

ryivr:i!SAJ, iiistohy.—tiie modern would.

liiia, i.ura.lcMl the J^t

Inr iii.Miirir,-, >i,nuhl 1.. r il„. Kriirlli,.,,-.' On tins issue Lin.'nin «a> luanl out of tl.e eiave. On tlif 'J'.ttli i>r May, LSC,:,, the Am- nesty I'noi I.AM \iKiN ua- i-sued l>y the Pres- ident. By il- |ii-..vi-iMii- a -.neral pardon was extended tn all |h ix.ns c xc.-pt those specified in certain classes — wh.. had paitieipated in the organization and del'eiisi. of the ( 'onl'ederacy.

The condition of pardon was that th.jse re- ceiving it shouhl take an oath of allegiance to the United States. The excepted persons might also be pardoned on special aiiplicatiou to the President.

:ner of

e,l, and

During the suini armies were disbandi vanquished returned l the work of peace. < scenes ever witnes>e(l great military parade ton City. It was til

war. Al...,lt -eVelllV

diers, including Shei

the great nd the victors and

•ii- homes to resume of the most striking the country \vas the

review at Washiug- isiuL-- i^ngeant of the

rects, and passed the re- and, where the President and ilicers, civil and military, of the tcs were on the platform. After Hers, as an organized force, melted V, and were resolved into the ranks

and

The close of the war left the finances of the Nation in a condition most alarming. The war-debt, already piled mountains high, went on increasing until the beginning of 1866, it was only by herculean exertions that nal bankruptcy could be warded off. The yearly interest on the del)t had increased to $133, 1)1)0, ()()() in gold. The expenses of the government had reached an aggre- gate of's2()U,000,()00 annually. But the augmented revenues of the Nation and the energy and skill of the financial man- agement of the treasury proved sufficient to meet the enormous outlay, and at last the debt began to be slowly diminished. < )n ihe 5th of December, 1865, a resolu- tion was passed in the House of Repre- sentatives pledging the faith of the United States to the full payment of the Kational indebtednes, both principal and interest. During the whole period of the Civil War the vital interests, not to say the existence, of the United States were con- stantly menaced by the hostility of foreign powers. Of all the great monarchies of Europe, only Russia had been sincerely and at heart favorable to the cause of the Union. The Government of Great Brit- ain, from first to last, sympathized with the Confederacy — not, indeed, that she was in love with the institution of slavery, but that she secretly hoped for the dismemberment of the American Republic. Napoleon III., Emperor of the French, cherished plans, not a few, to aid the Confederate States, and to pre- cipitate, if possible, the downfivll of the Union. His schemes embraced particularly the insti- tution of a French Empire in Mexico. In that country the distracted condition of afliiirs furnished abundant opportunities for foreign interference. A French army was sent into Mexico. The constituted authorities were overawed, an Ini]ierial government was orsan- ize.l, aii.l early in ISCl the crown was ottered t<i Ma.Kiinilian, archduke of Airstria. The iat-

THE UMTED STATES-TIIE CIVIL WAR.

rEMLU (11 ruE T

UMVEBSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERX WORLD.

ter repaiiN-d to Mexico, set up his government, and sustained it for a season, with the aid of Freneh and Austrian soldi. ^rs. 15ut the Mex- ican .''resident, Beiiil., I'al.lo .Tu;uv/., h.aded a revnluti.ai a-aiii-t tlie u>uriiin- .Maximilian; and the ( iovernraeut of tiie L'nited States re- buked France for her palpable and willful violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Xapoleon,

arinv. .Maximilian, thus 1( ft witlmut >upport, was (|uickly nverthrowu and driven from the capital. He fled to the city of Queretaro, where he was besieged, and finally taken prisoner. On the 13th of June, 1867, he was tried by court-martial, aud condemned to be shot. Six days afterwards the sentence was carried into execution. Maximilian nut his fate like a hero. His death and the sad in- sanity of the Empress Carlotta awakened the commiseration, if not the sympathy, of man- kind for the ill-starred enterprise in which the misguided prince had lost his life, and his queen her reason. The scheme of Napoleon, who had hoped to profit by the calamitous civil war in tlie United States, to gain a foot- hold in tlie New World and restore the ascen- deucv of the Latin race west of the Atlantic, was justly t)ri>ught to shame and contempt.

After a few weeks of successful operation, the first Atlantic telegraph, laid by Cyrus W. Field in 1858, had ceased to work. The friends of the enterprise were, for a season, greatly disheartened. Not so, however, with Mr. Field, who continued, both in Europe and America, to agitate the claims of his measure and to plead for assistance. He made fifty voyages across the Atlantic, and finally secured sufficient capital to begin the laying of a second cable. The work was begun from the coast of Inland in the >nnim.-r of l.S(i5. "When Ku.^Urn had j.roceeded mdi-cil miles <m her way lie parted and was lost. I oil to his enterprise, rs liad been spent in un- liut still he persevered, lird cable, two thousand miles in 1. n-th. wa> roiled i„ tlie Gr.^rt Ea^trni, an.l a-aiii the ve^-el -tailed on her way. Thi< time the work was completely successful. In a short time the same great vessel returned to mid-ocean, and, recoverintr the lost cable from

the .-teaim	r Grrat
more tiian	twelve 1
to Amerie;	, the e
But :\ir.	•ield he

In Ji

tlie depths, carried the second line successfully- to the American coast. After twelve years of unremitting effort, Mr. Field received a gold iiieilal from the Congress of his country, and the j)laudits of all civilized nations.

On the 1st of November, 1864, an act was passed by Congress, establishing the Postal Money-Oeder Sy.ste.m of the United States. The design of the measure was to secure a safe and convenient method of transmitting small sums of money through the mails. Notwith- standing the invaluable benefits of the system, it was at first received with little favor. In^ 1870 there were two thousand and seventy-six post-offices from which money-orders were issued. During that year the amount transmitted was more tlian thirty-four millions of dollars. The oiders fir \X7') numbered five million six thousand three hundred aud thirty-three, and the amount of mone_y sent amounted to more than seveuty-seven millions of dollars. Of all the orders issued during that year, only twenty-seven were paid to persons not entitled to the proceeds. Postal conventions have already been held, and the arrangements com- pleted for the exchange of American money- orders with Switzerland, Great Britain, aud Germany. The requirements of civilization will no doubt soon demand similar compacts among all enlightened nations.

The Administration of President Johnson is noted as the time when the Territories of the United States were given approximately their final forms. The vast domains west of the IMississippi were reduced by Congressional enactments to proper geographical limits, and were organized with a view to an early admis- sion into the Union as States. A large part of the work had been accomplished during the Administration of Lincoln. In March of 1861, the Territory of Dakota, destined, after twenty- seven vears. to become two great States, was detached fiom Nebraska on the north, an.l

Terrif.rv .Mil.ra.'e.l an area -.f .m.. luin.hvd an.l liilv thou-an.l >.iiiare mil-. The State ..f Kan-a- had at h-l. oi, tin- ^HU ..f January, isr.l, b.-,.n a.lmill.-d into the riiion, un.ler a c.>n>nmiion tVamed at Wyandotte. In Febni- arv of iMio. Arizona, with an area of one huii- .Ired and thirteen thousand sijuare miles, was- separate. 1 from New Mexico ou the west, aud

THE UNITED STATES. — THE CIVIL WAR.

173

•organized as an independent Territory. On tlie od (if March of the same year, Idaho was or- ganized out of portions of Dakota, Nebraska, and WaslunKtcni Territories, and on llie L'i.Uh

miles. On the 1st of :\Iarch, LSG7, the Terri- tory of Nebraska, reduced to its present area of seventy-six thousand square miles, was admit- ted into the Union as the thirtv-seventli State.

of May, 1864, Montana, with an area of on dred and thirty-six thousand square miles, was cut off from the eastern part of Idaho. By this measure the area i>f tlic lattrr Territory was reduced to eighty-six thousand square

Finally, on the L'tlth of July, 1868, the Territory of Wyoming, with an area of ninety-eight thousand square miles, was organized out of portions of Dakota, Idaho, and Utah. Thus were the Territories of the great West reduced

'4 [-yiVKllSAL lllSTonv.— THK MODEUy WORLD.

	The ye.	r IM	7 was al-^r, sivniaHz.-.l hy	he
h	< cuiiiitr	■ h:i,|	,;:;;;;. J:;: ■';:rj':::;;:'	ot'
A .'1 ri	Ues ;U1.1 e rt.|h,r	i-ieliti A-ia	uni.-atiou iMtureii tlie L'lii l,y Nvav'nf IJehriiij: Stn h.- CXploiatinll .~h..we.l t	e,l it. lat
Al	ieh it 1 n<l that	hy 11. the	e'n' M,'pi,.-e,l t., he. I, '. •oa>t ti^heiies, iiicluiline-	ly he
-r	..luct.- of	the .-	eal-islaiiiis, were nf verv i:r	-at

vahie. and that the forests of -white piue and yel^>^v cedar were aiuong the finest in tlie woihl ^Vv-otiations for the purchase of tlie p.MiiiiMihi were ae,s,nliii-ly <.peiie,l uith ItiKsia iiy Mr. S^.wanl, li.e Amenean Se.avtary of

wa> eonelu.le.l i.y which, fnr ih- suiii of seven

luiUioi, two huiij.v.l tl >aiHl .h.lhirs, Ahi^ka

wa- purchased hy tlie United States. The teiiitoiy tlius ad(h(l t^. the domains of the Re- piililie einhraeed an area of five hundred and ei-htv th'.iisiiid -.|uaiv niih-s.anda popidatioo -f twentv-iiine thou.-aiid souls.

CHAPTER CXXV. — El^OCH OR RECOXSTRTJCTION.

ERYsoon after his accession to the Chief ^lagistracv, -el inii-di-aifreementsarose h.twei 11 I'li'sident John- >oi, and tlie two Houses of Congress. The difficulty grew out of the great question of reorganizing the Southern States. Strangely enough, the particular point in dis- pute was the theoretical one as to the relation which those States had sustained to the Federal Uuiuu during the Civil War. If both parties to the quarrel had limited their views to the settle- ment of the p radical issues before them, the ques- tions involved might have been of easy solution. But the one party was as stubborn and dog- matic as the other was angry and demagogical. The President held, in brief, that the Ordinances of Secession had been, in their very nature, null and void, and that therefore the seceded States had never been out of the Union. On the other hand, the majority in Congress held that the acts of secession were indeed illegal and un- constitutional, but that the seceded States had nevertheless lieen actually detached from the Union, and that special legislation and special, guarantees were necessary to restore them to their former relation under the Government. Such was the real foundation of the disputes by which the question of reconstructing the Southern States was so seriou.sly embarrassed. If the Chief E.xecutive had been a man of Lincoln's character, or if Congress had been

rresi.leiit On the

Twenty da

less iiitluenceil bv it.- ])a>sioii>, by its growing <li.<like of the Pn-ideiit, au.l by many other ulterior motives, the ditHculty might have been allayed or wIkjIIv obviated.

In the summer of 186.5 the work of recon- struction was undi^rtaken l>v the accordance with his own of .May he issued a proi'lani tion of Virginia to the U afterward anotli,.r proclamation wa tablishiiig a provisiomd government for South Carolina, and at brief intervals similar meas- ures were adopted in respect to the other States of the late Confediniey. On the 24th of June the rn-ident ppiclaiiiied all re- trictions removed on trade and intercourse with the Southern States. On the 7th of the following September a second Amnesty Procla- mation was issued, liy which <ill jiersons who ha.l nplield the Confederate cau-e, except the leaders, were unconditionally panloned.

In the meantime, Tennessee had been recJr- ganized, and in l^CiQ was restored to its place in the Union. But while these measures were carried out. Congress was pursuing its own line of policy with regard to the reconstruction of the S.iiitheni States. During the session of ls(;.")-(;t; a (.'oiumittee of Fifteen ^vas appointed by that body to whom all matters appertaining to the recirganization of the States of the over- thrown Confederacy should be referred. Soon afterwards the Civit, Rkuits Pii.i, was passed, the object of wliicli was to secure to the freed-

THE UNITED STATES. — EPOCH OF jnyOXSTL'Tl'TTOX.

men of the South the full exercise of citizeu- ship. The measure was opposed and vetoed by the President, but was immediately repassed by a two-thirds Congressional majority. It was the beginning of the open break between Mr. Johnson and Congress. On the occasion of the celebration of Washington's birthday, the bill was severely denounced by the Presi- dent in a speech delivered in front of the Ex- ecutive mansion. The position assumed by Congress was declared to be a new rebellion against the Government of the United States. In subsequent speeches and messages the same sentiments were reiterated, and the attitude of the Executive and the Legislative departments became constantly more unfriendly.

In the summer of 18(56 a call was issued for a Natidual convention, to he held in Phil- adelphia on the 14th of August. It was be- lieved that the President was behind the move- ment. The objects had in view were not very clearly defined ; but it was understood that the general condition of the country would be considered, measures of National policy dis- cussed, and all the political elements in opposi- tion to the majority in Congress be consolidated into a new political party, with which the President's name would be associated in lead- ership. At the appointed time delegates from all the States and Territories were present. Many members of the Republican party took part in the movement, and the convention was not lacking in enthusiasm. Still the meeting, as all other factious assemblages, exercised but little permanent influence on the afiairs of the country.

The President, perceiving that the Philadel- phia convention was of no effect, now made an- other effort to rally public opinion in favor of his policy. In the latter part of August he set out from Washington, accompanied by General Grant, Admiral Farragut, the leading members of the Cabinet, and other prominent officials, to make a tour of the Northern States. The ostensi- ble object of the excursion was that the President might be present at the laying of the corner- stone of a monument to Senator Douglas at Chicago. Departing from the Capital, the Presidential party passed through Philadelphia, New York, and Albany, and after taking part in the ceremonies at Chicago, returned by way of St. Louis, Indianapolis, Louisville, Cincin-

I nati, and Pittsburg. At all the principal

I towns and cities through which he passeil the

President spoke freely to the crowds in defense

of his own policy, and in denunciation of that

of Congress.

The whole journey was a scene of intense excitement and partisan animosity. The gen- eral effect of the President's course was disas- trous to him and his political adherents. In the elections of the following autumn the meas- ures and attitude of Congress were sustained, and most of the members of that body re- elected by increased popular majorities. Nevertheless, the result of the election had little effect in altering the President's views or softening his feelings towards the Legislative department <if the Government. His stubborn nature yielded in nothing, even when the voice of the Northern people was heard as the voice of many waters.

By degrees the affairs and status of the Administration grew critical. When Congress convened, in Deeemlier of 1866, the policy of the President was severely condemned. The attitude of all parties had strangely changed. It had been believed and feared that Mr. Johnson would pursue a course of angry retri- bution towards those who had been engaged in the rebellion. Now it was believed and openly charged that he had gone over to the Confederate party. Though he had begun from premises which had been laid bj' Lincoln, he had reached practical conclusions therefrom which were off^ensive, not to say shocking, to the great majority of those who had upheld the Government during the war. Congress, in its growing animosity to the President, had abandoned the milder principles of reconcilia- tion, which Lincoln had evidently professed, and taken an attitude of relentless hostility towards the Confederate party in the South. Presently the Congressional committee ap- pointed at the session of the previous year brought forward their rejiort, embodying a full plan of re(")rganizing the Southern States. After much discussion the measures proposed by the committee were adopted by Congress, and the work of reconstruction was begun. As the first condition for the reiidmission of a State into the Union, it was enacted that the peo|)le of the same, by their Legislative Assembly, or otherwise, should ratify the Four-

1711

UMVERSAL HISrOnV. — THK MoDEUX WORLD.

teenth Ameiuliiient to the Constitution, which declared the citizeuship of all persoiis born or naturalized in tiie United States. In further- ance of this policy, Congress at the same session passed an act requiring that in the National Territories the elective franchise should be granted without distinction of race or color before such Territory sliould be admitted into the Union. A similar measure was adopted with regard to the District of Columbia, for- bidding the further restriction of the right of suffrage to White men. To all of these acts President Johnson opposed his veto; but in every case his objection was overcome by the two-thirds' majority of Congress.

For all practical purposes, the question re- specting the method of reorganizing the South- ern States resolved itself to this: Should the civil or the military plan of reconstruction be adopted? From the beginning the President had urged the superiority of the civil method. It was seen, however, by Congress and the North that to follow this method freely would be to remand at once the control of the lately seceded States into the hands of the old Con- federate party. Eight or wrong, it was deter- mined by the majority that this should not be done. It was clear that if the leaders of the late Confederacy should return from all the Southern States as Representatives and Sena- tors, and should combine, as they were certain to do, with the Democratic Representatives and Senators from the Northern States, the Republican party would be immediately over- whelmed by an adverse majority. It was therefore determined in Congress that the military and suppressive method of governing the seceded States should be employed, and that an alliance between the Black Republicans of the South and the White Republicans of the North was the safest condiination for the interests of the Union. This view of the case was intensified by the hostility of the Execu- tive, and henceforth tJiere was open political war between the two departments of the Gov- ernment.

On the 2d of March, ISCT, an act was passed by Con-ri ^-. liy which the ten seceded States were divided into five military districts, each di.-itriet to lie under control of a gover- nor npnointrd by the President. After ap- pointing the couimanders required by this law,

the cliief magistrate asked the opinion of Mr. Stanbery, his Attorney-General, as to the validity of the Congressional measures of recon- struction. An answer was returned that most of the acts were null and void, and the Presi- dent thereupon issued to the military com- manders au order which virtually nullified the whole proceeding. Congress now passed a supplemental act declaring the meaning of the previous law, and the process of reorganiza- tion went on in accordance with the Con- gressional plan. The work, however, was greatly retarded by the distracted counsels of the Government, and the chaotic condition of afflurs in the South. But in due time the States of Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina were reconstructed, and in the months of June and July, 18fi8, were readmitted into the Union. In every case, however, the re- admission was effected against the protest and over the veto of the President.

ISIeanwhile, a difficulty arose in the Presi- dent's Cabinet which led to his impeachment. On the 21.st of February, 1868, he notified Edwin ]\I. Stanton, Secretary of War, of his dismissal from office. Such a circumstance had never before arisen in the administrative history of the countrv. The act was regarded by Congress as a usurpation of authority and a violation of law on the part of the President. The reconstruction difficulties had already broken off" all friendly relations between the two Houses and the Executive. Accordingly, on the 3d of March, articles of impeachment were agreed to by the House of Repre- sentatives, in accordance with the forms of the Constitution ; and the cause against the President was immediately remanded to the Senate for trial. Proceedings were instituted in that body on the 23d of i\Iarch, and con- tinued until the 26th of May, when the ques- tion was submitted to a vote of the Senators, acting as judges, and Mr. Johnson was aquit- ted. His escape from an adverse verdict, however, was very narrow — a two-thirds' majority was required to convict, and but a dmjle vote was wanting to that result. Sal- mon P. Chase, who, after his retirement from the Secretaryship of the Treasury, had been appointed Chief-Justice of the United States, presided over this remarkable trial, the first

TEE UXITED STATES.— EPOCH OF EECOXSTBUCTIOX.

of its kiud wliich liad ever distracted, nnt to say- disgraced, the history of ths country.

After the impeachment the Administration of Johnson drew sullenly to a close. The time for another Presidential election was at hand, and General Ulysses S. Grant was nominated by the Republicans for the Chief-magistracy On the Democratic side the nomination was given to Horatio Sej'mour, of New York, Tlie canvass was attended with great excite ment. The attention of the people, still agl tated by the recent strife through which the Nation had passed, could not be diverted from the question and issues of the Civil War. The principles recently agitated by the majority in Congress were made the basis of the Eepublican platform of 1868, and on that platform General_GTaiit was chosen by a very large electoral majority. The votes of twenty-six States, amounting in the aggregate to two hundred and four- teen ballots, were cast in his fiivor, while his competitor received only the eighty votes of the remaining eleven States. Of the popular vote, however, ISIr. Seymour obtained 2,703,600 against 3,013,188 given to General Grant. At the same election the choice for the Vice-presidency fell on Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana.

Ulysses S. Grant, eighteenth President of the United States, was a native of Ohio, born at Point Pleasant, in that State, April 27, 1822. His boyhood was uneventful. At the age of seventeen he entered the United States Military Academy, at West Point, and was graduated in 1843. As a Lieutenant and Captain he served with distinction, and was promoted for gallantry in the Mexican War. After the close of that conflict he retained his connection with the army for some years, and then resigned his commi.ssion. He became a merchant, resided near St. Louis, and after- wards at Galena, Illinois. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was living in obscurity, nor could any have foreseen the probability of his emergence. His first national reputa- tion was won by the capture of Forts Henry and Donelson, in 1862. After Shiloh, he was conspicuous as a Union commander; but was for awhile held back by gloomy and adverse circumstances, sufficient to have driven a less resolute and taciturn spirit fi-om the field of

view. With Vicksburg hLs star came into the ascendant, and was never again clouded. In March of 1864 he received the appointment of Lieutenant-General and Commander-in- Chief of the Union army. His subsequent career at the head of that army has been al- ready narrated. At the close of the war his reputation, though strictly military, was very great, and his complications in the imiiroglio between President Johnson and Congress heightened rather than diminished the estima- tion in which he was held by his countrymen. At the Repulilican Convention in Chicago, on the 21~i oi M.iy, l^(i^. General Grant had

no competitor; he wa^ unanimously nominated on the first ballot. On the day following his inauguration as President he sent to the Senate the following nominations for his Cabinet: For Secretary of State, Elihu B. Washburne, of Illinois; for Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander T. Stewart, of New York; for Secretary of the Interior, Jacob D. Cox, of Ohio ; for Secretary of the Navy, Adolph E. Borie, of Penn.sylvania ; for Secretary of War, John M. Sehofield, of Illinois ; for Post- master-General, John A. J. Cresswell, of Maryland; for Attornej'-Geueral, E. R. Hoar, of Massachusetts. These nominations were at once confirmed; but it was soon discovered

I'M VERSA r. IIIST()]:V.— TIIE MODERX

>HLD.

vast but

Stewart, liciim- an importer of foreign

y-as inelijrilile tn a iinMtion in the

(Iciirge S. Bnutw.-ll, <.f Massaclui-

sarrnnliiiiilv appnintr,! to thr va.-ant

^Ir. Wa.-lihurn.. al><i piv up his

ac-rpt the poMti,,!) nf .Mini^f-r to ui.l ill.- va.-aucv wa- lill.-J l,v ih.- ap- ,t of irauiiltoiiFi.h. of Nov' York. ir-t .v.iit liv which the new Ailiniiiis-

a- >iL:iiah/,iMl was the comph'tion of ic liaiiniail. We have seen how this rprise was projected as early as l.Soo,

years eLajised before the work of ion was actually befrun. The first of the road extended froui Omaha.

Neliiaska, to <)_r-den, Utah, a distance ol a thousand and thirtv-tnn miles. This rrreat span was known as the Union Pacific Rail- way. The Western division, called the Central Pacific, stretched from Ogden to San Francisco, a di<tanrf<ifciL'lithu?idred and eiphty-two miles. On the 10th of :May, 1869, the great work was conipli-t<d with appropriate ceremonies.

Before the inauiruration of President Grant, two additional amendments to the Constitution had been adopted by Congress. Tlie first of these, known as the Fourteenth Amendment, extended the rights of citizenship to all persons born or nattn-alized in the United States, and declared the validity of the public debt. This amendment was submitted in 18G7, was rati-

fied by three-fourths of the States, and in tie following year became a part of the Constitu- tion. A few weeks before the expiration of Johnson's term the Fifteenth Amendment was adopted by Congress, providing that the rights of citizens of tlic United States /o vote should not be denied or aliridg(<l on acc(Uint of i-acc, color, or previous coiidition of servi- tude. This article also, which was intended to confer the right of suffrage on the emanci- pated Black men of the South, was submitted to the States, received the sanction of three- fourtiis of the Legislatures, and on the ."(tth of March, 1870, was proclaimed by the Presi- dent as a part of the Constitution.

During the last years of the war, and the decade following, the monetary ^' afliiirs of the United States were in ^i such condition as to furnish oppor- tunity for great frauds and the wihiest speculations. The buying and selling of gold, made necessary at first by the exigencies of commerce, became at length a fictitious process, and was so manipulated by the speculators, espe- cnlly those having their haunts about the <Told Room in New York City, as to un.settle the business of the whole country. Crisis after cri.=is was reached and passed, marking so many disasters to the monetary affairs of the people. In the fall of 1869 occurred the most extraordinary excitement of all. Per- ha]is no other schemeof equal extentand shrewd contrivance was ever concocted in the financial marts of the world. A company of unscrupulous speculators in New York, headed by Jay Gould and James Fisk, jr. , succeeded in producing what is known as a "corner" in the gold-market, and brought the business interests of the metropolis to the verge of ruin. Some account of the conditions which made possible the nefarious transaction in question may serve to render the event in- telligible to the reader.

During the Civil War the credit of the Government had declined to such an extent that at one time a dollar in gold was worth two hnnili'ed and eighty-six cents in paper cur- rency. Doubtless a part of this extraordinary premium on the precious metal was occasioned by the plethora of the Greenback and National

THE UXITED STATES.— EPOCH OF EECOXSTRlTTIoX.

bauk issues of paper money. But the greater part was due to an actual decline in tiie credit of the Government, a fear tliat the enormous war-debt wouh.l bear the Xatinn ilown to ulti- mate bankruptcy. After the rt'stiiratiDU nf the National authority, the value at' i>a|icr money appreciated, and in the tall <>( l.s(;!l the ratio of gold to the Greenback dollar had iailen ofl' to about one hundred and thirty to one hun- dred. There were at this time in the banks of New York about 815,000,000 in gold coin, and in the sub-treasury of the United States, in Wall Street, a hundred millions additional. The plan of Gould and Fisk was to get control, by purchase, of the greater part of the 815,000,000; to prevent the Secretary of the Treasury from selling any part of the hundred millions under his authority; then, having control of the market, to advance the price of gold to a fabulous figure, sell out all which they held themselves, and retire from the field of slaughtered fortunes with accumulated millions of spoils.

Having carefully arranged the prelimi- naries, the conspirators, on the 13th of Sep- tember, began their work by purchasing large sums of gold, at the same time constantly ad- vancing the price. As has been said, the process was wholly fictitious. No real gold was delivered to the purchasers, the sellers simply agreeing to deliver at a certain price at a future date. One party of the gamblers thus became bound to do for the other what they could not do except by going into the mar- ket and buying the amounts which they were to deliver. But the purchasers soon exhausted the market, and they who were said to be "short on gold" were at their mercy.

By the 22d of September the plotters had succeeded in putting the market price of gold up to a hundred and forty. On the following day the price rose to one hundred and forty- four. The members of the conspiracy now boldly declared their determination to advance the rate to two hundred, and it seemed that on the morrow they would put their threat into execution. By this time the whole business of the country stood quivering like an aspen in the wind, nor might any well foresee the results of the crisis. On the morning of the 24th, known as Black Friday, the bidding in the Gold Room began with intense excitement.

The brokers of Fi>k and CnM first advaiicpd the price to a hundred and fifty, then to ;i hundred and fifty-five, and finally to one hun- dred and sixty, at which tiirnii' tlicv were obliged to purchase several millions h;- a com- pany of merchants, who had banded thrmsolves together, determined to fight the gold-gamblers to the last. Just at this moment came a de- spatch that Mr. Boutwell, Secretary of the Treasury, had unsealed the hundred millions under his control, and had ordered f mr mill- ions to be sold fi-om the sub treasury! The news occasioned an instantaneous panic. The price of gold went down twenty per cent, in less than as many minutes. The speculators were blown away in an uproar; but they man- aged, by accumulated frauds aud corruptions, to carry off with them more than eleven mill- ion dollars as the profits of their game ! Several months elapsed before the business of the country recovered from the eflfects of the shock.

During the first three mouths of 1870 the work of reconstructing the Southern States was completed. On the 24th of January the Senators and Representatives of Virginia were formally readmitted to their seats in Congress, and the Old Dominion once more took her place in the Union. On the 23d of February a like action was taken with regard to Missis- sippi, and on the 30th of ]\Iarch the work was finished by the reiidmission of Texas, the last of the seceded States. For the first time since December of 1860 the voice of the people of all of the States was heard in the councils of the Nation.

In the same year was completed the Ninth Census of the United States. It was a work of vast importance, and the results presented were of the most encouraging character. Not- withstanding the ravages of war, the last dec- ade had been one of wonderful growth and progress. During that time the population had increased from 31,433,000 to 38,587,000. The center of population had now moved westward into the State of Ohio, and rested at a point fifty miles east of Cincinnati. The National debt, though still enormous, had been considerably reduced. The products of the United States had grown to a vast aggre- gate ; even the cotton-crop of the South was regaining much of its former importance. American manufactures were competing with

ISO

CXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

those of England in the markets of tlie world. The Union now embraced thirty-seven States and eleven territories. From tlie narrow limits of the thirteen orit;inal ('..jniiirs. with their four hundred and twenty th(iu>:iiid M|iiari' miles of territory, the National domain had >iircad to the vast area of three million ^ix liundicil and four thousand square miles. Few thin;;s have been more marvelous than the territorial growth of the United States. The purchase of Louisiana iu 1803 more than doubled the geographical area of the Nation. The several Mexican ac- quisitions were only second in importance, while the recent Kussian cession of Alaska was alone greater than the original Thirteen States. The nature of this territorial development will be best understood from an examination of the accompanying raaj).

President Grant was by nature a man of few projects. He was perhaps the least vision- ary of all the great Americans who have risen to distinction iu the political history of the country. If he had any particular dream of distinguishing his Administration by some specific feature, it was the project of the an- nexation of Santo Domingo. He also had in mind the enteri)rise of extending and amplify- ing the relations, civil, political, and social, between the American Republic and Mexico. But with resi)ect to the purchase of Santo Domingo he had a real anxiety. He promoted, and may be said to have originated, the agita- tion on that subject. In January of 1871 he appointed Senator Ben Wade, of Ohio ; Presi- dent Andrew D. White, of New York; and Dr. Samuel Howe, of Massachu.setts, as a Board of Commissioners to visit Santo Do- mingo, and report upon the desirability of an- nexing that island to the United States. The question of annexation had been feebly before the American people for several years ; but the actual proposal awakened earnest advocacy on one side, and strong opposition on the other. After three mouths .spent abroad, the Commis- sioners returned and reported in favor of the proposed annexation. Tlie matter was laid be- fore Congress, but the opposition excited in that body was so great tiiat the measure was defeated.

Now it was that the day of retriliuti.m came to Great Britain for her conduct towards the American Government during the Civil

War. The unfriendliness which she had shown to the United States, and the great and positive damages done to American commerce by the Confederate cruisers fitted out in tlie English ports, had been laiil up hy tlie Federal Government unto the day of reckon- ing. The United States held serious accounts against Great Britain, which must be settled iu some equitable manner before relations of harmouy could be reestablished. The Con- federate cruisers had been built and equipped in the ports of England with the full knowl- edge of the Government. Such a proceeding was in plain violation of the law of nations. Even if the independence of the Confederate States had been recognized, it would still have been unlawful for the private war-ships of that power to be built, equipped, manned and sent forth from the ports of a nation pretend- ing neutrality and friendliness to the United States. Time and again Mr. Seward had remonstrated with the British authorities, but without effect. As a matter of fact, the great monarchies of Western Europe believed and hoped that the American Republic had gone to pieces, that the bubble had burst, that the fragments of exploded republicanism, con- sidered as a type of human government — a type most dangerous to themselves — were already drifting in the whirlpool. As a con- sequence, they assumed a tone and niauuer toward the American Government, as if to say : " We have said as much; the profits are now to us."

After the Civil War, however. Great Brit- ain became alarmed at her own conduct, and grew anxious for a settlement of the difficulty. On the 27th of February, 1871, a Joint High Commission, composed of five British and five American statesman, assembled at Washington City. From the fact that the cruiser Alabama had done most of the injury complained of, the claims of the United States were called The Alab.vma Claims. After much discus- sion, the Commmissioners fra.med a treaty, known as the Treaty of Washington, by which it was agreed that all claims of either nation against the other should be submitted to a board of arbitration, to be appointed by friendly nations. Such a high court was ac- cordingly formed, and in the summer of 1872 convened at Geneva, Switzerland. The cause

THE USITED STATES.— EPOCH OF EECONSTBUCTIOX. 181

rxivi:i:s.\i. iii^tohy.^tiie modeux would.

of tl.e two nalio		nil.arliallv h,	lid.
on the- Htli ot	Srptel	ihrr ua.- <h,	id.'.
favor of the I'll	t.-d St:	1,-. ]',y ihr	K'ei-
Givat IJiituiii	\a^ .ih	^■■vA. f'.r the	\vr
whi,'l, slu- hail .	f.Ilr. li	pay t,. the '
of the Anieiiraii	C.v.ri	in.-nt Sl.VolH	IMII
The vear IM	1 \\a- n	niarkal.K. as 1	eing
date xvhen the	railr-a,	eniiMnietion	of
United Stati-s re	irh.'d it	~ iiiaxiiiiiiiii.	111
year no Ie.v< thai		thn,l>alld MX	iim.
and ?evriii\ '-■:!'	'•'■ I'Mil	■.lad uriv e-n	Ii-ii.

.d t.j two thousand eight hundred and i.Mii miles. Ten years later there were th.iusaiid and twenty-one miles of track, .r.liiii: to the npiirts lur IM.IO, the railr.iads

.if thirty thousand six hundred and thirty- miles, and in the next ten years, embracing ]Mii...l of the Civil War, the amount was ly .1. milled. Such is the victory of free i)>ii-i', free industry, and free thought. It

u.ll Mirpi-i-.' :illd "i'l-TM.-r tl:.- -'...lent of

There is, perhaps, no fact in tiie hist.iry of the world which exhibits so marvelous a develop- ment of the physical resources of a nation. Ere the mutterings of the Civil War, with its uiit..l.l .lestni.'tiou of life and treasure, had .li.'.l away, the recuperative power, enterprise, aii.l -eiiius of the American people were re- viale.l as never before in establishing and ex- leii.liiii: the lines of commerce and travel. In 1.S30 there were but tw.ntv-tliree miles ..f railway track in the X. u \V.,rl.l. lo 1S40 the lines in the Unite. 1 .States ha. I been ex-

lustory that the United States of America, just emerged from the furnace of war, and burdened with an enormous debt, built in the single year 1871 more miles of railway than Spain, whose daring navigators went forth four hundred years ago to discover the Western hemisphere, has ever built in her whole career! The same year is u.ited for a calamity al- m.ist as vast in proportion as the enterprise just referred to was astonishing. The event ill question was the burning of the city of Chicago. On the evening of the .Sth of Octo-

THE UNITED STATES.— EPOCH OF RECOXSTRUCTIOX.

The area burued lumdred acres, or iiileri. Abiiat two the ,-n„rtai;rati..n, imnuiited to aliout

ber a tire br.ike out iu De Koveu Street, and was <lriveu by a high wind into the liuulier- yard> and winxleu houses of the ueighljorhood. The riaiues spread with great rapidity, leaped the South Braueh of the Chicag(_> Kiver, aud began to roar through the business parts of the city. All that night aud all the following day the deluge of fire rolled on ; sprang across the main chauuel of the river, aud swej^t into blackened ruins the whole district between the North Branch aud Lake Michigan, as far northward as Lincoln Park. over was two thousand one three and a third square i hundred lives were lost in and the property destroyed ai §200,000,000. No such terrible devastation had been witnessed since the burning of Mos- cow, iu 1812. In the exteut of the district burned over, the Chicago fire stands first; in the amount of property destroyed, .second ; and in the suffering accasioned, third, among the great conflagrations of history.

On the 21st of October, 1872, was settled the remaining dispute concerning the geo- graphical boundaries of the United States. By the terms of the treaty of 1846 it was sti|)ulated that the North-western boundary line, running westward along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude, should extend to the middle of the chauuel which separates the continent from Vancouver's Island, and thence southerly through tlie middle of said channel and of Fuca's Straits to the Pacific. But what was "the middle of said channel?" for there were several channels. The British Govern- ment claimed the .Straits of Eosario to be the true line intended by the treaty, while the United States would have the Canal de Haro. So the question stood for a quarter of a cen- tury, and was then referred for settlement by arbitration to William I., Emperor of Ger- many. That monarch heard the cause, de- cided in favor of the United States, and the Caual de Haro became the international

The civil Administration of President Grant was embarrassed throughout by the military spirit and influences which still dominated the country. The President himself was a military man, a general of armies rather thau a states- juau. At this epoch the great men of the couu-

the war. Maj<.,r-Generals and 15rigadier-(_ieu- erals swarmed in the halls of Congress an.l thronged the White House. The Presi.lnit was

niililary methods in the conduct of the (iovern- ment. lie had, in fai-t, but liltlr sympathy with

on. But, on the oihrr hand, he was not in sympathy with political methods, and knew nothing of tlie arts (jf the demagogue. As a natural result, he fell back up(jn the methods with which he was best acquainted, aud the Administration was said, especially Ity his np- p.inents, to have a niilitaiy cast. ' On the wh.ilc, however, the President retained his jiowi-rfiil hold on the American people, nor wa- it likely, in the Presidential campaign of l.'S72, that any other C(Uild supplant him in their all^ctions and jiolitical coiiH.lence.

As the (piadreniual term <lrew to a close, the political parties marshaled their forces for the contest. ]Many parts of the Chief Magis- trate's policy had been subjected to severe criticism and heated controversy. The Con- gressional plan of reconstructing the Southern States had prevailed, and with that plan the President was in full accord. lUit the recon- struction measures liail been untiivorably re- ceived in the South, aud were geuerall}^ de- noiniced by the Democratic party. The ele- vation of the negro race to the full rights of citizenship was met with much rational oppo- sition, to .say nothing of race prejudice aud political rancor. Owing to tlie disorganization of civil government in the Southern States, an opportunity was given iu certain districts for bad and reckless men to band themselves together in lawde.s.sness. Organizations knowu as Ku-Klux Glaus were formed against the constituted authorities, and the latter were frequently what was called "carpet-bag gov- erumeuts;" that is, governments instituted by political adventurers who had gone from the North into the South witli their carpet-bag^ in their hands. The military spirit was still rife iu the country, and the issues of the Civil War were rediscussed with much bitterness.

On these issues the pe(iple divi<]cd in the election of 1.S72. The Kepublicans renomi- nated General Giant for the I're-iden.'V. For the Vice-presidency Mr. Colfax declined a

IS-i

i'yiVFKSAL niSTonY. — THE MODElty WORLD.

renomiuatiou, aiul was rej)lacec.l on tin- tickt't Ijy Heiiiy Wilsou, of MassaclniseLts. Un the other side there was for a while nnieh coufusion. It was doubtlessly foreseen by the Democratic leaders tliat any one of their own number would have small show of success aL'aiust the taciturn hero of the Civil War. lu tlie mean- time, a large number of inoiaincnt Kepuiili- cans, dissatisfied with the Administration, per- sonally piqued at President Grant, aud perhaps sincerely desiring to promote certain alleged refouns in the Go\einment, had foimed a Lib- eral-Republican pait}, and had nominated for the Pie^idency Hoiace Gieele}, the dis-

tinguished ...litor nf the Xew York TrllmM. After some beatini: about, this nomination was accepted and ratified by the Democratic party, and the political contest was projected on this basis. It was destined to be the last act in the remarkable career of Horace Greeley. For more than thirty years he had been an acknowledged leader of public opinion in America. He hail been a champion of human rights, an advocate of progress, an idealist, a [ihilaiitiiro|>i>t, a second Franklin, born out of due si-ason. lie had discussed with vehement energy and enthusiasm almost every question in which the people of the United States had anv interest. After a life-time of untiring in-

dustry he was now, at the age of sixty-one, throv.u into the forefront of political strife.

The canvass was one of wild excitement and bitter denunciations. Mr. Greeley himself went before the pieojale and spoke on the questions involved in the contest. But every- thing seemed adverse to his prospects. His own utterances, his strange personality, his long contentions with the Democratic party, the incongruity of his following, and many other things, were paraded eflectively against him. He was overwhelmingly defeated. Gen- eral Grant's majority was almost unprece- dented in the political history of the country. Mr. Greeley, who had in the meantime re- tired from the editorship of the Tribune, at- tempted to resume his duties, but the shock had been too great for his physical and mental powers. He died in less than a mouth alter the election, and with him ended the career of the greatest journalist which America has ever produced.

A iew days after the Presidential election of 1872 the city of Boston was visited by a conflagration only second in its ravages to that of Chicago, in the previous year. On the evening of the 9th of November a fire broke out on the corner of Kingston and Summer streets, spread to the north-east, and contj-nied with almo>t unabated fury until the morning of the 11th. The best portion of the city, embracing some of the finest business blocks in the United States, was laid in ashes. The burnt district covered an area of sixtA'-five acres. Eight hundred buildings, property to the value of eighty millions of dollars, and fifteen human lives were lost in the con- flagration.

Our attention may now be turned for a moment to au event of some importance on the far-ofi Pacific Slope. In the spring of 1872 an order was issued to Superintendent Odeneal to remove the Modoc Indians from their lauds, on the southern shore of Lake Klamath, Oregon, to a new reservation. The Indians, who had been greatly mistreated by former agents of the Government, refuse<l to obey the order, and in the following Novem- ber a body of troops was sent to force them into compliance. The ^lodocs resisted, kept up the war during the winter, and then re- treated into an almost inaccessible region.

known as the Lava Beds lowing spring, tlie Imliai but would not yieM. < hi conference was lielil lid

THE UNITED STATES.— EPOCH OF RECOXSTEUCTION

Icre, in the fol

The sj-stem of govfrnuient instituted in Southeru States, under the reconstrm ]io]icy of Congress, was very unsatisfact Tiie old Cnnfederate |iarty in the South hraced the best eleuieiits of society. The \

side them, and niunlmd (;..,„.,al ('aiihv an. Dr. Thomas in cold hh.od. My. M.aiham another member of tlie Comnii~-ion, was >ho and stabbed, but escaped with his life. Tli Modocs were theu hesiejred and homhanled ii

1|

A^^^^^^^^S^'''M'- ^	.		-'\
■ ^^^^^^' * ^^	--'^	'^	1 nil- II NFi '- M MoiKirs
,- '^^feifc> '<	of It... -am/	in_	th. .nil mithm.n ^^ i- for
	the nio-t pa ,aii^, nho 1, ^^M and oi	t d 1.1 _	x.h.d lip. n Whitt l;. 1 nl.h- int.. th. ^..iitli lit. 1 ihf, \._i.»- \\li.. \\eu athlutt.l
CnpTnghM..- o M n, l„m	«itli tli.m	r.	wi.ll th. two pillle-, thus
their stronghold, hnt it \Nas tlie 1-t of June	(.m-titut. d	I _i	, It l...-tilitN , M-tMl 11.1 in
before General Da\is and a force of leirulars	SOUR iiait~	.t ti	. c.mntry the .■ivii aulli.,rity
could compel Captain Jack and his murderous	wa- in con-t	ant	ha..s an.I tnrm.,il. Ii, ls73
band to surrender. The chiefs were tried by	a diffiuiltva	•o^e	111 L.Miisiana which bn.k,. the
conit-martial, and t xe uted in the following	]ieace of the	Sta	e and produced much e.xcite-
October.	niuit. 0«	"g	to the existence of d..ul)le

isr, ryni:h'SAL iiistohy.-

(■l.-fii,,i,-l,.,nnl.-, tun >,■!-, if l'r,-i,l. •mini .-l.M-tn.-s liii.l 1..-,.,, rhoxn in tl.c pivviuu- MUliinni. At

thr sunr ti tWM (;nvrni..,s, Willi;, ti: r.

Krlln-L' ;mi.I .Inlin .MrHu.rv, U,rr ,lr,h,l. aii.l rival L.-i-l;,iun- wnv uIm, nliiin.,! I,y tlic rivnl ImanU. Tun Slaf ,-,vrr„i„rnts xviv

oi-'jani/r^l. and l-r awliil.- the ('..imi uvaltli

uas In a rn,Hlilin„ linnlrriir. nn anaivliy.

Th.' ,li^|„itr was at Irn.jll, y.[\-vu;] to tin' F,..l,.ral (Jov.rninriit. an.) ll,.- I'lvM.J.nt .li- <'i.l,Ml in favnrnf Krllo^., a,al ],is|u.lv. Tlu^

TWF. MODV.ny WOULD.

of tli<' riiil.-.l State.-- It was -with tho Credit .Mnlilli.r a ^liir qw, nun tlial tlir door winch th'\ had tliii< o|iiimm| into the treasury vaults

]io,~^ilile oli>tniction, the inanaueis resorted to whole^Lde eoniiiition. In 1^72 a lawsuit in I'eiin-ylvania developed the startliiijr fact that niueh (,f the ~t.i(d^ of the Credit, IMobilier was „„,„,/ /,„ „„,„/„,>■ of fm,j,;-ss! The „,a„agers

wii

'4, tl

.,pp,.sed to the adnnnistration of KelloLr.L', and le,l l,y J). 1!. IVnu, who ha,l heen returucd as Lie\itenaut-<ioveruor with McEiicry, rose iii anus and took possession of the iState-house. (ioveruor Kelh)gg fled to the Custom-house, aud appealed to the President for help. The latter immediately onlered the adherents of Peuu to disperse, and a lioily of National troops ■was sent to New Orleans to enforce the proc- lamation. On the assembling of the Legisla- tui-e in the following December the difficidty

soldierv was asjaiu called in to restore onler

About the beginning of Presi.lent Oranfs second term the country was greatly disturbed by what was known as the Credit JMobilier Investigation in Congre.s.s. The " Credit IMobilier of America" was a ioint-stock corn-

works

ken to build the Pa.-ili.' llaiboad, purchase. ,e charter .,f the Credit .Mobilier, and th^ loital was increased to )«;l.7.-,(l,U00. Owin;

ers of the shares. Many were thus enriched

pici<m that members of Congress holding the certificates had voted corruptly in legislation affecting the Pacific Kailn.ad at once seized the publi.' mil..], and led to a Congressional investiuatiou. in the course of which many scan.lalon- transactions were brought to light, and the faith of the people in the integrity of th( ir public servants was greatly shaken.

lu the autumn of 1873 occurred one of the most di>a>lro\i- tinaucial panics known in the hist..ry of the Tniud States. The alarm was given by the I'aibnv of the great bankiug- hou.se of .Tav C.,oke iV Co.. of Pliiladelphia. Other fhilur'es followed in rapi.l succession. Depositors everywh.av hurrici to the banks, and withdrew their money and securities. Business was snddeidy paralyzed, and many months elapsed before eoutideuce was suf- li,-iently re,-t<.re.l t.. enable merchants and bankers to enga-e in the UMial transactions of

"■ I'l" able.

wh

ed the stock

Tie. monev Paeilic Kail

ition wlucli sajipcd tlie ess, <lestroved financial

,e Credit M<

east ot the evil results of the urbance was the check given to on of the \.,rthern Pacific Rail-

of the

d bvC

part bv a Mibsidv, grant, t. an.l'in this n'lauuer tl lit M,,bili,.r L'.it their ban.

„. rnnnin- .>f a bran.di r.,a.l, two hundred if- in l.ui-th. .lowu thi. valley .if the Colum- a River to Portlau.l, Oregon. Large subsi-

THE rXITED STATES.— EPOCH OF nECOXSTRUCTlOX.

dies were granted to the coiiipaov Ijy Congres: and other favorable legishition was expeete k of constructio nid froniDulutl ikintr-house :

to follow. In 1870 tl was begun and can-ii'il Minnesota. Jay Cook heavy loans tn this i security the l)nii(ls o confidently expfctrd ■would he obtained as si

tlie that

(luhl

aecep- 1,1. f.ir

ure the succes: of the euterpri.se and liring the bnuds to par In this condition of atiair- tlie Credit ^Nlnliiliei scandal -was liL.wn with it- shncking etlliivi: before the emiiitry, ainl im Ci have dared to vote fuithii- >ul!-id wa}' enterprise. Jay (. 'i " il;i 's seen comparatively worthh-s- : ilnn failures and the panic Tlir wark iug the Xorthern racific line v arrested, and it was only attrr y that the enterprise was pruMTMitc In 1875 the section of fmir 1 fifty ndles, extending from Dnhith Dakota, was put into operation. span, a hundred ami five miles

tweeu Kalama anil Ta na.

Territory, was eomjileted, and ti liue. Meanwhile the attention

became i-ed the instrnct- udd, )f d(

•I I to success, lundred and to Bismarck, Then another 11 length, lie- Washington illy the wh f the couul

was turned to the Texas and Pacific Kailway, which had been projected from Shreveport, Louisiana, and Texarkana, Arkansas, liy way of El Paso, Texas, t<> 8an Diego, California, a distance from Bhrevejiort of fifteen hundred and fourteen miles. In 1875 the main line had been carried westward a hundred am eighty-nine miles, to Dallas, Texas, while th( line from Texarkana had progressed seventy five miles towards El Paso.

On the 4th of March, 1875, the Territory of Colorado was authorized by Congress ti .n-titutinii. On the 1st

iistrumei le peopl <siied h

form a State Cmi-tit

July, in the fnlluwin- yenr,

thus provided for wa- ratitie,

A month later the Pre-i,

proclamation, and the "C,

took her place in the I'liion.

mon wealth embraced an area

and four thousand five Imiidr

and a population of forty-tw

Public attention was directed

the discovery of gold in 1s5l'. Silver was

discovered about the same time, and in the

■winter of 1858-9 the first colony of miners

( th of .M:i

Prof,-ssei- Mni-e, Horace

Meade were all called

eir earthly labors. 0,,

, Chief-Justice Chase fell

188

under a stnikc ol' panily-is :if t (laiijrhttT. in X.w Vnik Citv; a of Shu-vh, in tl„- f.. 11,, will- Chail.- Sunni.T, ..f Ma-arlui Washin-lon. II,. ua< a nali' born in lx\] : lilHiailv ,;Uu-.xu Collcfr,'. At tl,.. aijr of tl.irty- the arena of ],iil,li,- lif,-, an,l ceeclfd Danirl \V,-l.~tw in tin- Unite.I Stales. Tliis ,,uMu,,n \u

rXfVERSAL lUSTORY.^THK .V(>I)I:RX WOULD.

paraivMs at tlie- li,,ni,. n|' his inrrits wlii.'li will transmit his name to after

■ t si

Ami

>enatiir As the (_ i;.\ iKx.vi.

]5,isi,,n; t" eelelii-ate the great event with ai)iir,,iiriate

Harvard eereinonies. As to the Jboii of the eelebratiou,

e entered an luternational Exposition of Arts and In-

■^•')0 sue- diistries was decided on; as to the place, the

:e of Ihe eily .,f Philadelphia, hallowe.l hy r;ev,,lntinu-

neil until arv nieniories, was selected; as to the i'nnr, the

the time ,,f his ,leath, speaking much and jierLnl from the 10th of .May to the lOth of powerfully "u all the great questious that i November, l-'^Ti), was chosen. Au appropria-

agitated the Nation. His last days were spent in considering the interests and welfare of that country to whose service he had given the lifcdong energies of his genius. On the 2'2d of November, lS7o, Vice-President Henry Wilson sank under a stroke of paralysis, and died in Washington City. Like Roger Sher- man, ho had risen from the shoemaker's bench to the highest honors of his country. With- out the learning of Seward and Sumner — without the diplomatic skill of the one, or the oratorical fame of the other — he nevertheless possessed those great abilities and sterling

tion of 81,.^O0,0()0 was made by Congress to promote the enterprise, and voluntary offerings and contributions were forwarded from every State and Territory of the Union. The city of Philadel]ihia did her part by opening Fair- mount Park, one of the largest and most beautiful in the world, for the Exposition.

The management of the enterprise was in- trusted to a commission, which was organized bj' the election of General Joseph R. Hawley, of Connecticut, as president ; Alfred T. Goshorn, of Ohio, as director-general; and John L. Caniiibell, of Indiana, as .secretary.

THE UNITED STATES.— EPOCH OF RECONSTRUCTION.

Uutler the directiou of this commission five principal buildings were projected, and were brought to completion about the close of l^T"). The largest of these great struetair<, callrd the Main Building, was eighteen liuiidi'cil and eighty feet in length and four hundred aud sixty -four feet wide, covering an area of a little nnire than twenty acres. The cost of the edi- fice was $1,580,000. The building second in importance was the [Memorial Hall, or Art Gallery, built of gran- ite, iron, aud glass, aud covering an area of seventy -six thousaud six hundred and fifty square feet. This was by far the most elegaut and i)ermaneut of all the structures erected for the occasion. Ma- chinery Hall, the third of the great edifices, ■was like the Maiu Building in general ap- pearance, thougl beautiful and grand. The ground-floor em- braced an area of nearly thirteen acres. The cost of the structure was 8542,000. cultural Hall oi a space of littl than ten acres, : built at a cost of nearly 82(;o,O0O. The fifth aud smallest of the principal buildings was Horticultural Hall, an edifice of the Moorish pattern, cov- ering a space of one and three-fifths acres $300,000. The other structures of chief interest were the United States Government Building, the Woman's Pavilion, and the De- partment of Public Comfort. After these came the Government Buildings of Foreign Nations, the Model Dwellings and Bazars, School diouses and Restaurants, Judges' Halls, and Jlodel Factories.

On the 5th of January, 1876, the reception

of articles for the Exposition was begun. A system of awards was adopted, aud on the lOlh of May the inaugural ceremonies were held nuiKr directiou of the Centennial Commission, Prtsident Grant making the opening address. By this time the attention of the peoi)le had been fully aroused to the interest and impor- tance of the event, and from the opening days 3 Exposition the grounds were crowded thousands aud hundreds of thou.s\n<ls of visitors. The Exposi- tion itself was |ierlia| "le giandest and most n)teiesting of its kind t\Li wituessed up to ate in question. All summer loug the thiong of citizens and sti augei s gatheied f 1 om e\ ei } clime, uied into the spa- ( 1 us and beuititul I Lik Eepoits ot the

and costing about

proceedings and of the various exhibits were sent broadcast to every civilized country of the world. Distinguished personages, among them Doni Pedro H., Emperor of Bra- zil, came from various nations to gather in- struction from the accumulated arts and industries of mankind. On the 4th of July the centennial of the great Declaration was approjiriately celebrated throughout the coun- try. The city of Philadelphia was crowded

li)0

LWIVKllSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEHN WORLD.

with two liuiidred and fifty thdiisiuid ?trangers. lu ludepeiuleuce Square tlic Di-claratiun Avas read fruin the oriiiiiial inaiiino-rijit liv Kichard Htnry Lee, a -ra'nd.M.n ..f I, in, Uy whom the re>(ihitu)ii tn Ik- live was lli^l ..iK-iv.l in C'on- ^Te.-. A .V.(/;.-„„/ (hlr ua~ ihrn ivrite.l l,y Bu 11 1 1 i\ln, m.l Ih, ( .Ht,,ui,al (), iti,n dt hxMMl In Wilhini M I \ (It- \t nijit th(

id.d uith I hnlhuit ih. d.iU itt.udni

ini., n. I mniount Pnk \aiiMl tiuin lu( Ih.m ,,m1 to tu.. hund.td md fce\ent\ h\( th.m-iiKl ikim.u- 1 he ^louniK ■v\eie open fm one liuudied lud titt\ eight da^"*, the totil leceipt^ foi idmisbion were

given as a memento by tlie Executive Com- mittee, and most of the (ioverumeut Buildings of Foreign Nations were presented to tlie city of I'liihidclphia. It ran n.-t be d..ubted that the ExpoMtion, eon^idered as a whole, left a permanent impression for good on the minds ot the Americiu people, and contubuted to thi iiiiinon\ ind mutud mtuest of ill the .l\lh/(d •-lU,- ot tht woild

J)iiiin_ th. h-t ^tu of Pit-id,nt (., iuls V.imini-ti ition th, .ouiitu w >- diMu.liid hy I « u \Mlh th, ^loux liidini- Jh. . fi. ue

UuitLd

lug to iehu(pn-h dl the the Niobiiia, wi-t of the inth meiiiliiu md noith

of

vth

u dUl .,f <h B>

*^ /

T'^^^w'a

'^^m

Ml Mill I \I II\1L I LMLNMNL L\l()-

thou^ind On th, lOlhol \o\,mbei the E\ po«ition ^\ 1- foiniilU < lo-i d h\ the Pie^deut of the United St It,- ittiii,l,,l b\ Geneial Hawle> C'hniiiini ,.t th, (', ntennul Com miction, and Dii,(toi (i,i-houi of Cincinnati Eff^>it= \\eie midt howc\ii to seciiie a« fii a" pncticable the peini\nenc\ of the Centen nnl di-ph\ Machnun Hall wa« pui chafed b} the cit\ of Phila,ltlphn but was afterwaids remo\ed fiom tlu giounds. Aftei an attempt to preserve the ^lain Building it was sold by auction, and the materials removed. The Memorial Building was preserved intact, to- gether with a large part of the art treasures, which were exhibitoil therein during the Cen- tennial summer. The Woman's Pavilion was

no u til western Dikota and to thib ie&ei\ation th, \ igieul to i,tiit In tlR 1st ,,f Ilnull^, 1^7h

]\Ieiin\liile,

howe\ei gold

was di-(.o\eied

among the Bl itk

HilK, a legion

tliei,ieitLi put ,>f whieh lit longed b> the tieaty

to the Siou\ iesei\ ition But no tu U\ t,iuld

keep the hungi> hoi de of white gold diLi., i^ md

ad\entuKis fiom o\eiuinning the iiitmluted

ili-tii, t Ihis ^i\, tlu '^lou^. a good excuse,

not to -n I \ ili,l I IU-, f,ii giatif\iug their

iiatue disposition h> bieaking ovei the limits

of then iesei\ation, and loamim, it luge

thioutrh W^omlng ind Montini luiiniiig

houses steilnifj hoist- m,! kilhiii; wh,ii\(-i ,ip-

posed them.

The (ioverniiient now undert,Mdc to ilrive the Sioux upon their reservation. A large force ,if n'gulars under Generals Terry and Crook was sent into the mountainous country of the U]iper Yellowstone, and the Indians, to the number of several thousand, led by their

THE ryiTKD STATES.— EPOCH OF RECOysTHUCTlOX.

noted chieftain Sittiug__JBi^ill, wen' back against the Big Horn .Miuiit River. Generals Custer iind lu ihj, \ sent forwai-tl with the Seventh ('aval cover the whereabouts of the Imliai them encampeil in a lariic villai:r, i for nearly three mile- ah-iig the left the Little" Rii; Horn. Oi

the L'.-.lll ..t June, (.en

ing for reintoreeiiieht- chaiaed heailloii. witl lii^ (livi-ion into tli( Iiidi 111 town 111(1 \\ 1- 1

nations of the Territnry olijeeted to having the tierce savages of the North for their neighh..rs.

On the 24th of N..veiul,er the Fourth Cav- alrv attacke.l and de.-iMVely .h-f.-atc-,! ih.^ .^loiix at "a pa-s in the Biu' Horn .Mountain-. The Indian- lost severelv in the eimaneiiient, ami

sail	1- ot	\e	limy- wan
CIS	Of	the detaiL <-
the	-t.UL	le	thit en-ut'
\ei (t. 1	lirt .1 il(	1 t	1- kn wn 1 ml ^ n
111 11	. t	1 1	mm 111
fell	111 th		i_lit Th
CouHk t I	4"	del It 1
di<l	not .=	uii	X— in de-
peratiou	an	1 di-istei
any	other	I.	dun htttlt
evei	fiu.j-	It	11 Inieiiet
Tlie	who	.	- t th.
Seventh	L	\lll\ Wl
two	hand	ed	mil Mxt\
one	killed	m 1 htt\ tw
won	nded.	(rt	n 1 tl Ren 1

who had lieen en^i^'tl with the savages at the lower end of the town, held his position on the bluffs of the Little Bii; Horn until General Gib- bon arrived with reiii- foreenient- and saved the remnant fnnii destruc- tion.

Other divisions of the array were soon hurried battle

to the scene of hostility.

During the summer and autumn the Lidians were beaten in several engagements, and ne- gotiations were at length opened looking fir the removal of the Sioux to the Indian Ter- ritorv. But still a few desperate bands held out against the authority of the Gevern- nient, and at the same time t'.e civilized

three hut-, T\as totalh ■ then went into wintf pcjints in the hostile com tioiis were still carried . expeditions during Dei

itter

opera- brief luary. I body

T.I2

UMVKRSAL HlSTony. — TIlK MODERX WORLD.

of tiie savages was overtaken ami cninpletcly i-iiuted 1)\- tlie division of (Vimrl Mil,-.

ami Crazy lltnM', li.iii- iv<\\ alil.^ t" ntH'r im

the hnnler, aii.l iKcani,- .-ul.jrrt tn tlir autli.ir- iti.-.- <.r Caiia.la. Jl.-n- iImv ivniaiiu-.l until the loll..«in- aiKnnm. ulnii'tlir Cnverninent rcipcned ne<,'ntiati(iii^ with them for their re- turti til their rt-servatioii in Dakota. A cmn- iiiissiou, headed by General Terry, met Sit- ting Bull and his prineipal warri.irs at f^.rt Walsh, on the Canadian frontier. Hrre a conference was hehl on the Mh of Octohrr. Full pardon for jntst (.tienses was otieri'd to till' Sioux on eondition of their j)eaeeahle return and future good ludiavior. But the irreeoncil- ahh- Sitting ]5ull and his savage chiefs re- jeeted the ijrojiosajs with scorn. The con- ference was broken oil', atid the Sioux were left at large in the British dominions north of Milk River. It was not until 1880 that, through the intervention of the Canadian Government, Sitting Bull and his band were induced to re- turn to the reservation of the Yankton Sioux on the north bank of the Missouri River, Dak.ita.

In the meantime, wiih the subsidence of the interest occasioned by the centennial celebration, and the excitement caused by the war with the Sioux, came the Twenty-third Pn.sidential election. Bef .re the end of June, the National C.mvenlioiis wer.' hehl and standard-bearers selected by the political par- ties. General Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of New York, were chosen as candidates by the Republicans; Samuel A. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, by the Democrats. A third— the Independent Greenback— party also appeared, and presented as candidates Petei- Cooper, of New York, and Samuel F. Caiv, of Ohio. The canvass began early anil witii great asperity. The cry raised by the Democratic party was 7»V;e/'/»— reform in tlie pidilic servii-e and in all the methods of administration. For it was alleged that many of the departments of the Government, and the officers presiilintr therein, had become cor- rupt ill iiraetice and in fact. The Republicans answered back with tlie cry of R>form^ averring a willin-ness and an anxiety to eor-

and to tied to

■A tl

of the riiited State-, a> agaiii.-t the doctrine of State Sovei-eigntv, wa- not vet aekuouledged in tlie South ; and that tl,,' rijit- of the Black njen must be protected with additional safe- guards. The Independent jiarty echoed the cry of Reform — monetary reform first, and all other reforms afterwards. For it was tilleged by the leaders of this party that the measure of redeeming the National legal-tenders and other obligations of the United States in ;/()/(/ — which measure was advocated by both the other parties — was a project unjust to the debtor class, iniquitous in it.self and impossible of fulfillment. And it was further argued by the indejieiidents that the money idea itself ought to be revolutionized, and that a National j)aper currency should be provided by the Governmeut, aud be based, not on specie, but on a bond bearing a low rate of interest and interconvertible, at the option of the holder, with the currency itself. But the advocates of this theory had only a slight political organization, ;ind did not succeed in securing a single electoral vote. The real contest lay, as it had done for twenty years, between the Republicans aud the Democrats. The can- vass drew to a close ; the election was held ; I the L:eiieral result was ascertained ; and both ! jiarties rlnii,,,,! thr virtori/! The election was so evenly balanced between the candidates — there had been so much irregularity in the voting and subsequent electoral proceedings in the States of Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Oregon, ami the powers of Con- gress over the votes of such States were so vaguely defined under exi>tiiii; legislation — that no certain declaration of the result could be made. The pulilic mind was confiniuded with perplexity and excitement, and more than once were heard the threatenings of

When Congress convened in December, the whole question of the di^piited Presiileiicy came at once before that body for settlement. The situation was seriously eomplicateil liy the jioliiical eoiii|ilexion of the Senate and theHouse of le iiiiMiitaiives. In the former body the Beiiulilicaiis had a majority sufficient to con-

THE UMTED UTATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

trol its action, ■while in the Huu>i' tin/ Dchki- cratie majority was :-till iinnr dei'l-ivc ami equally willful.

The debates l:)egau, ami seenn.-il likely tn he iDtenuiuable. The que^tinu at i>,~ue wa;? whether the electoral votes of the several States should, at the proper time, be opened and counted by the presiding officer of the "Senate, iu accordance with the iniiuemorial and constitutional usage iu such cases, or whether, in view of the existence of dui)licate and spurious returns from some of the States, and of alleged gross frauds and irregularities iu others, some additional ciiurt ought to !je constituted to open and count the ballots.

Jleauwhile, the oecessitv of doing s(jniethiug became more aud more imperative. The great merchants aud manufacturers of the country, and the Boards of Trade iu the principal cities, grew clamorous for a speedy aud peaceable adjustmeut of the difficulty. The spirit of compromise gained ground, aud after mucii debating in Congress it was agreed that all the

dis|nited election return.- should be referred to a Joint High Commisskix, u, consist of live members chosen from the United States Senate, five from the House of Representatives, and five from the Supreme Court. Tiie JudL;iiieut of the tribunal was to be final in all matleis referred thereto for decision. The ( 'oiiimi-^ion was accordingly constituted. The counting was begun, as usual, in the jiresence of tlie Senate aud the House of llejireseutatives. When the disputed and duplicate returns were reached, they were referred, State by State, to the Joint Higli Commission, by whicii body the decision was made. On tiie'l'.l of March, onhj two Jays before the time /.„■ ihr iiianijiinition, the final decision was rendered. The Repub- lican candidates were declared elected. Oue hundred aud eighty-five electoral votes were cast for Hayes aud Wheeler, and one hundred aud eighty-four for Tilden and Hendricks. The most dangerous political crisis in the his- tory of the country passed harmlessly by with- out violence or bloodshed.'

ci

fr'b

Chapter cxx:\"i.— Latest period.

|I THERroRI) Bl R CHARD H V\Ls nine teenth Pie-ident of the United St ite- w i- boi n in Dthwii. () on the 4th f ()a hei 1^-'-' Hi- pimuv education wa- icceutil in tin ] ul h ■-chooK Aftei wilds h( w 1- 1 -tu I lit It the Noiwalk \< id, m\ ^ml in is .7 it ^^llll,- Vu\ iii

' ilii t milete 1 miinti n f | iit\ i in the InitL<l Mateb wab ne\ei m i unli i illustrated thin in the \\ork i f tli 1 int Commission. The five members (if th.- ( from the House of Representatives— that being Democratic — were, of course, three ocrats and two Republicans; the five fion Senate— that body beint: lu-i.nblicaii— wen-

Republicans and two liei lat-. the tix.^

the Supreme Court were, lw> K' pnlilirans liem.irrats, and Judge Joseph P, fira.lley, was called an Independent, but whose \<<>\ anteredents and proclivities were Repiili When the proceedings began, it was at

tory School, at ]Middletown, Connecticut. In the following year he entered the Fresh- man Class, at Keuyon College, and in 1S42 was graduated from that institution with the highest honors. Three years afterwards he completed his legal studies at Harvard, and then began the practice of his jirof'essiou at Marietta and Fremont, aud finally as city solicitor iu Cincinnati. Here he won a dis- tinguished reputation as a lawyer. In the

manife.st that everv Hem.Hratir memlier wouM v..te t..i- liis ran.li.latcs. «liatevr ini-lit lie the l.i-n,,fs; that .-vcrv K-pul .li.aii u-nld support Haves and Wh.-.d.^i' wliale\,T iiii.,;lit be the facts ; an.i that Jud-e I'.radl.-v. who r, instituted the i.'al f.mrt, would de.ide areordii,,: m his antered.aits

■us and skilll

ilu' Court decision, ;, was sim- in which, ileis were leir antag-

CMVEHSAL HISTOHV.-THE MODEUX WOULD

le Ciiiriuuati Couveu-

I. The patriotic f the cuhiiess (lia hark t,, pohtical

assured cf right new C'liiet' jMagis-

tiie eivii service Ills iinlicv, and a

nai cure tor the de- luged finances of le Nation. The niHodiate etiect of hese assurances, so vidently made in o,,d faith and hon-

^

me:

tion nf l>i7(; he had the gnod-furtune to lie ' its character,

noiiiinatcd lor the Presichnicy over several of i iani ;\I. Eva

tlie niMst eminent men of the Nation. | John Sliernia!

Ill liis inaugural address, delivered on the ' tary of tlie

5th nf ,AIarch.' Tresident Hayes indicated tlie of I,,ua. S,.

■The 4tl, .. thinL'liaslKii.i 1781, isi'l M.

frll

Th

ihle and lienehcent m It- (Iniutii IS the fciniei tnilu- lence had been ex- citing and danceious. On the 8th of Aliiih the TuMdent ^iiit t(i tlie "^tnate the name- of tho^e ( ho-en foi his Cabi- iK t In thi=, al«o, tlieie ^\ele eMdenres ( t a ntw dtjiaitiire in the ]ioli(\ ( f the (, ^,^lnlUlt Ihe ( ibuKt tli( u^h cmi- ntuth ibk and-tate.s- nian like wa- uotice- ablv non-partisan in As Secretary i.f State, Will- ;, (if New York, was ch..>fn; (if Ohio, was named as iSecre- vasiiry: George W. JlcCrary, ■tarv (if War; Richard W.

iiiu'iiratiiin). 1877 (Hayes's inaugu- II lie will neciir hereafter as follows: dill, L'(i29, 2057, 2085, 2125,2153.

THE VXITED STATES.-LATEST PERIOD.

Thnmp-im, of Imlnui, "^ecietm nt tlit ^iw , till Schurz of Ml-- )uii ^etietTM t tliL In teiioi, Chiileb E De\eii- ot Mi-uhn-ttt- •Vttoine> Geueial, lud Dm 1 ^[ K t ' n

ne— ee Po-tmi-tei Genenl fh t n miiiiti ii-

h ntih

h^ th ^eli

\ liuiu	tl Itl U « 1 11 h 1	1 1,1
1 l\ 111 111	i 111 1 1
If -in 111	t i\ 1 1 thi 1 It 111
kii wn	1- flit IiVIlI >U) ^11
eiil \e	11- the niinin_ li tii l
In.l bee	n tiouhled with di \ iit
bi\in£:	their oiigm lu th iii
The nnnufictuiinj; town- md
ue— ed	-iniihi tl )ul)le-
ml th	e _i it ( n 11	^3
ti m- 1	IM11_ I llltl 1 t	JB
the hni	- ot tl■^^el an I	^1
1 )mmeice weie lie	^B
lu nth	liioiuht t a	^P

105

po-t- and gatheied «uch =tieiigth in Biltinioie ind "\Iiitin-bui^' We-t \ luinn a- to piL\ent the lunnin^'- rf ti iin- anil -et tlit aiith iities at ktiinie The niilitii w i ill 1 iit b\ (t ^nn I Muthew- ii 1 lit t Miitiii 1 in_ Init wis -oou di-pei-ed b\ the -tiikii- wh 1 1 the time lennined iiia«tei- of the line Ihe Pie-ident then oideied rT(nfiil Fitnih to th, Lne with 1 li h t K^iilii ml the "' ' ' t thi 1 1 1 \M 1 II 1 On th 2(tth nth I M If-ut tiiniidt i nil 1 in r.iltim le lint the tn [ - -iRcei tuin^ the 11 tei- t ubini iiuu w i 1 ill nil nnii\ w iinle

L\ till tune h tiik li i 1 ]iR i 1 e\ei}-

iiiiii 111 'tl » t til 'I tniplous Ihewoikm^ men and capitalists rf the countn had foi some time nnintimed toward eich itbei i kind of ai nil d 111 iiti lllt^ alike

pi |llll ill t til llltel-

e t t b th

In the -piiug rf this ^e^l the raanairei- of the f.ieit lailwa^* leading fiom the «ea boaid to the West, declaied a reduc

tion of ten per cent in the wages of their work- men. This measure, which was to take effect at tlie middle of July, was violentl}' resisted by the employes of the companies, and the most actiye steps were taken to prevent its success. The reduction \yas to take effect at that precise season of the year when the removal of the enormous grain product of the West would put upon the operatives of the railways the most excessive labors of the year. It was also the season when the receipts of railway traffic were larger, and when, therefore, there was least rational ground for a reduction of wages. The resistance to the measure was natural and inevitable. On the 16th of July the employes of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad left their

where. In less than a week the trains had heen stopped on all the important roads iie- tween the Hudson and the ^Mississippi. Ex- cept in the cotton-growing States, the insur- rection was universal. Travel ceased ; freights perished en route; busiiiess was paralyzed. In Pittsburg the striki-rs, li. iters, and danger- ous classes, gathering in a iin'b to the miiniber of twenty thousand, i.litaiiifd r.,niplete control of the city, and for two days held a reign of terror unparalleled in tlie history of the coun- try. The lawless violence, and madness of the scene recalled the days of the French Revolution. The Union Depot, all the nuirhine- shiips, and all the railroad buildings of tlir ritv were biinied. One hundred and twenty-five

196

lyiVEHSAL IIIST<)]:y. — THE MODERX WORLD.

locomotives, aud twu th'iu^aud five liuiulreil cars, latleu with valuable iiierciiaudise, were destroyed aiuid the wildest liavuc auil ujirdar. The insiirrceti..n \\a- liiially Mii.i.iv.->.d liy the regular lrnn],s and the I'.-iiiiMlvania luilitia, but iKit until nearly a hundnd livt-s had been lost, aud property df>tii>yt'd to the value of more than S3,(t(K),0(iii.

On the 2r)th of July a terrible riot of like character occurred iu Chicago. In this tumult fifteen of the insurgents were killed by the militia of the city. On the next day St. Louis was imperiled by a .similar mob. San Fran- cisco was also the scene of a dangerous out- break, which was here directed against the Chinese immigrants and the managers of the lum- ber-yards. Cincinnati, Columbus, Indianapolis, Louisville, and Fort Wayne were for a while in danger, but escaped without serious loss of life or pro])erty. By the close of the month the alarming insurrection was at an end. Business and travel tlowed back into their usual channels; but the sudileu outbreak had given a shock to the public mind, and had re- vealed a hidden peril to American institutions.

To this period belongs the history of the Nez Perce War. The Indian tribe of this name had their haunts in Idaho. They had been known to the Government since 1806, when the first treaty was made with them by the explorers, Lewis and Clarke. ]\Iissionary stations had been establi.«hed among them, and the Nation had remained on friendly terms until after the Mexican War. In 1854 till- authorities of the United States purchased a part of the Nez Perce Territory, large reservations being made iu North-western Idaho and North-eastern Oregon. But some of the cliiefs refused to ratify the purchase, and rontiiuied to i-oaru at large. These came in eonHi.-t Nvith the White settlers wh.. ha.l made their way into the disputed regions, and hostilities at once ensued.

The war was begun by the .savages ni the usual predatory manner. General Howard, at this time commanding the department of the Columbia, marched again-t the hostile triiie with a small f.rce of r.-^ular-, but th.- Nez ■pereOs, led by their n..t.d ,-hieftain Joseph, fletl first in this direction and then iu that, avoiding battle. During the greater part of the summer the pursuit continued; still the

Indians could not be overtaken. In the fall they were chased through the mountains into Northern Montana, wh«re they were confronted l>y other troops under command of C(.iIonel ^liles. Tiie Nez Perces, thus hemmed in, were driven across the Missouri River, near the mouth of the Muselshell, and were finally surrounded in their camp north of the Bear Paw Mountains. Here, on the 4th of Octo- bei-, they were attacked by the forces of Colonel ]Miles; a hard battle was fought, aud the In- dians were completely routed. Only a few braves, led by their chief. White Bird, made their escape. All the rest were either killed or made prisoners. Three hundred and sev- enty-five of the captive Nez Perces were brought back to the military post on the Mis- souri. The troops of General Howard had made forced marches through a mountainous country for a distance of sixteen hundred miles! The campaign was crowned with complete success.

The year 1878 was noted in the financial history of the United States for the important Congressional measure, known as The Remon- ETiz.vTiox OF Silver. When the American RepuUic was instituted in 1789 one of the most important matters imposed on the Treas- ury was the establishment of a system of coinage. At that time there might be said to be no unit of value in the Old Thirteen States. In general, the British system had prevailed, aud the pound sterling, with its subdivisions of shillings and pence, was recognized as the money of aeeount. The Revolution had dis- sipated coin from the country, aud the devices of pajier money used in the epoch of Inde- pendence were various and uncertain. By the first coinage regulations ot the United States, till' standard lunt of value was the American Silvrr Dolhir, containing three ium.lred and seventy-one and one-fourth grains of pure I silver. The reason of fixing upon this par- [ ticular weight was that the Spanish-American dollar, largely circulating at the time in the States, was found by analysis to contain ex- actly tliree hundred and seventy-one and one- fourth grains of pure metal. Since the peo- )ile were already familiar with this dollar, and used it largely as a unit of accounting, Mr. Hamilton wisely adapted the new national standard to the existing dollar. By such a

THE f XI TED S TA TES. — L A TES T PEL' 10 D.

measure it was practiraljie to ish (l..llar into the new Ani.ii Fn.iu tlie ,late ..f ti,r a staiKlard, in 17!1L', mail l.sT:'., pure metal in the -tainlanl beeu chaiigea, thou-h tlir a eoutained in tlie dullar had In alteiv.l. Fn.iu 17'.»L' I-, l-sjl

money ami aci-dunt. In the 1

to the estahlishmeiit ami eoin: lar, ami from that time toil unitof valurrxi<i,,,| in hnti, ,H. a.iuartorofa.Tntiii-vtli...ln,iM durin-whieh tii.i.- it' may !.,■ - ditfieult t.) dclvrmino whc'tlirr in thr r.iitr,! Stat.^s. -,,1,1 w

• .~-pan- :.f this

?tal.

:'ly, by the single str

,/../''

owint; to the [iremiuni on goM ami .-ilvi^r, hoth metals were out of circulation, a series of acts were passed upon by Congress bearing upon the standard of vfdue, wherel)y the legal-tender quality of silver was tirst abiidgi'd, and tlim abolishe.l. These enactments were .•ompl..t,Ml by the report of the Coinage Comniitttc in 1874, by which the silver dollar was finally omitted from the list of coins to be struck at the National Mints. The general etfect of these acts was to leave the gold dollar of twenty- three and twenty-two hundredths grains the single standard unit of value in the L'nited States.

In course of time, the ulterior object of this demonetization of silver became sufficiently apparent. The manipulators of the measure had foreseen that the National paper currency of the country was destined, in a few years to come to par in coin — that is, that specie-pay- ments must soon be resumed by the Govern- ment. Meanwhile, there came the discovery of the iuexhaustible silver-mines in the West- ern mountains. Thus was it also foreseen that silver must, erelong, be abundant and cheap. If that metal should be retained in the coinage, therefore, the payment of the National Delit woidd be proportionally ea.sy. It was deemed expedient to strike down io time the legal- tender quality of silver, in order that the whole payment of the bonded indebtedness of the United States must be made in the more

In aeeiu-dance with this project, Thi-; Ke- sr.MPTiON Act was pa.=sed by Congress in 187.5, whereby it was declared that on the 1st of -la 11 nary, 1879, the Government of the United Stales should liegiu to redeem its outstanding olih'jatioiis //( ciiiii. As the time for resump- tion drew near and the premium on gold fell oil', the question was rai.sed as to the meaning of "eiiiii" in the act for resuming specie pay- ments; and now for the first time the atten- tion et' the people at large was aroused to the iiiet that, liy th,' acts of 1873-4, the privilege of paying debts in silver had been taken away, and that after the beginning of 1879 all obli- gations, both public and private, must be dis- charged according to the measure of the gold dollar only. A great agitation followed. The eiy for the remonetizatioii of silver was heard everywhere. In vain did the bond-hoUint; interest of the country exert itself to stay the tide. The question reached the Government; and early in 1878 a measure was passed by Coii>^re.-s for the resloialion of the legal-tender .piality of the old silver dollar, and providing for the compulsory coinage of that unit at the mints at a rate of not less than two millions ( f dollars a mouth. The Presi('ent returned the bill with his objections, but the veto was crushed under a tremendous maioiitv; for nearly three-fourths of the members of Con- gress, without respect to party affiliations, gave their support to the measure ; and the old double standard of values was thus restored. In the summer and fall of 1878 several of the Gulf States were scourged with a Yellow- Fever Ei'iDKMic, unparalleled in the hi.stoiy of the country. The disease iiiaile its appear- ance in New Orleans, and from thence was quickly scattered among the other towns along the Lower Mississippi. Unfortunately the at- tention of the people in the Gulf country had been Init little ^iven to sanitary precautious,

i and the Southern cities were nearly all iu a condition to invite the ])resence of the scourge. The terror soon spread from town to town, and the ]ieople began to fly from the pesti- lence. The cities of Memphis and Grenada became a .scene of desolation. At Vicksburg the ravages of the plague were almost equally

1 terrible ; and even in the parish towns remote

lii'^ rXIVERSAL H I STORY. -

fr..i,i tlu- liv.-r, ami a> far north a- Xa<livi'lle ami L.mi-vi:ir, tlir ImrnM- ..f il,.. laial niala.ly «.Mv felt. All >,n,i.„.-r loirj t!,.' .Ii^'use li.-M ,.ii uiKil.atcl. The- hrlpl.- |H.|. Illations alo„- th- Lou-,.r .Mi<>i"ii.|.i ]anuui,-l„.l an.l .li-l l.y thou-aml.. In thr Nonli.rn Siat,- a ni:ular ,M>ti-.n of o.niril.utioii- ua,~ . -tal.li>lie.l. aii.l int-ii aiul tn-a.mv «.mv |.our. ,1 out without .tint. Thr rli;,rt- of th- Houanl A>so,-iation. at New Orleans. M-nipl.i-. an.l .iM-whrre, u,-ru ahiio.-t uii.M,ualoa in laroiMu an.l sacriti.v. Att.-r nior.' than twenty thnusin.l people hail fallen victims to tho jila.iine, its i-avatres were at last stayeil hy the yratetul fr.i-ts .,f October. Bv the Eig-hteeiith Article .if th.' Treaty of Washin.-tdii, it wa.s a.uree.l that the ri,-ht of the inhahitants ..f th.- rnitd States In certain >.'a- tMierie-, uhich ha.l hitherto helon-e.l exchi- sivelv t.i the >nl.j..cts .,f Oreat ]5ritain, shonhl l„.a,'kn..wl..l„.lan.lmainlaimMl. It was con-

tish of every kin.l-exceplin- slmll-H-h— ..n the sea-coa-t an.l .liore., an.l in the hays, har- hor.^. ami creek- .if the Provlnc-s .,f (^lel.ec, N.-va Scotia. New Brun>wi.'k, I'rinc.' E.lwanl's Islaml. ami the islan.ls ther.unt.i a.ljacent,

.-h.iillil he eiiaranteeil to American fishermcu

haiid, the ('o.vernmeiit ..f t'h.- UniL-.l States agreed t.i relin.|ui-h the .Inli.s which ha.l hitherto he.-n cinu-e.l ..n c.atain kin. Is .,f tish, imported hy British suhj.cts int.. Ameiican harbors.

Several other cnuces-i.ins ..t' niin.u- impor- tance were mutually ma.l.' hy th.- tu.. < iovern- nients; and in onler t.i balance any discrcp- aiicy whii'h miulit api>car in the a-L:regate of such conces^i.)ns, an.l t.i mak.' tli.' -.ttlemeut of a vexed iiiicstioii full, fair, an.l tinal. it was further agreed, that anv t..tal a.lvantaize t.i the United States arising" fr.m, th,' tivatv mij.t h.- c..m]iensitc.| by a >um in -lis-, h< be paid bv the Am.rican < o.vernment to ( ircat Britain. In .,r.l.-r to .l,.|,Tmine what such sum mi-ht he, a (;..mnii"i.,n wa> pr.ivi.le.l lor, t.i con-i-l

Queeu, on.- I.v the President of the Unite.l States, and a third— in case the Queen and the Presi.lent sh.iiihl not agree on the third — by the Au-trian .Vmba-a.h.r at the Court <.f St. Jame.. Tiiis provision fur the appointment of

THE MODERX WORLD.

a thir.l c.imndssi.mer .ir umpin- was one ,,f the strane.-,-t inci.l.-nt- of .liphmiati.-al hi.t..ry. As the event cam.- t.. pa->, the Jnan who, by the

ing, an.l ,li.l app.'.int. the umpire, was C.unt V.in BeuM. a B.inrb.m in ]M,litics, a Saxon n-n.-ga.le, an nph.il.l.r .if th.- 11. mx- .if Haps- bur-, a hater of all reimblican in.-titnti.ms.

whi.-h

t.i b.- t.H. seri..u- f.r the .h-,-i-i..n ..f th.- J.iint lli,J.(;..m.ni..M..n it-.-lf. wa> n-man.l,-.l f .r set- tlem,-nt t.. a p.-litical a.lventnrer, temi.orarily resident (■/, J.nu,ln„ !

Acc.ir.ling to the agreement, the Cmmis- siou was ciiiislitut.-d in tin- summer of L'^T? ; and the sittings w,-re hekl at Halifax. But little attention wa- -iven in the United States to the in-.iceedin;:- of the bo.ly until November, when the cmnti-y ua> >tartl.-<l by the announce- ment, that by tlu- casting v.Ke of ^Sh: Deb f.»e, Belgian Mini.-ter to the United States, wh.i ha.l li.-.-n named as umpire by the Aus- trian Amba^sail.ii- at London, au award of S."i,i Kill, tint) ha.l been made against the Amer- ican Governnieiit I Tlie ilcci-ion was i-eceiveJ with general surprise, both in the United States and in Europe, and for a while it seemed prob- able that the arbitration miglit be renounced as iniouitous. It was decided, however, that the award, whether just or unjust, wouhl better stand; th.- b.-neth-ent principh- of aihitratiou

wa> w.irth n- t.. the I'nit.-.l Slates than the

cist ..f tlu- a.lv.-rse .le.-iM.m. A./cr.lingly iu November, INTS, the am.iunt avNar.led " was jiaiil — not without great popular dis.-atisfac- tioii — to the British Government.

The year ]878 witnessed the establishment of a Eesi,lent Chinese End.assy at Wa.-hing- ton. For twenty years the gnat and liberal treaty iiet;-.itiate.l by Anson Btirlingame had been in for.-.- between the United Stiites and China. Un.l, r lhi> compact the commercial relati..n. ..f th.- tw.i countries ha-l been vastly extcn.le.l. an.l a kn.iwl.-.l-,:.- ..f the instituti.ms, mann.is. an.l ,-n~t..m> pr.-valent in the C.-l.-s- tlal Empire -.. wi.lelv ditlii-.-.l as t.i bn-ak .|.,wn. m s-,me meaM.re, tin- rac.pnju.lice again. t th- Chin.-,-.-. Th,- enli::ht,-ne.l p..li.-y ,,f the r.-i;^ning Emp.-i.ir ha.l als.. contributed t.i establi-li mor.- fii.-n.lly int.rc.iurse with the Unite.l Stat.-s. Tie- iih-a .if s.-n.ling Kesident Amhas.a.lors i., the American Government

THE rXJTlJ) STATES.— LATEST I'EUIOD.

had l)ien (iiteitiiind t 1 ^ \,i il \. n~ ilit tla I iiited '-t it. - uii li i j. iti .n ._. iii 1 , ,ii

Emjui 1 hid Ik.h a-UH.l tint th. Mim>l.i> til .t tlu ( ...\ . i inn. iit 1 lii^ >umm 1, id

iitelniiiw nld lie i.iuM 1 uitli ill tli ..uii . \i~t. 1 i> i piuit. . nt 1 1 i im mm. 1^71

e-\ shouu to tlii_ liio-t ti\ 1 I 11 ill II 111 J h [ij in pii ji i- d in I id j ti I n tin

offaceis chuseu h} the lin| iiiH. \,inni il i~ l^tli it Inn. IsT^ cinl.ii...! tlu . ~t ih-

its lepieseutitive- iii tlie I nit I ^t it. ~ u. i li-lun. iit t n.nlii ~t iti m- ml li_lit li n~. «,

Clitii Liu I'm Mnii-t.i I'l nil, l.ntiiM . ii .ill th K[. -e.l ], ii 1- tllu \tliiiti . i~t

\uiu\Viii. V^M-tint Lm ^ ml \ lu . ml d n. tlu _i.itliki- J.

Imii^ ^iaii_ -..i.tiix t 1 _iliii On tli. t lif 111 mm 1 l.\ i l.m.l ,t -.itni.n . xp.

^Mh^ot Nptenili. 1 til. linliiM ui-i..t-n,.l mii...1 in tli .iiiuei-.t ,,i-t^t.iin- iiul

h\ th. PitM.l.iit tlu . I in III - .t th 1 lull 1 111 th 1.. t m. th ,.K ..t

iie-ed ID HVa~hiii.'t 11 (_ it\ t. iii «. it i i \ i 1 I m.l . ..iinn . .1 Vhimli..!

li T\e lieeu iii.ii>ii-(.d w it -uuiit-v til "them tint _ > .1 u n t t ip- " Duiiue; till It I 11 t tl

hfth Cnsipss n l.ill« 1- 1 M -'I 1'^ II '11' hie Siinu.l S C..\ .t \hu \ oi^amziti.iu .if TiiL I.iii "^ u iM '^i

201)

UMVEBSAL niSTOL'Y.— THK Mol'FL'X WOULD

once iK-liMl.llnj: tl,r..udi ilie .laiki,.- \hr mhI- (leii -Imiv uf thr iv.l-light Huiial. Ilainin- up fn.ni the iK'arh, trlliiii:- nf iVi.ials li.-ar liy,

Resumi'tkin ni- Sn:(-ii: rAv.Mi:Nrs \\a< :ic- coini.li-liMl ,,n til.' l-l .lav ..f .huiuai-y, InTH. F..r sM,n.. til,!.' i.ivvi.ai- to th..^ latt.T .laf th.. pr.-iuiiin, ..n ;j..l.l lia.l ,i:ra.Iually .1. .-liii.-.l. vny sli.wly, in.l.M.l.as tl,.' .lat.' ..f iVMHupli.-ii .livu" near. Duriii- tli.' la-l ni..iiili nf 1.>7'S tli.' .lil- fereuce iM.tuv.ii tl,.' valif ..f -.M an.l pap.T (l„llai-:s ua< -M -li-l.t a> to I.,- ..■anvly p.-r-

days th.' piviaiiim li'.v.ivl aln.iit ..ii.- p.a-

The G..1.1 i;..oiu at N..'w Y..ik rity uas .■l.«-.l, an.lin._-talli.-i.a.n..y ivapp.^aivl ,,., th.' .•..uiit.-rs of hanks an.l ill til.- sif.-s ..f -.n.-ivhaiits. F.,r ni.av than >-v.a,l.M.n y.-ar-jnl.l an.l -ilv.-r .■,,in ha.l l.e.-n ii-.-^l a- i,„avlia.i.liM> rath.r than ni.-iey, th.' l-.aht.'ial. r imt.- ..f tlu. (o.v.tii-

Dui-in.i:- this wh-l- p.-rio.l tl,.' nh.nftai-y athiifs of the (h.vcrnni.-ht ha.l h.,.:ii in a slat.' .if disti'a.'ti.in. Th" nion.'tai-v unit ha.l h,',.n >., flu.'tnatiim- as to f.'n.l.T l-uitimat.' hu-iii.'ss

.1.1.'. Tl lianllv 1.

of a .h.llar .'.

week t.i an..th.'i- Ih-Miliin- fi-oin this a

sessi,,,! ,,f the niai-k.^ts ..f the .'..niiti'v. an.l th.' lawful t|-aiist.'ti..iis.,fth.'-tn',.t,.'aiTi.Ml iV.rvvaf.l

ical ec.ini>iny, suti'ef.'.l shipwr.'.k. ^Meanwhile, parvftni statesmen eavc 1. itui-.s .ai tin- natufe of ileht ami the danu'er nf ..vei-pi-...l\i.'tinn.

After tJie jiassafre of the Ih'sunipti.m Aet, and .Inrini: the next four years, th.' vain.- ..f the niiinetary unit steadily appr.'.'iat.-.l. an.l at the same time the debtor-classes ..f the .'.mntry entered a period of L-'veat har.l>hip : for tli.'ir indehtedness constantly an'jm.iitf.l in a ratio beyond the probability, if not the p.is-ihility, of payment, Finan.'ial ruin an.l haid;rupt.'v

Thu~ pa-..l auay the A.liuini,-trati..u ..f Ilay.s, It «a>, ..n" the uh..l.', a peculiar .pia. Iron., inn. in Am.'ri,/an hi>t.'ry. The m.th- ...Is .,f th,' I'r.'M.l.nt lacke.l emphasis iu every particular. Xi.r .11.1 the after-judgment of

(h.uhts cncniiii- the le.'iality ..f his ,.l.','ti..n. The hhiinial cli..i.'e ..f (.'..ngi'cMm'n in 1n7s, h.ing the el.'Cti.,)! for inemb.-rs ..f the F.a'ty- >i.'vth O.iigr.'-, r.'Milt.'.l in a .-har maj.,ritv lor the Dem.M'rat- iit l,..th th.' 11. .u>.' ..f' li.-p- resentative.s an.l the Senate. For a season everything seemed to foretoken the complete restoration to ]io\ver of the Democratic party. The l.ail.'r- ..f that party were >tr.,n:;ly hope-

]>-M> with unusual enthusiasm. The Kejtiib- liiaii National Convention of that year was h.1.1 in Chicago on the 2d and od of June. 'fhe phitthrm ..f principles adopted was largely ri'ti'ospi ctive. The history of the party during its twenty years of supremacy in the Govern- in. 'iit was ii'eit.'.l as the best reason why its leas.' of |i.i\ver shouhl he continued by the }i. opl.'. Til.' plattnrni reatiirmed and eni- ]ilia>iz..l thi- .1. ..'trill.' .)f Xati.mal Sovereignty a> .ipp.-.'.l t.. till' the.ay ..f State Plights^ de- .•laiv.l in fav-r.'f p..pular..ln.'ati..n; adv.icated a >y.-t.'i'! of .li^.'riiiiiiiating .littles iu favor of Anii'ii.an in.lu^tii.'s ; ratitie.l the Administra- tion ol Hay.-: aiel arraigned the Democratic party as nnpatiioti.- in princijile ami frauilulent

gr.'ater part ..f two .lays had l.e.-ii .'.,n^unl..l ill halloting, (ieiieral Jaiii..- A. (iartiel.l, ..f Ohi... was' nomii.at.'.l tor I'lv-i.l.iit ; an.l Chest.r A. Arthur, ..f X.'W Y..rk, lor Viee- Presi.lent.

The Democratic National C,,nveiiti..n as- semble,! in Cim-innati, on the 22.1 of June. The |ilatf.,rni ..f ,irinci|,les .leelared a.lherence

.11 ill the Cioverumeut; >ilver money and paper

Bankrupt Act, in 1^7*. With the epoch of Resumption, h.iw.v.r, a .'.'rtain measure of confi.lence was r.'-t.ind, ami the reiippearance of coin m.inev was hail.-.l by many as the lie-

presence of troops at the imlls ; praise.l Samuel J. Tllden for his patriotism; declareil for free ships, and an amendment to the Burlingame Tr.'atv as against Chinese immigrati.in ; an.l appealeil t.i the acts of the Forty-si.xth C.n-

THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

•201

gross as proof of tlie wisJoin aud ecouoniy of the party. After ailoptiiig this platform, the convention nomiuafeil for the Presidency, Gen- eral Winlield.S. Hanenek, of New York; and for the Yice-prcsideney, WiUiani H. EngHsh, of Indiana.

Meanwhile, the National Greenback party had held a convention in Chicago, on the 9th of June, and nominated as staudard-beai-ers General James B. Weaver, of Iowa, for Pre.si- dent ; and General Benjamin J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice-President. The platform of principles declared in favor of the rights of the laborer as against the exactions of capital ; denounced monopolies and syndicates; pro- claimed the sovereign power of the Govern- ment over the coinage of metallic and the issuance of paper money ; advocated the abo- lition of the National banking system, and the substitution therefor of a legal-tender cur- rency ; declared for the payment of the Injuded debt of the United States as against all re- funding schemes; denounced land-grants; op- posed Chinese immigration aud the increase of the standing army; favored the equal taxation of all property, and unrestricted suffrage; demanded reform in the methods of Congres- sional procedure, and appealed for support to the sense of justice in the American j^eople.

During the canvass of 1880 the Third Party movement reached its climax for the dec- ade. The more rational part of the princi- ples of the Greenback party had in them at this time a quality which demanded the assent of a respectable minority of the American people. The correctness of the principles re- ferred to, their truth in theory and rightful- ness in practice, entered so strongly into the political current of the time that they were wafted higher and higher, until finally the question of the right aud power of the Gov- ernment to make legal-tender paper money, absolutely, in time of peace as well as in time of war, was carried for judgment to the Su- preme Court of the United States; was there argued by able Constitutional lawyers before a full bench, and was decided, with only a single dissenting opinion, in favor of the Greenback theory of legal-tender paper money and its validity, independently of coin redemption. But, politically, the party representing these ideas was doomed to failure. As the canvass 13

progressed it became evident that the contest lay betw-een the Kepublicau and the Democratic jiarty ; also, that the long-standing sectional division into North and South was likely, once more, to decide the contest in favor of the former. That part of the Democratic plat- form which declared for a tariff for revenue only, alarmed the manufacturing interests aud consolidated them in favor of the Republican candidates. The banking and bond-liolding classes rallied with great unanimity to the same standard, aud the old war spirit, aroused at the appearance of a "Solid South," insured a solid North against the Democracy. The election resulted in the choice of Garfield and Arthur. Two hundred and fourteen electoral votes, including those of all the Northern States, except New Jersey, Nevada, aud four out of the five votes of California, were cast for the l!e]Hiblicau candidates, and one hun- dred and fifty-five votes, including those of every Southern State, were given to Hancock and English. The candidate of the National party secured no electoral votes, though the popular vote given to Weaver aggregated three hundred and seven thousand, as against eighty- one thousand cast for Cooper aud Cary in 187(i.

The Administration of Hayes and the last session of the Forty-sixth Congress expired on the 4th of March, 1881. The closing session had been chiefly occupied with the work of re- funding the National debt. About ^750, 000,- OOO of five and six per cent, bonds became due during the year, and to provide for the pay- ment or refunding of this large sum was the most important matter claiming the attention of Congress. Late in the session a bill was passed by that b(jdy providing for the issuance by the Government of new bonds of two classes, both bearing three per cent, interest; the first class payable in from five to twenty years, and the second class in from one to ten years. The latter bonds were to be issued in small denominations adapted to the conditions of a popular loan. One provision of the bill required the National banks holding five and six per cent, bonds to surrender the same — the bonds having fallen due — and to receive instead the new three per cents. This clause of the law aroused the antagonism of the banks, aud by every possible means they

i'MVEESAL HISronr. — rnE MODERX WORLD.

sough	t"	j.n-v	•nt th(
capita	ist>	nf	h,- ,.,
tlie sa	'"■		thi
tin- 1m (inVCl	wl	<"" 1	• ..f > nllKI 1
Th	nil	.-nil-	< 1.1. a- l.-niti.

ress

('..

Ins sig-iiature ; A veto mes- aii.l the advo- le to command , tlie hill failed

cates of the mea^iir.- l.iiii the requisite two-tliir.l- ii to become a law. Thu> the .-i-ssi..!! .■l..,-i-il with- out auy pr>.vi,-i..n f.n- the seven huii.lre.l ami fifty millions of dolhirs in bonds falling due in 1.S81. The whole duty of providing for this large fraction nf the public debt was remanded to another Administration an. I am.ther t'on-

After retiring fr.nn th.- l>n,-i.l,.n,-v, (i.-neral Grant, with his family au.l a .•..mpany ..f ]..'r- sonal friends, set out to vi-it the .-..untriis ..f Europe and Asia, and t.) make a t..ui- ..t' the w.irld. Though the expedition was int. n. led t.i be private, it at once attrartcl the iii..st conspicuous attention, both at Imnii- and ai.Da.l. The departure fron.i Phila.l.-lphia. in IVIay ..f 1877, proved to be the beginning of a pageant, which, in its extent and magnificence, was never before accorded to a private citizen of any nation of the earth. Whei-ever the Ex- President went, he was welcome.l with huzzas and dismissal with plaudits. Eirst in Ensr- land— at Liv.-rp....l, Manchester, Lond.in— and afterwards, in midsummer, in Ik-lgiuni, Switzerland, Pru.ssia, and France, everywhere the General's coming was announced by the thunder of cannon and a chorus of cheers. A short stav in Italy was fi.ll..w,..I by a y..y- a-., t.. Alexandria an.l a brief snj.mrn in

Egypt. Thence the com]iany proceeded estine, and after\vards to Greece. The ing sj)ring found the General and hi.' again in It;dy, an.l th.' summer carrie. into Denmark, Sw.'.len, and Norway, next conntri.'s yi-it..l w.'iv Austria an.l : while f.ir th,' wint.T lli<- .li-tingni«li.'.l 1 cho.se the s.mth of Fian./e aiul Si.ain. J

t.)P;

was then visited, and in January of 1879 the cmpany embarked from ^larseilles for the I'-ast. The following year was spent in India, iMirmah. Siam, China, an.l Jajian. In the fall ..f l.sTH tlie iiarty r.turne.l t.. San Frau-

th.-i

igh..->t t..kens of .•st.-..ni yhi.'h th.' -r.-al nati..n- .-f the Old \V..rl.l .-..ul.! Iie>t..w upon the h.-u.ire.l repre- sentative of the New.

The Census of 1880 was un.l.-rtak.-n with more system and care than eyer betbre in the history of the country. The work was in- trusted to the general superinteudency of Pro- fessor Francis A. Walker, under whose di- rection the Census of 1870 had been conducted. During the decade the same astounding prog- ress whii'h had marked the previous history of the Unite. 1 States was more than ever illustrated. In every source of National power, in every element of National vigor, the de- velopment of the country had continued with- out abatement. The total populati.m of the Union now amounted to 50,15L',^t>i; — an in- crease since l.S7n ..f more than l,0O(),0iH) in- habitants a y.'ar. The ji.ipulation of the great Stat.- <.f New Y..rk ha.l risen to 0,083,173. Neya.la, the least pop\dous of the States, showed an enumeration of (j'i, 2(1.5. Of the n, •")■■>■■, 18^> a.l.le.l t.i the population during the last ilei-ade, l',24(;,r>ol lia.l been contributed by immigration, ..f wh..iii al)out 8-5,000 annually had come from Germany. The number of cities having a population of over one hundred thou- sand inhabitants had increased from fourteen to twenty-tive. The center of population had m.ned westward about fifty miles, and now rested near the city of Cincinnati.

The statistics of trade and industry were likewise gratifying to National pride. The current of the precious metals, which for many years had been constantly flowing from the United States to foreign countries, turned str.uiirly in 1880 towards America. The im- ]>.irtati.>n of specie during the year just men- tioned in excess of the exportation amounted to 875,892,111. During the greater part of the i)eriod covered by the census, abundant crops ha.l f.jllowe.l in almost unbroken succes- si.>n, an.l the overplus in the great staples pe- .-uliar to our s.iil and climate had gone to i-nrich the ciintry. an.l t.i stimulate those fun- (lauieutal industries upon which national per-

THE UMTKI) S2ATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

(I mA\^ idual h.i

jLR'iitKined ."^euator Olud 1' .M.ii .uui, who, after battling Idi ukihn \i the eucroachmeuts of iMial\~i- < home in luiliauapolis, N(i\c mln i I more universally felt \\a^ th< ln-^ << poet and ji)urnah-t, Willi iia < iilli wli.i, .ill till ]_'th ..(• .lull. 1^7^

\anMll XV_V of (lLiht\ tnlU, |,1.~, ,1 t

\cai^ ills nanie had heeu known and honored wherever the Enah^h lanccuage is spoken. In lii~ dt.ith one of the brightest lights nt Anuu- ic'ui liteiatuie was extinguished. On the I'.lth ot Deeembei, in the sanii \ear, the illu-triou> Ba\anl Ta\loi, leeeutly appointed Aiiirri- oan :Mniister to the Geunaii Em- pire, died (suddenly at Beiliu IIw life had been devoted alino-t cm hi -ively to literature, ami aliiiii~t e\uv deiiaitment of lettei-, ti..iii th( tninnion ta-k- nt jduinah-in to the highe-t charmb of poeti}, had been adorned hv hi* geuiu-. Hi-

j and became \^ell known, even in youth, as a piomi~iug lad — afteiwaids as a -kiUful nie- ilianic. Fuither on, we find him s, i-vini.- as diiMi and pilot nt a canal boat, plviiig^the Ohio and Penu.-.>hauia L'anal At ihr age of

I seventeen he attended the high-school in Ches-

1 ter, where he extended his studies to algebra, Latin, and (ireek. In 1,S,31 he entered Hiram

I College, in w huh institution he icmained .as student and iiistiuitin until l^.'if. In that \ear he enteied William* College, and two Mais afterward was graduated with honor, lieturniug to Ohio, he was made first a pro-

the early age of fifty-f lui P not .a-iirto be filled ii

tin 1st of X.Aembei, l.s7!t, Senator Zaihaii.ih Chandler, of Michii;au, one of the organizers of the Repub- lican party, and a great leader of tliat party in the times of the Civil AVar, (lii-d sudilenly in Chicago; and on the L'4th of February, issi, an. Senator, :\[altliew H. Carpenter, of Wi-.'.,! expired, after a lingering illness, at Wasl ton City.

James A. Garfield, twentieth Presiden tlie United States, was born at Oram^e, Ci h.iga County, Ohi.., X.,v.-iriber lii. is:'',], was left in infancy to the sole care .>f 111.. til. T, an.l the rude surroundings of a Ix w.io.ls b.iine. The boy gathered from com toil a soiinil constitution, ami fr.mi com schools til.' rudiments of education. I'l such di.-cipline he develiiped unusual faeull

ithcr I fess.ir, and afteruar.ls ,uY.si,k.nt of Hiram

isin, Cillege. In this p.jsiti.ui he \vas serving at

ling- the outbreak of the Civil War, when he left

his post to enter the army. Meanwhile, he

t of had studied law. iinbilied a Live for politics,

uya- and been elected to the Ohio State Senate.

ile As a sol.lier, Garfield was first made a

his Lieutenant-Colonel, and afterwards Colonel of

lack- the Forty-second Regiment of Ohio V.ilunteers.

He was soon promoted t.^ a Briga.lier-nener-

alship, and did good sia-vice in K.ntii.'k\- ami

T.-nnessee. He was made Chief of Stnlf to

Genera! Rosecrans, and bore a distinguislied

204

umvehsal history. -the modehx wohld.

M;

(llll

the

WMIvls, ullil.. still in th,- llrM, he «a- l Irrt,

by tin- iKM.ple (,f his tlislrict to il„' IIoii-,. , Representatives, in which IhhIv he sn-vcd en tinuously for seventeen years. In l.'^TH 1 was eleeted to the United Stat( > S. iiate, ai hard upon this followcil his nuiiiiiialinn ai election to the Presidem-v.

In his inau-ural n.hhvss ^ 18S1, (iai-ficld presented a re proL'ress I.I' American civilizat last ipiarter of a century. The country was coiiL^ratiilated on its high rank among the nations. The leading topics of politics were briefly reviewed, and the policy of the E.\- ecutive department of the Government set forth with clearness and pieeisiim. The piili- lie-school system ol' the I'liiled States was recommended to the jealous care of the people. Regret was expressed for the estrangement of the South and for the heart-burnings of the Civil War, which still remained in the Nation. The maintenance (jf the ])resent Jsational banking system was recommended, and also the reiiression of the practices of polygamy. The President advocated, finally, the restric- tion of Chinese innnitrratinn, and the mainte-

nance of the equal righ Black men of the South. On the foUowiii- da; to the Senate for coiilirm: members of his Cabiii< were : For Secretary Blaine, of Maine; fir S ury, William Win. In,,,, Secretary of War, Kol Illinois; for Secretary oi H. Hunt, of Louisiana;

Til.

if State, James G.

eretai-v ..f the Treas- of .Minnesiita; for

L-rt T. Liocoln, ,,f the Navy, William for Secretarv of the

Interior, Sanniel J. Kirkwood, of Iowa; for Attorney-General, Wayne MacVeagh, of Penn- sylvania ; for Postmaster-General, Thomas L. James, of New York. The nominations were promptly confirmed, and the new Administra- tion entered upon its duties.

The first issue which engaged the attention of the Government after Garfield's inaugura- tion was the proposed Reform of the Civil Service. This question had been inherited from the Administration of Hayes, under whom several spasmodic efforts had been made to introduce better methods in the selection of persons to fill the appointive offices of the

'iiited States. The real issue was- Iways been — whether the clmiec fH<-ials of the Geverniiient shonl.l lie ,e o,-,,„i,.l of the ehaia.'tei- and tit,,, ,„didates, ,,r on the ..rioeinle .if .li,-

pojitii'al patronage to those who had best siTv.'.l the party; whether men should be pi(,i,„.ited from the lower to the higher grades ..f ..tli.-ial life, aii.l ,elaiiie.l a.v.ii-iling to the value a, 1.1 pr.itiiiei,cy of their services, or whether they slxudd be elevated to jKisition in ])roportion to their success in carrying elec- tions and maintaining the party in power.

The members of Congress, to whom the help of efficient su|)porters in their own districts and States seemed essential, and by whom the patronage of the Government had been mostly dispen.sed since the ilays of Jackson, held strongly to the old order of things, unwilling to relinquish their influence over the appoint- j ing power. Presiilent Haves, after vainly attempting to establish the .i]ip.isite policy, abandoned the fiel.l near the close of his Ad- ministration. The National Republican plat- form of 18.80 vaguelv indor.?eil Civil-service Reform as a principle of the party; and some expectation existed that Garfield would take up the policy of his predecessor. But with the incoming of the new Administration the n,sh of the politicians for office was unprece- dented in the history of the country. The place-seekers, who claimed to have "carried the election," swarmed into Washington, and thronged the Executive mansion, clamoring for office, until all plans and purposes of reform ii, the civil service were crushed out of sight and ti'an,pled under feet of men.

This break from the principles of the Re- publican ]ilatform was soon followeil with a seri.iiis pdliti.'al ilisaster, having its ultimate nrigiii in th.^ same (|nestion. A divisidii arose in the ranks of the Republican party, which f<ir a while threatened the disruption and ruin of that organization. The two wings of the Republicans were nick-named the "Half- breeds" and the "Stalwarts;" the latter, headed by Senator Conkling, of New York, being the division which had so resolutely supported General Grant for the Presidency in the Chicago Convention ; the former, led by Mr. Blaine, now Secretary of State, and indorsed by the President himself, had control of the

THE IWITEI) STATES.— LATEST FEinOD.

Giiveniiiiciit and were	nuuieri.'ally	stronger	the Repiililicau rani
than their n|,p,,iK'iits. '1	he Stalwarts	claimed	the ilismemlierment
tlieir iiri'iKirtiniial part of	th.. a|.|i..inti\	e offices	Such ^vas the coi
nf the Gdverumeut, ami	the ri;J,t of	lisp.iis-	i.iurnm.Mit .if the
lue: the =ime iftti tlie m	mil 1 ^^hl h	.a.lpre-	.lavs aft..rwar.ls, the
\ iileil tlii()ii_h ^e\ei tl \	liii. \ li		iiieiits t.i visit 'Willi:
tioiis— thU 1 th luht 1	<ll tlll.UtL tl	e ..ftices	sons were to be ent.'
111 the L\.i il ^til< 111	1 1 th. 1 1111	.if pat-	tending- t.i pass, afl<
ioni_e 1)\ the "-en it i u	M ,1 i„	tives nf	nieiit, a sliort va.-at
tho e Stite-. in (_ i ii_i	ih li il	lit, sup-	si.-k,at tl,.- .-ea-M.l...

ireaten

11 ted b

.fe e.l

.lilioii of afliiirs at the ad- Senate, in June. A few President made arrange- jiis College, where his two

I- the Williams Coninience-

1111 with his wife, wlio was

Ou the nioruiug of July

iM, in .■.uiipany with Secretary Blaine and a iv\^- fri.ii.ls, l,..'.M,i.r.Ml th.' Baitim..iv liaihvay

the train to Long Branch, New Jersey. A

moment afterwards, he was approached by a

miserable political miscreant named Charles

les CTuiteau, who, from b.-hin.l an.l iinper-

ved, came within a few le.t ..f the c.im-

ny, drew a pistol, ami fire.l upon th.' Chief

Migistiate of the Republic Ihe iini of the

assissm was too ^ell taken m.l flu -t(..ind

shot stiuck the Piesident centnlh lu tht light

side of the back The bleeding man was

(piickh boiue awa^ to the Lxciuine nnnsion,

111.1 the mIc \wetch wh.i h i.l . .ininiitft .1 the

ciiine w IS Imiiicd to jiii^on

Foi 1 while the heaits ot the Ameiican i^ilt \iliiited between hope and feu The t ^111 11 il aid wab pioctied, and bulletins u .)iih Issued containing a biief account till I'l. -iilent's condition The couMCtion ■u dn liN da\ that he woiil.l iiltiniit. 1\ re-

"1"

fill life but a sems ot uli the Piesident giaduxlh v-i ^utteung As a last liojie 1 of '-'cptembei caiefiilK .on m.ton Cit^ t.i Ell., ion ^,\

Till

1 111. lis W, 1.	lei-
l.iMII hi. ihl	11 es
1-- >'Hd	md
p.keiied un.hi	his
le wa- on th.	t,th
^.M.l fi.ini W	ish-
. 11 he '\ is pi	ce.l
u ^aids fiom	the
mil hope aaain	16-
It leuErth (US	Kd,
.In At list	on
, .hot wi. h	<d.
•-ipt. mil. 1 1	»th.
of ( hi. 1 nil 11 his ,hut mill

UMlEliSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

THE UXITKD STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

tiule and heroism. Nor can it be the great crime which hiid him lo\ ratlier than eclipsed, the luster o

()u the follow

mg(

lyV

A. Arthur, then in New Yurie of office, and immediately reji; ington. For the fourth time in

the Republic, the duties of the Chief Maui trac)' were devolved on the Vice-President. Tl funeral of Garfield was observed first at \\'asl ingtou, whither the body was taken ami jilace in state in the rotunda of the Capiful. Hei it was viewed by tens of thousands of iien on the 22d and 23d of September. Garfield had chosen Lake View Cemetery, at Cleveland, as the place of his burial, and thither the remains were conveyed, by way of Philadelphia and Pittsliurg. As in the case of Lincoln's death, the processions and ceremonies en route became a continuous pageant. On the 26th of September the boily was laid in its final resting-place. The day of the burial was observed throughout the country in great assemblies gathered from hamlet and town and city, all anxious to testify their sorrow for the calam- ity which had come upon tht' country in the President's death.

We may here pause to narrate briefly the further events connectiMl with the assassination and the as- sassin. Guiteau proved to l.ie a half-crazy adventurer — a fool. He at once proclaimed the work which ;,

he had done, acknowledging that he had shot the President, and saying that he did so merely to remove him, and save the country. And here began that extreme unwisdom of the authorities which characterized all the future proceedings. Two plain constructions of the case were possible: Either Guiteau was a sane man, in the ordi- nary sense of that word, and had committed the greatest and vilest of political assassina- tions; or else he was a lunatic, who, under the influence of an insane hallnrinatiou, had shot and killed the President. Plain coranifin sense, prudence, patriotism, political sagacity, and the whole array of facts regarding the prisoner's

onbted that I character and conduct, pointed unmistakably iw heightened, j to iiis lunacy, and to the second construction "f his life. < given above. But prejudice, anger, folly,

■>ident < 'lu'stcr shdrt-sightedness, and the mere vengeful pas- took llii' oatli siiins which flamed up in the excitement nf the ired to Wash- hmir. nil backed and aggravated liy the criiii-

the histdiy <>i' inai wickeilness of the Anicrir: w>|ia|iiTs —

leady, for the sake of mere scn-atioiiali?-m, to espouse any theory or promote any course in order to keep the air white with their own miserable editions — conspired to establish the theory of Guiteau's sanity, with the appalling conclu.sion that the President of the United

States had been puHtici

rged

theory was ferocity until it prevailec was drowned, and the o American peo|ile tVom tl litical assassination, was Guiteau was imliitoil : During the whole eoui> senihlage around tlu> o ton was little less than ings ended with a con\ nati(.n to death. Then sational imprisonment,

//(/ ([■■'sas.-tinaied. This jireached with insane I. The voice of reason iportunity to save the (• indelible stain of po- -conied and put aside, iiid tiio.l for murder. (■ of thr trial, the as- urt-room in Washing- ,1 mob. The |)roceed- ictioii, and a condem- foUowed anotlier sen- and on the 30th of

20S

UyjVEESAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

June, 1882, the wretcli was taken to the place of execution and ban Chester A^ Arthur, thus ealKMl drnt of the Unit. m1 Slat.-. y^■^<U,^ lin County, Vrrniuni, O.-i,,!,.,- :,. wa-^ ..f Irish iKUvnta,-.-; wa-^ .-durat Coll,-,-, from whieli in-tilution he was

his native City to sti tlie bar, ai inu- the Ci

11 the jaii

hr Presi- n Frank- .:!(». He lit Union adu-

For a uliile lie taught school in ate. and tlii-n went to New York ; law. lit- was soon admitted to i-osc raiiidly to di.stinctiou. Dur- War he was (.)nartcrniaster-Geu-

d of thr State of N.

tilli

the

office with groat credit to himself ai ernmeut. From 186.-) to 1871 1 law in Xew York, and was then aii

jf eu-toiii- f.

he hehl unll moved by I'r practice fif li iiorainateil ai Then foil owe accession of of the Unioi The assiii dential office

Exc

le Pre>i- was at-

tendeil with little ceremony or formality. On the 22d of September the oath of offirr was a f-rcoud time administered to him at tlie Cajiitol by Chief-Justice \Vaite. After this, in the ])resence of a few who were gathered in the apartment, he delivered au appropriate ad- dress, referring in a touching manner to the death of his predecessor. Those present, in- cluding General Grant, Ex-President Hayes, Senator Sherman, and his brother, the General of the Army, then paid their respects, and the ceremony was at an end.

In accordance with the custom, the mem- bers of the existing Cabinet at once resigned their oiSces. The resigna- tions, however, -were not accepted, the President inviting all the raendiers to retain their places. For the time all did so, except Mr. Windom, Secretary of the Treasury, who retired, and was succeeded bv Judge Charles J. Folger, ..f New York. .Mr. MacVeagh also re- signed a short time afterwards, and the Prc.-ident a}ipiiiuted as his successor Benjamin H. Brewster, of Philadelphia. The next of the old Garfield Cabinet t letiie weie Mr. Blaine, Secretary of •-"t ite and Mi James, Postmaster- G nenl who were s'jcceeded in their 1 ]e(.ti\e offices by Frederick T. Fre- lii _lnfs tn it New Jersey, aixl Tira- tl \ O Howe, of Wi.sconsin. Mr. 1 m I In — ^o s;ieat was the charm of tl it illu^tiious name — remained, as by ( mm n < n^mt, at the head of the I) 1 iitmuit ( t War. Besid,'s the <lnns.e> hcie leterred to, not much dis- j) ^iti< u was shown to revolutionize the policy of the Government by the new Administration. The people generally, without respect to party lines, gave a tolerably cf)rdial support to him who had been so sud- denly, and by so calamitous a method, called to the Presidency.

The new xVdniinistration inheriteil the troubles and complications of its predecessor. The first and one of the most serious diffi- culties of the time was the important State trial relating to the alleged STAi:-RorTE Coxsi'ir- ,\eY. Under the recent conduct of aflairs in the Po.st-office Department of the Government, there had been organized a class of fast-mail

THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

routes, known as the Star Itmitrs, the os- tensible object being to carry the iuail.> with rapidity and certainty into di.-t;'iit, and ahll()^^t inaccessible portions of the "Western States and Territories. The law governing the let- ting of mail contracts restricted tlie atliim of the Postmaster-General and liis sul)nrdinates to definite limits of expenditure; Imt one clause of the law gave to the department the discretionary power to expedite such mail routes as seemed to be weaker and less efficient than the service required. This gave to certain officers of the Government the op- portunity to let the contracts for many mail lines at a minimum, a.\i(\ then, under their discretion- ary power, to "expedite" the same lines into efficiency at exorbitant rates, tiie end and aim being to divide the spoils among the parties to the contract.

This alleged Star-Route conspiracy to de- fraud the Government was unearthed during the Garfield Administration, and Attorney- General MacVeagh was directed liy the Presi- dent to prosecute the reputed conspirators. Indictments were presented by the grand jury against Ex-United States Senator Stephen W. Dorsey, of Arkansas ; Second Assistant Post- master-General Thomas J. Brady, of Indiana; and several others of less note. Mr. ]\IacVeagh, however, .seemed, in the conduct (if the De- partment of Justice, to act with little s[iirit and no success. After his retirement from office, and the appointment of Brewster as Attorney-General, matters were quickened into sharp activity, and those indicted for con- spiracy were brought to trial. After several weeks of stormy prosecution and defense, the case went to the jury, who brought in a ver- dict absurdly convicting certain subordinates of participating in a conspiracy, which could not have existed without the guilt of their superiors! This scandal, occupying the public mind in the summer nf 1S82, contributed much to the defeat of the Republican party in the State elections of the following Novem- ber— a defeat .so general as to remand, by overwhelming majorities, the control of the Hnuse of Representatives to the Democrats.

We may here turn aside from the course of political events — from the mere spectacular aspect of public affairs — to notice briefly some features of the beneficent progress of physical

science. History, as a means of delineating the course of human events, is, within the ))reseut century, departing more and more from the methods of the old annalists, wliose attention was wholly directed to the civil, jio- litieal, and military movements of society. It is now beginning to be perceived that the sources of human happiness, the origins of human advancement, lie far removed from the fictitious splendors of public life. Yielding to this tendency in history, we shall here notice a few of those salutary inventions which have done so much in mir day to add to the com- fort, the prosperity, and the Imnur of the American people.

It is safe to aver that the recent rapid ad- dition by inventive processes to the resources of physical happiness, and to intellectual development as well, is the nmsr striking feature of the eivilizatinn nf cmr time. At no other age in the history of the world has a practical knowledge of the laws of nature been so widely and so rapidly diffused. At no other epoch has the subjection of natural agents to the will of man been so wonderfully displayed. It may be truthfully averred that the old life of the human race is giving jilace to the new life, based on scientific research, and energized by the knowledge that the con- ditions (if our environment in the world are as benevolent as they are unchangeable.

It has remained for the present era, and to American genius, to solve the problem of oral communication between pensons at a distance from each other. A knowledge (jf the laws of sound and electricity has enabled the scientists of our day to devise an apparatus for transmitting, or at least reproducing, the human voice at a distance of hundreds, or even thousands, (if miles. The history of the Telephone must stand as a reminder to after agesTTfTTie'inventive skill and scientific prog- ress of the last quarter of the Nineteenth Cen- tury. This instrument, like many similar in- ventions, seems to have been the work of several ingenious minds, directed at nearly the same time to the same problem. The solution, however, may lie jiroperly accredited to Elisha P. Gray, of Cliicago, and Alexander Graham Bell, of the ^Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology. It should be mentioned, also, that Amos' E. Dolbear, of Tufl^t's College, Massa-

UNIVERSAL inSTOEY.— THE MODEL' X WORLD.

Is. an.l Thomas A. E.lisnn, „f X-w Jr

<,.uiM. M|rr,.,.,|.,| 111 >..lvill-llH-,lillic-lllti

until, wfi-e

,,r th,- llUIllllII voir,., iriiv, at Ion- .listaiir. vo.'al .lisluiluuico. h

llr.l s.iUli.l ininiicaie,!

,r licaiiii,-. Kwiypaiticiilar sound has |ihysical (■(|iiivah.'iit in tin: system of n whirli it is w ritti-n. Thr only thing, ■c, that is ncrt'ssary in order to carry a ill its integrity to any distance, is to t its physical ei|uivalcnt. and to re- that equivalent to souk- organ of hear- lalile of receiving it. n these priiKaples the tcleiihone was ■d — created, l^-ery sound A\liich liills

. This tremor causes the .lisk to ap- aiiil rci'cih' from the magnetic pole iii>t liohiud the diaphragm. A current ■tiicitN is thus induced, pulsates along IV to tlic other cud, an.l is .h-livered to ctallic disk of tho second instrument, miles away, just as it was produced in -t. The ear of the hearer receives from •I'oiid instrument the exact physical lent of till' sound, or sounds, which were ■ed against the disk of the first instru- aiiil thus the utterance is received at a •e just as it was given forth, already said, the invention of the tele- >tands chiellv to the credit of Professors ind liell. It should be recorded that as IS IS.'IT the iihilosoiiher Page succeeded.

■-or Hell.	lot, ho\V
em. .Mass:	chusetts
d the whol	■ countr\
traiismitti \Miilv mil	ng yoca
])lace as it	resjiectei

ihility of talking to per.sons at a dis- The experiments of Gray at Chicago,

le IJi'll lele].h

an.l improy.Miie Within reasonal

method of trans utterance.

.li>i

:'t V

ilit.'lligen.r hy ook the place .if all sj.iwer an.l less convenient means of inter- c.immunicati.in. The appearance of the simple instrument was one of the many harhingers of the auspicious time when the constant in- terchange of thought and sentiment between man an.l man, .•ommunity an.l community, nation an.l nati.Jii, shall cui.hi.'e t.i the ]ieace .)f the \v.>il.l, an.l the g.M..l-fcll.i\vship of the human race.

After the telephone came the Ph.in.ickai'H. The new instrument was in some sense the complement of its predecessor. Both inven- tions are based u]ion the same principle of

its physical e.piiyaleiit in a wave or agitation wdiich atiii'cts the particles of matter composing the material through wdiich the sound is trans- mitted leil almost inevitaldy to the other dis- covery .if nifrhiiKj anil niahi'tnij that pliysi.'al e(]uivalent or wave in the sni-hu'e of s..me b.idy, and to th.' repr.i.lii.-ti.>n ..f the .uii^inal sound therefrom. Su.-li is the lun.lameiilal principle of th.' inter.'sting hut, thus tar. little useful instrument known as the phonograph. The same was invented by Thomas A. Edison, of Menlo Park, in the year 1877. The iu- .strument differs considerably in structure and purpose from the Vihrograph and Phonaidor/mph which preceded it. The latter two instruments were made simply to write sound vilirations ; the former, to reproduce (ukIUiIij the sounds themselves.

The Ph.m.igraidi consists of three iirincij.al parts, — th.' sender or fuunel-sha|ied tube, with its .'pen mouth-piece standing toward the oper- at..r; the dia)ihragm and stylus connected thiu'ewith, which receives the sound spoken into the tiilii' ; an.l thirdly, the revolving cyl- inder, with its sheet-coating of tin-foil laid over the surfiice of a spiral groove to receive the indentations of the point of tlie stylus.

THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

>11

The mode of operation is vcrv simplf. The cylinder is revolved; ami the imint cf the stylus, when tiiere is im sound auit;ition in tlie funnel or ninutli-pit'cc, niakis a smooth, con- tinuous depression in tho tin-foil ovrr the spiral groove. But when any sound is thrown into the mouth-piece tlie iron disk ordiapliragm is agitated; this agitation is eari'ied through the stylus and written in ii-ro-ular marks, dots, and peculiar figures in the tin-toil over the groove. When the utterance which is to be reproduced has been completed, the instrument is stopped, the stylus thrown back from the groove, and the cylinder revolved backward to the place of starting. The stylus is then re- turned to its place in the groove, and the cyl- inder is revolved forward at the same rate of rapidity as before. As the point of the stilus plays up and down in the indentations and through the figures in the tin-foil, pioduced by its own previous agitation, a quiver exactly equivalent to that which was produced b^ the utterance in the mouth-piece is communicated backward^ to the diaphragm, and bv it is flung through the mouth-piece into the iii This agitation is of course the exact pln-u il equivalent of the original sound, oi nion properly, w the sound itself Thus it i~ tint the phonograph is made to talk, to sinsj;, to cry; to utter, in short, any sound suffinenth powerful to produce a perceptible tremoi m the mouth-piece and diaphragm of the instrument. Much progress has already been made to- wards the utilization of the phonograph as a practical addition to the civilizing apparatus of our time. It may be said, indeed, that all the difficulties in the way of such a result have been removed. J\Ir. Edison has carried forward his work to such a degree of perfection that the instrument may be practically em- ployed in correspondence and literary compo- sition. The problem has been to stereotype, so to speak, the tin-foil record of what has been uttered in the mouth-piece, and thus to pre- serve in a permanent form the potency of vanished sounds. Nor does it require a great stretch of the imagination to see in the inven- tion of the phonograph one of the greatest achievements of the age — a discovery, indeed, which may possibly revolutionize the whole method of learning. It would seem clear that nature has intended the ear, rather than the

eye, to be the organ of education. It is mani- festly against the fitness of things tliat the eyes" of all mankind should f.c stiaincd, weak- eiic.l, permanently injnivd in .■liil.lliond, with the unnatural tasks \vhi(di are im|iosed upon the delicate organ. It would seem to he more in accordance with the nature ami capacities of man, and the o-eneral chaiacter of the ex-

ten

cei'iiment and appreciation ot lieauty, and to impose upon the ear the tedious and hard tasks of education. The Phonograph makes it pos- sible to read liy the ear instead of liv the eye, and it is not beyoml the range of probability that the book of the futiu-e, near or remote, will be written in iihonoerai)hic i)lates and

made to reveal its story directly to the wait- ing ear, rather than throneh the secondary medium of print to the enfeelileil and tired eye of the reader.

But perhaps the most marked and valuable invention of the current age — the best cal- culated to affect favorably the welfare of the people, especially in great cities — is that of the ELEfTRii' Jacut. The introduction of this superior sv.-teni of illumination marks an epoch more inteiv-.|iii- and important in the

flict oi- mere change of ruler; Ijeginiiing of the eighth decade

It tlie

■utnry

Uyi I 'Ei;S. 1 /. IIISTUR Y. - THE MODERN WORLD.

the project of iutrudiiciiiy the electric light ibr genercal purposes of illuiniiiatioii be.iraii to be airiluted. It was at once perceived that the jiiivuiita-rs .,t Mich li-hliii- wen. as nuiiiy as they were ..hvious. Th,- li-ht is so pnucrful as to rciiil.r practical)!. • th.- perforiuance of many m. chani.-al .■p.iali..iis as easily by uight as by .la\-. Again, the ilanger of fire from illuminating s.mrces is almost wholly obviated bv the n.-w svstem. The ease and expedition of all kin. Is of night employment are greatly enhanced. A given anniunt of illlumiuatiou can lie pr.i.liicc.l mneh m.ire cheaply by el.'ctri.'ity than by any means of gas-lightiug

Among the first to demonstrate the feasi- liility of electric lighting was the philosopher (iramme, of Paris. In the early part of 1875 he succe.ssfuUy lighted his laboratory by means of electricity. 8oou afterward the foundry of Dncommun & Co., of ]Mulhouse, was similarly liglited. In the course of the following year the ajiparatus fir lighting by means of car- bon caudles ^Yas introduced into many of the principal factories of France and other lead- ing countries of Europe. It may prove of in- terest in this couneetion to sketch briefly the principal features of the electric light system, {inil to trace the development of that .system in our .iwn and other countries.

Lighting by electricity is accomplished iu several ways. In general, h.iwever, the prin- ciple by Avliich the ivsiilt is accomplished is one, and depends upon the resistance which the electrical current meets iu its transmission through various substances. There are no perfect conductors of electricity. In propor- tion as the unn-couductiv.' .piality is ]ireva- leut iu a substance, espe.'ially in a metal, the resistance to the passai:.' .if elci'tri.ity is pro- nounced, and till- c..n>eiiiient disturbance among the m.ilecular particles of the sub- stance is great. Whenever such resistance is encountered iu a circuit, the electricity is con- verti-.l into heat, and when the resistance is great, til.' h.'at i-, in turn, converted into

li-ht, or rath. a- tin- heat I .nncs phenomenal

ill light: that is, the sul.staii.H- which ..IKts til.' r,>i>tanc.' gh.us wilh th.- ;i-aiisr,.nii.Ml en.agv ..f th.- iiiiiM.le.l cinavnt. L'l.on this

Among the metallic substances, the one best adapted by its low conductivity to such resistance and transformation of force, is lilatinuiii. The high degree of heat necessary t.i fus.' this metal ad.ls lo its usefulness and availability ior the jmrpo-e indicated. When an electrical current is r..rced along a platinum wire too sujall to traiiMiiit the entire volume, it becomes at once heat. -.1— Hist to a red, and then t.ia white glow— ami is thus made to .send forth a radiance like that of the sun. Of the non-metallic elements which otter similar re- sistance, the best is carbon. The infusiliility of this substance renders it greatly superior to platinum for purposes of the electric light.

Near the begiuniug of the present century it was discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy that carbon points may be rendered incandescent by means of- a powerful electrical current. The discovery was fully developed in the year 1.S09, while the philosopher just referred to was experimenting with the great flattery of the Royal Institution of London. He ob- served— rather by accident than design, or previous anticipation — that a strong volume of electricity passing between two bits of wood charcoal produces tremendous heat, ami a light like that of the sun. It appears, however, that Davy at first regarded the phenomenon rather in the nature of an interesting display of force than as a suggestion of the possibility of turning night into day.

For nearly three-quarters of a century the di-scovery made by Sir Humphrey lay doi-mant among the great mass of scientific facts re- vealed in the laboratory. In course of time, however, the nature of the new fact be- gan to be apprehended. The electric lamp in manv forms was pro])osed and tried. The scientists, ^iar.let, Wilde, Bnr-h, Fuller, and mauy . it hers ..f less n.itc, bu.-ie.l th.'insclves with ih.' w.irk .if invention. Especially did 'uainiii.- aii.l Siemens devote their scientific g.'iiiii> to th.' w.irk of turning to good account th.- knowl.-.hjc now fully poss,?ssed of the

all 1 ilccli

Ku-iai, |il,il.wiiili.-r, .lalif w.irk still further by the pi

koli: i-a ical int

THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

of the carbon candle. Other sci(nii>t> — Carre, Foucaiilt, Serrin, Rapiefi', and \\'cnl(inanu — had, at an earlier or later day, tlnnun much additional information iiitn tlu^ coiiimun stm-k of knowledge relative to the ilhimiiuitiiiu' i"'.- sibUities of electricity. Finally, the accumu- lated materials of science fell into the hands of that untutored hut remarkably radical in- ventor, Thomas A. Edison, wlici gave himself with the utmost zeal to the work of removing the remaining difficulties in the problem.

Edison began his investigations in this line of invention in September of 1878, and in December of the following year gave to the public his first formal statement of results. After many experiments with platinum, he abandoned that material in lavor of the car- bon-arc in vacuo. The latter is, indeed, the essential feature of the Edison light. A small semicircle, or horseshoe, of some substance, such as a filament of bamboo reduced to the form of pure carbon, the two ends being attached to the poles of the generating-machiue, or dy- namo, as the engine is popularly called, is in- closed in a glass bulb, from which the air has been carefully withdrawn, and is rendered in- candescent by the passage of an electric cur- rent. The other important features of Edison's discovery relate to the divisibility of the cur- rent, and its control and regulation in volume by the operator. These matters were fully mastered in the Edison invention, and the ap- paratus rendered as completely subject to management as are the other varieties of illu- minating agencies.

It were vain to speculate upon the future of electric lighting. The question of artificial illumiuation has had much to do with the progress of the human race, particularly when aggregated into cities. Doubtless the old sys- tems of lighting are destined in time to give place altogether to the splendors of the electric glow. The general efiect of the change upon society must be as marked as it is salutary. Darkness, the enemy of good government and morality in great cities, will, in a great meas- ure, be dispelled by the beneficent agent, over which the genius of Davy, Gramme, Brush, Edison, and a host of other explorers in the new continents of science has so completely triumphed. The ease, happiness, comfort, and welfare of mankind must be vastly multiplied.

an<l the future must be reminded, in the glow that dispels the night, of that splendid fact that the jirogress of civilization depends, in a large

and the dirtusi..n of tliat knowK-dLre among the people.

AVc may here notice, in a few brief [lara- graphs, some of the great achievements belong- ing to the last quarter of the Nineteenth Cen- tury in the matter of physical improvements. At no other time in modern history has civil engineering been turned to a better account than in the recent public works of the United States. First among these we may properly notice a few of the remarkable bridges which have been constructed within the period under contemplation. The principal place among such works may ju'operly be given to the great Suspension Bridge over the strait known as East River, between New York and Brooklyn. The completion and formal opening of this work, which occurred on the 24th of ]May, INS.S, was an event of so great interest as to evoke universal attention and elicit many de- scriptions.

The Brooklyn Bridge is the longest and largest structure of the kind in the world. The design was the work of the distinguished Johi' A. Roebling, the originator of wire sus- jieiision-bridges, under whose supervision, and that of his son, Washington A. Roebling, the structure was completed.' The elder of these

' The personal history of the Roelilings, father and son, in connection with their great work, is as pathetic as it is interesting. The elder en- gineer was injured while laying the foundation of one of the shore-piers on the 22d of July, 1869, and died of lockjaw. W. A. Roebling then took up his father's unfinished task. He con- tinued the work of supervision for about two years, when he wns prostrated with a peculiar form of paralysis known as the " Caisson disease," from which he never fully recovered. His men- tal faculties, however, remained unimpaired, and he was able to direct with his eye what his hands could no longer execute. While thus prostrated, his wife developed a genius almost equal to that of her hnshand and her father-in-law. The pal- sied engineer, thus reinforced, continued for five years to furnish the plans for the work. These plans were almost all drawn liy his wife, who never flagged under the tasks imposed upon her. In 1876 Roebling was partly restored to health, and lived to hear the applause which his genius and enterprise had won.

Uy IYER SAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

two einment eusiiieers luul alreiu himself an euduriug fame by the 1 the first snspeusi()ii-l)ri(l,u-e acin-s tli Kiagara. aiid al-o the still mvatrr s

tweeii C'iijciiiiiuii ami ( 'Mviiii:t(Ui. structure, at the linic of its crrcti'iii, was liy a thousaud feet tlu' l^Il-,.^t <.f thf kind in xhf world. The yuiniL:('r li'icliliiio- inherited much of his fiither"s -viiiu>, and added a genius of his own. The einistriictioa nf the bridge over East River cuiUd not havi' been put into hands more capable if all nations had iieeu exi)lored for en"ineers.

V won f„r	William
uildino- of	Trustees ;
■ <-liasni of	Henrv C
ructtire of	tiniati's
River, be-	pany for
The latter

. Kingsley, President of the Bridge and his jiredecessor in that office, .Murphy. The first plans and es- ■IV prepared in 1865. The com- ho coiistniction was organized two wards. The capital was fixed at .-<."). (M)ii, (100. The (-iiter}>rise was not pressed with dill' vigor until LST-"). when the work was taken up by the State of Xew York. A Board of Managers was appointed to bring the bridge to completion at as early a date as ]ios>ilplc. Congress also patronized the enter- )iiisc by ail ac't of June, 1869, authorizing the constriKtion. The formal opening in May of

The East Ri\ ei <ti u tut. i>whiti-kn wn i> a suspension biidtre ii in_ ^u\\ itid b\ t ui enormous wires oi cables stietthinif ttom piti to pier in a single «pan, a di«tance of 1, >95 feet From the main towers to the anchorages on either siilc is D.'^iO feet; from the anchorages outward to the tiTiiiini of the approaches is, on the Xew York side, a distance of 1,562 feet; and on the Brooklyn side 972 feet; giv- ing a total length of bridge and api)r()aehes of .■"I.9.S9 feet. The total wci-lit of \\\v structure is C.ljoo ton-: thr t-sti iiiat.-d caiiacitv of sui)-

sistanee is calci; The Brook 1\

It 4!

l^^ ditu tht att( ntion ot the a\ hole ^siti m ti tht mLtiip(li- md pi i\ed h\ the mttiest ■which the e%ent e\cited thrt e\en in Vmeuca politics is not the best, at least not the onh , vocation of mankind.

Perhaps the most notable example of the Cantilever Bridge as yet produced in the New ^V()rld is the great structure of that order over the Niagara River, just above the village of Suspension Bridge, New York. It is the work of the distinguished civil engineer, C. G. ScJiiKidcr, and is one of the most beautiful struetiiivs (,f its kind ever constructed. The bridge has a total length of 910 feet, and crosses the river with a single span of 470 feet.

THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

C)

The roadway is 239 feet above the water-level in the chastQ below. The materials employed iu the coustructiou are steel ami iron. The erection of any kind of staging iu the river at this point was impossible, and what is called the "overhang" method of structure bad to be adopted. Each of the great cantilevers were built out from the piers, section by sec- tion, until they had been advanced far enough from each side of the abyss to join their girders in the middle.

Still another of the most notable examples of successful bridge-building iu the United States is that of the new Washington Bridge, extending from the upper extremity of Manhat- tan Island, across the gorge of the Harlem River to Westchester County, nn the other side. The work is regarded as the most beautifid of its kind ever erected in America. The structure is of steel, and granite, and bronze. The chasm is spanned by two mag- nificent arches, having plate-girders of steel, each arch being from foot to foot a distance of 610 feet. The piers are of massive masonry, which rise to the level of the roadway. The viaduct is supported on vertical posts rising from the arches. The height of the roadway is 152 feet above the level of tide-water in the Harlem, being forty feet iu excess (jf the like measurement under the East River Sus- pension Bridge. The approaches to the struc- ture are broad viaducts of granite, carried on stone arches. All of the ornamentation is of bronze. The Washington Bridge was con- structed in 1888-9, according to the designs and under the direction of the eminent civil engineer, Mr. William R. Hutton.

On the whole, the Administration of Arthur proved to be uneventful. The Gov- ernment piursued the even tenor of its way, and the progress of the country was un- checked by serious calamity. In the domain of politics, we note here the gradual oblitera- tion of those sharply defined issues which for the last quarter of a century had divided the two great parties. As a consequence, there was noticeable a healthful abatement of par- tisan rancor. It became every year more ap- parent that the questions at issue in the political arena were merely factitious, and that the clamors of partisanship were kept up liy those who hoped to gather the spoils of the

political battle-field. Nor might any discern, iu this decade, how much longer tli^x. ill- founded cries of alarm might serve to hold the people in line under the old party names. For the time being, however, the man who plowed or kept the tiock, the mechanic, the artisan, the merchant, continued to come forth at the call of party leaders, and to vote, as bad been his wont, on issues that were more imaginary thau real.

To this general fact, that party questions were no longer vital and distinct, there was one notable exception. It can imt be doubted that the American people were, from 1880 to 1890, really and sincerely divided on the ques- tion of the Tariff. Whether the true policy of the United States is that of a free-trade or a protective system was a fundamental issue, and the decision was postj^oned. The policy of gathering immense revenues from customs duties during the Civil War, and in the decade thereafter, had become firmlv imbedded as a factor in the industrial and commercial sys- tems of the countrv. A great manufacturing interest had been stimalatnl into iinu-iial, n(jt to say inordinate, activity. Practically the piilitical parties had become so much en- tangled with the finances an<l the industries of the country that no party discipline could withilraw and align the political forces in coluiiius and liattalinns as of old. The ques- tion was fundamentally as ancient as the Re- jniblic. Ever and anon, from the very founda- tion of the Government, the tariff' issue had obtruded itself upon the attention of the peo- ple. It may not be deemed iuappropriate in this connection to state and briefly elucidate the various views which have been ^entertained on the subject. >d j |. ^-f j t '

First, we have what is called the doctrine of Free Trade, pure and simple. The theory IS, in a word, as follows: The indications of profitable industry are founded in nature. The hints and suggestions of the natural world are the true indications of mankind as to how the various industries which human genius have devised are to be most profitably directed. Thus, a rich soil means agriculture. A barren soil is the iudicatiou of nature against agri-

' cultural pursuits. Beds of ore signify mining;

I veins of petroleum, oil-wells; a headlong river, water-power ; hills of silica, glass-works ; for-

UMVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

est	S (.	piiu', >hip-ni	ast	- aud eoal-t;	r; liays
an	I ha	v.Mis a.,.1 i-ivei		nninierce.	F	■ee ti-adc
sa\	> tl	at these thiiii:	■^ n	•e the vc.ic	6 and edict
of	the	latiiral world	IS	to how h	ima	n iudus-
tn	sh	ill 1)0 C'xertei	.	The way	to	Avealth,
prospei	ity, happiness,	is	to follow	the	edict of
na	lire	whithersoever	it	calls. To go against

human nature is to go against self-interest and against common sense. Lamez faire, that is, "Let alone," is the fundamental motto of the system — hands otf, and no meddhng with the plain conditions which are imposed on man by his environments. Let him who lives in the fecund valley till the soil and gather a hun- dred-fold. Let him who inhabits the rocky upland, by river-side or bed of pent-up coal, devote his energies to manufacture. Let each procure from the other liy exchange the nec- essaries and conveniences of life which lie could not himself produce but at a great dis- advantage, aud an irrational and needless ex- penditure of toil. Let the producer of raw material send it near or far to the manufac- turer, aud receive in turn the fabric which he must wear, even the food wherewath he must sustain his life. Why should he do otherwise? Why should either the man or the community struggle against the conditions of nature, and the immutable laws of industry, to produce the entire supply of things necessary for human comfort, convenience, and welfare? It is in- tended that men should live together in amity; that they should mutually depend one upon the other; that each should gain from the other's genius and exertion what he is unable to procure by his own endeavor and skill. Neighbors should be at peace. Different com- munities should not quarrel ; should not put interdicts and checks upon the natural laws of intercourse and mutual dependency. Na- tions shoidd not fight. The harmonious order of civilization requires a world-wide exchange of products. Men are happier and richer, and nations are more powerful, when they give themselves freely to the laws of their environ- ments, and toil in those fields of industry to which both their own dispositions aud the be- nevolent finger of nature point the way.

The theory continues: All contrivances of human law which controvert or oppose these fundamental conditions of legitimate industry are false in principle and pernicious in appli-

cation. If civil society assume to direct the industries of her people against the plain in- dications (if nature, then society becomes a tyrant. The rule of action in such case is no longer free but despotic. All laws which tend to divert the industries of a nation from those I pursuits which are indicated by the natural sur- I roundings are hurtful, selfish, self-destructive, and, in the long run, weakening aud degrading to the people. A tariff duty so laid as to build uj) one industry at the expense of another is a piece of barbarous intermeddling with both the principles of common sense and the inhe- rent rights of men. If free trade makes one nation dependent on another, then it also makes that other. nation dependent on the first. The one can no more afford to fight the other than the other can afford to fight it. Hence free trade as the great economic law among the nations. It is both sound in theory and beneficial in ajiplication. Hence a tariff for revenue only as the true principle of national action. It is the bottom economic policy of government relative to the interests of the people. Such is the general theory to which has been given the name of Laissez faire, but which is known among the English-speaking peoples by the more limited term. Free Trade. The first remove from the doctrines above set forth is that of Incidental Protection. The primary assumptions of this theory are nearly identical with those of free trade. Nearly all of the propositions advanced by the free-trader are accepted as correct by the inci- dental protectionist. The latter, bowever, holds soiue peculiar doctrines of his own. He claims that men, as the doctrine of Lais.<cz /(lire teaches, should labor according to the indications of nature, and that the attempt on the part of Government to divert the indus- tries of the people from one channel to another is contrary to right reason and sound policy. But he also holds that since a tariff is the common means adopted by most of the civ- ilized States of the world to produce the rev- enue whereby the expenses of government are met and sustained, the same should be so levied as to be incidentally favorable to those industries of the people which are placed at a natural disadvantage. He does not hold that any tariff should be levied with the in- tmtloii of protecting and fostering a given

THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

iDclustrv, liut that in everv case the tax sho be laid for i.nhlic piirpo^,:^ u„hj ; that is, \i the intentiiin (if sustaining tin- State, ami only iucidentalh/ directed to tlie protection the weaker industry. These last assuini)ti furnish the ground of political divergence tweeu free-traders proper and incidintal ) tectionists. The latter take intu cmisiderat both the fundamental conditiiuis nf the ar ment ami the peculiar character <if the iml tries lif the jieop.le. They claim that given pursuits may thus he streiigtlicnrd and eiiciiur- aged by legislativi' provi-ions, and that natuial and political laws may be made tu cmipcrate in varying and increasing tlie productive re- sources of the iState.

The third general view relative to this (pies- tion is known as the doctrine of Lijiited Pro- TECTIOX. The word " limited," in the defini- tion, has respect to a <(»ie relation. The funda- mental difference between this theory and the preceding is this: The incidental protectionist denies, and the limited protectionist affirms, the wisdom of levying tariff duties with the intentwn and ;)»,■/»»' of protecting home indus- tries. T.ie limited protectioiil~t would have the legislation of the State take paitirnlar cognizance of the character and vai-iety of the industries of the people, and would have the laws enacted with constant reference to the encouragement of the weaker — generally the manufacturing — pursuits. The doctrine of in- cidental protection would stop slioit of tliis ; would adopt the theory of •' let alone," so far as the original purpose of legisla- tion is concerned; but would, at the same time, so shape the tariff that a needed stimulus would be given to certain industries. The limited protectionist agrees with the free-trader in certain assumptions. The former, as well as the latter, assents to the proposition that the orujinal condition of industry is found in nature — in the environment of the laborer. But he also urges that the necessity for a varied industry is so great, so important, to the wel- fare and independence of a people, as to justify the deflection of human energy b)' law to cer- tain pursuits, which could not be profitably followed but for the fact of protection.

This princi[)le the limited protectionist gives as a reason for tariff legislation, which he ad- vocates. He would make the weaker industry

uld	live and tl	rive I)y the side of the	stronger.
■ith	He would	nodify'thc crude rules	.f nature
be	by the higl	ler rules of human re:	son. He
of	would not .	idy adai)t man to his en\	ironnient,
on-	l)Ut would ;	lapt the environment to	him. He
1,0-	would k.op	in view the strength, th len.v, of the State, and	: digmtv, would be
i.m	willin.i: to i	irur tempoiarv disa.lva	itages toi
-u-	the .-ake o	■pennan.mt -oo,l. L.	he course
	-if time, wh,	n, under the stimulus	if a pi'o-

leave th

coi.l.. ..hold. I he encourag,.,! and f.stered

law. He wouj.l ,leny llie justice or

lomy of that system which, in a new

itry, boundless in natuial resources,

M-iid iheuKelves to ihe prodiU'tion of a few It staple-, the manui'acture of which, by ign natien<, would make them rich, and ■ lal producers in perpetual vas-

The fourth geneial view is embodied in the theorv of Hlcai I'lan iicrio.x. In thi- the doctrine is boldly advanced that the b.ittom assumpti(U]s of free trade aie spi cious and false. The influence of man iq his envi-

light reason would sug- gest. The suggestion of right reason is this: Every nation .should be independent. Its c<unplete sovereignty and equality shoidd be secured by every means short ot injustice. In order that a State may be nnlep.iident and be able to mark out ier itself a great destiny.

ronment is so great whatever the law of

■nt f..r all and yield To devote industries

its industries must aliord emph the talents and faculties of m products adapted t" all his wan the energies ot a peojile to tl only, which are suggested by the situation and environment, is to make man a slave to nature instead of nature's master. It may be .sound reasoning for the people inhabiting a fertile valley to devote themselves principally to agri- cultural pursuits; Init to do this to the exclu- sion of other industries is merely to narrow the energies of the race, make dependent the

21S rXlVFBSAL HISTOUY.

lubnrer, ami finally (•xliaii>t tlinsc very poutrs (,f nature whicli, I'nr thr |,iv-,iit. seem to snp-- ge.n one pui^uit anil lorl.i.l all ntliers.

TIh' th.ory of hi.L'h jn-otection continues thus: It is tiie iluty of societv to huil.l up viiiiiij inilustiies in every locality, whatever

then natiu-e nin-t he constraiuecl by means of human law. 'I'lio produi-tiou of manufaetured values shouM he <o ene-ura.fre.l by tarirtMu- ties as to become profitable in all situations. Kot only shoiilil every State, but every cotji- nuinity ami everynian.be niaile comjiaratively independent. Eveiy conununity sliould be able by its own indu-try to snpply at least the laro-ev part of its own wants. The spimlle should be in.fir to tiuii; the forae made to glow; the niill-wlicel madf to turn; the engine miulf to jiant; and the towering furnace to fling up iuto the darkness of midnight its vol- canic glare, — all this whether nature has or lias not prepared the antecedents of such activity. And this can not be accomplished, or at least not well aecoiiipli>li(Ml, in any other way than by the legal protection of those imiustries which do not tlourish under the action of merely natural law. It is, in brief, the theory of the high protectionist that every cora- niunity of men, by means of its own varied

couraged by the protective system of indus- tries, should become in the body jiolitic what the ganglion is in the nerve svstem of man,- — an independent, local power, capable of orig- inating its own action and directing its own energies.

There is still a fifth pnMtlon occasi.mallv assumed by publicists, and somi'tiincs acted on by nations. Thisi^ the iloctrine and jiractice of Prohibitory TAnin-s. The idea here is that the mutual iiit<-i-dc|.cndence of nations is, on the whole, disndvnntn-eous, and that each should be rendered »•/,„//„ ind, ■pendent of the ,,ther.

Snme nf the nl.lest pCoplcS of the WOldd haVB

adopted thi< doi'trine and policy. The Ori- ental nntioiH, as a rule. have, until recent

ory in tlieir national allairs. The princijile is, that if in any State or Nation certain industrial conditions and ]iowers are wanting, then those powers and conditions should be produced by

-THE MODF.RX WORLD.

I niean- of law. Internal trade is, according to

this il.H'triiie, the principal thing, and coniiiier-

' cial intercourse with foreign States a matter

' of secondary, or even dubious, advantage.

If the price of the given home product be not

-nthcient to stimulate its production in Mich

means of legi>lation, and raised again and

aeain. until the foreign trade shall cease, and

Imme manufac'tuie lie .supplied in its place.

True, there are not manv .,f the modei'n

■d that

Such, then, are the fundamental principles wlii(di underlie the great controversy, and fur- nish the issues of political divergence in the United States. The ,pie-tioii is a- old a-^ the beginnings of civil prngrc>s in the New AVorlil. No sooner was the jiresent governmental sys- tem in our country instituted, than the contro- versy broke out in the halls of legislation.

under the ( '..nMilution wa- pa>sed for the pur- pose of "prnvidiii- a revenue, and (illonhiii/ prnfectiiiii Id Amrra'au iii(lii.<lri/." The very ne- cessities whii-h -ave rise to the Constitution were those relatinu to commerce, and inter-

tariti: F

till

i.ling p.

tical agitations were produced iiy the revival of the tariff issue in our system. Durino- the ascendency of Henry Clay, his so- called "American .system" became, for a sea- son, the bottom principle of Whi- politic-^. In the ante-bellum epoch the Whi- party con- tinued to favor the iirotectiv.- -y-teni. while the Democratic party es]ioused free trade. After the war the question >lunilieied f^r a season. In ISSO n parn-raph in the national platform of the Deiiiucialic j.arty wa^ incited— n..t. in- deed, with the intention of evoking an old controversy from oblivion — which, by declaring in favor of a tarifl' for revenue only, unex-

THE rXITKI) STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

pec'tedly precipitated the wli.ile issue ai and coutrilnited to, perhaps deterniiued, deCeut of the Democratic ticket. Even those States where Democracy was in the cendant the growth of great maiuifactu establishments liad hrniioht in a va-t :uni\

irtisans,	vho. in	spit	• '.f
•e fused t	' -I'l'l""	t a	jihitf.
,i their 1	r.'lief, w:	s c;	ieula
IrMn.V,	he verv	In,,-	iness

lev were

1 thisipies-

Both tlie Democrats and tli.- I! in the ensuing (piadreniiiiini made eftiirts to align their party foll(]wers i tion; but neither was successful. The event showed that the Democrats were by no means unanimous for free trade, and that tln' Kcpub- licans were ecpially far from unanimity in thrir support of protection. It wa> fniind that hir-e numbers of Republican leader,-, \\he>e tin.m- cial interests lay in the directinn ot' enninieree rather than in manufactures, espoused the free- trade doctrine. Never was party discij)line mure strained on any snlijeet than in the Presi- dential campaigns fnmi l-'^Tll tu l.ss.s. Es- pecially during the Adniini>tnitiiin of Arthur and his successor did the tarifl' (piestion gather head, and the white crests of conflicting tides were seen along the whole surface of political controversy. Nor may the publicist and his- torian of the pa.ssiug age clearly foresee the solution of the problem. One thing, however, mav be safely predicted, and that is, that the question in America will be decided, as it has already been deeided by CJn'at Britain, ac- cording to »elf-Ullr,-rd. No people will, in the

long run, act against what it conceives to be its interest for the sake of supporting a given theory. "When some ]iarty in ]iower, what- ever that party may be, >lia]I become convini'cd that the intrved of the I'liited State- reipiires the abolithm of all pn.tective duties, and the sukstitution therefor of a sy-teui ot' tariti" for revenue only, then, ami not till then, will the Lah^ez-fmre theory of ]iolitieal economy take the place of that which has thus far prevailed on this side of the sea.

Hardly ha<l the crime of Oa.ti.'ld's murder been perpetrated, ami the ]'re>i(l(.'ncy trans- ferred to Arthur, befoi'e the issue of naming his successor was raised by the ever-bu.sy swarm •of American politicians. To the calm-minded

Kakistocracy i	.Am
of that evano;	■1 of
of the En i ted	Stat
about blindly.	n.opi
The v,ar breatliihii tiuM	'i

ler lias heen, n.l a-ent of itil the reiL'u

Mg under the

furnished a e of passion ?rested went anothi'r con-

ns wi As t

im cam I

d otfic.

most warniiy advocat were James G. Blai F. Edmunds, of Yen

Lincoln Slierm;

(.rovei J IJai

that

■ dioul. ,,e,,,,le

he oil I ques- the country, a clo.se. many II connection LUioii- those Itepublicaus

dent Chester

eV, of Cuu-

i.'. : John A. Illinois: and of ^[i"Ouri.

Deh

r'NIVEnSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

1884, Chicago was selected as the place of Imth the National conveutious. The Greenliack- Labor party held its convention at Indian- apolis, in the month of April, and nominated General Bntler for the Presidency, and A. M. West, of j\Iississip]ii, for the Vice-presidency. Tlie Kcpuhli.'an convention met on tli.' .'Id ..f May. and, after a .spirited session of three .lays' duration, nominated James G. Blaine, of Maine, and General John A. Logan, of Illinois, for the Prcsidencv and Vice-iiresi-

thing seemed to depend upon the electoral votes of New York and Indiana ; and when the preliminary counting showed the latter State for the Democrats, the former became the single battle-field of the campaign. The event proved favorable to the Democrats,

ma

viite

-^^■^ ^yj^

dency, respectively. The Democratic delegates assembled on the 9th of Julv, and on the 11th completed their work by nominating for the Presidency, Grover Cleveland, of New Yurk, and for the Vice-presidency, Thomas A. Ilcn- drick.s, of Indiana. The nominations on

were received with considernble but a considerable faction in

refused to support the National

both sides enthusiasm ; each party ticket.

As the e

ijiori lection of 1884 drew nigh, every-

Ncw York was only 1.142. This small pre- jionderance determined the result. It gave the vote of the Empire State to Cleveland and Hendricks, assuring to them 219 ballots in the Electoi-al College, against 182 votes for Blaine and Logan.

The se()nel of the Presi- dential election of this year was less happy than generally happens under like circum- stances. For six successive Administrations the Republi- can party had been in power. The quarter of a century cov- ered liy this ascendencv had lieen by far the most important since "the Rev.lution. The l'iiite<l States of 1884 had b( en completely transformed fi.aii the United States of iMiii. Tlie greaf, and, on the \\hole, salutary changes which had taken place in the social condition and civil polity of tlie American people were, as always happens in such cases, claimed by the dominant party as the result of its manage- ment and control of National affairs. As a matter of fact, the Republican party was it- self the rr!<iiH of a growth and development in the United States — merely one of the effects, instead of the emise, of the changed order of things. But the leaders of that party ^vere, in a considerable degree, honest in claiming that the tremendous and beneficial changes wdiich had passed, like the shadows of great clouds over the American landscape, were attribu- table to the long period of Re]inl)lican as- cendency. To lose power, therefore, was polit- ical bitterness itself. For the Republican managers and office-holders to abdicate their

TEE UyiTED STATES.— LATEST J'EBIOJ).

X:

..pie 1. tiuual

offices, auil go forth aim less, seemed to tbeiu the ness. Mr. Blaiue himself, uotwiihstaudiiig hi.< equanimity and self-possessiou, felt keenly the humiliatioQ of the overthrow. It was under his banner that his party had at last come tu defeat. Smm after the election he delivered a speech which, far from lieiug pacific in it> tone, was, f pr the most part, a hitter invective against the Si.uth. The Itepnhlican newspa- pers, especially in tlie West, took up the hue and cry, and filleil their columns with such matter as might well have ap- peared in the first year after the Civil War. By degrees, however, this feeling subsided, and near the close of Arthur's Ad- ministration t h e oflice- holders, as a class, begau to trim their sails with the evident hope that the breezes of Civil Service Eeforin, to which the President-elect was pledged, might waft them still further on the high seas of emolument.

A short time before the retirement of Arthur from the Presidency, the command of the array of the United States -was transferred from (reneral William T. Sherman to Lieutenant - General Philip H. Sheridan. The former distinguished offi- cer, one of the most tal- ented and eminent soklier-s of the century, hav- ing reached the age at which , according to an act of Congress, he might retire from active serv- ice, availed himself f>f the iirovision, and laid down his command. The formal papers with which he concluded his official relation with the army were marked with the same fervor and patriotism which had characterized all of his utterances since the time when he gave his services to the country in the dark days of dis- union. Nor could it be said that the new

e recurrence ot tin/ 1, 1885, was noted fa •eat monument which

uch a structure had been 17;)iJ. Xur could it wel American people would.

(,ubted e time,

rear some appropriaie m

of his Countrv. Th.'

taken, howevr. until \>

organization was cllii-tt

terpriso. lint for a Ioul

ning, the work of l.uildi

not until Con-n — . tainiti.l at la~t into action

pie, undertook the prosecution of the enter- prise, that it was bnuight to completion. The cost of the Washington Monument was about

al to the Father was not under- In that year an ])romote the en- after the begin- gged, and it was

UMVKHSAL IIJSTOBV. — THE MODERN WORLD.

S1,0<)(»,(HH1. It Milli.ls the r<.t..ii.ac, in the AVashiii.ut.m City. Tli. time of it> rnctiui, tl„' The ,-liall l.n.lMT, ^^ill..H

left iKililv ot I nLlt>kirt^ (li

iiv was at th^ ill the wurhl

l,y Hon. Uohert C. Wmthrop, as well a.s the ]r.-s lornial aihlre-^-es of the dav, wa.-, well w,,itliy of the event, and ealeulated to add— if au.Jht eoiil.l add— to tile fame of him who was "tiist in war, tii>t in iieaee, and first iu

without ivek.Hiin- tiie foim- was " tiist in war, tii>t in

datinii, 1^ ."i.-,.-, fr.-i 111 hei-lit, hciii- lliirty feet | the heaMs of hi. frllnu.nti/.ens."

liiiiiier tlian the Cathnhal at ('..loi^ne", and | ( h-over ('ieveland, tuenty-see..nd I'lesideut

Che'r> in' its'pn'ent'eoi'iilion. The'^reat j New .Ie,>ey, Maivh'lN, Jn:!7. Three years

olieji.k is , j.oM.l nf innrr tliaii eighteen ' afterwanis he was taken hy his lather and

white' inarl,le, and wei.uii .overal tons earh. , York. Here," in liis l.oyhood,' he received

cout

ites of the

plaee aliirrdeih For a while iu his yonlh he was clerk in a vilkiLie store. Afterward the family reniove.l, first to Cliutou aud then to Iloliaiid Talent. At the latter place his father dieil, and yonni; (.'levelaml. left to his owu re- soiiice,-, went to ><'ew V<jrk ami Ijeeaine a tea.'h.-r in an asylum to,- the hliu.l. After a

such [lursuits uncongenial to his tastes, went to Baffiilo and engaged iu the study of law. • He was admitted to the bar in 1859, aud, four

as

Assistant Distri.-t .\tt..rney. In 18(.i!:» he was elected Shcrilf of Krie ( 'oui'itv, and in ISSI was cho.sen Mayor of ilulfdo. His next pmmoti.m by his tcllow-citizcns was to the g..vernoisliip of New York, to which position he was electe.l, in 188-2, hy theastonishim; majority of ]',ll',s.'',4— the majority bcin- perhaps unparalleled iu the history 'of .\mcricaii elections. It was while he still h.ld Ilii. ofiice that, ill July of

1SS4, he was ii iiial.d by the Deuiocratic

ious, are j party for the rrcMdeiicy ..f the I'nited States. j Miadi interot was niauilested by the public

occurreil in the i stitiition of the new Cabinet. <Ju

iv. The the day followim: the inaiiguratiou the muui-

iuu char- nations were scut to the Senate, aud were as

Hx thon- follows: For Secretarv of State, Thomas F.

ba-e of ' I'.avard, of Delaware; for Secretary of the

Ay.nue ' Treasurv, Daniel tannine-, of New York ; for

ere Hivd Secivtarv ,,f llu- Interior, Lu.-iiis (,>. C. Lamar,

At the of ^ii.-i.M|.pi: f.r .S-civtary of War, AVilliam

1 by the C. Fndi,'ott...f Mas>aehu>etts: f^r Secretary of

The c.li- the Navv, William ( '. WhiliMV, of New Y,.rk:

H..u..-of f,r ro-ti.uKter-Ceneral, William F. Vilas, of

ig of dis- WiMM,u-in: f.r Attoiii,'y-< bneral, An-u-tus

^not so II. (birhind, of Arkansas. The peculiarity of

as to lie the ap|Miiiitiiieiit> was that two of them were

houored by it. Th.- principal oration, written from N.wv York. But the prejudice which

Uuiou, aud by IVie	idly forei.-n	nat
set at varioiH place.- The de<licalioii ,	111 the strin	tiire lent
on Saturday, the	I'Nt of F,	brna
ceremonies were ol	the lllo.-t i	npo-
acter. A proi-essio	1 of more t	laii
sand persons iiiai( the iiioniniient, ah	hed from vz IVnnsvK	til.'
to the Capitol, \	^l,ile salul<	< w
Pre.-ident of the eluding ceremonies Representatives, wl tiugnisheil pi'i>ple	ha.l a,-Miii	the .led-
mucli to do honor	to tiie occi	>ioll

THE UMTED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

might arise ou this account was t'ully cduiitrr- balanced by the lii'^h c-haiai't<'i- aii.l uiMlnuhtcil abilities of tiie men \vh.iiii the I'n-i.lcnt had chosen as the responsible advisers .if his Adniin- istration.

The nio-:t serious riupstiou wliieh confronted the new Pr.-i.hnt, and whirl, routinucd to beset his ennr-e lliroudi thr who},. .juadnMi- niuui, \vas the <li>trilMitinn nf i.tii.aal ]iati-i.iia-r. The Democratic paity had cmno into jniwi-r on a platform distinetly onunciatin- the doc- trine of reform in the civil service. From almost the beginning of the Government it had been the custom of the partv in jiower to

offices. This usa-.', w.-ll establidR-d -inre tho day.s of Jackson, had l>e,-u thf ^vv/tn and cause of the greater i>art of tlir alm-.s whirh had existed in the various ih|iarlnients of the Government. Extn-nio partv un.-n had claimed always that " to the victors lichmt;- the spoils" ,,f ,,ttice. Of late years, liowcvcr, the

with disgust from the -fos piacti( f le-

■warding men for mere party >crviccs, and in the evenly balanced Presidential contest of 18S0 .and "lS.S4 it hecame all imi.ortant that

)tessii

the

phalanx of civil service was who in the late electi Cleveland, ha

siuceritv

vation to the Pieddency. He went into office pledged to carry out the views rif those by whose suffrages he had been raised to power. These views, moreover, were his own; and it thus happened that the new Adnnuistratiou was launched with "Civil-service Iv-foi-m " iii- scriheil on its pennon.

In the ]iolitical managemiMit of States by party ascendency, it ever happens that the practical application of the principles (^n which the party has come into ]Miwer is attended with extreme difficulty. In the first place, the so-called princii)Ies are frequently formu- lated simply as a means to gather votes and reach success. After the election has been won and the party accedes to power, there is no further thouirht of carrying into effect the I alleaed " [irinciples" by which party success ; has been achieved. In the contest of 1884

many of the Democratic leaders had upheld the banner of civil service merclv as an ex- pedient. To such elements of his party the President's sincere attempt at the beginning of his Administration to enforce the [irineii)le3 of thi' party platform by an actual reform in tlie ,-y>tein of appointments was little less than appallin-. To them the declaration in tiivor ot' a I'eiter oi-dcr of things relative to the ap- pointive offices of the < iovernmeut was purelv nominal. They acconlingly made a rush to gather the sp.'.ils ,,f the victory which they claimed to have won. From the .lay ..f the

throne.MJ the Capital, an. 1 llie ( 'l,i..f _Mae i<trate wa^ b,.-i,...:v.l bv hnn.hv.N an.l il.ousin.K ..f th.is.' \\lio~i> prill. 'ipal claims to preferment w.'ii- that th. y hail >erveil the party. During th.- tirst year .if th.' new Administration it was a t;rave,pi,..tii.u whether or not the Presi- .lent w.iul.l be able to -tand bv the Hag of relorui, or wh..ther h.- would 1,- .Iriven to re- a.iopt the .•a>t-otf poli.'v of sati-fviu- with otfi.'ial app.iintment< tin- liun-rv h'onl.. that sniged ar.mn.l the Pre>i,|,.utial mau^ion.

epo.-h up.m which we here enter in American history that the memories and deeds of the Civil W.ir seemed to arise again in the pulilic nnnd iiy a sort of uncaused revival, the true origin of which it might be difficult to dis- c.iver. Perhaps, on the whole, this renewal of interest sliouhl be chiefly a-scribed to the fa.'t that the great men whose genius ha.l de- termined the destinies of that conflict now en- tered the shadows of old age, and became talk- ative about the stirring exploits .if their youth an.l vii;.>r<in> mauho.i.l. At this time began to appear that >.rie- of authoritative publications .■nncerniu- the War for the Union, in which many of the l.adiiig participants re- lated their part in t\«- .Irama. This work, so important to th.' riL:lit understanding of the great strni:ele for aii.l against the Union, was begun by (i.n.ral William T. Sherman, wh.i, in ls7o, publi>|,e.l hi. ^f.■,nuir,, luirrating the .st.iry of that part of the war in which he ha.l been a lea.ler. Tliis was not indeed the first of the publications ou the subject. As early as 1870, Alexander H. Stephens, late Vice- Presiilent of the C'.mfederacy, ha.l complete.l his two volumes entitled the War B.tm.n the

CXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

States. Ill ]^.^4, (iein-ral (i

],uUir;lti.m in tllr Outn,-,, M.i

ell attl:icK'(l 111

,-,1 to tl..- lUV

CoiiH til a h, 'ft ..11

The interest in the aliove jiiil.ilieatious was greatly heightened by the (le;uth, within a liinited period, of a large miniber of tlie great ViiioD Generals who had led their armie:* to

victory in the War of the Reliellion. It was in the early suniiner nf the year l.^So that the attention of the people was called away fmni public affairs by the announcement that the veteran General, Ulysses S. Grant, hail been stricken with a fatal malaily. tliat hi- days would be few anini,- the liviii-. The hen, of Yicksburg and AppMiuattnx sank under the

fixed itself in hi- throat, an,l on the 23d of .Inlv he died .juietly at a summer cottage on Mount Mcfn-e-or, New York. For some nioiiths the silent hero, who had commanded the eoinbine.l ariiiie- of the United States, had b^-eii en-aged in the pathetic work of bring-

ing to coiupletion his two volumes of Memoirs, from the sale of which — such is the gratitude of Republics — the resources of his family must be chieflv ilrawn. It was a race, with death tor tlie goal. Seaively had the enfeebled Gen- eral laid down his pencil until the enemy knocked at the door. 'Jdie la-t days of (iraiit were halh.we.l by the sympath'ies of the Nation which he liad .-o gloriously defended. The news of his death passed over the land like the shadow of a great cloud. Almost every city aud hamlet showed, in some ap- propriate way, its emblems of grief. The funeral ceremonies eqnale<l. if they did not siirjiass. any whicdi have ever lieen wit- nessed. The iiroces.-iiin in New Y<irk City was jierhaps the most solemn and imjiosing pageant ever exhibited iu honor of the dead, at least since the i'uneral of the Duke of Wel- lington. On August .S, ISS.j, the body of General Grant was laiil to rest in Riverside Park, overlooking the Hudson. There, on a summit from which may be seen the great river and the metropolis of the Nation, is the tomb of him whose courage and magnanimity ill war will forever give him rank with the few master spirits wdio, by tlieir heroic deeds, have honored the human race, and by their genius have clianged the course of history.

A\'ithiii le.ss than three months from the funeral of < iraiit another distinguished Union commander fell. On the 29th of October General George B. McClellan, organizer of the Army of the Potomac, at one time General- in-Chief, subsequently Democratic candidate for the Presidency, and at a later period Gov- ernor of New Jersey, died at his home at St. Clouil, in that State. The conspicuous part which he had borne during the first tw-o years of the war, his eminent abilities as a soldier aud civilian, and his unblemished character as a man aud citizen, combined to heighten the estimate of his life aud services, and to evoke the sincerest expressions of national sorrow on the occasion of his death.'

After another brief interval, a third great military leader fell iu the person of General

'The posthumous inil.healioi II Slory. under the ausiiii-es ( f, is, on the whole, to lie greall Miitriliiition to the military— even th, torv of the time, the work is valuable

McClellan

•iirette

THE rXITKD STATES.— LATEST PEIUOD.

Wiulield S. Hancock. This l)iave and <:eu- erous commander was, at the time of his death, the Senior Major-Geueral of the American army. Always a favorite with the people an<l the soldiers, he had, since the close of the war, occupied a conspicuous jilace before the public. In 1880 he was the Democratic candidate for the Presidency, and, though defeated by Gen- eral Garfield, the defeat was without dishonor. His death, Avliich occurred at his home on Governor's Island, on the 9th of February, 1886, was universally deplored, and tlie pen- pie omitted no mark of respect for the memory of him who, in the great struggle for the preservation of the Union, had won and borne the title of "Hero of Gettysburg." Thus have passed away the gallant Generals of the Army of the Potomac. George B. .MeC'lellau, Ambrose E. Burnside, Joseph Hooker, George G. Meade, and Wintield S. Hancock have, one by one, joinetl

"The innumenilili- i-aiavan that iipim.s To that mysterious ivahii. wluic rail His chamber in the silent lialls nf 1 1,

hall take

still au- n.l.-i-s of r. Late . rnited k at his

Before the close .,f the year \> other among the greatest of tin- nn the Civil War ended his earthly c; in December, General John A. Ln States Senator from Illinois, fell home, railed Calumet Place, in AVashington City. Hi. .lisea^e was rheumatism, tn which he had been siibjeet at intervals -inrr his ex- posure and hardships in the eail\ A\'rstern campaigns. After a few day>' illnr>> he lie- came suddenly wrrse, sank into a cnniatose condition, and, on the L'bth of the ni.mth, breathed his last. His military and civil career had been distinguished in the highest degree. At the outbreak of hostilities in 18(51 few men did more than Logan to strengthen and unify the Union sentiment in the wavering Border States. His voice was a clarion, heard .shrill and far above the confusion and uproar of the times. Resigning his seat in Congress, he had joined the first advance of the Union army, and fought in the battle of Bull Run. With- out previous military training, he rose rapidly

McCleUan's nirni. few matters tlir ei Ian — but not Lint but, taken altoge works bv contrari

tlir \n

ing. In a er :\reClel- defensive ; le eulogy, ral's fume.

tn distinction, and became the Vnlunteer Gen- eral pur excellence of the war. Alter the close <if the conflict he returned tn pnlitiral life, and was chnsen tn the United States Senate. In ]s,s4 he was nominated for the Vice-|iresi- dency <in the Republican ticket with James < >. Blaine. That tickrt being defeated, he re- sumed his duties in the Senate, and remained at his j>ost until his death. The ceremcmies of the funeral and the general voice of the Amer- ican press indicated in an unmistakable man- ner the enduring place which he had merited and wnn in the affections of the people.

In the meantime, a distinguished civilian had tiillen from high ottice. ( )n X.ivember 25,

1885, Vice-President Thomas A Hendiicks, after what was supposed to be a trifling illness of a single day, died suddenly at his home, in Indianapolis. The fatal message came in the form of jiaralysis. Not a moment's warning was given nf (he appmach of that pale courier who knocks impartially at the donr nf the peasant and the pnital nf the great. The life of Hendricks had been one of singular juirity, and the amenities of his character had been conspicuous in the stormy arena of American politics. The high qualities nf the man, com- bined with his di,-tinrtinn as ( iovernor. Sena- tor, and \'ice-l'resiilent, drew from the jieople many evidences nf ])ublic and private respect for his memory. The body of the dead states-

UMVFRSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

mau wa'- huiittl m Ci uu IIiU t i ni t iv, near Indianapi)li<,, the funeial paguiut -ni|M-<iiig in jtraiideui and vdloumit^ ui_\ (itlKi di-play of

fei

^^

the kiud ever witnessed in tlie Western States. except the funeml of Linchi.

The death nf the Vire-Pi-esident was sonn followed by that of Horatio Seymour, of New York. On the 12th of February, IssC, thi~ distinguished citizen, wlio had hi-cn (nivcinor of the Empire State, and in ISC.s J Vm-.-ratie candidal- tor the IVe>id.-urv n^ain-t fieneral Grant, died at his home in Utiea. He had reached the a,se of seventy-.six, and, thou-h for nianv years living in retirement, luul never

ties 1 tions

iil( 1 _uat

d lue

.M. 1 1

-14

b)in on the 14th ci Feb- i thn m the e\ent> thud year t la i^e it the tune c t hi d, ith He had been i piominent hguie m hi intue State fi 1 full} foit\ -seat lud hid luhl imn\ place of public tiu t xnd houoi In 1^7(1-71 he wa aniono the f nemo t m uneaithiu^ the a.«toundiD_ fnnd ind lobbenes -nhich had been puj ti it( 1 n the cit\ tiei un of "\e\\ York ml in th t 11 winjj \en was tut to the ( entnl V enibh wiieiehi ei\ice weie invahuble In ls74 he wa elected &o\einoi of New \oik b\ 1 im]()iit> of moie than Hftv th >u iiid \ te In the e\ecuti\e office he w 1 < ne ot the lUle t and m t thoioutrh lioiiiL, ni n who e\ei ccupied thr _uheina torial hill t the ^titc In ls7ti h «i

ti(ni ( f that ^eii leieued a the jiopuhi \ote ouh failiu the ] leetoixl C )lle_e be an the leideis ot the ] ut\ m he noi Ceneial Him u i ( Deniociits liaviii^ ciiiud t\ with the =h t sun md the the aid ot the I le t 1 il L mn

uid m the elec

uge nii)oiit\ of

ot a majoiit^ in

t the tictic ot

I ^^n \uthu

11 h elected the

1 thue State

Republicans by

II hiving

;^

-till

in repiilatioii and ennneiit in ahility wa- Sam- uel J. Tild.-n. alM, of the Kmi-iie State who died at lii< leiin,., called ( irevstone, at Yonkers, near Xiw York Citv, on the 4th of Au-uM, issi;. Mr. Tilden had lived to make a marke.!, perhaps an inelia.'eabh., impression on tlie l.oliti.'al tle.n-lit of the epoeh. He had a,- ijiiiicd within the lines ot' iiis own ]iarty an intluenee and ascendency far greater than that of any other statesman of hi.s time. His in- tellectual force could not be doubted, nor could

the electoral votes tliey did not carry Mr. Tilden retired

f a State or t all. After ) private life,

THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

bnt continueil to guide the f(iunpel> of hi- party, ami to influence pulilie opiiiiou. u|i tn the (late of his death. Perhai>s one nC hi- ablest — as it was his last — puMic |i:i|ii'r was a general letter on the suliject df " Thr (na^t and Harbor Defenses of t'he rnitcd Siates," a publication which led to the h-i>hitiou of the Forty-ninth Congress on that important suli- iect. Thus, within the space of less than eleven months, four of those eminent American leaders, who had been candidates of the Demo- cratic party for tlie Presidency nt' the Tnited States, and the distinguished Vice-l'ivsi(hait, recently chosen by that party to the second place of honor in the Government, had fallen from their places in the ranks of the living. To this list of tlie Ani.-iican -ivat, whose activities have recently cndi'd in ,hath, must here be added the illu>trious nami- of llenrv Ward Beecher. To him, ^^itil little n-.Tva- tion, we niav assign the first plaei- amoiiu our orators and philanthropi>t-. Xor i- it likely that his equal in most of the -ublimc ipiahties 01 energy and manhood will soon In- seen atrain on the stage of life. Ilis personality was so large, so unique and striking, as to con- stitute the man in some sense ■<iii (jeitcn^. His kind is rare in the worhl, and the circum- stances which aided in his development have passed away. That fact in American his- tory— the institution of slavery — whi.-h hmnulit out and displayed the higher moods of his anger and stormy eloquence, can not again arouse the indignation of genius. The knight and his dangerous foil sleep together in

.Mr. Beecher had the hapi>y fortune to re- tain his fiiculties unimpaired to the v( rv close of his career. On the evening of tlie oth of March, 1887, at his home in Bnuiklyn, sur- rounded by his famil}', without premonition or portent, the message came by apoplexy. An artery broke in that magnilicent heavy Iiraiu that had been for more than i()rty years one of the greatest batteries of thought and action in the world ; and the aged orator, nearing the close of his seventy-fourth year, sank into that deep sleep from which no power on earth could wake him. He lived until the morning of the 8th, and quietly entereil the shadows. The sentiments awakened by his death, the circumstances of his sepulture, and

the common eulogium ipf maid<ind, proved beyond doubt the supreme place wliich he had occupied in the admiring c>tccm, not oidy of his countrymen, but of all the great jieoples of the worhl.

To this brief mortuary rcord, for the ninth decade of the ceutuiy, must also he added some reference to tlie death of Moi-ri>on Kemich Waite, Chief-Justice of the United .States His deeetse came at his home m "Washington Cit\ on the 2 '.d ot jMuch ISSS Ihe e\ent -u__ -t- md pi-tih - th i 1 liti in ol a fe« 1 11 ui qh i liti\ t th hi-t m and pii-oiiufi ot tht _u it till iin il i \ii whu h Judge Waite pie-ided duiin_ tin 1 i^t tiuiteeu jeaio ot his life

In the foinnti n t the ( n^titiitii n ot the United Stites, it \\ i- mi iil 1 lint iIk tlnee Geueial Depiitm nt- t th (. \iinmtnt should be ot c lulitni link ml inliueme The sequel hou \ i i- l(\ilipd in the actual \^oikin_ t iii \ iti nil ^^ -ti m In-, shown thit the L\iiiifi\, ml I _i-liti\e depaitment- piedommitt nitiiiilK — | i ilup-, incMtabh — o\ei the )u li i il I i in li ml thit in the popnhi e-tiimti it 1 i t th '^iipuine Couit 1- f t -mill impoil mi i- nqiiiid\Mtli the Ple-llen(^ md the tuo H u- - t ( n gic— rill- di- -teem ot the |iidi i m i n t vtiihel In 1 in I 1.1 md moi. philo- iplm il vu w t tin -till] tt rin im|) it un t ( - [letnlU ot the t n-mitne opini n it oiu

rXIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

e:,t X:

at	l.-a-t	(;i]i.	.t-Justice was iiiailc l)y Trc^ident < uaut,
.1.1	atinii	an.l	tlie ik-ath nf tlii,~ alili- Jurist devdlveil on
IS.	can	I'r.^	•ident C'ii'vtlaud tin- lUity <>1' iiaiiiiuy his
ma	V lie	SUC(	T.— (J1-.
1 a	s the	(	■iiifl-.Iustiri- Waite was Imuii at ]>ynie,
;lic	un-	('(.n	nrrtirut, on llic I'lltli of Xuvumlicr, ISIB.
	it is	Fn,:	in the i>uhli.- -rhonl he \va- ti-an>t;Tiv,l to
-J I	1st in- iitirr. Ironi	VaL stiti	ilinn in l.SoT. He thuii bucunie a student of and, after couipleting his course, removed

the iias>ioii to ( )hii(, where he entered upon tlie practice of :■ of interest ! his profession at Mauniee City. After sei-ving )f the vicis- oueteriu, in 1849-5(1, in tlie Ije-islature of the

Court ha

]ias>.(l >in(	•e its	or;	.;a	nizalion	Ill	17	Ml.	Th..
<.f .loin, .1	then i:	ll>t CI	it!	it.-.l hv •t-.Iu.tie	•'"'	,vli.,	he!.	1 til..
otHee unti	1 ' IT'.m;.	w	hen h.	■ <s.	ive	1,1a..	e to
Oliver Ell	.-worth		■|	"he latl	ter	rem	aiue.	1 in
ottiee until.	in IM	III,	tl	le iiitin	iiitii	'S of	ase com-
l-elle,! his an<l honor	l'esit;n ■al.le	ati	'"	1. The i.lenrv	of	a me Chi	the ef-Ji	l-tiee
John Mar- fron, hi. ai	hall, \ .point,	vh.	iit	proide. ill l.sd	1 n^ 1 t.	. his	du- ( ilea	.'.iiirt th in
LS.'io. Thi	s wa-		th.		en	A,-.	• uf	th..
American	Supre	nil		Curt.	Fi	r.im	is:i	\r> [,<
1.SH7 there		111	ill	t.'l-iv.jii	mil	ill t	lie (_	'hief
Justiceship	, oeea-		1.'.	1 l.v th.	■ .li.	^agn	■eme:	ut of
President	Ja<;ks.	.11		111.1 th.	■ S	eliat	e ot	• the
Vnited St	at.-.	Bi	It	ill th.'	hii	tter	veai	■ the
President		1	th	e ciilii	■mat	ion	.d' J	Uilgv
Koger H. '	fan.y	as	C	hi.d-Ju.	:ii.'i'	, wh	.. ell	tere.l
upon hi,- \.	.„- ter	111	ol	■ tui'iH,\	■-S.'\	-en ;		. It
Avas his c	.■lehrat	e.l		l.-.'i.-i..ii	ill		.,■ ot	■ the
negro Dret	1 Srott	, r	el;	ative to	the	stai		f tl,..
slave-race i	,1 Am.	erii	ea	, that :	app]	lie.l	the	t.in.h
to that im		\n	"ll	1 ..f e.,	mliustih	les whose
exphision ^	va> tlu	" L		il War.
After tl	le .h'a-	th		■ Chi.-f-.	Ju-t	iee '	Tane	y. in
1864, Pres	i.lent :	l.i,	ic.	■hi app.	.int.	■.1, ;	IS hi.-	^ su..-
cessor, 8ali	n..n I".	c	Ik		■ntl.^	,- Se,	rr.-ta	ry of
the Treasu	ry. ai,<	la	ut	Ii..r of	iim>	t of	til.. 1	iiiaii-
cial mea.-ii	ll-es ai	1.1	e	xp..li,.i,	Its	llV \	vhi.d	1 the
National e	ivdil 1	la.l			ov.-.	."'"'	1 an.l	pre-
serve.l dnr	ill- till	■ I	;.-i	i..lli..ii.	■jl		li.-ial
extended t. the Civil	:. his.l. ■n the \\'ar \	L'at ini	h.	uiid.r	a.l.ji	1.1 .-. i.li.-;	iti.iii.	.1 the from T,.
Chief,Iu-ti	<v Ch;	ase		'ell al.-o	. li\	■ vir	tU..' .	,f hi.
oHiee, the	duty	..f	1'	.residing	;■ at	the	ini]	,ea..|i-
nient of P	re.i.iel	It .	.\i	i.lrew J	ohn	.-on.	III	1^74
the aiipoii	Itmellt		.f	.AL.rri.-	.111	11.	Wai

State, he removed to T..le.l.i, whii'li hecame lieii.....fortli his h..nie. until his duti..s as Chief- Justh.e.-alle.l him t.. \Va.-lihigt..ii City. He had Keen freijueutly solicited to liecome a candidate f..r otlice, but had adhered to his profession until 1^71-72. when he acceiited from President (iraiit th.. app..intin..nt a- iiiemh..r ..I' th.. cele- Inal...! Poard of Arliitratioii, to sit at C..|ieva, ill the adjudication of the Alabama Claims. Here he was associated with Charles Franeis A.lams, Caleb Cushing, and William M. Kvarts: an.l, tli,,ui;li he was less known t.. the

after his return th.. d. Chase opene.l the way

o th.

During his occupancy of the Supreme Beiii.li. Chief-Justice Waite steadily rose in the esteem and confidence of the Xation. He was

genius or ..f the very highest rank as a jurist; iait, on tin. whole, the .iffice of Chief-justice wa. rari.jy, if ever, mm-e worthily borne than by its hite.-t oi-cu]iaiit. He was a man of

.li.-pos,.,| at all. t.i l.'.ik bev..iiil th.. Su]>reme Ben.h t.i a ]...>.-ibly higlier s..at. His ,leath was from pneumonia, and was s.. su.l.len as to be announced to the country by the .same de- spatches which gave first information of his serious sickness. He died peacefully, at his home. His funeral was held first in the hall of the House of Pepresentatives, and after- war.l IVom his old residence in Toledo, at

THE UXJTED STATES.— LATEST PEHIoD.

29

■\\'hich city his remains were tinaliy committed to the tomb.

The death of Chief-Justice \Vaite made ■way for the return tn the suprcnic judicial

office in the United States of » mcnilicr of

the political party which had lonu Ihcii out of power. Since the epoch of llio Civil War the court had been filled almost exclusively with judges who, by political affiliation, be- longed to the Republican party. The first dis- tinctly Democratic appointment which was made in the last quarter of a century was the recent one of Judge Lucius Q. C. Lamar, who, by the nomination of President Cleve- land, was transferred from the Secretaryshii) of the Literior to the .Supreme Bench. It thus happened, in the vici.*situde of things, that the two political theories which were o|ipn>i.d to each other in the War for tin- Union, and are still opposed by party name, lircanic contluent in the high court of the Xatiou. Tliis circiim- stanee was to some a source of alarm and prejudice; but the fear was not well founilcd. Partisan dispositions are less potent and dau- irtrous — if, indeed, they assert themselves at all— on the Supreme Bench of the United States. Thus far in its history the court has, as a rule, been as pure in its aduuuistratiou and methods as it has been great in reputation. The muddy waters of party conflict have only occasionally reached as high as the chambers of our honored tribunal ; and the fear that it may be otherwise hereafter may hopefully Ije put aside as a groundless and spectral chimera of the h.iur. On ')^\a\ 1, 1888, the President appointed Ju.lge Melville AV. Fuller, of Chi- cago, to the vacant Chief-justiceship.

The impression produced by the death of Chief-Justice Waite had scarcely passed when the decease of another citizen, most noted for high character and great talents, called the public attention to the rapid disappearance of the Nation's most distinguished representatives. On the 18th of April, at the Hoffman House, New York City, Honorable Roscoe Conkling, Ex-Senator of the United States, died after a brief and painful illness. A local inflamma- tion, resulting in the formation of a pus-sack under the mastoid bone of the skull, led to the cutting of the skull in hope of saving Mr. Conkling's life ; but he succumbed to the fatal malady and the shock of the operation.

Rose e C( nklin.i: w i> 1 m in VU iin New York, on the 3()th of O t 1 I ^- Vtt r the completion of an icidemi u t tii Iv, he

went as a student f f 1 ns t I ti i i ]'^4<). On reaching hn ma)riit\ h w i li utl d to the bar ind ^^l•^ -f n ift i\\ ii 1 \\\ lutcd to the <ifiiLe f C uut\ Vtt Ml \ 1 1 )m the be- ginning f hi> ciiei his ^Kit t dents and remarkable toicc of chai ictei weie manifest. He made i piotounl impiession first upon the local mil tlun up n thf jenenl ^rciety of New \ il In 1^)S Ik « i mu r t,f Utica, anl in th -• im \ a \\ i lit t) the National Hue t Kq u-cntatn e-- Ht had already become an able pohtiuxn md was soon recognize 1 i thi k 1 1 i f the Repulilicau

party in hisnatue '^tit Hi i w i^ lapid, and his influence bee une niiiktl in the af- fairs of the &o^elnmlllt Ht -un 1 f r six years in the L )\\ti H u^t md m ishb was elected to the '^en ite In thit b d\ he a-pired to leadership, and gradually attained it, though not without many struggles and contests with the great men of the epoch. He was twice reelected Senator — in 1872, and 1.S78; Init in his third term, namely, in b^M, he found himself in such relations with the Garfield Administration as induced him to resign his seat. This step was regarded by many as the mistake of his political life. At any rate, he ' failed of a reelection, the Administration party I getting control of the Legislature of New

UyiVLHSAL HJ^TOHY.-THE M()T)Elt:S WORIJK

\ ,k nil ,., ln,_ in tl i ii I i |li Vtt

thu 111 Ml ( I 1 liii. Kill It ]n\ It. hi

II, 1 t k U| Ullll tl .1 It t Ml t tli>

piactite of 111 I I I 1 n 111 N u ^ il ( it\ Ko^coe C( I 1 hi _ u I 1 II III t th hi.ht-

tage

Hl u. \u

shone to ^u It 1 I 1\ 11 t i_i tl 111 wlitu It iihii^ the iouc- 1 (. II 111 < 1 lit 111 thi LhRi. L menti II I 1^-^n II u i il ni ] hti, U aeii 1 il IIi> ^Mll II I 1 1 1 t II \ ml 111 li

pu Iwilh .1. U.i uihinitx ( nil liii Ih lii\t

ful, 1 t 1 UU lll^llk NMth th. hlju t h 11 1.

ot tht In iti 11 Hh t tkiits 1. •,e t ) the legioii of geuius, iiiil lii'5 ))le^euct w is niaguificeiit — an luspuatiiiii ti hi- fiRiid- i teuoi to hi^

enemies As a -uiiiiii in	i th 1 nit- f h
caieei, It mT,\ be ii 1 th i <leith ni ue e\i i I hi	11 r iimI M
Bhii iiii.ht lu th	t t xMtl Inn tl
p ill ml t ill t h 11	.nil 1 1 lMte.lt
ztn t the Lnite 1 ^t it -
Meanwhile in th -pu	i_ f l^M 1 il
nil led one of tJR in t i	in 1 il 1 i-it iti 1
which hid \ 1 1 11 "iti	1 111 tl I 1 It
^t\te-> It w.K 1 fh nil t	1 1 1 t 111 1 1 |ii
statement i t th in	1 1 il 11 1 1 1
which pioln i ih 1 1 uutd attci tl 1 f tl	,11 tl n,k- ^ ( im1 A\ 11 111 th
i|ipear tin tu t \ii j t m- ]Sen Willi 1 tl tin	i 1 1 11 U ll 111 tl J wh 1 1 1- 1
going on i 11 - ) 1 11^ 1 tun	m 1 111 pc hctucc

th,' hil.iiiii-.-lass.'san.l the .-npitali-ts. It had I,,,. 11 l„,p.d that Mi.'h a .•niitll.'t «,.iil,l n.Avr he ivii,-u,d in th,- ,-,.iiiitiic- w.-M ,.f tlu- Alhm-

ti... Si„.|i a Imp.., Ii„...ver, ^va. .1 1..1 t„

,lis,,,,H,inn„..iit. Til.. ti,>t w. Il-nia,k,.,l -vn,p-

anil inii,-pr,iiluc'iiig regi.nis ..f I'l-im-ylvania anil in -inii.. of the great manufa..t'irii..- .,t' Ni.\v Enjan.l. F.,r a while the .li>tiiil,aii....s pn.- ,lii.;...l l.iit litll.. alarm. It was i,.,t until th.- givat railr.,11.1 sirik.. .,f 1.^77 that a g..-ii..ral ap- pr,.l„.n>i..,i wa- .■x.'it.Mi with respect t.. th.' nii- fii.n.lly r.latiinis .if labor and capital. In the fiill.iwiii'j y..ar much uneasiness exist,,!; but the lii'ttcr times, extending fmm 1^7!) t.i 1.'<.S2, with the cnsequent fevorahh- rat.- .,f wages, teii.lcl t,) r..move, or at least t.. p,>stii,iiie, the renewal of tn.iible.

A >eri..> .if ba.l .nins ensue.l. and the aver- age ability .if th,. p.',, pie t,, pnr.diase was c.,r- respoinlin'uly .limiiii-l,. .1. Tiie speculative mania, li,,w..v..r, .li.l m.t ca,-.., aii.l the lar-e am,, nuts ,d' .apital witl„lrawii tn.iu k.gitimat.. pn,.lii.-ti,.ii an. I l.,st in visionary enterpri,-..s, >till furth..,- r...lii.-.',l tl,.. means of employing labor. Stagnati.,11 ..|isii.'.l in business; stocks .lec.lin,',l in vain.., manufart.iries were close, 1, aii,l the .litticnhy of .ibtaiuing employment was greatly

Whil.. these causes— half-natural, half-arti- fi.-ial— were at work, others, wh.illy tictitimis, but pow.-rful ill their evil r..>ult-, bi'gan t.i

th.. oth.'r han,l, lab.ir .li.-r..v..r...l th.' .silutaiy but .Ian-.. rolls po\v..r .,f .■nnibiiKiti,.ii. A rage t.,r .ngaiiizini: t.n.k p,.ss,.ssinn ,.f th.. niin.ls of the lali.n-ini: ni..ii ,,f the ....niitry, an,l to the

i,isnrr...-tioiiarv fn.nt ..f the' w.nkiii- cla,-.M,,s.

M.iiv f..ir...l t.

work>h..p.- of Aiii,.n..a, ami a tt.'rly un-American became dom- ,.f the leading e.stablishments of Ciiuiuunistic theories of society

THE CMTED STATES.— LATEST i'ERlOD.

be adde.l tli.' evils incident to the \\;i; perlm])s, inxpaial

The n|„.niii,i:„f trade fnr theseas.m u<l \ssi\ witne.-sed a series „f strikes an.l laKur im- broglios in all parts (if the cumitry. Siieh troubles were, hnwever, cnntined for the nmst part to the cities and towns -ivhere lahor was aggreg;ited. The lir>t >erioiis troulih/ oeeiii-red on what is known a> the Cniuld S\',-ieiii of •railways, reatdiing IVoni the ;\[issi>sippi to the South-we>t. A single workman, liehm^in- t.. the Knights of Lahor, and eniploycMl ,,n a branch of the Texas and Paeiiie Kailwav, at that time under a receivership, and therefore beyond the control (jf Jay (iould and his >uh- ordinates, was disehargid fr(ini his place. This action was resented hy the Knights, and the

for a season, succe.«sfnl, and the transpoitation of freights from St. Louis to the South-wc-t ceased. Gradually, however, other workmen were substituted for the striking Knights; tiie movement of freights was resumed, and the sti-ike ended in coni]iarative failure ; but this end was not reached until a severe riot in East 8t. Louis had occasioned the sacrifice of several

Chicago. In that city the Soeialisti<' ami Anarchic elements were sutHi-iently |ioweilid to present a bold front to the autlioiities. trocessions bearing red flags, and liannei-s with commuuistic devices and mottoes, fre- quently paraded the streets, and were ad- dressed bv demaii'o'jues \\ ho avowed tliemselvi s

r. .Many ]irecautionary nieas- ^en to prevent the recurrence as had lieen witnessed in the re. On th,. following dav a less .langerous, ..uthreak 'oe- d<ee; but in this city the in- vement was suppressed with- f life. The attention of the —let US hope t., some good as never betore. to the dan- xislimj; bitween the upper and

tne open e order. ( )i this reckle>^ ma called th.' llavma gin the usual inlla

near, with the evi

ensued Dvuannte

4tli of ^h

.lling

A terrihle .sc \ere thrown ti

The

Augu.-

Chariest, oti: The

naile liv uii|Uines dioek which had

d will, Char ,-e,i that that on. .^b.a-ur

wa?

With

ro.'ke Hani

AVith the exeepti of New :\ladrid. il

had sutiered from •re hastily devised the result .howed IS Were verihe.l.

232 rXIVEL'SAL in^TORY.— THE MODERX WOULD.

ri.-.l tn 'ill,. -.■,,!,■. an.l iiia.lc a .-aivful MTUtiiiy of the region f. ...m' .-ia.-. l.ut

of the i.l,ri,n,nrnni,, uitha vi.-w..|-f..iiti-iluuiii- of Vfry.|ui<-k aiel vlol.nt o

soMi.thiii- tM the exa.-t kiiowkMl,-e ..f iiiaiikiial whhh tlie c-onlral r,,„ntrv of il

re>l.r,.tin- the eaUM- and eharaeter of earth- wa-, in tlio r..uv- of -.„ne tive n

,hK. a.'euraev. f)ne was, Tlio whole eoa.t in the eml ra

oaiice ettleJ

lUak.

A few fa. terniiiir.l with tolr that the lioint e.f of tlie great convi: about twenty miles the motion of the t

r.-gion r,t the

eall.-.l the rj,irr„tn-. ,h>turhan,-e was mo,hli,.,l with respeet to the iiad keen at a place sea, and the ocean itself was thrown into tur- Charleston, and tliat , moil for leagues from the shore. The people uinediatelv over thii i of the city were in a state of the utmost conster- nation. Thev fle.l fr..ni their

F\PTHQt \KF ^T CH\PTE«TO\

,och The

d 1 ~ a .- 1 e 1 to C haile«ton sened to bung out =onie of the better qualities ot I ui tn ihzi-

center had been nearly up and down — that is, ' tion. A.ssistance came from all quarters, at

vertical. A second point, tolerably well estah- contributions jioured iu for the support ai

lished, was that the isoseismic lines, or lines of enccuiragement r)f the atHicted peojile. !•

equal disturbance, might be drawn around the several weeks a series of diminishing shocks

irele

very nearly concentric.

itiniied to terrify the citizens and paralyze

and that the circle of greatest disturbance was the etlorts at restoration. But it was discoy-

of time that these shocks were only the dying away of tlie great convul-

wasthataway from the epicenter— as illustrated sion, and that they gave cause for hope oi in the ruins of Charleston — the agitation of , entire cessation rather than continued alariu. the earth was not in the nature of a single i In the lapse of a few months the dSris was

I8U

CHRONOLOGICAL CHART No. X.

Most Recent Period, From the American Centennial to the Year 1896.

Copyrighted by the Jo

lernatioiml Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia lugurulion of Rutherfonl B. Haves as President.

i>lriiirs labor riot in Chicago.

>. |,i. inv.Mition of the electrical light by Ed:

Sijil. 2s. Reception of first resident Chinese embassy at

79. Jan. 1. Resumption of specie payments by the

iiiiiTrn ATiTro 80. Taking of the tenth census of the United

UNITED STATES. ^- ..^°A .S"--f °.'11e Republican^ pany^

the National eleetii

80-81. Refun

: of »7S0,000,000 of the Natii

<nal division of the Repul'h'

Assassination of Presi<lrii; >..,.

Aug.-Oct. Trialofthesii-.;i;i. 1 ■

83. May. Formal opening

Retirem*

83-84.

' General Sherman and accession of SI

onimand of the army.

val of the question of Free Trade

Nov. Success of the Democratii- p;irt Cleveland to the presidencv. 85. Feb. 21. Dedication of lli. U :,- Monument. March 4. Inauguration i->f <.rM\

as President. July 23. Death of General Ulys Nov. 25. Death of Vice- Preside

70. Ma

L'h. Assumptio 22. Benjamin L

Business depression i

Outbreak of the Turc

Lowest ebl) in the for

78. Great ilistrcss

Sept. British

Renewal of the battle for Home Rule in Ireland.

Mareli 2. Passage of the Coercion Bill against the Irish t

Expulsion of the Irish leaders from the House of Comm<

uercial distr

■ty.

of Home Rule ques

in Afghanistan.

the K

April 19. Death of Benjamin Disn 82. April. Alleged compact bet May 6.

Denunciation of the Lan 83. Failure of the ne« Vnfavorable prog

May 5. Treaty of Gandamak with the V PDCAT DDITAIM Ji>"e-Nov. War with Afghanistan. UntA I Dnl I AINiDec. 24 capture and deposition of Yako.

Kha: Liberal party in the P

i.f lllr l-;L'\litl;.Tl «!

e ln>h imny I., fnr.

^^n. 26.'"overt"hro"w a'l'i.'oi' Rejection of the Liberii

verthr

ary elections. the Marquise

Passage of the

End of the MacMahon regime. Definitive establishment of the Third Republic. Sept. 3. Death of Louis Adolplie Thiers. Accession of Jules Grevy to the presidency of th

Killing of the Prince Imperial in Zulu

FRANCE.

licMahon.

Moderate Republic; n Frftnce;"e.\pulsio

. ! I I ;iiii\inst the Bonapartists. I'll I I 'i nice Napoleon ami certain Ork-anist Pri

Kn.i '.iftlie Franco-Chinese \Var. Abrogation of the No-Divorce Law.

-- -• revising the Constituli. .11 ;iLMi

i5. Question (

■pre:

78. April. The Socialist Hoflel fires on the Emperor. Great reaction against the German Liberals. Aug.-Oct. Bismarck presiiies over the Congress i

The Chancellor ;

GERMANY.

The Chancellor opens negotiations with the ^

Meeting of the Emperors of Germany, Austri

The general elections carried against the gov

82. rolitical affiliation of Bismarck and H

Repeal of the Fulk Laws againj

Attempt to repeal the Civil Ma

Russia at Danlzic.

sh influence

i of the Empire and

ilty with the United Sta rassage of the Lasker Resolu 84, Alarm throughout Em Measures adopted und<

Spain about the

Concluding years of the reign of Victor Eninianut-l. 77. Celebration of the Jubilee Anniversary of the Episcopat) Pope.

ITALY. I^l'A^vi:;-'!

[Humbert! i as Pope, with title c [It to suppress Social]

an pilgrimages to Rome lella Democrazia. for universal suffrage, he Pope to establish an

iilependent ecclesiastic

77. The Czar

Makes w :.

78. Tl

RUSSIA.

ceof the E.Ih I .1 . Establlshmtm < l Further suppressH

Turkey. May 30. Assassination of Abtlul Aziz anil accession Murad V. Aug. 31. Accession of Abdul Hamid II. Mexico. Success of the revolution headed by General Diaz. 77. Torfeey- March. The Porte participates in the London C( April 10. Issuance of the London protocol at Constantinople June. Beginning of the Turco-Russian War. July 16-19. Battle of Tundja Brook and capture of Nicopolis. Aug. 19. Assault on Shipka Pass. Sept. 6-9. Battles of Plevna. Nov. 17. Capture of Kars.

78. March 3. Treaty of San Stefano.

July 13. Beginning of the Congress of Berlin.

81. Turkey. Beginningof complication with Russia relative to China. Negotiation of the Angell treaty with the United i 82. Turkey. Rebellion and trial of Arabl Pasha. Terence. 83. Turkey. April. The Porte agrees to the bi

the Servian railways.

Mexico. Dee.

WORLD Brain. 'Reform " ■— Accessi

uly. Acquis

ution at Philippopolis, . General Diaz again Sept. Eastern Roun

Canada, l^assage of the bill for en

March. Outbreak of the Biel rebelli Nov. 6. Execution of Riel at BegiiKi

arriage

Mexico. Eleetii

ation in the Uniteil States.

the liisastrous earthquake at Charlesto Death of Henry Ward Beecher. the Inter-State Commerce Law.

Feb. Mafia riots in New Orleans and threatened w

Oct. 16. Killins of American sailors in Valparaiso

92. Felt. -J'.i. bcfiskiii of the Supreme Court uph

M.ii'ii I" iiirii/ial treaty with Spain nil

.iiiV \ .. - - 1 rikes anil civil war ai II

Ai, !■ II' i spread of cholera 111

%■ - ih.n of Cleveland to th.

92-'.i.;- ' :. ' I 111. 11 Ml Mil- World's Columbian I- \ ..... .M.uvli.^. .second inauguration of tTi.

neselabor.Ts. Auj;. I:J. Passage of the Wilson-Gon

Ih M. Jan. 27. Opening of Midw Feb. 2. Wreck Inst of tlu-

'-■f LirM-Uuiil as President, n tariff bill.

^aw. [depression,

heginning of severe industrial er Fair in San Francisco. .ani.T Ktarsarsfc on Roncador I. 11- ! ilii. i-"untry. [Reef.

Home Rule Bil

cendency of Salisbury i I of the Lmulon I'tmes o I, Celebration of the ji nd expedition of H.-,ny 8. April l_«. r:i-<;..'.. nf

Sep" "i-.i ■' '" .'

try of Ue Freycinet. tion of the Boulangist agitation, esiilent Grcvy and election of M. Saili-Ca of M. Floquet lo the Prime Ministry. Explosion of Boulangism ami exile of Ge Boulanger.

Re^

I celebration of the Centeiinia jlntion and First Republic at Paris. Feb. 7. Arrest of the Duke of Orlea

on Reed's rulings.

	"iut seal fisheries.
	II Hallway Union.
i.aiio In
k Dougl
	institutional.
m Ship-
	onded debt of the
rties on the silver question.

an<l Emin Pasha

Liberals. [crown,

cnce, heir presumptive to the Ml V elections.

[cession of Earl Rosebery. Prenjiership hy Gladstone and ac- in Queen's speech for (iisestablish-

i of Rosebery Cabin

1 of Francois Felix alh .if the'bacterio

; Pusli

pxoilus of German emigrants to the United Slates. jral alarm of war; conservative victory in the election: i>uncenient of the fatal ailment of the Crown Prince. 8. March 9. Death of Emperor ^Viliia^l I.

Accession of Frederick III; his reign of ninety-nir June 15. Death of the Emperor and accession of his Aug. 13. Von Moltke succeeded by Waldersee as G

' , Beginningof rupture between the young Emperor

"" ' ^' Anti-Socialist Bill rejected by th

Elections result in great gains for

18. Bismarck is succeeded by Von

AUempt to exclude Jewish pupils

Gov

Chancellor Capriv Death of Count ■ Caprivi is made

90. J a

possession of territory and towns on the coast of Zanzibar.

L secures the renewal of the Dreibund.

■on Moltke.

a count by Emperor William. 's. 92. Feb. Great riots of the workingmen in Berlin, tVilliam II. 93. Julys. Opening of the Reichstag by the Emperor in person, il of the army. 94. April 23. Removal of the ban against Catholic orders, except-

md Prince Bismarck. ing the Jesuits.

' Reichstag. Oct. 26. Resignation of Chancellor von Caprivi and accession

he Socialists. of Prince Hohenlohe, [Reichstag.

;aprlvi as Chancellor. 95. May 11. Bill for repression of socialism rejected by the

rom the superior schools. 96. Jan. 19. Celebration of the twenty-fifth anniver-

■ting the AJri. Mil t...uii.!,ii \ . sary of the Empire,

llnexchaim. * > -sessions in Zanzibar.

tearlhquuke in the Riviera. ' becomes the third member of the coalition. 8. Celebration of the Jubilee Anniversary of the Pop. delegate to Benevcnto.

July in. Passage of the Electoral Reform Bill.

Unsatisfactory results of the Suffrage Law. s. 90. May 30. Treaty of commerce, navigat

Ravages of the cholera at Paleri

24. Overthrow of the Ministry (

95. Parliamentary election

Min

riod of peace an<i industrial prosper

90. Feb. 19. The Czar ,i

rubles of Bulgarii

trol

Ex-Emperor I lapan. Feb. 1

>orlueal. Dv

39. .Spain

Decree of m Pedro an Prociamat

ochumed King on of the Minis

lugiiese forces

91. Egypl. Feb 0 Defeat of Osman Di^r i Canada. March 5 Parliamentary election Egypt. July Ravages of cholera epi leniic Cbina. Aug. Beginni Brazil. Nov. 4. Dech

92. EBypl. Jan. 7. Death of Tewflk and Spain. Julv:il. National celebration Mrxifo. Sept. 29. General Diaz proclaimed Preside! at Lisbon. Swilzerland. Dec. 15. Election of Charles Emmanuel Schenck as President try. 93. China. Jan. 23. Burning of a temple at Canton results in 1,J00 deaths.

«i*ee<*e. Jan. 31. Great earthquake at Zante. Beleium. ApriHO. Fajlnre of the bi^lUorJJniversal Suffrage.

appointed Konth Afripa.

Leopold. the Matabelesc.

Constitution. Europe. Jan.

enos Ayres. India. June 2(i.

of Abbas Pasha as Khedive, niorating discovery of America "—■•'-' years.

THE IMTED STATES.— LATEST I'EIUOD.

cleared away, business was resumed, aud the people were again safe iu tlieir homes.

Ou the 4th of March, 1887, the second ses- sion of the Forty-ninth C'ungre^s expired liy statutory limitation. Tlie work of ilie body had not been so fruitful of results as had been desired aud anticipated by the friends of the Government; but some important legislation had been effected. Ou the cpiestiou of the tariff nothing of value was accomplished. True, a serious measure of revenue reform had been brought forward at au early date in the session ; but owing to the opposition of that wing of the Democratic party headed by Samuel J. Randall, and committed to the doc- trine of protection, as well as to the antago- nism of the Republican majority in the Senate, the act failed of adoption. In fact, by the be- ginning of 1887, it had becbme apparent that the existing political parties could not be forced to align on the issue of free trade and tariff, and as a result no legislation looking to any actual reform in the current revenue system of the United States could be carried through Congress.

On the question of extending the Pension List, however, the case was different. A great majority of both parties could always be counted on to favor such measures as looked to the increase of benefits to the soldiers. At the first, only a limited number of pensions had been granted, and these only to actually disabled aud injured veterans of the War for the Union. With the lapse of time, however, and the relaxation of party allegiance, it be- came more aud more important to each of the parties to secure and hold the soldier vote, without which it was felt that neither could maintain ascendency iu the government. Nor can it be denied that genuine ]iatriotic senti- ment and gratitude of the Nation to its <le- fenders coincided in this respect with political ambition and selfishness. The Arrears of Pen- sions Act, making up to those who were already recipients of pensions such amounts as would have accrued if the benefit had dated from the time of disability, instead of from the time of granting the pension, was passed in 1879, and, at the same time, the list of beneficiaries was greatly enlarged.

The measure presented in the Forty-ninth Congress was designed to extend the Pensiim

List so as to include all regularly enlisted and honorably discharged soldiers of the Civil War, who had become, in whole or in part, depend- ent upon the aid of others for their mainte- nance and welfare. The measure was known as the Dependent Pensions Bill, and though many o])posed the enactment of a law which appeared to fling away the bounty of tlie Government to the deserving and the unde- serving, the evil and the just, alike, yet a ma- jority was easily obtained for the measure in both Houses, and the act was passed. Presi- dent Cleveland, however, interposed his veto, and the proposed law fell to the ground. A strenuous effort was made in the House of Representatives to j)ass the bill over the veto, but the movement failed.

By far the most impf)rtant aud uoted piece of legislation of the session was incorporated in the act known as the Interstate Commerce Bill. For some fifteen years complaints against the methods and management of the railways of the United States had been heard on many sides, and in cases not a few the com- plaints had originated in actual abuses, some of which were willful, but most were merely incidental to the development of a system so vast and, on the whole, so beneficial to the j)ublic. In such a state of affairs the lasting [ benefit is always forgotten in the accidental hurt. That large class of people who, in de- spite of the teachings of history, still believe in the cure of all things by law, aud that man- kind are always about to peri-sh for want of more legislation, became clamorous in their de- maud that Congress should take the railways by the throat and compel them to accept what may be called the sy.stem of uniformity as it respects all charges for service rendered. It was believed in Congress that to take up this call, and champion the alleged cause of the people, would be one of the most popular measures of the period. The Interstate Com- merce Bill was accordingly prepared, with a multitude of lengthy and involved clauses re- quiring a commission of great lawyers for their interpretation. It was enacted that all freight carriage across State lines wdthin the Union should be at the same rate per hundred for all distances, and between all places, aud under substantially the same conditions, and that pas- senger fares should be uniform for all persons.

i'MVERSAL HISrORY.~THE MODERN WORLD.

eil, or pas- e, betweeu

liered'tbnt niv expeu- <\ thau in

.-ivr tn i,uiia an.l nprrate a y: nihrrs. To .■any on,. „f tluse great tlmrough- larc- nvcr tin- Kncky Mountains is a very dif- (ereut thing from stretcliing a similar traek aei-oss the level prairies of Illinois. It must Still further be considered that, in the nature of the case, competition will do its legitimate and inevitable work at an earlier date and more thoroughly between great cities, even when remotely situated, than between uuim- jiortant points, however near together. The traffic and travel between two villages is not sufficient to create competition among the car- riers. It is as absurd to suppose that railway taritfs can be the same between New York and Chicago as they are between two Missouri towns, as it is to suppose that butter can com- mand the same price in an Iowa village that it dues in the Quincy Market of Boston. What should be said of an attemiit in Congress to make the price of wheat ami jmrk uniform throughout the United 8tates.

The Interstate Commerce Bill was con- ceived against all the natural, manifest, and undeniable principles of the commercial world. It was passed with the belief tluit all ilis- criminations in the charges maile by railways doing business in more than one State could be prevented by law. It was i)assed as if to amend or abrogate those natural laws of trade and traffic which, in their kind, are as absolute and as beneficial as the law of gravitation. It was passed with the ulterior ilesi-ii of securing to its promoters tli.- support of that ignorant and embittered race of men whose l)rejudi<-es are out of all ju'opoitiou to their knowledge of human rights, or their reeoi;iii- tion (jf the paramount interests of the whole ]ieo|ile. It was passed under the pernicious

■od.lle.l rl, l!„>v

110 other measure ever adopted by the Amer- ican Congress was so difficult of application, or was so barren of residts with respect to the interests which it was iuleiiiled to promote. Disorder was the first-born of tlie Interstate Commerce Bill, and its last offspring was—

During the whole of Cleveland's Adminis- tration the puljlic mind was swaycl ami ex- eited l)y the movements of politics. The uni- versality of partisan newspapers, the combina- tion in their columns of all the news of the world with the invectives, misrepresentations, and counter-charges of party leaders, kept political questions constantlj' uppermost, to the detriment of social progre.ss and industrial interests. Scarcely had President Cleveland entered upon his office as Chief Magistrate when the question of the succession to the Presidency was agitated. The echoes of the election of 1884 had not died away before the rising murmur of that of 1888 was heard.

By the last year of the current Administra- tion it was seen that there would be no general break-up of the existing parties. It was also perceived that the issues between them must be )»-/</«, rather than faiml in the existing state of atfitirs. The sentiment in the United States in favor of the Constitutional pro- hibition of the manufacture and sale of in- toxicating liquors had become somewhat ex- tendeil and intensified since the last quadrennial election. But the discerning eye might per- ceive that the real issue was between the Re- pulilicau and Democratic parties, and that the questions involved were to be rather those of the past than of the future.

One issue, however, presented itself which had a living and practical relaticm to affairs,

and that was the (plc-tion of PROTECTION TO

Amickk AX Injusthy. Since the campaign of 18S4, the agitation had been gradually ex- ^ tended. At the opening of the session, in 1887. the President, in his annual message to Congress, departed from all precedent, and de- voted the whole document to the discussion <.f the -ingle question of a Reform of the Reve- III" Sii.<t,-iii of the Uiiiteil States. The existing rates ot' duty on imported articles of com- mer<'e had so greatly augmented the income of the Government that a large surplus had accumulated, and was still accumulating, in

THE UNITED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

■the Xatioual Treasury. This t'ai;t was mack- the basis of the President's arminiciit in favor of a new system of revenue, i>v, at h'a>t, au ample reduction in the taiitf rato under the old. It was immediately cliarixid hy thi' Ite- puhlicaus that the project in i|ucsli<in meant the substitution of the system of free tra(h> in the United States, as against tin' system of protective duties. The question thus inv(ilve<l was made the bottom issue in the Presiih'nlial campaign of 1888.

As to the nominees of the various parties, it was, from the first, a foregone conclusion that Mr. Cleveland would be nominated for re- election by the Democrats. The result justi- fied the expectation. The Democratic Na- tional Convention was held in St. Louis, on the 5th day of June, 1888, and JSIr. Cleveland was renominated by acclamation. For the Vice-presidential nomination there was a con- siderable contest; but, after some balloting, the choice fell on Ex-Senator Allen G. Thur- man, of Ohio. The Republican National Con- vention was held in Chicago, on the 19th day •of June. Many candidates were ardently pressed upon the body, and the contest was long and spirited. It was believed, up to the time of the Convention, that Mr. Blaine, who was evidently the favorite of a great majority, would be again nominated for the Presidency. But the antagonisms which that statesman had awakened in his own party made it inexpedient to l)ring iiim forward again as the nominee. His name was, accordingly, not presented to the convention. The most prominent candi- dates were Senator John Sherman, of Ohio ; Judge "Walter Q. Gresham, of Chicago; Chauncey M. Depew, of New York; Ex- Governor Russell A. Alger, of ^licliigan ; Ex- Senator Benjamin Harrison, of Imliana; and Senator William B. Allison, ,.f b.wa. The voting was continued to the eighth ballot, when the choice fell upon Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana. In the evening, Levi P. Morton, of Ts'ew York, was nominated for the Vice-presi- dency on the first ballot.

In the meantime, the Prohibition party had held its National Convention, at Indianapolis, and on the 30tli of ilay had nomimited for the Presidencv General Clinton B. Fisk. of New Jersey, and for tlie Viee-presideney Jolm A. Br.Kiks, of Missouri. The Democratic itlatfor.".!

declared for a rel'orn; of the United States, eiple of adjusting the

""I"

strict regard to the actual needs of govern- mental expenditure. The Republican plat- form declared also for a refm-m of the tariti' schedule, but at the same time stoutly affirmed the maintenance of the protective sy.stem, o^ fuch, as a part of the permanent policy of the United States. Both parties deferred to the patriotic sentiment of the country in favor of the soldiers, their rights and interests, and both endeavored, by the usual incidental circum- stances of the hour, to gain the advantage of the other before the American peo})le. The Prohibitionists entered the campaign on the distinct proposition that the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors should be prohib- ited throughout the United States by con- stitutional amendment. To this was added a clause in favor of extending the right of suf- frage to women.

As the canvass progressed during the sum- mer and autumn of 1888, it became evident that the result was in doubt. The contest was exceedingly close. As in 1880 and 1884, th^ critical States were New York, Coiniecticut, New Jersey, and Indiana. In all ot' the other Northern States the Republicans were ahnosl certain to win, while the Democrats were j equally certain of success in all the South. In the last weeks of the campaign. General Harrison grew in favor, ami his party gained perceptibly to the close. The result .showed success for the Republican candidate. He re- ceived two hundred and thirty-three electoral votes, against one hundred and sixty-eight votes for Mr. Cleveland. The latter, however, appeared to a better advantage on the popular count, having a considerable majority over General Harrison. General Fisk, the Prohi- bition candidate, received nearly three hun- dred thousand votes; but under the system of voting no electoral vote of any State was ob- tained for him in the so-called "College," by which the actual el„,i,v is ma.le. As s,.on as the result was kn<iwn, the excitement attendant upon the campaign sulisided and political ques- tions L'ave place to other interests.

The last days of Cleveland's Admiidstra-

tion and of the Fiftieth Colliiress were si-lial-

i/e,l hv the admission im„ the Tniun ,,f FouK

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

New States, making: the uumbt-r fdi-ty-two. Siuce the incoming uf Colorado, iu 187(i, uo State had been added to the Republic, ileau- while, the tremendous tiiles of population had continued to flow to the west and north-west, rapidly filling up the great Territories. Of these, the greatest was Dakota, with its area of one hundred and fifty thousand nine hun- dred and thirty-two square miles. Iu 1887 the question of divi<liug the Territory by a line running east and west was agitated, and the measure finally prevailed. Steps were taken by the ])eople of lioth sections for admission into the Union. Montana, with her one hun- dred and forty-five thousand seven hundred and seventy-six square miles of territory, had meanwhile acquired a sufficient population ; and Washington Territory, with its area of sixty-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety- four square miles, also knocked for admission. In the closing days of the Fiftieth Congress a bill was passed raising all these four Territo- ries— South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana and Washington — to the plane of Statehood. The Act contemplated the adoption of State Constitutions, an<l a in'oclamation of admission by the next President. It thus happened that the honor of bringing iu this great addition to the States of the Union was divided between the outgoing and incoming .\d ministrations.

Another Act of Congress was also of National importance. Hitherto the Govern- ernment had been administered through seven Departments, at the head of each of which was placed a Cabinet iiffi<'er, the seven together constituting the advisers df the President. No provision for such an arrangement exists in the Constitution of the United States; but the statutes of the Nation provide for such a system as most in accordance with the Repub- lican form of government. Early in 18SH a measure was brought forwanl in Congress, and adopted, for the institution of a new de- partment, to be called the Department of Agriculture. Practically the measure involved the elevation of what had previously been an Agricultural Bureau in the Department of the Interior to the rank of a Cabinet office. Among foreign nations, France has been con- spicuous for the patronage which the Govern- ment has given to the agricultural pursuits of that countrv. Hitherto in the United States.

though agriculture has been the greatest of all the producing interests of the people, it has been neglected for more political and less use- ful departments of American life and enter- prise. By this act of Congress the Cabinet offices were increased iu number to eight in- stead of seven.

Benjamin Harrison, twenty-third President of the United States, was born at North Bend, Ohio, on the 20th of August, 1833. He is the son of John Scott Harrison, a prominent citizen of his native State ; grandson of Presi- dent William Henry Harrison; great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison, signer of the Declara- tion of Independence. In countries where at- tention is paid to honorable lineage, the circum- stances of Genei-al Harrison's descent would be considered of much importance; but in America little attention is paid to one's- ancestry, and more to himself.

Harrison's early life was passed, as that of f)tber American boys, in attendance at school and at home duties on the farm. He was a student at the institution called Farmers' Col- lege for two years. Afterwards he attended Miami University, at Oxford, Ohio, and was graduated therefrom in June, 1852. He took in marriage the daughter of Dr. John W. Scott, president of the Oxford Female College. After a course of study he entered the profession of law, removing to Indianapolis and establishing^ himself in that city. With the outbreak of the war he became a soldier of the Union, and rose to the rank of Brevet Brigadier-General of Volunteers. Before the close of the war he was elected Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of Indiana.

In the period following the Civil War, General Harrison rose to distinction as a civilian. In 1876 he was the unsuccessful candidate of the Republican party for Gov- ernor of Indiana. In 1881 he was elected to the United States Senate, where he won the reputation of a leader and statesman. In 1884 his name was prominently mentioned in con- nection with the Presidential nomination of his party, luit 'Sir. Blaine was successful. After the lapse of four years, however, it was found at Chicago that General Harrison, more than any other, combined in himself all the elements of a successful candidate; and the event iustified the choice of the party in

THE UNITED STATES.—LATEST PERIOD.

making him the standard-bearer in the en>uiiig campaign.

General Harrison was, in aecinilance with the usages of the Gnvmiiiieiit, inauguratfd President on tlie 4tli ..f Manh, l^s'.i. He had succeeded better tlian any of his prede- cessors iu keeping his own counsels during the interim between his election and the inaugura- tion. Ko one had discerned 1: all waited with interest the e: pressions of his Inaugural X' ■dress. In that document he -i forth the policy which he woul favor as the Chief Executu recommending the same gem i measures whicli the Repulilu u party had advocated duinii: tin campaign.

On the day fcjilowiug the m augural ceremonies, Pie~idtnt Harrison sent in the nomuia tidus fur his Cabinet (ifhci-, a^ follows: F...r Secretary nt st ,t, James G. Blaine, of :Mauie ; for Secretary of the Treasury, William Wiudom, of MinneMit;i ; for Secretary of War, Redtivlil Proctor, of Vermont; for Sec- retary of the Navy, Beujauiiii F. Tracy, of New York; ior Postmaster-General, John Wan- amaker, of Pennsylvania; iiir Secretary of the Interior, .Tnhn W. Noble, of Missouri; for At- torney-General, William H. H. Miller, of Indiana ; and f.r Se- retary of Agriculture — the ne department — Jeremiah Rusk, ( i Wisconsin. These appoin

firmed bv the S, nate, an.l tl,

the centennial anniversary of the : of Washington, at New York Ci the ceremonies connected with the ' tinn, in 1889, wore ass.iciated, as tii-ilile, with the scenes of the first i The event was so interesting in i distinctlv National, as to warrant

nauguration ty. All of

■If, and so few para-

members	of the	ne
istration	assumec	1 t
duties.
With	n two n	int
guration.	an even	t n,
mind of	the Am.	rie;
incidents	of the	i;-
event in	questioi	w:
Celebr.vtiox of	Tl
American Rp:pubi,ii
selected	was the	.30t

Adii

hei

■thcial

The

the vrar 177(3

:!.S

UyiVEBSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEBX WOULD.

3. The adoptinii -..t the CnnMilutiun l.y the States.

4. The lustitutiuu uf tlie ^Cw (iuvernmeut. The D.-rhiralinii nf lii.lepeii.lfiire ua* a

demorratir

t"'l'

;v..lul

15 V

the

alleg-iauee of the UI<1 Thirteen Colonies to the Mother Couutry was finally broken off. It was essentially destruetive in its character. The first sta.<;-es of all revolutions have this distinctive aspect. They destroy. It remains for a subsequent movement to rebuild. The revolution, in its first intent, al)olisiies and obliterates an existing order. It implies that the people have borne as long as possible some system which presses upon them, as if it were chains and fetters. It is to Ijreak the chains — real or imaginary — to throw off the fetters, that the revolution liegins its career. Such was the case with our own destruetive iu- iurrectiou of 1776. It was leveled against the existing order, and was most happily successful. In the second stage, we have another aspect. It was not long after the achievement of independence until the Revolutionary patriots came to .see that mere independence W'as not enough ; that mere destruction of popular abuses could not suffice fir the future of Aiuerica. Acting from the.se sentiments, the Fathers began to considt about rebuilding, or building anew, a structure in which civil liberty in America might find an abiding place. These discussions began almost as soon as independence was clearly gained. Wash- ington and his friends earnestly debated the feasibility of a better system of L^iverniiient. Conferences were held, first at JMnunt Vermm, then at Annapolis; and finally a great conven- tion of delegates was assembled at Philadelphia. This occurred, as we have saiil. in the summer of 17.S7, The result of the labors uf this conveiitinn is well known. That siran-e eeni- promise, called tlie Constitution of the Unitid States, was produced and si-ned by the dele- gates, with ^Vashin<rton as tlielr |ire-iileiit. Thi-^, th.-n. wa-^ the Epneh of For.ual ion -the second of our R.^volntionary cri-.-.

Immediately after till- event, a jierio,! of political airitation. the first real and -enend asritation known in the history of the United S'tates. oeenrred. The new C.,n,-titntion, l:.i<l bef.i-e tlie States wa- jhe bottom fact IVom which the >tormv di-cu-Mon> of the next two

years sprang. Should that Constitution be- adopted? or should it be rejected, and the old Confederative system of government be con- tiiiueil as hefue? (.)n the>e questions there was a division of jiarties, and the contruversv waxed violent. All the Old Thirteen States were shaken from center to boundary-line.

In a former part of the present work,' the story of the adoption of the Constitution by the several States has been narrated ; nor is it ueees.sary here to repeat the well-known account of how, in State after State, a majority of the delegates was at last secured in favor of the new system of government. This epoch of agitation, of controversy, and the final adoption, is the third great crisis to which we have made reference as iielonging to our Revolutionary history. j After the Constitution had been adopted j by nine or ten of the States, came the striking ,; event of the institution of the New Govern- ment. The paper model of that government existed in the Constitution itself How \Va>li- ington was unanimously chosen as first Chief Magistrate of the New Republic, is known to all the world. A Congress was constituted by the election of a House of Representatives and a Senate, in accordance with the provisions of the new instrument. All things were maile ready, as an architect might prepare materials for a structure. Then came the actual build- ing of the temple. The scene was in Old New York — the Neu Y.irk of a hundred

fe Vol. III., pp. 619-620. ew York ( 'ity, at tlie time of which we speak, imited to the lower end of Manhattan Isl- It was no more than a speck in comiiari- ith the Centennial Metropolis of the Nation, rthern limits were marked by the present Hi; of the New York Times. Immediately oi iliis lav a lake, called the Collect Pond.

otlielut	ire extension
e popuU	tion was ap-
. Watei	was distrib-
iniits, ail'	.Irawn in.m
H.l Toa-	vater rump,

,ne liV >1 still a c.

THE FXrrED STATES.- LATEST I'EEfOD.

It is an interesting liistorieal liy-study to note with care the varying- sentiments witli which the people of the United States contem- plated the ceutenuial return of the ditiierent crises above delineated. The masses were warm in their affections towanls the destructive revolution accomplished by the Dwlaration of Independence and the war which followed. They took more interest in the fact of in- dependence and the means by which it was accomplished than in any other part of the Revolutionary drama. With what zeal and success the centennial anniversary of the Dec- laration was observed in 1876, in the city of Philadelphia, has already been fully narrated.' The second centennial, that is, the centennial of the Formation of the Constitution, did not awaken in the United States any considerable degree of enthu.siasm. The people took little interest in that part of our national history covering the development of <iur new institu- tional structure.

In 1887 there was in the city of Philadel- phia an effort to commemorate the anniversary of the Constitution, and some local interest was excited in the event. But there was no ■wide-spread zeal, no throbbing of the popular heart over the coming c,f that anniversary. The same may be said with respect to observ- ing the intermediate stages of the adoption of the Constitution by the States. No celebrations of more than local importance were held in any State in commemoration of this event. At the first, it was even doubted whether the centennial of the Institution of the Govern- ment itself could awaken sufficient public en- thusiasm to warrant a national celeiiration.

Events, such as the formation of our Con- stitution, its adoption by the people of the States, and the setting up of the new form of government instead of the olil, are not suf- ficiently spectacular and heroic to .'^et the masses aglow, and to produce the requisite heat of a great national celebration. In New York City, however, the event of 1789 could not by any means be allowed to pass without an effort to impress upon the minds of the present generation the great movements of a century gone by. The New York Historical Society took the matter up. and as early as

' See pp.

:\rai-rh of 1SS4 a resolution was ad..pte,l to undertake the enterprise uf a eeiiteiinial cel- ebration, commemorative of the tnimdiiig of the (Tovernment, and particiilaily of tin- in- auguration of Washington as tiist I'n-i.lent. Soon afterwards a public meeting was lield at the Fifth Avenue Hotel, and f.rnial stejis w-ere taken for the prosecution of the work. It was not, hi>wever, until the close of 18''^7 that the enterprise was espoused by the municipality. At that time a committee of fortv-nine citizens, with Mayor Abram S. Hewitt as chairman, was appointed for the general supervisi.m I'f the project; and many capitalists, military men, inerehants.and others, gave their influence and their means for tlie promotion of the cause.

At an early date it was determined that the celebration should conform as nearly as practi- cable to the ceremonies attending the actual inauguration of Washington. About this central idea all the other features of the event were clustered. The celebration was totally different in character from the great industrial and art expositions which have constituted the larger part of national centennial displays and festivities. The jubilees of France, the great World's Fairs of England, and <inr own Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1876, were of this kind. But in the ease of the commemoration of the American Govern- ment, at New York, the feature of exposition was wholly omitted. Everything was de- signed to point backward to the events of a century ago, and to evoke, through the shadows of several generations, a vivid reeoUeetion of the manners and condition (jf the American people when the Republic of 1789 was in- stituted.

During the whole ..f 18S8, an<l the first months of the centennial year, the prelimi- naries of the celebration were prosecuted with zeal. Meanwhile, the Presidential election had been held, in which the temporary ascendency of the Democratic party was replaced by Re- publican success. Benjamin Harrison, of In- diana, was chosen President. Ex-Prcsident Cleveland retired at the close of his Adminis- tration to New York City, and became a resi- dent of that melropolis. Happily enough, the ineoiiiiii'j: Chief Magistrate was intimately as- i soeiated in liis family relations, with the great

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

P rth of tl (Ini h of Henei 6 Nation il Academy of Design

THE UyiTED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

241

t'veiits of the Revnlutiou. His great-graod- falher, also named Beujamiii Harrison, had ])resided in the Colonial Congress when the Declaration of Independence was adopted, Mr. Hancock being absent from the chair on that ever-memorable da}". The son of that distinguished statesman had become ninth President of the United States, and now the great-grandson was chosen by the election of the American people to the same high office and dignity.

It was decided by the committee to devote two days, namely, the 30th of April and the 1st of May, to the celebration. For a fort- night before these days, the great trains on the railways centering in the metropolis began to pour out an unusual cargo of human life. The throngs were gathered from all parts of the Republic, but principally from the Old Thirteen States. For three days before the opening of the celebration, the Atlantic coast was visited with great rain-storms, which threatened to mar all that had been attempted; but the skies cleared, the air became fresh, and the sunshine bright. The rise of the cen- tennial morning was as auspicious as though it were the dawning of the first day.

We may here speak of the general ajipear- ance of the city. Every pains had been taken to put the metropolis into gala dress and to present to the eye the most inspiring spectacle. Never was a city more completely clad in gay apparel. Every street on both sides, as far as the eye could reach, was ornamented with flags and streamers, mottoes, and emblems of jubi- lee. In this respect Broadway and Fifth Ave- nue were the most elaborately and beautifully adorned. It is doubtful whether in the his- tory of mankind a finer display has been made in the streets of any city. The decorations extended to every variety of public and private edifices. Scarcely a house on IManhattan Isl- and but had its shai-e in the display. Indeed, if one had been lifted in a balloon above old Castle Garden, sweeping northward with his glass, he would have seen flags on flags from the Battery to Spuyten Duyvil. Along both sides of the \nrth River and East River, and in the islands of the bay, the universal em- M-nis were thing to the breeze. And the purest of sunshine glorified the scene with a blaze of morning light.

Arrangements had been made for President Harrison, Vice-President Morton, the members of the Cabinet, and other prominent men con- nected with the Government, to go to the city from Washington. A magnificent train was prepared for the accommodation of the com- pany, and in the early morning of the 2;ith of April, the distinguished party arrived at Elizabeth, Kew Jersey, and were presently conducted across the harbor in a gaily decked steamer to the landing on the New York side. The bay was covered with vessels, the ships of foreign nations vying with those of the United States in flinging their flags and streamers to the breeze.

The part assigned to President Harrison in the commemorative exercises was the part of Washington. On the arrival of the Chief ^Magistrate, he was tendered jjublic receptions at several places in the city; and in the evening he attended a great liall in the ]\Iet- ropolitan Opera-house, which had been pre- pared in imitation of the Washingtonian ball, given on the occasion of the first inauguration, at wliirh the Father of his Country led the first cotillion.

On the morning of the oOth of April the people of New York, and the hundreds of thousands of strangers gathered there, poured into the streets to witness the great military parade, which was the feature of the day. Meanwhile, in the lower part of the city, the exercises which had been planned in imitation and commemoration of Washington's accession to the Presidency were under way. Wall Street and Broad Street were packed with people. A great platform had been erected in front of the Treasury Building, now occupying the site of old Federal Hall, and marked by the presence of Ward's colossal statue of Washington. It was here that the oratorical and literary exercises took place. These consisted of a Centennial Oration by Hon. Chauucey ^[. Dejiew ; also of an address by President Harrisdu, of a poem written by John Greenleaf Whittiei-. and of such re- ligious services as were appropriate to the oc- casion.

The accessories were all in keeping with the occasinn. President Harrison sat in a chair which had been Washington's. The table al.-o was Washington's, and the Bible

UXrVERSAL HrSTOHY. — THE MODERX WORLD.

in the past and trusts the futn by the President was also ah The exercises were closed wi

r .Mr. i' the lieves

itfic!

Arc Neu In	hliisli.ip (Virriu-an, of the archdio York, the nicantinic, tlie military para(
ati'S	(if all snch displays in the Un
Ih.-	with the sin.t,de exceptiou nf the re\ <nl,li.-rs at Washington at the close
Ci ■t ..	•il War — was in preparation for The ]iriiicipal streets in the h the citv had been assigned for
mat	.,n of the varions divisions of
	A nundier of magnificent carri

bearing the President, the Vice-President, the members of the Cabinet, and other distinguished representatives of the Government, swept up to the head of the column, and led the way to the great reviewing stand, whirli liad been ]irepared on the west side of iladisnn Sijuare, looking down into Fifth Avenue. Here the President and his companions took their places to review the column as it passed, and for six hours the Chief Magistrate stood up to recog- capacity, the passing squad- rons of the greatest ))iiade e\ei known HI a tmie of peace w est ot the Atlantic. It ^leie difficult t 1 desciihe the great 1 loce^sion It was admiiably man- iged — wholly mili- ttn The different dni-i n- were ar- I iii.i 1 jn hies from luhtc n to twenty- \\\ I mt n abreast. In nnn\ jilaces the niauhnig was in close lank so that the knees of those ui the iCTr rank fitted ilmost geomet- iicall> into those ot the men in front. The passage was at the late (f more than uuie thousand peihrui The best estimates 1 lace the nundiei in line at o\ei fift^ two thou- sand Mijor-Gen- eral John M. Schofield was commander-in- chief The course of march was fr(jm Wall Street into Broadway ; uj) Broadway to Wav- erly Place; through Waverly Place into Filtli Avenue; along that magnificent thoroughfare to Fourteenth Street; thence around Union Square to Fifth Avenue; and thence northwanl to Central Park.

Through all this distance, and .ui b..th sides of the street, was a solid ^vall of liunian be- ings, rising to the rear by every kind of con-

THE rXITEh STATKS.-LATEST PERIOD.

trivance which iugeuuit.y cmilil invent, so as to gain a view of the prucessinti. The mass on the sidewalks was from twenty to fifty persons deep. In evi

thousand regulars — infantry and eavali drawn from the army; then came the cadets 1 West Point, whose marching, and tmifij

adv:

seats, had been erected for the accommodation of the multitudes, and Udt a ^eat w is left unoccupitd At the street-cioss ings every vaiiety of vehicle hid been drawn u[), and the privilege of standing on boxes, or sitting in carts, wagons, or hacks, was sol at high figures to the eager peiplr who pressed iiit i the crowd. A\ in dows, and e\en other avaihbli point of view — house-tops, btl conies, stoops, \e ran das — were crowded to then utmost capacity In favorite Wxh ties, fabulous prices w e i e charged for the privilege of look ing from a win- dow upon the pass i n g cavalca 1 The latter was i we have said, pi ceded by the Pi l- idential coni[iaii\ General Sdinfi 11 senio r ;M a j o i General of the American army, as el head of the column. the van of the process

■ him, and leading iper, were over two

v.n. of su.-h	excellence as	to ex-
if .■heors frn	n en.l to eml	.f the
X,'Xt followt	d the artiller	■and

CMVEKSAL HISTORY.-THE MOUKRS WOULD.

batteries of the regular army. ^lauy of ilie guns, aud iiuicli of tbe armor, was resplemleiit for its brilliancy. After tbese came the ma- rines aud naval caik't>, a vast (•(iluiiiii nt ajipren- tices, whose iiiarrh. by its i)t-culiar rolling movement, dcnnted that the n.luiiiii had been recently gathered from the dirk- of ships.

Thus closed the fir>l .HviMuu of the proces- sion— that is, those who were taken from the Army aud Navy of the United States. Then followed tiie militiamen— the National Guards of the diH'er.'iit States. At the head was a

fr(jm Delaware ; for Delaware had been frxt of the Old Thirteen States to adopt the Con- stitution, aud was thus given a place of honor on the Centfiinial Ainiiversary. The Gov- ernor of each State represented in the parade rode at the head of the ilivisicm from his own Commonwealth. ^lost of the Governors were in civil attire. General Beaver, of Pennsyl- vania; General Fitzhugh Lee, of Virginia; aud General John B. Gordon, of Georgia, were conspicuous at the head of their divisions. It was noticed that those who were present from the Southern States were received witli unstinted applause. Governor Beaver rode at the head of the Pennsylvania troops, number- ing fully eight thousand men. Then came Cioveruor Green, with the soldiers of New Jersey, three thou.sand seven luindred strong; then Georgia, with General Gordon aud liis staff. The Foot Guards, from Connecticut, preceded by the Governor, numbered six hun- dred. Gioveruor Ames, of Massachusetts, beaded the column of one thousand tive hun- dred from the Old Bay State — a noble division, coutaiuiug the Ancient aud Honorable Artil- lery of Boston, all uniformed after the most antique pattern. The men of INIarylaud were five hundred strong. Then came New Hamp- sliire; then Vermont, with a division of seven hundred. (ioveni-.r Kiehanlson, of North Carolina, foil., wed with a bo<ly <,f tive hun- dred men. Thi> diviMon was fortunate in bearine- an old Ha- l,eh,n-iii- to North Caro- lina in the ]ire-i;evoliiiioiiarv epoch. After this came the -nat division' of New York. Twelve thousau.l men, arnui-e.l in f .ur bii- ga.le- of ei-hteen regiments, one battalion, an.) five batteri.s, were the contrilmtion of the Empire State to the great disphiy. At the

head of the line rode Governor David B. Hill. In this column the Seventh Regiment, made up of prominent nieu of New York City, and numbering over one thousand, was, perhaps, the most conspicuous siugle body in the whole jirocession. The Twenty-second Regiment vied \\ith its rival: and it lidght be difficult to de- cide whether the palm for marching and other evidences of elegant training should be awarded to the West Point Cadets, the Seventh Regi- ment of New York, the Tweuty-secoud Regi- ment of th<' same State, the squadron from the .Miehi-au Military Academy, or the Twenty- third Regiment, of Brooklyn.

Behind this magnificent display of the mil- itary came the veterans of the Civil War, the men of the Grand Army of the Republic, headed by their Commander-in-Chief, General William Warner. These were arranged column after eohnnn to an aggregate of twelve thou- sand, according to the locality from which they were gathered, the rear being closed with a magnificent body of old soldiers, uumbering nearly four thousand, fi'om Brooklyn and Kings County, New York. It was already nightfall when this extreme left of the column passed the reviewing stand, aud the parade for the day was at an end.

The evening of the 30th was occupied with one of the most elaborate and sumptuous ban- quets ever spread in the United States. For this purpose the Metropolitan Opera-house, in Broadway, had been procured aud decorated. It was claimed b}- those experienced in such matters that the floral ornamentation of the hall was far superior iu costliness and beauty to auvthing of like kind ever before dis- played in the country. The boxes of the the- ater were adorned with the National colors and with the .shields and coats-of-arms of the various States of the Union. Over the pros- cenium arch was a portrait of Washington, ar- ranireil iu a cluster of evergreens and flowers. The auditorium was brilliantly illuminated, and the scene of .splendor on every hand might well dazzle the eye and surprise the imagination of the beholder. The banqueters, cmbraeiiiL' manv of the chief men of the Na- tion, were >eated at a series (,f tables, the first and principal one being occupied by the Pres- ident of the United States, the Governor of New York, the Vice-President, the Lieuten-

THE UXITED STATES.— LATEST rKRIOD.

245

aut-Governor, Cliief-Ju>tirc Fuller, . J lul^f An- drews, General SchutieM, A.hniial I'.u'ter, Sen- ator Evarts, Seuatdi- Iliscock, Kx-l'ri'sidcnt Hayes, Ex-President Clevi-hin.l, liisliup Put- ter, Speaker Cole of the Xfw V.n-k Assem- bly, Secretary Proctor, H.m. S S. (\,x-, ( um- eral William T. Sherman, Clarence \\ . B.iwen, and Elbridge T. Gerry, the last two represent- ing the Citizens' Committee. At tliis taljle Mayor Grant presided, and read the toasts of the evening.

The feast began at nineo'clock iu the evening. At the close, a series of brief addresses were delivered by the Governor of New York, E.\;- President Cleveland, Ex-President Hayes, General Sherman, Senator Evarts, President Eliot of Harvard, James Russell Lowell, Senator Daniel, and others. The closing address was by the President of the United States. Nearly all the speeches were faultless in their subject-matter, eloquent in delivery, and worthy to be regarded as classics of the occasion.

The programme prepareil l)y the Citizens' Committee embraced a general liciliilay of three days' duration, during whi<-h luisiness was suspended throughout the city. On the 29th and 30th of April and on the Lst day of May the restricticm was faithfully regarded. One might traverse Broadway and find but few business establishments upen to the [lulilic. This W'as true particularly of the two piinei- pal days of the festival.

It now remains to notice the great civic parade of the 1st of May, with which the j commemorative exercises were concluded. The design was that this .should represent the ' industries, the progress, and in general the civic life of the Metropolis of the Nation and of the country at large, as distinguished from the military display of the preceding day. It was found from the experience of the 30th that the line of march was too lengthy, and the second day's course was made somewhat shorter. It is not intended in this connection to enter into any elaborate account of the civic procession of the third day. It was second only iu importance to the great military parade which had preceded it. The procession was composed, in large part, of those various civic orders and brotherhoods with which modern society so much abounds. In these I

the foreign nationalities, which have obtained so large a footing in New York City, were largely prevalent. The German societies were out iu full force. Coni|ianies repiv-enting almost every nation of the < )ld World were in the line, carrying gay Ijanners, keeping step to the music of magniiicent bauds, and proudly liftiug their mottoes and emblems in the May-day morning.

The second general feature of this proces- sion was the historical part. The primitive life of Manhattan Island, the adventures of the early explorers and discoverers along the American coast, the striking incidents in the early annals of the Old Thirteen States, were allegorized, and mounted in visible form on chariots, and drawn through the streets. All the old heroes of American History, from Columbus to Peter Stuyvesant, were seen again in mortal form, received obeisance, and heard the shouts of the multitudes. From ten o'clock , in the forenoon till half-past three in the after- I noon the procession was under way, the princi- pal line of march being down Fifth Avenue and through the principal squares of the city. With the coming of evening the pyrotechnic display of the preceding night was renewed in many parts of the metropolis, though it could hardly be said that the fire-works were equal in brilliancy, beauty, and impressiveness to the magnificent day pageants of the streets.

One of the striking features of the celebra- tion was the ease and rapidity with which the vast multitudes were breathed into and j breathed out of the city. In the principal hotels fully one hundred and fifty thousand ' strangers were registered as guests. More than twice this number were distributed in the smaller lodging-houses and private dwellings of New York and Brooklyn. Yet the careful observer abroad in the streets saw neither the coming nor the going. With the appearance of the days of the celebration the throngs were j)resent : on the following days they were gone. The great railways centering in the metropolis had done their work noiselessly, speedily, efiectively. It may well be recorded as one of the marvels of modern times that only two persons are said to have lost their lives in this tremendous assemblage, extending through several days, and that at least one of these died suddenly

■241

UMVERSAL ITISTnny. — THK MODERN WORLD.

from heart disease, while the inannrr of the death of the other was Linkiiown. Su.li is the triumph whieli the mastery of the liiimaii

easily achieved in our age, under the gLiidaiji-o of that beuefi(*nt science Viy which the world is at once enlightened and [n-otcctcd from <lam;er.

The close of the year is.s.s and the liegin- uiug of 1880 were marked by a peculiar episode in the hi>tory ot the country. Au unexpected and even dangerous complication ai-ose between the Uuited States and Germany relative to the Sanioan Islands. This com- paratively unimportant group of the (South Pacific lies in a south-westerly direction, at a distance of about five thousand miles from Sau Francisco, and nearly two thousand miles eastward from Australia. The long-standing policy of the Government, established under the Administration of Washington and ever since maintained, to have no entanglements with foreign nations, seemed in this instance to be strangely at variance with the facts.

Dui'ing 1888 the civil aflairs of the Samoau Islands were thrown into extreme confusion by what was really the progressive disposition of the people, but what appeared in the garb of an insurrection against the established au- thorities. The Government of the islands is a monarchy. The country is ruled by native princes, and is independent of foreign powers. The capital, Apia, lies on a bay of the same name on the northern coast of the principal island. It was here that the insurrection gained greatest headway.

The revolutionary movement was headed by an audacious chieftain called Tamasese. The king of the island was Malietoa, and las chief supporter, Mataafa. At the time, the German Empire was represented in Samoa by its Consul-General, Herr Weber, and the United States was represented by Hon. Harold ]M. Sewall. A German armed force virtually deposed Malietoa, and set up Tamasese on the throne. On the other hand, the representative of the Uuited States, following the policy of his Government, stood liy the established an-

tics in the iskmd were tlins l)ronoht fli<'t, and serious difiiculties occuricd the ships of the two nations in the h;

When the news of this state of affairs reached < ierniany, in April, 1889, several ad- ditional men-of-war were sent out to the island to uphold the German cause. Mataafa and the Germans were thus brought to war. .^reaiiwhile the American Government took up the cause of its Gonsnl, and of King Malietoa, as against the insurrection. A section of the Amei-ican navy was desj)atched to the distant island, and the ships of war of two of the great- est nations of Christendom were thus set face to face ill a harbor of the South Pacific Ocean.

In this condition of afiairs, on the 22d of March, 1880, one of the most violent hurri- canes ever known in the islands blew up from the north, and the American and German war-vessels were driven upon the great reef which constitutes the only breakwater outside of the harbor of Apia. Here they were wrecke<l. The American war-ships Nipsic, Trenton, and Vdinkdia were dashed into ruins. The German vessels, Adler, Olga, and Eber, were also lost. The English vessel, Calliope, which was caught in the storm, was the only war-ship which escaped, by steaming out to sea. Serious loss of life accompanied the dis- aster : four American officers and forty-six men, nine German officers and eighty-seven men. sank to rise no more.

Meanwhile, England had become interested in the dispute, and had taken a stand with the United States as against the decision of Ger- many. The matter became of so great im- portance that President Harrison, who had, in the meantime, acceded to office as Chief Mag- istrate, appointed, with the advice of the Sen- ate, an Embassy Extraordinary, to go to Berlin and meet Prince Bismarck in a conference, with a view to a peaceful solution of the diffi- culty. The Ambassadors appointed for this purpose were J. A. Kasson, of Iowa; William W. Phelps, of New- Jersey ; and G. H. Bates, of Delaware. The Commissioners set out on the loth of A)>ril, and, on their arrival at the capital of the German Empire, opened nego- tiations with the Chancellor Bismarck and his son. The attitude and demand of the Amer- ican Government was that the inde]iendence

be acknowlediied.and guaranteed, by the great nations concerned in the controversy. The conference closed in ]\Iay, 1889, with the res-

THE UMTED STATES.— LATEST PERIOD.

toratiou of King Malietoa, and the recoguitiou of his sovereignty over tl;e island.

The closing week of ^lay, 1889, was made foi-ever memorable in the history of the United States by the destruction of Johnstown, Penn- sylvania. The calamity was causeil Ijy the bursting of a reservoir and the ])oiu'inir out of a deluge iu the valley lielnw. A large artifi- cial lake had been constructed in the ravine of the South Fork River, a tributary of the Couemaugh. It was a fishing lake, the prop- erty of a company of wealthy sportsmen, and was about five miles in length, varying in depth from fifty to one hundred feet. The country below the lake was thickly peopled. The city of .Johnstown lay at the junction of the South F.irk with the Conemaugh. In the last days of May unusually heavy rains fell iu all that region, swelling every stream to a tor- rent. The South Fork Lake became full to overflowiug. The dam had been imperfectly CI instructed. On the afternoon of May 31st the ilam of the reservoir burst wide open in the center, and a solid wall of water from twenty to fifty feet in height rushed down the valley with terrific violence.

The destruction which ensued was as great as the modern world has witnessed. In the path of the deluge every thing was swept away. Jiilinstown was totally wrecked, and was thrown iu an indescribable heap of horror against the aqueduct of the Pennsylvania rail- way, below the town. Here the ruins caught fire, and the shrieks of hundreds of victims were drowned in the holocaust. About three thousand people perished in the tlnod or were burned to death in the ruins. The heart of the Nation responded quickly to the sufferings of the survivors, and millions of dollars in money and supplies were poured out to relieve the despair of those who survived the calamity.

The year 1889 witnessed the assembling at Washington City of an International Congress. The body was composed of delegates from the Central and South American States, from Mexico, and the United States of America. Popularly the assembly was known as the "Pan-American Congress." The event was the culmination of a policy adopted by the United States some years previously. General Grant, during his Presidency, and in the sub- sequent j)eriod of his life, had endeavored to

1 promote more intimate relations with the S])au- ish-American peoples. James G. Blaine, Sec-

! retary of State under Garfield, enteriained a similar ambition. That statesman was accused

I of a purpo.se to create iu the Unitcil Stati-s a policy similar to Disraeli's liigh-jiniiniMn in Great Britain. The United States wciv t.. he- come the arbiter of the Western nations. Tci this end the Central American and South American States must be brought, first into iutimacy with our Republic, and aftcrwarils be made to f )llow her lead iu warding ofl' all Europeanism.

The death of Garfield prevented the insti- tution of some such policy as that here vaguely defined. Nevertheless, in 1884, an Act was passed l)y Congress, authorizing the President to appoint a commission "to ascertain and report upon the best modes of securing more intimate international commercial relations be- tween the United States aud the several coun- tries of Central and South America." Com- missioners were sent out to the countries referred to, and the movement for the Con- gress was started. Not until May of 1888, however, was the Act passed providing for the Congre.ss. The Spanish American nations re- sponded to the overtures, aud took the neces- sary steps to meet the United States in the conference. The objects contemplated were, first, to promote measures pertaining to the peace and prosperity of the peoples concerned ; to establish customs-unions among them; to improve the means of communication between the ports of the States represented, and to ad- vance the commercial interests and political harmony of the nations of the New World.

The Spanish-American and Portuguese- American States, to the number of nine, ap- pointed their delegates, and the latter arrived in the United States iu the autumn of 1889. President Harrison on his ]iart named ten

members of the Cougress as follows: John F.

Hanson, of Georgia; Morris M. E.tee, of California; Henry G. Davis, of West \'ir- ginia; Andrew Caruegie, of Pennsylvania; T. Jeflt^'rson Coolidge, of Massachusetts : Clement Studehakcr. of Indiana: Charles It. Flint, of Ncu- York; AVilliani H. Tnscot. ot Sonth Carolina; Cornelius N. Bliss, of New Yck ; aud John B. Hcndcr.-on, of :\Iis,-onii. Mexico sent two representatives, namely : Matias

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

Romero and Eiirirjiic A. Alexia. Brazil, .-till an Empire, also sent two delegates: J. G. do Aniaral Valente and Salvador de ]\Ieudonga. The representative of" Ilnnduras was Jeronimo Zelaya Fernando C'niz, the delegate of Gua- temala, and Jai-into Castellanos of San Salva- dor, ('".-ta liica .-ent as her representative Manuel Araj^nn. Horatio Guzman, Minister of Xiearagiia, represented his Government in the Congress. The Argentine Republic had two delegates: Roque Saenz Pena and Manuel Quintana. Chili sent two delegates : Emilio C. Varas and Jose Alfonso. The representa- tives of the United States of Colombia were Jose M. Hurtado, Carlos Martinez Silva, and Climaco Calderon. The delegates of Vene- zuela were Nicanor Bolet Peraza, Jose An- drade, and Francisco Antonio Silva ; that of Peru was F. C. C. Zegarra ; that of Ecuador, Jose Maria Plaeido Caamano ; that of Uru- guay, Alberto Nin ; that of Bolivia, Juan F. Velarde; that of Hayti, Arthur Laforestrie; and that of Paraguay, Jose S. Decoud.

The representatives met in Washington City in October. Committees were formed to report to the body suitable action on the subjects which might properly come before it for discussion. From the first the proceedings took a peculiarly practical direction. The great questions of commerce were at the bottom of the reports, the debates, and the actions which followed. Nor can it be doubted that the movement, as a whole, conduced in the highest degree to the friendship, prosperity, and mutual interests of the nations concerned.

At the same time, an International Mari- time Conference, for which provisions had been made in the legislation of several na- tions, convened at Washington. In this case

the States of Europe were concerned in com- mon with those of the New World. All the maritime nations were invited by the act of Congress to .send representatives to the Na- tional Capital in the following year, to con- sider the possibility of establishing uniform rules and regulations for the government of vessels at sea, and for the adoption of a com- mon system of marine signals. Twenty-six na- tions accepted the call of the American Govern- ment, and appointed delegates to the Congress. They, too, as well as the representatives of the Pan-American Conference, held their sittings in November and December of 1889. The same practical ability and good sense, as related to the subjects under consideration, were shown by the members of the Maritime Conference as by those of the sister body, and the results reached were equally encouraging and equally gratifying, not only to the Government of the United States, but to all the countries whose interests were involved in the discussions.

The history of the United States has been traced in the present Book from the Treaties of Ghent and Vienna, in 1815, to the dawn of yesterday. The Republic has passed through stormy times, but has at last entered her sec- ond century of Nationality in safety and peace. The clouds that were recently so black above her have sunk behind the horizon. The equality of all men before the law has been written with the iron pen of war in the Con- stitution of the Nation. The Union of the States has been consecrated anew by the blood of patriots and the tears of the lowly. The temple of freedom, reared by the Fathers, still stands in undiminished glory. The Past has

TAUGHT ITS LesSOX, THE PRESENT HAS IT&

Duty, and the Future its Hope, o^

' ins Ml

s z s g- : : 5 1. o - " : s s

'' liilll!

iBcinfv 6ainiltj- Srrnnb.

OR RAT BRITAIN

Chapter CXXVIi— last Two hax\:overiaxs.

iHE smoke. if the Battle of Waterlno mlled l,;u-k tu J the l,unl,.rs ,,f P.rl;;i,i,n, ; an.l then to the eontiiies j[ of Europe. A (irl.l of i, ilesolatiou was irveahd y without a parallel in nio,l- eru history. The wrei'ks lay hcapi'il on every coast. It was at once apparent that a l.lo.i,ly transformation hail been etti'ete,! amoni;- tlie Western nations. Nor nii-ht the pre<eienee of statesman or philosopher discover in the ( x- isting condition the true results of the Kevo- lutionary conflict.

One of the first facts diseoveral.le in the then condition of We.stern Ivirope- was that Great Britain had been least of all >haken from lier political moorings. It was discerned, as the roar of battle receded to the horizon, that England had, even through the epoch of turmoil and violence, held on her tedious an.l labored course, like a heavy ship, toiling with the breakers, battered with the st<jrms, but, never- theless, essentially sound in her structure. It could hut be acknowledged, moreover, that Great Britian only had emerged from the con- flict of twenty years' duration with military

honor and civil pi'ecedence. It was by the indomitable couraee ,,f the English soldiers, a- much as by the half-accidental coming of r.luclier, that the Impei'ial eagle of France had been struck to the dn>t on the plateau of ;\Iont St. Jean. Throniih his whole career,

the Cor>ican had found -tlier foe which he

so much dreaded as Kn-laiid. With that all-

the field of Europe an,l made it the chess- board for his ,nij,ty ,L:ame, he recognized that th.. plaver \\ho >at in the foes .,f the British IMand-'washis real antagoni-t^ He well knew that the free institutions ,,f Ei,i;land, as «ell as the native vigor .,f the Knuli-h race, had .■.mspire.l to ,leve|op in the Saxon Isles a civil

perial France might well stand in awe. Dur- ing the whole period of the Repul.ilic, the Consulate, and the Empire, the Government of Great Britain maintained an attitude of sullen and unyielding hostility, first to the re- pulilican tendencies of the French Nation, but more particularly to Napoleon himself. On many occasions the conduct of England to- wanis France was of a kind not to be justified

d)le d:

imetimes, indeed, (?o3)

•2o4 UyiVERSAL HJ.^TOJiV.

tlie English ministry crossed the hdrdor-line of perfidy in its proeeediugs with Bouajiarte. But ill such iustauees tlie Englisli inMipie, consider- ing the charai'tiT and |)iinciiilc's of the i'n- witli whom tiii-y had to dval, found little difticulty in frainiii- a juMilicatiuu tor the course pur- sued l,y their 'rulers.

In otlier re-peels the policv .if Great Britain was nio.e honurahle, nmre e.miniend- ahh". As a rule, >he <(.„.,( >toutly to her liuiedinnored prnHMjile ,,f nou-interferenee in the art;iir> (.f other Siat.->. Nnr di.l she, after Waterloo, notwithstanding her an,-er and heat

the di>nie,„l,ern.ent an. I |.artiti..u of Frane.^. And what i> ..f mni-h inor.' inii,..rtau.'e, she .1.-

t.. hecnie a party t.,' that unh..ly H,.lv Alli- ance, wherehy her chief partueis in the la>t great struggle witii Xaii.il.-.m n.nv pr..ii.iseil t.> direct the .lestinies of l-hiroin'. It may ]ii- profitable to tii.- rea.ler in tlii< .■oniie.-tioi, to elucidate in hrief tli.' gene.d> ami character ..f the so-calle.l H..ly Allian.-...

Ma.lanie the Ban.ne- Krii.l..u.-r was a

in her palmy .h,y>, an.l a my-ii.- when her

thine.. n >!,.• travel.M tlir..u-h tlm principal .■iti.-s .,f Europe. Her wealth wtt^ gi.^tit. her ace.miplisltmeiits ntaitv. At l.ai-tli priii.vs

s.inie .-ense, her tov<. After' iso:; ,hr ivm.I.-.I in.,stlv iti Paris. Aft.awar.ls >h,. r.turn.-.l t.. Riga, and .lev.-t.Ml h.^r^.-lf to r.^ligio,,. nn>- tiei>ni. A-ain at I'ari-, iti 1M4, ^u■ fin.l h.a- in her .salon, ree.iving th.- \ isit> of ni.mar.-hs. She beeaiii.' a pr.iphi'te>s — tif < 'as-an.lra ot' th.' ni..dern Ilitini. Sh.- ior..t..ld th.. vi,-i-itu.l..s ..f th.- ht~t year ..f the Nap.,le.,nie rniiuw. Ahxan.l.a- ..f Ktrsda met h.T at H.-ilhn.nn a

n th h.dori- Waferlo.i, an.l became infatnate.l

with her an.l her .h.ctrines. Henceforth, f.r .-.■veral years, she ni.iveil the Czar acording to the impulse of hi-r reverie and purjiose. Strange that this woman sluudd have con- tribiit.Ml s.) n.ivel a chapter t.i the lii.story of 111. 1.1. 'Ill I'^ur.ipe as that reorde.I in the ])ages of the H..ly Alliance!

It was on the 26th of Septemher, isi-'), that the league so-called was ma.le. The parties to the compact were Alexander I., of

THK MODERX \V<il:Ll>.

Kti>sia : Eniper.ir Francis, of Austria: and Frederick William HI., of Prussia, To the AUituice, however, nearlv all the other P.)wers, ex.-ept It.aiie, Engla.i.l, "an.l Fran.-e, .soon ac-

w.a-e arrang.-.l f.,r the m..>t part by Alexan.ler,

.Ma.lanm Krii.hner. The O.ar was then in

.-hil	1 with the 1	.roplu-t.— .	■fh,. Alliaii....a-piiv,l
to 1	... n.. l.-ss t	hail a n.-u	ba>i> f.r th.. p.ilith.al
or.f	er an.l .■..n.	In.-t, n..t ,1	nlv ..f Eur.. p.., hut .d"
the	w.,rl.l. T	' "U'^i	.•t a>.Minii-.l t.. be the
app an.l tian	itv ..on>i(l.	1.1 u.. mi- n.-.., ..f th ■ivd a> a 1	lit say the codificati.in e principles of Chris- u.-ans and metho.l of
poll	li.'al ai'ti.i il was t.i	n. H.n.. b.. a .li-ti	..f.rth, .-ivil g.,v,.rn-
Clu The	istian in a ■ .'^lat..s ..f	Europ.'. V	\er.- t.. ..oiidii.-t th.-ir

C'hri>t.ii.l..m, are t.. b.. th.. l-atrian-hs an.l talh..rs ..f th.- pe..ple. It might be .lilK.-ult to

wh., e..mplete.l an.l >igne,l the Alliance w.-re selt-.le.-(-ive.l in r.-p.-.-t t.i the nature anil iu- evitalih- t.ii.h.m.i..- of their agreement. But the whole phil.'sophi.-al m.-aning an.l ]iurport of the conipa.-t mii:ht w.-Il be sumnie.l up in the one drea.lful wiii.l — (/..^/.e/.'sio.

The three uionarchs sigue.l the Alliance in September of 1.S1.5. But the contents of the ai;reenient were not kn.iwn to Europe until the L.'.l .if l-'ebruary, l."-<l(i, when the jiaper was publish, ,1 in full in the Frankf irt Jminial.

<> if th.. sp.'.'ial teatures of the instrument

was that by which all members of the Boua- part.- hiniily were to he forever excludeil, not only from the thron.- ..f Franc.', hut from all the sovereiguties of P^urop... Th.- monar.'lis were very sinc'ere in th.'ir pr.ije.'t, as we shall

]iublican an.l rev.'luti.mary nioveineius of FSL'0-24. The Piepuhlicans of Naples aud Pie.linont. of Spain, and of France herself, shall feel, in ftdl force, the residts of the scheme c.intriv.'.l hy Krn.lener ami Alexander. N.)t until th.' latter has been calle.l t.i hi^ account — not until fifteen years have passed away aud a n.'w rev.ilution in France shall have driven the Elder Branch of the House of Bourbon into

GREAT IIRITATX.—LAST TWO HAXOVERIAXS.

perpetual exile— shall the elti-rts nf the Iloly AlliaiKv sink into the earth an. I .lisii.iMar.

To thr L'Verla>tiii^' eriMlit of (in-at Uritain Ik- it sai.l, that .*he lia.l nn ,,;,i-| or lot in the

conq.aet. S|„. st 1 out a^jain-t all l.h.n.li>h-

ments. No in(lu<-L-nient> r.aihl he i,ffrvv,\, n.. motive suggested, to seduee her from her im- memorial policj' of uou-ioterfereiiee in the af- fairs of foreigu States. Geori^-e Canning, at that time British Minist^a- of Fnroi-u AHiiirs, sotight with all his rniglit and inllumee to cotinteract the effects of the hypocritical com- pact by which it was sotight to combine the

onsly cultivated to the elo-r i,f hi- r.i-n. (Juing to his rr.airring paroxysms of insanity,

establishment of the Regency in 1811. George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, became liegent in conseipience of his l'atht'r"s malady, and by the act of Parliament. It is a notiJe- able liiet in the hislory of Kngland that the Heir-Apparent to ihc thi'ono ncaily aluavs, during his minoiity, and up to tlic timt- of his accession, adopts _tlie p(jlitiral principles and espouses the cause of the Opposition. The

Xi

powers of Europe in a nniviaval family de; potism.

No adeijuate idea can be acrpiircd of th political and civil history of Great Britain i the period immiMliatolv succeeding the X; poleonic wars witliont taking into considcratio the character of the reigning dynasty. Th fir.st two princes of the line of Hanover-Bnne wick had been fireigners — Germans, speakin the German tongue, undcr-tandin- hut littl of the genius and tendency of FaiLilish insiiti

tions. With the acce- however, a new era opia on the part of the yoni ereign. It is not the pla the rei^ni of Georo-e III.

ad popnla winch to

lotc the e

leaders of the adopted the po	pai icv
possible, from reitrnintr kintr. Prince Recent fell under the	th'e Th do,
Parliament, ai	d'\
pnictices'ordn	U'

always ince, if

hi-s. He loiienls in Fox a. id ■ihlcs and

lie social exe

III., leade

It w;

> nito those

■oken It the nt, it

ryiVEL'SAL iustoi;y~the moderx would.

coul.l ha	•,11\	1.- sxid t	Kit III.- iiiililai	V -i,l,.n-	C'astl.'. \\v	inav li.-i	' |.au-	■ fnl	a moiiK	lit to
dors of t	ic	imi' fnCUSl	1 nearthr tliiML	u. Tlie	notice the cli	u-acter :	n.l .li-	l"Sit	on „f hi	sue-
maflneps	of	the iinniin	il kin- wa- la-	-htcned	cessor, Geoi-i;-	. IV.

bv his hlimlnefs, and ou the 29th of .Taiuiarv, 1820, he passed away, being then in the eighty- second year of his age, and the sixtieth of

His

laid uilts

awav at \Vi

George AiigustiisFiederick. Prince of Wales, who now acceded to the throne, with the title of George IV., was the first of the nine sons of George III. From liis l.irtli he had been noted f<ir liis comeliness of person. He- liad

GREAT BRITAIN.— LAST TWO HAy()]'KJ!lAXS.

an ease of carriage and a grace of luauuer which gained for him at an early age the so- briquet of "the Gentleni:ui George;" liut long before he readied his majority it was known, not only to England, luit to all Etiropi-, that the veneering of acconiplislunents which in- cased the Heir Apparent was only a trans- parent gloss through which all manner of vices and excesses played liide-aiid-go-seek ■within. The story of the Prince's lif,. ran not be repeated on the pages of respectable litera- ture. He plunged at will into the wdiirl of all vicious excitement. He did not stop short of the grossest profligacy; and to this he added the habit of, falsehood to an extent that made his name proverbial. Even his plighted faith could not be trusted. The political agitations in the midst of which he was nurtured, and which might have well provoked the highest powers of his mind, had t(j him no attractions. Schooled in everything that Fox and Sheridan had taught him in his youtii, he flung him- self at full length into the pool of vice, and rejoiced in it as though it were a sea-bath in summer. At last he fell in love with Mrs. Fitzherbert, who had been twice a widow at the age of twenty-five. Hini she led on until she drew him into a private marriage, which became the ■•<ri(ii(hih(m maximinn of the age. The nation was in a turmoil over the event. Fox, misled by the Prince as to the facts in the ca.se, went openly to the House of Com- mons and denounced the story as a malicious falsehood. The Prince's salary was rai.sed from fifty thousand pound< to >ixty thousand, and Parliament gave him a hundred and sixty-one thousand pounds to discharge his debts; in- duced thereto by the falsehood which Fox had given to the House of Commons.

But the .story of the Prince's personal life need not be pursued. On eomiiii; to the throne in 1820, it was expected that a Whiu' ministry would be at once called to the (■..iidiiet of af- fairs. But the king dealt doubly with those wh.. had been his friends, and' .sought, by means of a <'oalitioii, to make ea.sy sailing through a .sea of political aiiathy. He had already adopted the same ]iolicy during the Regency. He di.slikexl George Canning, to whose energy of character much of the success of the British Government during the Revolu- tiouarv epoch must be attributed. Nor can it

be doubted that the king's mifrie,„l!i„H» and the ii„lispositioii of Canning to take part in the Pailiamentary proceedings against (^.eeu Caroline, induced the statesman's tenijiorary withdrawal from the Ministry.

During the greater part of the reign of George IV. the Government was conducted under the ministerial leadership of Earl Liver- po,,|. The latter had acceded to office after the as.-a.siiiation of Perceval, in 1.S12; and he remained at the head of the Caliinet until 1>;27. when his declining health com- pelleil him to retire. It was, however, to the energy, we might say the unscrupulous vigor, of the ^larquis of Londonderry, better known as Lord ('astlereagh, that the success of the home management of Great Britain must be attributed at this epoch. Tlie latter statesman had become leader of the House of Commons as eailv as 1812. He became the guiding spirit of the foreign policy of the Government during the last years of the Napoleonic era, and for fully a decade remained in the ascendant. He it was who represented the king at the second Treaty of Paris, and signed the com- pact of peace in 1815. He was, jierhaps, the .mlv or,,, of the ureat ]iolitical leaders of his time who remained in the favor of the Prince Regent, as he had Ijeen always in favor with George III. He was the ])ersoiial ad- viser of the new king, and traveled abroad with him into Hanover, in October of 1,S21, meeting there, in International discussion, the Prince Metternich. This, however, was the enil of his career. Castlereagh's intellect gave way under the pressure of overwork and a highly nervous organization, and on tlie 12th of August, 1822, he committed suicide with his penknife.

The general character of the hisKn-y of England, in the period from b'^lo to 1825, can not be uii(lersto<id without the survey of the whole of Europe. After the treaty of Vienna, Great Britain shared somewhat in the exhaustion, not to sav the a])athy, which supervened in all pa.-t> of the Continent. The

m..ntal-«hi.li had llamed and roared around the .s,,nare> ot Wellington, subsided into an almost absolute quiet in the five ensuing years. Despotic governments were, for the time, easily restored, and a flock of legitimate princes,

rxn\i:j;sAL history.— the modern world.

rushing liack ii	t., thr	a, •nun
thrones of thii		1>, fn
brief sea-nn. a^ r	.nifnrlaM	■ >.'ats
had niTuiii..'.! sill,	,. th,. .Mi.	d!.' Al
But thf halo-	■ n u|iuch	,f linu
of shcrt duration	>;.. Ill,	ic thai
ade elai)sed aftt-r	tlu' liattl.	of W
the fiaines of i	I'Volutinll	raii-l
,<;-reat contia-ratii	n in Fra.	,T, I.rL
up ill littlf ji'ls	in ahnn>	rver>
Western Euro,,,,.	Thi,- IV	•ival nl

tionar

II.

pear ui i^iil the spirit of her peopl.' ami iii-titnti..ii<, w.ac alike unfav..ialih- t.i the politi.-al iiiMin.-.-ti..n^ which, at this t-poch, liroke out in nearly all the Latin States.

But Great Britain could liy no means avoi.l constant connection with the afiiiirs ..f the Continent. The first foreign eiitangleineiit of the British Goveruaieut after the treaty of X'ienna, sprang from the necessity under which the Government found itself to resist and resent the work of the Holy Alliance in the Spanish Peninsula. Of all the restored sovereigns, none settled back into his seat more comtoi'tal.lv than .li.l F.-r.linan.l VII., .,f .Spain. The nieth.Hls of gnvenini..-nt which were reinstituted belonge.l, in that country, to the si.xteenth century rather than to the nine- teenth. The opposition of the liberal jiarty was unavailing to check the almsfs and ex- travagance of the reii:n. Finally, in \XV.K the Spanish king, in onlcr to ii'pl.nish his wasted exchequer, si.j.l Flori.la t.. th.- riiiteil States. Presently a ivv.ilt brok.- out at C'a.liz. The iusurrecti.in ^prea.l : the pca>aiits of the provinces rose in arms, an.l, in \X'1'1, the p.,p- ular movement resulted in the el.cti..ii ..f the patriot Riego as Presi.h-nt .,f the Cort.'s.

Sui/h was the conditi.m of atiiiirs when the cause of Ferdinand was espoused by the Holy Alliance. France, Au.stria, Ru.=sia, and Prussia took the astounding course of formal armed interventi..n in the affairs of Spain. Nothing

than t., M-.- (n.at liiitain in this emergency tuiiiing s.|nanlv aliout, aii.t in the very face

mouth of CaiininL' a-aiii~t tlie Spanish int.'r- vention. Thou-h h.-r protest wa- unavailiii'.;- for the time, it luv.athele.-s .erve.l X\h- pui-

jiose of a warning against such work in the future, and pointed with a menacing index to the .lowntall of the Alliance.

This c.implieation ..f En-lan.l relative to Spain ha.l n-.t been unraveled until the king- d.iiu bceani.' pr.douii.lly iiit.-rested in the ali;iii> of (iiv.-i-e. Ileie auaiii the leaning of tile I5riti>h .Xati.ui, not la.lii'al, but ever iu- i-liiilng to the .-i.le of |...liti</al liberty, was strikingly niaiiifeste.l. It is not the place to rei'.iunt the f.)rtiiii.-s of tin- Kreek lievdntion

It is MitHcieiit t., note that the attitmh- .if (nvat Brilaiii was insistent with her recml. Ill n., .■..untiy .li.l the .-.ciety ..f the i'hil- helleues find so congenial a seat as \n England. The Government confronted Turkey; and Mr. ( 'anning, no less than Lord Byron and other Piritish patriots, stood stoutly for the inde- pendence of the Greeks. While the monarchs of the Continent feared the rising of the Greeks as another eruption of that fearful dem.icracy which had jostled so many from their thrones. Great Britain deliberately pro- moted the cause of Grecian liberty. This policy was persistently adhered to until the summer of ]S27, when the sit nation of affairs in the East led t.i the appointment of ambas- sadors by Great Britain, Fiance, ami Russia, to consider the ipiestions at issue. A confer- ence was hel.l in L.>ii.l.'n in the beginning of July, an.l on the (ith of that mouth a c.im- liaet was siL;ne.!. in ai'cordance with which the nations coucerned would proceed to terminate the Tnrco-Grecian War. A joint expedition was fitted out, consisting of English, French, ami Itnssian vessels, and sent int.i the Eastern .Me.literranean.

The ..bject in view was to compel the Sul- tan to Lirant an armi>tiee pending the determi- nation of th.- c..iulitioiis of peace. The allied armament reached the Bay of Xavariuo on the 20th of October. The Sultan promptly and em])hatically declined the mediation of the P.iwers, ami th.' issue came at .m.-e f.i the arbitrament ,,f battle. IMeaiiwhile, Ibrahim Pasha received large reiidori'. ineiits fr.ira Egypt, and was ordereil to put .lown the Greek insurrection at every liazanl.

The captains of the allied fleets, however, ha.l n-.-.iveil orders not to permit the further de.-inietiou of the Greek insurgents. The com-

manders of the S(|un(lniii therefi upon the Turkish Aihniial. whii position ;i

GREAT BRITAIN.— LAST TWO HAXOVRHIAyS. 259

heranie floine Secivtary of

)ore ,lown ; In i taken his : En.t; iM.tt.mi ,,t til.- r.ay uf Xavarino, tirst where a battle was (jpened \'y a disehai the Turkish guus. Tlie cnliirt l,e<-aiiie -.ai- ei'al anil coutinued furinu>ly for- tuiii- hnurs, when tlie work was .Ion.-. fhe s.iuadmu of the (Ottomans was blown tn fragments.

Scarcely auythinjr reniaineil hut the (/«7„-/.-.- i>f ships floating ou the agitated sea. Thus by a single stroke the Greek crisis was ended, and the way prepared for a permanent settlement of affairs in the East.

We may here pause for a moment to speak of, at least, one of the great measures (pf Sir Robert Peel. That statesman entered the enfeebled ministry of E'lrd Liverp""! in ]X'J2.

ment. On this i the House of ( 'i^ to retire from tin could n..t well b.

iun to this move- ■ was defeated in \S-2r,, an.l s.aiglit ; but his services He so„n found a his faculties and lanizing the crirai- . The" history of tself a chaiiter iu

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

l.-hmils, an. I woul.l dra Mi.ldle Ages, an,l .-,ih>r, of English liisloi-v. Tin ill,' li-ii

IS awa , that

, esppci;

■ WAi

,lnre,l iVu,,, II,.. custn,,,:^ of l.ailiaii.in; l.ut he can har.Uy lie auare of the extent to which all the elements of that liarbarisrn continual vital in the code of Great Britain ilnwn fi the close of the first quarter of the nineteen ih century.

The cruel savagery e.xpressed in that code can hardly be described in language. It would require an artist's brush, and the bhiod- dripping canvases of a great gallery, to reveal the cruel scheme of the criminal law under which the English race groaned from age to age, and from which the inveterate con- servatism of that people, forbade them to be delivered. As late as a time within the memor}' of men yet living, the offenses still punishable by death under the statute law of England were innumerable. If, in the last years of the Napoleonic era, the death penal- ties due, under the jurisprudence ot the king- dom, had been inflicted as the law demanded, the highways of the kingdom would have been well-nigh a continuous gibbet, and a large percentage of the people hangmen by profession. Out of the very necessity of things, the judges had been driven to the continuous use of respite, in order to avoid the death penalties which they were obliged to pronounce from day to day. At every assizes, large numbers of criminals, whose lives had been demanded })y the law for pett}' offenses, many^ of which have now ceased to be criminal at all, were respited by the judges because of the sheer inipracticaliilitv of cmtinunns execntiims. And vet, under this sli..ckinii conditinn ..f affairs—

such was the ,,p,fnun<l hvp.MTi-V.if the a-e^ the law-making and law-adndnistering pow.Ms

of Great I'.Htain st \ stuhbornly against

every eflort at refnrni, hugging the barbaric abuses whicli tliey had I'eceived from a pagan ancestry, as tlnuejli tlmso abuses were the

At the epoch iif which we si.eak, the lives

lina	- brought to the bar of
• n	erey of the court. As
■ tl	elt of a pocketdiandker-
r.-ni	1 was still a capital of-
er (	r a mariner, so unfbrtu-
\e :	pa,-- Iri.ni the magistrate
g o	licer, durst beg for bread
ni .	live until !„■ might reach
was	demanded by the law.
ela	loiaiion of details ade-
the	re vol ting cruelties of the

eign

III,

Re

was m tlie hrst years ol tlie present cen- that that great legal reformer, Sir Samuel illy, ap])eared in I'arliament, and under- t(jok the work of reforming the EnglLsh crimi- nal code. To him, j)erhaps more than to any other Englishman, must be ascribed the con- cejition of the great task of reestablishing the criminal jurisprudemce of Great Britain on a new basis of tolerable humanity. The reader will readily recall the fact that in France the reform of the criminal code hail been glori- ou.sly accomplished in the last decade of the preceding century amidst the flame and roar of revolution. He must also remember that it was from IMiralieau, that titan of destruction and reform, that Sir Samuel Romilly derived the larger part of those humane princijiles of which he became the advocate and expounder in the House of Connnoiis, What, therefore, must have lieen his chagrin when, after hav- ing managed to secure the repeal of the stat- ute of 8 Elizabeth, chap, 4, whereby petty theft was made a capital oiiense, he was obliged year after year to see his bills for the aboli- tion of other eipially .smguinary statutes thrown out of the House of Lords, rejected with di-dain In- the statesmen and publicists of hi* time, and himself viewed askance as

The work of Sir Samuel Romilly

the di.-tiiiLiuidied M-l,olar aiid jurist :\lackint..sh. Him the versatile .Ma chosen to call "the father of Englis deuce." Mackintosh, how^ever, was a scholar and thinker rather than a jiarliamentariau ; and however great and sidiitary his work may have been in reformina- the mind of Great

was taken world by Sir James caulay has h jurispru-

Britain, bis iuflueiice on but feeble and indirect.

GREAT nniTAJX. — LAST TU'n HAXoVKh'UyS.

l;.,l,ert IVfl, the Duke of W.-lli

of affairs when tlie ascfiid.-	ley ..f Sir Knhrl-t
Peel became au ackni.ul.	Ige.l fact in tile
British Parliament.
The temper and tenii)era	ne It of Sir Rdhert
were well ada]iteil to the u	ok uhieh he now
received from the hands	of U-niiilv and
Mackintosh, and uhieh he	«a> desthied t.i
carry tnrward trimnpliaiitly	That work uas
coni[ileted. or al le;i>t Ue^m Acts wliich Peel inln.dnce,	, ill hve pnneipal into Parliament,
and which he defended ,.n	the !lth of .Mareh,
1826, in one of the nn.-t	d.h' and eliective
speeches of the centui-y. '1	le firmulation of
the new principles ..f jiiri>	pnalence was the
work of Peel's hand 'an,i	brain; Init tlie
juinciples of the reform he	lad received from
his predecessors. His -n	at strength ami
capacity as a legislator lay	n ids aliility— liis
li..\\er almost unrivahd —	-f gatliering the
essentials of other men's	a-eations, and of
giving thereto the form an	I force of statute

"We may not sujjpose that the reform the English code, to whicii we Jiave li given considerable space, was by any nie; complete and final under the worl^ ot statesmen and publicists above I'eferred to. i.- indeed out of the question tliat anytiii

and jurisprudence of England. A lae,- people wdio out of the nature of theii- o feelings derive little — almost notliing — tV abstract reason, anil everything from perieuce and tentative movements in t direction and in that, must needs mareli in rear of a people like the Freneh, wlm notliing if not rational. But at tlie sametii the English people, though tlnir pro.jio- slow and tortuous, manh .<,,•,/,■.///, and lar lose by relapse and retro;: i,>-ioii what tl have once gained under tlie law of experie,, We here come to one of tliose ever-ree ring ministerial crises in wliieh tlie civil hi-l' of England so much abounds. The \eai- 1>

marked the limit on Lord l.iv,a| IV asee

eii.-v The Premier fell Mek, and throii^di illiie.-s, rather than by ineltieieiiey. hi. Mini- was broken Uj). In tlii- emer-eney Cen Canning was sent fa- by tlie kint;-, and |ilai at the head of the Government. P.iit

rt Peel, the Duk. leading Tories, r.

dnbio In Ai

the

must he attributed

Inii:: live to hoi,

uhieh he had rea.

died; and in the

Ministry was conslitiited unde

of the Duke of Wellington.

Another death, oeeiirring same time with that of Canning, had an im- jiortant intliienee on the ,-0111-0 of the reign- ing ,lyna>ty. Fred.riek, Diik,- .,f York ami All.any. ,M-e,,n,l .son ,,f (M,.rgi- III., ami heir to the' crown after the nigniiig king, ilied, and his title and right were tran-ferred to the Duke of Clarence,'\vho was destined soon to accede to the throne as William IV. It was one of those cireumslanees above the will and purpose of man, by wliii'h the iMirojiean dynasties have been so frei|iieiitly deHeeted into unforeseen channels, pinilueing many times anomalous results and eonipiieations in the royal families.

The Duke of Wellington wa> induced to accept theotbce of Premh-r by tin- .-oliciiations

of the king. At the tin f hi,- acce-ion to

orhce. the repeal of the Te.-t and Corporation Acts was already pending in the Ilonse of Connnons. The measure was violently opposed by the Tories; but Wellington, to the great disappointment of many ot' his political follow- er.-, advised the Hou,-e of Lords not to offer

A ,p

Hiisl-

' :\Iini

Cath

It ■

eked;

the removal of the cr he Catholic.- had hi

ilisabili been s

]?nt, i.pf;

finnllv ,\U-rV

UXIVKHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

1 t.i tunnnil aii.l violvnee, if meso. w.nil.l, so.mer ur ill tlu- kin-.lMin. two iiati..i,> in

-imiiii- ail ac<-..imt of the iiortli-.-a-t.-ni fV

•h Catl

i-,lo,n. To

ner or later, hrinsj: the two iiatioii> into contiirt. It was on the

|io>iii^ iiowcrs at h^riirtli came together in hos- tility. I'hc IJiiiiiie.se were, at that time, mak- iii;:- war oil Assam, and it was in resistance of this inoveiiient tiiat the British, in East inilia, oppor^ed a iiani-r of force.

ade, namely, the third of the century, belon<rs the history of the extension of British terri- tory and domination in the East by the con- quest of Biirmah. It iniLdit have been fore- seen that, ill the nature of thiiiL's, the estab- lishment, and the extension, of the British power in India, and the well-known war- like and aggressive disposition of the Bur-

After some desultory fighting, war was de- clared, in February of IS'24. An expedition was sent out from India, under command of Commodore (Jrant and Sir Archibald Camp- bell. Ill M-Av of \x'24 the armament entered the Irawadi liiver. and came before the Bur- mese citv ot Kangoon. War now broke out in earnesl, the Briti.<h gradually penetrating

GREAT BRirAIX. — LAST TWO HAXOVKL'IAXS.

into the interii)!', the Bm-iuese, with thi'ir half- barbarous methods of ^Tarfare, falling hark \n- fore the iuvasion. Ban.lnola. Gi'iirral ..f th.^ B\n-ni(-:e army, (■(.llecti-d a foivc of sixtv th,,nsiii.l men, and, in the hitter part nt' ls24, fought j^everal battles with the J;riti<li anny about five thousand strong, in which the latter, though so greatly inferior in numbers, \\cre nearly always victorious. On tlie iM ef Aiuil, in the following year, the eity of Dunaliew was taken by Sir Areliibuld, and here Ban- doola was killed. Later, in the same immth, Prorae was captured by the British, and, on the 17th of September, an armistice was con- cluded for a mouth.

Later iu the year, an army of sixty thou- sand men advanced against the liriti-h tVnm Ava, the capital. But the latter hehl nnt under repeated attacks, in none of w hich were the Burmese more than partially successful. A decisive battle was fought on the 1st of De- cember, and negotiations f >r peace were im- mediately opened. It was smm Inund, how- ever, that the Burmese were insincere, and hostilities broke out more violently tliaii evi^r. In January of 1826, Sir Ar.-hil.ald Camplicll advanced on Ava, the Burmese capital. ()n the 9th of February, a decisive battle was fought near the ancient city of Pagan-]\ryn, in which the British were completely victoiinus. The defeated enemy now came (piickly to terms, thouLdi many acts nf vinlence and hos- tility still told of "the unsettlcl condition of affiiirs in the countrv. The Treaty of \ an-

pui

an end to the war

the

basis of the large accession of territory known as British Burmah. The Burmese s..yereign was obliged to give up Aracan, tog.ther \\ith the provinces of Mergni, Tavoy, and \ ea : to yield all of his claims to the kingdom of As- sam anil the contiguous States, and to pay a large indemnity for the expenses of the war. The strength, vigor, and resistless impact of the British power borne on the vehicle of Sir Archibaltl's small army against an ancient and populous kingdom, more than ten thousand miles distant from the seat of the English Government, was but another illustration of the vitality and enterpri-i' of that warlike race which has fastened the crooked flukes of its anchors under the chalky walls (jf the British Islands.

nection some fuller a.vount of the a-ilatin,i which now arose relative to tl„. p.-nal di-al.il- ities un.ler which the Uo.oan fatlmlic- of Eojand an.l Ireland had I.een placed l,y the Act of Union. .Now it wa~ that the givat agi- tator and relbrmer, Darnel O't'onnell, ap- peared ,,u the scene, and began, with vehe- ment invective and unanswerable argnment, to demand the removal of tlu' penalties a-ainst

ciety calle.l the ('atholic Asso.aation, small at first, but growing slowdy to larger j)roiiortions, and spreading to all parts of the Lnited Kingdom. In 182S he was elected for Clare to the House of Commons, an ey.'nt which foretold the success of the cause which In- ad- vocated. A measure embodying his principles

the House of Common- ai^aiust the most -tren- nous oppo.sition ; but the bill was rejected in the House of Loids. The excitement rose to

In

Acts, which had been in fare >in,'e the lime of Charles II., was, as we Ikuv said, .-arrie.l throngh Parliament, in a bill introduced for that purpose by Lord John Ru-sell.

It Wa- l.elieVed by the Tories that So great

would sati-fv the Catholi,.s and loan- (piiet to the Kingdom. But the event proved other- wise. With the triumphant ele<-lion of O'Con- nell to Parliament, the agitation broke out anew. It was claimed that the reformatory measures thus far priunoted had been intended to favor only tin- Piotestant Dissenters of Cxreat Britain, and that nothing short of the removal of the legal disabilities of the Catho- lics would suffice. It was clearly in defiance of the statute f.rbidding the a.bnission of Romanists to Parliament that d'CMuall was elected to that body. The crisis wa- rea.died when the lime came for the Iri-h aL'itator to take his seat in the House of Commons. The :Ministry. ba.'ked by the Protestant ,lnbs which had been formed in m.ist parts of the Kingdom, determined to exclude O'Conmdl from his place. When this projc et was known.

2(U

UyiVERSAL HISTOny. — THE MODERN WORLD.

party aniinn.sity was f;\iiiu-<l to a white heat. The ]iiil)lic liecame so convul.-ed that an appeal til iiri.is «eenie(l inevital)h-, iiiih-^s the Gnvern- nieiit shi.ulil yielil. It wa< in the tac nf tliis alarming' ei.u.litii.n i.f atiiiii- tliat thi- .Ministry, at tlie np, iiin,- i.f tlie railiaiiiiiitary .m-^mhu uf 1^2'.l. was iihli^eil to n-trmt. It was per- ceivi-il hv tlie Tory leailrrs that it wnalil lie better for the Goverunient to bring furwanl a bill of their own motion to relieve the Catho- lics of their ilisabilities tlian to be driven to such a conrss.' by the inipemling revolution.

Li accorihuice with this jiruilential scheme, a bill was at once prepared, which had the effect of arousing all the deep-seated preju- dice.* of the Kingdom. Tlie Tory Jlinisters were denounced as traitors, not only to their party, but to the Constitution of Great Brit- ain. ;Manv of the extreme partisans refused to fiillnw thiir leaders further in the direction of reform. The Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel became the objects of bitter di.elike to the Ultra-Tories, and the latter statesman was actually defeated for reelection by the rniversitv of Oxford. Nevertheless, on the ]3th of April, 18211, the Relief Bill was passed, and for the first time in one hundred and fifty years the Roman Catholic subjects of Great Britain -were made equal before the law with the other people of the Kingdom. Henceforth the discrimination against them extended no further than to their exclusion from the offices of Regent, Viceroy of Ireland, and Lord Chancellor of the Kingdom.'

George IV., who had personally resisted to the last the recent measures of reform, was correspondingly humiliated at his own and the defeat of his Tory Ministry. His health was already greatly enfeebled. He presently re- tired from the public gaze, and sought seclu- sion in the shades of Windsor Castle. The worn-out debauchee took no further interest in public atlaii-, and the public re-ponded by tak-

'ByasiKin.n i mm nl. m i tin MUii lalile t'.Uli^- JraloiVoik till i.ii.li i.iilii ( liurch of Englnnd, \^a«; almost ili-tinM.l \\ liu .U the very time when the ti ium|ili.int ( .itholir- were hailing tlie passaw of the Kehef Bill throUL'h Parliament It seemed that the Molence done to the Mother Church l,y Henr> YIII. and the •Reformers of the Sixteenth Century, w.is aliont to be a\enL'ed by the concurrent ravages of jiarty stiite ami the devouring elements.

I ing as little interest in the afiairs of the king. The latter was taken seriously ill early in the year, and died on the 2ljth of June, 1830. The Duke of Wellington, who was not waut- xw'j. in power of personal analysis, and was no flatterer of men, living or dead, summed up the qualities of the deceased monarch as fol- lows: "He was the most extraordinary com-

j pound of talent, wit, bufloonery, obstinacy, and good-feeling — in short, a medley of the

I most opposite qualities, with a great prepon- derance of good — that I ever saw in any char- acter in my life." Ot his reign, however, though short and little distinguished for glory, it may be said that hardly any other decade in the history of England has been more marked for the many practical reforms which it wit- nessed, for the advance of all liberal senti- ments in society and State, and for the dif- fusion abroad of more liumaniziug tendencies, than was the otherwise feeble and unsteady reign of George IV.

I The late king left no legitimate children to inherit his title and crown.' His brother, the Duke of York and Albany, was long since dead. The next elder of his brothers was William

1 Henry, Duke of Clarence, who now acceded to the tlirone, with the title of William IV. He had been a sailor in his boyhood, serving

I with distinction under Admirals DiL'bv, Rod-

I

'As for <^ieen Caroline, she also had gone to the land where shameless persecution could no longer assail her. She had, after the infamous trial to which she had been sulijected in the House of Lords, been permitted to resume her title of Queen, but was forbidden to enter "West- minster Hall on the day of her husband's corona-

I tion. It was the death-stab in the woman's bosom; she pined for nineteen days, and yielded her shattered life to the elements. Even this was not the end of the dark fatality that overhung her career. Her daughter, the Princess Charlotte Au- gusta, was wedded, in ISlti, to Leopold of i^axe- Cobnra, afterwards king of the Belgians, but on the i;th of November in the following year she ihe.l in the aironies of child-birth— an event that wrung from the htein soul of Byron ime of his sublimest stanzas :

\M\

iPKp for th»e, cfa^p to lioard id poureil

GREAT BRITAIX. — LAST TWO HAXOVERIANS. 2(;5

ney, and Xelsuii. 15ut auiin- tli.' nl-u ..f his drstiuea to be left at the end of his reiL'n, as

hi-uther he had lived tlie lilc .if a piivatc -en- his brother CJeorge IV. hail ln-cn, without an

tknian at Bii^hy Park, rnlnrtunatdv, the heir capable of inheriting tlio emwn.

life of William had nut Ihi n Mudi as i,, jus- William IV. eanio tu tho ihinm- at a time

tifv anv hopes that mi.^ht li- riitm-faiiird' nf when the a-itati or ivfnn,, in all thr Ii'lHs-

retonnhi- and riMK^emin- tlu' .um.'ral eharar- , lative and administrative, methods of the King-

terwhirh was now borne ' ' ^,_ - ^~^

throughout Europe by ^m -V '^ the pruKvs of Hanover- -- - Bruuswiek. Siune idoa

to be guided may be had from a scrutiny of his conduct while a member of the House of Lords. While sitting in that body, he had defended the recklessness, the ex- travagance, and de- bauchery of his brother, the Prince Regent. He had spoken iu favor of the Bill of Divorcement, by which that alleged gentleman proposed to put away forever from

hei'itance the untortu-

nate Queen Caroline.

He had denounced the

jiroposed emancipation

of the slaves, as against

the laws of ju tree in 1

the interests of hum in

ity. In his pimte lite

his relations weie hii 11\

more well-timed and le

spectable than those ot

his brother, the Rej^eut

He had become en im

ored with aceitim Mi

Jordan, an attie s b^ "'^'^^

profession, with \\h m

he lived for ueiih tutiit\ \ i

being broken tf U 1 1 t t i m

reasons. In 181S he h\\ trie

Adelaide of Saxe Meinin^tn, wl

time, obtained a great influence

the P,

; 1 1

iff

'! ti

w

L 14; 1..

It t ti

a couise 01 u- her easv-

sud knl> , ' luneuts t

But

legitimate

ge, an<l

Ik \

settled

2riG

LLMVEL'SAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

it th

h liil t r,nti-l

leld	P.ulnmint woul.l
IK 1	imoheth.-ort-ate
h. 1	Ji^l, ~in ikiiig ra.
« 1~	L 1 1~ li 1,1 l).-..-ii
tlu	liK.l nt the Sax.
lit	w i~ It tir>t, an a>
nil	lit. lalh the wi.-r
	\\as u„ut to call

lKUl..ftli.-liist..i-_v..ftlK-I-:n- . Dii-iiially. the H.,u^e .jf

kiii-s. The Witeiiagemot

iiR-ii— whnui the sovereign iitu ciiiiril. It was an as- a-.^ <.f the W'iUin, or Wise of tin, Kii,i:.lo„i. It eiiu- ot' l,.i„|.o,-al lonls, of earls, ke-. ot l,aion>. of aivhhi>li- m.l l.i>lio|,>, and al.l.ots, ht to-ether, an. I cnslitnt- h.Hly ..f marinates, from the kiiiij was w.iiit to seek

lile. The il..n^e ..f C'.jiiimous I ha.l arisen tV.uii a vi-iy .lifl'erent

s.inree, an.l ha.i lieeii'.if sL.wer i devel..i.n.ent. It> .ait:in is to he I songht in the Ai]i:].i-Sa.\..n mooU,

or meetings. e..n>i>ting. at first,

frciinen as might he essential to the welfare .if the tribe. The first of the m.iots was the tinm- ni.i.if, which iuckuleil the assem- le.l freemen and cnltivators of the folk-lands, gathered together to regulate the civil atliairs of their towushi]). their village, or parish. Ivext came the hnnj-mo^it, being an assemblage of the principal meu of the burgh, fur the pur- pose of administering municipal atiairs.

still ni

Endi>-

WILLIAM IV.

H.iuse ..f r. ha.l been dc

th.. civil poll

'he Iiiiiiilreil-mni.t had a imp..naiit place in the ■.-teiii. It eoiii]irised the 1 chief freemen gathered >t-veral townships and itiiiii the limits of the Hun.lred. Above this was the .^Ina-iunnt. It 11. lu.-. In times ]ia.-t this basis [ was a body gathered from the shire or county, iiiiie.l latlu-r by landed estates j having au ealdermau for its president, and ex- tioii : but the whol.' growth of ' ercisiug jurisdiction over the several hundreds <.f Eughui.l ha.l li.eii ill the cuiiiiri.-e.l within th,- >hiiv. The body was •nlargeiiieiit . if iio|iiihir rights — e.uiip.ise.l .if a reeve ami four freemen from from th..M, feu.lal ideas up.-ii every hun.lred. Its members can hardly be ati.ui ha.l >.i hing been founde.l. said to have lieen elected, at least not by such .if the evolution of the British methods as would coustitute a modern elec-

GREAT BRITAIX-LAST TWO HAXOVEi: fA.\s

finn. But they were >eiit Id llu	various nio,,ts
liy the comuiou voice, ami l>y i	i.thods which
had ill them the germ of a tnu In many eiiier'jencicr it l,c. tor the medueva! kiirj> nf Im	,.l,,-,i.,„.
■jiaiid to call
not only the (Tn-at < 'nuiiril	.„■ Hon-, of
Lords, hut al?o the CoMini..ii- -	that is, rcpre-
sentatives from the varioii>	m.iots abnve
described — to as^^ii^t and Mippoit	tl,r -.v,.,vio-n
in his ^vars, and to give him i	onn-rl in tho
general affairs of his odv. iiiiucni	TI,o Mu.lrnt
of history \vill rea.lily n <ali th	■ iact that the
Commons of tlu- AV.-t( rn ]:inti|	oan killed s
were, in the times of whirh wr	sp,.ak, an ox-
tremely modest folk, very little	li,-p..s..dtoin-
terfere in the afiliirs of >tatc.	.i » .1
political matters, slow to cuiivri
sovereign's call, and meek in hi	p,vs..„c',.. In
England, however, on a<-eount c	f the peculiar
structure of society, the (.'omm	ms c|TW into
greater prominence than in any	.tliri- connti-y.
A burgess or middle cla-> -pian	2 np, in whose
hands much wealth was at hn-tl	acrnmulated.
They it was who henecfoith	nn<t, in large
measure, furnish the iwcnnes	of the Kinu-
dom. As a. cousequenee, the	KieJiM. C.ni-
mons were more frequently	■all.d bv the
king to assist him with their	piv-cn.-e and
their means. For several centi	rii- th..,-,. was
an approximation betwrm tho t	wo Ib„l>,,S ,.f
Parliament. But at leii-th t	„. growth of
the Commons alarmed both tin	kin^ a„<l the
lords, and in the reign of Ed	ward III. the
two Houses were formally si	pa rated. The
organization of each became	iiore ileiinite.

and each henceforth pur: lines of development.

The reader may perce here prepared, the elemei flict by wdiich, at the n teenth century, the moiKi of England were for a v the Second Revolution, ol Commons was again tiiii the most powerful and m in all Christendom. But interest to the student o old barbaric constitution been, through all stai:*' j)reserved as the funda House. Such was the ast> of the English race that

le[iendeiit

situation threat cou- he seven- listocracv •rted. In Il.juse of It became itive bo.ly

^ that the imons had evolution, is of the

viz	the u Aye, hiigu	-es and ed and ■re the
■d tlu-	vital	>art of
the ui	(dual	it. -rowth

the Parlianieiitafv

At leii-th. how and dill-n>ion ,,t' political enlightenment made it inipo-Mlilc ior the abusive part ..f the sys- tem longer to sttrvive. This crisis was reached in the beginning of the tburth decade of the pre.-eiit century. The ret'ormatiay si)irit was already abroad" in the Kin;;do,n. " The eftbrt to repeal the more obiioximis nf the disabilities whi.-h had len- l,e,'n iinpo:.,.l on the Catholics made niaiiile>t the abii>e> which were inter- mingled and blended with the Very Structure of the House of Commons; and no s(joner had the repeal been passed, than the refirmiug jiarty turned upon the House itself, with the determination to e.\oivi,-e the evils under which that great body was laboring as the governing force of England.

The very foundation had to he broken up. It was perceived that the vice was deep-seated, icai'liing down to the verv lia>is on which the lIoii>e .if Commons rested. The various bor-

seiiiatives sitting in the lIon>e were drawn by

thoueh the iK.pulation had thictuated from .side to siile; though great commniiities had been planted where none <'\i>ted befire; though other great communitio bail, in the mutations of industry, under the land.il system of Great Britain, and in an.-wer to the calls of commerce, disappeared from the places where they did ex- ist, the old basis of representation still pre- vailed; so that the House of Commons no longer representeil the England of the present, but the England of a mythical past. Large cities bad sprung up where hitherto there was uo

i dweller. Such were Livei|„„,l, Manchester, ami Leeds, which, thotiLih inhabited by teem-

j iiig thousands, w.ae absolutely titiivpreseuted in Parliament. The ancient b..f.mL;h> knew no such cities, ami conservative I>n;ilan<l lunl thus far respected her ancient bor,inL:hs— mn.-t re- spect them still! Manv .,ld districts had be- come weU-nigh depopulated; but conservative

r yi 1 'ERSA L HIS roR y. — the m< )i>ERy world.

Euglaud still regar.lLMl regard them still ! Sue' rotten borough of <iial ouuh ofOM Saniiii.uh

\lnihvon,'n,hrr.<:,l Ihr linn. ,rn'u..l,< U.'lvlllP s.,-,';illr,l

ill..

,f n-i.

itativt' gi

success of the political ic\<ilt in lidialf <if tlic Komati Catholics liiriii>licil the exanii.li — gave encourageniriit to tlii' nioviiiU'iit. A popular belief wa-; (lilfuscil aluoad tliat tlic movenieut could hut lie crowned with .-ucri >-. But against it all, the reiictionar}' party, tlie conservative, obstructing element in Britisli politics, that ancient Toryism which had thiou-h so lai-c a period of British lii>t<iry coijtroll.-d, ,,r anta,-.iiii/..Ml, th.- dcstini.'s of the kingdom, set tlirnisi'lvcs with the hrniiiess and obstinacy of tin- ininiova!)!.' rocks in the Hill of Taric.

It happened at this particular juncture that the affairs of Continental Europe tended much to strengthen and intensify the jmpuhir inovi-- ment in England. In tlir voi-y year ot' tlio accession of William IV. to the Kn;^li-h throne, the ronsed-np pcple .,f Franc dis- p,,>(.d of ihrl,- kin- hv a most summary pro- cess. At the same time a r,.ho]lion oc-urrcd in I'.rl-ium, wlii.'h I.mI to tlio scvcninco .if that in.p.rtant power from the .lominion of Hol- land, and the cstablisliment of an independent kingdom under the rule of Leopold, of Saxe- Cohurg, who receiv<'d the crown, in July of 1831, with the title of Leop.iM I.. King nip the Belgians. In the.se movements of the Liberals of the Continent, the people's party of Eng- land was quick to discover the omens of suc- cess. On the other hand, the English Tories found in the destruction of the continental systems, with which they sympathized, every reason for distrusting popular government and adhering to the past. To the Liberals of Great Britain Louis Piiilippe, of France, was

(intern plate ; to the

lenace, a specter.

loi-niing the basis of representation in the Ihilisii House of Commons liecame the nll-ab- sorhnig.piestioninthefirstyeiirsol William IV.

in the liody to which it was directed. A ministerial crisis was precipitated liv the fooh ish dechuation of the Dnke <if Wellington aiiainst the pidpisition f.ir rarliamentary re- lorm. He was siald, idy deprived of thec.m- fhl.-nce of the country, and a coalition of the Will- party with those uho ha-l loljnwed the poiitic.al fortunes of Cannin- was termed. The Wcllin.i^ton .Mini-try was .lissolvcd, and in Xovemher of l.SoD the king summoned Earl (irey to form a new Cabinet, pledged to carry out the reformatory policy. It is believed lliat the earl hiinseif had liut little sympathy with the poiiular cause: hut he was willing, on assuming the leadeiship of the Govern- ment, to promote at least certain features uf the propo.sed Parliamentary revolution.

The Hi-.FORM Bill, so-called by preeminence over all other Parliamentary measures having like pnrposes as their end, was accordingly prepare<l,and, on the 1st of Mar<-h, ls:;i,was laid, hv Lord Jnhn Itussell, liefoiv the House ,if Commons. Then it was th: iiiry ro.se," such as, iierhaps, was liefori' in that turbulent arena where so many of the battles ..f English liberty have been longht and won. The bill passed to its second leading, and through its second reading, by a majority of one vote. It was .seen by the ad- vocates of the measure that it was destined to failure, and railiament was dissolved with an appeal to the country.

The English Nation was now shaken to its center. A new Parliament was returned much more favorable to the bill than was the pre- ceding. The second reading of the act was now carried by a majority of one hun<lred and thirty-six. The third reading was pressed, and the act went triumphantly through the Honse of Commons. Earl Grey carried the bill to the Lords, where it was rejected by a majority of firty-one. Here, then, the issue was made uj). The landed aristocracy of

:-mmg heard

Gr

Britain planted itself squarely in the ref irm, and the question was whether

GREAT ni:iTAJX.--LAST TWO HAXOVEIHANS.

the ancient prejuilices of tlie k sent,.l in tl,e Il'ou.e of L.,nls, v tlif [...pular, an.l now oveiwlu'I in the Hou.-^e of Commons, m- w	ould yiehl to hether, on tiie
conti-ary, the pojndar party, In- ner of reform, and backeii liy t	rin- tlie Ijau- le (iei'isive ro-
suits of the recent Farlianiei	tary eh'ction,

ml ^^ u io~e the he gieat though to leaeh tion lu

would he hurleil hack, routed, overthr It can not be doubted that the last of 1830-31 witnessed in England a en serious and alarming than anything wl been known since the Kevoluiion o The radical lefoimeis and ihi I Iti were ready to decide the i^-m li\ ir Between the extiemist~ 1h\\(\ii, i Grey Ministn , (amni^ w i moderate party of En_.i-linit determined on reform ^tdl the result b} methods fh 1 1 f the emergenc\ tuo coui-c md onh tuo, were open to tht (uMinnunt Ihiu wis between the two H( um -, t riiliniK it wlut, in more recent jihi i^t 1 _\ w uld In <1l- nominated a politic d di idl (k Ihismi^ht be broken eithei, fiist, h} a decLiiati m In in the House of Commons that the assent ( t tin lords was not nui-^'-aiii foi the pissagt ot tin bill; or, siu.ndh h\ .1. itni^ un,h 1 1 \ d prerogative \ ^iithLicut nundui it m u pi i-s to liear down thead\eise Ton 111 i] iit\ 111 th Upper House Each of tlie^i im th i~ 1- li jectiouable m the la-t dcLiu 1 diiliu the assent of the H .u-. ot L nK unim.-in was revolutions Ti i u iti tin m w puis would be to diown the House ot Loids and destroy its distmcti\e chaiactei With much reluctance it was determined by the Ministij', on the 1st of January, 1832, to demand of the king the creation of the new peers. Under this menace the Tory Lords receded somew'hat, and the bill was allowed to pass its second reading. But when it came to the third read- ing, the passage of the measure could not be forced, and the Grey Jlinistry resigned.

Wellington was now asked to form a new Cal)inet, and undertake the Government. But the task was hopeless. After a single week of such political turmoil as has rarely been witnessed in Great Britain, the king was obliged to send again fi.ir Earl Grey, and recommit to him the destinies of the State. That Minister and Lord Brougham went to the

king in person, deiiianded of him the power to create the new peeis neco-ary to the passage of the liefirm Bill through the House of Lords, and conipell.d the king to put lii.s assent 1,1 tvriliny, as lollows: '-The king grants peruii,~>ion to Earl (uey and to his Chancellor, Lord Brougham, to create such a number of puers as will be sufficient to insure the passing of the Keforni Bill, first calling up peers' eldest sons. — Wii.iJ.ut It., Windsor, May 17, 1832."

The event showed that the extreuiity which WIS thus pio\ided for was not demanded. The Toi\ loids saw at last the exiiedieucj of

ttit to sa\e much Aecoidinglj,

LOKD JOHN RISSLLL

when the Reform Bill came to its final pas- sage before the Lords a sufficient number of the peers, headed by the Duke of Wellington, vol- untarily abitented themselves from the House to permit of the passage of the Act by a majority of eighty-four. Thus on the 7th i",f June, 1832, the Bill for the Reforniation of the British Par- liament became the law of the Kingdom, after a struggle, which, at several of its phases, had brought the country to the very verge of revolution. The jiei-il had been emphasized in many instances by actual violence. Time and again popular indignation had broken forth against those leaders of the Tory i)arty who were imiieding the progress of the Kefurm.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

In Lnn.l„u the palace of the Duke ui Wel- liiijrtou was assailed In- a fm-iuus iiKih, with

could prevail auy louger. Xottiugham was burned to the grouud, and a large part of Bristol destroyed In- insurgents beyond the control of the authorities. But as it became evident that the reformatory movement would succeed, as the Tories shrank before their op- ponents, a better temper prevailed, and the ship of State at length outsailed the storm and anchored in clear water.

Perhaps no other measure ever adopted by the British Parliament was more salutary in its effects than was the Reform Bill of 1832. It was a new era from which many other re- formatory projects were to date their origin and possibility. By the Reform Bill, the so- called pocket and rotten boroughs were dis- franchised. No longer might some landed uabob carry in his pocket several Parliamen- tary votes, behind which there was no constitu- ency. Other decayed boroughs, while they did not actually lose their representation in the House of Commons, had that representa- tion greatly reduced. The votes thus gained from the disfranchised boroughs, were redis- tiilniteil to the counties and manufacturing towns to which an adequate representation had hitherto been denied. The whole disfranchise- ment extended to fifty-six boroughs and about thirty small towns. The general effect was that of equalization, by which the jiopulnus counties and the cities were given their just equipoise in the House of Commons.' Certain property qualifications ou the suffrage were allowed to stand. Indeed, in the light of the liljeral i.rinciples which now ]irevail in Eng- land and the United States with respect to the rights and prerogatives of citizenship, we can but be surprised that the very moderate prin- ciples incorporated in the Reform Bill of 1832 should ever have been regarded as radical or extreme. The right of voting in the English 1)oroughs was still restricted to the tenants of houses worth ten pounds a year. Properties under this valuation, or rather the holders of the same, lay as before, under complete disfran- chisement. In the counties, tenants paying a

rental of fifty pounds per annum were enti- tled to suffrage, while freeholders having an income from their own lands of forty shillings, or landed property worth ten pounds a year, were permitted to vote under the provisions of the bill. Such were the general features of the reform by which the Parliamentary repre- sentation in the House of Commons was de- termined for the ensuing thirty-six years.

We now come to consider the legislation of the so-called Reformed Parliament, which began its existence in 1833. The liberalizing tendencies which had been jjroduced and dis- seminated during the period of agitation, now speedily bore their fruits. No sooner had the House of Commons again assembled than a bill was brought forward for the abolition of slavery in all the colonies and possessions of Great Britain. In this case, the agitator was William Wilberforce, Hull, one of the en- thusiasts of humanity, at that time a member of the Commons for the county of York. During the greater part of his life he had been engaged in projects looking to the aboli- tion, first, of the slave-trade, and then of slavery itself. As early as the ascendency of William Pitt, Wilberforce, in conjunction with that statesman, sought to secure the abolition of the slave-trade in the British dominions. No great step, however, was taken in this direction until I 1807. Pitt, io the meanwhile, died, and , Wilberforce struggled on against the selfish- ness of men and the prejudice of ages. He was already in the last act of his life when the Reformed Parliament, under the inspira- tion and leadership of Brougham, Buxton, Clarkson, and many other philanthropists, who had heard the cry of the oppressed, took up his unfinished task, and, as his life went down in the shadows, the Mene Tekel Uphardn of slavery was seen in burning letters over against the wall. Even then the slaveholders of the Kingdom rallied all their powei's to defeat the measure; but the gale of public opinion blew hard against them, and they and their cause went down together. A- month after the death of Wilberforce, when, from the mountain-top uplifted high, he had caught across the river one certain glance of the radiant landscape, the Emancip.\tion Bill was passed, and human slavery met its (juietus throughout the British dominions. It could luii be said, how-

GREAT BRITAIN.— LAST TWO HANOVERIANS.

ever, that the slaveholders suft'eroil greatly from the loss of their alleged "propert_v." The plan of abolition was so gradual in its application, and the steps taken so ample to remunerate those who were supposed to have suffered financially by the destruction of servi- tude, that none might well complain. Those who had held slaves were allowed therefor au aggregate compensation of twenty millions of pounds. The emancipation, moreover, was postponed to such dates as were supposed to be convenient for the masters. Slave children under six years of age were to become free in the summer of 1834; slaves of the field, in seven years; and domestic servants, in five years from the passage of the act. It was estimated that the slaves of the Kingdom, for whom a compensation was given to the owners, numbered, at the time of the pas.«age of the Emancipation Bill, almut eight hundred thou- sand.

Daniel O'Connell now reappeared on the stage of British politics, and became one of the leading figures of the scene. The as- cendency which he had acquired duiing thi^ agitation for the repeal of the [leiial disaliil- ities of the Catholics, now carried him to the front of another nKJvement, still more impor- tant and radical in its character. England for three crnturies hail been a Protestant State. The RfforiiKition had entered into comhinatinn with the whole frame of civil so- ciety. In no other State of modern Europe had the reiigiuus institutions of the country been blended more ouipletely with the polit- ical structuiv than in tiie major i.-<land of tlu' Kingdom. Ireland, on the other hand, was a Catholic country. Into the Western Island the Reformers of the sixteenth century had never been able to penetrate. The Celtic race proved itself most loyal and devoted to the ^Mother Church. Hardly might it be said that Spain or Portugal, or Italy herself, had re- mained more profoundly infected with the Holy Faith, as dispen.sed from the chair of St. Peter, than had Ireland.

This divergence and antagonism in the re- ligioii- system of the people of the two i-slands constituted in the fourth decmle of the jiresent century, as it had done for generations, and as it does to the present day, the insujierable bar to political and social sympathy between the

English and Irish races. At the reformatory epoch, of which we are here presenting a sketch to the reader, the leaders of the Cath- olic, we might say, the Iri-sh, party in the United Kingdom, were elated by their success in securing the passage of the Repeal Bill. Tiiey had shared in the more recent excite- ments attendant upon the reformation of the British Parliament. They were for many rea- sons emboldened to strike out for a more rad- ical reform, and in Daniel O'Conuell they found the impersonation of the cause.

The two most offensive symbols of the sub- ordination of the Irish people to the British Government were the Established Church, and the System of Tithing by which it was sup- ported. The Episcopalian Establishment was as fixed in Ireland as in England. It sat brooding over a people who were utterly alienated from it. The Irish were Catholics, but they must support the Church of England. That Church existed among them fm- its own good. In many parts of the country the Es- taiilishmeut was represented merely liy the liuildings, the clergymen, and tin' pari>h. Parishioners there were mme. To supiiort such au institution, foreign in every particu- lar to the genius and sympathies of the peo- ple— to support it liy taxes and rentals laid heavily aii.l perpetually upon the Iri.h Cath- olic i)easantry — was an ini(|uity so pal|ialili' as to be monstrous in the estimation of posterity.

Against this whole system of foreign eccle- siastical domination, O'Coiniell now raised his voice. He demanded the .li-establi-hment of the Church iu Ireland. lie deinan.led that the tithing system, by which that Church was supported, should be abolished; that the dio- ceses should be broken up, and the bishops and priests of the Church of England left to such free support as they might still obtain ; that the Establishment, in a word, should hence- forth be made to rest on its own basis, just as the Mother Church rested, in the island.

At this time a state of affairs had super- vened in Ireland on the religious side of society very similar to that which existed in England l)etore the passage of the Reform Bill. (J't'oniiell's measure was in the nature of an ecclesiastical reform, by which inequal- ities of taxation and similar abuses were to be removed. But the propositions of the

UMVEHSAL HISTnUY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

reformer were met with violent (.pnositi'-'U m Parliiimeut ami throu-hout the .■niintry. Tlie wrath of the prrhitr< ..f the (/hiirrh of England, and those wlio wnv :,-M„iatr,l with them in inteivst — Inirk,-,!, as tlirv wnc, hy tiie Tory party, aii.l all thr pv.ju.lices l.oni of conservatism — rose lo tiic pitfli ot violence. The agitation uas lanne.l to a flame. The Ministry of Earl lirev tottere.l under the as- i

deavored to a.ssert itself and maintain the asendency of the ancient order l)y the passage of a CoiiRCiox Bill, the ohjeet of which was to suppress the Irish movement by force of arms. But the measure, as might well have heen foreseen, only aggravated the evil which it was designed to mitigate.

In the midst of the confusion the Ministry

of Grey went to pieces on the rocks. The

Earl resigned, and wa&

(1 in office hy

Lamh, l.ette'r

IS Lord Mel-

But he also

l|i,V\ ^-

succeetH William known bourne, was unable to weather the storm. After a brief and unsteady ef- fort to hold the helm, he A\ as obliged, though '■upi)oitedb\ the king, to t,ive plaee to a new (.ou^eisatne Minis- ti\ uudei the leadei- shipotSiBd.eitP.tl. Ihi^ m .x.m.iit h u- £\u \\ is I. un-tille i^it- j>iede(.es>-<ii Ihe ippeal to the countiy w hi< h \\a^ now made ,,.ult.d HI tht .xu- thi u .tBul Ui.l the leippointmentot Mel- l)( uiue a'- Piemiei, in 1^13 In the nu \n-

mt lit h id attenqited t( ( i-t 1 tub to the In^h wink In h1 pt- ,n t nuwi.e of

saults of it? adversaries. Jleanwhile, the first fruits of the agitation, as always happens in such cases, were bitter to the taste. The Irish peasantry, outraged for generations by the in- tolerable exactions of the English Establish- ment, broke into revolt. In many places the country was terrorized by the excesses of the insurrections. Crime and bloodshed were in the path of tho.se who now avenged themselves for the wrongs which had been inflicted upon them. At the first, the British Ministry en-

which ten of the bishoprics in Ireland were abolished, and the revenues of the Churcli rearranged on a basis approximating to justice.

This was the epoch of the ascendency of Daniel O'Connell in the House of Com- mons. As a debater he hud become pre- eminent. This, too, in his old age; lor he was beyond fifty when he entereil Parliament. The analysis of his character and purpo-ses has been difficult, even when the same have been

GREAT BRITAIN.— LAST TWO HANOVERIANS.

illumined by the light of subsecjueut eveuts. It seems to have been his policy to demand much, and to accept for his eoiiutrymeu what- ever he could get. His (iratory was rude and boisterous; his invective a thing to be dreaded, even by the greatest and most callous Parlia- mentarians of his time. As a field-speaker, it is doubtful whether any man of the century has been his superior. He swayed the multi- tudes of his excitable countrymen at his will, and was given by his ailniirers the hardly too extravagant epithet of the "Uncrowned King."

It is to the era which we are here considering that we may properly assign the beginnings of another measure of reform in the administration of Great Britain. Parliament was now, for the first time, called upon to wrestle with the great question of pauperism. The existing Poor Laws of the country were such that the num- ber of those claiming public charity of the kingdom increased from year to year. The disease was seen to be aggravateil by the very means which had been adopted to allay its ravages. The amount annually appropriated for the support of paupers had run up to the enormous sum of seven millions of pounds, and still the cries for gratuitous support in- creased and multiplied. It was under the Administration of Lord Mellwurne that the reform of the Poor Laws was undertaken by Parliament. The measures adopted were suc- cessful only to a limited degree ; but they had the merit of leading in the right direction. The new statute forbade the further payment of benefits to able-bodied paupers in their own homes, and required all those who demanded an entire or partial support at the hands of the ]niblic, to enter the work-houses, and earn bylahurwhat they s aijit, an.l had previously received, as a gnituily.

In the year 1835 still another impetus was given to the car of reform, by the passage

,di Parliament of the Municipal Act. measure was especially designed tc

thr

Thi

ameliorate the condition of

The act was a ?ort of sequ

Bill of lS;lii. It was p,ovi,l

payers of municipal coi-iiorati

might elect a body of towi

that the latter i

number as chief

)wns and cities. 1 to the Reform d that tlie tax- US and lioroughs councilors, and lit choose one of their own gistrate of the corporation.

The principle of local self-government was thus, with great advantage, introduced and ap- plied among the municipal populations of Great Britain.

.Sharp after this came the passage, in 1.S.36, of what was known as the Tithe Commuta- tion Act, by which it was provided that a fixed rent, to be determined by the average price of com for the seven preceding years, .should be substituted for the irregular tithes, which had hitherto been collected in the parishes. Some of the English dioceses were, at the same time, reformed, and, in other bills, it was enacted that marriages might thereafter be solemnized in the churches of Dissenters.

In the early part of the reign of William IV. much ill-feeling was created in Great Britain and Holland by the conduct of the former cfiuntrj' towards the latter. The diffi- culty was entailed as one of the consequences of the Belgic Revolution of 1830-32.

King William I., of Holland, naturally looked to England for sympathy in his contest with the revolted Belgians. What, therefore, were his chagrin and resentment to find the whole influence of the British Government thrown on the side of the insurrectionists, and to see the crown of the kingdom of Belgium conferred on Leopold, son-in-law of the late king of England. To the student of history, however, this course of the British Government will not apj)ear astonishing or unnatural. From time immemorial it has been the ill-disguised policy of England, in the maintenance of her own ascendency, to give her sympathies to the revo- lutionary party in foreign States; this to the extent of encouraging the rupture of rival kingdoms up to the point when the revolution itself becomes a menace to British interests. It was in ])ursuance of this political habit that in 1835 the encouragement of the British Government was openly given to Isabella of Si>ain, at that time engaged in a civil war with her uncle, Don Carlos. A division of the English army, under command of General Evans, was .sent into the Spanish Peninsula, and took active part in ui)holdiug the child- queen of the kingdom.

On the whole, the Ministry of Lord Mel- bourne was inefticient, and the times of its ascendency uneventful. The Premier himself

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

owed his high phice in the (ii)vei-nnient to negative rather than positive qualities. He has been pronounced by political critics to have been deficient in insight and in energy; and his political influence must be referred, not to his own strength, but to conditions in- dependent of his will, and to the concurrence of fortunate circumstances. It was the hap- piness of Melbourne, however, to form the connecting link between the reign of William IV. and the girl-sovereign who succeeded him. As for the king, his life was now rapidly waning. In the last years of his reign he ex- ercised only the slightest influence on the course of events. William began to show signs of debility in May of 1837. It was

found that he labored from a fatal afl^ection of the heart. Declining for several weeks, he came to his death on the 20th of June, in that year. He died, as his brother liefore him had died, with no legitimate children; and the large family of alleged illegitimate heirs were, of course, excluded from the throne. It be- longed to the Melbourne Ministry to steer the ship of State from the narrow and stormy seas of an unpopular reign into the ocean — almost shoreless — of the Victorian epoch; an ocean wide and free — not, indeed, without its seasons of storm and tempest, but for the most part fanned with gentle breezes from infinite regions, and crowned with the radiance of 1 sunlight.

CHAPTER CXXVIII— KPOCH OK CHARTISM.

HE reader of history must be constantly surprised with the vicissitudes through which the Royal

! Houses of Europe have been fated to pass. Time and again we have the iiii'uou of a princely family in lenly struck with blight and barrenness. Who could have foreseen that the House of Tudor, represented in the vigor- ous and passionate Henry VIII., could have so suddenly and strangely descended into ex- tinction and oblivion? Who could have an- ticipated the equally sudden descent of the House of Stuart into the female line? And who can contemplate without wonder the de- termination of nature that not one of the seventeen children of Queen Anne should reach maturity'^ Why should Henry, six- times wedded to fcrlile (|ni'ens, be unable to perpetuate the name of Tudor? Why should Anne be mocked as if she were a fruitful tree, doomed to bear forever, but droppiiic; its un-

we vii-w with astonishment the sudden ilci'iid- ence of the family of Oor-e llf. Nine s.ms

William IV., in June of 1837, not a single male child of the legitimate blood of the EnglLsh Guelfs, not a single true cion of that House of Hanover-Brunswick, wdiich had been transplanted from Germany to England, re- mained to inherit the crown. Edward, Duke of Kent, fiurth son of George HI., had been laid with his fathers since 1825. To his sur- viving fiimily, however, b}' the established laws of English descent, the monarchy must now go for a sovereign. And that sovereign was found in the person of the Duke of Kent's daughter, the Princess Alexandrina Vic- toria, and to her the crown descemled without the shadow of dispute.

The Princess at this time was seventeen years and one month of age. She had been the heir-presumptive during the reign of her uncle William IV. Her education, in the meantiiiio, was intrusted to the Duchess of Northumberland, by whom the Princess was removed from the degrading influences of the court, and carefully trained for the duties alike of queenhood and womanliood. Her .lrve]n|,ni.iit had been carefully guarded, and she had ^rown up a virtuous, intclligi nt, and pruilout L'iiK fitted by every kind of discipline for the exalti'd rank and trying duties of her station. Nothing in history presents a stronger

GREAT BHITAIN.—EFOCn OF CHAEriSM.

-LIAM THE CONQUEROR 1087.

GEOFFREY PLANTAGENET-.Matilda.

:,. Henry ]I., 1189.

4. Stephen, 1154.

6. Rkhakd Lion Heaut. IIDU.

7. John LAfKLAND, 1216.

8. Henry III , 1272.

9. Edward I., 1.W7.

10. Edward II., I.S27.

11.eJar„„I,,1.7.

Edward. Lionel, E.hmilKl l,,l,n

the Blark ITinoe. Duke of rlarence. Duke of York. Duke of LANCASTER.

chard II., 1400. Philippa

1 RoKer Mortimer

RICHARD, DUKE OF YORK

17 Ei.WARi. v., 14S3. Elizabeth^

ili.Ni;Y 1\ ., 141:; ,lohn Beaufort.

I I

IlENliY \ .. 1422. .lolin. OWEN TUDOR.

IIKNKY VI.. 1471. Margaret— Duke of Kiilimoii.l.

WALTER STUART.

IN. RnilARD III., 148,5.

19 Henry VII.,

James III. -James IV.

EiiWAKD VI., 1X,3.

.ame.s

Jlary, Queen of Scots, 24. James I iVI.), 1B2.5.

26 Charles II., lf,s.5. 27. James II., 1701,

I

14. JnmesEdward 28. Mary, =28, WILLIAM III, OF ORANGE

Elizabeth,

SOPHIA-DUKE OF HANOVER- I BRUNSWICK,

30. Oeorge I., 1727.

Fredi'riek, Prince of Wales. I .".2. i;Eoi.fiElII„1820.

i

THE IVIONARCHS ENGLAND.

. riEORoE, IV., ls:;o. :54. William IV.. ls;-;7. Duke of Kent.

Priuee of Male^

contrast than is nfflirdoil l.y the seiitinifiits, tlie ' and alx.niiiiatidii, which swelled and limke in

instinets, and |U1i-|h,scs ..f the maidenly liosoin i n siirC nf iiidcsci-iliahle ofiensiveness armind the

of Virt.iria 011 tho <lay of lier tiecession, and Kiiolisli liir :■ during the last two ivion.s.

the pas.'^ioiis tloatino in that purlieu ,,[' HItli j The circumstances of the inauguration of

UNIVERSAL HISrOKY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

the young Queen were such as entluisiastic admiration of \\rv youth and inexperience, and ignorance of the world, it had would leave her a helpless n<ivi< the rdval seat. But si

erself to be ready for the ()u the day of hei accession m waiting lead hei own si}ttcli aloud in tin tleai,

d^en the s. Her

ortuuate ■ pposed.

ness under trial. The war-battered Welling- ton .said gruffly that he could not have wished a better performance from his own daughter. On coming to power, the now Queen rejected the name Alexandriiia, which had been given her out of com- pliment to the Empeioi of Kus- sia, and Mgned heiself «unply ViCTORi\ K the name bv which bothheiselt and hei epoch,

(Jl 1 h,\ \1C1UKI-

niiisical tiiiK's of i^irlhood, showed neither fear nor einbarras-iiiciit, Mushed crimson red when hor two airod uiiclos knelt to kiss her hand, and won the hearts of all. Peel declared him- self aina/.ed at her manner and behavior, at her deep sense of the situation, at her firin-

if the most

it in Entil

history

The maiden ruler who was thus called to the throne of England was the thirty-fifth iu order of succession from William the Conqueror, and the fifth Queen Regnant of the United

GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

Kingdom of Great Britain ami Irelaml. The contiugeucy which had i)eeii provided for on the aceessiou of George I. had thus at last arrived. Under the constitiitiou of the Dukedom of Hanover-Brunswick, the princes of that line must be male ; for the Salic Law, prevalent inimemorially iu Germany as well as France, excluded women from the throne. Accordingly, when George I. was called hy Parliament to the sovereignty of Great Britain, it was provided that so long as a male heir re- mained to wear the crown, Hanover and England should be governed by a common king; but iu case the English crown should fall iuto the female line, theu Hanover should revert to some other branch of the family in ■which the male line was still preserved. The event had cimie. The daughter of the Duke of Kent had inherited the English throne. Hanover was accordingly severed from its political relations with Great Britain, and on the accession of Victoria became an inde- pendent power. Duke Ernest, of Cunilier- land, was chosen king.

The new sovereign of Eiiiihuid came into power under the auspices of tlu' Tinies. Lord Melbourne was still Prime Minister. The Queen herself sympathized in her youth, as she has always done, with the Tory party, and

as it had been in the cinshii;' years of George IV. A new Parliament was created by an appeal to the country, and the result showed that the Tory, or, as it now began to be called, the Comervativr, party had a slight gain in tlu' elections. If we should glance into the En- glish Parliament at tliis time, we would dis- cover in that body an array nt' political talent, not to say genius, wliich cuidd hardly be sur- passed in the palmiest days of British history. The foremost man of all was, doubtless. Lord Henry Brougham, at that time fifty-eight years of age. Perhaps no abler or stronger charac- ter has appeared in the arena ot statesmanship within the present century. He was a great orator, as that term is used, to describe not only the temiwrary influence of the speaker over those whom lie aildresses, but also to sig- nify a solidity of subject-matter and cogency of reasoning, such as may well influence the thought of readers in another age and country. Brougham had risen to the Chancellorship in

18.30. In 1835 he was left out of the Whig Ministry, and, during the remainder of his career, pursued an independent course on all questions of the dny, wielding, in his old age, a free-lance, whieh hi' lunled with the power of a giant. Atter him, the second place among the Parliamentarians of the time has been as- signed to Lord John Lyndhurst, who, as a debater, has had few superiors in the British House of Lords. Lyndhurst was the son of John Singleton Copley, an American painter of the Colonial times, and was born in Boston, in the year 1772. He was a Tory by politics, a statesman by profession. Without the ag- gressive force of Brougham, without his rug- gedness of character and stormy disposition, he nevertheless rose easily to a high plane of intluence in British affairs, and maintained it through a long and eventful life. In the House of Commons of this time might be .seen sitting, for the city of London, George Grote, the histo- rian of Greece. There, also, was Edward Lyttou Bidwer, destined to the peerage. In the same body appeared, for the first time, the eccentric and foppish Benjamin Disraeli, for whom des- tiny had reserved the task of making- his au- gust Queen Empress of India. William E. Gladstone had then seen five years' service iu the House. Lord John Kussell had just begun his career as leader of his partv. Tiiere were Pahnerston, and I'eel, and Stu'idey, O'Connell and Shell, shouting to the charge for the emancipation of Ireland. It has been re- marked that of the great names who were des- tined, in the next forty years, to be blazoned on tlie escutcheon of British Parliamentary history, only four — Roebuck, Cobden, Bright, and Maeaulay — were wanting in the Parlia- ment whieh assembled when Victoria took the scepter.

The Government of the (}urrn inherited from its predecessor all of the i-eformatory tend- encies of the age. Those tendencies had not yet satisfied themselves by taking organic forms in the Englisli Constitution. But for a brief season the reformatory movements were checked by the diversion of the attention of the Governni..nt to th<' aflhirs of Lower Canada. In that country an insurrection broke out in 1838, and the 'Government found itself under the necessity of suspending the colonial con- stitution, in virtue of which Canaila hail her

UMVEBSAI. HISTORY.— THE MODERS WORLD.

civil existeuce. In order to secure a better ailministratiiiii in the Province, Joliii Gecu-ge Lanibtnn, Lunl Durham, was selected as a new (ioveriior, and to hira was assigned the dittiriilt task nt' ijiu'lliiig the insurrection, pac- ityiii;^ the pe(ii)lc, and reorganizing the Gov- ern im-iit. On rei)airing to America and as- suming; his duties in Canada, he was so unfortunate as to adopt measures beyond the limits of his instructions, and perhaps beyond the limits of present application to the then conditions in Canada. The ordinances which he prepared for tlie government of the Prov- ince were subsequently' taken as the basis of Canadian nationality, but they were disap- proved by the House of Lords; whereupon the Governor was so deeply offended that, with- out waiting to be recalled, he abandoned his post and returned to England.

Nor did the event fail to justify, in some measure, what had seemed to be the rashness and impractical temper of Lord Durham. Pow- erful friends at home approved and defended his course. His report on the condition of affairs in Canada was one of the ablest papers of the times, and Parliament was soon obliged to adopt the very policy which the discarded Governor had attempted to maintain in his brief and extraordinary administration.

The period of history upon which we are now entering was marked in the history of all countries by the great extension of scientific knowledge. It was the epoch, rather, in which scientific knowledge began to be extensively applied in all industrial and commercial enter- prises. It was, in short, the dawn of the new era of contrivance and invention. The aug- mentation of the productiveness of human labor in almost all departments of industry became perceptible from the fourth decade of the century, and the volume of applied force was destined to increase and widen through th" whole Victorian Age. It were difficult, in- deed, ns it is always difficult, to point out with exactitude the beginnings, the true origins, of the great discoveries and inventions which have s.i vastly nndtiplied in our times. Per- haps w -hnidd cite the last quarter of the ci-litcfiith riiitury as thegeneraldateof the sci- entific discoveries which began to be utilized fifty years afterwards. The discovery of oxy- gen-gas by Priestley, in 1774, might almost be

said to be the first stage in the natural sciences. What, indeed, had mankind actually known about the true constitution of nature up to the time of Priestley and Franklin ? The scientific men of this and tlie sulisequent age, however, were explorers and discoverers ratlier than inventors. It is with the application of discovery, the adaptation, or, if we may so say, the incorporation of the principles by which phenomena are governed into physical con- trivance, that we are here to consider and il- lustrate.

One of the greatest of the achievements to which we refer was the extension of Steam Navig.\tio>' — particularly the navigation of the Atlantic Ocean by steamships — and the establishment by this means of regular lines of communication between Europe and America. The Atlantic Ocean was first traversed exper- imentally by a small steamer called the Savan- nali, in 1816. The vessel was constructed at New York, was successfully steered to Liver- pool under the propulsion of steam, and con- stituted the brief experimental wonder of the times. The next voyages accomplished by the came agent were made a few years later be- tween Holland and the Dutch West Indian colonies. It was, however, in the early part of the year 1838 that the practical feature of ocean steam navigation was demonstrated on a large scale. In that year the British-built steamships Sirius and Great Wedeni made their trial voyages across the Atlantic. The first trip of the Great Western was made from Bris- tol to New York in fifteen days. The Siriiin steamed out from Cork and reached the Amer- ican metropolis in seventeen days on her trial trip. It was the demonstration of a great problem, the favorable .solution of which was destined to exercise a vast influence, not only on the commercial affairs of nations, but on the nations themselves by the extension of inter- course and the stimulation of internationality. This was particularly true of that feature of the improvement which related to the trans- mission of the oceanic mails. Nor will the patriot reader on this side of the Atlantic fail to recall with pride the fact that the ^lother Countrv, essentiallv maritime as she is, at the bottom of her greatness, was constrained to draw u]ion the genius of the American Repub- lic for the first suggestions and demonstrations

GREAT BRITAIX.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

279

of the practicability of prnpelling ve^^.-cls Iiy steam-enginery.

The same pride may well be inspired by the story of the indebtedness of the llother Country to her daughter in the matter of ap- plying the electrical current as a means of communication. In England, tiie first to make such application of electricity was Sir Charles Wheatstone, at that time professor of experimental philosophy in King's College, London. It was in June of 1836 that Wheat- stone produced what may be called the rudi- mentary telegraph. lu that year he took out a patent "for improvements iu giving .signals and sounding alarms in distant places by means of electric currents, transmitted through metallic circuit." Similar discoveries had already been made by our own Professor Morse, but it does not appear that Wheatstone was indebted for his contrivance to the American inventor. Both philosophers were working out, independently, the solution of the same problem. Witii Wheatstone was associated Mr. Cooke, an Englishman of scientific attain- ments and business experience, whose practical abilities were joined with those of the phi- losopher in his patent for the first electrical ap)iaratus of the telegraphic kind iu England.

It should be observed, however, that the work of Wheatstone was limited to the sound- ing of signals at a distance, and did not reach to the conveyance of information by means of lanu'uage. The latter achievement was the work of Morse, as has already been delineated iu another chapter. In the matter of the rail- road, however, the first actual production be- longed to England. There it was that Stephen- son led the way into the new continent of commerce and travel. The London and Bir- mingham Railway was not, however, opened in its whole length until 1838, fully sixteen years after the successful opening of the first line, eight miles in length, to the Hetton colliery. An act for tlie transmission of the English mails by railway was passed through Parliament in lS.;s. mi.l thenceforth the de- velopment and extension of the system was rapid and constant until it became universal.

We come at this same ])eriod in English history, t-> one of tlmsc rcinnrkaMc features in

We refer to the establislitnont of what, in English parlance, is call.,! Tin: Pkn-nv Pi.st. The methods ,,f transmitting the mails by irregular and local agencies, sncli as bail been in vogue since the Middle Ages, continueil in operation in Great Britain to within the memory of men still living. The idea of a general postal system, operating at cheap rates under direction and control of the Govern- ment, did not enter the mind of any British statesman until after the accession of Victoria. Even then the project had to be carried to Parliament, and persistently advocated by a man wiser in his generation than any member of that body, before the feasibility of the scheme was acknowledged and adopted. The experiences of Sir Rowland Hill — for to him all mankind are perpetually indebted for the conception of a cheap and universal postal system — were almost identical in his dealings with the British Parliament and advocacy of his proposed measure before that liody with those of Professor Morse before the American Congress. The scene iu either instance of these two pioneers before the two great repre- sentative law-making bodies of the English- speaking Nations may well remind one of the attitude of Columbus, surrounded with a group of bigoted monks and ignorant school-men, and trying to reveal to their bat-winged imagina- tions the glories of a New World !

It was in the year 1839 that the Chan- cellor of the Exchequer laid before Parliament a proposition in which it was declared expe- dient to reduce the po.stage on letters to one uniform rate of one penny charged upon every letter of a given weight. The measure also proposed the abolition of the franking privi- lege hitherto p<isscssed by members of Parlia- ment, and the restriction of franking to such official documents as must be transmitted by the officers of Government. The striking feature of the proposition was that it reversed the existing theory in reganl to the transmis- sion of matter bv mail. Iliiherto the receipts

-otfi.

UXIVERSAL HISTORY— THE MODERX WORLD.

l)y many others, the aggregate receipts of the post-ottice department were reduced to a figure as meagre as the system itself was contemptible. Whenever from any such causes a deficiency had arisen, it had been the custom of the department (o advance the rates of postage, believing that thereby the aggregate receipts would be increased. It remained for Rowland Hill to demonstrate the fallacy of this position and demonstrate the truth of the reverse. In 1.S37 he published a pamphlet entitled Post- office Reform; its Importance and Practicability. It was one of tho.se rare productions which, by their invincible logic and cogent array of facts, make a conquest of the human mind. Hill's work fought its way even into Parliament. Tlie post-ofRce authorities decried the project. The Postmaster-General denounced it in the Hnuse of Lords as a visionary scheme. When Parlianient took the matter up, and, in .spite of itself, began to admit the truthfulness of Hill's demonstrations, the officials of the de- I)artment assented to try the imject, but hedged against the consequences. .Sydney Smith satirized the enterprise with his usual bitterness. Nevertheless, the ministry gave way under the impact of the truth. The great commercial cities caught a glimpse of the benefits of the new system, and poured their petitions in its lavnr into the House of Com- mons. A bill was brought in embodying the scheme of Rowland Hill, and on the 10th of January, 1840, the act for the e.stab- lishment of postage at the uniform rate of one penny j)er letter of not more than half an ounce in weight, was adopted against the strenuous opposition of a large party in both Houses of Parliament. And it may well sur- prise posterity to know that among the names of those most liitterly antai;dnistic to the act were those of tlie Dukr of Wc-llington and Sir Robert Peel. The country and the world immediately responded to the new system by pouring an increased volume of revenue into the post-office department of every nation where cheap postage, after the manner devised by Sir RoAvhmd Hill, has been adopted as a niethod of administration.

Wr here appioarh ..ne of the nio.-t remark- able episoiles in the iM.litical history of England. It was in the year 1838 that the extraordinaiy social and iiidustrial upheaval known by the

general name of C'h.\ktis.-m occurred. It is doulttful whether any other agitation of like kind, more general, more profimnd, more heated, had shaken the fabric of British so- ciety than was the sudden and unexpected in- surrection of the masses in favor of what was known as "the People's Charter." This name was given to a brief summary of political prin- ciples said to have been drawn up by Daniel O'Connell, in the year above named, and handed by him to the Secretary of the Work- ingmen's Association, with the remark : "There's your charter; agitate for it, and never be content with anything le.ss." It is proper, first of all, to state concisely what were the principles of political action sum- marized in the People's Charter.

The document in cuiestioii contained si.x brief formal piopositions, which were as fol- lows:

1. We deman.l Universal Suffrage — by which was meant ratlier ilanliood Sutirage than what is now known as universal sutirage, meaning the ballot in tlie hands of both sexes. This, the Chartists did not demand.

2. We demand an Annual Parliament — by which was meant the election of a new House of Commons each year by the people.

3. We demand the right to Vote by Bal- lot— by which was meant the right of the peo- ple to employ a secret, ballot at the elections instead of the method viva voce.

4. We demand the Abolition of the Prop- erty Q.ualification now requisite as a comlition of "eligibility to Membership in the House of Commons.

5. We demand that the IMembers of Parlia- ment shall be i)aid a salary fijr their services.

G. We demand the Division of the Coun- try into Equal Electoral Districts — by which was meant an equality oi' j)ojii(lation, as against mere territorial extent.

Such, in brief, was the code of political doc- trines under which the Chartist reformers of 1838 went forth to agitate the country.

To the reader of to-day it must appear a matter of astonishment that the representatives of the working classes of Great Britain should have been called upon, at a time witliin the memory of men still living, to defend and ad- vocate jiolitieal principles so self-evident and common-sense as those declared in the Charter;

GREAT EI:I1AL\.-EF0CH OF LHARTISM.

!.sl

ana bis wonder mast be laiscd wheu he is t<ikl that the \v p<i\ver of Great Britain, the K

H.

-f L

great Middle Class ,,f i:,, selves iu liorritied antiii^mi and its advocates, as tlidii: the most incendiary ddeiii and the latter a ral)lile dl from the pnrlieus of the How can such an incre<lih ent-ceutury history of (Jr plained and interpreted?

In the first place, the 'sv 1832 had proved a signal f; with respect to the worl Britain — to the masses of bill had been a-itated in the well-to-do .Mi.ldle (;ia

people. That first place bv f Englishmen.

The battle for the standard in the Parliament- ary war of 1828-32 was between the Middle Class and the Aristocracy. The former fought for an extension of their rights; the latter for the maintenance of their exclusive privileges. But in that contest neither the representatives of the ^Middle Class nor the representatives of the Aristocracy had had the slightest care for the interests of the working masses — for the rights of the real people of England. Never- theless, the real people had been profoundly agitated by the Middle Class oratoi-s and statesmen, and had been led to believe that the Reform Bill was intended to remove the evils under which the workingmen of Crreat Britain toiled on in the obscure drama of ]>ov- erty from birth to death.

The real people of England wei-e thus en- listed in favor of the reform measures of is.'Vi, and followed the banners nf l-^ail <ney. Sir Robert Peel, and Lord John Russell. ' But what was the chagrin, mortitication, disappoint- ment, and, presently, the rage of the working- men when, after the passage of the Reform Bill, they began to perceive that, .so far as themselves were concerned, the measure had been a delusion an<l a snare. They saw, after five years of bittern( >s, that though great bene- fits had been derived from the bill by the Middle Class, no benefit whatever had reached themselves. They beheld, more.jver, the Whig

' party withdraw from them and stand aloof as though it would affiliate with that very Aris- tocracy from whose hands the Reform Bill had

measures of 1.s:;l', >.auide,l as a mockery, anil I the mention of il began to a\vakeu on the j features of all \voi-kin,i:nien, from the hard- handed artisans of L.nidon to the soot-smutted miners of Wales, a sardonic gi'in, presently I stiffening into a frown of unspeakable hatred. Such was the principal antecedent of the agi- tation which arose under the Charter. , Other causes coiiperated with the principal cause. The amendment to the Poor Laws, while correct in principle and ultimately vin-

hardship and engendered dissatisfaction. Be- I yond all this, the working people of England I were, at this time, ignorant to the last degree. They knew only iu a certain vague way that they were oppressed, that they were suffering. j They knew enough to perceive that the pro- ducts of their toil went to enrich the landed gentry, or to fill the coffers of great merchants and manufacturers. Superstition had not yet loosened its hold upon the popular imagination. Ignorant leaders came forth like apparitions, first, to deceive, and then disaiiiioint, the masses. One of these, bv the name of Thom, a bankrupt brewer and halt-madman, ajipeared ui Canterbury, proposing to lead the people. He called himself Sir William Courtenay, of Powderham Castle, Knight of Malta, King of Jerusalem. Multitudes followed him about, until presently, near the gates of Canterliury, he and some of his principal fbllowers, at the head of a large body of riojers, were shot dead in a conflict with the militia. But the fanatics who followed his banner believed that their leader would come forth by resurrection, and at length conduct them to social happiness and plenty. The industrial districts of Eng- land were rife with such delusions, and the ex- istence of the insurrectionary tendency among the working-classes was used by the Middle- Class Whigs as an excuse for inclining to the side of conservatism, and for locking with strong chains the wheels of the car of reform. But there were not wanting in England cer- tain brave spirits warmed with the enthusiasm

UXIVERSAL HIST0J;Y — THE MODERN WORLD.

of huiuauiU', feiirhig U(jt theiueuaee ul' political ostracism, dreading uot even the dungeon and the gibbet, who took up the People's Charter, so-called, and went forth among the masses to defend and advocate its doctrines. Among these, several names were conspicuous. First of all may be mentione.l Feargus OT.mii..r, who was, perhaps, the most popular and vehrment of all the Chartist leaders. Thomas Cooper, a poet of no mean capacity, a philanthropist in word and deed, buoyed ii]) the cause of Chart- ism witli tongue and pen. In the eighth decade of the {)reseut century the lecture-goers of the United States were called, time and again, to hear the silvery tones of the voice of an aged Englishman. He was a veritable Saxon. His full beard and mustache were long and white. He was short and thick in figure, of florid complexion; and those fierce blue eyes, which he had taken by heredity from his Teutonic ancestors in the Hollowlands along the Bal- tic, by turns blazed with the fierceness of his earnest convictions, or beamed with the benignity of his generous spirit. Great were the themes wliich he presented on the American platform. Elixpieiit was the old man as he delineated some of the leading vicis- situ<les of English history, or portrayed the thrilling crises of Continental society. With- out i:iite or menioranduni, he spoke for hours without a jiause, and his hearers sat enraptureil. On his last round before the free people of the West, the old man's right thumb was covered with the black stall which concealed the incipient felon destined to cause his death. He is gone. It was Henry Vincent, the Chartist orator, who, in 1828, suffered imprison- ment in Wales for advocating the People's Charter.

Chartism became popular throughout Eng- land. The chief seats of the agitation were in the manufacturing and commercial cities. In all such situations the Chartists be- came numerous and powerful. The leaders, as a class, were men of the highest respectabil- ity and most earnest purpose. In some in- stances, mere factionists and adventurers, having everything to gain and nothing to lose, threw in their fortunes with the cause, and generally brought di.sgrace upon it. But for the rest, the movement was directed by an in- telligent enthusiasm for which it would be

difficult to find a parallel as the jirime motive of any other political agitation. It can not be denied — and it was a fact, indeed, gloried in by the Chartist reformers themselves — that the multitudes who followed in the wake were men of low degree, drawn from the mines and fac- tories, the dirty streets of cities, and the hum- ble shops of country villages. This mass, how-ever, constituted a large jnirt of the En- glish jjeople, and their struggle for emancipa- tion was among the noblest of the jiopular excitements of the century.

The methods, moreover, adopted hj the Chartist leaders to secure their ends were in the highest degree commendable. The orators went from city to city, from village to village, speaking to the throngs that gathered to share a common enthusiasm and to hear discussed the principles of the People's Charter. Torch- light processions, popular dinners, and multi- tudinous gatherings became the order of the day, and the movement presently gathered such head that the Government, not without reason, grew apprehensive of a political up- heaval in the kingdom. As a rule, all the English artisans and the producing classes, properly so-called, espoused the Chartist cause. The Ministry and Parliament became alarmed, and strenuous measures were adopted to pre- vent the further spread of the excitement, and to trammel up the cou.sequences of the work already done.

The Chartist meetings began to be lirokeu up, and the leaders to be prosecuted. One of the severest crises was that attendant upon the effort to release Henry Vincent from prison at Newport. For this purpose a vast force of workingmen was crudely organized, under the leadership of a Newport trader by the name of Frost. He was assisted by several others, and his forces were arranged in three columns, to converge on Newport at a certain hour of the night; but the movements of the rude in- surgents were so irregular that only the colunm headed by Frost arrived at the scene of action at the appointed time. This division was con- fronted by the city authorities, and a collision occurreil, in which the workingmen were dis- persed. Frost and the other leaders were taken, tiled, convicted, and condemned to death. The .sentence was not carried into ex- ecution, I)ut was commuted into banishment

GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

for life. Three of tlie leaders were sent to the penal colonies ; but in course of time the animosity of the Government was cooled, and those of the condemned Chartists who had not died in the interim regained their freedom.

It were long to follmv the destinies of the agitation during the next ten years. The movement ebbed and timved. Thuse of the Chartist leaders who hail espoused the cause tliiough an unselfish enthuNia-m, ln^plled by 'i\mpdth\ foi the woes of the Eu^li^h masses, held st .utU .u I\i- (uti II- 111 I 1. M u

Jai

It

iw out of the aboliti

of

slavery in that country, and of a struggle be- tween the old masters and the freednien, not unlike the chaos which eusued in the 8outheru States in the decade succeeding the American Civil War. On the whole, the Imperial Gov- ernment of .Jamaica, that is, the Governor, the Council, and the other royal officers, favored the maintenance of the rights of the eufianchised classes in the island. But the As^-embh, lepiesentmg the old dommant mas- h" it th. 1). 1 1. iilintt I th iii-Lhes

tions did not ajijiall them; imprisonment, and e\eu death, did not suffice to still their voices. We shall hereafter see that as late as 1848 the Chartists, as a party, were as numer- ous and powerful, as capable of shaking the country with their tread, as they had lieen in the spring-tide of the agitation.

The Ministrv of .Mt'llMHirnc now tottered to its fall. The circumstance wlurh was destined to give tlie coup de grace to tliat rather long- lived and little sensational Cabinet related td the administration of atlairs in the island of

against the freednien, and a clash thus arose in the heart of the Government.

The question was one which greatly puz- zled the Ministry; but the Gordian knot was cut at length bv an act suspending or alirogat- iug the Jamaican Constitution. This measure was violently opposed by Sir Robert Peel and the Conservatives on the one side, and by the Radicals on the other. The latter now consti- tuted a considerable body in Parliament. They bail, in tile times of the Reform agitation, fol- lowed the Whig banner with enthusiasm; but,

UJS'JVEBSAL HISTORY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

like tlie Chartists, of xviiich they wii-.. really the representatives, they \\:\'\ cati n the worm- wood aud drauk the gall of liiitvi iie>s aud dis- appoiiitraeut on aceouut nt' tin- ,-iiiull niiteonie of the Eeforiu movement tn popular liberty. The eombiued attaek of the two wings was more than the ^Melliourne Ministry ronld stand. The Premier resigned his place, and suggested to the C^ueen that she call Sir Eob- ert Peel to the head of the Government.

Between the larger paragraphs of English greatness are interlarded many paragraphs of English littleness. We here come to one of those extraordinary episodes in the Parlia- mentary history of Great Britain which may well excite a smile ou the lips of posterity. The young Queen of the United Kingdom had her royal hou.sehold after the manner of her ancestry. Among the personages composing the household, two of the most important were the Ladies of the Bed-chamber. Thi.s delicate office of personal aud intimate attendance on the Queen had been given to the wife of Lord Xorraauby and the sister of Lord Morpeth, afterwards Lord Carlisle. These two noble- men hail both been holding high offices under th.e Whigs. The first had been Lord-Lieuten- ant ot Ireland, -and the second, Irish Secretary in the same Administration. But these officers hail, of course, gone down with the NVhig Mini-try of Melbourne. The question was whether the wife of the one and the sister of the other, Ladies of the Bed-chamber to the Queen, should or should not go out of place with the Ministry. When Sir Robert Peel went to the Queen to accept from her the of- fice of Premier, he thought he discovered a specter, two specters indeed, in Her Majesty's bed-chamber. He conceived that the retention of two eminent Whig ladies in clo.sest attend- ' ance upon their royal mistress would break the efficiency of the new Conservative Ministry about to be formed. He, therefore, rather abruptly and without due tact, demanded that the Queen's ladies-in-waiting should share the fate of the fallen ^linistry.

The young Queen was shocked at the pro])0- sition. She had become greatly attached to the ladies who were now regarded as a menace [ to Sir Robert and his Conservatives. She ac- cordingly consulted with Lord John Russell, and, (ju his advice, replied to Sir Robert that '

she

t consent to a course which she be contrary to usage, and which tly repugnant to her feelings. n refused to accept the

conceived t was SI I gr Sir Robert thereupi Government, and made a high-sounding ora- tiou in Parliament in defen.se of his position. A Ministerial crisis was thus produced, aud the (Jueen was obliged to recall Lord Mel- bourne to the head of the Government. The excitement growing out of this "Question of the Bed-chamber," as it was called, spread through the country, and a considerable in- terval elapsed before Parliament swung back into its customary mood.

The return of Lord ^Melbourne to the head of the Government was only for a brief season. On resuming office he was still confronted with the Jamaica Bill. That measure had to be modified and remodified under the dictation of the Opposition, until its leading features were tinkered away. Even these beatings about could not save the alread_v discredited Whig party from rout aud overthrow. The ^Ministry staggered on for a brief season, aud was driven finally from power to make wa}', in September of 1841, for the accession of Sir Robert Peel and the Conservatives.

The attention of the British public could but be called, at an early date, to the question of the succession. Here, indeed, was a Maiden Queen on the throne of England. As for the rest, the English Guelfs were well-nigh extin- guished. The great family of George HL had come to this: a modest, quiet, and not un- comely young woman ou the English throne. Nor was the Queen herself unmindful of the situation. Girlish fancy, as well as Imperial duty, had suggested to her the desirability — the necessity — of marriage. To her credit be it said, that she was totally devoid of that un- womanlv pride which flamed in the bosom of Elizabeth Tudor, making her prefer the sin- gleness and selfishness of royal power to the charms of wifehood and motherhood. At the opening of Parliament, in 1840, Victoria ap- peared in person, and declared her intention to be married to her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The young Majesty said in her speech, that she trusted that the step which she was about to take would be Conducive to the interests of her people as well as to her own domestic hajipiness. It was

GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

known that the royal marriage thus anuouiiced was, both on the Queen's part and the part of the Prince, an affair ..f tlie heart, rather than an affair <>f royal and [>i4itieal Cduven- ieuce.

The event fully jii-titiid ]iulili(^ expecta- tion. Prince Albert was eiuinentiy worthy of the trying station to wiiich h(^ was called. His situation was peculiar in the last degree. From one point of view, it seemed that the law of nature was reversed and made of no effect by the Constitution of (iivat Britain. The Prince was the husband of the Queen, but the law of affection catne in to rectify and amend the hardsliip to which the husband was subjected; and there can be no doubt that while the Queen hciicf .rtl scepter over his head, he to tlio ( held an equally imperial sc. pti'r ovo

It may well be asked, especial public like ours, what part or Albert, in such a situati<iii, hail, or with respect to the public aflairs ( dom. Was he simply a ciplicr by that significant unit, the (,|nccn'.' < be reckoned among the political forces of the reign? In the first place, the Prince was by nature and discipline a gentle man and scholar. The domestic pui^uits

charmed him from his lioyl 1. In hi- int 1

lectual preferences he cho.-e art and i In iti n as the two subjects most congenial to hi- t i-t and to these elevating branches of cultuie 1 devoted himself with assiduity. He becam the patron of many of the noblest enteipu-e- of the Victorian era; and although never what might be called a popular prince among the people to whom he was set in such strange relation, he nevertheless exercised on the men and manners of his time a most wholesome in- fluence, the effects of whieh have not yet passed away. Nor may we overlook his equally salutary, though imlirect, influence on the Queen, and tlinniirb the Queen on the Ministry, the Parliament, the whole Adminis- tration of Great Britain. In this respect he was a moderating and conservative force, checking, as far as he iiii'.dit. the evil con- sequences of party legislation and the rage of politics. He was in all respects a cautious, prudent man, little disposed to interfere, except with affectionate advice, in the affairs of the 18

august peisom.e b\ hi- -ide His pifunige of art and leainmg tndeaied him m a high de sree to the inttlkcturl ( hs«e- of Enghnd

Iters Jtific

t i

C( nipau\ wd luk mines ot

wise eon Some

it the UKidtnts (t the Puulcs career, aftei his union with the Queen may well be mil it 1 Vt tli ut t h \Ms ub jected t( I huniiliiti n in I iiliiiiicnt b} the

reduction of tlio	proposeil annuity of fifty
thousand pounds t	o thirlN- thousand pouuds — ■
this the work of	tlie T.iiy Oppo.liion. His
good sense, howev	■r. l.d hiiu 1 ake no sign,
and presently afte	■wards he leeeiv.'d the great
compliment of be	n- deeliired Ileeeiit in case
of the Queen's de	ilh with Is-iie. In this case
the Opposition joi	led with til,. Ministry, and
the act was pa-	■d by unaniinoiis vote. It
ean not be <loul	ted that the measure con-
tributed not a lit	ic to the dignified estimate
which was helK'ef,	rth iilaced on the Prince by
the Engli-li peopl	'. Ever afterwards he con-
stituted a kind «t'	mtside Privy Council to the

2sr, UNIVERSAL HISTOBY.-

Queen ami extant .Miiiir-try; imr wduld it he

single instance in wiiieli lii< iiilliirnrr was ex- ercised to the liuit nf ihr r.iiii^li Nation.

Meanwiiile. thr rrinre s.t his mind on the aceompli-hmcnt of many imiaovmients an.l irh.rms in thr oxislin- mder. in the early years oflns a^r.anhnrv h,- nnd.-rlonk, annm- other thin-s, to Hlort ih.' aholuion uf duolu,^-

in the army. 'He- rruirc's [.i-njc't ( t.-m-

plated thf .^tahhshnicnt (.t a system nf Cnurls of Hoimi-, lu'lhrr whi.'h the <lilheulties (-(in- stantly arisin- hetwecn ..IHcers and am((n- soldiers, mi-iit he arhitratod witlmut apjieal to the harharons co.h' duello. In this worl^ he secured the e(i(>|iciation of the Duke of Wellington, and, aliie'Ugh the measure of es- tablishing C(mrts tliiled of adoption, the atti- tude of tlie Prince, and of those statesmen who esiMJUsed his views, prevailed over the brutal usages df the past to the extent of their extinction. DudiuL', as a practice among public men and soldieis, disappeared from En- trlish siieietv, if not as a direct result of the eulieliteiied agitation started liy I'rince Albert, at least coineidentl\- with the etliirt which he made in that direelion.

Following the course of events, we come now to consider the history of the so-called Ofiuj[ Wau between I'highnid and China. The circumstances leadiiej to tliis unfortunate

-THE MODERN WORLD.

in- habit spread rapidlv amon- the The Imperial ( iovernmenl t.H,k the alai adopted the pohcv of excluding the ship. fr.,ni all the'harbors of ( 'Inna.

The meaMuv.- lookiu- to this eud w, sonal.le in the highest de-ree. The ri

of the Kn,pn-e : theopnuo-habit slightest show o had, meauwiule of the Jbilisl,

•t tl

d K

.m. At

to Ku-

oui'M' in

In these

mercial transactions of the llritisii Ivi-t India

Compiaiiy: but, i v properlv, in the wnutoii

avarice and con-cienceles-; jiolicy of the Home Government of (ireat Ibitaiu. Tlie matter at issue related to the inlroduction and sale of opium b\- Kiitish traders in the ports of China. Such importation liad begun under the auspice- of the East India Company, and

until ls:;4, \\hen the charter and cxclu-ive rights .,f the eo.npanv expired. :\Ieanwhile, the opium-trade had become important. ISIany district- in India produce the ]ioppv in exu- Iterant abinidance. The drug drawn therefrom was carried by the .-hips of the Company to the Chinese ports, and sold to native merchants, under wlioiBe encouragement the opium-sniok-

jiorts of entry the British Government laid planted superintendents, whose conduct, in- stead of being directed with judicial fairness

national law. was wholly biased by the inter- ests .,f the illicit trade' of their .'■onntrynien. Xor (lid the Home (ioverumeiit in this emergenev take the lirst step towai'ds the main- tenance .,f ri-ht and honor in its dealing with the Chinese au t horit i(^s. Even when Caplaiu Elliott, chief superintendent in the port, of Canton, made oia- appeal after anotlier to the ' ^Miinstrv for iu>tructions covering the dischtirge of his duties, he received no reply. .Matters

and bolder. (li,-chari;ing enormous cargoes of the deadiv i\vwz under the very eyes of the Chiiie.e otlicers. -\fter a while the (h.vern- ment ,-ent .alt a di-patch to Captain Elliott, telliiie hiui virtually that those who traded in opium against the edict of the Emperor would liave to take the eouse.piences ; that the British aiilhorities would not interfere to protect those merchants who were engaged in the illicit trade, but that they must hear such losses as their own persi-tencv and the execution of the Chinese laws mi-ht entail. This was e.piiva- h nt to savin.j- that the British traders in the Ea<t mi-hi provoke a war with China, with the implied iiderence that, ofhr the irar lois /«■,/)()(.( ;reat Britain would defend her inter- e.-ts witliiait looking into the ju.stice or injus- tice of the conflict. It was clear that as soon as hostilities should be precipitated, excesses would be committed by the Chinese, unac-

GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

287

quainted as they were with the usages of Eu- ropean warfare, and that the Hume Govern- ment of England wi.iukl be iiljlio-ed ti) take up the cause of its traders and other subjects on the coast of China.

The war came on. The Imperial officeis in the Chinese ports demanded that the intro- duetion of opium should ahsohitely cease, and that the cargoes now in store should Ije given up fur destruction. At length, in 1S.3!), Captain Elliott was constrained to cnniply with this demand. It wn~ a-nM-d that all llic opium then in the hands of Kuglishnun shoidil lie surrendered to the native otHcers, and he also exacted a pledge — of no validity — from the merchants tliat they woul<l cease to tnithc in the drug. Accordingly, on the 3d of A|iiil, in the year just named, 20, .383 chests of opium were given up to the mandarins, and, under direction of the Imperial Commissioner Liii, were destroyed. It was this event — tlioui^li the same had been broui^ht about in viitiuil conformity with the instiaietions wliieli Captain Elliott had received — that precipitated iii stili- ties. A declaration of war was made i)y the English Government in 1840, and the Ea>t Indian fleet was sent to the C'hinese coast. Native armies were thrown into the field; liut in the conflict which ensued tliey were like sheep for the slaughter. There could be but one result. AVhat could the diminu- tive, undisciplined, half-armed men of the Orient, though fired with the valor of Spartans, do before the shining bayonets and vomiting cannon of Great Britain ?

As a matter of course, the English were constantly victorious. In the first year the British fleet captured the town of Chusan, and in 1841 the Bogue Forts were easily taken. It is narrate.l that when one of the Chinese towns was captured, the Tartar gen- eral, in the hour of defeat, shut himself up in his house, and ordered his servants to burn him to death. It was the custom of the routed Chinese to drive their wive< and children into

throats in the very frenzy of tlieir h.ipeless rage. When the British s(piadron sailed up the river PeiJio against the Chinese capital, some futile efl^u'ts were made at negotiations. but the movement came Xo naught. The im- portant city of Ningjio. distant somewhat from

the sea, was taken, and then Anmy, far to the souih, fell into Ih.' hands ..f the Brili>li.

Not, however, until an armv was planted 111 tiont of Nankin, did llie Imperial (o,vern- iiienl realize the hopelessness of iurtlier i-esist- ance. Negotiations were again opened, which .^ooii resulted inatreaty — atreaty as one-sided in its pi-ovisions as the war had been in its results. The island of Hong Kong was ceded to Great Britain. It was agreed that British consuls shonl.l l,e established in the live great ports of Canton— Ainoy, Fooehow, Ningpo, and Shaiii:l,ai— and that those pla.'es should be thrown open to liriti-li tradiT-. Finallv, an indemnity of four and a half million pounds

ineiit as the jirice of the war, and to this was added another large sum to pay I'or the opium whieh liad been destroyed at the outbreak of hostilities. The treaty was as humiliating to the Cliincse as the -war itself had been an outrage to their nationality. If there be a siiiLili' instance in the recent history of man- kind more highly illustrative of the possilile meanness, avarice, and arrogance of the strong — an example of the willful persecution

people liy one less numerous, but nioie miLihtv than themselve.s— it is that of the Gpiuni War of Great Britain with China.

We are now come to the epoch in British history when the Melbourne ^Ministry, the as- cendency of which had reached well back into the last reign, tottered and fi:dl. The Whig Government, represented bv this ^Ministry, had been for some time in a moiibinid condition. If we glance into Parliament at the close of 1840, we shall see a Government respected by no party, not even by itself; yet the Wliigs

clun- to pnwer. Time and a-ain the :\[inistry was lieaten on important voti-s in the House of Commons; but Lord Melbourne still clung to bis office. It was a time of tempori/in- and political expedients, most of whieh wi^rc adopted merely for the imrpose o| heldiii- the party in powr. In the nianv months of the dec-

long tlie popular movements lie- this time may be mentioned the

UMVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODEBX WORLD.

e.stablislimeut of a System of Public Educa- tion in Great Britain. In this important enterprise we see again illustrated the ever-re- curring fact that in the British system of state and societ)', everything is the result of growth. It might he impossible td point nut a single striking feature in the gn-at nntioiiality of the England of the present day wliirh has not proceeded from some germinal beginning in the past, bren pronioi,-d in the planting ami development l)y the courage and forcsigiit of a few^ progressive Englisiniicn, (ip|.nscd and as- sailed by the majority, pushed up and out against such opposition by the iidierent vitality of the measure, and brought finally to efflo- rescence and fruiting by that simple law of social evolution against the operation of whicii neither men nor nations can prevail. Su it was in the case of the project f )r the estaii- lishraent of a system of public education.

It was in the year 1884 that the first grant of public money was made by Parliament fir the education of tl'.<- childron ..f the people It was the meagre sum of twenty thousand pounds a year. Even this pittance, given forth from that treasury which had poured out

rather than been orn-Mni lishe.l Chni-

Scho,,l S,,ei. bodv, .-alle,]

National another

of all Christinn denominations. While the ef- forts of the National School Society were di- rected wholly to the educational work of the Church of Endand, the sifter organization went so far a-; to in-oinote fbi^ e(liieation of the children even nf Di-^ent.'r^.

It was into the hands ,A' tlie-^i' two societies that the annual Parliamentary appropriation of twenty thou.sand pounds was directed; and by these two societies the moncv was expended up to the year 1839. To this time no efl'ort whatever had been made in (Jreat Britain to extend, niidiT the ]iatronage of the Govern- ment, the advantages of education to the masses of the people. Up to this time a scheme looking to a system of common secular educa-

tion reaching to the poor would have been regarded with horror by the most progressive statesmen of the country. In 1S.39, however, a bill w-as introduced by Lord John Russell, increasing the annual appropriation to thirty thousand pounds, and at the same time pro- viding that the distribution of the funds should be transferred to a Committee of the Privy Council. Hitherto the money had been an- nually distiiliuted precisely where it was not needeil.aiid withheld from the very places which were crying to Heaven for such assistance. Under the new scheme of disbursement the method was reversed, and the benefits of the measure extended to those poor and crowded localities which were thronged with the chil- dren of the people. It was actually conceded that the aid of the law might be extended to schools in which the Roman Catholic version of the Bible was read! The measure was at once vehemently assailed by the Opposition. It was declared that to extend the aid of the Government to schools not umler the co itrol ami direction of the Church of England was an outrage on the Constitution of Great Brit- ain, a menace to religion and morality, a measure for the (irojiagation of heresy and in- cendiarism in both Church and State.

rirent was the clamor over Lord ,Tohn Rus- sell's Bill. The measure at loneth jir.'vaiied, and the foundations were thus laid for the great system of popular education since estab- lished and developed in Great Britain. But we can not pa.ss from the subject without not- ing with amazement, and fiir the instruction of all who are interested in studying the evo- lnti(in of enlightenment among the nations, and es]ieciallv the slow progress of the coming ilawn in the brains of the great, that the Ru.ssell P.ill was ,.ppose,l in Parliament with lioth the voice, and the vot.'S of Sir Robert Peel, Lord Stanley, William E. Gladstone, and Benjamin Disraeli. Nor may we pass wdthout mentioning the other fact, that the measure contemplating the establishment of.secular schools in the United Kingdom was supported by Daniel O'Connell ami Smith O'Brien— a fact L'ivinij as good cause for pride anions' the Tri~li penple as may ever !.<■ "ivi'U to the iiresent on account of anything done in the iia<t.

Some honor niav therefiu'e be claimed for the Melbourne Ministrv as having had under it.«

GREAT BRlTAiy.— EPOCH OE CHARTISM.

289

patronage and directiou thefii>;t fiiriual ineasiire fin- the seeular edueatidu of the Englisli peopU-. Meanwhile, an incident in the history nt' tin- Pai'liameutary government nt llii- ciidch may well be cited as illnstrative nf tin' irndtncies of civil procedure. It was tlie hiw ni' Parlia- ment that the reports of its committ(M-< .-hculd be published for the information <>{' th.- Imdy and the people. A certain piisnii report, made near the beginnint; of IS4n, coiiiaimd a paragraph denouncing a bool; pulilishi'd by a

and olisceue. For this publication the author of the book brouglit suit for libel against the Parliamentary printers, and obtaine.l judgment against them. But the House of Commons refused to acknowledge the validity of a jmlg- meut against its officers or agents tor doing ■what the House had directed tiieiu to do. An issue was thus made between the (^m^en's Bench on the one side, and the Commons on the other. The sheriffs, ordered to carry out the judgment of the Court, were arrested l)y authority of the House, and for some time it looked as though the High Court of England and the House of Commons would end the matter by arresting and imprisoning each other! At length, however. Parliament gained the day, and an act was passed exempting, for the future, the officers of the House from such interference and prosecution as they had recently suffered. The incident is cited here to illustrate the general law that under the governmental and civil systems, establishiMl liy the English-speaking race, conflicts and dis- putes between the Legislative and the .Judi- ciary nearly always conclude with a victory of the former over the latter.

Still another historical incident may serve to show the spirit and manner of the times.

shall fnid no public in-titution more worthy

genius of the E.,-lbh people, than the British Mn.-.Mnn. The in-titution wa<, by the law .if

Sundays it was closed. In July of the y.ar just referred to, Joseph Hume, an enlightened and progressive member of the IIon>e ni' Com- mons, hoping on the principle of counli r- attractiou to draw large nnmliei-s of people of the poorer class away from the purlieus of

I vice anil degradation, and to raise them some- what to a higher and pnr.'r plane ot' thought by the contemplation ot the -land and beauti- ful, introilnced a bill that the British .Mu,<eum an,l the National < iailery of Art sln.uld be .ipened at .-eitaui hour.s on Snntlay. Mr. Hume earefnlly provided that the opening should be ,(/■/,,• the conclusion of .livine service in the churches and, more particularly, "at such hours as f,nrr,i.<, fevr-../,,,/,,., and ,jln-shops are kijaJlij ,,j,riini" The proposition was met with invt'ctive ami the appeal to the odium th,vlo,iir„m. Sh: Ilunie was ,lenonuced as a covert enemy of the Sabbath day, a foe to the Church, and a dangei-ous nuui to society, because he had intro.biced a bill which might serve to draw some thousands of people OU Sunday aftenioous fn.m the sacred ass.,ciatioa of the gin-.shops to the degradin- influences of the British :*luscum!

Passing from these minor incidents in the civil history of the Kingd.mi, we come to con- sider a very impoilant and serious aspect of foreign attiuis. It was at this time that Great Britain v,-as drawn by her interest, and under the policy which she had prescribed for her- self, to a stern and wailike interference in the affairs of the J^a-t. The scene was Egypt and Syria. In the former country the ruler, at this eiioch, under the general suzerainty of the Turkish Sultan, was the famous Pasha Jlehe- met Ali. He was a warricu-, a statesman, a man of genius, despisinu the Sultan, his mas- ter, and having a eener.al cont.'nipt for the methods of government en,ploye<l by the Sub- lime Porte. It is cpdte likely that Meheiuet Ali wasandnti.ins of eslabli.-hing an independ- ent sovereignty. (^)iiite like him in character and abilities was his adopted s(m, Ibrahim Pa.sha, General (.f the Eeyptian army. To him Mehemet Ali locikeil tor the conduct of his wars.

The P.rte,atthi< time, had fallen into that

tined never to destroy, has, since the beginning of the century, fatally alllicted the Ottoman Em]iirc. The outlyinj in'oviiu'cs and de-

of wh..ever nn-ht go ioi-th to ravage. To Mehemet Ali, Syria was the inviting field. He c-arricd thither his victorious arms, and made a con.piest „f the country. The Sultan

2!l0

UMVERSAL HlSrOnV.-THE MODEBX WORLD.

was constrained for a while to let lii.< \ni\\t vassal have his way, but at lengtli, in 1 declared war against liiiii. A derisive li; was fought, an.l liiialiini l'a>ha gaine.l a i, victory nver the 'riiik,-. The Sidtau i Capitau Fa.ha. Adniiial <,f the Oituman ( deserted to the Egvpliaiis, and thi

rful I and territorial integrity of the Turkish Em- boli, ' pire. It is not the place in which to explain ttle I the origin and true nature of this theory, ■eat I which has been so prominent in the diplomacy ii'il. i.t' the States of Western Europe during the eet, i:reater part of the present centviry. It is of . Liiiinane, however, to the ipiestion iiamediately

MEHEMET ALT PASHA.

Egyptian independence, with the conseqnont loss to Turkey of all the cuintries around the eastern and south-eastern iKjrders of the ^ledi- terranean, knocked at the door.

It will 1)6 rememl.ered that the welhknown

..f the AVestern I'nw.

rs, p;

■ularlv of

:hind, ^^■.

,.■ time ..f whieil we

hefoi-e us to note the fact that, ot all the Western Kingdoms, Great Britain was most devotedly and consistently attached to the |)rinei|ile of maintaining the tiiiity and iiide- peiidenee of the Ottoman Power. On the other hanil. France was least devoted to the -nine |n-in<i|]le. Prussia and Austria were de- v<Jted to it in a general way. Russia was

GREAT BRITATX. — EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

devoted to it, not devote<l to it, m devoted t iu a measure, as suited the mteie^taud [n^-i

ot (.atheuue II , the Itu~^ian power has beeu -Iciwh but -uiel),like out ot the avahuiehts

^^

!

< f the ^lll le of Pett

m Tht itilu of ^eiKi-il hi t i\ 1 l-\ leedl the tict th it -mce theda\- I 111 le initRuhih ^luce the <h\-'

rS> mm*

Vlp- -I1 11112; down from the north-east tit 1 wliiid- of the Ottoman. It will It lemembeied that the necessity, or

UXTVERSAL HTSTOL'Y.-^THE MODERN WORLD.

seeiumg necessity, ot resi<tiiJLr tins juTssure had been the niaiuj^priug nf tin' jinlicy iiilnjitcd by the Western Powers to iqihold thr integrity aud autononay of Turkey.

The threatened estaljlishment of :iii inde- pendent Egypt under the sovereignty of Mi-- heniet All seemed to contravene the L:i'iiriai purpose of Western Europe, and lOnglanil resolved to interfere. An Euglisii f.eet was accordingly despatched to the Mediterranean, and uniting witii the Turkish squadron, pro- ceeded to the bnndiardnient of Arr,-. An En- glish army in Egypt, a'livd with Tnrkid, and Egyjitian forces, attacked the strougliolds of .Me- hi'iuet, and drove hiin thence with great losses. Iliraham I'asha, though he had shown himself more than a match for the native armies of tiie Orient could not resist the impart of British bayonets and British cannon. ^leliemet All was obliged to give up the hopeless con- test, and to content himself with a restricted government in Egypt. All of his Asiatic conquests were w'rested from him and restored ti> the Porte. Amba.ssadors reijresenting the jiarties to the controversy came together in London, and in July of "l840 the terms of settlement were arranged and signed liy the Western Powers.

They were signed by all but France. In that country Louis Philippe was now king, and Adolphe Thiers was his Minister of State. It was the belief of Thiers that the whole busi- ness in Egypt had been fomented and managed by Great Britain in her own interest. The belief was not without foundation. Thiers was enraged at beholding the covert elevation of the British standard in the East. He con- ceived that France had been disparaged in the wdiole course of the Egyptian complication, and that the disparagement was tlie careful work of (ireat Britain. He declared his pnr- |)osf of going to war sooner than submit to the hunjiliati^ f his cnnntry. The king.

re-

fused to f.jjow the bellicose Prime Minister, and he was at length obliged to resign his otlicc. .M. ( Jni/.ot aeeeded to the lea<lership of the French I'abinrt, and in .Tnly of 1S41 the Treaty of Lond..n was signed by' the represent- ative of France. Thus, for the ilecade wdiich we are here considering, was the Eastern ques- tion disposed of under the auspices of England.

I During all these events, the Whig Ministry of Melljourne stumbled on in jiaralytic fashion to the inevitable downfall. The straw which at hist broke the camel's back was a proposition intiodnced by Lord Russell, then in the Min- istry, with regard to regulating the trade in eoiji.' His {iroposition was to establish a duty at a ti.xed rate of eight shillings the quarter on wheat, with jiroportional rates for the other cereals, rye, barley, oats, etc. His proposition wiis a concession to the principle of free trade, which was just then l)eginning to claim, as it

I British public. Being so, the proi)o.sitioii of Russell was in the nature (.)f an exi)lo>ive with a lighted fii.se in the mid-camp of the Ministry.

I Melbourne, and the rest who were vehement protectionists, must either folhiw for the free- ti'ade modification of the corn laws, or else combat the propo>itinn dt' Russell and give up their offices. Such was the condition of affairs when at last Sir Robert Peel, in June of 1841, brought forward the proposal in the House of Commons of a dii-ect vote of want of confidence in tlie :\[inistry. The res,,lution was adopted by a inajoiity of one. Parliament was dis- Sfilved. The Tories came ijack in the early autunni with a great accretion of strength. IMelbourne and his colleagues resigned, and a new Conservative Ministry was organized under the Premiership of Sir Robert Peel.

The auspices of the new Tory, or, as it was now called. Conservative Government, mav be said to have been favorable at home, unfavor- abh- alirond. It was in the early days of Sir Robert's Administration that the news began to be borne to London of the direful disasters which had overtaken the British authorities, civil and military, in Cabul. The city so-called is the capital of the State of the same name, in the northern part of Afghanistan. If we look into this far region, in the year 1837, we shall find on the throne of Cabul a native prince by the name of Dost Mohammed. He was, in a cer- tain sense, a usurjier; that is, he had led a popular revolution against Shah Soojah Moolk, the old so-called legitimate sovereign of Cabul, and ha.l expelled l)oth him and his house.

rstn

in the

GREAT BL'ITAiy.— EPOCH OF CHAItriSM.

Dost Mohammed eslablislied liiiiiM-lf in the kingdom, and set his brothers and .-ims at the head of the petty sulijeet States— thi> with the eiithu>iastic approval id' tlie pnpuhir revola- ti.uiary party.

The reader might well ask by what possilde construction of international jiolities this course and condition of affairs in Cahul eimld lie of the slightest interest to <M-eat liiitaiu. Why should England cnneern her>elf in the least about the destinies resulting from a revolution in a petty kingdom in Northern Afghanistan? A full answer to these (piestions would reipure

voliune. It is sufheient tnr nur pur|Mis(_- u> summarize the leading features nf tin- compli- catiou ; to express, if we n-.ay, in a few juiia- graphs, the essence of thi- lar-ntf AMati.' im- broglio. First of all w.' mn>t .'..nddrr the British East Indian Empire. Tin- va>t Power, at the time of which we speak, was already stretching out its long and sinewy arms from Calcutta over the Indian populations, nuiu- beriug in the aggregate much more than a hundred millions. Some of the proviinTs of India were actually subjeet to the autlinrity of (n-eat Britain;" others had allianr.,s ,,f friendship and dependence with her; and still others, while maintaining a show of inde- jieudeuoe, were overawed by her presence and sce])ter.

One of the countries thus dependent by alliance with the East Indian < lov.iinuent of tireat Britain, was the Puujauli. This givat ]irovince, embracing the Upper Indus Valley, lay next to the borders of Afghanistan. The Ameer of the Punjaub was a I'riend and de- pendent of the East Imlian (Jovernment. It was to him, for frien.ldilji and protection, that

mendiers of his family and a irw ni' the priuces who had adhered to 'his rau>r, ll,,l after the revolution efieeted in Caliul bv 1 )o>t Moham- nird. Such was the situation, viewed from the Endi-li Mde of the land-raiM'.

the

ofKu>Ma. Tl ions, like a L >ubstauee, o' ,f Asia. Hei zenient was

, like -we.^te

Friendly were her relation> with the Shah (,f Persia. " The Czar patrouize.l the Shah, treated him like a small kinsman, used him like a friendly puppet, lU'oteete.l him, en.-ouraged him. tinally put him out a.- a feeler in the di- reetiim of Atghaidstau. In other words, it was on the line ui Caiml that the conHieting interests, or rather ambitions, of Great Britain and Pussia met in the East, as they had al- ready met in the A\'est, on the line of the Bosphorus and the Daidanello. The figure is sufficiently ridiculou>: but at this time Pu.-sia was the monkey of A>ia; I'er.-ia wa- the eat; Cabul was 'the eatVpaw, and Imlia was tlie,,ven, in whieh were roasting the English

lying by the door of the oven !

All this was by hypothesis. Overt acts as yet there had been none. But the situation was such, in the estimation of both Great Britain and Pusda, a- to mak.' it deMrable to have the alliauee of I )o>t .Mohamme.l. At this time there was resilient at that monarch's court a certain Alexander Burnes, kinsman, though the name be diti'erently siielled, of the jioet Burns, of great menmry. The l-higlish- mau had goue from India into Ali^hanistan and Cabul. There he found Dost .Ab.hammed favorable to an alliance with England. But he also found the enii.ssaries of Russia at the court, busy with their schemes and tempta- tions. Dost Mohammed desired, as the seipiel has shown, to go with En-laud. Ihit, throu-h some pervei-sity and bliinlne^, the Briti-h East Indian Government hail determined to undertake the restoration ot' Shah Soojali, the obsolete king of Cabul, to the throne of his ancestors. This, of emnse, eonipelled Dost ]\[ohammed to tall over towar.ls the side of Persia and PusMa. At tlii^ juueture the (iov- ernor-Geueral of India, in i>ur<uaiiee of his folly, sent out an army by way of the Punjaub to conduct Shah Moolk bark to his dondnions. The i.oliev of Lonl Aueklanil. tlie ( iovemor- General, in thi> paitieuhir. had the full eon- eurreuee and Mipiioit ot' the Home (o.vern-

was under eonnnand of Sir \V. Maenagh- ten, whose M-eond i,i eommand was Gene'i-al ]:iphin>toue. It appear- that there was on the part ot the leaders of the expedition the

UyiVEHSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

ulteui) l(im\ti(

sinh	Krst that
^ AMth	pi,, in i-av
tt up	held the c
nlutmo	his suhje

a tlip jiut ot ^11 ^\ M' iivii\ e\ti iiii(hn 11 \ Tt vii, li phce nuclei ^uch couditinu

o be such

In the nieintinie hD^tilitu^ hid lictruu 1)V •xu attack of tht Pn '■I Ills 111! th( i it\ (i*H<iit, popuhilj desigmt(<l i^ tin li\ ot Imhi The phce is &ituit(d nn th< luus ot niniiiiiiui- catiou between tin pi itc m nt V^ii and the \'ille^ of the Indus It In s h\t hundieil md fifty miles e\st wild nf ( ,l,ul lul^s-T Hint was be'^iCLtil b-\ i Pcisiui mm nf ilxiut thiityfiM thoiisind imu Ih. m dtfendiu. his nt\ wis ism- Eldi.<l P(.ttni_ci C.mimiudinl g-iiiisdn HI Hint It wis til 1; couiage, 1 ithi i th ni tn the \ ih troops, tint till I'li-iiu iiiiii V and fimlh Ih iteii oil

Bv the bcginnmtr ot Octobei 18 IS Su W. Macnaghten had collected his forces west of the Indus, and tlience set out on his ill-starred expedition for the restoration of Shah Soqjali to the throne of Cabul. The movement to the interior was valiantly resisted by Dnst Mohammed and his s,,,,,.' The half-wild Af- ghan soldiery, though unable to stand in bat- tle before the disciplined army of Great Britain, nevertheless fought as for their altars

utui piinic, d b\ (.ohmel if the Biitish ibilities and of the nxfne . hi Id It bay

land. It was manifest from the till- from any ujirisiug of the peo- ijf Shah SiMijah, Dost Mohammed iplete and universal alleuiance i.f Thev rallied tn his standard, and threw themselves in the advaiiee and on the flanks of the British ai my. Thev planted themselves in the town of (ihuznee, where they resisted the whole force of their enemy, suffering a siege until what time the British, by heaping bags of gunpowder against one of the gates and blowing open the wall with an exiilosiou, rushed through the breach and took the town. The Afghans retreated, and the ipened to Jelalabad, which was de- tlie celebrated Akbar Khan, one of • Dost .\[olKimmed. ty was also taken after much hard The invaders then came to Cabul,

way was femled li the sons This fighting.

from which Dost IMohamraed escaped into the open country. Maenaghten's idol. Shah Soo- jah, was reinstated iii his ancient palace; but it was evident from the first that he would have to be maintained in ])lace by the British army. Dost Mohammed rallied his forces and returned to the contest. On the 2d of No- vember, 1840, he fought with the British army a decisive battle, in which only the En-

glish artillery prevented the Afghans from win- ning a clear victory in the field. They were, however, defeated, and on the evening of the same day, Dost Mohammed, of his own ac- cord, rode to the British head-quarters, an-

noimced himself as King of Cnlml, rendered as a prisoner of war.

The downfall of Mohammed, h.,u

no means ended tlu: ntrst. The

army lay in its cantonments at ('al: lull year, upholding a dnhious [»-.\rr. innivei-ai} of Do-.t M himiii U uimelj, No\embei 2 1^41 i ] i nl lectiou bioke out lu C diul \\hi li I i and horioi of detad^, w i^ dnii i un| i When Alexiudei Butni^ nn li it Iv t ) thei ueot theinsnutnt-, la aid hi-lii

GREAT BRITAIX. — KPOCH OF CHARTISM.

nd sur-

295

ippease hei and

with the knives of the Afghans. The hacked and disfigured body of the murdered English- man was exhibted as a tro])hy in the bazars

The command of the Britisii army was de- \ hcd on Genenl Elphinstone, and to hira Mikii md his chiefs now dutatLd ■(\hite%er teniis iIk\ \\ III 1 It i| 1 lis til It III tliis dieidful (iiKUdiiN tlit put t th liiitish ofhceis uid nun .U( ^^ n Ih \ t, 11 mt , a Conilition of scnil d si m ti m whuh the\ ue\er

hen conipin\ ^\p\f

Then the flimts i

nl \khii Kb

anl tbt _' il iii.f

It 111 1 it th

1 1 ( lit ti pietes

lit n t'en

It n.o the In I

iiiK ti 11 He

khm

11.1 ei

th \f_l 1

It \n 11 1

It mil/ 1 \\ ufu ^^h^ b \M till t b i i V

1 t be hjut^ 1 in luijm.e Sii ^^ \ ti ,

All ni.hten ml se\ei il t his ( fiucis wt ic it luint

th united to i confeience ^\lth Vkliu st n

his chiefs An alteication ensued and witli ii

Macnaghten and hi^ companions w tie butcheied i Ttl ihl

iinstone even went •If was iinwillin-

Afghanistan to 1 at the latter

r\\i]Li;sAL iiisTony.-uiE MODEny would.

for th	.•ave th ■ tulilll
coii,lu	■l oil II
It	\\ 1^ no
llu .1	lu^ il.
tlu.lin	. tlu 1

pi".

aiu ^<

lit \Mtll to link ill. ,1 tllL

111. I II iti\i- mil In iiiiu along K liMiu olh.i i- m.l till widow

(1 :\l.ii iiaL^httu, a^ wlU as, then thei helple^^ cieatuies ^\ho had

the expedition iiom India, left . it':) way tliiough the dieadfiil Kooid Cabul, a hoiiible mount-

wives as the

Lady d, Mi- lt Jd-

thoir purpose, or else to put the E furtiier in his power, (Icniamled thai and children should now lie -iiveii juico of liberation tor tlir arn M II mghteu, Laih "^ih wlio-i lui KolKit, was at tint tun. i .niiiuud. alalii.l Ml- ^tiiiit Ml- 1k\oi with her &e\(.n tliililiin iiid -oiik otlitiN wii atcoid- ingh --munikied, in the heait ot the Asiatic desolations, to the coiiipabbionate keeping of Akbai and his letaiueis! The lemnaut of the ami} was then i)einiitted to pass; but it was the passage of death The foice melted away. Fiiidh It dwin.Utd to i Inndful The column

still on the load to Jclalabad, wheie Gen-

of u il Sile was holding out against the enemy;

th it but Akbai Khan had compelled Elphmstoue,

innndei in chief, to agiee that Pale

(\ iiuit( Jtldibid, )om the fugitues,

.1 H\ fioiii the (ounti} But theie were

on soon no iugitucs to loin Aiii\ing within a

>\) few miles of Jelalabad onl> six men out of

it tilt II u 111.1 the sixtti n thousand weie alne Five of these

bullets of tieachei weu stunk dowu befoie the foitiess was

mill, airainst an iin- \ leaihed I)oi toi Bndou was the solitaiy

h the (ThibNe* had I fugituc who at last totteied up halfdead

-s the ]ns- \klni Kb 111, a.Minst the gate of Jelalabnd to lecite the

to bu> otl Ills own chieftains fi an ston of the most appalling disastei, the most

(rh'KAT BJUTAIX. — EPOCH OF ( HAimsM.

shameful o\erthio\\ tlie m t cuiel letuKti u | ^\^ i ize I t) the ^i iiud \u which h ul e\ei t%eitil en x Bnti h ainn uudei c immind < f i eiienl Sile v

Th e(iuel 1 oou t( hi Vllni Khmhil ' lu the h pe rl let \uiii^tht In hilhi i(.\ei)^e E\cn th ii in„tui\ t lu ml liilli n wh hil I ii n chitttiin mil t hwL 1 ii iti ti 1 II til Liimn Vtt i iii in\ \ i i itu I ot di I tei ^\n fi\el It 1 M 1 il ( n i d "if mil iii tl I iii t I i

11] t the

S-ile icfu ed to le teini whith hid 1	t ^uu
ell
e\t it( 1 tl m Llj 1	HI
St 1. Ht Itttu	1 1
the tit\ in 1 th	Vt
Ilk ( euti il I	1
kck ^^ho hid heeii
defen liu_ the Ivh\	lei
Pi ciiiie to the	e
cut < eneiil ^	tt
c iiiiinn hut t	the
Biiti h t.ite It t	m
dUnr et r ut t i	tht
fi nt t le t le	the
ftituiie ftheBii	■ h
cm e C tuenl '-	lit
hiviug dineu b	uk
the eiiera^ wi	eu 1
abled to much	ut
of Jehhbad Ex	i\
thuu foieti kene 1	X
sjfoh ie( \ei\
1 ut tlitie \\i n	th
b h t Sh-ih s	lit ih
stunt 1 t It 1	11
111. ,cuel	Ull
hi I 1 id1 .1	ul
^^nh il 1 hil I	u^

1 the

Ii tt

lu C lu I u u [

teiniti ml ] liti Mc in while 111 \uel hiid tei in i ( \eiu 1 ( eiiei tl f

III 1.1 xpi 1 11, 1 1 1 1 ;

uti \ th H 111 < v 1. 1 Ot .11 e It \M el \ t t II. Ill ''eptembei f 1 1 uiii> letuteit 1 ( let f^en^eincew i .iil Then ^leit bizii lu \\1 . the luutihtel 1 1\ t

.1 ll.lt	' U 1 ll 1.1 1. I V 1 1
.t 1 , 1	1 1 u
I) tM	.1,.. 1
. I, 111	11 1 w I

i:\]VEj!SAL insTony.—riiE modern world.

\v (.f Caljul, lu l)ecuiuf the a I Nor were tlie ,(;eiiei-al „-.tllHM'ii"cip:il Powers lr,| to ilir eouflk-t, ill any ■,o l.v it> i>>ue. An ani.v

Mnivov.T, lie was (juiek t -lot been recipi'oe:

,e WIul: Mill

Cal.ul, «i

iVoll, il„.

W,. 1,

ll,r llol:

gre:-s oi cvciiis 1 Great Britain, Ju-t a~ tli- la-t eelio,.> of tlie disasters of TaUnl wer,' luai.l in En-land, a new agitation liroke out, of which llie eonse- queuces have not yet wholly (li>ain»'are(l. Daniel O'Counell arose, and stood again on the stage of British |iolitics; and his figure, his at- titude, his s|MTcli. wrro more alarming to En- glish conservatism than ever hefore. It is doubtful whether any other personage has ever appeared in the arena of Parliament in whom were concentrated so many of the elements of the storm as in O'Cimnell. He was a man of majestic presence ; an orator by nature ; theCeitof theCrlts; -trrn and yet humorous; bitter in his antagonisms; firm in his friend- ships; loving Ireland with jiassionate devotion ; a Catholic, but not a Papist; a friend of free- dom and humanity; an agitator by nature ; a reformer by practice. He was already sixty- eight vears of age. He had not entered Par- liament until he was fifty-four. But when lie did come, it was the api)arition of a new force, the rising up of a new figure on the stage, to whom the greatest Parliamentarians did either obeisance of admiration or mtnace of antii^athy and hatred.

The connection of Daniel O'Cmnell with the Reform Bill of l^:'.!', and particularly with the act repealing the disabilities of the Catholics, has been noted already. He be- came in that work and suksecpiently the coad- jutor of the Peforniers in the House of ( 'oni- m.uis. He Mil, ported the ^linistry of Lord Melbourne, and in many emergencies gave material aid to the Whig party. He, like other liberal statesmen of his lime, had hoped and expected great things from the reform measures of ]s2.S-32; but, like the rest, he had been sorely disappcjinted. He, too, had quickly perceived that the reform had not yet struck down to the real people of England.

i>try had not b He .-aw that the Whigs were afraid of him; that their i)arty was disparaged in the e>tima- tion of the British public 1)V his supjiort ; that whereas Lord .Melbourne "an.l hi- follouing were willing to avail themselve- of the aid .,f <)'('oiinell in emergencies, they were equally willing to know him not when the emergency ^^a- pa.-sed. It thus happened that in the in- terval between 1.S.32 and 1.S42. (Vroiinell thought mn,-h and profoundly on the mo.st radical of all .unstions afiecting the political de.-linies of his country.

on the whole, the political and civil union of Ireland with England was an advantage or a disadvantage to the former country, a blessing or a curse to the Irish people. Eight or wrong, he came to the conclusion that the Union was a cnr>i'; that the woes of Ireland in the first tliird of the ])resent century were largelv trace- able to the jiosition of subordination into which she had been forced against her will; and that the only remedy, the only prospect of recovery for Ireland, was the repeal of the Union between that country and England. He took his stand accordingly. He went boldly into the House of Commons, and to the people of both islands, and declared his purjtose tii have the Act of Union annulled. He an- nounced i.r..phetically that the year 1.^4.3 shoul.l be known in history as the "Year of I!e])eal," and that agitation was the order of

We may revert for a moment to the time and circumstances of the event by which the political destiny of Ireland had been merged with that of Great Britain. In the last stm-my .h'cade of the eighteenth century the people of that island had, as a rule, show-n no undue h.valtv to the ]?riti>h crown. The society of "Uni'ted Iri>hni,n." in .-vmpathy and alino>t in league with Erance, had had an exten>ive in- fluence in its work of agitating for Iri.-h inde-

peiide At len-th the English Government

bore down heavily on the Iri.sh insurgents, anil alter the lo-~ of aliout twenty thousand men. and the expenditure of more than thirty million pounds sterling, suppressed the revolt, ^lanv of the Irish patriot leaders were con-

300

rXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

(lemned and executed. By tlie year 17!l!> the iusLirrectiou was at an end, ami a state of quiet in which there was a mixture of torpor qiervencd iu Iii

Then

was

and des

came the .\cv t>v {> vided that the two ishinds' should henceforth be merged iu a common government under the title of the Uuiteil Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; that lli.- existing English dynasty should .■ontiuu.. iu aulhority over l.oth 'alik. •"; that the Tuitcd Kin-dou, I'lo rc|ircscuted iu a single Parliament; that Ireland lie granted therein c. representation in the House of Lords of twenty-eight temporal ])eers, and in the House of Commons ,,f one Iniudnd repre-

sentatives ; that the Iri-li . merged with th;it of K ufactures and eomneree same footing in the I wi

d ; that man- idd he on the u.ls; that the pniportiou ,.f ffhri, for Ku'Jaud to In:, for hvland, for twenty years; ami that the existing law courts should he maintained, with an appeal from tiie Iri-h Chaueorv to the House of Lords. This

Uuit.-d Kin-dom uaspa-od in ISdO, and w,-nt into etreet on tin- fiist day of the present

Ael

Un

her career of

Britain. It was a career of alt. mate pa-ion an.l apathy, of .-xeiLauont .and torpoi-, of sporadic insurrections and spaons of loyalty. It can not he douhted that tho A.-t of Uni,.n was, in the first place, forced upon the people of the island against the wishes of four-fifths of the ])opulation. It is almost equally cer- tain that at no time, even to the present dav, could the measure have received the assent of a m;ijority. At the time which we are here considering, the Union had been in force a little more than forty years. O'Connell came to the deliberate conclusion that it could he and should be repealed. Nor cnuld it well be said that the means wluch he adopted to this end were inefficient, or that his method was one of political unwisdom. In fact, he had studied thoroughly the genius of English in- stitutions, and no one knew better than he the character of the antagonists with which he had to deal. His plan was essentially that of the Chartists. It was agitation, open and

above board ; dis	cussion	of the question before
tlie people, an	appeal	to justice, and after-
wards to that pn	f .nnd p	■ejudieo of race which
had existe.l imi	lemoria	ly between his couu-
trynien and the	,eople .	f England.
The exeiteme	It Wl.ie	1 now arose surpassed
any thing iu tl	'• l"-''^-	oils history of Great
Britain, ex<'ept (	Illy tho	e licry pa.ssious which

evolutions

d rolled li e oppositi.

those

standard in Ireland. The contest tlie volcanic fires of his nature. se liy thousands and hundreds of o his call. Xo orator of this, or any, century has so swayed the f h'iseouiitrynieu. The tides ebbed sea. In England

(>'(' ell and his party was

kindled to a white heat. Xi-ver were' sii.'h denunciations heard in any other eivilize.I country as were launched at the head of the great Irish agitator. To the alarme.l upper- classes of English society, whether AVIiig or Tory, O'Connell became' the hcte nnirc of the epoch. They hurled at him every epithet which [larty malice could invent. They called him the "Big Beggarman," and traduced his character in all the figures and forms of speech. But to the excitable Irish he was the " Un- crowned King." He planned in Ireland a series of niass-ineetincs, which were successful

cxt

of thousands, poured from hut and hamlet and town to the places of the great a.ssemblages. Ireland was not wanting in spots consecrated liv jiatriotie memories. Tradition had hallowed many a jilaee as the scene of great deeds, in the old heroic days when wild Iri,sh chieftains had led their subdued clans in the struggle for freedom. O'Connell adroitly chose such places for the meetings of the people. One great throng was assembled at Kilkenny, where rose the old round tower of St. Canice's Cathedral. Another meeting was held in the orator's na- tive cfiunty of Kerry, where, in the midst of his thrilling oration, lie turned about, and ap- pealed to "yonder lilue mountain, where you and I were cradled.'' Atrain, at :Mullaghmast, an innumerable multitude was gathered, whom the speaker tired by rcfcning to a still more

GREAT BRITAIN- EPOCH OF CHARTIS.V.

burning memory. " Here," said \iv, •■ tlij'oe hundred and ninety Irish chiettnins perished ;" and then went on to deserihi.' the Ix-traval uf the old heroes of his countrymen l)y the hated Saxons, who had invited them to a banquet.

Ireland was now shaken to its center. The means for carrying forward the peaceable revo- lution began to be provided. A popular sub- scription, called the "rent," was taken up, which aggregated forty-eight thousand imuuds. All the while the leader counseleil his fol- lowers to maintain the peace, to indulge iu no acts that might stain the history of the sacred cause. Under the magic of his influence, they obeyed him as children might oliey a venerated father.

Mean while, the Go vernmen t became alarmed. All Ireland was in peaceable insurrection. True, among the vast multitudes which had arisen at O'Conuell's rail, many were rea<ly for violence, ready for thi> revnlutidu by the sword and fire. But sueli audacious fraction of the whole was held iu check by the dicta- torship of the master. " Every man," said he in proclamation, "who is guilty of the slight- est breach of the peace is an enemy of me and of Ireland." But the Government could no longer with safety to itself — sn it was decided by the Ministry — refrain thm interference with the revolutionary movement. Greatest of all O'Connell's meetings was that which he appointed to be held at Cloutarf. Recently a monster gathering had been held on the Hill of Tara, where stood the stone used for the coronation of the ancient kings of Ireland. But at Clontarf, near Dublin, the scene of the great victory which the Irish had gained afore- time over the Danes, it was proposed to hold, on the 8th of October, 1843, a political meet- ing, which of itself should give reality and sanction to the revolution. It was proposeil to bring together at this place a human sea, com- posed of five hundred thousand Irishmen, de- voted to the cause of a peaceable severance from the dominion of Great Britain.

The preparatiiins went on ert'ectively. It could not be doubted that the meeting was destined to be the greatest assemblage ever held in the British Islands. Nor can there be doubt that O'Connell was fully able to sway the multitude to his will, and that his p\irpose was wholly peaceable. But the Lnrd Lieu- 19

tenant of Ireland saw tlie thing in a different light. With the sanctiim of tlie Home Gov- ernment he accordin-ly [<<<>k stejis to prevent the assemblage. He issued a proclamation on the day before the meeting, declaring that it was calculated to excite well-grounded appre- hension that those engaged in the movement had in view the alteration of the huvs and Constitution of England by physical force. He therefore warned the people not to attend the proposed meeting ; to stay at their homes ; to disperse each to his own place. Military preparations were made to carry out the edict and prevent the assemblage. The Irish were already gathering in heavy masses from all di- rections. A dreadful collision with untold destruction of human life was at the door. In the emergency, O'Connell again showed his imperial ascendency over the minds of his countrymen. He sent out a proclamation on the eve of the meeting declaring that the or- ders of the Lord Lieutenant must be obeyed ; that the authorities must not be resisted by force; that the multitudes must return to their homes. The order of the leader was univer- sally obeyed, and the meeting at Clontarf did not take place.

Great, however, was the chagrin of many of O'Connell's followers. The more radical had hoped that a conflict would be precipi- tated— much as our fathers had forced the I hand of Great Britain on the slope of Bunker ; Hill. The great division of younger Irish j patriots went sullenly to their homes, and O'Connell never regained his mastery over ! their minds. As for the victorious Govern- ment, it at once proceeded to make the most of its advantage. Prosecutions were instituted against O'Connell and his leading coadjutors. He and his son, John O'Connell, also Sir John Gray, and Sir Charles Duffy, with some others, were arrested and brought to trial on a charge of stirring up disaffection among the Irish people, and exciting them to insurrection against the Constitution and Government of the United Kiniidom. O'Connell conducted his own defense, Init not with the vigor which he had displayed in the open field. He and his associates were convicted. O'Connell him- self was sentenced to imprisonment for a year, and to pay a fine of two thousand pounds. The rest were condemned to punishment less

302

UXIVEIiSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

severe. O'Cmiuell iiniiuiliutely appealed to the House of Lord.s, ami by that body the sentence of the court below was reversed. The convicted men were set at liberty, and the crisis was at an I'lid.

It .'an not i,e douhtrd that the iutliieuce of O'L'oniiell over his countrymen waned from the time of the Clontarf catastrophe. His natural forces were expended in this final

contest in favor of Irish independence. He re- mained in the House of Commons until 1<846, making his last speech iu that body on the 3d of April, in this year. It ^vas noticed that the fires of his stormy oratory were already quenched. He became a subject of melan- cholia. Foreseeing the end of his life, he withdrew from the public s:i\7.e and set out for Rome, whrre h... ho|„-d to ,lie. Just as the first ol,,om of the potato lluuine be-an to settle

on his couutry, he dejnirted for Italy. Arriv- ing at Genoa, he could go no further. There, on the 15th of May, 1847, the most remarkable Irishnuxu of the present century ended his tempestuous career.

In the meantime, the Administration of Peel had taken up and disposed of several impor- tant matters claiming the attention of the English people. It may be noted, however, in the light of the retro- spect, that the legisla- tion of the times was di- rected rather to social than to political questions. This fact is illustrated in the bill brought into Par- liament by Lord Ashley for the allevatiou of the conditions of life among the miners of Great Brit- ain. It is probably true that until within the dis- tinct memory of men still living, the life of the En- glish miner was one of the most terribly degraded existences known iu his- tory. It is impossible to conceive of any condition of human hardship and depravity more appalling iu itself, more horrible in its consequences, than that which was present in the collieries of England and Wales. This was es- pecially true of the women and girls who were com- pelled to toil their lives away iu dark, damp mines, where the suu. light never penetrated, 1 where comfort never came. It was shown by I a Parliamentary investigation of the state of afl^airs in the coal-mines, that women and girls were hitched instead of mules to the coal-carts, and obliged to draw them through the filth and urinie of narrow pas.sages, until not only all semblance of womanhood, but the very lineaments of humanity were obliterated. It was revealed, that under these conditions, a state of iiumoralitv existed iu these subterra-

GREAT BRITAIX.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

oOo

u were .vidiug

nean caveros too awful iu its manifestations to be discussed even for the iustructiou of after times. Lord Ashley procured the jjassage of an Art l)y which the evil, iu -iUrs ahnlish.Ml. In 1S42 a hill was pas^ed that, atter a limited jjeriod, no wcjnian or girl should thereafter be employed in the mines and collieries of England.

Two years afterwards, the Factories Act was passed, by which the daily hours of toil of children under thirteen years of age were re- duced to six and a half, but the clause of the bill reducing the working hours of men to ten failed of adoption. It has been remarked by those who have studied carefully the debates attendant upon these measures, that a large proportion of English Parliamentarians, backed by perhaps a majority of the middle and upper classes of the people, deeply reprobated the fact and tendencies of Lord Ashley's bill. It was urged that to prevent women and girls from pursuing the horrid life to which they had been condemned hitherto in the mines was an abridgment of the natural rights of En- glishmen to labor iu what manner they chose — an attempt to annul the necessary laws which should govern the relations of the emjiloyed and the employes.

It was to this period that the first effort to establish Secular Universities in the United Kingdom must be referred. We have already seen how the project for the establishment of Common Schools was resisted ; how the Church of England contested the measure by which her monopoly of the child-mind of the realm was to be broken up. The same kind of prej- udice and bigotry <lisplayed itself in full force when the project fir the estalilishment of the Queen's University in Ireland, with three col- leges subordinate thereto, was laid before Par- liament. It was pnipdsed that the new insti- tuti(ju should be entirely undenominational iu its character, its management, its teachings. For once the proposition had the effect of bringing into union the combined forces of Catholicism and the Established Church. The Catholics, euii.^titiiiing fully five-sixths of the Irish people, and the Episcopal Establishment, embracing the remainder, were equally vehement in resist- ing and resenting the proposal for the estab- lishment of what both parties chose to de- nominate a "godless" institution.

At this time Wales was thrown into a vio- lent excitement by an insurrection of the com- mon people against the Toll Roads, on which the ever-increasing rates of toll became a bur- den no longer tolerable. The movement against the roads and the managers took one of the most grotesque and singular forms ever witnessed. Some one discovered a passage in the twenty -fourth chapter of the Book of Genesis, as follows :

"And they blessed Rebekah, and said unto her. Thou art our sister ; let thy seed possess the gate of those which hate them." Of a certainty, this must mean that the toU-gates of Wales should be possessed by the seed of Rebecca! An association was accordingly formed, called the Daughters of Rebecca, whose business it should be to possess the gates. Since an ef- fective corps of rioters could not well be or- ganized out of women, it became necessary to extemporize the daughters by putting men into women's clothing. Such was the aspect of the riots. The assaults on the toll-roads were made by night. The insurrection rather gained the day, for although the rioting Daughter^', of Rebecca were presently sup- pressed, their doings had been sufficiently sig- nificant to mduce the passage, by Parliament, of an act for the abolition of the exorbitant tolls.

Another struggle between human right and human authority was fought out at this time in a peculiar manner. The Italian patriot, Joseph iMazzini. was, at the date of which we speak, resident as an exile in L(jn(lon. He was engaged in jiolitical corresp.jiidence with the Sardinian and Austrian Governments for the promotion of the cause of the emancipa- tion of Italy. Knowledge of such correspond- ence was brought to Sir James Graham, Home Secretary for the Government, and, by his command, Mazzini's mail was arrested, his letters opened, aud his communication with foreign States thus cut otl. The .piestion was whether or not. under the Constitution, such right of pillaging private mails existed; aud, though the conservative spirit rather favored the exercise of such a prerogative liy the Government, it was accompanied with such a nudge in the riljs of Sir James Giaiiam and the ^linistry as signified, when rendered into Englisli: This right exists; but let it never

304

UNIVERSAL mSTOEY. — TRE MODERN WORLD.

Iv y.no

be exercised again, — a peeiil tion of the question.

In 1843 au alarming ilifficiilty. arising out of comparatively trifling circumstances, threat- ened the peace of Great Britain and France. Missionaries had made their way into the island of Tahiti, in the South Pacific, and had so liir succeeded as to convert and educate the y(]ung Queen Pomare, sovereign of the island. The French also were busy in that far region, and by various means succeeded in inducing the na- tive queen, notwithstanding her partiality for England, to put herself under the protection of France. This done, the French Admiral, cruising by the i.sland, compelled Pomare to hoist the tlag of Lis country above her own.

wrecked in a [jcculiar manner. The great in- dustrial question, involving the policy of Eng- land as it respected her existing laws on the subject of protection to the home industries of England, was the reef on which Sir Robert's ship finally went to pieces. The issue here opened before the reader is one of the widest and most interesting in the history of civilized nations. We have already, in a previous chap- ter, discussed the question of Free Trade and Customs Duties for Protection to Home In- dustry in our own country. This was the question, which U(jw arose with peculiar sig- nificance in the history of Great Britain. It can hardly fail of interest that we should, at the very beginning, take for a moment a higher

The queen thereupon appealed to Victoria fi>r protection, for a guarantee of her independ- ence. The French Government disavowed the act of its admiral in Tahiti, but an unfriendly feeling was fomented in both France and Eng- land over the question, and the bad blood of the day came near finding vent by the sword. The difficulty was at length settled by the restoration of the rights of Queen Pomare, and the war spirit subsided. Nor will the American reader fail to note, for his interest and instruction, the Tahiti incident of 1843-4 as almost in exact analogy with the crisis through which our own country and Germany have recently passed, relative to the Samoan Islands.

The Ministry of Peel was destined to be

point of view, and note, with perfect impar- tiality, some of till' bottom principles and con- ditions out of which this great industrial prob- lem has arisen.

Consider, first, the British Islands with re- spect to the industrial conditions which have been impressed upon them by the hand of nature, and, in a secondary sense, by the progress of civilization. These islands are of small extent. In the distribution of minerals, no other country has surpassed them. In the distribution of agricultural lands, these coun- tries are limited. They are insular, hemmed in by the sea, having no expansive background of broad territories. The country, moreover, is mountainous; broken in nearly all parts into irregularities of surface, forbidding to the

GREAT BRITAIN— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

305

agricultural instiucts of meu. In other parts we have marsh-lauds, great sluggish rivers, aud originally over the whdle huiilseape a heavy, almost impeuetrahli" Innst. It was natural in such a situatinn that mining, manu- facturing, and coninieivial industries should spriug up and flourish from the earliest days. Here were almost limitless supplies of block- tin, of iron, of copper, of ccial, of all the con- comitants of those industrial pursuits wliich relate to the extraction of minerals and their combination with lalxir in the higher firms of value.

In such a country the agricultural pursuits must inevitably lag in the rear of the other progressive industries. This natural fact, tend- ing to the disparagement of agriculture in England, was aggravated by the peculiar or- ganization of English society. The establish- ment of the feudal system, and the building up thereon, in after times, of the most power- ful landed aristocracy in Europe have tended ever since the Middle Ages to concentrate the ownership of lands in Britain in the hands of a few; and this tendency has still further re- tarded the agricultural interests of the king- dom. Out of these facts it was f lund, hmg before the close of the seveuteenth ccntiu-y, that the agricultural pursuits were so <lisp:ir- aged in England as to call for legislation in their behalf. In 1670 a Corn Law was passed, imposing a duty on the importation of the cereal grains. It was a measure intended to stimulate the production of those grains at hoiue, rather than a device for revenue. Let the reader, moreover, observe with care that the Corn Law was from its incipieucy a meas- ure of the barons and lords, a project of the country squires to increase the receipts from their estates. The lauds were snlilct by tlie landlords to their tenants, the peasantry of England. With the increase ni the price of grain thus artificially produced, the tenants would be able to bear a higher rate of rent. Thus the cofl'ers of the hmd-owning rlass would be tillfd with an increast-d voluine of revenue, drawn ultimately fmni the consuniersof bread- stuff-;. But the consnni.-i^ of breadstufl's were mostly the maiuifactiircis. the miners, the ar- ti-ans'; the shop-keepers, and th,- merchants. The cnnntry pea.aiitiv w,re ind.M.l few in

under the laws of nature and industry, had accumulated, and were still accunudating, in the manufacturing and mining districts.

Thus came in the Corn Law as an artificial agency to stimulate the production of grain in Great Britain. During the whole of the eight- eenth century the policy adopted by the Act of 1670 continued in force. It became the immemorial usage of Great Britain to assess and collect large customs duties on all im- ported grains ; so that at the beginning of the modern era the Protective system had be- come what might be called a part of the Brit- ish Constitution.

Consider, on the other hand, the natural and artificial conditions present in the United States of America. It would be difficult to find in the same a single element of the prob- lem which is not directly the reverse of the corresponding fact in Great Britain. Here there is a continent of rich agricultural lands. They are spread out from ocean to ocean, from the Lakes to the Gulf It is estimated that the Mississippi Valley alone contains two billions of arable acres. On the whole, the distribu- tion of minerals in our country is not propor-

rieli eiKingli, and even inexliaustible, are far apart. In some regions, coal and iron are }iresent together. Copper lies on one coast; lead is far distant. Tin, there is none at all east of the Rockies.

It is not needed that we should review in e.rtenso the industrial features wliieh nature has impressed on our eonnti-y. SufKce it to .say, that in almost ever-y partieular they are the exact reverse of those of England. Here the agricultural interest foreran all other forms of industry. The manufacturing and com- mercial interests have lagged behind. Agri- culture has been at a natural a<lv industrial development of the l' Manufactures have been at a u vantage. It thus has happened tl adopted by the Amerieaii ( iovt

ratified by the weaker, namely, has been the ex Enoland. In tl

nil

.1 tl.,. Pr <l tVnni tl Here th

ntage in the lited States, tural disad- it the policy nnient, and tragi 11 g the iig interest, e policy of ruotiou and has ahvays and artisan le has been

30G

UXIYERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

the product of workmanship, nitlier than the product of uature ; and its increased price has been drawn ultimately from the agricultural classes, who have cnnstitutcil tli'' body of con- sumers.

These paragraphs have been inserted in this connection i^r the puij»ise of elucidating for the American iTaik-r ilie whole question before us, but mure particularly to account for the fact that the Protective System was for more than a hundred and fifty years naturally and inveteratelv pursued in (Jreat Britain with re- spect to (iiji-inilliirdl jiroiJiicI^, while in the United States it has been tblhiwed, not with equal persistency, but still pcrsi-tciitiy, with respect to the manitfacturuuj indii^triiv. The brief study here presented may serve to show how it is that the sentiment of Free Trade originated iu the very heart and soul of the English manufacturing towns; was fostered there; was promoted from those places as cen- ters by a manufacturers' propaganda, and finally forced, as a permanent policy, on the British Parliament, against the fiercest opposi- tion of the landlords and country squires of the Nation; while on this side of the sea, the sentiment of Free Trade has had its origin and propulsion from the producers of those great staples which are developed from the soil — has made its way, in so far as it has pro- gressed at all, against the whole force of the manufacturing interest, and has been unable to the present day to gain an ascendency iu the American Congress because of the superior compactness and solidarity nf the manufactur- ers of the country.

We now return from this digression to con- sider the destiny of the Corn Laws in Eng- land. In 1815 the old statute of 1670 was reenacted by Parliament. Under the new law the ports of England were absolutely closed against the importation of foreign grain; that is, such was the effect of the law. In some cases the price of wheat was raised to nearly five dollars a liuslid. It is needless to say that the crowdrd ]).n|ili- of the manufiieturing towns cried .au ticrr.-ly atrainst such prices, and it \v;is nnlv Iiv an amendment to the Corn Laws, bv whirj, a slidin- scale, as it was called, was ^n1i-tiiu:.d for the xVct of 1815, that the clamor .,t' the starving populace was stilled for a season. It was in the nature of

this sliding scale to adjust the duty on grain to existing prices, so that when the prices rose to a certain level the duty on foreign importa- tions should cease. The intent and aim of the policy were simply to preserve and maintain a high price on the EuglLsh cereals, so that they might be produced notwithstanding the disad- vantages under which such production had been placed by nature.

From 1815 to 1841, it may be said that both Whigs and Tories were e(jually devoted to the Corn Laws in both theory and practice. They were so in theory, liecause it was accepted as a truism not any more to be doubted than an axiom in mathematics, that the Protective System, as such, was a necessary part of the true nationality of England. It was accepted in practice, because it .seemed at least super- ficially to accomplish a given result. Self- interest was thought to be subserved by such a law. We have seen how the Corn Laws pro- ceeded from the agricultural, or rather the land-owning, side of the British public. If we glance at the constitution of Parliament, at the epoch which we are here considering, we shall be no longer surpri.sed at the compactness and force of the Protective System as it related to agricultural products. Every member of the House of Lords was a large land-owner, and fully five-sixths of the members of the House of Commons were iu the same category. Parliament was a land-owning institution. It was virtually based on laud-ownership. At first sight, it will appear strange in the extreme that in a country marked out by nature for the most successful development r)t all nianu- facturmg industries, the evolution of the governing body in civil society should have been wholly from the side of land. But the student of history will readily recall the Nor- man conquest, the distribution of the lands of the Island bv William and Ins followers in sixty thousand liofs, the establishment ot the feudal sy,-teiii, the ever-growing dispo.-itiou of the peo])lo during the Jliddle Ages, and sub- sequently, to attach importance to land-owner- .ship, and will oasilv understand the anomaly

The eii-cunj.-tancos to which we have here referred will throw additional light on the struggle of l.So'J. That contest was simply

GREAT BlUTAIX.— EPOCH OE CHARTISM.

307

fill- the riilVancliisenieut ami rpprespiitafinu of the luamifac'turiiig towns. It was for the disfVanehisement of the decayed hiiidi'd constituencies. Until that time, it nii:;lit almost be said that the manufaetuvinL;' in- terests of Great Britain were unrepresented in the governing body of the realm. If they were represented at all, it was because of their subordinated importance to the landed in- terests of the kingdom. What, therefore, must have been the indescribable prejudice and antagonism against \yhich the propagan- dists of the Anti-corn-law League must battle in the attempted reversal of public opinion, and for the substitution of the principle of Free Trade instead of the Protective -System, which had prevailed imraemorially !

Nevertlieless, that indefinite thing called public opinion did, between the years 1841-46, change over from the old system to the new, from the dogmas of Protection to the theory and practice of Free Trade. The revolution was accomplished, as nearly all such changes are in England, by agitation. The movement began, as we have said, from the manufiictur- ing towns. It had its heart in Manchester. Leeds and Birmingham became coadjutors in the work. The agitator, the great inspiring- spirit of the oncoming battle, was Richanl Cobden. He had been brought up as a ware- houseman in London. When about the age of thirty, he traveled much in foreign lands, observing carefully the industrial condition of all peoples. He then became a partner in a cotton-printing establishment near Manchester, and at length distinguished liimself as a pamphleteer. It was but natural that he shduld become deeply impressed wi(h the dis- paraged condition of the maiiufai'turing in- dustries of the country.

At length, in the year L'^-'l-^, a cniiinuTcial crisis oconrrfMl in the town of r.nlt..„-l..-M,,„rs, in Lanrasliire, and nearly all thi- l.ii~iiicv< in- terests of tlie place, and the surrmnidiri- rc-inn, went to wreck. Three-fifths of tlic niaiiiifac- turing establishments were shut up on a<'i'iinnt of tlic disaster. More than five tlionsand w.>rl;iiiLiiiien were thrown out of em]iloyinent, left JioiiH'less, and without the means of secur- int: a <u!i-i-tiiici'. In this appalling condition, the snlli'iiiMj masses were confronted in a startlin-'iiKumerwith the fffects of the Corn-law

System. They perceived that they must starve because of tlie exorbitant prices of breadstntls, and that these exorbitant prices were the Iircidnet, not of the relation of supply and de- mand, but of the law of Parliament. From this lime f(irth the agitation l)roke out, and Cobden was the torcii-b..arer of the new li-ht. Meetings to secure the abolition of the Corn Laws began to be held in the manutactuiing cities, and able speakeis instuicted the people in the laws ot pohtual econom>. Now it was that John Blight took his stand b> the side

of Cobden. Ill P.ulianKnt almost the -ole apo~tle of FiM 'li 1.1. w.i^ ( bailee Vil!iei>, a mm of an-tiH 1 iti. bm i_i but a -mind con- \. It t.. th. .1 .tnn.- . t Fi.. 'ha.le. Daniel ()C..iiii. 11 Inni- It n..u n. u the Muiset, threw some ..t th. I 1-1 . IK 1^1.- .it hi- life into the a^itition t II th. ib.iliti.in .it tin Pi.it.ctive S\-t. m Mihi. I <.ib-.,n,a Tun in In- aiite- (<.l. lit- i.iiiK.I th. 1. i_ii. 111,1 \V .1 r.iK, a T-nituiiii mil. 1-1,1, p,i|.ulai aii.l .l.i.iu, nt,

\t m

t .if th.i-e who n\ Leatrne and

30»

UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX WORLD.

established the Free Trade Hall in ]Mauches- ter, seemed almost as hopeless as the struggle of a swimmer to ascend Niagara. The whole volume of national iuHuence, of national ])ractice and traditi(ni, roared and rushed in tlie fare of the agitators, and seemed to bear tlu'ui down with an overwhelming pressure. But thfv were not destined to be swept away. Circumstances favored, as they have rarely favored, the cause of the reforming party. That most unanswerable of all arguments, human misery, came to the aid of the propa- ganda. Wretchedness, woe, want, starvation, despair, uttered their voices, and the cry at length reached the profoundest recesses of prejudice and conservatism. It reverberated through the Kingdom. The towns were shaken at tirst, and then the country-side be- gan to heave and swell. It was not, as we have said, the voice of man, but the voice of hunger, of thinst, the clamor of women and cliildren for bread. We have just .seen how at Boltou-le-Moors the appeal of starvation was first made on account of a commercial crash. But it was at once seen that any other city, in which the manufacturing interest predom- iiiateil, and where thereby dense masses of ]iopulatiou hail been drawn together, might suffer a like catastrophe at the mere wave of a wand. It was perceived that the whole manufacturing and artisan industries of Gi-eat Britain were saved from sliding iuto the horri- ble pit only by such temporary shores and props as might be at any moment broken and knocked away. Even Parliamentarians must see it and shudder. Eveu the great land- owner, secure in his estates, with his multi- plied tenantry, and his herds of Teeswater bullocks, must hear the cry in his fastness, and tremble at the possible consequences.

But to mere commercial disaster, and the serious consequences following in the wake, a fiir more dreadful circumstance was now to be added. The summer of 1S4.T in Ireland was unusually wet ami cold. As the season wore '>ii, it became certain that the potato-crop was al>out to ])rove a failure. It was noticed, on digging into the hills where the young bulbs were swelling to maturity, that a peculiar rot had attacked them, and tlint already, m mid- pununer. a consi.lerable part 'if the expected pri)duct had l)cen destroyed. In a C(uuitry of

j such various resources as the United States, where the failure of some single product oc- curs with scarcely a notice except in the cen- sus, where the abundance of other things makes up for the deficit, and the well-sus- tained tide of life sweeps on without a check in its flow or diminution in its volume, it is almost impossible to conceive of the dismay and horror with which the people of Ireland, in this summer of 184-5, must have regarded the impending failure of the potato. Before the season was yet well advanced, or the full extent of the disaster more than vaguely con- jectured, the Relief Committee of the Man- sion House in Dublin issued a paper in which it was declared that no reasonable conjecture could be formed with respect to the limit of the effect of the potato disease, and that the [ destruction of the entire crop seemed an im- j mineut jjossibility. — Let us look for a moment at the condition of the Irish peasantry.

A great majority of the Irish were depend- ent absolutely, at this time, upon the potato for subsistence. This was particularly true of all the people in the southern and western parts of the island. In the Xorth country some other articles — oatmeal in particular — were I eaten ; but apart from this, the potato was j the be-all and the end-all of the Irish peasants resources. It will surprise the American work- iugman to know that, in 1845, not a few of the Irish peasants, but all of them, lived, not principally or in the main, but ivholly, exclusively, on the potato. Such a thing as meat, or any other of the more concentrated forms of human food, was absolutely unknown in the Irish- man's home. His meal was of the potato only. All of his meals were so. He had nothing else. His children grew to manhood and womanhood, and then to old age, without ever having once in their lives known the taste of meat-food. In such a condition, what shall we say of the terror which the gloomy, wet summer of 1845, and the spread, ever-increas- ing and widening, of the potato-rot must have inspired among the crowded populations of the ill-omened island ?

The cry was soon heard across the channel. At first the country squires of England, satis- fied in tlieir abundance, were disposed to deny the story of the famine, to put it off as a scare, ' as a holigoblin conjured up by the Opposition

>10

ryiVEBSAL HISTORY- THE MODERX WOE ED.

anil tlic Free Traders; but the specter would imt dnwn, and tlie shadow thereof soou fell arn.,-< the (ilidinatc and conservative couscience of tinat liiitain. Such was the conditiou of attairs that .(nhn liiii^ht, speaking of the crisis afterwar<ls, .Icclared that Famine itself had joined the Free-Trade cause.

But why the cause of Free Trade ? For the reason that the grains which all the world stood ready to pour into the harbors of starv- ing Ireland were excluded therefrom by the Corn Laws of Great Britain. Even if not excluded, the price was so exorbitantly high as to be beyond the reach of the Irish peas- antry. The Corn Law thus stood, like the tree of Tantalus, with its boughs hanging low and laden with abundance over the heads of the Irish people, but ever beyond their reach. Grain must take the place of the potato, or the Irish must starve. But grain can not be substituted as the food of the peo- ple so long as the present prices are main- tained. The present prices are the result of the Corn Laws. Therefore, the Corn Laws must be abolished, and that speedily, for starvation is an exigency which, if not met at once, need not be met at all.

Such was the tremendous argument with which the Free Traders were reinforced in the autumn of 1845. Meanwhile, Cobden, Bright, and Villiers had gone on with the argument in the abstract, with the appeal to the judgment and understanding of the English people. Under their appeals, during the last five years, a large and influential following of Free Traders had been organized outside of the pales of party. Free Trade was their one great principle. To them the shibboleth of Wliig or Tor// was no longer anything. They did nut riwi' to pronounce it at all, but stood ready to j^iiii their fji-ees with either party if thereby the abolition of the Protective System could be secured. The Whigs, who now constituted the O|)|iositiou, were naturally more inclined to tiic dm-triiie of Free Trade than were the <'oii-.Tv:iti\fs in ]iower. But as a matter of fart, th" t'oiimlation of both parties was under- niiihd, •and earli awaited the catastrophe. Sir Kolvit r.-.l and liis ^[inistry had cotue into ])o\v. r under the distinct pledge of supporting the .Ni-tinu' ^v^tein of iiiilustry. In particular, they had iiroini>ed that the Corn Law should be

upheld. It had been noted, however, that Sir Robert, in his public utterances on the sub- ject, was disposed to regard the Corn Laws as exceptional, and a suspicion crept over the country that at heart and m theory Sir Robert was more of a Free Trader than a Protec- tionist. Colxlen and his followers looked upon the matter in this light, and calmly awaited the issue.

Such was the condition of affairs when j famine knocked at the door, and the Govern- ment was obliged, nolem volens, to take its stand and declare a policy for the immediate relief of the country. On the opening of Parliament, in January of 1846, Peel went boldly to the front and outlined the legislation I which he should undertake. It consisted ia j brief of the gradual, and yet speedy, abolition I of the Corn Laws, and with it virtually the I whole system of Protection. Of course, the policy was only dimly suggested in the Premier's speech at the opening of the session ; but the outline was sufficient, and the Con- servative party had before it the alternative of being dragged at the wheels of the chariot of Free Trade, or of finding for itself a new leader in place of Sir Robert Peel.

The situation and the occasion have ever since been memorable in the Parliamentary his- tory of Great Britain. The Conservative Min- istry, with the exception of Lord Stanley, had all gone over with Sir Robert, agreeing to sup- port him in carrying out the new policy of the Government. For the moment it seemed to the landed interests of Great Britain, and es- pecially to the representatives of that interest in Parliament, though they still constituted an overwhelming majority of the whole, that the end of all things had come; that the league of the manufacturing towns with commercial disaster and domestic distress at home, and with the potato famine in Ireland, had won the dav over the ancient order of society, and was about to stamp the residue under foot. Only one avenue of escape seemed open. If a new leader could be discovered to rally to the ill-each and reorganize the shattered Con- servative ranks, all might yet be well.

The leader eame like an ap]iarition. On the iiiglit when Sir Robert Peel, having ahau- done<I the cherished principles of the Conserv- ative party, foretokened in his speech the

GEEAT BUirAiy.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

311

adoption of the Frce-Tiudc imlicy, ami wiicn the Conservatives, without a voiei/, still sat un- der the paralysis of the hour, a stranj^e tiuuic arose iu the House of Commons, aud hciian to thuurler against Sir Roliert Peel in a jurfcot storm of invective and bitter sarcasm. Ii was that fantastic Hebrew, Benjamin Disraeli, who, from being the butt of the House of CuiiiiiKiiis, now suddenly arose to the rank of Icailt-isliip, from which the vicissitudes of fully thirty years could hardly suffice to shake liim. The world knows the history of the man ; how he had entered Parliament as a Radical ; how he had made himself, by his quaiut apparel and loud ways, a mixture of peacock and jackdaw; how he had been hooted down without finishing his maiden speech; how he had persevered against every species of prejudice, from the deep-seated prejudice of race to the gad-fly prejudice of mere manners; how he had gained in spite of all; how he had drifted over to the Conservative benches; and finally how, on the memorable night above referred to, he had suddenly sprung open like an automatic knife, and cut his way to the very heart of the temporizing policy of the Prime Minister. From that hour unto the day of his death, Benjamin Disraeli never ceased to be the idol of the old conservative landed aristocracy of Great Brit- ain. Henceforth he stood for the ancient system ; for the monarchy as a general fact, and for the Queen as a particular instance; for the feudal land-tenure of the aristocracy; for privilege and prerogative; for the House of Lords; for the Established Church, aud for every fact and principle in the British sy.stem of society and government whercliy that sys- tem might better be maintained in its ancient solidarity and grandeur.

Notwithstanding the brilllanry of Disraeli's attack on Peel; notwithstanding the sudden rally of the Protectionist party, and its quick recovery of all that might yet be saved from the wreck, there was no hope that the tide could lie stemmed, that the determination of the <'ountry to sulistitute Free Trade for the I'rntcrtivc svstf'iii riinld be thwarted or turned from the iiuvposc. Until this end should be accomiilislicd, tlic ^rinistrv of Peel must live.

Trad... The m.asun. i,ro|,„sed bv the :\ri„istrv still in.'lnded tiu- iiMpn>iti,ui of a duty .,t ten shillings a quarter on wheat, so long as the [nice should not exceed forty-eight shillings. Above that figure, the duty was to be reduced, until at tifty-three shillings a quarter, the tai-iir should stand at tVuir shillings only: this arran.-einrnt for the time. At the end of three yt-ars the s//s/,j;, ,,f protection on grain was to be aliandoned i,i tulo. It was fireseeu that, when once abandoned, protective duties could no more be revived. It was al.^o clearly dis- cerned that the protective principle, as applied to the production of sugar, and other agricul- tural as well as a few manufacturing interests, must go along with the major concession in the case of grains. The legislation of the hour meant, iu a word, a complete revolution and re- versal of the ancient industrial policy of the British Government, with the substitution for the time-honored system of Free Trade, pure and simple. In Parliament, the Protectionists, still vital, aud now under the leadership of Lord George Bentinck aud Disraeli, made a strong rally against the bill proposed by the Ministry. But the measure was passed in the House of Commons on the 15th of Mav, 1X46, by a majority of ninety-eight votes. In the House of Lords the bill was carried through by the support of the Duke of Wellington, aud became henceforth the law of the realm.

The :\rinistry of Sir Robert Peel had now but a month to live. While the Anti-corn- law agitation had been going on in England, the disaffection in Ireland, though less .spec- tacular in its manifestations than before, had become more dangerous. In that distracted island the pangs of famine had sharpened the fangs of political antagonism, and there were blood-stains in the pathwa_y. Crime came in the wake of the great movement which O'Cou- nell had bron-lit so nearly to suec-ss. The voun-er and moiv thonj'itle- of' tli.' Irish

The new scheme quickly jierfected It was not a dec!

the Government was aid befire Parliament, in for ininiediatc Free

what the lea.ler had son and icnionstram for the Government wav against the lawl

It was

:-l,ie'

312

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

disaft'ectious of the Irish people. It was to the Government of Sir Robert Peel a dangerous, and, as the sequel proved, a fatal expedient. The immemorial policy of the Whig party had been against the principle of coercion as applied to social disturbances among the subjects of Great Britain. The Chartists, and after them the Free Traders under the leaflership of Cobden. had them- selves so many tune- ielt the ^\elght of pei>-e- cutiou tiiattlK\ al-oaiKUtd them-t 1\( - .i_nni-t

principle. As for the Protectionist wing of Conservatives, now under the leadership of ■d George Beutinck and Disraeli, their rage inst Peel and the Ministrv knew no bounds; while, as a riil.>, tli.'v wduld have adhered ■ncrclDu as a priiiciplr, tlii-y were ready to ndon consisteurv if liny might by any in< (iviTturn thi' < idviTnment of Peel. :i11y, tlie Irish roprosentatives were, of i-.<r, hilti'ilv (i[i|iiisi'il to the coercion of their nti-viiieii. There thus accumulateil in the

Opposition .so many elements of power that when the Coercion Bill was put on its passage, June 25, 1846, the Ministry was defeated by a majority of seventy-three votes.

Sir Robert Peel thereupon put his resigna- tion in the hands of the Queen, and L(jrd John Russell was named as his successor. The new Cabinet included Lord Palmerston, as Foreign Secretary ; Sir Charles Wood, as Chancellor of the Exchequer; Lord Grey, as Secretary for the Colonies; and Sir George Grey, as Secretary for Home Affairs. The brilliant Thomas Bab- ington Macaulay had a seat in the Cabinet, as Paymaster-General the Govei-nmeut. Meanwhile, during the progress of the rec- ord in the preceding pages, an incident of a very different kind had occurred in the history of Great Brit- ain. It was at the middle of the fifth dec- ade that the attention (if the British public was first seriously awn to the possibili- ies that lay hidden in Arctic Regions. In the very summer of the beginning of the Irish famine an enterprise was pro- jected which was des- tined, before the move- ment slK.uld subside, to add largely to the geographical information of mankind. It was at this date that the daring adventurer, Sir John Franklin, undertook his voyage of polar discoviTv. This remarkable sea-captain had alreaily achieved renown by his voyages and exphn-atiiins. As early as 1S19 he had been sent to the Arctic Seas by the Hudson Bay Cnn]p;inv; a voyage which detained him three and a half vears, and extended to a distance of r,( ariv six thousand miles. Afterwards, in 18o0, he was made Governor of Van Diemau's

GREAT BRITAiy. — EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

Lanri, in which office he couducted the affairs of the Islanders with the greatest success. At the time of undertaking his great Arctic voy- age— that on which his fame with posterity seems to depend — he was ah-eady in his six- tieth year. The inspiration of tlie enterprise was the hope of discovering a north-western passage into the Pacific Ocean. Two ships, the Erebus and the Terror, were fitted out, and in Jlay of 1845 Sir John sailed on the ill- fated voyage. His ships were last seen by the Esquimaux, in July of the same year. From that date they disappeared forever from sight.

The interest of ueiih ill nations was ex- cited \n the untert^lnt^ whuh ^hiouded the fate ot Fiankhn and hi^ ( uipini ii- In

' Britain. It was discovered that Sir John had died in Juue of 1847, and that his companions had perislied to a man among the rigors of the frozen zone.

It was early in the Administration of Lord Russell that the peaceable relations of France and England were seriously disturbed by a marriage project which was said to be French in its origin, but Spanish in its appli- cation. The reader on this side of the sea may well wonder how such a question as a marriage, even the marriage of a queen, could be thought to jeopard the peace of Europe.

I But when we regard the peculiar constitution of the European kingdoms, and particularly

he dvnast

ich contri

them,

need lut

TWARD BOUND.

United States especially pn.fdun.l sympathy was evoked, and efforts, not a few, were put forth for the discovery and possible rescue of the Arctic explorers. We have already seen in the preceding Book how the Grinnell expe- dition, and afterwards the expedition of Dr. Elisha Kent Kane — most eminent of Ameri- can Arctic travelers — was fitted out and de- spatched into the North Seas. Little, however, was accomplished towards the discovery of Franklin, although the knowledge of mankind respecting the regions of the North Pole was extended and many times multiplied. It was not until 1859 that the ship Fox, under Cap- tain McCliutock, sent into the Arctic Ocean by Lady Franklin, had the good fortune to steer in the track of the lost sailors of Great

marital relations of th be regarded as impoi history will not fail to instances, the law of

' Rdval families should ant. The student of ■enifnibor that, in some descent, liy which the place of the crown is determined in hereditary governments, has, by sheer force of its own workings, produced an almost intolerable re- sult. At one time it appeared that Charles V. was to receive by legitimate inheritance the larger ])art of Continental Europe. If the so-calle<l Balance of Power among the European States is to be preserved, then the sovereigns who wear the crowns may well be constrained to give heed to the marriage com- pacts by which the crown is to be deflected in this direction or in that.

At the time of which we speak, young

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ibella II., of Spain, who had now reached

r nnu-ria-e. It had lonn- hem th,- pohey of

lion of liiood and niteivst ijetweeu the French d Siiani.-li IJonrlions. Tlie attempt to do so d, in innii- than one instance, been the ii^e of war. It might have been thought at, with the accession of the younger branch Bourbon, in the person of the Citizen King France, the traditional policy would have

been abandoned. But Louis Philippe, and Guizot, his Minister of State, seem, on the contrary, to have strongly desired that the young Queen of Spain should be wedded to a French Prince. The king himself had two elinilile sons who might aspire to Isabella's liand. The elder of these was the Dnc d'Ainiialc, and thi' younger the Dae de 'Shmt- ]i(ii>icr. It liappcni'd, moreover, that the

The intrigue of Loui.-^ Philippe was far- leaehing in its character. His programme con- templated the marriage of Isabella to her cousin, Francisco de Assis, and the comcident marriage of the Due de Moutjiensier and the Infanta. It was conjectured by the plotters that Isabella her.self in such a union 7VouM die ddldleiia, and that, in that event, the Spanish crown would descend to the offspring of Mont- pensier. He, after the Due d'Aumale, was heir to the crown of France. Thus was to be provided the possible union of the two crowns on the head of an Orleans Prince of France.

As soon as the pur- po.se of the French Court with respect to the double marriage was blown abroad, it created great excite- ment at other Euro- ^^^^^^ pean capitals. Eng-

^ laud herself, though zj insular and to a great _~ degree disentangled -~Z^ Irom Continental alli- , ances, was deeply of- ^ fended at the proposed union between the 1 French and Spanish

^ V royal families. The

' ''((^ project led to remon- strances and diploniat- J ical correspondence

not a little. It hap- pened that at this time Victoria passed over to the Continent, and made a visit to Louis Philippe at Eu. During the interview, the king straitly disavowed for himself and his Minister the purpose of having the Spanish Infanta married to his son, at least, until what time, by the marriage of Isabella and the birth of offspring to her, the descent of the Spanish crown should be pro- vided fnr. Nevertheless, in course of time, the dniililc marriage project was carried out pi'rlidiiiu>lv, as was believed at most of the eo\nis iif I'jiirope. Isabella was wedded to her ci>u,-in, Francis of Assis, and on the same day

GREAT BRITAIX.-EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

315

the Infauta, JNIaria Louisa, was nianied to the Due de Montpensier. Enghmd was beateu by tie intrigue. She must either suljiuit to the successful mauipulatiou of tlie Freuch Gov- ernrueut, or else go to war. It is uot likely that iu any event she would have chosen the latter course. But her indiLMiatinn was ex- treme, and she expressed Iut disjilcasure in the strongest terms consistent with peace.

The careful reader of history, however, will have noted the small effect of such schemes as this supposedly dangerous double marriage. Never was the truth of the ])rinciple more Cdiiently illustrated that iu the instance before us. The elaborate provision which Louis Philippe was making for the inheritance by his posterity of the crown of both France and S|iain was soon blown utterly away. The Revolution of 1848 iu France put both him.self a'ld his sous forever out of sight. Living in exile iu England uutil tiie day of his death, he must often have contemplated from a dis- tance the humiliating and ridiculous outcome of his intrigue relative to the Spanish crown. Even if the Revolution of 1848 had never occurred, the result would have been the same; for at length the marriage of Queen Isabella and her cousin was blessed with the birth of a son — against the expectations and hopes of the French Court, whose dignitaries had contrived the marriage. These events — the expulsion of Louis Philippe and his family, and the birth of a legitimate heir to the Spanish crown — served to convert the anger of England, first into indifference, and then into contempt.

We are now arrived at that period in En- glisn history when Chartism was destined, after one huge effort to force itself as a modifying principle into the Constitution of Great Brit- ain, to sprawl into oblivion and be seen no more. The effort in question was made in 1848. It was in this year that the energies of all Europe seemed, by gathering and com- pression, to explode in a universal revolution. We shall hereafter narrate, on a larger scale, how in nearly all the European capitals, in- surrection put his bugle to his lips, and blew a blast which, in instances not a few, startled the legitimate kings from their seats, and sont them flying by day or night into foreign lands. Paris was the scene of such a revolt, which ended in the downfall of the House of Orlciuis

and the erection of a republic. Berlin was the scene of another such insurrcctitm, almost successful, against the reigning dynasty. Brus- sels likewise stitfercd revnji, tlmiigh tiu- king of the Belgian>, l)y a \vi>r declaration that if his people did imt « ish him fm- their snvi reign, then he himself had no wish to iei;^ii linger, snatched the lH.lt fr.un the cI.ukIs an.l e..n- ducted it harmlessly to the earth. All around the horizcm the thunder of revolution was heard, and even England felt the jar.

In that country, however, the conditions, civil, social, and political, were very different from those of the Continental Powers. Eng- land had stability, equanimity, equipoise. Her foundations were laid deep on the very con- crete of barbarism. Her structure had been raised experimentally. It had been built, here a little and there a little, remodeled, altered much in details and slightly iu general plan. But it was essentially the same colossal fabric which had grown into shapeliness and grandeur, if not into political beauty, through ages of development. On that structure many cen- turies had wrought. On it the Conqueror had used his battle-axe, and the Plantagenets their swords. The wardiammers of York and Lan- caster had resounded on the wall. Tudor had reared one battlement, and even Stuart had contributed something to the magnificence of the pile. William Henry of Orange had gone round about it, and the four Georges and William of Hanover-Brunswick had at least slept in the stately chambers of the edifice. Now Victoria had added grace and woman- hood, and the coping-stones were not without glory. Nor may we ever forget that, under the shadow of the great temple, that rude creature, called English Libeiiy, had grown and flourished.

Wherefore Enghuid was not easily liisturbed. She was with difheulty shaken by agitation. Least of all was she amenable to the aignment of insurrection. Tongue-foree and pen-force she might indeed fear and feel; Imt sword- force not at all. Out of all which eireuni- stauces came English indifference to the ]»ilit- ical revolt <if 1S4S. Nevertheless, the Chart- ists, who tor :i deeade ha>l maintained their cause in the inanufaetnring districts and great

salvation. Now was the hour in which, as

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

Eii,uii>liinen, they might gain, by poaecfiil agitation, or, at nmst, the display of physical force by uiinihers, the democratic rights which they sighed for, and which seemed to be the rare-ripe fruit of insurrection iu the Conti- nental States.

So the Chartist agitation broke out anew. The movement was augmented by the misfor- tunes through which England had recently passed. O'Connell's great campaign for the repeal of the Union bad ended iu defeat ; but the discontented spirits of both Ireland and England were not stilled. The agitation for the repeal of the Corn Laws had indeed been succes.sful. But the Reform legislation of 1832 had brought only disappointment and mockery to the working democracy of England. The ranks of Chartism were augmented from nearly all the columns of discontent, and it was be- lieved by the leaders that the time had now come, when, by a single great rally, they might bear down Parliament, and constrain the Gov- ernment to yield to their demands.

In pursuance of this general policy, the Chartists proceeded to prepare a monster pe- tition to the House of Commons, demanding that the principles of the People's Charter should be acknowledged by that body, and in- corporated iu the Constitution of the realm. It was arranged that the petition sbould first lie signed by millions of English workingmen, anil that it should then be carried to the House of Commons Ijy a delegation at the head of a procession, wdiich it was hoped to swell to the n umber of five hundred thousand persons. For this purpose, the multitudes were to assemble on Kennington Common, on the 10th of April, 1848. The Chartists hoped to make the dem- onstration by far the most formidable which had been known in the political history of mankind. It was believed that half a million (jf people could l)e brought together and ar- ranged in a single procession. At this time Feargus O'Connor was the acknowledged leader of Chartism, and he was to be the mov- ing spirit of the multitude. The fatal defect in the wdiole proceeding was that the Chartists themselves had no clear idea of the After That. Suppose the House of Commons will not hear our petition, will not yield to our demand, will not feel the display of force and numbers. What then? Shall we fight? Shall we peace-

ably disperse to our homes, and leave the En- glish Government to ridicule both our proces- sion and ourselves? It was jirecisely the same difficulty which had wrecked the cause of re- peal in the hands of O'Connell. The younger and fiercer Sf)irits who followed that storm- breathing Irish Achilles, would fain have fought ; but the older, the wiser, the more conservative, including the leader himself, and vast majority, sought the end only by apjieal, by argument, and by the olive-branch.

So also with the Chartists. Meanwhile, however, there was great alarm in London and throughout the kingdom. There were rumors of insurrection in every city. But, as usual, the event soon showed that the crooked flukes of the British anchors had fast hold of the ledges under the sea. The defense of the metropolis was intrusted to the Duke of Wel- lington. Military preparations were made to maintain the peace, and if need be, to break up the Chartist demonstration. About two hun- dred thousand militiamen were enrolled for the occasion, and before the day of the meet- ing it was evident that the demonstration was doomed to failure.' Instead of a half million, only twenty thousand, or at most twenty-five thousan<l persons, assembled on the Common. Orders had been issued by the Government forbidding the formation of the procession, as having for its purpose the dis- tuibance of the peace of the realm. Feargus O'Connor advised his followers to obey the mandate. He and some of the Chartist lead- ers proceeded, however, to present the huge petition to the Commons. But the efllect was naught. It was boasted that the papers con- tained seven million signatures. But this statement was found to be greatly exag- gerated. Fewer than two millions of names were found, and of these many were spurious and fictitious. Nevertheless, it could not be said that a paper signed by a million of earnest Englishmen was absurd. The Chartist movement was a failure, not because of the political principles on which it was projected, but because those principles were already

' Among those who served as special police- men on this memorable occasion was at least one notable personage — no other than Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, soon to be President of the French. Republic, and afterwards Emperor Napoleon IIL

virtuallv aeknowleuged iu laii'l, and were destiued, in valid and applicable to tlic of Great Britain, to be 1:1 as elements of the Cons threeof the f^ix artii w^MV ^oon ado|,trd 1 Thi- i-iiiiriple ..[■ M: a part of the English Cnn>titulion. '1 of voting by Secret Ball-t, (Ki.u-ii.d ballot-box, has also been part of the ,i„ul,i.< oprmmii of all Briti. elections. In like nui' ner, the Propert Qualification irniinse on candidates for Par- liament, against which the Chartists so vehe- mently find justly de- claimed, has long since been abolished. It is an anachronism iu j itics to insist on the

GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

leart

of •nlld	Eng- were ItidU	bv the in KngHsh Xa The en,	telligcn-c and inn, but bv Pari ndalivr a'i:itati<	consciincr nf anieutarvadnpi n in Inhind, 1	the
At	atc(l Irast	M,. p,.n,„l.	IrnLl'n"'!,,'	','ii'i!nw rjit"!	','■

acknowledgment of principle already a kn.nvle.lged. As i America the strugg of the Greenback part f)r predominance as party ended iu failun though the prin for which all rati(inal Greeubackers con- tended — namely, that the Congress of the United States has the f right and power, in- dependently of the fact of war, to makp alisohite paper and to constitute the same a l.-jnl lu the payment nf cally otherwise provii and almost unanitnouslv a|>|irnv(il b preme Court, anil di-iviii into the tional Interpretation- of our Pep

i;i-I.AND. and dev >e emanci|,at]o„ ,	.tcl its,. It Willi f the Iri-h ,,eo,	e fro,
mtrol ot Kn.la,		neWM

d \Vi

,e le

partv movement collapsed, eniled in dir-t and ^ man of wealth a, id rank, lie was abli

s,noke, thoiigh the principles for wiiich the I the can-^e a sti-ong impetus. Assoc

Chartists contended were approved, not only him was Thomas Fi-aucis Meagher, 20

Ited with

who liad

VyiVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

fame as an orator — a thing always e^^.-^ential to agitation in Irelaml. Two other leaders of great prominence also appeared in the persons of Sir Charles Gavan Dutty, founder of the Nalhni, ami .Inlni Mitchel, an Irish revolu- tiiiiii>t, pine ami siiii|ili-. T" these men the jiartv <if YniiMi;- Ireland now hmked for coun- sel and direction.

Around the nucleus here defined was iui- mediatelv ,t:athcn-d much df the intellect nf the island/ Especially did the young men fresh from the universities rally to the call for the independence of their country. Theycon- trilnited to the radical newspajiers the keenest part i.f their intellectual product in both jirose and verse. Some wcie for gding farther, and some U(it so far. All were for the repeal of the Union, and the establishment of Irish in- dependence by revolution. But what did the revolution moan? It was the <ild difficulty over again. Did revolutiim mean outright re- bellioH, downright war, the unsht-atlic-d swnrd, battle and blood and death';" < )r diil it mean something less than tbese':'

Here the ])arty divided. The more radical of the radical timk tn the leadership of Mitchel. That great insurrectionist established a new newspaper called the United IrUJui-inii. and it was at once perceived that around this truly revolutionary standard was gathered the body of Young Irelaml. ^Mitchel's uewspaper soon surpassed \he Xatii<ii in influenceaudcirculation, as it surpassed it from the first in vehemence and liitterness towards the British Government. The new orwan teemed with the wildest dia- tribes and invectives. Rebellion -was openly advocated as the only remedy for the ills of Ireland. Even t1ie measures by which the

'US>

th,

,do ..f anarrhy. :\rrth."ls of de- stn.vin- lli-ili-h -nidi-rs and their abb,-ttors in ••ivii -0,1, tv W(T.- .xplaiiicl with as much

, 1,,,.- :i-'thou-h th.-y had been the methods

of tin- buichc-r's stall. ^\rtii'ies ap])eared in the r„Ur,l fi-'islinnni demon -t rating the useful- ness of vitriol a- an :ment of destruetion. Mitehel and his ronespondents rose to the high jiifch of fanaticism, and it became evident that they meant to provoke the English (Gov- ernment to a collision.

^lean while, an actual revolution had broken out in Paris, and discharged the Orleans

j)rinces from all further service. The event was hailed in Ireland as a sure precursor of a general revolution, in the cour-se of which the Celtic Island iuust of necessity achieve its in- dependence. O'Brien and Meagher went to the French capital to solicit from Lamartine, then almost supreme in State aflidrs, his .sym- jiathy and patronage in the matter of the Irish revoluti.ju. At length, matters in Dublin and in ,.ther parts of the Inland came to sueh a pass that it was no longer optional with (Gov- ernment whether they would or would not proceed to the issue and trial of strength with the Irish insurrection. The Lord-Lieutenant had gond reason f .r re^^anlin- Mitchefs j.aper as not only sediti..us, but ineendiary. Still, according to current statutes, it was a dithcult matter to proceed against the rampant editor and his estai)lishment. Though his paper gave fnun day to day deliberate instruction in the art of killing, which, under the circumstances, appeareil very much like the art of murder, there had been as yet no such overt acts as would warrant his arrest for crime. Anything short of criminal prosecution went for nothing when directed against the favorite leaders of the people; for they immediately freed them- selves from duress under the law of bail, and became nmre active than ever.

In Parliament, it was deemed that the emergency called for speedy and severe reme- dies. A bill was accordingly hurried through, making all written incitement to crime a felony under the statutes. It was a deadly blow aimed at the Irish insurgents; but ^litchel at least was undaunted. He went on more violently than before, and was arrested and thrown into prison. Even from his cell he Inirled defiance at the Government, and urged his countrymen tci rescue him from the clutches of tvranny. But the outside party was want- iuL' in courageous leadership. Mitchel was tried and found guilty. Standing in the dock, he made a furious and defiant speech, and went down game under a sentence of fourteen vears' transportation to the Bermudas. He was hurried out of Dublin, and as the ship which bore him from sight dropped behind the horizon, the hope of a successful Irish in- surrection disappeared.

The condemnation and banishiuent of their most courageous leader roused the animosity of

GREAT BRITAIX.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

eveu the more moderate party of young Ire];\nil- \ n(lil(

crs, and they all took ou the character of ji((.|

rebels against the Governincnt ; not rebels in- J

deed iu fact, but rebels in s[iii-it and pnrjiose. \ '\y\r[

Smith O'Brieu, Meagher, and ntluMs l,ft Dub- lind

lin and wnt to Badingnrrv, «l„iv tlic-v w,,v in >.

snn'onnded by a crowd n[ insur,:rnt-,' whom of tl

bliug military discipline. The Tijiperary j)o- of <

lice stood against the insurgents, and were I fm' 1

attacked by them. O'BrienV forc(>s oblige,! \ uu;,

the posse to take i-efuL'c in ;

assailed them with such n

possessed. The police fired

ftud several of the assailant

The remainder at hngth (fi-

trivial aflair, rescued from r

serious consequences. ( )'l)i

Thurles, where he was tak(

two others were soon afters

the mountains. A cnurt \v

mel, and in Septeniliei- nt' 1

were found guilty. ( )'I5iiei

be hanged, beheadcil. mirl 'ji.

was the still merciful statuti

relative to treason. ]Meagl

sentenced to death, with the addeil horrors

of mutilation. Standing in tlie dock, the

brave young Irishman cried out, with uplifted

han.l an.l steady voice : "Even here, where

the sha.lows of death surn.und me, an.l from

•where I see my early grave opening for me in

no consecrated soil, the hope which beckoned

me forth on that perilous sea whereon I have

been wrecked, animates, consoles, enraptures

me. No, I do not de-pair of my | r old

country, her peace, her lilierty, her glory."

The sentences of the < haiined men wei-,>

commuted into other firms of punishment. O'Brien was to be transported for life. All of the convicts were sent to Australia, from which, in cour.se of time, both ^litchel and Meagher effected their escape. O'I'.rien re- fu.sed to avail himself of the opportunities to get away, and was at length panloncil : first, on condition of not returning to England or Ireland, and afterwards unconditionally. As to Sir Charles Duffy, In.- was twice brought to trial, and twice the jury refused to convict. The prosecutions endcil with the condemnation and expulsion of the leaders. Yiiung Irehunl ■was broken up, and another element was

Irisli

veil b. 1 theaj, he unfc	suppo> itation : rtunate	■d that th.. eon., nd disaMer. whi, Island would te
lomena race.	manni fhe con	ilrv had lirst lie(

■abin.and there	movement, wa,> pr.ifonijd. Tie	n came	1,.. p.,.
■ arms as thi'y	tato famine, in which liunecr ,	nd diset	se an.l
m the windows.		hrou.Jis	.tueof
vere .shot .lown.	themo-t fertile parts otthe Idai	d. This	vasfol-
•rsed. It was a	lowed, hard after, l.y ih.- Youn		insiir-
eule only ),y its	rection. by the clamor for rev.	Intinu, :	n.l the
Meagher an,l	England might be thrown .ilf, ;	nd Irisi,	ikc .if happi-
rds caiitured in calle.l at Clon-	iiess bo secured by the way of' ciM'e. This hope also was i.	Iri-h In. ph.,..|v 1	.pen.l- laste.l.
4S the prisoners	The Irish patriots were doom	..1 t.l S.'	their
as sentence,! to	favorite young leaders escape	the .l.'at	, pen-
/or,/; for sucli	ally onlv liv transportation to	th.. S.u	th At-
f Great Britain ■ was likewise	lan'tic. "it can not be wonde	e.1 at tl	at the
1 'ri 1 ■ ■ 11

. X,.w Y.

i.s.mI a.lm

320

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

people of the Islanil i:ave up in (le>p; began to look aliiuad for some possJhK from the hon'oi-< of ihc -iiniiiion.

There, ln-yond thr Aihiiilir, ili. y .• glimpse of a lu-oa.l aii.l open laiel, froi

i,i;s, tl

rei

It is a sa.l (lav in tho lif.' of man when the stron- tie v.-hieh lmel> liim to native land, snaps a-nn.l.a'; ulioi, he i- eon-trained to turn his l.ark on the home of his an.vst..rs, to no on shipboard, and see hrhiiel Idiu, in the gloaming of the first evening, the uretn shore of his own country .sink lnhind tlie sea. Tlie Ipjsir P^^niiRATiiiy to Amerira, which now ensiie<l as the legitimate eonse(pienee of the hardships to which the nation had been ex- posed, while it was one of the most striking examples of voluntary expatriation ever known, was by no means a sin-prising event. Behind the emigrants were famine, pestilence, land- lordism,""rol)hery, the oppressions of the British Govci-niinnt — every eoni|in]sive force that mi-lit well drive a people into exile. In the conr.-e ol' two or three years from the begin- ning id' the potato tiimine, the country was de- populate.! at the rate <>t' aliout a million souls

into America. Tli'e exiles of Erin, -..nerally in ra-s, were -eei, by humhvd- and thousand's in the streets of the A rnerican sea-l.oard .aties. from whi.di tliev -raduallv di-lril.uted them- selves into the interior, .diicHy alon- the line ,,f the great railways .and eamds, whiidi about that time were in cou-rnieiioii, and iindin;:- eniplov- ment and profitable wages at the hands .d' jiub- lic eontraelois.

It is from tliis point kC view that the

to be considered. It can not be doubted that the great emigration coiitribnted many un- favorable elements to American life. It could not be expected that shiplead- .d' half -tai ved

low e-tate, unfe.l in all their lives with other fold tlian the potato, could at once and favor- alilv a-sume tin- iluti.-s ,,f i;e|.ublican citizen- shi|.. Our own <vstem has been largely to blame fir the vices that came with the Irish exoilus. But the apiiearance of these people has not been an nnmixed curse. In the first place, something is due to the princijile of iu-

ternationality— to that lu-ineiple which de- mands the exposure ami distribution of our own go<id, of our own strength, to tliose who have it not, of whatever clime or race. We may not Ibrget the incalcnlal)le benefits which tin- Iri^h emigrants received from their con- tact with our pi-nple and institutions. Then.

vantage to onr.selves. If virtue, indeed, flowed tiom the hem of our garments at the touch of Ireland, strength was given back into our own cousiitiition from the wound made in our soil by the- Irish spade. The a.lduion of so large a body of cheerful and patient labor- ers to our own strained resources of physical force must by no means be overlooked in considering the general features and character of the problem. Finally, it shall not be for- gotten that in the day when American institu- tions— aye, the very existence of the American Republic — was staked on the gage of battle; wdieu the day of conflict came, and the free system of representative government on this side of the sea was under trial of the sword ; when everything which the American heart hol.ls dear 'was at jeopard in the smoke an.l blood and carnage of Civil War.— then the

Irish < tin-ent eontribut.Ml its full ,piola to

the rnion Armv, and on i-vwy field, IV.im the Happahannock to the Ozark Mountains, Irish life wa- fively and -rateCullv -iven un- der the Siardianne'r uhi.di had reeeivd and

guarded tl xile- of bs,-,() in the dark day of

their banidiinent.

While the attention of the British Parlia- ment had been prineipall}- ili'awn to the events

ters of less importance, but still of interest to the reader, had occurred, .\mong these, one of a picnliar sort may be mentioned as illiHtrative ot' the nature and tendencies of British legislative thought at the epoch befiire us. The incident referred to had many of the features of that remarkable Martin-Koszta Atlidr to whi.di the reailer's attention has been direetid in a former chapter. Beginning with a merelv personal matter, the event

Koszta wi

r own country, ih'stined ng forth and (diicidate files of international law

GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

321

The affair in (iiiesti

:aut

K.

■ffig\

Greece, aud was based ultiiii;i riglits of British citizens iv- Greece was, religinu^ly ('''ii-id.'! sway of the Eastern, ni >o-,alli olic" Church. That Clanvli, : Church in the West, had its sup^ aud its traditional jiracticcs niai certain usage was annnally tn of the traitor, Judas Iscariot. This ecri'mony was performed in connection with the Easter celebration in eacli year. It was generally an uproarious performance, at which the ruder citizenship was given license, not uuly to con- tribute to the burning of Judas, but tn in- dulge in other half lawless amusements. At length the authorities of Athens concluded to abolish the ceremony. Accordingly, in 1847, the police were instructed to prevent the an- nual celebration. The movement was seriously resented by the people, aud a mob arose heailed by two sous of the Greek Minister of "War. The insurgents came at length to the spot where the Judas was to have been burned, but, being deprived of the annual sports which they had been wont to enjoy, they turned aside to find some actual Judas on wlnmi they might be revenged. Such a Judas was nut t'ar to .seek. It chanced that there was resident near the scene a certain Jew named Don Pa- cifici), whose house the angry mob attacked and destroyed. But Di>n Pacified had the pru- dence aud craft of his race. He was a P..rtu- gue.se by descent, born at Gibraltar, but a cit- izen of Great Britain. It was the latter cii-- cum.stance, that is, his being a subject of the British crown, that now stood him well in hand. He accordingly made up an inveutory of his losses, which he estimated at the very lilieral figure of thirty-two thousand pounds sterling. He also claimed that among his pa- jiers, which had been destroyed by the mob, there were certain documents establishing the indebtedness of the PortUL'UPse Government to himself in many ad.litinnal thousands „f pounds. The event shnwed that the imagina- tion of Don Pacifico had been thrifty in the last degree, and that his legitimate claim would have to be reduced to a small fraction of what was shown in his inventorv. But the lu-inei- ple was all the same, and Don Paeitie.. loudlv

It of

led that the Greek Govenuuent

liquidate the whole or abide the couse- cjuences.

The Greek authorities, however, were little disposed to allow the vali.lity of the claims, whereupon a British fieet was despatched to the sea-port of Athens to comjiel payment. In the emergency, Greece appealed to France and Russia to aid her against the unjust demand of Great Britain. Both of those governments had been somewhat ottended at the ])recipitancy of England in disjilaying force in the harbor of a frien<lly jiower. The English Miuistry was accused ot a coveit dis- position to loose her.self from the engagement b)' which the independence of Greece had been guaranteed at the establishment of the Greek monarchy. France was more mild- mannered, and proffered her good offices in the settlement of the difficulty. It aj)pears that the English Ambassador at Athens pro- ceeded, in conjunction with the representative of France, to adjust and allow .so much of the claims of Don Pacifico as might be valid. Init at the same time Lord Palmerston went ahead to force a settlement in his own way.

All of these circumstances combined to give an occasion for the Opposition in Parlia- ment to attack the foreign policy of the Gov- ernment, and the methods of Lord Palmerston in the Greek affair in partienlai-. Palmerston, however, defended him.-elCand the course which he had taken, in a masterly speech in the House of Commons, and the policy of the Foreitrn Office was upheld by a great majority. The claim of Don Pacific,, reduced t., more moilerate pro]>orti<ins, was at length discliar>:ed by the Greek Government, but only after the controversy had dragged along till all parties were anxious to lie freed from its further con- sideratiiin. A difficulty which came near lead- intr at one time to serious consequences was finally eliminated from the thought of the

322

UXIVERSAL HISTORY.^THE MODERN WORLD.

nations concerned by the diversiun of their attention to other questions and interests.

In the course of the deliate in Parliament oil tlie matter nf Dm, I'acifico and his tn.ul.- h_-s in Ath,-„s, Sir Kohrrt I'.m-I made liis la-t siH.,-,-h ill that -ivat l.ody, where he had lieeii So ii.ii;^' ih-tiii;iiii-hi'il, and for several years s(i|inMiic. It was ill the early morning of JiiiH' '_".!, is.'iO, that the eminent statesman lel't tlif Ilnii-,' (if Commons for the last time. He was a meiiil)er of the Royal Commission, which had heeii constituted to superintend the great Industrial Exhibition in Hyde Park, the ])reparations for which were making at that time. Sir Robert attended a meeting of the Commission, and then visited the Queen at Buckingham Palace. On leaving the latter place, he was thrown from his horse, and be- coming entangled in the bridle, was crushed under the animal's knees and hoofs. His in- juries were flital, and, after suffering for three days in great agony, he died, on the 2d of July. The event produced a shock through- out the kingdom. It was proposed that the dead statesman should be buried in Westmin- ster, but Peel had provided otherwise in his will. In that document he had stipulated also that no member of his family should accept any title or other mark of honor on account of the services which he had rendered to the country. For this reason, when the offer was made to elevate Lady Peel to the Peerage, the honor was declined. Nor will the repub- lican reader of the New World fail to do obei- sance to the sterling spirit of the man who could thus deliberately rest the reputation <if bis family with posterity on his own unaided name.

Just at the time of winch we speak, the interest of all England was excited by a pro- ceeding of the Pope of Rome relative to his alleged jurisdiction in Great Britain. The reader must in this connection recall hurriedly the history of the English Church. He must remember how closily. from the day of its birth, that Chinch had lucii identified with the political ( 'onstiliition of the Kingdom. The RefoniKitioii in l-'ii-laiid had run a course very different fnmi the dc-stiiiii's of the same move- ment on the Continent. Every part of the Establishment had now been for a long time interwoven with the civil fabric until not only

the independency, but the very existence of the one seemed to be involved with that of the other. The Church of England had from the ini.ldle ,,f the sixteenth c.-iitnrv rested heavily on Calholiri.m. It had remained for the iiiiutcTiith (Tiitury to r.-iii..ve most of the dis- abilities under which tlie Catholics had long gidinieil, and to introduce a reign of compara- tive toleration. No sooner, however, was the weight lifted and Rome set free, than she be- gan her old-time tactics for the recovery of

this Very time, a reiietion in favoi' of the Mother Chincli was discovered in the very heart of l^piscipalianism. Several of the leading ecclesiastics discovered a sudden lik- ing for the ceremonials, to say nothing ol' the dogmas, of Rome. It was noticed that, in the highest places of the Church, an unusual honor began to be paid to the saints. The sign of the cross was made as reverently by Church- men as by Catholics, and the claim of infalli- bility was instituted. It w'as observed that some of the bishops read the liturgy in a manner and tmie strongly in sympathy with the Latin chant of the Roman priest; and at last it was recommended in some dioceses that auricular confession be made, and that penance be done and absolution granted for sins. This was indeed SancM Ecdesia Rediviva! It only remained to elevate the host to complete the transformation. In the autumn of 1850 the people of England suddenly awaked to find that their National Church was apparently slipping back into the open portal of " the Flannnian Gate."

Pius IX. was quick to discern and to ap- preciate the advantage wdiich this movement seemed to promise. He accordingly issued a letter or bull, dividing England into dioceses, to be placed under the control of one Arch- bishop and twelve Suffragans. More than this — and this was the gravamen of his offense — he proceeded to authorize the bishops and andibishops to take their names or titles /com Ihr iiaiiir iif till' J/./rrscs to wdiich they were re- spectivelv assigned. This sounded very much like the assmiiption of a certain indefinite ter- i-itdi-iiil doiiiinioii i.ver the diocese, rather than that merely ecclesiastical authority against which no one could raise objections. The as- sumptions of the Papal bull were immediately

GREAT BRITAIN.— EPOCH OF CHARTISM.

323

backed by a prominciameiitu dI' ( 'antiiial Wise- man, the uew Catholic AiThl>i>ho|i of iMighiud. The pastoral letter whieh he imw tulilresssed to his siilijects was, according to its superscrip- tion, "given out (jf the Fhiminian Gate at Rome." Tlie comnniniration, which was m-- dered to be read pulilirly in all tiie Catholic Clmrches of Lun.ion, was Utile lt>s than ni>o. lent. It declare.l tliat '■ thr heloved coun- try "—meaning England— --iiad heen received to a place am(jng the fair Churches which constituted the splendid aggregate of the Catholic communion." It went on to say that Catholic England had been restoreil to its true orbit in the ecclesiastic firinanient, etc.

Now it was, however, that the matter was overdone. The English people suddenly sprang up in indignation against the Papal assump- tions, and the Island rang from shore to shore with loud denunciations of the whole impudent scheme, which had seemingly been devised for the restoration of the country to the do- minion of Rome. Lord John Russell, at the head of the Ministry, wrote a general letter, in which he called the attention of the people of England to the insidious plot of the Pope against the principles of the Reformation, and against the still greater fiact of English liberty. By the opening of Parliament in 1851 the public temper had become so much aroused that the Ministry were impelled, as much by the force of the popular voice as by their own convictions, to take some action again.st the scheme of the Pope and Cardinal "Wiseman. To do so, liowever, was a step attended witli great ditticnlty. In the first place, England had now openly adopted the principle of uiu- versal toleration in matters of religion. In the next place, it was seen by the leading minds that even the extraordinary pretensions and claims, which had recently been set up with respect to Papal dominion in Great Britain, were idle and empty, void of effect, the mere sound of brazen cyndials.

But the real difficulty in dealing with the question lay in the peculiar division which then existed in Parliament. lu that body there were three political jiarties, the Whigs, the Conservatives, and the so-called Peelites. The latter had belonged, for the most part, to the Conservative party, but had adhered to Sir Robert Peel in the matter of Free Trade,

and had thus parted company with the Pro- tection division, representing, in general, the landed aristocracy of (Jreat Britain. WMien the Peel Mini>try gave way, it was not tlie accession of the Whigs; the overthrow oi the recent Government was personal rather than political. Besides the three divisions already mentioned, there was a strong Irish contingent, and this, since the passage of the Reform measures by which the disabilities resting ou the Catholics had been removed, was made up almost exclusively of Catholic members. Any measure now proixised by Lord Russell against the assumptions of Rome would be at once as- saileil, for [uinly political reasons, by DLsraeli and the Conservatives proper, while the Irish party, which, iu general, had cooperated with Sir Robert Peel ou everything except religious questions, would, of course, oppose the Ministry in a measure directed against Rome.

As to the party in power, it was itself made up ot extremes. Those who strongly adhered to the Church of England were rampant for the enactment of strenuous measures against the Papal interference. Of this kind were all the prelates and their following, both iu and out of Parliament. At the other extreme of the ^Ministerial party were those moderate statesmen, wdio were indifferent to the vapor- ings of Rome, and would have been glad if the question had never been brought into the House of Commons. It was in the midst of these embarrassments that Lord John Russell brought before Parliament the so-called Ec- clesiastical Titles Bill, by which it was proposed to prohibit Catholic Bishops from the use of all such titles as, being derived from their dioceses, might hint at temporal, that is, territorial, jurisdiction. To accept of any such title was made a crime, under a penalty of a hundred pounds for every such assumption. The measure in this form, however, could not be passed through Parliament. The bill was so amended as to omit the more stringent clauses, and, even in the emasculated form, was only accepted as an end to the controversy. It does not appear that the Roman hierarchy was much disturbed or impeded by the measure. The statute continued in force, or, rather, not in force, until 1871, when it was ipiietly al)ro- gated by the same body which had adopted it twenty years before.

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

CHAPTER CXXIX. FROM HVDE PARIv TO BOSPHORUS.

1-1"

iiiaile a new departure from its beaten course. It is not often that the stu- (U-nt of the social evolu-

ttiil t'l see the beginnings of things.

e is obliged to content himself with

As a nil

following the lines of force already operative 1 in affairs, without being able to discover ex- , actly their origin. In 1851, London, or, rather, all England and the world, were destined to witness, in Hyde Park, the first great Intee- NATioNAL Exhibition of Arts and Indus- tries. The project certainly originated with Prince Albert, Consort of the Queen. "We have seen, in a former place, to what an extent the interests and sympathies of the Prince were devoted to the industrial and artistic side of life. His position in English society, his ample wealth, his power and iuflneuce in pub- lic affairs, gave him abundant opportunity to study out measures for the promotion of such matters as he conceived to be of benefit to the people. It was out of these antecedents that the concept of the Hyde Park Exhibition arose in his mind. He conceived that, if by some means, a plan could be devised for bring- ing together, under suitable conditions, the choice products, manufactures, and artistic achievements, not only of the English people, but of all civilized States, the reflex effect of such an exposition must be salutary in the highest degree. Albert was preeminently a practical man ; but he also had, in some good measure, the inspiration of philanthropy, and was even capable of dreaming of a better age. He imagined that if such an Exhibition as he contemplated could be successfully carried out, it would tend to produce, by acquaintance, a better nuderstaudiug among the nations, sug- gest friendly c'.>un,-ils ninoiig them, and dis- courage war— all thi-, in addition to stimu- lating a healthful rivalry among the various l^eoples in the matter of their industries and arts. Thus even might the reign of Violence

1)e ended, and the reign of Peace be ushered in. It can hardly he doubted that the Prince, and tlin.-i.- immediately associatid with him, were carried forward against extreme opposi- tion and almost insuperable difficulties, by the pleasing hopes which they entertained of the betterment of mankind by the work they had in hand.

It was on the 21st of March, 1851, that Prince Albert, speaking at the Lord Mayor's banquet in the Mansion House, set forth in a happy and not unpoetical way, the project of the Exhibition. In concluding his address he declared that it should be the end of the en- terprise to "give the world a true test, a liv- ing picture, of the point of industrial develop- ment at which the whole of mankind had arrived, and a new starting-point, from which all nations will be able to direct their further exertions." The projiosition of the distin- guished speaker met with an immediate and hearty acceptance by many of the public men present, and before the end of the banquet the first formal steps were taken for the pro- motion of the enterprise.

But no such measure has ever been pro- jected in Great Britain without at once awak- ening the antagonistic forces which slumljer ever at the door. lu that country, the party method of advocacy and opposition is applied to everything. It might be said, without ex- aggeration, that if the Premier of England should lay before the House of Commons a resolution that men ought to be good and happy, the leader of the Opposition would be ready with a reply; the debate would be sharp and protracted, and the majority for the meas- ure would be determined by a division of the House I For this reason, progress in England is laborious in the last degree. The course towards better things is rendered tortuous and difficult. The streams of national life flow like water underground — turned in this direc- tion and in that by the nature of the media, percolating through gravel-beds, deflected by misplaced strata, and finally issuing through hitherto undiscovered orifices in unexpected

GliEAT BHTTAfX.-^Fh'OM HYUE I'ABK TO nOUFHORUS.

i-' :!•

326

UyiVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERX WORLD.

places, on uuknown hill-sides. Let the reader, however, fail uot to note that, by such a ])ro- cess, the waters are purified and the springs rendered pcnMiiiiul in their tlnw.

X(i sii.iiici' was the Princr's prnject known than o,,,,nMtinn aru-. in every .piaiter. First „tall, It wa~ <aid that a World's Fair, hehl in London, would i.ring t.i the metropolis a melange of all nations. With them would come their vices and diseases, and the people would become infected with both. In par- ticular, it was urged that the Red Kepulilicairs of the Continent would come over in swarms, and that their presence in London would ex- cite the revival of Chartism, Irishism, Revolu- tionism, and every other political calamity. It was even .urged that the English home would be invaded, English altars polluted, English wives and daughters turned from the practices of virtue by the unscrupulous, bearded adventurers who would gather in the metropolis. In the next place, the British press, fr<im the London Times all the way round to Funrli, broke loose with invective and ridicule to such a degree that at times it seemed the Prince and his project would be blown away in a common blast of contumely and laughter.

It may well be admitted that many real difficulties attended the enterprise, even after the Eoyal Commission, with Prince Albert at the head, was appointed to carry it forward. In the first place, an embarrassment arose in the matter of securing a suitable site for the Exhibition. Hyde Park was at length chosen ; but the most strenuous effiirts w-ere made to prevent its use by the Commissioners, for the purpose. It was argued that the beautiful park would be forever despoiled if it were opened to the vulgar hordes who would come tramping from every quarter to the monster fair. But the Commissioners at length car- ried the day, and the park was selected as the scene of the Exposition. In the next place, some colossal structure was required in which the arts and industries of the contributing nations might be displaved properly. This was a serious question ; for it might well be asked how any edifice, under any method of building, could be reared and ]nit under roof with sufficient capacity for the contemplated display.

The difficulty was met by the genius of Sir Jo.seph Paxtou. It had been at first sug- gested to attempt the construction of a huge liuililing of brick and stone. But the olijec- tions III ,-ucli a structure were obvious. A building of the kind must at the best appear like a monster factory or warehouse. Besides, it was doubtful whether the requisite strength could he secured in a construction of the kind, to say nothing of the admission of light. It was a happy inspiration which brought to Sir .lo-i-phV iliind the idea of a buil.ling of iron anil gla-s. He conceived that a Cry.stal Pal.\ce, to use his own language, might be constructed which would meet, in the happiest manner, all the requirements of the Exhibi- tion. The event showed the entire wisdom of the plan proposed. A great palace of iron and glass, for the display of the industrial and artistic products of mankind, was succe.ss- fully constructed, and London was at length gratified, not to say glorified, with the sight of the completed structure.

Meanwhile, public opinion had, to a large extent, veered around to the Prince's quarter. From the first the Queen had ardently pro- moted the cause in which her husband had so heartily embarked. She felt for him and all his projects as much enthusiasm and devotion as her calm and somewhat sedate, though womanly, spirit was able to entertain. As it became evident that the Exhibition was des- tined to be successful, and as the opening day of the Great Fair approached, the zeal of the people and exhibitors ro.se to the level of the occasion. The pleasing duty of formally opening the Exhibition was justly allotted to Prince Albert. It was really a great day in the history of England, and of the Western nations, when the Royal procession was formed from Buckingham Palace to Hyde Park. It was estimated that the way thither was lined with fully three-quarters of a million of people, and, at the opening hour, no fewer than thirty thousand were seated under the shining roof of the Crystal Palace. The Queen her.«elf attended proudly with her husband, and her glowing account of the opening ceremonies may well be repeated as an adequate description of the scene. "The great event," said Her Majesty, " has taken place — a complete and beautiful triumph — a

GREAT HRITAiy.^FROM HYDE PARK TO BOSrHORUS.

1 .-hall

cVfl- lit	lirou.l of f.ii- my li,l	■Ve	1 Albert and
my country. . . . Tln'	.a 1-1	presented a
woudertiil spectacle— cinwiU >	iva	niimthrouuh
it, carri	iges anil ti p,^ |.a»ii	,-. '	line like the
t'nl-ulia	i.in-(lay,aml fni- mr fl	e >a	lie anxiety —
11(1, IIIIK	h greatiT anxiety, m	ac	■oiliit ef mv
lu'lnved	Albeit. Thr (lav w:	. b	■i-lit,and ail
llUsllr	uid (•xcitcmciit. '. .		The Cicen
I'ark	md Ilydc I'ark we		one den.-^ely
crow(le(	mas.? of huniaii licin		1 the highes't
pnoil-lui	mor, and most ciitlni	<ias	ie. I never
.«aw H>	(le Park look as it di	1 —	IS fiir as the
eye emi	(1 reach. A little rai	1 f(	11 just as we
?tarteil	but, before we came	Ilea	• the Crystal
Palace,	the sun shone and g	can	ed upon the
gigantic	edifice, upon which	the	flag.s of all
nations	were floating. . .		The glinip.se
of the	transept through the	ir(	n gates, the
waving	palms, flowers, statues	n\\	liads i>{ peo-

pie filling the galleries and seats around, with the flourish of trumpet.s as we entered, gave lis a sensation which I can never forget. . . . The sight as we came to the middle was mag- ical— so vast, so glorious, so touching. One felt, as so many did wdiom I have since spoken to, filled with devotion — more so than by any service I have ever heard. The tremendous cheers; the joy expressed in every face: the im- mensity of the liuilding; the mixture of palms, flfiwers, trees, statues, fountains; the organ,

dred voices, which x.unded like nothing; and my beloved husband, the author of this peace festival, which unites the industry of all na- tions of the earth, — all this was moving indeed; and it was and is a day to live for- ever."

The Exhibition extended from the 1st day of May to the 15th of October, when the cere- monies of the display were formally closed by Prince Albert. From first to last, Hyde Park and Crystal Palace were thronged to their ca- pacity. At times it was estimated that quite a hundred thousand persons were within the precincts. Even financially the enterprise was crowned with success. In the beginning the money requisite for projecting so great a work had been raised by private suhscri]ition. Aft- erwards, a large guarantee had boon provided a^raiiist the possible losses attendant u|ion the Exhibitiim. But at the close tlio troasurv was

full, and a large sum was left as pn.tils to be expended by the Commissioners.

We >hali not fail to note the exemplary re- sults (,f the WoildV Fair in llvde Park." It was the Hist of many Miohdi-plays; ,i(,ro(.iild it be doubted, as the ovoiil has so well attested, that all civilized States would covet the dis- tinction and ulorv of eelipsine- the first Inter- national Fair. The IJydo Park Expositi(m was soon foil., wed by a similar display in Dublin, and by another ol' painting and soulii- ture in ^Manchester. The oily of Paris, under the auspices of the Second Ihiipire, hold two great International l^xpositions ; and under the Republic, two others of still greater erandenr have been given. In l^b'J, laiLiland did her- self the honor of a second i^shibitioii, in Ken- sington. In 1.S7.3, An-tiia came to the front with her Exp..sitioii at Vienna ; and in 1S76 the Americans availed themselvos of the cen- tennial anniversary of their Independence to set forth at Philadelphia one of the grandest and most successful of all the International Exhibitions.

In the meantime, in the course of the thirty-eight years that have elapst-d since the first disjilay of the kind, nations and iioople have come to a truer understanding of the real significance and value of such enterprises. The roseate expectations wdnch were at first entertained, that such comings together of the peoples of different countries would usher in a reign of peace and fraternity for all man- kind, have disappeared in the light of the re- ality; but much has remained of solid value, of progress and humanity, as the residue of International displays. They have grown in favor, and may well be regarded as a perma- nent element in the civilization of the future. The date in English history made famous by the Hyde Park Exhibition is memorable in Parliamentary annals for the rise to influ- ence and promi.sed ascendency of Henry John Temple, better kn(^iwn liy his title of Lord Palmerston. We have already scon him tak- ing his station, in lS4(i. as .S'crotary for For- eign Aflairs. in the .Ministrv of Lord John Russell. That poMti.m he held during the Revolutionary year, 1S4S. At that time he was obliged, ill virtue of his otfice, to give constant attention to the relations of Great Britain with almost every Coiitiiieiital pow-r.

UMVERSAL niST()i:r.~THE MUDERX WOULD.

Europe was in a state of active erujition, and tlie esteut to whicli Englaud miglit be afi'ected tliereby \Yas prol)leiiiatical even to Euglisli statesmen. Tlie eon.liti.m cf atiairs on the C'dutinent eliangcd liki- tin- varying tigul■e.•^ of a ];aleiiloscop(.\ and Lmd ralnieiston must needs l)e <.n the alert in the Fijreigu Office of Great Britain lest the king<loiu should be shak.'ii iVoni her ni.M.rings by the agitations al.n.ad.

For these great duties and responsibilities, Palmerston was both fitted and unfitted — fitted by intellect and training ; unfitted by disposi- tion. He was naturally quick-temjjered, im- pulsive, and self-willed, not to say aggressive, in disposition. In the stormy time of the Eu- ropean upheaval he ueverthele.ss conducted the aliaiis ot the Foreign Office with great alnlity. But it was soon discovered in the Russell Cabinet that Pahuerstou was disposed 10 run his department of the Government without nnich respect to either the Premier or the (^ui'fu. In instances not a few he con- ducted important negotiations, and sent out despatches, without submitting them to the re- visory rights of his colleagues or the sanction of the sovereign. As a result, when things went badly, the Government was held responsi- ble for measures which it had not approved. A break was thus produced, which was in the nature of a fracture between Palmerston and his fellow-ministers, but a real rupture between him and the Royal family. When the Prince- President, Louis Napoleon, effected his great Coup d'Etat, at the close of 1851, very serious consequences were entailed by the recklessness of Lord Palmerston. It had been the settled policy of Great Britain to move with extreme caution with respect to recognizing the validity of the proceedings of Prince Napoleon. When that personage, however, had accomplished his purpose by revolution. Lord Palmerston, in an imprudent conversation with the Polish Minis- ter, at London, expressed his hearty approval of what Napoleon had done. The remark was immediately conveyed to the French Minister, and by him despatched to his Government, at Paris. England seemed thus to be committed to the policy of recognizing the Coup d'Etat whether she would or not. Likewise, on the occasion of the visit of Kossuth to London, Lord Palmerston, who, in the conduct of the

Foreign Office, had done his best to support the fortunes of the Hungarian Revolution, had been deterred from giving a formal recep- tion to the fugitive Kossuth only by the re- monstrance of the Cabinet. When thus balked in the expression of his syiui)athy for the political exile, he was still so impru- dent as to accept an address from a body of English Radicals, who ha.l held a meeting m honor ot Kossuth, and ailopted rex.'.u- tions including an ex|ire.ssion of animosity and contempt for Austria. By accepting this paper from their hands, Palmerston was put into the attitude of approving the animad- versions which some of his countrymen had uttered against the Austrian Government.

The Queen and the Prince Consort were much offended at the proceedings of the re- fractory Minister. Her Majesty had hjiig since had occasion to send to Lord John Russell a memorandum, expressing her displeasure at the treatment which she had received from the Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and also adding explicit directions for his conduct thereafter. Palmerton's course in declaring his approval of the Co2tp d'Etat of Napoleon brought aftairs to an open rupture. Lord Russell, with the concurrence of the Queen, after having ob- tained an acknowledgment from Palmerston that the report of his expressed views relative to the Paris Revolution was correct, addressed the Minister a formal note, notifying him of his dismissal from office. This summary pro- ceeding was the source of great excitement both at home and abroad ; and when Parlia- ment convened, in February of 1852, the whole question was debated with vehemence and acrimony. The course of Lord Russell, however, was overwhelmingly approved by the House of Commons, and Palmerston was, for a season, remanded to retirement, if not ob- .scurity.

The circumstance of the recent French Rev- olution, by which Louis Napoleon paved his way to Empire, was destined, in its English correlations, to be the rock o:i which the Russell Ministry went to pieces. There had arisen in England a feeling of unrest and in- security on account of the supposedly defense- less condition of the Kingdom. By a sort of instinctive movement, the public mind was seized with the passion for organizing and dis-

GREAT BRITAIX.—FHOM HYDE PARK TO unspJli ii: CS.

cipliuiug a kiml of Xati.mal (niai-<l against the pui-sihle eiuergeucies of tliL' time. Tlie gath- ering, (lisciphiie, and etjuipnu-nt of voluntary

militia coni|ianifs iH-ranic tl ivlrr nf ihc dav,

audf.u-tlir none., it >rruu,i that (iivat lli-itain was t(i lu.rum,. a caiuii. Tliciv wa- actual dread ..f a Freneh war, and the .-entinieiit

the Laureate. add.x-M-d to his enuntrv.nen:

Let your Keforms for a nioment 1:0 Look to your l.utts, aii.l take •/„., "Better a rottni l.omu^.h ..r so,

Kitl.-lnrn, Kitieiiien. Kiflmiru, lorm:

Form, be ready to do ...r di.- !

Form in Freedom's name au.l thr ijuei'ii's! True, that we have a faitlilul Ally.'

The military movement referred to in 'IVi,- nysun's lyric h;id thus far lieen of a popular character. The i.lea had po>s.'~>rd the pro|,l,- that there was insecurity, and that England must prepare herself against the threatening conditiou of the Continent. Many men were yet living who had fought at M'at.rloo; mtiny more who remembered that fatal .■ataelvsm. Now there was come into the tiiM anotlier Bonaparte, nephew of the Cor-iran. His re- cent jiroceedings among the Frcn(di >howi'd that he wouhl scruple not at any means of restoring the Napoleonic rnj\mi\ \\\ this was particularly alarmino- to the En-land of ls:.2. When rarliamont met, it wa< neces- sary that the Mini.-trv should respmal to the voice of the coui:try hy some action promotive of the general military organization of the Kingdom. \ Militia Bill was accordinirlv pre- paivd hy T.ord ,Tohn Ktis<ell, and laid hefore the House o|- C.mnuais. The ,lel,at<' th.M-e.m

at

statute had been hailly devise.l. One clause, which made the organization id' the militia local in character, rather than general, was

Meaiii

T.ouisX^

particularly unfortunate. The attack on the Ministerial" Bill was general aiel liom all cpiarters, and, to the siu'prisc ot' the Covern-

a pouerful and characteristic speech ' a,.i„,t the policy of Lord l;ii>M-ll, and the jailer, ^^ithout prolonuin- the controversy, reHened his othce. Li the exi-tin- condition ,,f parlies

to form a new Ministry at all : hut the (^iieen, in the emereency, ealh-d to her aid the Earl of Derby, an.l iin.hr his hadeiship the Ad- ministration was reoi-eaiii/ed.

The new I'lime .Minister was not wanting in great tibilitiis; but he had extreme dif- ficulty in bringing into his Cahinet ineii of equal character with himself. The portfolio of the Treasury was given to Disraeli, who soon showed himself, contrary to all expecta- tion, to possess the same genius for figures and schedules wdiich he had already displayed in the wider domain of general politics. The IMinistry was somewhat conglomerate, not

an.l expediency. If Palmerst<,n could have lieen induced to Join it, sufficient power might have been developed in the Cabinet to extend the 'Government mdetinitely. But as things st(iod, the end of the current Administration was seen from the beginning ; the Derby ^Lnistry was a pk aller from the first, and on account of its obscure membership) was desig- nated as the "Who? "Who? Ministry,"

A Parliamentary incident of the time .serves well to illustrate tln' [leculiar move- resoluteness with whi.'h o|iiiiion in that coun- try is sometimes confronted bv the individual will. Li 1S47 Thomas IJabington .ALu'aulay. the hist.uian. had lost his seat in the House of Commons. For s,„iie time he had sat in that body as the representative of Edinbiii-el,, and had reflected fame on hi> constituents bv the bi-Illiai..'V of his talents. At length, how- evia-, hi' eave odhnse (., liis rieid and exacting people bv -ii|.|H,itiiie a bill fa- a Parliamentary grant t.. the Loval Catholic College nf Mav-

nooth, in Leii„ter, Ireland. Ac ■dinelv,

when the election .■ame roiiml. :\[a,'aiilay's

of Ediid3ur>:h, and he was, tiu-tunatelv for him-

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

GREAT BRITAIN.— FROM HYDE PARK TO BUSPJIORUS.

:^31

uterests iirivate

11.1 K.lin-

self, and still more fortuuat.ly fm- t

of historical literature, iriiiaiHlnl

life. Proud iu his humiliatinn, h,.

stand for any other consiiturncy,

burgh, equally stitf in lui- n<..lvr, \va> -low

to recall her ott'en<liim' favoiiu' tu In r service.

At length, however, her resent nt -ave place

to coiiinion sense, ami it was siiiuilie.l to Ma- caulay that if he would otler himself, he should be again elected to Parliament. N.jt he. If the electors ot Edinhuririi should choose, of their own volition, to return him to the House of Comn)ons, he would heed their, 'all. " I should not,' said he in answer, "feel myself justified in refusing to accept a public trust offered to me in a manner so honorable and so peculiar." He was accordingly elected by a great majority, and at the opening of the session, in 1852, again took his .seat in Parliament.

It was in this same autumn tluit the aged Duke of Wellington rea.'hed the end of his eventful career. He died quietly in Waliner Castle, on the 14th of September, l'Sr)2, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. He was among the last survivors of that Revolutionary Era, in which he had been so conspicuous and heroic a figure. More than thirty-.seven years had elapsed since, on that stormy ami tuuudtunus June afternoon, on the plateau of Monte Saint Jean, he had said : " Rise, ( iiiards, and charge!" A whole generation had |ia-sed ■.\\\:\y since the great military Captain of England had issued from that sulphurous uproar of Waterloo, to be, in some sense, the Arbiter of Western Europe. In the interval, he had been called often to the councils of his country, where the simplicity of his character and his touching, aliuo.st fatherly devotion to the Queen, rather than any great political talents, were displayed. In his last years he drew to himself, in a remarkable de- gree, the veneration and affection of the En- glish people. This was particularly true in London, where his face ami firm were known

great was his reputation that the ]ieople called him, by preeminence, " The Duke," as though there were no other duke in the kingdom. After reaching much beyond his fuirscore years, he went down to the grave in full honor, and, after life's titful fever, he slept well. His funeral called forth almost the entire ])opulM- tiou of London, and the pageant of that day

was unrivaled by anything which had ever yet been witnessed in the British Isles. The muse of Tennyson took wing, ami his song said Bury the (Jieat l>uke

We have alreaily remarked the temporary character of the Derby .MiMi>try. Tlie elec- tions of 18.52, though slightly in fhvor of the Administration, hail no emphasis. On the re- openiug of Parliament, the onus ,,f the ( iov- eniment fell ini Disraeli, .Minister of the Treasury. We have seen above that his open- ing pass in the management of his Depart- ment had been, iu a measure, successful ; hut on that occasion he had merely teniiioi-ized with the great questions of the revenue, which he must now discuss in accordance with some permanent policy. Disraeli had now com- pletely abandoned the principles of Protection anil l)ecome as sound a Free-trader as any. It was necessary that some alterations should be made in the income taxes of the Kingdom ; that the same should be greatly reduced, if not abolished, in the interest of the landlord class. In order to make up for the resulting deficit in the revenue, Disraeli proposed a re- duction of the malt-tax, and other modifica- tions in the e.xisting schedule. In presenting the budget to the House of Commons, he made an elaborate and able speech, again exhibiting the vast resources of his genius and acquire- ments. But another, as strong as he, stood at the donr, and no sooner had the Minister con- cluded his .peech, than William E. (iladstone rose to re]ily. Notwithstanding the great ef- fect wdiich Disraeli's address had produced on the House, his rival bore him down in the de- bate, and the Derby ^Ministry, beaten on the resulting vote, were obliged to resign. The coiilliet on this occasion was the first passage at ai-ms iu the struggle for leadership between Disraeli and Gladstone — a duel of Parliament-

UMVEIiSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERy WORLD.

■h was ac^tine.l tocnntiiuR'Uilh atinn. ,.f vict-ry ami .Icfcat inr ar.-, until what tiiiir the (^ueeu

Bear,'„isli..l,l. With til..

le Eail V Mini-t

I'r

Mill

lea.l.Tshi|, nf Lnr.l AUrnh ist.T. Lm,-,! Kiiss-ll was a-ain ,-allr,l int.. tlir Govt-rnnnait as S,,civtaiT .,f F.nvign AtKiirs. Pallllel•:^tl)ll, who had been the agent of the latter statesman's overthrow, now became liis colleague, accepting the office of Home Secre- tary, (iladstone was maile Chancellnr .if th.' Exclicnuia-, this being his first cntrani-.' ind. the Cabinet. The place which he acci-pt.'d was, as we have seen, the most difficult, nut to say dangerous, office in the Administrati.m ; but the new Minister entered uii.m his .Uities

(it

with the ciinfi.lence of a veteran, ami it wa- on.v p.Mveiv.-.l that Id^ abiliti.- in ban. Hi. th" .litli.adt pr..bh-ni~ of linanc.. u,.|v a- .•.. spicuous as they had alreaily been shown to 1 on the wider plain of general politics.

We have nmv arrived at that epoch in tl hist.irv .d' En'.;land, wdien the attention ..f tl peopli' anil th.' (Jovernment was dra\Mi aw; from the b.iiu,. ati'air- .if the KinLi.lnni t.. ll greatest an.l nm^t pcrph-xing internation controversy «liirli has tn.nbl.-.l Eun.pe

the |.r.-en"t .Tiitiirv It is doubtful, indeed, I name ..f tlir .'..n wh. th.T any ..tli.T I'.i.'t in the diplomacy of | eant. What A tb.. kin-.l.inis .if M.i.lrrn Europe since the rise .if stat.'.a-aft. has bi-.a) so great a menn.-e, su far.r.'a.'bing in its raniifieati.ms. an.l s.i ditii.adt .if settlement, as that so-called Eastern Ques- Tiiix. on an account of which we are now to enter. It has involved the entire fabric of Europe, and a .-.insiilerabl,. p.irti.m of Asia, in the f.ilds <if a complii'ati.iii wlueb neither the

tabms of France nor the spear of St. (Jeorge has as yet prevailed to loose.

Of this vast complication, Turkey is the heart and center. She leilds in general the

IS c.in.-.-rn.Ml, it is -ui'li as to give her undis-

put..'d tr.il of those narrow waters which

M'parati- the AMatii- .Lniiinioiis from the couu-

than a century. At the upper limit of Eu- ropean Turkey, the river Danube discharges liy many mouths into the Black Sea. Follow- ing the c.ia-t of that stormy water southward,

a -trait murli narrower and more easily eon- tr.ille.l than that ot Gibraltar. Then, tl'irongh the Sea .if Marmora, we make our way, through the Dardanelles, into the Archipelago, and

thence into the

"^ -^ "-"='1 free waters of the Mediterranean. The advau- • ^ |-| '-"-"S^'i:^ tage of the situ- ation was clearly discerned by the Roman Cavars. Con-tantiue and his sons .selected that old Byzau- tium, l\inLr .m the p.iiut of lan.l next the Bos- phoriis, an.l l.iokint; into .V-ia Min.ir, a- th.' seat

tin.", -o f.iun.led and so patrouize.l, the Komau

naintained itself after the Eternal

West had gone <lown before the

a.-ssaults of the Barbarians. It wa- within a

few years of the birth of Columbus that the

la-t Eastern T'.a^-ar, still bearing the name of

Con-tantin.', \ icl.led his scepter to Mohammed

II. an.l hi- army of Ottoman Turks. The

eror was sufficiently signiti-

ulrahnian and his Saracen

lost had briai unable to accomplish on the

i.ld of Tours, more than seven centuries be-

ore, that was now effected at Constantinople

IV the Ottoman Emperor and his tierce sol-

li. ly. I-lam was set up in Europe. The

"n-sciiit shone on high above the dome of St.

The con.iuest of Constantinoiile was more.

GREAT BIUTAIX.^rnOM HYDE PARK TO liOSPHOEUS.

333

far more, than a mere victory of Islam over Christianity. It brought the warlike Otto- mans to iirechiminauce in Eastern Em-dpe. Than these no fiercer or more r()uniu(-'iius sol- diers battled in the sixtn'nth (■.■ntury. Tiiey were the descendants ot ilir iioii-tort;crs of the Altais. They had tlicui<.-lv.s b,,rn omvertol to the profession of the Tropliet with the sword and battle-axe of Arabia. Then, in turn, they had become the most zealous and successful propagandists of the new faith. Mohammed organized his empire from the cap- ital which he had conquered, and the Ottoman Power was an e.stablished fact in Europe.

The Turks were, from the first, Asiatics, not Europeans. They had the thought and habitude of the Orient. With the Occident they had nothing in common. Their religii.m was not more foreign to Europe than them- selves. The whole history of the Turkish power appeared from the first in tlie nature of a historical displacement, by wliii-h a part of Asia had been thrown, as if bv a geologic convulsion, among countries of a ciittrrent type and origin. To the rest of P2uro|H' tlie Turks were an everlasting menace. Up from the South-east, by successful wars, they made their way towards the heart of Em-ope. There was no nation as far west as the Atlantic that did not, as late as the close of the seventeenth century, have serious apprehensions of what might come to jiass frcjm the aggressiims of the Ottoman Power.

The Turks, for more than three hun.lred years, maintained their isolation among the States of Europe. They assimilated in no par- ticular with the civilization of the West. Xor might it well have been foreseen what would be the condition of Eastern Europe in the nineteenth century if the Ottoman had not lost his pow-er and ambition. But at length he sickened. Paralysis came, in body, soul, and member. The Oriental haliit at length predominated over the ethnic forces of the race. The sons of the iron-forgers became Orientals pure and simple. Mohammedanism and opium wrought together in the deteriora- tion of the Turk, until he became the creature whom we see to-day.

In the next place we must take into consid- eration the condition of the subject peoples over whom the Ottoman .scepter in Europe 21

had been extended. Tho.se of the southern part of European Turkey, with the exception of the Greeks and Albanians, generally yielded to the sway of Islam, and were gradually as- similated to the dominant power. But in the Danubian countries the people of the subject States retained their profession of Greek Catholicism. The provinces in this region re- mained Christian under Mohammedan rule. As a general thing, the Ottomans were little disposed to persecute for mere opinion's sake. Particularly after the decay of the Turkish political power had well set in, did the author- ities of the Sublime Porte act tolerantly to- wards the Christian subjects of the Empire, so long as the latter lay quiet under the system of Government which the Sultans had estab- lished. Up to this point, therefore, the reader will hardly discover the outlines of those threatening complications which, under the name of the Eastern Questi<ju, have so much distracted the States of modern Europe.

Thus much, however, is but the beginning of the problem. In the next i)lace, consider the Russian Empire. We speak here of that European Russia extending from the Ural Range to the borders of Germany . and from the Caucasus and the Black Sea on the south to the Arctic Ocean. Within this almost infinite domain a vast power, politic-al and ethnic, emerged suddenly to view at the close of the seventeenth century. That Inspired Barbarian, Peter the Great, appeared on the scene, and became one of the principal actors. He put himself at the head of the Slavonic race, organized an Empire on a large scale, left the old inland capital of IMoscow, made his way to the Gulf of Finland, and planted there bis new seat of Government. It was clearh' his policy to issue and bring with him, among the civil- ized States of the West, the new Muscovite power, which he had created rather than inherited. In this stupendous scheme he beat about somewhat at random, and made many and grave mistakes. One thing he clearly per- ceived, and that was that the inland barbaric character of the Muscovite dominion must give place to a new system, which should be mari- time, and therefore commercial, in its character, and international in its relations. The posses- sion and development of sea-board emporia was a f'liie qua iion in the scheme of the Czar.

334

UiMVEESAL HISTORY.— TEE MODERN WORLD.

In a w..nl, there \v:i Ininei-iul KilsMu, a,

\\n\A he, for this uew uiitl,t to Ihr occiiit, and thence to the world. Tlie i.rojret was lational m the highest degree, and Iroin the day oi its ciiuception until the jire.-enl, the enterprise ot Peter I. has never ceased t.. he the dream and purpose .>f his .ucces..,rs.

Let us now see how Peter's phm might he carried into ott'ect. In the tirst place, it would be possii)le to make a way to the south-east by the concpiest of Persia, through Afghauis- tau, into the valley of the ludus, aud thence to the great waters of the Indian Oceau. But the draught on Peter's miud was not in that direction. The great States with which he desired to compete lay westward. The iutei-- national system into which he would enter was European, not Asiatic. We shall see, how- ever, that at a later age, when the British East Indian Empire was so forward in devel- opment as to check the Russian movement, the Czar Nicholas actually sought, partly by diplomacy aud jiartly by force, to make his way through Afghanistan into India. The great disaster to the British arms in Cabul, an account of which already has been given, was, as we have seen, the direct result of the Russian policy in its Eastern application. In the second place. Czar Peter might take pos- session of the Black Sea, aud from that vantage work his way by conquest through the Turkish dominions westward to the ^geau. Or, by varying the .scheme, he might take his course directly to the Bosphorus, overwhelm Con- stantinople, take pos.session of the straits, aud thus send his ships freely into the Mediter- ranean.

It must he reniemliered, however, that to deal thus with Turkey, in the tirst years of the eighteenth century, was a very ditiereut meas- ure from a similar aggression after the lapse of a hundred and fifty years. But still a third coui-se was open to Peter, and this he chose to follow. He might select the Baltic as his means of exit into the Atlantic, in which ca.^e his n.'W capital must he founded on that coa^t. Tliis was accordingly done — a measure which may lie rc-arded as the great- est of the (V.ai's mistakes. The event soon showcl that vast intcr-couimercial relations could not well he (-tabli>hed lietweell Russia aud the Wc-tciu kiM..:,|.>in> l.v wav of the Bal-

tic Sea. St. Petersburgh was too far away from the fortieth parallel of latitude to become a gieat commercial emporium. No doubt Pe- ter the Great was constrained to pursue the C(jur.se w hich he finally chose, in his attempted exit to warm water aud the freedom of the world. The de.-truction of the Ottoman Power at that time was too serious a matter to be rashly undertaken. But considered as a fact, the establishment of the Russian capital on the Gulf of Finland was an error in policy which the whole force of the Empire has not yet been able to correct.

As long ago as the times of Empress Cath- erine, the embarrassment of the situation was severely felt. That imperious personage, aljlest, perhaps, of the woman sovereigns known in history, perceived clearly that St. Peters- burgh, considered as the emporium of the Em]iire, was a failure. We may now see clearly how Catherine chafed aud fretted on ac- count of the barriers against her progress in the only directions whither she desired to go. Over one of the gates of St. Petersburgh, ou the side looking towards the Black Sea, .she put up this inscription: " The Way to Constan- tinople" But that way was too arduous even for the ambition of the Czarina aud for Su- waroff. Perceiving the impracticability of a conquest of Constantinople in her day, she cast a longing eye to India, and in the last year of her life we find her, in pursuance of this anihition, engaged in jilanning the inva- si(ju aud con(|uest of Persia. Death cut short the enterprise, and the great drama which was on in France drew the attention of her suc- ces.sors to the stirring events in Europe.

But notwithstanding the mistake of Czar Peter, notwithstanding the defeat or failure of many of the plans of Catheriue II., the Rus- sian I'anpirc coutiiiucil to grow and expand with marvelous rapidity. Already in the age of Frederick the Great the military resources of Russia were observed with amazement and some consternation by the Western Powers. It is doubtful whether any other great Empire has become vast, and regular, and strong, in so few generations as have elapsed since the ap- jKirition of Russia among the European na- tions. Already in the closing years of the

Napol lie era the tremendous impact of the

Russian power made Europe tremble. It was

GREAT BRlTAIS.-t ROM HYDE PARK TO BOSPHORUS.

:iS^

agaiust that monstrous structure that tho Grand Armj- of the Cursican broke itself into pieces, while the Boreal tempests roaring- out of Lithuania hid the residue under the snows for- ever. The Muscovite hail cnme.

Henceforth Russia, by her force and ve- hemence, inspired a dread in all the Western States. It should not be said that France and England jWiml the imwer «i' the Czar; but there was constant aiipreheiisinn of his aggressiveness. The Russian dominions were wide enough, and had a population sufficiently vast to C(justitute a physical terror to Eastern Europe, and the passions which were known to slumber in the breasts oi the Romanoffs might well inspire alarm in the domain of diplomacy.

At the time of which we speak the Russian crown was worn by Emperor Nicholas 1. He was at this time fifty-six years of age. He was a son of that Paul I. whose assassination, in 1801, was so fatal a cir- cumstance to Napoleon. Nicholas, as all the Czars, and particularly the Czarina Cath- erine, had done before him, looked with ever- longing eyes upon the Bosphorus, and the pos- sible exit by that route into the warm waters of the 3Iediterranean. It could hardly lie said to be a secret in any part of Europe that the Czar desired the dismemberment of the Turkish Empire. The decadence of that power had, in the meantime, been still more clearly manifested than in the first quarter of the century. But the Western Powers had now come to look upnii Turkey as a barrier to the progress of Russia, a sort nf ijuffer be- tween the ram's-head of jMuscovism and the walls of European civilization on the East. Turkey might suffice to deaden the stroke and distribute its effects, so that they shrndd not be felt in the West. Nor was Nicholas him- self at all careful in the matter of concealing his desires and purposes. The Russian Czar was, as yet, too little removed from the honesty lit barbarism to be a i^nod diiihimatist, and thus thought It no harm to sp.ak to the rep- resentatives of the We^t^ru Statr> relative to the probable dismemberment of Turkey. He did not perceive that his ojien cupidity would jar on the diplomacy of the West. Calling to mind the easy process of International spoli- ation which his grandmother, Catherine II.,

had ha.l with Austria and Prussia in the di- vision of Poland, he conceived that the same method might well and cordially be adopted by himself! Napoleon III., and Victoria.

Czar Nicholas was not wanting in great aliility. His dark and jiiercing eyes easily saw the situation, but did not see the temper of those with whom he had to deal. He thought that the only thing to be done was to

shaking the Ottoman tree, assured, as he was, that the ripe fruit would fall richly to the ground. He discerned, moreover, that his fel- low, his true coadjutor in the work before him, was Great Britain. Austria had been already subordinated to his purpose. Prussia he felt sure of securing to his interest. France he did not so greatly regard, because of the revolutionary condition of affairs in that coun- try. But England was a necessitj', and he accordingly began his overtures to her. As early as 1844, on his visit to London, the Czar plainly told the Duke of Wellington and Lord Aberdeen, at that time Secretary of Foreign Affairs, what he thought ought to be done in the event of the approaching dissolu- tion of Turkey. It seems that the courtesies of the occasion required the English statesmen to be silent, and the Czar mistook their silence for assent. Accordingly, on his return to St. Petersburgh, he had his Minister of State to prepare a memorandum of the "arrange- ment" which he supjoosed he liad made with Great Britain. Afterwards he opened up cor- respondence with England, calling the attan- tion of that Power to his supposed understand- ing with her, and demonstrating the course which Russia and Great Britain should take together when the cataclysm should occur in Turkey. From these negotiations England either drew back, or again answered with silence.

The reader will not fail to perceive some of the reasons why Great Britain ha.l, belore the epoch at which wc have now arrived, be- come |n-ofoundly anxious that the ]iolitical and territ<irial integrity <if the Ottoman Powit

strontjcst i-K-mcnt was doubtless her desire to hold her commercial ascendency in tlie Medi- terranean. Let the student look attentively at the map of that great Inland Sea, ami the

UNTVERSAL ElSTORY.^rHE MODERN WORLD.

position of the Europoan J^tatps i\'l:i Let him observe how, on the n.,-

,f (iih

tar. Great Britain lias si't hi-r tov(r.-s, coni- mauding the western entrance. Let him note the anah>gy between Gibraltar and the Bos- pliorus. The latter is the eastern entranee to the M.Mliteiranean. If En.udand Could control that strait, she ^vouhl be absohitely mistress of the sitaati<.in. Note the fact that, at the south-eastern angle of the Mediterranean, Great Britain has managed, since the beginning of the century, to hold the upper hand. Could she accomplish the same at the north-east ex- tremity, her sovereignty of the Avhole region of the Mediterranean would be complete.

It was not to be supposed, however, that in tlie case of the dismemberment of Turkey, the control of the Bosphorus would fall to England. That must inevitably be the por- tion of the Czar. Though that personage might willingly concede to England the estab- lishment of her dominion in Egypt, together with the possession of Candia and other nota- ble advantages in the East, he would inevi- tably take for himself the Dan ubian provinces, and the contn)l of the Bosphorus. For this reason England strongly desired that Turkey, her ally and friend, not to say her dependent, should retain her place among the nations, and keep her paralytic grip on the only channel leading from the Black Sea into the Mediter- ranean. Great Britain would stand behind the Sublime Porte, and guarantee its autonomy and the imlepeudeuce of Turkey. If Eng- land could not herself obtain possession of the Bosphorus, she would see to it that the pos- session of the Bosphorus should remain in the hands of her ally and dependent. She would make Turkey her proxy, and would do by her what she could not opi^nlv do herself. While seeking to avoid open and deliberate responsi- bility in the matter in hand, she would adopt, nevertheless, the i>ld law maxim appli- cable to the question: Qui prr alimii picif, f'lcit per se.

We must now take into consideration still another aspect of tliis multifarious Eastern Question. Glancr for a moment at the old Turkish town of .L rusal.-m. There the rivalry between Russia and the Western Powers was based wholly on religions differences. Within the Holy City the Greek Catholic Church and

the Roman Catholic Church were set face to face, and the bitterness of their rivalry was proportional to the folly of the superstitions which divided them. The Greek Church had its fountain-head of authority in St. Peters- burgli, and the Roman Church looked to the Eternal City as the seat of its government. In Jerusalem many of the sacreil places were held by the Greeks; others, by the Latin monks representing Rome. In times past the j^ro- tectorate of the Latin monks in Jerusalem, anil, in general, the guardianship of Christian interests in all Syria, had been conceded to France. The protectorate of the Greek Church, in its wdrole extent, belonged to Rus- sia. It thus happened that when a Greek ec- clesiastic fell into a cpiarrel with a Latin monk, in Jerusalem — a quarrel relative to the Church in Bethlehem, the Sanctuary of the Nativity, the Tomb of the Virgin, the Stone on which the body of Christ was anointed, or the Seven Arches of the ]\Iother of God — the Greek priest had behind him the Czar of Rus- sia, and the Latin monk the ruler of France. Not without the profoundest elements of iu- structiou is this picture of the array of the greatest political powers of modern times be- hind the poor, pitifid, obsolete superstitions rampant in an old Syrian town.

The matter, however, was sufficient to fur- nish a pretext for the antagonism of France and Russia. But yet it is due to civilization to sav that a more powerful and valid reason was found for French hostility. The accession to power of Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was accomplished, as we shall see in a succeed- ing chaiiter, by means at which a scrupulous ruler would have startled. But Napoleon did not scruple. He went straight forward, and accf)mplished his purpose. No sooner had he done so, however, than he found it necessary to distract the attention of the French people fnim the rather shocking manner in which he had come to power. Having made a success of the Cmip d'Etat, he must now obliterate the memory thereof by a coup de gloire. For- eign war was almost a necessity of the situa- tion; and a Latin monk in Jerusalem, quar- reling about his monopoly of the Anointing Stone, constituted as good an excuse as any. It should be remembered, also, that France, in particular France under the scepter of

GREAT BniTAIX.—FROM HYDE PARK TO nuSRllORU^.

Napoleon III., hail a recollect lo)t, as it respected Kussia, which she desired to queuch. She still remembered the year IS] 2, and waited for the opportunity to write the Malakhuti' instead ut'

;J37

the Bridge of Beresina. It has been one of the peculiarities of the French people that their attention thus can be diverted from the hard- sliips occiisiuucd by juilitical convid.-ion.s at

rXIVERSAL HISrORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

home to the gloritication of tlie name of P'rance liy victory in foreign Avar.s.

8till anotlier element mn^t ho intnMhiced into the romiili'-ation. We iiave seen already that a large pait of the subject populations of the ()ttoni;iii l-linpire were Christians of the Greek Cath'ilie taith. They were thus suhject, ecclesiastirally, {« the Russian Primate of tlie Church, and were under tlie protection of the Czar. These peo]ile were also Shivouic in their origin, and were thus divorced in their race sympathies from the Turks. The Dan- ubian Principalities were more Russian than Turkish in manner and custom and ethnic preference. Among these elements of sym- pathy felt by the peoples inside of European Turkey for Russia and her system, the relig- ious identity constituted the safest and surest pretext which the Czar might seize upon as a claim for interference, and this he adopted as his argument with the Western Powers in justification of his proceeding.

In the meantime, however, Nicholas made a final open overture, in the hope of securing the assent and cooperation of England. Up to the beginning of 1853 the Czar still be- lieved that the Government of Great Britain was in virtual acc<ird with his own on the question of how Turkey should be disposed of in case of her dismemberment. In January of that year, while he was in attendance at a ducal party, given by his friend the Archduchess Helen, to which the diplomatical corps at St. Petersburgh was invited, he plucked aside the English Ambassador, Sir Hamilton Seymour, and openly revealed to him, in a free con- versation, his views relative to Turkey. He expressed his wish that the Danubian Princi- palities should become independent under his own protection. The Turkish Power, as such, was to cease to exist. The Czar disavowed any purpose of occupying Constantinople; but it was clear from the conversation that that metropolis was no longer to constitute a bar- rier to his exit into the iEgean. All South- eastern Europe was, according to the Czar's plan, to be reorganized, under the auspices of Russia and England. Nicholas told Sir Hamilton that, so far as he was concerned, Great Britain might take possession of Egypt and Caudia as her part of the spoils. He did not seek to have the work done bv treatv,

but simply by an informal agreement of the parties. '

The eft'ect of these radical iM-op,,.-iti,,us upon the English Ministry may w.li be imagined. The British Government" iiifnrnied Nicliolas that they could not be a jiarfy to the spnli- ation of Turkey. The Government <.f the Porte was in friendly alliance and under tri^aty stipulations with Great Britain, and the dip- lomatical inoiaUty prevalent among the West- ern States, would liy no means permit such a proceeding on the part of England as that contemplated by the Czar. That sovereign was thus, in a sense, mated at the outset ; but he immediately fell back upon his right to ex- ercise a protectorate over the several millions of Christians who were subject to Ottoman rule. On this point he expressed himself with determination, and in defense of his course and purpose, he confidently set forth the Treaty of Kutchuk-Kaiuardji, which had been con- cluded by Empress Catherine and the Sultan in 1774. According to the terins of this in- strument, the Ottoman Government had con- ceiled to the Czar the right "to protect con-

and also to allow the Minister of the Imperial Court of Russia to make, on all occasions, repre- sentations, as well in favor of the new church in

'It was in the course of this ever-nieiiioral.le conversatiiiu Vietween the Czar and Sir Hamiltnn Seymour that Nicholas, in a verj' animated and witty manner, struck ofT a phrase wliich was destined to pass into the diplomatical an>\ com- mon language of the times, and, imleed, to re- main forever as a peculiar expression in the his- torical jargon of the Nineteenth Century. The Czar, ad<lressing Sir Hamilton, said: ''We have on our hands a sicl: man— a very sick man ; it will be a great misfortune if, one of these days, he should slip away from us before the necessary arrangements have been made."' From the moment this conversation was divulged, Turkey became known by the eiiithet of the "Sick Man." If one may be |.ermitted to smile at national deeav. ami t^ enj.iy the wit of an Em- peror, tlieii iiideeil may tlie jiungent phrase be accepted as one of the happiest conceits which was ever uttered. The " Sick Man " of the East has survived nearly forty years, but the truthful- ness of the Czar's phrase is as clear to-ilay as it was in .Tanuary of 18.53. It only remains to say that the " neces.sary arrangements" to which tlie Czar referred had respect tn wliat England and Russia were expected in a friendly way to ilo on the occasion of the funeral :

GREAT BlUTAIX. — FROM HYDE PARK TO BOSPHORL'S.

•33'J

Constantinoi)le, of wliich meutiou will be made iu the Fourteenth Article, as iu favor of those who officiate therein, iironiising t<> take such representations intu ihu- <-(iiisiili_-ralii>n, as l)eing- made by a confidential timctiniKirv nf a neigh- boring and sincere!}- fririidly I'mwit. " L'nder this compact, the Czar iKiw tmik Ui< stand, and, in the resulting corresixiiitli-iic.', Lord .lolm Russell, perhaps inadvertently, aduntt('<l the crrectiiess <if the ]in.^itii}n which Xirlmlas had assumed. Addressing Sir Hamilton Srynn.ur, ou the 9th of February, 1853, L..rd Hussfll said: "The more the Turkish < lnvernnicnt adopts the rules of impartial law and r.jiuil administration, the less will the Eniperdi- .if Russia find it necessary to apply that excep- tional protection which his Imperial Majesty has found so burdensome and inconvenient, thouLdi, no doubt, prescril)e<l by duty and sanctiiined by treaty." It would theref )re ap- ]iear clear that, according to the Treaty of 1V74, and by the admissi..u of Lord Russell relative thereto, the Czar did have the right of interference in the Turkish Principalities for the protection of the (ireek Christians resident therein.

It was nut long, however, until Eiiglaml awoke to a realizatinn of the fact that to grant the Czar's construction of the Treaty of 1774 was virtually to give away the whole question. That construction was, that the Rus- sian Emperor had a general right of interference on behalf of the Greek Christians throughout the Turkish dominion. There, for instance, at the extreme south of European Turkey, were the Greek Principalities, with about four- teen millions of people, nominally Christians. What should be done with these? Should it be admitted that the Greeks, on the line of their religious sympathie.?, might accept the general protectorate of the Czar to the virtual abroga- tion of their allegiance to the Turkish sover- eign ? This would indeed seem to be the mean- ing of the concession which the Porte had made to Catherine the Great. The Western Powers, however, and England in particular, cho.se to put another and very different sense into the Treaty of Kainardji. The English interpreta- tion of that instrument now was that the Sultan had merely conceded the Russian Jlinister at Constantinople the protectorate of a cerfam Greek rhurrh in that citv, and that no general

; the had

I right or prerogative of the Czar re Christian subjects of the Cttoniau been granted.

Nevertheless, the Czar went >tr;il-ht ahead witii his scheme of interference. ( )thrr matters iiad now been cleared away. The di-pnti- iie- tween the Latin monks and the (Mck icel.- >iastics in Jerusalem hail lieni ea>ily setth'(L But the demands of the Czar relative to thr Turkish Clnistians were urgent, and would take no denial. Nicholas despatched Prince jMentschikoff to Constantinople to extort from the Sultan a guarantee that certain reforms should be at once made in his administration ridative to his Christian subjects. These de- mands were deemed by the Porte to be un reasonable ; and Mentschikoff uithdn-w. The

j Czar thereupon ordered two divisions of his army t.i cross the Pruth into Turkish territorv, and to hold the country until the Sultan should accede to the demands made upon him.

Meanwhile, diplomacy was busy at the problem. Ambas.sadors from England, Aus- tria, France, and Prussia, met at Vienna to wrestle with the question of ])eace and war. Though Russia hail already invaded the Turk- ish dominions, she continued to represent her- self as peaceable. She would have peace; but guarantees must be given ; and Turkev must concede the Russian protectorate over her Christian subjects. The di])lomates were dispo.sed to yield to the Czar's demands, and a memorandum was prepared in accordance with his wishes. The question seemed at the point of solution, and peace about to be secured, when everything was suddenly changed by the action of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, at that time Minister Plenipotentiary of Great Britain at Constantinople. He pointed out to the Sul- tan, with great force and clearness, the results which were sure to follow his acceptance of the proposed new treaty. He urged the Porte to fight, and showed conclusively tliat, in the event of war, the Western Powers, and par- ticularly England and France, must esjionse the Turkish cause, and that, in that event, the autonomv and independence of the (.)ttoman Empire would be secured. His views pre- vailed ; and the memorandum of the Vienna Convention was accordingly rejected. With that rejection, war be came a certainty, and the solution of the Eastern Question, to which

UXTVERSAL fflSTORY — THE MODERN WORLD.

IIKUkIh.I tn til,- SWnl-.l.

TluTr was iinw, during the later part of 1^53, a brief interval of that kind of negotia- tion which precedes a war after the same has become a certainty. When Turkej- refused to accept the pnip.isal of the Vienna mediators, she otli-red to strike out certain ofl'ending words in their memorandum, and to put therein a clause which would be acceptable. But this modification was rejected with scorn by Russia. Meanwhile the Emperor of the French had not only joined fully in the pur- poses of England, but was clearly covetous of leadership in the coming conflict. TTnder this sentiment, he wrote a letter to Czar Nicholas, urging him in a somewhat lofty strain to keep the peace of Europe, and closing with a threat that in case the peace was broken, he and his Ally, the Queen of England, would regard war as a measure of necessity and justice. To this the Czar replied that he was acting under the plain stipulations of former treaties. From this position he would not recede, and that, should Russia be forced into a conflict, the Emperor of the French wnul.l hiid her as able to defend herself in 18.54 «.* .■^he had been in 1S12 I With such pleasant reminders the twcj Iiiijierial personages sought to soothe each otiier's feel- ings when they had determined to fight.

lu the meantime, however, war had actually begiui. Glance again at the map of the Black Sea and the surrounding countries. It will be seen that the northern and eastern shores be- long to the Russian Empire, while the south- ern coast is held by Turkey. Each nation had its fleet in the.se Euxine waters, the Rus- sian scjuadron having its base at Sebastopol in the Crimean Peninsula on the north; and the Turkish fleet holding a like relation in the town of Sinope on the southern shore. It had now become clear that Russia, in order to make sure of the neutrality of Austria, must withdraw her arms from the Dauuliian Pi-iu- ei|ialitie< into which she had penetrated; for till' Austiian Emperor was averse in the high- est (Iruree to such oecu]iation by the forces of the Czar. It was also clear that hostilities must break out on tlie Black Sea. The En- French fleets and armies were al- heir way to the East. As soon as d arrive at the entrance to the Dar-

glish reaih thev

dauelles, the Sultan, having control of that narrow strait, and also of the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus itself, would, under his pre- rogative, open those waters for the passage of the allied squadron into the Black Sea. Na- ture and civilization had conspired to make that water and the adjacent shores the seat of the impending conflict.

Russia now sought to precipitate hostilities and to gain advantage before the arrival of the French and English forces. She accord- ingly allowed the Russian commander in the Black Sea to hover about Sinope with a view of provoking a battle. The provocation was readily, almost anxiously, accepted. On the 30th of November, 1853, the Turkish fleet sailed out from Sinope and anticipated the Russians in giving battle. The result was the annihilation of the Turkish squadron, and the bombardment and destruction of Sinope. The news of tlie contliit t'reated great excitement in England and France, and the war spirit flamed high. Soon afterwards all diplomatical correspondence was broken off. The Russian Aml)assadors were ordered home from Paris and I.,(indon, and those of England and France withdrew from St. Petersburgh. Declarations of war were mutually made by Turkey, Great Britain, and I'rance, as Allied Powers on the one side, and by Russia on the other. It re- mained to decide the issue by the arbitrament of battle.

It is not purjidsed in this connection to give au account of the Crimean War. A narrative of that conflict will be reserved for the chapter devoted to the history of Eastern Europe in the present century. It has been the purpose in the current narrative to make clear the antecedents of the conflict between the Allied Powers and Russia in the Black Sea, by reciting with tolerable fullness the principal features of the Eastern Question — a question wliich, for ages to come, must continue to elicit the keenest interest on the part of all students of history. The narrative has been given, as it were, from the British point of view, — this for the reason that Great Britain properly mav be regarded as the leading factor in the maintenance of the Turkish cau.se, and the principal contributor to the very imperfect solution of the questions involved in the war. We mav now revert for a moment to the

GREAT BRITAIN.— FROM HYDE PARK TO BOSPHORUS.

341

progress of affairs in the H(Jiiie (idverunient of Englaud.

The Ministry of Lord Alterdeeii hail heeu primarily disposed to peace. It will be re- membered that Lord Palmerston had accepted office in the Cabinet, but it was as Home Sec- retary, lu the duties of his position he de- voted himself assiduously to several questions of much importance in the domestic economy of England ; but apparently gave little atten- tion to the foreign affairs of the Government. The sequel showed, however, that his eye was steadily fixed upon the progress of events in the East, and also that he did not agree with his colleagues in their peaceable dispositions. Such a state of affliirs in the Cabinet was sure to produce a rupture. Lord Alierdeen was a man of peace, and Glailstoin', Secretary of the Exchequer, was in sympathy with the views of the leader. Thos," vi,w< pn-.lominat.Ml tor a while in the policy of th.' ( iovrrnnicnt, and it was in accordance with this policy that tlie futile efforts for peace had liccn made by the four Powers in Council at Vienna.

JNIeanwhile, however, the war spirit pre- vailed more and more in Great Britain, and Lord Palmerston, better than any of his col- leagues, di.scerued the drift of public sentiment and the inevitable course of events. At length the news arrived that the Turkish fleet had been destroyed in the furiovis conflict off Sinope. The oflicial reports of the battle showed that four thousand Turks had been reduced by slaughter to four hundred, and that of this handful not a .single man had es- caped without a wound. Though the battle had been fought fairly enough, the press of Western Europe described the engagement as "The Massacre of Sinope." The news in England was like the pouring out of a tank of oil on a bonfire. Lord Palmerston urged the Cabinet to move forward with decision to a declaration of war. He a<Ivocnted tlie sending of an armament ininicdiatcly into the Black Sea: for, with his usual breadth of un- derstanding, he had discerned that that water was to be the seat of the impending conflict.

At the first his radical views were not ac- cepted, and he resigned his office. For the moment the real cause of his retirement was ili-^embled ; but the country soon perceived thiit Palmerston had eone out because his

views relative to affairs in the East could not be impressed on the Caliinet. Those views had now become the sentiments of the English people, and it was not long till the Aberdeen Ministry was borne down by public opinion. The policy of Government fell into line with the common voice, and Palmerston was at once recalled to office. He was not destined at the first, however, to give actual direction to the war, which was declared by Great Britain in March of 18.54. It was not until the 5th of Feln-uary in the following year, when the inefficient ^Ministry of Lord Aber- deen had gone to pieces, that Palmerston was called, not indeed to the War Office, not to the Secretaryship of Foreign Affairs, but to the position of Premier of England. Under his auspices the Crimean War, in the course of the ensuing year, was brought to a success- ful conclusion. After the accession of Palmer- ston, there was never any further complaint of

{ inefficiency in the support of the British cause, and when it came to settling the controversy at the Treaty of Paris, in 1856, the influence of the English Pi-emier was consiiicuously pre- dominant.

Before proceeding, however, with the nar- rative of the foreign relations of Great Britain under the Palmerston rirj'une, we mav well notice a few of the imi>ortant domestic questions which came luider liis su[>ervision

I while holding the office of Home Secretary.

i One circumstance which has been much dwelt upon is the fact that Lord Palmerston, much more than any other Briti.sh statesman of the age, had received and accepted the results of the teaching of that new natural science which was, at that time, scarcely more than germinal in the public mind. He adopted and en- deavored to apply these results in his Ad- ministration, and excited much antagonism by liis common sense and straigiitforward deal- ings with domestic, and even religious, ques- tions of the time. It was in tlie year 1853 that the cholera, worst of Asiatic scourges, made its appearance in many parts of Europe, and at length broke out in E.liuburgh. That citv was at the time i>ooi-lv drained, witliout

adccpiate sanitary ] given U]i to neglect ; prepared by the ig ravages of an infecti'

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

the t.i tfr<, I Lnnl Km-.

tn In-

iiati.ii

petiti. ment

:> Prt'sliytorv	of tlie that it 1
"Zlu!n!a7-^	A.-.M,
year aljove i	lanie.i, I
Mnderator, ai	(h-er^sea
Ion, Home	Seeivtai

h1 ot a rebuke U, the Kmne Secre- is iniplii il nes;li^ence in pioclaimiug 1 whiih the lettei was ostensibly a Whit theiefoie, was the abtonish- the Pusb^tels and of the public when Loul Palmeiston leplied from

the staiid-|ioint of a man of scienfe ' He informed the Moderator, and, through that official, the Presbytery and the general public, that, according to his views of the natural world and of the systetu of government e^tabli'^hcd for mankind, the weal or woe of the human race depends upon the ob- servance or neglect of the beneficent natural laws under which men are born and live and ilie. He infin-med the petitioners that the cholira was not the result of the Divine anger, but of the sowing of pestilential germs in the iilth wliich had accumulated, through their ignorance and neglect, around their own homes, and that the scourge, if combated at

all, must b,. met on its own fieM, and van- (pii-hcl by the application of sricntitic and .sinitary a-i-nts. In the conclusion of his h-t- ter. til.' ll..ni.' Secretary expr.sscl himself and th,- i-rincipl.-s by which his ..ttic, was g.iverned as to||.,w>:

'■ Lord I'almerston would therefore suggest that the l"sf c.iurse which the people of this country can ]iui-sue to deserve that the further progress of the cholera should be stayed, will be to employ the interval that will elapse be- tween th.' present time and the beginning of next sprint;', in planning and executing meas- ures by wliich those portions of our towns and cities which are inhabited by the j)oore.st classes, and which, from the na- ture of things, must most need purifica- tion and improvement, may be freed from those causes and sources of con- tagion which, if allowed to remain, will infallibly Itreed pestilence, ami be fruit- ful in death, in spite of all the j,mijers andfa.'-ting.i of a united but inactive nation." Perhaps this reply of Lord Palmer- ston to the Presbytery of Edinburgh is the first public document of its kind, the first to suggest openly the substitution of rational and scientific methods, in- stead of religious humiliations, for the remedy of physical evils, which has a]i- jieared in the documentary hist.iry of the English-speaking race.

In other particulars, Lord Palmerston was efjually remarkable in administer- ing tlie duties of his office. It was during his ascendency in the Home Department that the plan of tran.s- tioii as a jnmishment for felf)nies gave wav, and the ticket-ofleave system was estab- lished. It is known to all the world iiow Great Britain, by her transportation of crim- inals to Australia and other remote regions, had half-unwittingly built up penal colonies, anil how these colonies had reformed them- selves, gradually substituting law for license, and becoming well-ordered plantations. To continue to pour into such reformed settle- ments the filthy ooze of London, was to defile the colonies back to their original condition. Protests arose from thesettlementsof New South Wales against the continuance of a system so ruinous to the reviving virtues of the colonists.

]101

CHEAT BUITAIS.—FUOM BVPK PAIUk TO nOSl'llORVS.

At length '-uch piote^t'- \\n Home G \eiument, aud n- \ atintr the ili-ti - A li» i tin I 1 I I ,l.n I f n iin nt 1 Ihi 1,1 lilt 111 in 1 1 tin the peml c 1 wies wh > e\l i rifnination might leceis tt 111 the luth iiities tick t^ entithn. tli h 1 1 i t , > tite 1 t iinui. h nil th \

Ch M t th 11 h 111 111

I-iiJinl Ihe m i u ]ii \e 1 t 1 be ■•ilut ii \ Great numbers of the tieket- of-leave men became good citizens, both at home ami abriiail, and the plan \va- iiiade an entering \ved>jv fnr the abolition nf the whole system nf ti'ans[i()r- tation.

Lord Palmerston also secured the ailoptimi of measures by which Loudnn and other great manufac- turing cities of the KiiiLr- d(im were freed from the smoke and soot of tln' tac- tiiries. Such establishments were obliged, by law, to introduce contrivances for the consumption of their own smoke, thus relieving the another important measure was the grave-yards in London were the further accumulation of Lord Palmerston seems to have horror for the further poisonin; by the deposition of the dead localities. In one instance, a made to him fjr the burial of ;

1 r D Ca n O ^,ala d Gozcr or-J th I / lie Fe to , f v„ " / na( a u Drpclc c,e Sc y S

.^^YnslM , lln ,1 , ci^^^/r i .1 .l,cj„e'

f I t Ter n as | s I e/^'^Jr^Zc/ ■

)jt^^^ /fi3/ (he, 1 -ho b Jea c b d oi tkj o I cr S

^//^a

: S icrar rOITn fjL ,ej th,

^t^iL Da r I"'"*- — —

O'lro a l$r,HII I el a IClhl^^yA

public. Still

that by which ^hut up against

dead bodies, felt a scientific y of the earth

in unsuitable pplication was I distinguished

the pavements of a church were the last place in the world for the burial of the dead. The Minister concluded that England was the last civilized country in which people still insisted in accumulating the putrefying bodies of the dead amid the dwellings of the living. " As to burying bodies under thronged churches," said he, " you might as well put them under libra- ries, drawing-rooms, and dining-rooms."

344

LWIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

CHAI'TKK cxxx— SEF^OV rebelliom.

illUM 1.S54 tn 1«5(;, the at- ] tenticm nt' Great Britain was almost wholly ab sorbed with the events of the ('rinieau War, and with the terms of the treat}' by which that cou- led. We shall hereafter notice ' settlement. For the present, we pass on to consider the next great event in which the history of England found expression in foreign lands. This was The Sepoy Re- bellion IN India. The outbreak of the in- surrection belongs to the year 1857. The re- volt and its suppression covered some of the most tragical ciixumstauces which history has been called to record in modern times. In order to understand the fundamental character and shocking incidents of the insurrection, and of the methods employed by Great Britain for the restoration of order in India, the ground i must first be cleared with one or two prepar- i atory studies of the state of Indian civilization, and of the style of the British Government at the time of the outbreak.

The field which here opens before us is of almost infinite extent. The peoples of India are descended from the most ancient branch of the Aryan race. Long before the Hellenic tribes set foot in Europe, the Indie shepherds hail built in the valleys of the great rivers of the East the institutions of society and religion. Nations multiplied in this far region of the , earth. Wars and transformations and recon- ; structions innumerable ensued, even before the * davs when the horsemen of Alexander con- frijnted the elephants of Porus. A mere out- line of the history of India, from the time when the ]\Iacedonian conquest revealed the invsteries of the East to the nations of the West, down to the time when the Portugue.se ships, in the earlv p:irt >>i' the sixteenth cen- tury, liCLran to vi>it the cnnsts " of Ormuz and ' (,f Ind." would (Mvu|iy a whole chapter of the { luv-riit wui-k. We muA here reduce the whole

Mj

lies

and flnur

ished between the Himalayas and the western seas. Emjiires rose and passed away. The Indian populations increased to a hundred millions, and then to more than two hundred niilliiins. Under Tinmur tiie Great, whose reign covered the greater jiart nf the four- teenth century, India was conquered and consoli- dated ; her peoples were brought under a single sway, and the Mogul, or IMongol, dynasty was established at Delhi. The successors of Ti- mour continued to reign in the ancient capital down to the time of the Portuguese conquests in India. The hereditary sovereigns of Delhi ntaineil at least a nominal authority over vast and populous regions, and were little disturbed by the impact of European adventurers on the sea-coasts. At length the Portuguese ban- ner was pulled down from the place where it stood in the East, and the flag of Holland was raised in its stead in the Indies. The Dutch ascendency was soon followed by the French, and finally by the English.

It were long to tell the story of the British East India Company; of the foot-hold which It gained on the western coast, and more par- ticularly on the Bay of Bengal. The history of the planting and extension of the commer- cial, and finally the political, interests of Great Britain in India, is full of incidents most highly illustrative of the power and persist- ency of the race. At length the Government of the East India Company gave place to that of a Governor-General and other oflicials sent out from England. A hundred years had now elapsed since Lord Robert Clive had or- ganized what we are henceforth entitled to call the British East Indian Empire. The primitive seat of the Government was at Hooghly, an ancient Indian town on the river of the same name; but this place was at length alniniliined for Cah'ulta, which became the capitul and the J.ort of India. From this maritime nucleus the strong arms of English authority were ultimately stretched out over two hundred millions of native subjects in the East.

Ill the luiilille of the present century the

GREAT BRITAIN.—HEPOY REBELLION.

345

Indian dominions of Great Britain were or- ganized under three principal territorial divis- ions or presidencies. Tlie first of tliese was Bengal; the second, 15,, nil.av ; and ihetldnl, Madras. From the capital's of these coun- tries, with a few thousand nlKcials, civil and militarj^ the administration ot all India was conducted. The native jiriuces still existed, still held a certain rank and authority over their respective peoples. Above them all was the aged King of Delhi, lineal descendant of the great Timour, representative of the iNIogul dynasty, nominal Emperor of India.

With these

arm of British authority was vastly cheaper and hardly less efficient than would have been an army of native soldiers sent out from Eng- land. But it had in it the pntrncy of all dangers. Many local ditiiculties ha<r<M-ciuicd ot such character as to give Great Britain warning of worse things possible. At the time of the destruction of the English army in Cabul, syMipt..nis of a general disatiection were noticed in several of the subject prov- inces; and had it not been for the speedy and comiiletely successful rally made by the Government, and the triumphant conquest of Cabid before the very face of all India, it

DI.4MOXD HARBOR. HOOGHLY.

and with the peoples under them, the Govern- ment of Great Britain temporized from year to year. It must not lie forgotten that the primary business of England in India had been commerce. It might almost be said that such has lieen her business in the world. But to maintain her commercial ascendency in India and in the adjacent seas, required many expedients and a vast expenditure of force. One of the most effective of these expedients was the organization and discipline of native armies under English officers. It was found that the Hindus made good soldiers, and were glad to accept service and compensation at the hands of the Government. The military establish- ment thus created and maintained as the right

were hard to predict what other disasters might have followed in the train.

Of all the East Indian armies that of Ben- gal was most dangerously composed. It had been enlisted almost wholly of High-caste Hindus, a cla.«s of the people more intelligent and high-spirited, though not less su})erstitious, than were the others below them in rank. The extent to which all the jn'oplc of India were subject to superstition is known as an objective notion to the wdiole world. But the bitterness and obduracy of the social and re- ligious prejudices which pervaded every rank and class of the population can never be ap- preciated and understood but by him who has studied the phenomena on the spot of their

USIVERSAL HISTOItr.— TIIK MODERN WORLD.

prudnctiou. The tive soldiers of Hi

iilu ili-iivation in tlie Bengal army were kimwii was Si;i'civ>. As we have said, they coustituted an excellent but dauger- ous soldiery ; exeelleut, because of their easy discipline aii<l courage in fight; dangerous, because of thrir Miperstiti.ms aii<l that peculiar sublety of cliaracter f..r which the word

xVt the first, the Sepoy army had been to a considerable extent officered by captains chosen from themselves. But, in course of time, nearly all the conunands were taken Ijy Eu-

countryuien of Low-caste condition can not be explained to the people of the Western nations or understood by them. The Mohammedan, uniler the influence of his Arabian religion, lookeil with like contempt and horror upon the character of the Brahmin. In only one thing could all be said to agree, and that was in a certain covert detestation of tlie English officers and of tlie British Government, by which they were held down and checked in their luitive imjiulses and passions.

We may well look still further into the conijiosition of the native armies of India. In

glish rank part

officers, who mi.ht thii- cimK ii^e t This was a ctu^e of jeil um on the of tlie native soldieii We mu^t not understand that the whole military force of Bengal was made up of the Brahmin caste. Low-caste men were also recruited. Some filled np in good part with Between these vai-ious ele- n the army of natives there tred. anil almost equally eon- The idea of any affiliation •rent ca>tes \\a< n'liue'nant to f all. The ext.-nt to wliieli

regiments were jMohammedans. ments jiresent

slant diffieiiltv. between the dil the sentiment the Brahmin so

the Btn^dt^e ie_im nt- i ,_itat mi] iit\ ot the soldieis weie as we ha\e intimated Hiiih ca^te Biihmm^, but in the aimie^ ot B imbt\ and Madras, a majority of the men were ot other derivation — ^lohammedans and Low-caste leciiiit- <if many orders. As originally organ- ized, the Indian soldiers were under enlistment for service in India only. Foreign service they were not expected to perform. This is said of the Bengalese army, not of the native troops in Bombay and Madias. The latter niiiiht lie called to serve abroad. The Britisii authniiii,- at h-ngth determined that the ex- einiitiou liitherto conceded to the Sepoys

GREAT BBITAiy.SEPOY REBELLION.

of Bengal was a mistakeu measure. Acconl- iugly, iu 1856, a change was made in the military regulations, by wliich foreign service as well us hume duty was t-xactud of the Ben- same level and discipline witli tlie soldier of Madras and Bombay. This change was greatly resented in the army of Bengal, which had hithert(.i lieen regank-d as a t;iv(.)rite of the Government. The .Sfi)i>v felt that he had

together in large numbers in a given regiment, where, by associating together, they could better preserve the u.sages and gratify the pride of their caste. The nature ef military

soldier under command is even as his I'ellow. When the regimental line is formed and the order given, it is impossible that caste .should a.ssert itself When olf duty, however, the Sepoys at once fell umler the domiuioti of

been degraded by being reduced to the rank of the soldiers of the North-west, whom he was accustomed to regard as >n tar heiieath himself The High-caste Bi-almiiii Sepoy was in the higliest degree exclusive m all Ins haliits and sentiments. The social system made his family relatives as numerous as a clan. All these were bound together by the prmcii)les of caste, ■which could not be loosed. It was customary lor Sepoys of a common blood and name to get

their prejudices, and the customs of caste were immediately observed. The Brahmin soldier conked his f .od aiiart, ate it aiiart. slei)t aiiart,

mhl

hied to the I

le s,,l,lier of a caste dilferent

Besides tliese differences and

presence of JMohammedanism

and aniinoMtv which

f the -oldiel-s. Kellg-

;ed and mtensitied the

:]48

rXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

bitterness which existed among the castes on the score of social stratification.

At first view it would appear that an army constituted as was that of Bcnttal could not be di>c;pliii.Ml ,,r kept in Mdionlinatiou at all. But not so. Under British authority and mauagemeut the military forces were brought to good discipline and made highly effective. The wise Government played off the prejudices and passions of the native soldiers so as to make a balance of animosity. The hatred of one party for another was put in equipoise against the hatred of the other for it. Over both the sword of England was easily ex- tended, and, though the condition was one of great danger, the authorities of Calcutta and the Home Government of Great Britain were alike free from serious apprehension.

To the circumstances already narrated other causes of disafl^ection and mutiny must be added. The territorial and political manage- ment of India had been greatly changed, not to .say revolutionized, under recent administra- tions. We have already referred to Lord C'live as the great organizer of British power in the East. After him, the most energetic and powerful of the Ea.st India Governor- Generals was Lord Dalhousie. He was ap- pointed to office in the latter part of 1847, and immediately began to extend the influence and rationalize the methods of government by which the Hindu populations were kept in order.

We may not here enumerate the various measures which Lord Dalhousie made effective during his administration. The greatest of all his schemes was the annexation of the Northern and North-western provinces of India. Thus were the Punjaub, Nagpore, Sattarah, Jhansi, Berar, and Oudh incorporated with the British dominions. Lord Dalhousie reformed and re- organized territories as large as the major kingdoms of Europe, and handled popula- tions, governments, and laws as though they liad been the subjects of committee reports in the common council of an English town. The British system of cheap postage was introduced into the country. Railroads began to be built of greater extent than were possible in the narrow limits of the British Isles. A telegraph was carried from Calcutta to Agra, thence to the river Indus, and finally to Bombay and

JIadras. Under the.se improvements, civil, political, and social, the ancient institutions of the country gave way, and what may well be called New India aro.?e in place of that old India which had been handed down from Alexander to the Mogul Emperors, and from the Mogul Emperors to modern times.

It is needless to say that the great and .salutary administration of Lord Dalhousie was an offense against the ancient prejudices of the Hindus. They began to feel themselves shaken from the very ground. It appeared to the imagination of the Brahmin that the end of all things was approaching ; that the venerable system of society, which had its ultimate roots among the mysteries of the Vedic Hymns, was about to pass away. He saw the ancient kingdom of Oudh, wduch the East India Com- pany had agreed to defend, abolished under the radicalism of Dalhousie ; the honored chiefs converted into dependents and syco- phants, and the old King of Oudh himself dethroned and transferred to a pensionary residence near Calcutta. All of these pro- ceedings were of a character to excite and alarm the conservative peoples, among whom it was a principle of action to conceal thnir real sentiments and passions under the gaib of acquiescence and docilitv.

The British Government, however, felt no fear. The officials in India went straight ahead with the administration, civil and military, heeding not the lessons which might well have been drawn from the frequent local disturbances and mutinies which they had to suppress. Improvements were freely intro- duced from England. At length it was de- termined to replace the old-style, ineflJective muskets with which the Sepoy armies were supplied, with Enfield rifles. A cargo of these arms was accordingly sent out, and the same were distributed to the Sepoy soldiery.

We are now arrived at that stage in the progress of affairs when only a fortuitous cir- cumstance was needed to fire the magazine. When a revolution breaks out, it is the wont of historians and people to seize upon the particular fact whereby the train is lighted, and to call that fact the caiuse of the revolu- tion. Such a view of the case is as superficial as to say that the spark in the ship's hold, lighting at first a few grains of powder, then

GREAT BRITAIX.SEPOY REBELLION.

lie (ivertiini- wt-i-e ;/'«'«'

he en.l of makiiiir tl

sputtering a few moments in zigzag lines as mauutacturei's employed both the tallow of the flame runs into the magazine, is the cause cattle and the fat of swine. The cartridges of the explosion ; or to reg ing of a coal-oil lamp hy th- an obscure stable-shei burning of Chicago. Xcvc of ignition may well and the mistaken t a causative inthu

may he overlooke<l, along with .-iniilar errors peculiar to the human uuderstan<ling.

The Enfield rifles then, put, as we have seen, into the hands of the Sepoys, brought ^vith them the incidental circumstance which was to perform the part of a match in the coming conflagration. The fact to which we here refer has become celebrated among the peculiar episodes of modern history. The Enfield rifles were fed with cartridges, and in the preparation of the cartridges the '22

as abominably unclean by both Hindus and Mohammedans. In the loading of the rifles, the manual of arms directed that the crest of the cartridge should bo bitten off with the teeth before inserting it in thr chandur of the weapon. To the Sipnys ti> tourh, and es- pecially to taste, thr tirsh or any ot the products of the hated .-wine, is to i)e defiled almost lieyoud the hope of purification. Of course, the British authorities had not intended to do violence to the prejudices of the Sepoy

UM VERSA L HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD

soldiers, aud it lias even liceii cartridges contained the ulli'ii But the probability is that thi afterthought intruded to tiann sequences. "'Jive im- a ili'ink

It \vasata<|,rin- i.r w.U. 'H „nn,i th.- ..tlu-r uith a -V.wrr .

new cartridges, tl against the assur

.ttic

caste? -You are very partimlar about vour caste to-day," said the Hindu. '•Perhaps vou do not know tliat every lime vo\i l)ite ntl' y.Mir I'artridge jpii fitl.r the f<il of ,i liiy into your woiifhr

The Sepoy, horror-struck at what was said, told his companions. The papers of the cart- ridges were examined, and were found to be greased. The sto|-ni <if insurrection broke out in a moment. The spark had fallen into the ship's hold, where the combustibles were accu- mulated, and the explosion followed. Never- theless, the officers of the Government made, at tir-^t, >^treiiuo\i^ etfbrt- to put out the insur- rection by peacealile means. The incident to whieli we have referred aliove occurred in the latter part of ISofi, at the town of Meerut, a military )iost of considerable importance, lying a short distance from the ancient city of Delhi, between the rivers Ganges and Jumna. The first insurrection of the Sepoys wa= in the na- ture of a panic, rather than lio^tili' mntiiiv. The officers of the army fir-^t -ou-ht bv donial of tlie iM.llution ..f tlio oartrid-es to stav thr revolt; 'and wliou this di.l not avail, an ord^-r was issued, in January of 1S.-|7, that the rifles slKudd be serveil with cartrid-e^ of a different manufacture, in which the puritv of the ma- terials was gnaranteeil. Tiie Governor-General issued a proclamation to the army, in which assurances were given that no offense was in- tended a'j-ainst the principles of ca«te or the relii;-ions customs of the countrv. But the mis- chief was done, and the s]iirit of mutinv spread from regiment to regiment, until at the open- inrr of sin-iiiff, 1><57, the whole Sepoy army was infected. In the emergency, which was now maiiifc-^t, some of the regiments were disbanded. In other cases, the leaders of the spreading revolt were executed. When the Bengal cav- alry at ]\Ieerut were served with a supply of

cartridges contained no impun- nialciials. The recusant Sepoys were accordingly arrested, brought to trial and condemned, some to im- pii.-oinucnt, and some to banishment. The cniivicts were put in irons in the presence of their couutrynien, and were sent to the })ri^on ot .^b•crut. '

On th.' folhiwing day, ^May 10, 1S57, the luutiny briikc out in earnest. The native sol- (bcr- marclicd from their barracks, stormed the pii,-on, i-eleased their condemned fellow- soldieis, :ind shot down the English guard that ntteinpieil to stay their progress. The revolt llanied iiigli. The English rallied as large a force as they could, returned the charge, and the mutineers were driven out of their canton- ments. The whole body of the insurrection then broke out of .Meerut, and rolled off in the direction of Delhi,

Tlie events which now rapidly ensued showed conclusively that the insurrecti(jn had been fomented for a definite purpo.'^e, and that ])iirpose was no less than the recovery of Na- tional Independence. As soon as the insur- gent soldierv could reach Delhi, they inime-

ace (jf his ancestors, the Grand Moguls, and to proclaim him Emperor of India. The anti(|uated sovereign had been subsisting in Ka>teni spleiid.ir 'by means ,,f the ],ension which liad been grantcl to him. in the tirst place, bv the East India Company, and after- wards continued l>y the Government at Cal- cutta. As we have said, the King of Delhi was the descendant and representative of what- ever remained of the great Mogul dynasty, which had been establi.shed over all India by Timour Lenk. There was therefore a certain rationality and legitimacy in the notion <.f re- storina the obsolete sovereign to the throne of his ancestors. Meanwdiile, the mutiny gath- ered head. The Sepoy troops, holding the barracks at Delhi, broke into insurrection and joined the mutineers who had come from IMecrut. The British contingent was obliged to give way before the revolt, and the ancient palace of the ^logul sovereigns of India, shin- ing in the brilliant light of a ^lay morning, was again inhabited by a native Emperor.

Dnm, to Btini. the luiiini .,f tlu inHiii..ti.m « i- Ih.iik ^MUs:- <>t the ^\in.l tun,, i\. ul th, ,. ot afl.uis m th \t fu i ipit il wlim tl 't\a» piumulj,cLttil ut thi biRLL-~ful ii

GBEA r BinrALX. — SEFO r REBELLION

11(1 th, 11,, t.. C ihutti ' ^^,\\ .i,.uii,l. ,1 l.uii. \N

1, \shl, h ,Mi ,li~tli(te,l ail Ih. r.iiti^h |.,n|,h ,,fii, llK

A \ ^.

\	-\
h	^-^V
1 '	^1

.-.-#

THRONE-ROOM, PALACE OF PELHI.

the Sepny army nt :\I,-, rut ainl D.-llii. Lonl in sul,j,.,-ti,.ii

Dalhousie ha,l nnw I.,,-,, Mi,-,-r,.h.l in ,.tii,v \,y h..t iiiMinv,-t-h

Lord Caiinin-, as ( ;,,v,.i-noi-.( n-ii,.|al ,.f hi.lia. in,'iv,hhh' ahir

T-|M>n liim. aii,l tl llhvi- ,.f ( iuNvrnment a>- Cah'iitla, wil,'

s,,eiate,l with him, ua- -h'Vnlv,:,! th,' ,l.itv ,,r ,,f wnni,M, an

illi|ili,Ml niillhms ,.f natives in a,-aiiiM tliM <;nv,-riiiu,a,t. An s|n-ea.l ani'-n- ll„. l-:i,i:li>h ,.t

l,.l th,. air. Tl ishr,| f. the (;„

UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX WORLD.

ernment House, almost iusane with t'cai-, cry- ing for protection, and clamoriiii: Imi- viiinr- auce, not only against the Sepoys, hut auain.-t the Hindus in ueneraL Terror iieightened the coufusifui. aud the wonder was, and is, that Lord Canning was ahk' tn huld the jianic in check, and, at the same tinir, take the first measures for tlie restoration of (Jider.

It has been mentioned that tlie dethroned King of Oudli liad been transferred l\v the Government, during the administration of

souglit to allay the frenzy of the people, and in particular to check the violence of the pro- ceedings which were urged by the officers of the Government, and liy the English gener- ally, against the natives. As yet there had been no revolt at Calcutta ; but the frantic populace were ready to proceed against the Hindus as though the latter had already com- mitted the most horri<l crimes recorded in the brutalities of hist..ry.

The same spirit was exhibited in a still

:%' -

Mk

Lord Dalhousie, to a pensionary residence at Garden Reach, near Calcutta. The suspicion at once arose that the deposed sovereign, who, in case of the success of the revolt woidd be restored to his kingdom, under the suvorcignty of the Emperor of Delhi, was in the conspir- acy. Acting n]ion tliis apiirolieiisidii, Lord

taken fro

d h<

being, as a kind of hostage in Fort William, which was the military residence of the Gov- ernor-General himself As f<ir the rest, he

more marked degree when the news at length reached Englan<l. The inhabitants of the Home Kingdom put no bounds to their rage aud fury. The reports which went flying abroad were frightfully exaggerated, ami the ]ieo))le well-nigh lost their self-control in dis- cussing measures of revenge. The English newspapers of the summer of 1857 teemed with editorials and contributions, in which the most cruel methods known to the barbarities of mediieval warfare were openly advocated as the jjroper means of redress in India.

GREAT BRlTAlX.—tiEl'OY RKBELLloy.

353

As soou as Lord Camiiug succeeil storing- some slight confidence and

ler in

mioht

Calcutta, he instituted sucl be.st shore up the shake ludia. He perceived at a for the comiug of a Bnt Home Kingdom, ten thm would be to wait for ch something could lie iloiie 1( army could come to the Indian Empire, the (invei in Hindustan would either be trampled in blood or cast into the Bay of Bengal. In the emergency, fir- tune stood Lord Can- ning well in hand. He was sufficiently acquainted with all the movements on the vast board of Empire to be able to ^-e pieces — here a knight, and there a castle — might be seized by himself and made available against the enemy. In his sore trial he remer that at that Vfi an English armament, which had been sent out weeks before fir a descent on the ports

of China, was alrea(

on the Indian coa--t, "^

within his reach. He

accordingly took the

great responsibility of

arresting the sc^uadron rn nm

it to the greater need of Ind

imbroglio might well be left to settle itself as

it might, or to remain perpetually unsettled,

atiliirs at ('al.-utt.i and D. lln

But the stopping of tli.' I'-n-lidi arnianu'nt was not the only measure which Lonl Canning adopted for the salvation nf tin' ( 'I'Virniiient and people. Early in thi- yrar. Sir .lanirs Outram had been sent with an army on an expedition against Persia. He made short

work with tlie campaign. JSIeeting the enemy at Khushal), he iutlicte<l upon him a decisive and overwhelming defeat, ending the war with a I1I..W. Him L.nl Canning now ivmcnilirred and suinniMiied witli all speed t., ivturn to India. In this matter, al,-.., f.itune fav,.ied the movement. Telegraphic coiinuiinication had been effected by \a,vA DalhouMe Uetweeu

Thither l.onl Canning s.^nt on its wav to Ceneial Outran, the loll„u ing despatch . " We

ill diverting | ^u \nt \li oik Bisr mi n here." Never was

The Ciunese I a tiuei telegiam uiged bv the electric current

to Its destination Outiam responded with

ahiiit^ Biiniring In- armv with liim. he

il at Cal-

rst etiects, roviiice at

UXIVKHSAL HISTORY.— THE MODPJIiN WORLD.

hI.m- authoiitv nf Sir .Inhii . On ll,.. rvmi

Lulinre, ^^\u■u. (,ii ihc lltli ..l' May, tlie iie«> Lal,.,n wa.- li-nie tliitlicr (if the luiitiiiy at Mccinit. taiy, li In hi. al.>ri,rt- the niiana nt the capital the' ,.n

I- ..11 whi.-ii the intelligence .n at Meerut was l.r..ii;J,t t._. l.all, half civil, half niili- ■..,je,-t,-.l. It wa- .l.M-i.h-.lthat t >h..ul.l ),ln,v,.,l a> tli..u-li

ivst.-.l ,,n C..!..!!.'! KmL.tI .M..nlp.inei-y. The n..thin,^ i.mh.u. was at the .I....1-. Durinuthe

Briti>h anny al that pla.'.' lay at the tin,e in ni^ht th.^ ..Iil,-eis ina.le i.iciiarati..],s f..i- the f..l-

the cant..nni.nts kn.iwn a> .M.-ean .Meet-, al...ut louin- .lay. A military j.ara.le an.l review

six mil.'s fr..ni th.> citv. 'I'h.- army c..n.-iste.l was ..r.hav.l f.ir the early iiiorninff. In the

iif m.ii-e than liv.' ih.insin.l men, of wl i arranm-m.nt for the same the artillery, heavily

al).>ut thirti-en hun.hv.l w.iv l;rilish regulars. j.ia.l.'.l with grape, was planted iu a certain

It c.nl.l n..t li.' .liM'criU'.l l.v the Knglish an- ! inisilion li.'lori' whi.'h, in ..n,. of the evolnti.jns

thorities whether ..r imt the native troojis i uf the review, the St^poy r. uim. iits must pre-

VtFW OF LAHORE— THE ENCiT.TSir I'lIfR

.-.Mi.

would remain loyal ..r j..in the revolt. The I sent theins.'lvcs in line. The E

situation was one of i;r.'at p.-ril. The officers at the mom.iit when the S.^poys sh.udd .'.ime

did not dare to let matt.Ms .Iril't alons until an | into this |.ositi..n, w.mv t<. 1..' lieliin.l the tw.dve

unquenchahle mutiny sh.ml.l flame np ar..iin.l -nns of the liatl.ai.'s, an.l the artillervmen

the very .piart.rs wh.av th.v wi're .•stalilishc.l. wre to stan.l at their p..sts with li-hte.l

On the other han.l, it was not jnst, p.^rhaps n..t mat.'h.s. Th.' plan was .-arricl ..nt to the

expedient, f.i assnm.' that the native tn.i.ps l.tt.i-. When th.' f.iur th..n-an.l native fro.iiis

the antli.ii itii's, n.it t.i risk .■vervthing ..n the .-.mtrived for them, thev were halted, and the

hope that th.' Srpovs w.iul.l r.'main h.yal anil .-..mmand was giveu io .ftael; arms! It was the

obe.lient. The pri'snnipli..n ..n the ..tiier si.le all. -inative of obedience or death. The .Sepoys

was s.( stroni:' that it was ilctei-min.'.l to mate ]ii'r.iiv..l at a L^lam-e that the European sol-

the mutinv at a single ni..ve. i diers ha.l lli.ni ni their power. They obeyed

GREAT BRITAIX.—SEPOY liEBELLIOy.

no

the command, and ^tatktil till 11 iiiii-,iiiil the m-khi ot tlu iinn nndi ii|), as usual,

lattei A\ciL iniiiuduttU h lu i\ to th. ot i tMitKui ot ] ii.li-h -o|,lirr> and a

cantonment- In tin lowi i I'lini luh tin Lii _iiit iiiiioiit\ ot -e]io\- ( i\ npoiv \va~ re-

tdl-h well fjUilK ~u,i."tul ill luini.UMMiu' _u.li.l 1- ot the iiio-t inil.oilant niililaiy

till "^epoN- out ot |.o\\,l lll.l 111 MMIILC till stUloll- 111 I p|><l ill 111, l|o| lilll>t the feadiT

PloMlli. tloui -Ml .11- l,li In Olldh hoU.M 1 1	Ihol, il\ dllliHIlt
AM- 11 1. hid ihlt _1. 1	rioxniii w
till,,! t . till lllldil th. do	illiilon ot the
Hid tM hi.imi, tliH -1,111 1	t -oin, ot tl
tl lull iMllt- It lid	111 modi in
hi t i\ It u t n th	OtI t Mi\
tl cit\ i I 1 1 1 ^	th i'i\ ni
1 11 ltd t Oiilh Vt tl	,li th
Biiti h iiin\ mil i|i 1
i -ep \ u , ., 1 >	mill ml t
the (t xuu 1 -.1 H n,	N I lUI 11
^^ heu th 1 1. Ill 11 h \	1 It It he
-tl i\e uith _i It 11 i_\	t tl\ the
lu-uiie tl 11 111 I t \i	1 the 11, Ul
.eiit- tl 111 the (U\ h	It tl 1 ti It
w 1- in \ tin It mil t li	1 ineinli lel
thtt Lii kn w w 1 I it\	AMth 1,11
hti 11 i in 1 tl in iw h	mil 1 tl 11
-ml ml t h 11 1 vMi t	11 n 1,11 11
mi t 1 hel- with I -1	nil 1 h t

u ^-^

IliL (jo\eini)i theief le tell Intk be t lie the leMilt, in I p -te 1 him-elt in the Re-idencA i unlit in held |iiutei-

t the (i \eiiiii, nt 1 I It 1, till e tl ni the ut\ H I he w i i,, ,„ diit 1\ h -1 . 11\ \ luhelmii, nun 1 I \11 thl lljl III ht hell at

with e\t, I 1 111, m 11 i_ But he

w 1- n t 1 tin 1 t uitue th 1 ,ilt

t the t,n_J On tl J 1 t I lU «hih h u,- 1 lini_ in I I t t X -htlllni t thl I h \|I 1 I ml hit teuil hi- Imili- -o toi,ihl\ that not even amputation conhl >ave his lite. He died 1 bered only aliout three hundred men, iiieUiding two days afterward-, and the pirri.son was left | the officers. Tlie Sepoys in the ranks numhered to defend itself without lii< able and cour- ' fully three thousand, iueludiug the Fifty-third ai:eous direction. and Sixty-tit'th lo-iiinieiits of' Intantry, the Sec-

Sooii after the events just ilescrihed, a mes- oiid KiLriiiniit ot HeiiLral Cavalry, .ami a eoin- sa-e wa- carried to Lnekiiow from Sir Hugh pany of tin- Fir>t Artillery. There were, how- Wheelor, coniiiianilaiit at tlio city of Cawn- ev.r. in Cawupoiv about a thonsaud other ].o,,., ili-taut about tittviiiile<. This important Ki,L:li-li rc-idciit-, ot whom a lari;e mniiber

tin- -uiiii,,er, lav on the -oiitli bank of the whole population a- a iiia<-, about one in hfty river (i.i,,i:es. Hi-re was .-tationed a di- was of European birth, it was the ini.-fortune,

piTi H RE«inr\

UXIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

or

if th:

Sir Hi

situ- iva.lv

atiou, tliat Mr lluirli Whrelcr, iq great a rL'sponsilulity .levilv.-.!, seventy-tive years of age. He wa.s, moreover, a man by nature aud discipline hut little ca- pable of facing the dreadful emergency which had now arrived. He had b.-.-n fully" warned of the spread of the revnlt. When the rebell- ion broke out at Meerut, and .soon afterwards at Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence sent woril to his subordinate at Cawupore to make eveiy preparation to meet and vepel the coming re- volt. But Sir Hugh Wheeler was unable to grasp the situation. The position in which he planted his forces was ill-chosen, and the de- fenses which he prepared were little better than contemptible. Some mud walls, about four feet in height, were thrown up as a pro- tection for the garrison. But the intrench- ments were so slight that a horseman would have little difficulty in passing them at a bound. Within this most miserable situation, the English commander gathered the fated com- pany of Europeans, who must maintain them- selves against the multiplied thousands of enraged and triumphant enemies. There were, in all, within the fortifications, about four hundred Euglish soldiers. Of non-combatants, some four hundred and sixty-five, including the civil officials, the railway managers, merchants, and shop-keepers of Cawnpcn-e, were gathered into the pen. Of grown women, married and unmarried, wives and daughters of the English officers and residents, there were two hundred and eighty ; and the remainder were children. Such was the situation when the native host of insurgents, composed largely of the ruffian element, always aggregated about large cities, encompassed the English jiosition and began the siege. It was in the face of this emer- gency that Sir Hugh Wheeler appealed to Sir Henry Lawrence for assistance, and appealed in vain. Before the extent and fall horror of the situation was known, the shell from the en- e.nv's battrrv had relieved Sir Henry of all the respnn>il'.ilities and .langers ..f plan and

X(

• Hugh Wheeler m: lling to his aid anotl become infamous nturv. About two wnpore. up th- Ki-

Ganges, lies the little town (jf Bithoor. This jilaee had i)een, previously to the annexation of Uiidh by the Euglish, "the seat of erne of the princely dynasties of the great race of the Mahrattas. At the time of the Euglish ac- cession in Oudh the throne of Bithn

He was "overtaken in evil, in'rhai

r was oc-

Idji Buo.

treason-

El!

conduct. 11 jierniitted him to retain a jialace in Bithoor, and gave him in his retirement a pension of eighty thousand pounds. Baji Kdo still claimed tn be" the Peshwa of Pimah. He had n.i son of his own luins, but, in accnnlanc.. with the cust.im of his ecumtrynieii, he ha.l adopted a son who should inherit his estates, and at length conduct his funeral rites; for this the tradition of the ^lahrattas prescribed as a necessary ante.'edeiit to the l)lesse<luess of Nirvana. By Indian law, an ad<.pte.l son has all the rights, privileges, and rank of a natural heir. The youth chosen by Baji Edo as his successor bore the name of Daudhu Panth, luit is univer.-ally known in history by his otficial name or rajah-title of Nana Sahib.

At the time ot the outbreak of the mutiny, this Nana Sahib, claiming all the rights and emoluments of his adoptive father, was resident m petty princely state at Bithoor. Unwisely, however, the Euglish Government, at the death of Baji Riio, had cut off the ]iensioii, and the Nana Sahil. was left to the inherit- ance of hi> father's per.-oiial estate only. At this he was enraged ; but, Lidian-like, he dis- sembled his passion and aliided his time. It were long, indeed, to give the story of the efforts made by Nana Sahib to regain his peu- sionarv inheritance. In pursuance of this end he sought the aid of a young Mohammedan, named Amizulah Khau, resident at his court, and used him henceforth as his emissary and representative. Amizulah Khan went to Lou- don, and, being well educated and extremely hands<nne in person, cut feu- a .seasmi a re- markal.)le figure in Euglish society. But his mission was vain. The British Government refu>e<l to restore the Nana's pension, aud Amizulah Khan at length returned to India. It thus happened that Nana Sahib, ex-Rajah of Bithoor, thon-h in outwanl friendshi|. and alliance with the Enulish, bore about in his

GRKA T BJUTAIX.— SEPOY REBELLIOS.

breast a smothered voleaiKi full of hot [litrh and sulphurous fire.

It was til this dangerous, alilc, and ri-vfiiL:t'- ful Indian Prince that Sir Huuh \\du'.I.T, already at the door of desperation, now ap- ])lied for assistance. Nana Sahili i-iadilv ac- cepted the call, and came speedily at the head of his army into Cawnpure. For a few days the Nana made a prrtensc of roopi-i-atinL: with the English; hut he «as so,,,, p,.,Miad.Ml l,y his countrymen to put liimself at their head, crush the hated foreigners, and thus recover the ancient sovereignty of Pnnah. So in the city he assumed command ol the mutineers, and was thencef >rth the chief of the insur- gents in the region of (,'a\viip..re. I'lider his direction the siege wa> prosi-d. Nana Sahili notified the English commaud.r that on the 12th of June his position would In- as.-aiilted. The attack was made, and -ucii was tin- cour- ageous fighting of the tour hundrod >..ldiers hehind the mu.l works, that the Hindus were rqudse.l with large losses. The ga.ris,,u also surtiired. From day to ihiy, a shower of halls was poured incessantly into the indosure. The water supply of the garrison was limited to a single well, and this spot was under direct fire of the enemy. AVhoever went thitliei- to get water for his thirsty comrades, or toi the famishing women and children, diil so at the jieril of his life. I^nvly did such a martyr return from his inis-ioii without streams of hlood pouring from hi- liullet \\(iund-.

Meanwhile, insui-ijents troni the siirrouml- ing districts of Oudli joined themselves to the forces of Nana Sal.ih. an.l another assault was made on the intrenchmeiits. But again the thousands of the enemy were driven back. Each British soldier had'uow not o.dy his own life, hut the lives of the women an.l children in his hand. There was no alt.rnativ Imt

Oudh fell headlong with the Britidi halls ii, their breasts, an.l the assaulting ho>t n.ll.Ml ha.-k

Sahil.. not ..nlv that ti,.- Kngli.di works .•,,ul.l n..t 1.,- .■nrriclby st..i-ni, hot that hi- ..un h.,1.1 as a l.-a.ler ..f th.- n-l.ellion was h.,,-,.n.-.l bv failure. He a.-.-or.lin-lv s.mt Ami/.ulal, Khan and another officer to tender to the Ihigli-h iavorable terms of ca|iitnlation. Siarvation was already at hand, and it was determined to

Ku-

accejit the .ivertnre. Tirnis wer.-

ropeaus in C'a\\npore w lio ha.l imi heen in any

safe .-..n.luet t.i Allahahail. TheEngli.sh Gen- eral, ami til.- ..ili.-.rs an.l men under his com- man.l, ha.l n.. a|.pn-l,ension ..f th,- ast.mn.ling treachery which ,-..nslitut.-.l the basis .,f this agreement. Th.- Ilin.lus ha.l l.ing since

fare. It ha.l h.-en a loiiu ti since, within

the bor.lers .,f In.lia, th.- L;.-n.-ral ruh-s by which arndes are f.muht an.l >urr.-n,lere.i, hail been vi.date.l. But the ,-a|,itulali..n ..f Caun-

It u.

the Gangt

tn-e.l that th

whole n.and

Attheap|„.inte,lti

c.impany, military an.l civil, nu-n chihlren, were march.-.l ..ut ..f the miserable lien ol death, wdiere they ha.l so hrav.lv .le- fended themselves, ami wen- l.-.l to tin- boats at the river's edge. The eud.arkati.,n was maile, ami the barges were loose. 1 ti.im the bank. Along the s^lmres wer.- gath.-rcl a vast

han.ls. Just as the li.,ats ^^.■^■ tnrnin- int.. the .stream, the blast ..f a trnni|,.-t was hear.l, an.l instantly the straw-thai. -h.-.l i.M.ts .if the barges were seen in fiames. 'l"he ti.a.-lu-r.nrs nif-

the signal to dash lighte.l tor.-h.-s into the r.Mifs, and then, jumping ovejli..ar.l, swam ash.ne. In another moment the cr.iw.ls ..n lie- haig.-s were made the targets for th.msan.ls .il' muskets. The flames sprea.l. l-A.-iy .lis.-hargi- IV.nn the shore struck il.iwii si-.,r.-s in .l.adi- Th.- b.it- t.ims ..f the b-.ats w.-n- iiistantlv lilh-.l with the .lea.l an.l .Ivin-. \,, langnag.- can .le- scribe th,- h.,rr.,r ..f ih,- s,-,-n,-. .\,-arlv the

wlmh- c.mpanv |„-ri-l„-d mis,-,al.ly in 'bl 1 -

an.l fir.-. Only a -in-jh- l,oai-l..a,l .liifte.l into

the current. Fnrlh.-r .h.wn th.- stream' this barge was re.-aptur.-d, an.l al,..ut nin,-ty per- sons were taken hack int.. ('awn|io|-.- as |irisoners.

caped to tell the storv. Tlmse wli,i were retaken

r 'XIVKL'SA I. HIS TOR Y.-^ THE MODERN WORLD.

Ill the -wi linen wen- i^luit to were thrown

Forawhih'th m-a-.-s.hmetothisde.l.au-

ino .■utnpaiiy nf Kii-li>h w.,iuen and chil.lreii were liiiiiteil to Mich iii(H;;iiitics as eanie of im- prisonment anil servitude. But >«'ana Sahih and his lieutenants were not yet satisfied with their reveiiL'C Already divisions of the British arniT had hi--nn to pmi-trate the reh.dliou> proviiKTs, and Nana Saliili i»avi-iveil that it was the he^inniii- of th- rod. He resohvd, however, that the prisoners ill his liands should

with two Sepovs and two Mohammedans, was sent to the piison to earry out the mandate of ] horrid luilrheiy. The live iiiurderers entered, with drawn swords, and sla>hed and haeked and ,-tal.l.ed until the room was parked with the dyini: and dead. The awful shambles re- i mained in that condition until the following mornine-, when a second company came, dragged the mntilated hodies torth, and cast them, after thev liad stripped troiii them the rem- nant- ot Clothing', into a dry well which gaped o)ieii neai- at hand. As the bodies were seized for this final plnni;e from the sorrows and sutterin-< of lif., it was fiund that a few of the womtai Were not vet dead, and at least one of the children /r/V,/'/,, ,•»/- „„■„,,! It was the acme of hori-or. Smue time atterwards, when the Engli.-h soldiers retook Cawnpore, they were oliliei'd to look down, with rage and tears, into that awful pit, and recover therefrom, as best thev might, the mangled forms of beauti- ful women and helpless idiildren whom the Sepoys had there consigned to the final igno- miny. Till the history of Great Britain shall fall into the oblivion of the eternities, the rec- ollection and story of the Cawnpore massacre will still be revived and repeated, as the most horriil incident >-i' warfare belonging to the nineteenth century.

It may interest the reader to know- some- thini: of the future of Nana Sahib. When the EuLdish marched back on Cawnpore, he was -till in command of the rebellious forces. He had the cmra-e to fight with the British armv in a desperate battle, in which he was comiiletelv detV-ateii, and his forces scattered

ill all directions. He thereupon fled into Cawn- poi-e, and thence to his own palace at Bithoor. It 1- .-aid that, mi arriving there, he completed the infamy of his life by the murder of a cap- tive woman who had been spared for his own purposes from preceding butcheries. This done, he mounted his horse and fled from Bithoor f irever. He well knew that the aveng- ing angel was in the wake of his flight. He made his escape into the wild district of Nepal, and was never heard of afterwards. Rumors of his whereabouts were sometimes borne to the i)riti,-h authorities, but were always found to he groundless. Nana Sahib hail forever vanished from the sight of thi>se wlio, even if they had laid the avenging hand upon him, could never have wreaked on his treacherous life a fitting retribution for his crimes.

We may now jiass from the insurrection ]ii-oper to eon>ider the recouquest of the re- bellious districts by the English. It is just to say that, after the first wild hours of panic, the energies of the British race were never more heroically disjilayed than in the work of re- covering India from the clutches of the mu- tineers. It will be remembered that every- thing of miiitarv and civil procedure had to be dii-ected from ('alcutta. Communications between the revolted provinces were, in a great measure, cut oH', and the Government was uniler the iiece-sity of urging forward the vaiioiis military divisions from Lower Bengal a< a ha-e. It was clearly perceived that the fii-st jioint to be gained in the recomiuest of the country was the recovery of Delhi. That place was logically the seat of the rebellion. There old Bahadur Shah had been proclaimed as Emperor of all India. His sous had been assigned to the command of the various divis- ions of the Sepoy army, and the latter, to the number of more than fifty thousand, had taken possession of Delhi. All the Europeans and Eurasians, with the exception of about fiftv, nearlv all of whom were women, had been expelled from the city, and rebellion was rampant and victorious in all the region round about. Even the fifty prisoners were soon brought forth from their place of confinement to be butchered, in cold blood, in the court- yard of the palace.

The command of the expedition f ,r the re- coverv of Delhi was eiveii to Sir Ilenrv Bar-

!J:ea t nuiTAiy.-sFA'o r RKBELiioy.

)n.lli with ai

sui.i. llr 111

at l!a<lli-k;

the ill>tiri:vnts in f, f.iuulit with them a hai-a halllr, and w ciiiipl.-tc virtni-y. I],, ihni madr his w; D,-lhi, ami t.»,k tip his )„,„ti.,n ..u a ovcrinuidii- tlir citv. Fm- tlir tiiii.^. Iiou it was i,ii,H,»ihi,. in tvrai.tuiT ll„. stron;

H,i,. Tims tril and dcMviidant nlTimn

t..i-ed,til-st 111 tin. city, and tin 11- ivumns. Hy tlir l.r::,ni,ii o-aiMiu- I'.ritisliautliurilvwas

HIT llic stron^linld .ariitly .•siai.iisli.-d t.. admit ..I tlic iTslnratmii

frnni till- 'riu-niv. On tlit- L'-'M and L'.'.tii ..t' ..t' ,avd -nvciniu.nt in I Kdlii, and thr ivhidH-n

All-list, hl.MHly liattlfs wciv ti.ii-lit witli tlif in tliis .jiian,-,- uas at an end.

niutinrri-s, win., sallyiii- nut in .,v<Twh,diniii-- Tim na.ha- will imt liave fni-Kntt.'ii the

iiuinl.n-s, .n,i;;l,t tnian-v thn Hi-itis], pnMtin,,. divadful nnnditin,, in wlii.di tlm small Knglish

At len,t;th, in tlie rally ptirt uf September, j uaifisnu at Lueknnw was left alter the death

the neavy hatteries arrived, and the .lefenses | ,,f Sir Henry Lawreiiee. P.efniv the tall nf

of the city were snmi hattcrd down. On the that l.ravc ennimander he had caivfiilly cal-

14th of tiie mnnth an assault was nrdcivd, and i lailat.'d the chai s, and had ,lc,a<led that

Delhi was carrieil hv stnrm. It was ii,,t, : Imp,, fnr his .v.mmand lav in the dehaise nf

hnwever, until after six davs ,,f alnmst iii.-es- | their pn-itimi at tlm Il-Mdcicv tn the last day

c'itv were a'n ivenveivd. The ternhle charac- P.ritish anlhnrities wmild put fnrth everv cHhrt ter nf the struj-le mav he kimwii fr.mi the ' fnr the ivseue, and that s„„„- /,„„' dnrin- the extent .d th.. Ih-itish Insses, which were a tlinii- I autumn the smind nf Ihalisli ,.aiiiinn in the sand and twelve men killed, and nearlv fmir dl-taiiee wmild a nice the ninrniiiL' nf de- thousand wniinded. A-s asvictnrywasd.- ' livenuice fnr ail ulinmi..d,t then survive. It

clared fnr tin- Kneli^h. the ,,ld Kmpernr shut h:ippeiied that wlum Sir .lames ( )utrani was

himself up in the tmuh nf Haimtvun, fr.un recalled, as we have seen, frnm his IN-rsian

cyjrKnsAL history.-^thk modeux world

(lered t(i pi	mci'e	.1 to Allaliaba.	1, to put down
the revolt	ill tl	hat re^inii, aiK	i afterwards to
act iu su]	.pol-t	.if Sir Htigl	1 Wheeler, at
Cawupure,	aii.l	Sir Henry	Lawrence, at
LiK-know.	Tlii	j liazaril(ius \v(j	rk could never
liave been	assiji	ne.l to abler hi	aids or a more

the

en place throuiih

Fut

On the 15tl

ha.l

eugageiiiems witn he came to Cawiipi he was victorious it

k'poys. (.)], the Kitli In battle after battle district of the Oudh, and sought by every possible means to strike out in the direction of Lucknow. But his forces were insufficient for the iiazard, and he was obliged to await the arrival of (ieneral Out- ran! with another division of the army. When the latter came, the camjiaigu for the relief of Lucknow was at once renewed. Although General Outram was in supreme command, alike of civil and military affairs, he refused to supersede Havehick in the held, declaring that to the latter should remain the glory of recovering the capital and rescuing the garri- .son from the merciless clutch of the Sepoys.

We may here transfer our station to the in- side of the Residency at Lucknow, and share in our sympathies the suffei-iiiL:> ami trials to

fearful summer and fall ol' l^'tT. Tlie siege, the defense, and the relief have become ever memorable iu the annals of the century. We have seen how, iu the dawn of the great mutiny, Sir Henry Lawrence took the wise

English population of Lucknow from the city to the Resiliency, and to make there his jn-eparations for the coming storm. It was by the wisdom of Lawrenr.. iu these trying davs that the pos>il,ility of >alvatiou from' the same fate which befell the garrison at Cawnjiore was secured. He made the most of the days of peace and the incipiency of the rebellion by the Construction of strong defenses around the Residi'iii-y, and by storing therein, in place,- of security, the largest supply of provi.-ioi it was possible for him to gather, prepared, he awaited the outbreak

which Thus wiselv

Then came the tempest. The first shock was ably and successfully resisted. Though the besieged were under constant fire, and were

pressed on every side; th.ui;;h tlnir luimliers

ilisease, yet the onsets of the Sepoys were suc- cessfully resisted, and each successive assault was rej)elled. We have already spoken of the fatal accident by which Sir Henry Lawrence, losing his life, rose to perpetual fame. The command of the garrison was transferred to General luglis, and the defense continued to be bravely conducted. On the 20th of July the mutineers made another assault ou the I English position, but were again hurled back with great losses. The same thing happened on the iDth of Augu^t, and eight days after- wards, the Sepoys, in overwhelming numbers, and with desperate courage, a third time at- tempted to carry the Residency by storm. But the attack was met with the usual spirit, and the rebels were driven back with heavy losses. During the remainder of August, though the siege was pressed with ever-increasing vigor, the undaunted garrison held out courageously. Ou the 5th of September, the first rumors of the approach of Havelock were wafted into the Re.-ideiicy. That General, accompanied by Outram, had fought his way along the Gawupore road during nearly the whole of August. It was Hot, however, until the 22d of Septemher that the coming army of relief reached the Alambagh, a strong position and military station about four miles distant from the Residency. This place was held and strongly defended l.)y the Sejioys. But the at- tack of the English, ou September 25th, could not be resisted. The Alambagh was taken by storm, and the besieged garrison, in the in- cl,.>ure of the Pvesidency, couhl already hear

small force behind to hold the Alambagh, Havelock pressed on to the relief of the pent- up garrison. Through the remaining miles he fbiiiiht a continuous battle with the Sepoys, and on the 2lith of the month, planted himself in front of the gates of the Residency, and then bn.ke through.

Great wa- the relief and great the rejoicing

uxiVERSAi. insroRY.—Tin: M<>r>Ei:x W()i:i.t>

11 \ 1 1 ,

1 tl It tl \ lud il h Ih \

^Mtl in th f itih iti i 1 it ll \t t i Ii |

I \ [ tl It tl 1 1 ( il 1 I ] tl 111 11 1 1 It 1 el tl 1 , I 1 11 , 1 ll t I t tie tl ll 1 tl I tl 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 I 1 I tl 1 ( 1 t 1 It 1 ill nil t 1 1 I tl I 1 1 I 1 I Nil, V I 1 t III h t 1 1 tl n t I t Itn A 1 1 ll 11 1 1 1 X 1 \ t 1 I 11 1 t, 1 1 1 , n Ih \ h 1 1 u tl 1 I 11 t 1 \ ll I eiil t th 1 ht \ th I I 1 ui n 111 I tl 1 1 ^li 1 11

II uti u w liiilhl ll t 1 it hil Iftu lui 11 I 1 ui 1 1 leha 1\ h\ 1 11 ht \ lii_ the nil 1 1 111 1 tl Ih t ice \ hi h 1 1 11 f I ill t ml oiiii i h 1 j in 1 c Jll H uel ck u 1 ( ) t I 1 I i 1 L u il k t I 111 ^ t II lU i ll e leteu,t au 1 ti e 1 es ot the

'^^ ^^^

ATTACK UN THE AI.AMnACH.

with them were liy no means sufficient to war- hesie^ed were severe. The hut mui of the In-

r.-iiil a withiliawal fiMiii the defenses and ex- diaii siininier and aiituiiiii scdiched the MiH'erers

|i..>iiiv to the open cniiiitrv. The numbers in the iiielosure with Imnimi: heat. Disease

within the ineh.Mire ,.f the Eesidency had and wa.-lin- added t- the evri-:i.rmimlatinL;

Imm-ii ■ji-e;itl\- inereaM'd. Init the consumption of soiinw-. llaltle wa^ li.tniv the naio, pesti-

supplier was iMirrespondinulv ansrmented. On leiu'.^ in tin' air and mhIit Ni.t only was the

the whole, the peril wa^ nlllv lessened and whole toive of the ImmjIIsIi a-ain shut up

postponed, rather than ivnioved. Nor were the within the deteiiH'S of the Kesideiiev, I. lit the

besieLdn.tr hosts trreatlvdi-eonra-.Ml. The Sepovs Mnall ■jarri.M.n whieh Ilaveloek had leCi in the

had learned to fi^it.' Their lont; .■oi,fa<t will, .Mainha^J, wa< aNo l,e<ieL'ed. and eonld hardly

the British army had -ivii them eourat'e and hold its own ai:aiii>t the constant assaults of

(1UI:A T BRITAIX.— sepoy liEIiELIJoy.

' "' .lac

sure to eume.

:\re:uiuhile, in inerston had call' hrmcfBalaklava til- 11th ..f July, inana-iii-rhi.-f'

lu.lia. '• When will yiiu be able to set mit fni- the seat of war. Sir Colin?" sail! Palmerstou. •' Within twenty- four hours," was the reply: and on the evening of the 12th, the uew coniinauiler left England f)r Calcutta/ He ar- rived at the latter city on the loth of August, and with great energy pre- pared an expedition f )r the relief of the Briti-sh garrisons iu Oudh. His forces consisted of sis thou- sand men, supported with an artillery contingent of thirty- six guns. What ar- rangements had been made in the South, what relief might he expected from the direction of Cal- cutta, was unknown j|__ to the sufferers at Lih'kiiou-: but they well kuHW that thcv woi the day of retribution Sir Colin's arniv at li.ire. and from that i same route which H Lurkuou-. Like lii< also had to fight

< ,,r,.drcc->or. Cam|.l.rll way. and it was not until the 10th of November that he was nbl<- to open his guns against the besiegers of the

■ctio,,, a little S,-,,irh maiden, otticrr, Irll a.|.,.|, in ihr >i,ade , Sndd.ulv ~1h. -i.ran^ up, ^r hands, ran with living plai.l. he came: " Dinna ye hear it? i'? It's the slogan of the Her ipiick ear had caught iu

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERy WORLD.

vii ;	aJ of th,. ir, Thr r 111' iliciili'll
,,(■	li>l(>|-V. '
>VnrU
Sil	Coliu L\

ipbrlls

nt t pivii

the Residenc}'. The f(irces within ami witiioiit the (leFeuses were joined, auil the second relief of Luekuow was accomplished.

It was at once determined by f^ir Colin and his associate commanders that the non-eom- batants in the Residency must l)e saved by withdrawal from the place. To make this movement was still a matter of great hazard, for the Si'poys hnni,^ in mnltitndos on every quart. 'r. On the IDtli ot November the English batteries were opened furiously on the strongest position held by the enemy, as though an assault were about to be ordered. Wliil.. the cannonade was kept up, Canipb.'ll and llav.lock ordered th.- .pii.-t with.lrawal of the garris.)n and n.in-oMihatants t.) the Dilkusha Palace and the Alambagh. The movement was efTected without disaster, and the retreat from Lucknow was safely begun.

An incident of these days cast a gloom over the British Empire, and emphasizp.l the cl,-,se of a hcr.iii" life. On reachiii- the Alainl,a-h, Henry ILivel.ick could uo no lurtli.r, II.' was exhausted. Battle and toil, huni^.T, lliii-sf, anxiety, sleeplessness, and finally .lisias.-, Iia.l d.me their work. On the 24th of Novendicr th.' her.i .li.Ml Tlir.'c .lays afterwards the Queen of En^ianil, llttl.' kn'iwing the uselessness of the honor which she gave, bestowed on him the title and dignity of a Baronet. The honor descendeil to his son ; nor might it be sai.l that such a .listincti.m was needed by him who j ha.l f.iun.l his final I'.'st in the soil of the old king.l.im of Ou.lh, under the fiery glare of the sun of India.

The rest of the story of the suppression of the great mutiny may be briefly told. There could be no further massacres of women and chihlren in Oudh. It was now solilier to sol- dier, or rather one soldier against many, f.ir the Sepoys were near!}' always from four to ten times

as nnm.'i'ons as the atta.'king English f.irces. As s.H.n as ]„• was free f..r a.'ti.in, Sir Clin Campb.'U niaivhe.l again f..r ('awnp.,re. In that city the English cause ha.l, of late, fared ba.lly. Cawnpore had been placed, after its r.'.-overy by the English, under command of < nii..ranVin.lhani. Not l.ing afterwards, the Hin.lu (i.)v.an.ir, ..r Scindia, of Gwalior L;atliiiiMl an aiiiiy of insurgents, and advanced .10 ( 'a\Mip..ri', h.)ping to recapture the city troin till' British garrison. General Windham niar.-h.'.l out to meet the Scindia, and was wor-tcl in battle. He was obliged to foil lia.'k to his ilefenses, anil the rebels succeeded in rc.ic.aipyini;- Cawnp.jre. Such was the con- .liti.m .if atliiirs which called urgently for the presence and aid of Sir Colin Campbell. He marched at once against the place, himself at the head of one division, and Sir Hope Grant leading another. The en. 'my were thus il.nibly attackeil, and Cawnpoie was finally rest.n-ed to English authority.

The event which we have just descrilied occupied the closing months ot 1857 an.l the o]i.aiing .if the next year. During the winter, Lu.-kn.iw was hel.l by the Hindus in full force. In .ilher quarters of the h.irizon the sky ha.l i-lcar.'.l. It was perceived, even by the eni'iny, that the British power in In.lia was unshaken, an.l that the day of retribution was at haii.l. In the presence of these facts the reb.-lli.in was dissolved into its original .'1. an. aits. At Ln. 'know, however, the mutiny .Ir.'w t.i itself all of its remaining resources, an.l the duty was devolved on Sir Colin Campbell of carrying this last fortress ot the revolt. With the opening of spring the cam- paign was undertaken for the recapture .d the capital. The British army again reache.l Luck- now about the middle of March, and on the lyth of the month fought with the Sepoys the last great battle of the war. The English were com- pletely victorious. About two thou.sanJ of the mutineers were killed outright in the en- gagement. A hundred cannon were taken fr.im the rebels, and the army ot insurgents, br.iken into fragments, was scattered iu all di- rections. Lucknow was completely recovered. Nor did the Sepoys make any further serious efforts for the recapture of the ancient capital of On.lh.

In the last cmflicts .if the war, several

GREAT B RITA rx.— SEPOY REBELLION. SOo

eminent soldiers lost tlicii- lives. Aniong the f luul taken refug-e. In that retreat, Hudsiin, rest may be mentioned 8ir William Peel, who with his own hand, seized the fallen iimiiarrh, was seriously wounded in the battle before drew him forth, and delivered hiui to his

small-pnxatCaui character and ,<ti-

An..tl

tierv of General Wilson. II.HJ.n

tell m

the th

)yal princes of Delhi, and in

last battle, was Colonel Hodson, known in India as "Hodson of II..d>on's H.n-se." His career had been one of singular reckless- ness and daring. He it was who, after the recapture of Delhi, had, with the help of

of rage had them condemned to death. He then took a carhine from the hands of one of his men, and .-hot the ])rinces <lead, leaving their bodies before the gates of Delhi. During the rest of the war, he had gone through all

Hindu spies, penetrated the tomb of Ham- hazards and perils, to fall at last by a Sepoy dvun, where the last of the Mogul Emperors bullet in the hour of final conquest. The i;3

:;i''> VSIVEESAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

reader may n..t have fnr^ottfU that out of the 2\eiuiy all ui the leaders who had distinguished

disaster.^ of Calml, ending in the total de- themselves — and who had uot? — were honored

stniction of a iJriti^h ai-aiy, and of all who with titles and dignities and pensions. Sev-

were dependent on its iirotection, a single man eral of the Generals were made Baronets. Sir

had escaped to carry tlie news of the horror to ] Colin Campbell was raised to the peerage,

Jelalabad. That man was Dr. Brydon, who ' with the title of Lord Clyde. Dnnng the rest

lived thiou-h the >iege <.f Liieknow, euduriug of his lile, which extemlj<l to Lm;:',, he enjoyed

all the liard.-hii.> and -alleriuy< ..f that dreadlul a pension of two thousand puuuds a year. "At

situation, to be rescued with the gariison, and , the scenes of the principal events of the war,

to be mentioned with praise in the report of memorials were erected by the Government to

the campaign as one of the heroes of Luck- i commemorate the valor and .-acritice of those

ikeii p:

Brill

The

rivil a 1 the E:

d to tb.

st was

both

as an enduri

ently Y le nati

in tho^, nisaiid

Residency at Luckuow bears witness in many of its details and surroundings to the tragic events, to the valor and the glory of 1857. There, to the present day, may be seen the ruined works, behind which the heroes who fought under Havelock, stood and battled for the Hag of Euglaud. There may be seen the old ninsque an<l the maguitieeut banyan-tree thrnugii whose branches the Sepoy bullets wlii>iled during the siege. There, near at liand, rises the significant mound, its .sides ter-

nnEA r hl'Itaix. — sf.poy rkbejJjIox.

raced and covered with the fragraut flowers of India, wliile on the further slope rise the feathery bamboos which overshadow the last resting-place of two thousand British sohliors who died of battle and pestilence in the sief;e of Lueknow. At Cawupore, over the horrid well whose open mouth received the mutilated bodies of the murdered women and children, a memorial has been erected; while roinid about the sj^ot a beautiful garden, planted with flowers and shrubs, and jn-otected by a wall, jweserves the lumiory of those who perished under the swonls of the murderers sent to their blnod\ work iu the prison-house by the I ] 1 of Bithoor.

With the subsidence of the re belli in India, a difficult and serious t\ 1 was left ou the hands of the & \ein meut. By what means shoull reorganization of those vast } pul tious be effected. Iu the first j 1 the question of retribution mi t I met. It was resolved by the auth i ties, civil and military, that a distinc tion should be made between thj t who had merely participated in tl mutiny, contending openly with tl British forces iu battle, and th who had taken part iu the mam h i rid massacres, of which the ^ [ \ had been guilty. As far as pncti cable, this distinction was carrie 1 out in the punishment of those wh tell into the power of the I5ntish. Tl Hindu soldiers who were take lu 1 whose hands were not stained with butchery and assassination, were treated as prisoners of war. But those who had lieeii guilty of massacre were at once destroyed by being blown alive from the moutlis of cannon. In ext( of this severity, which had in it so .. flavor of barbari>ni, the expla by the British authorities t under their pe.^uliar >n|,er-lil or nothing for the mere faet of death, but were horrilied at the thought of nuitil;itioii. The metho.I of military execution was deduced from this theorv; but after times have hardly eoii-eiited to the wholesale and Savage process by which the guilty Sepoys were obliterated.

After the first rigors of the military method were passed, the civil government pro- ceeded as best it might with the reorganiza- tion of the country. ' In ^laivh of ISo.S Lord Caniiiiig issued to' the inliabitants of Oiidh a proclamation, in which he defliied, with much severity, the measures by which they might be restored to conditions of peace. It was set t;.rth tliataJ] chiefs and landowners who should at once surrender to the British Commissioner

on was -i\	en
the 8epo
s, careil lit	tie

M'l"	P	\idul onh that they
p'ro:.h n tosa	Itx V tlu	t ma— acie oi assassina- .11 of the Governor-Geu- t anv further indiila-eiice
ht Ite	ext	nde,l to the people of
nidee(	the 1 on	r whole condition thcre- their own course in siir-
heni,-e	ves	o the jii-tice and mercy
.-h (io lamati	•elli .11 \\	neiit. The general effect i> to eontiseate the lands
had t!	ken	[lart in the mutiny, and

UyiVKUSAL HISTORY.— THE MODEIiy WORLD.

\v;.s lint iK-rluips ..lie in a tlmiiMin.l nt di.- kind- (iwn.Ts in nil Oii.Ui win, lia.l not I,. m (.■n-aged ill the l;,-lK'Hinii. li vvas |..ii,a|.-. nut in- tended liv LmhI Canniiiii- lliat ill.- luMialtv should be <n ri-on,nvly exael.-d a- ini-lit lie infen-ed from the procaniatiou. It wa.s the purpose rather to make the people niiilerstainl that the British (ioverninent, in tin- exerei-e of prerogative whieh had ari>.-ii -at »( lie- war, hail become the ori-iinal pmpii.-t.ir of the lands of Uudh, and that all who henceforth held or owned siieli lands iiiu,-t .f. -.,, under a title derived from the Crown of England.

As soou as the policy of the Governor- General was kuowu iu England a violent con- troversy arose relative thereto, and the dis- cussion in Parliament did not end until the Government of India was revolutionized. Lord Ellenborough and most of the Ministry an- tagonized the principles of Lord Canning's proclamation, and motions were introduced in both Houses of Parliament to substitute a new policy for that of the Governor-General. To the American reader, the condition of affairs and the controversy relative thereto, may well bring to mind the divisions between the Ex- ecutive and Congress in the work of recon- structing the Southern States at the close of the Civil War. It appeared that, in the case of Lord Canning, he had sent certain private and explanatory letters to England in con- nection with the proclamation, and that thes-s were withheld until the break was made be- tween the Governor-General and the ^Ministry. Since no other policy could be substituted fin- that proposed by Canning, the latter officer ■went straight ahead to meet the difficulties be- fore him according to his own methods.

It soon appeared that the measures pro- posed were not in effect so severe as they were theoretically. The people of Oudh, particu- larly the landowners, were now thoroughly will- ing to accept the best terms of settlement which might be had at the hands of the Gov- ernment. It was found that Canning's policy was the remedy for many of the ancient abuses with which the people of the Province had been afflicted. The somewhat dependent posi- tion in which the land-owners were placed, gave opportunity for an extension of rights and influence among the village communities.

In lact, the dn

ilntion was more in Tlirie had always :-ioIarv ri-ht of the 1.1. -i,!.- in the lauds traiisi.,r ..f this pro-

(u-.-a

ter

all, s., -1

lor.K an.l lli.-' village tenantry.

M. -an while, the whole question of the pres- ent .■.in.liti..ii and future government of India was uii.ler lull .li.scussion in Parliament. In

nia.letotliatfam..usEastIn<liaC.,nipaiiy, nn.ler whose aii^pi.-es the civil and govermental de- vel.ipiii.-iil ..f India had taken place. As early as \~)\}'), what was called "A Company for Remote Parts," was formed in Amsterdam, and was presently chartered, with the general jjrivilege of trade with the East Indies, for twenty-one years. Afterwards the charter was extended to 1644. Still again, in 1655, the rights of the Company were revived, and con- tinued till the year 1700. We have already seen how, with the maritime ascendency of England, dating from about the middle of the seventeenth century, the power of the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the French in the for East, gave way before the greater vigor and aggressiveness of the English fleets. Even before this event, in the year 1599, Queen Elizabeth had granted to " The Governor and Company of Merchants of London, trading with the East Indies," a charter for fifteen years, conceding to the cor- poration the exclusive right of commerce with all the countries from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Straits of Magellan, excepting only such coasts and islands as might already be occupied by some friendly European State. Such was the origin of that great corporation wdiich was destined to furnish, in after times, some of the most important, and, at the same time, most romantic, chapters in the history of the British Empire.

In the time of Cromwell an cftbrt was made to set free the trade with East India. But the attempt was futile ; and the charter of the Company was renewed by the Protector, and again by Charles II. In 169.S a second company of like character with the original was formed ; but a few years afterwards the two were merged under the title of "The United I Company of Merchants trading with the East

an EAT B KIT A IS.-

Inilie.s." The g.nTinii„Mit ..f tliv Ciui.anv was ill the hands ot a (invenn.i- an,l a Jinai-'l of Directoi's, varying in iiuni'n'r at dillliint times and under ditiereiit statiUis, In 17'i.s tliree Local Councils were estahlish.,! iii India, onr lor Madras, one for iJond.av, and our lor C'al.-utta. During this rmtury, tlu- i>nlincal

vastly extruded m Hindustan. In 17o7 tlie goveninifnt ot' tho coriioiation sm/ceeded in deposing tho nahoh of llongal, hy uhi.di art great and rich |irovnh-(~ woro M.-ouird. It was 111 17(U that the dotfut and virtual eX|,ulsioii of the Fren.di troni India onahled the Conipaiiy To iHirsue with still grratrr treodoni its poii.-y of aggraiidizenifiit. So.)n afterwards that most remarkahlc . pis. .de in the historv of the country, the admnu-tiati. in of Warivn Ha^tin-s >^rrm-vrA, t.. he f.llowed hy his inipea.diniont an.l tho ,-onso,pi..nt ivvelation, to the mind of England and all Europe, of the treniondous resources, the vast extent, the complioatcd governmental system, the antique civilization,

fiEPOY REBELLION.

■ (;overnor-(;eiiri-al of Ind

and 11 Lord L

dh<-rr of •allrd 1)V

H,

h.rth It wass,.,-n that the East India Coinpaiiy, as a jirivate corporatKju, could not lie letf m- dependeut of governmental control, to pursue its own course in the management of an Em- pire as great in wealth, and many times greater in population, than the Home Kingdom of -Great Britain. Arcordinglv, on the proposi- tion ,,f Williuin Pitt, a Hoard of (.'ontrol was

appointe.l tor India, In < sist of the two

principal Secretari<\s of State, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and such memhers of the Privy Council as the sovereign might designate. The "Company's charter, however, was, in 17il3, ext<a.dod liv act of Parliament to the year 1814. Indeod. the monopoly of trade in tho East, which had h.-on so Ion- ,-oi„vdrd to tho Company, was not aholisliod niitil April of |s:u.

If, then, at the time of the Indian mutiny, wo glance at thai ( o.yrniiiciit whirh cxpori- ment, statute, and comniorrial interest had conspireil to firm throii-h ilio two and a half I'

ing <• 1 to 1„	■'""■'•■■^•^	o.-liall f of;, ]V.	nd the A.lmi ird .d- DiiHot
f wIm		'^I'-''	hy the Cl-o
1 Din	■tors had	a riiiht	of nviowini:

It remained, however, for the Indian mutiny to rouse Parliament ami the eKiimry lo the necessities of the situation. Four years pre- viously the civil pati-oiiaue which had helonged to the Com|iauy was talxeii away, and ]daced under the same competitiye system whii-li pre-

j At the very heginnuig of l<s.l,S, before civil government was restored at Luckuow, Lord

I Palmerston hronght in a hill for the transfer ofall the civil and political anthorilv of the East India Compaiiv directly and al.snlutely to the Crown of England. The measure coiiteiu|>lated the aiipointmeut, hy the British Home < oiv- ernmeiit, of a Presiilent and Cniineil of .ight memhers f ,r the A.ln.inistration ot India.

lief, re the lull could he pa>sed . howver,

Lord raliuerston was thrown out ot oih.v hy circumstan.'cs to he narrate,! hereafter.

He was su. .■ded hv Lord Dethv, with

Lor.l Eileuhoi-oiiiji as Secretary for the Colo- nies. A new hill was pivpaivd', nioiv ,.oiupli- cated and Ic-s practical than that pi-op.,-cd hy Palmerston. Li the course ,,f the di-cN-iou which eiisucl, it was found that the EUeii- horough hill wa:- virtually dey.,id <.f merit. I At length Lord .lohn KusscU, whose clear

judgment had s any liines discovered a way

thn.ugh like peiplexities, pivpare.l a hill called "An A<-t for the I!ett<'r Covernineut of hi.lia." In it provisions were mad.' that all the territ-rie-. all tiie civil an.l p.ilili.-al ri-hts, hlthert.. h.-l.l an. I .•xeivise.l l.y the Ea^t India

I'.impany, -1 1. 1 he trau~f.-rre.l ah.-.dutely to

the ('now, ..f EiiJan.l. The principal a.lniiu-

roy, nv (;ov,-riioi-(;eii.U'al He was to he ap- p.anl.-.l hy tli.. ('r.iwn. A C,.mi.-il f.r lu.lia,

p..inl.-d,ei,jlt <.f wh.UU W.a-e t.. he rhr..ru hv the Cr.iwiKand ih.. ,,tlu-r s..yen w.a-e .-.Mi.-.-.h.d to th,' Direct. .rs .,f Ih,. ('..iiipany. Th.av was al-o t.i he a. C.un.-il Ih-i.l.Mit iii [ndia, f.r the

rNIVEL'SAL HISTOEY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

roy. Tho act was passed nn the 1st of Sep- tember, 1858. Tlie Queeu was proclaimed sovereign of India, and L(ird Canuiug, iu rec- ogiiitidU of tli.> al.ility ;uid tid<-lity with w^iirh he had di-rlKupd tli.' dutirs of his office in the nio^t ci'itiral rp.u-h tlimimli which the Briti>h (iovniiniriit had yet pas.-rd in tlie East, was appnintr,! iir.-t Vic-my ,.f Ii],lia. The civil revolution thus etiected marked the beginning of a new era in the development of the British East Indian Empire— a move- ment \vlii<li may !»■ said to have reached its culniinati<.n wli'-n, in April of 1876, Queen Victoria, under tlie auspices of Disraeli, re- ceived the crown and title of Empress of India.

Reference has been made above to the sud- den downfall of the Palmerstou Ministry. The cause of the unexpected collapse of the Gov- ernment was known and read of all. On the 14th of January, 1858, the Italian exile, Felice Orsini, for some time resident iu England, but ■who had more recently gone over to the French capital, had taken his station near the entrance of the Grand Opera-house, and thrown under the carriage of Louis Napoleon and the Em- press an explosive bomb. The Emperor and Eugenie escaped unhurt, but ten of the ex- posed by-standers were killed, and a hundred and fifty-six wounded. A full account of the attempted assassination of the French ruler will be given in the following chapter. In this place the event is to be considered only in its relations to England, and particularly to the Palmerstou Giivernnifnt.

It was at once kn^wn that for some time Orsini had lived, publicly and privately, in England. It was discovered that his liombs had been manufactured in Birmingham. Or- sini had sjioken much in many parts of the Kiugchiui, urging the British Government to espouse the cause of Italy against Austria. These circumstances, and many other incidents of the attempted assassination, were noised, not only in Englami and France, but throughout Euroi)e. For the time, the immemorial policy of Great Britain in making the country a havi'U and asylum fm- pnlitical refugees from every part ..f' tl... woiM, was subjected to the severest criticism. In h' ranee especially were animailvcrsioiis ofU-n-il, frnm quarters high and quarters low, on that type of Government

wliich absorbed into itself the half-nuirderous malcontents from all other nations. In Eng- land there was .some sympathy with these views — some disposition to adopt a more strin- gent policy relative to the political aliens who had found, or might hereafter find, asylum in

At the head of this opinion stood Lnrd Palmerstou himself. His attitude iu this par- ticular must be interpreted from his peculiar constitution. Ever since liis entrance into public lifr bis piilitics had been divided into twd jiai-ts, the tirst part being devoted to liberalism in England, and the other part to ab.<(ilutism abroad. Lord Palmerstou was thercfiire allied at many crises of his career with tliDse European rulers wdio had least fiotiug in the actual sympathies of Great Britain. Thus it was in the case of Napo- leon III. It will be remembered that Lord Palmerstou had already had a notable fall from the English Ministry, in 1852, on occount of his unseasonable defense of the Coup d'Etat. In the case of the Orsini affair, the English statesman's partiality again stood stoutly forth. In accordance with his own disposition, and under the stimulus of communications received from the French Cabinet, he brought into the House of Commons a bill known as " The Conspiracy-to-murder Bill." The act was in the open face of the whole antecedent policy of Great Britain. It contemplated the trans- ference of cons})iracy to murder from the list of misdemeanors to the category of felonies, with the penalty of penal servitude iu periods extending from five years to the life-time of the convict. At the first view it would ap- pear that the measure covered the case ; but wdien we take into consideration the im- memorial policy and law of the English-speak- ing race, to the effect that an overt act, and not a contemplated or prepared crime, is necessary to constitute a felony, we shall see the untenable character of the Bill proposed and delrn.h'd by Palmerstou. Many of the ablest I'arliaiiiiiilarians at once perceived the ami llril i>li rhaiacfi-r of the measure. Par- ticularly <lid dohn Arthur Pocburk hold up to the hoMile ju,l-mriit of the House tla- pro- posed stalule. At length, Miloer (iibson threw his iiilluence against Palmerstou, and when the Hill came to a vote for the second

GREAT BIUTAIX.— SEPOY REBELLIOy.

371

■I It

ichi^ni

reading, it failed by a (■'.n.-idcralilc i It only remained tor Lmd I'aliiiii^ti sign his office. He, wim at tlu' li.'ijii the year had ln'cii a^ firmly pla power as any Priiiu- ;Miiii~lcr who 1 ducted the Government tnr thi> la-l of a century, suddenly lust his Imii s_vmpathy for the ruler of FiaiH'c. confounding the misdemeanor ol crime with the actual commission ( itself.

The American reailei- will hai perusing this significant paragrapli mind the similar et}i)rt made, and si in his own country, with respect to In the United States the British theory of free asylum has been cordially, fully and righteously adopted. Any othei cour.se on the part of the American Republic would be to belie the very principles on ■which the Republic is founded. "So movement in our coun try has been more pitiably contempt ible than that which jiroposes to regard the United States as meant ex clusively for the selfish promotion of the interests of those wdio have the good fortune to be born American. True, every human government must first care for its own ; but the Amer- ican Government can not stop with this narrow construction. The United States exists for the world, for man- kind, for an enlarged human liberty. It must needs be that offenses will come under such a system. The Anarchists in American cities plotted to com- mit crime. In a most conspicuous instance, crimes were committed. The authorities might proceed either against the conspiracy or against the murderous deed doue in Haymarket Square. The conspiracy was a nii-dompanor. The bomb-throwing was a t'dony. As a matter of fact the Anarchi-^t- were (iniviete.l ot con- spiracy, and were ii"t coiivieted of throwing the bombs. They we,e tried tor murder, and were convicted of anari'lr. ! 'flie attemjit made in several qnarter-; to sti'eteh the principles ot' American law, so that plotting and conspiring to commit crime shall be put into the category of felonies, along with the overt acts of riot, murder, and assassination, i.s one of the most

dangerous fiillacies with wdnch recent jurispru- dence has been afflicted — a princi]ile by far more evil in itself and pernicious in its tenden- cies than the evil which it is intended to

Befiie his hml exit fi im ( fhce L id Pal racist )n had the good foitune to lecoiate hi^ cie t with a feathei fiom the East The teithei \M ]ln 1( 1 ti m tli i iun hnt plum i.,e t ( hmi ( lilt n In 1 it la t been til nl\ tilt dhellien h in I LUpli4i fleets n \ 1 11^ the militai> opetations on that fai it h 1 1 been suspended oi balked b\ the ti uble an 1 disasters of the Butish Empie thf leulei maj well infei 1 ji it will n tie

k of the

forgotten how, at the dian War, Lord Canning had ])ut forth his hand, and in the emergency diverted the En- glish armament, which had been sent out to China, from its intended pur]iose and brought the fleet to his ,,wii a>-i>tanee. Of small im- portance was it to (ireat liritain that the

neiit, as we broader and

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

hei

a ii.-i

mure rational Ijasis. Thus reli iMiiliarrassnients, Great Britain free to join the French in a vigorous jiroseru- tion of the \var on China.

The Emperor Xapoleon ha^l meanwhile i'ounil a reasonable eau-c for liis ho-tility in tiie eruel treatment whicli had been vi:;ite(l by the (-'hinese on a company of French missionaries. Xapoleon III. was in a frame of mind for the prosecution of a foreign war. The Frencli Nation had found some measurable gratifica- tion of pride in the issue of the conflict in the Crimea, and in the ability of the Emperor to bring the ambassadors of the great Powers together under his auspices in the Treaty of Paris. But it \Yas necessary for him to con- tinue his foreign enterprises to the end, that the French might be still further elated with his government. Tims England and France bore down in general armament upon China, and struck at Canton. It was no great matter that European fleets should prevail over the rude and primitive defense with which the C'hiuese were able to protect their city. Can- ton was bombarded and taken. At this time the Imperial Commissioner, Yeh, was in the city. The allies succeeded in running down the Oriental dignitary, and capturing him in his retreat. To him, in his obstinacy, the British authorities chose to refer the recent hostilities and destruction of life and property. Xor could it well be doubted that the cruelty and recklessness of his admini.stratiou had been such as to justify severe measures against him. It was said that in a recent Chinese rebellion he had ordered the ignominious execution of one hundred thousand rebel prisoners. Yeh was accordingly treated as a political prisoner; was sent to Calcutta, and kept in confinement until the following year, when he died.

Canton taken, it remained to reestablish peace. To this end Lord Elgin, on the )iart of Great Britain, and Baron of France, were empowered <Tovernnients to form a new The policy of nou-intercour: Imperial <;overnment was ciuisfs of offense, and aira ropean ministers protested securing the establishment <: Chinese Curt. It was also

should henceforth have representatives at !^t. .Tames and Versailles. It was provided that tile Christian leligion should henceforth be tolerated in the Chinese Empire, and that cer- tain of the Chine.se rivers should be accessible to the merchant- vessels of England and France. As to the expenses of the war, pay- ment therefor was, as a matter of conr.se, ex- acted from China. Lord Palmerston was able, in his official capacity, to inform his country- men of the success of the military operations in the East, before the i)olitical eclipse into which he was now to enter.

Before concluding the present chapter, we may well pause to note a single event in the intellectual and scientific progress, not only of the Briti.sh people — not only of the English- speaking race — but of all civilized nations. It was in the year 18,59 that the greatest of mod- ern naturalists, Charles Robert Darwin, pub- lished his Oriijin (if Species by Meam of Natural Sii'cfioii. The work produced an immediate and vivid sensation among the thinking people on both sides of the Atlantic. The new doc- trine ,if the Natural History of Life was at once assailed with all manner of adverse and acrimonious criticisms, with every variety of argument and prejudice. In the course of a few years, no fewer than three hundred and twelve authors had published works on the subject, a great majority of which were de- voted to the attempted refutation of the hypoth- esis, which now gained the name of Darwinism. But it seemed that the tniited antagonism of a thousand assailants was insufficient to beat down the small and modest treatise which the naturalist had put forth, embodying his views as to the methods by wliiidi the various forms of animal and vegetable life on the earth have been evolved into their jire.sent aspect and ac- tivities. The ensuing quarter of a century was largely occupied in the scientific world with Gros. on the ]iart ' the debate, which was waged, with ever-increas- their respective mg advantage on the side of the Darwinans;

■aty with ( 'hina. nor may it he well denied, as the controversy adopted by the sub-ides, that a new era has licen reached in

le of the chief the history of the human mind, as it respects

^t this the ICu- its fundamental concepts of the processes and till' extent of movements by which the varieties of animated

'udiassies at the being on the earth have appeared and reached

reed that China , their iiresent ilevelopment.

GREAT BlUTAIN.— SUFFRAGE REFORM.

CH.Al^TER CXXXI. -STTP-KRAGE REFORM AXO AMER- ICAN COMFI.ICATIOK.

ITH tho fall of Palnier- ^tiiii, L(iril Derliy again came to tlie liead of the Goverument. With him were associated Benjamin Disraeli, as Chancellor of the Exchequer; Lunl Stanley, as Secretary for the Colonies; Lord Malmcslniry, as Secretary <if Foreigu Affairs; and (^ieneral Peel, as Secretary of War. Of these, by far the strongest and ablest leader was Disraeli, whose coming ascendency in the Goyernment of Great Britain might be easily discerned. One of the first expedients of the new Cabinet was not to do what its pred- ecessor proposed to do. This j^rinciple was applied at once to the Conspiracy Bill, which was allowed to die of inanition. As for tlie rest, the attention of Parliament was at mici' directed to the question of the reiunval ..f the remaining political disabilities of the .Tews.

It was very fitting that one liimsch' by birth a Jew, though nominally a Clui-tian, .-li-uld be leader of the House of Cnmmons in the day when the final emancipalion of his race was effected. It is difficult for the man of to-day, who has the English language as his birthright and the principles of English lil)erty as his bulwark, to understand the bit- ter, causeless, unreasoning prejudices of race which still held from the exercise of human rights, at so late a period of British history, so large and influential a class of people as the J.-u<. It seemed as thonuh a (•nn>iderable puvtinn of the legislation and iniispnidcnce nf England had been specially ■■..ntiivod f,,r the o|ipress!on and distros of the Jewish race. As late as l.s:]0, alm^.-t all the rights of citi- zenship were jiositively denied to Jewish sub- jects. No office, civil, military, or corporate.

Th:

rofessii

of

A Jew wa,- fnrbiddon to liulit not even serve as lildinL'! He was inter- anil was, of cour.sc, ex-

cluded from mcnibershis, in either H.iuse of Parliament. It is almost inconerivable that the mere bar of race descent should have been made the instrument of such degradation and oppression ; and the wonder is still greater that the measures which were from time to time brought forward for the removal of the load with which every Jew was encundjered, should have been met with violent opposition, even in the House of Commons.

After the year I80O, however, the question of reform would not down. Bills were intro- duced at every session for Jewish emaucijiation, and at length public sentiment rallied to the cause. The Engli-sh people, as such, went over to the side of the Jews, but Parliament — the House of Lords in particular — still refu.sed to concede the removal of the disabilities. It was in the first year of the reign of <^>iierii \'ietoria that the Jews first gained adini.-siiui to certain executive offices. A Jew might be a sheriff^, a constable, a hangman. It was at length perceived that pressure would have to be ex- erteii upon Parliament from without. The friends of Jewish emancipation adopted the jiolicy of electing certain citizens, otherwise qualified, but of the Jewish race, to the House of Commons. This was by no means difficult to do. In 1847 the Baron Lionel Roth.^child was elected as one of the members for the City of I^ondon, and another Hebrew, named Daviil Salomons, for the borough of Shore- ham. At this time the H.use of Lords had just rejected by a stion- vote the proposition tor the extension ot' full eitizenship to the

the highest eharaeter, then'upon resigne.l his seat, and Salomon- was refii-ed adnii-sion.

It must be undei-st 1 that (he aiili-Jewish

prejndiee in Parliament had found its last barricade in the oath which, a.vonling to ex- isting statutes, was required of all lh..s,. who were inducted into othce. This oalh re(iui|-ed allegiance to the British crown as supreme in State and Church, abjuration of all foreign jurisdictions, anil faithful discharge of the

T^yiVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERX W()l!Lr>.

il dutips; and to tlv

.lr,l,:is

Chn^liaii." H.'lniid this claiiH. tl„. (■.m~,.,-va- ti.Mll ot Eii-laii.l tnnk ivfii-i.. It was of ciivs.. the .■ustoni of inli,l,.lsskci,tirs,atlicists, ./ ;./ ..,„,„ ,/>„„.<. tu take this ..atli wilhnut cnniimn.-ti,.,,': l.ut l,..iirst .I,-ws wouhl not suhs.aihr snrh an ohljwation. (iivat Britain

vidcd only the applicant woidd sw.-ai-, usin^,' the \\oi(ls"i)ii the true fuith ot' a Christian." In the meantime, Baron Rothschild and David Salomons, the latter recently elected from ( ireeinvich, again presented themselves for nifinhn-ship, and offered to subscribe the oath with the invidious clause omitted. But the point was not yielded, and both the mem- bers sought to take their seats in spite of the bar against them. Both were excluded, Salo- mons with considerable violence, and Baron Rothschild with such gentle force as the officer of the House might use towards one of high degree.

For several years the contest dragged on, until, tlnally, in" ISoS, a bill was introdu.v.l by Lord .lohn'Rnssell, pn.viding that the <,llicial oath might be mndifrd when it was to be administered to Jews. The measure was pa.«sed by the House of Commons, but was rejected in the House of Lords. At length, however, the substance of the act was accepted in both Houses of Parliament, and henceforth the .lews were admitted to all official relations on taking such a moililicd oath as was accept- able to their consciences and consistent with their religious faith.

Almost coincirlently with the A<'t just named, namely, the act of the Parliamentary session of ls.")S, another measure of ri'f'orm

was rpmove<l from tiie governnnMital politv of (ireat Britain. It will l,e remembered that the eivat llelorm Hill of IS.'Vi, ,vbile it bad gi-enllv e(piali/.ed repivsentntion and extended

Ivejli-h n, bad ilone nntbiie.:- to ameliorate

the polifieal or soei.-d condition of the working- men. ThcT «'ho b.ad expe.led SO mueh from th.' legislation of Karl < J rev reeeived nothin-at all. Tlie b:n:;livl, n.a-es bad a-ked for bread ; Parliament .,av<- them a ston... Tbev a^k.'d a

lia	els to	tbebranehe	s of that
lie	1 l.y 1	reemmeiie,	the Ke-
'll	ilueke,	oidy the ;	Pl.les ..f

Time and auaiii the niore liberal statesmen

viving an<l exti'iiding the principles of that Reform Bill of 1.s;!l', more particularly as it alii-.'ted the character of the House of Com- mons. The time lutd now arrived when another of the great jjrinciples for which the Chartists had contended was to find its way into the Constitution of Great Britain. The old tdinsive statute which required as a quali- iieation tlitit members of Parliament should ])osse.ss a certain amount of lauded property, was still in full force. This is to say, the let- ter of the law w^as in force, but not the spirit. It has been the peculiarity of the whole insti- tutional, and especially thecoustituti(jnal,devel- oi)ment of the British Empire, that the cur- rent legislation and all existing administra- tive and judicial proceedings have been eniaimbered and weiglited down with a mass of obsolete statutes, many of which had their origin amid the half-barbarism, the bigotries and brutalities of the Middle Ages. As a re- sult, every reformatory movement in Great Britain has been hobbled and retarded, drawn from its course to right and left, or jerked backwards on its haunches, by the long and strong thongs of ancient precedent, time- honored restriction, and irrational, or at least unreasoning, conservatism. lu every instance the Old "Slan of the Sea has compelled the youthful Sindbad to mount on his .shoulders, and ride him backwards towards the past.

These circumstances must aeeonnt for the .slow and toilsome progress of all reformatory movements in England. In the case before ns, the Past had decided that laml-ownership was a necessary (Hialitieation for meinbership in the British' Parliament. Civili/ation had long since outgrown this restriction. Chartism had denounced the principle, and the con- science and judgment of England recognized tlie jnstice of the denunciation. But still the letlri- survived. At length a state of circnm- staiiees s|,|,|.|-v,.ned which made it necessarv to

stubborn s|>irit of conservatism for which, in

gi;i:a t brita ix.-^suffhage reform.

all ag.-?, the British Saxuu has hrm s., lu.te.l, refused to ailinit that the hiw shouM he w- pealocl That iiiiloeil would swi-ep awav a

wen'arc(irdiiij:iy adopti'il in oidrr tliat the will of England luight be done in lli.' tare df the English law. It. became ciistnmary hn- the can- didates who were before the country lor elec- tion to Parliament, and who \\..ie not them- selves land-owners, to obtain the nominal and temporary transfer of projierties to themselves, holding the same until after election and qualiticatiou for duty in Parliament, and then

held in trust. This method of "beating thr law" became so common that a large propor- tion of the members of the House of Commons might be justly charged with holding tlieir seats by a process which, applied to any (U-di- iiary relation of life, w(iuld have been de- nouuced as mere fraud.

The reader will find in these conditions an example of the many similar ]iei-plcxities which have tended to produce and foster in the public life of Great Britain a species of political hypocrisy, of which the English i)eople themselves appear to be Imt half conscious. In the midst of some such embarra.ssment, it is in vain that even the greatest English statesman should arise, point out the nature of the evil, and demand, with the most cogent argument and apjieal to conscience, the abro- gation of tlie offending statute. The political machinery of England, and more jxarticularly the peculiar s|iirit of the ])i'oplc, will not tolerate such a direct, maidy, and rational method of abolishing abu.ses. Parliament must beat around the question, adopt sul)ter- fuges, offer amendments, and finally cdioose some half-way expedient, under which it is hoped that the injurious u.sage of the jiast will expire, rather i

tune to cation f propo.ed

that he declarati form of perjui-y i

destroyed.	In tlie in-
ef};)rt was	made, from
ish the prr	perty rpialifi-
f Parliame	it. One act
a declarati	m, instead of
nired of tl	e candidate.
u the ,lire,	le>s hurtful t and robust

,1 ponn.ls r three h

tendeiiev to tVaud. It was more easy indee.l fir -ome rich friend to loan, /-/•<- fe/„/».,v, a suttieient sum to a mon.'vl.'.ss candidate than it had been to make to him a fraudulent tiansfer of landecl property. The abuse was a-gravated liy the amendment, and the House

part with those who had obtained their seats in the open face of the law. The condition was made still more abusive by the fa<'t that the mendiers of Parliament from Scotland were free from the property (|Ualitication. Tho.se who were chosen to repre-ent the great rnivcrsities were also exempt Ironi the action

In the year l.S.')S it was found that about sixty members of the House were in their seats by the force of a fraudulent declaration. It happened at this session that one poor

was unfortunate enough to fhll into the elutehes of the law. Once in the hands of an English court, tiiere was no escape. His fellow-mein- liers came at once to see the precipice on which uKire than half a hundred others were standing. The votes of the^' were necessary t<i the ^Ministry. Therefore the (bjvernmeut by a herculean effort, and under compulsion, must abolish the sacred old statute which, since the days of (iueen Atuie, had reipiired a landed property as a qualification for mem- bership in the Commons. To Eocke King, a

having jirepared and introdu.'ed the mea-ure by which Parliamentary membership was made henceforth to depeml ..u the man rather than on land-ownership.

The year IS.",!! was noted in the hi-tory of

England for the f. ling <if the e-.vat .\mer-

icanColonvof r.riti-hCohnnbia. The measure wa< the virtu.al beginning of En-lidi .■iviliza- tion In the va-t re^io,,:. lyin- north of the we-|e,-mo.t parts of the Cnited States. At the lime of whieh \\ e speak, the otiice <,f

In th,

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERy WORLD.

Kchvanl Buhver Lytton, and tVoin his nch and capacious under.-tundiiig arose the project of oj)euing on the far Pacific a new field for the exercise of the energies of his countryiiH.'ii. The new territory, to which the name •>( J>riti>h Columbia was given, was bounded ou the MJiith by the paradcl nt' tnrty-nine degrees and foity minutes, ln-ing the boundary-line of iIm." United States; ^n the .a.-t by the in-iiicipal ■chain of the Rocky Mnuntains : .ni the north by Simp.son's River and thr Finlay Branch ..f Peace River: and on liu' wist by the Pacific. In course of time, X'ancouver's Island was annexed to the new Province; and, after twelve years of independent colonial existence, Brit- ish Columbia itself was added to the Dominion of Canada. Thus in the year bSTl, British America on the north was caiiied thrijugh in one broad band, as the United States had already been, from ocean to ocean.

It was under the administration of Lord Lvttou in the colonial ottice that a striking

by every means in their hands to identify themselves with the Motherdaud of Greece. The protectorate of Great Britain now consti- tute(l a liar to such a movement. Thelonians, from year to year, grew more and more restless under what was in every e.ssential a foreign ihiininatioii. It became a serious matter to Lord Ijytton liow he should continue a satisfactory

the Ul:

He

igth luer

lelie.

i-ht

Th.

rred	in Great Britain
up o	' ( irecian Islands
Ulan	Is are seven in
Cor	li on the north,

called L

and extending around the western coast of Greece to Cerigo, off the southern extremity of the peninsula. They are essentially Hel- lenic, geographically, ethnically, historically. But for a long time the Ionian group had been the subject of covetous contention among the Latin States of Western Europe. About the beginning of the present century, Bona- j)arte, on more occasions than one, made the Ionian Islands the subject of special clauses in his treaties. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the Islands were granted nominal inde- pendence under the protection of Great Britain. Corfu was the caiiital. The chief administra- tive officer was a P.ritish Lord High Coni-

Under him was a h-i.hitive bodv, eonsistin-

ilie:

six and an As-end.ly was not long until tl ■ke out. After a h itli.'l, the independenc ■hieved.and Kite.:- Oth

to Corfu, William E i recognized as a Pliil that reason be most acceptable to the Islanders. It was at the close of 1858 that Gladstone went ou his mission. It appears that the Islanders at once leaped to the conclusion that the new Commissioner had come to them in the cliaracter of a lilierator. He was received with great enthusiasm by the t impetuous patriots of Ionia, and had great difficulty iu making them understand the true j nature of his mission. The general effect of ! his presence in the Islands was to increase the agitation in favor of a union with Greece. At till' t'lose of the Gladstone episode the dis- content at the foreign protectorate was greater I than ever, and the succeeding Lo Commissioner had great dii taining peace.

At length, however, tin solved by a natural evolut of wdiich were satisfactory to In October of 1862, a popular revolution occurred in Athens, by which King Otho was remanded to private life. In his place was cho.sen Prince George of Denmark, sou of Christian IX., and brother to the Princess of Wales. The fact that the brother-iudaw of the future sovereign of Great Britain was thus g of the Hellenes, at once modified if the English Government relative iutenance of the protectorate over Ulands. It was coueedeil by L.ird ell, then in office, that the Ulands twj: henceforth to tlie kim:iloni of ccordingly, iu ISC,;',, the protectorate

g Lor<	High
culty ii	nutin-
difficul	V was
n, the	results

all parties.

isen

Re,.

Hellas.

protection of the (ireat P<

HencefV.rth the popiila

Islands, themselves of G

lanlly have been efi'eete. if war.

GREAT BlUTAIN. -SUFFRAGE REFORM.

>Ve may liere oiitir the final "coufliet liy \ SuftVau-e was ,.xt.'ii.lr,'l m En-lainl. •rim., aihl a- to tlu- iiifHI'riivcn.-. ,,f IKVl. ,',insi<l.'iv,l a> a i.u

m an arc.unt ..f •h tlu- Rio-ht of

,„.,,|, ■ Kn.^

It wonl.l api.rar >liaiiur lilnTty-l.ivin- ant.-oMl,-nl. i^hnnl.'l, in \\u-\v l,i,<t..|-i,.al .•aivrr, liav rxliiliite,! so many symptom.-; of aijprehonsion iclativo to the suffrage. It would seem axiomatic that a country possessing so great aiul pnwfrfnl an organ of liberty as the Hoiim' i.t' C.ninions would revert instinctively to manlmo.rs sudiaL^o as the verj- palladium of the ,-\-.~trni nf tVro government. Bnt, on tlic otlior ,-iilo, wo havo to take into oon.-idonitiun tho cwmimMtr rharar- ter of English society and En-lidi institutions. We must remember th;U, fnmi tin' days of the Tudors, from the days of the Phintai;vncts, aye, from the days (d' tlir ( 'nni|iii'ioi' Inni^clt', England had been, pohtically oonM.lojvd, an aristocracy. There was the kin;:-. 'I'lu-n- was the House of Lonls. There was the -la.hiatod order of in.iliility. There was the hinded gentry, by tar the most powerful anil resolute of its kind in all Europe. These parts of British society were fixed and estaljlished In* the traditions of centuries.

All these eleiuents uf England's strength and greatness were .set against the principle of general suffrage. While the Commons grew, the aristocracy opposed their growth. Never- theless, the whole history of (a-eat Britain, since the Eevolution of lii.ss, has been the history of the gradual ri>e and ever-iminineut supremacy of the House of Commons. Back of this development has been heard evermore in the distance the cry of the comnKjii man — the apjjcal of the masses for their constitu- tional rights and just influence in the Govern- ment. At the time of which we speak, the liberal elements in Parliament were sufHciently numerous, could they be marshaled into a single phalanx to bear down the Conservative Ministry, and to carry an extension of the suffrage by a coup de maiu. But the divisions among the Liberal and Radical elements in the House, generally forbade such a union of effort.

At the clo.se of the sixth decade of the century, Benjamin Disraeli was the undisputed

li a I'nit	od Ital
...llrrn b,

troin ■;t of il of

. I'ndet prestige

noli on-cumstances r Great Britaiu is least diminished. It is a sentiment li the great ma.ss of the English

it seems nninitural ami nidiistorical

iiap

Eu-

England ho eonditi.

itfairs in 1^59. The crisis in Europe required that the English Goverutuent should do something at home which might satisfy the amour juv/ire of the people by compensation for tlie noise abroad. In sucii an emergency, Rifurm is tlie cry with whii-li a IMinistry must attract to itself the rontinned interest of the nation. But how should a Conservative Minister cry Eeform? To the genius of Disraeli the dilemma was sntficiently embarrassing, ImiI not confound- ing. He perceived that ret'onn must lie taken under the patronage of the < iovcrnnicnt. and f ji- the present he might alni.-t >ay, L'rhit c'lsl vioi. So he became a Uotornier, and intro- duced into Parliament a bill for the extmsion of the suffrage. It was his theory that the franchise might be extended laterally ; that is, to considerable classes and groups of dis- frauchi.sed Englishmen, who, so to speak, flourished in the same stratum with those who, under the Reform Bill of 1832, already had the right of suffrage. Below this stratum lay that other and profoundly deep formation, the English lower classes — the workingmen, the peasantry, the operatives, the miners of Great Britaiu. "

UMVEESAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

Eu-t 111

ilepu.-it

.1 \vas iu the . the British

.tork. - wh.. .aiiiv;

.-hniilil liiciiui' c'litVaiirhised. Another clause <if the liiU lu-ovidcd that the conditions of suf- frage in counties and boroughs respectively should be equalized — a provision which had in it the elements of right and jastice. But

in its principal features tJie bill was little liet- ter tliau an alisurdity. It was at unce seen that many of the persons seemingly admitted to the franchise by the new measure were already enfraneliised. Under existing statutes, a law-

"'1'

erty qualitications were siitticieut. Again, it was seen that one having the requisite funds in a savings bank might, in one year, be a voter, and in tile next year, by the mere fact <if withdrawing and pnititably investing his miiuey, even in a entla^e provided for his young wife, would theivl.v \k- disfranchised.

Nevertheless, Disraeli I in resources to the defense of 1 and ]iri:>tracted debate ensued Commons, until, at length, T.c a sword into the wliolr profc a resolution to tlie etil-ct th;i Commous would not be satisfied with any re- adjustment of the franchise which did not provide for a greater extension of the suffrage to tlie EnLdisli jieople tlian was coutera])lated in tlie :\Iini>tevial Bill. Over this resolution.

ht all of his bill. A fiery the Hou.se of Piussell thrust \'s bv offering he House of

the (ioverni

At this juncture tin.' two leading statesmen in Parliament, after Di.M-aeli, were L..r<l Pal- nierston and Lord John Puss..]]. Neither of these, indeed, might li<- ron-idcnd as second to the recent leader of tho House, It were more fitting to .say that J)i~iaili had, Iiy genius

rank with Paluierston and Pu-cU. The (^leeii, howt^ver, called t., !ier aid Lord (iran- ville, and .lirected him to firm a Caliinet. It was soon diM-overe.l that this c.uld not be doiio. Lord Russell would not enter the Min- istry of (iranville, preferring to serve under his great rival, Lord Palmerston. The latter was accordingly once more summoned by the Queen to take charge of the Government. He accepted the trust, and from June of 1859 to his death, iu October of 1865, remained ia the high office of Premier. Nor will the reader of our times fail to look back with admiration upon the veteran statesman, already iu the seventy-fifth year of his age, resuming, at the call of his sovereign, the severest duties and heaviest responsibilities which can be impo.sed, under the existing coiisiitutioiis of the civilized .States, upon any ministerial officer.

In tlie new Caliinet, Gladstone became Chancellor of the Exchequer. The Secretary- ship of Foreign Affairs was assigned to Lord John Ru.ssell. The Home Office was given to Sir (xeorge Cornewall Lewis. The place of Minister of War was all.itted to Sidney Her- bert : the Colonial Secretaryship, to the Duke of Newcastle; the Secretaryship for Ireland, to Edward Card well; and the Secretaryship for India, to Sir Charles Wood. The Presi- dency of the Board of Trade was ottered to Richard Cobdeii ; but the latter, ever at vari- ance with Lord Palmerston, on account of his foreign policy, would not accept the place,' and the .*ame was assigned to ]Milner Gibson.

No sadder incident was known in the

' It was on this occasion tliat tl.c s.nnewliat ..l.ratcl ,„nl of ColMlrn «a. ,1, livciv.l. He ■c,l that l,c cnnia not a.-cc|,i ,,Hic,- iin.lcr Tal- ■r-tou ,,n account of tlic severe strictures which

lia.l iiia^lc on tliat statesman's .■niirse and c..n-

itlli^

I'ah.i.iMon aid liis jMihcv. -Yes." replicl Cob- den, in.lill.a-entlv. - hut / „na„t ,rhal I mid:'

GREAT lilUTAIX.-SUFFRAGE REFORM.

379

history of this year, 185!), tluui the .leath of L.inl .Ahirauhiy. Ou the 2.Stii of December he fell fn.in Jiis place in Parliaiiieiit, to he eonsiune.l on the 9tli of the fillowiii- month to his rest, near the statue of Adili^on, in the Poets' Corner of Westmin.^tn- AMicy. His life had been one of siiiLiular intellectual

smith, he hail touched almost v\v\\ variety of literature, and hail touched notliini;- which he did not a.h.rn. We may not pause, in this place, to rocount the storV of his lito. ]t is <loul,tful whether a nmre l)iilliant int.dloct has passed across the sky of England within the present century. He had not only the genius of a great literary man, the acumen of a scholar, the accomplishments of a parliamen- tarian, the gifts of a statesman, but also the soul and spirit of a profound humanity which linked him strongly to his age.

In no incident of his career was the great- ni'ss of jMacaulay more cons]iicuous than in his labors as President of the Commission for the Revision of the Penal Code of British India. Though he was then but a young man, being but thirty-three years of age, the work which he produced is conspicuous in the jurisprudence of the century. The Criminal Codr which he prepared is still a part of the constitution of the British East In<lian Em- pire. In it are reproduced, in a form at once concise and beautiful, the spirit and " real presence" of the law of England, in which :Maeaulay was so profoundly vei-sed. He had the honor, liosides, of introducing a new era in historical literature. Though his history ot England is not more accurate than the works produced in the last half of the eighteenth century, though it is not tree from the political bias and passionate vehemence of the author, it, nevertheless, nitrodueed another style of historicnl writing, the useful- ness and success of which havi- \irru ih-mon- >tratcd by the ever-widening |iopularity of the j.roduction. Nothing so brilliant, so varied, so lucid in treatment, so masterly in style and

pros,.. Within thirty vrar- nf ihr appearance ,.f the Hi.tnni„i E„<lh,wl\W,:,V-u[ th,' work had reaehcl in Great Brilain a hundred and forty ihou.sand copies, and it has been alleged that in the United States no other book, with

the single exceptimi of the Bible, has ever had so wide a di.stribution.

We have already narrated the circum- stances under which the .Ministry of Lord Palmerstnii came into power. The (iovern- ment, in his hanils, was destined to (la^s through perilous emergencies in the course ef the six years which lay before. In tin' tirst place, the relations of England with France, or UKJi-e pr(.ij)erly with the governing ]iower in France, b.^ame straineth It w.mld be dithcnlt t(i explain, from tif stand of con- si>teney, the ,-ourse which (iieat Britain had pursued towards the Bonaparte family in the relations of that family to the French throne. In the fir-st place, Englan.l, in comm,.n with the other powers, had r. gi-teied her vow at the Congress of \'ieiina. that im Bonaparte should henceforth oecu|>y a European throne. That family was to be eradicated root aud branch. In course of time, England per- ceived that shi> had no more affection, even for the Citizen King, than she had fur the IS'apoleons. One ,.t th.Mii had at least had the merit of greatness. When tlitit Bonaparte, who had recently <lone police duty in the streets of London, and who. as the student |)ri.soner of Ham, had oecupieil his time in comi)osing a political ]iamphlet on the Extinc- tion of Pauperism, suddenly stej)ped across the Channel to be President of the Fiench Re- ])ublic, aud then Emperor Xapoleon HI., Great Britain tirst shaded her eyes with her iiand, then said site would not endure it, then endured it, ami, linallv, applaudcl. Within two years irom the tinn' when the parvenu

laml was his liiilhfid ally in the Crimean War.

At the clo.<e of that conflict. Great Britain had some dittii-iilty in preventing France from monopolizing the gh'ty. Soon afterwards she became excee<liiiL;l\' ilistrustful of Bonaparte. She watched W\< iimvenients with cver-iucreas-

create a Dnk.^uf Ma-enta, on the li.dd of that name, a In Napoleon th.' (in^at. She heard

i>ti

the Whel:

been pui

rXIVEESAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

siitlici.-

vas

]-:i

lie excuse c ;• of that ^^x

ave taken the sword lid have beeu found the use of that weapon. It was another of thive emergencies in which it appeared tige was giving way. ^'I'venhtle.-s, tor tlie time being, she was ohh^ed to u>e her ula-s and see in the dis- tance, with as much c(iuaniinity as she couh:l commauil, tlie war-eagle of Bonaparte, tlie sword of Victor Emanuel circling in the horizon, and C'liunt Cavour wearing the crown of European diplomacy.

It has been observed already tliat in such a situation, Great Britain always attempts to counteract by some furm of home activity the effects of those foreign enterprises in which she bears no part. In the present instance, the Ministry became especially active, and the first form of subject-matter on which they seized was the construction of a new commer- cial treaty with France. The measure was somewhat sensational both in itself and in the methods employed for its accomplishment. The negotiations, instead of proceeding from the Foreign Office and going through the hands of the British Minister at Paris, appear to have oiiginated with John Bright, and to have been conducted privately by Richard Cobden directly with the French Emperor himself.

France liad, as a rule, been opposed to Great Britain on what may be called the general theory of commerce. The French political economy inclined strongly to Protec- tion, while that of Great Britain had gone over, soul, body, and member, to the principle of Free Trade. The particular matter now in hand was to .secure from Xapoleon such abrogation of the existing restrictions on commerce be- tween Great Britain and France as could not, in all probability, be secured from the French Government, apart from the will and pref- erence of the Emperor. Cobden succeeded, in his personal discussion and correspondence with Napoleon III., in Ijringing that person- age very nearly into accord with his own views. It can not be doubted that the ante- Imperial residence of Louis Napoleon in England had made him in .some measure a convert to the English theory of political ecunoniy. The terms of a treaty were accord-

ingly frameil in which great conce.-sions were made to the principle of Free Trade. Tlie duties which had been previi'U^ly hiid liy the two Governments on importations of each other's goods were either wholly abolished or greatly reduced. The tarifi'on English coal and coke, raw irnn, t.M,l.. marhin.iy. yarns flax, and hemp, was so tar rcducrd as to make their inij)ortatiou into France virtually free ; while, on the other hand, the duties on light French wines were abolished — a measure which led at once to a remarkable increase in the consump- tion of such drinks in Great Britain. It was noticed, moreover, as a striking evolution in social economy, that the heavy alcoholic liipiors, which had hitherto been used in such excessive quantities in England, were reduced in consumption in corresponding ratio. Nor will the socialist of our own age and country fail to record as an important fact that drunk- enness and its correlated and dependent forms of vice were greatly diminished by the substi- tution of the light French wines for the fiery beverages which the English people had for- merly used.

When the new commercial treaty was brought before Parliament, it was subjected to a hot fire from the Opposition. But the adv(]cacy of Gladstone and his followers pre- vailed. The compact conceived by Bright and Cobden j^assed into statutory form, and both countries were, presently, well satisfied with the working of the scheme. At the same time, the Ministry were busily engaged in promoting a measure of internal economy of the same general character with the French treaty. When the general principle of Free Trade became the policy of Great Britain, certain conspicuous exceptions still remained as witue.sses and landmarks of the ancient system. Among others of the kind, the duty on paper had never beeu abolished. As a result, all departments of industry having the use of paper, of printed paper in particu- lar, as their bottom fact, were stilted up above the horizon of low prices which prevailed with respect to all other values. It remained for the Palmerston Ministry to attack and level this standing example of the old Protective system.

The leadership of this movement fell to Gladstone. His proposition to abolish the

GREAT BRITAIN. -SUFFRAGE REFORM. .381

duty on paper wa?: luft with every fenii ^A' The measure al>n mnteinphiteil a new apjjor- aigunient an,l inthuner wlnrh the pap.T ti..i,i„ei,t <<f ih,' >eals in the House of Corn- interest enuhl invent aiel euipl-y. The pn-i- in.ms. Tu .-iity-live ..f tlie hnniii,i,'hs, repre- tien assurne.l «as, tiiat the iiianiilari in .• aii.l s:nte,l at tlie lime liy two nieiiiheiv raeh, were use nt' paper was ex.vptinnal tn th.^ .general iv.luee.l m ..ne nieinh, r . aeh. The n.eniher- pri.ieiple of Free Tnuh-; that In.nk niakin- ship th.is uaiiie.l was JiMrihuled tu the hir-er

nature Ir.ini these ether ileparlnients ,.f in- l.ill was tlie propn^iiimi that in every .-nuiity

(lustrv in whieh tree eenipelitien iiiiuht he K-ft or hm-nii^h repivMaite,! hy three niiauhers

to work out its own iv-iill--, lliat it uas not in I'ai liaineiit, the third nieniher shouhl he

desii-ahh. tliat eheapness .-hoiiM prevail in ehosen hy the iniiioiily, that is, the ( )pposi-

litei-atiiie and joiirnali-iii, le>i liooks anil iieus- tinn. It was the he^inniim' of that still

papers should' heeonie the .dieap vehielef.r ilehate.l feature of popular Government, the

the univer-al disMmiination of all ihin-s had minority representation. The method to he

and daiiL-erous anion- the Kn-li,-li people. emidoyed in .seeurin- the -iveii ivMilt was the

The Ministry, however, prevailed over tl.o simple reipiirenient that in horoii::li> eleeting

-pp,

the House of Commons. \Vli,-n the ,-anie was two eandidate- and onlv two. lai.l before the ll-n-e of Lords, that l-dy But the mw Ihloini llill wa- d.eMined to a

took the unusual re-ponsihilii v of votin- peeiiliar tate. The Opposition, under the

adversely ou the ineaMire. A violent eontio- leader.^hip ot DiMaeli, a-saihd the measure

versv ai-ose over the aetn f the Lord- in with vehemenee and ahility. It wass lis-

reiiisin- their assent to a measure whieh the eovered that the prop,)>ed Aet wa- peetil.arly

House had approved, relative to the revenues (Uadstoniau in its ori-in, development, ami

of the kingdom. For the time, the aholitiou defense. !t was al.so helieved that Lmd I'al-

of the paper duty was held in alieyanee, and luerston had no liiart or intiucsl in the mat-

mea'snre was tinallv ailopted? eould he aligned in support of the Ministerial

It will he remenilM.red that the projeet on Bill. After the dehate had . proeeeded to a

whieh the recent Coii-ervalive .Mini-trv had great extent, the IiiU was remanded tor the

g.ne to wreek was the hill prepared and ad- eon.-ideration of the eommittee, ami uas linally

vocated by Disraeli for the •■l.it.ral exteiiM.ai" with.lrawn from the House. In themeaii-

of the suffrage. It will he ivealled liow the time, other great interests had supervened.

Liberals combined again-t the propo-od Aet, which drew the atleiitii f the nation to

and defeated it. It nin-t he borne in mind events beyond tli,' sea; tlie.pi.sthui of reform

that the inovemeut of Disraeli f,r the reform was given over to aiiotli.-r < 'ahinet and a more

of the franchise was in aeeordanci.' with what convenient .season.

he perceived to be the determinati f the | Early in I.SCO the long-standing ditticiilty

English people. He sought to patroni/e and | between Gnat Biilaiii and I'himi took still satisfy the public sentiment with a measure ' another phase of deveh.pment. Arrangements

which seemed to do without doing— wlihdi had lieeii ma.le h, iweeii the two countries for

ostensihlv granted, but -rant.'d not. With a settlement of all existing troubles by means

the aceJs.sion of Lord Palmei.^ton, the new of a treaty. Even ihe terms of the treaty had

.Ministrv inherited from its predeces.sor the in the main been a-ned upon at Tieii-Tsin,

very embarra-.-meiit which Disraeli ami his and it only leiiiaiiad thai tli.' f uiiial ratitica-

CoUeagncs had been unable to surmount. The tions of the eonipaei -ho, .1,1 be excdianged as

Liberals must now try to appea-e the country preliminaiy to peae,-. h was provided in the

with some measure of ref.rm. A bill was treatv that the ratitieations, -o ealled, should

accordingly prepared at the session of ISCO, be ex.dian-.d at I'ekiii. In ."\Iareh of l,s.-,9,

providing that the property (pialitications fir Frederick Bruce, a brother to Lord Elgin,

the franchi.se in counties should be reduced to was sent as Envoy lOxtraoidinary to f'liina, ten pounds, and in boroughs to six pounds. ' ^^ilh a view to the ratitication of the settle-

IWIVKHSAL HISTOUY. — THK MODERN WORLD.

nient. ^Meanwhile, a slioii	- l'-'i>'- "f "l'l'"-^i-
tioii luul arisen in C'iiiiia t'	liavini;- the treaty
laliHed '<t the rajiiti,!- Tl	e Emperor and his
(Tdverumeiit wcri' avci>c i	1 a hi-h de-re,, to
Imviug the amliassailois ,.\	foivjeii nations at
liis (.■(lurt. For a i ^iiln-.	l,le perie„l, Eranre
aii.l Eiidan,! Iia.l \n-rn	n alliance in the
(/liiufse war, aiul the im-.	tiations eonse.pielit
tliereoii, and Fii'inli am	.a>>ado,-s were to
iiocoinpany llmsr .>f lai'jlai	1 to Pekin.
The British (Hivrriiinn	1. kiiowiiiii the in-
disposition of the ( 'hinc-i'	Emperor to admit
foreign represciitalivcs to 1	is .-ourt, sent orders
to tiie Endish Admiral .-.	inmamliii- in Chi- lie emli-i^<v with an
ariiiam.'iir. When ih.' sijii
for arrived at thr moiitii (	f the Peiho liiver,
by which the .•onimis.ionn	< w.av to ascend to
the capital, it \va< toimd il	at the Chinese had
obstructed tlie cntiaiirc ai	.1 planted batteries
commandinir tlic appioarh	The English ves-
sels undertook to force the	r way through, and
were repulsed with heavy 1	osses. Another ex-
pedition had to be fitted	)Ut before the way
could be cleared, and niucl	hard tl,-litiii,e- t.io'k
])lace before tlie I'^iiioinaii	army came within
reach of Pekin. Ne-otiai	oils were renewed.
and the ratification of th(	treaty was exacted
of the Chinese Govern nwii	t .(////-' capital. In
tlie meantime, a rompany	,f hhejishmen, who
bad been sent under a llai;	of triire within the
enemy's lines, liad Ii.m/oiii.-	involved in a diffi-
culty, been seizrd liv the	Chinese, an.l sub-
jecttd to such c-IUi'l tiv;llll	eiit that half of the
nnmli.a- had died. As a	measure of ivtalia-
tion for this ontra-e, Ix.rd	Eleiii ordered the

'fhe iellt: this

dillhai 1 troiil

tv witi volved

China was no hich (neat 1! A civil war

Chinese Summer Pahnv. tion .,f luiildin;,s, pietun park ,.n the out,4<irts o stroyed. Within the V. lected, through centurie-^ ological, historical, and China. No <urh other e.

bly of pau'odas and temple and bridges, of terraces. riiith< — existed anywhere vet In- an act of wanton di all future a-es will hold cuint, the whole marvel , was swept awav. What

aei- hail been col- id a'jes, the arehfe- i'ti<tic treasures of lei-iiou of rare and

such other assem- ;, of en,ttoes, lakes,

-rove-, and labv- n the worhl. And struction, fjr which

Lord Elgin to ac- f ( 'hinese e-reatness

til f whii'h we speak. SutHee It that there

exi>te<l ill that country the aueii-ut Christian ..eel ealle.l the Marouites, leprcMUitatives from the earlier eeiiturhs of our era of Poiuan Catholii-ism in the East. TIkuv al.^o was the nation of the Druses, a sect which may be de- fined as heretical IMohamuiedans. Over both was established a Turkish Governinent, .sulijeet to th.' Sul.lim,. Porte. Between the Maroii'ites and th.. l)ru-e<, though at .smie jieriods in their career they had iieen in alliance, rival- ries, enmities, ho.^tilities, had sprung up, and eaeh parly re-arded the other as its enemy in eliief. Ju .May ..f ISliO, .,iie of the monks of the Maroiiiles was muidered, ami it was be- lieved that a band of Druses were llie doers of the deed. The Marouites made an attack on the suspected party, and several of the Drupes were killed. Thell the Druses ro-e in eoii.iderahle iiiimliers fell upon the Maroiiite villa-e. ill the vieiuuy of Bevn.ut, and de- .-trovi.l them. They then lioieged a large town iM"ir .Mount Hermoii, and when the :\laronites within were hard pressed, the Turk- i.vh (Joveruor ordia-eil them to surrender, under pr(Uiiise of protection. The infuriated Diaises, however, attacked the prisoners and destroyed them to the last man. The Dru>e population of Daiuascus also rose airaiust the Christians, ami a ma-sacre ensued in which it was esti- mated that two thousand persons were cut ,lowii hv the sw.irds of the Mussulmans.

It was the news of these proceedings that seemed to call on England and France to interfere in the affirirs of Syria The other Powers of Western Europe agreed to a com- ])act uiiiler whii'li order in the Lebanon should be restored umler the French and English Hags. .\ ..ipiadroii was sent out by the allies to the Sviiaii coast, and the Druse insurrection was cpiiekly quelled. Presently afterwards,

GREAT RRITAIX.—A^fERICAN COMPLICATION.

^So

Cli

ambassadors were seut to Const: whom it was decided tliat lieucet'i tian Governor, under the suzerainty of tin Sultau, should rule the insurgent popuhition,- of Nortlieru Syria. Tlie whole disturliaiici and its conclusion was another iHur-tvLitinii of the complete decadence and imliecility of th( Turkish Government in the lan.l. ovJr whirli it had long exercised autlmrity. Soon attei the settlement of the difficulty, the Turki>li ruler, Abdul-^Iedjid, dit'd, and was succeeded, on the 25th of June, 1861, by his brother. Abdul-Aziz, who was destined accession to the tlirono with pi ness and reform, and t" end years, by suicide.

It fell to the Mini-try of 1 to conduct the (ioveninicnt i

o signalize tiis niises of great- :, after sixteen

l!r

Civil War. It was an elm.^l, critical in the last degree. In the light <.f the retrospect, it would appear that at no cii.-is in modern times have the fortunes and the welfare of the English-speaking race been more seriously imperiled than in the years 1861-62. The conduct of England towards the American Repuldic in that great crisis has been much discussed in every civilized country, particu- larly in our own. The American j)eopIe have not yet recovered from the shock and strain to whi(di they were subjected by the course of that great insular nation with which we are in strongest affinity ipf language, institutions, anil laws. The animosities transmitted from our War nf Independence ha.l long since died away.

The Revolutionary soldiers had gone to sleep in the soil of the country, which they had helped to create eighty-five years before. Their descendants had returned to their ancient ethnic sympathies with the ]\Iother Country, and a feeling had supervened that the whole English race had, so to speak, embarked for a common destiny.

When the secession of the ."ioutlii'm States began, in the winter of 18(i(), when a Southern Confederacy was organized and war pro- claimed as the means by which it was to be perpetuated, the National Government and a great majority of the Amiu-ican people looked in- stinctively to Great Britain for a lilieral meas- ure of supiiort and contiilence. There were

good reasons whj' such expectations sliouM be entertained. It was already felt, i>n this side of the sea, that the institution of .shivery was deep down in the bottem of our Natiniial con- troversy. Witli that institution the whole movement and destiny of the Cuufderate en- terprise were fn.m the first involved. True, the National (invermnent had n..t as vet drawn th.^ swor.l against this final cause 'of

attack and destroy the peculiar But the saying was one of those or half-con.scicuis falsehoods in

not meant institution, uncon.sciou whicli the

nati

lin, her antipathy iiecnme constitutional. It was ted in America that Eiia;land

As to (Ireat very had long not at all

s sin- the jmlicy in every

pa

inlitioii of human servitude tlie w<irld. .She lual publicly an- nounced to the nations that the touch of the slave's foot on the soil of Great Britain made him free forever. She had gf)ne so far as to foster and promote in this country that Anti- slavery Society, at the existence of which the South had taken such mortal offense. In a thnu>and instances she had justly denounced American slavery as a shame and burning disgrace to the great people by whom it was fostered. It could but be expected, therefore, that when the seceded States had banded themselves together under a governmental compact in which slavery was openly declared to be the chief corner-stone, England would throw the whole weight of her influence into the scale against what she must logically regard as a conspiracy for the maintenance of slaverv. It was fondlv believed throiiirhout

the Ni

with the ( secession a But w developed Civil Wai her.self in United St:

•t.

584

UNIVERSAL HISTORY- THE MOVERy WORLD.

and like antecedents, had gone to war on the ' Continent. She declared nentnility. With ,; what must always appear to America an I indecent and eat^er haste, she recognized the belligerency and the equal war-rights of the seceded States, i^he assumed ])recisely what Gladstone dcihuvd t'> lie the rase, namely, that Jefferson Davi.- and his iellow-statesjiieu of the South had created a nation in a day. Without waiting to see what course the Na- tional Administration would pursue, without paiisinLT t.i observe what kind cf a im-thod the Xatiuiial Government would taki' in order to put down the insurrection, what kind of a hlow might be given to the revolt, she rushed in medkis reg, and mi the 8th of ^lay, 1861, in less than a month aftei- the first eanuon-shot had berimed from the land-itatteries of Charleston against the walls nf Sumter, the English proclamation, by Lord John Russell, recognizing the perfect equality of the twn parties to the eontlict, was i>saeil. The American people were astnnnded t'l know- that the (.Tdverument of the United States had been placed liy (ireat Britain on an exact level with what a ^reat majority regarded as an inexcusable insurrection.

Such was the situation cousi in the abstract. Concrete aet which tended still further t unfriendliness of Gi-eat Bi-itaii States, and to intensify the ill- .sides of the Atlantic. The Run was foufrlit, and the Xat tiirewn into a' pa. lie. The „eu Hew to England, was puhlisl and was receive.) with a Imi'sl as though snnie international event ot' tin' happiest augnry had iKeniicd. The jnliilation was out of all proportion to the o,-,-a>ion. It

"bulihle" being nothing less than the Amer- ican Republic. Lord Palmerstou referred to the retreat of the Union army on Washington as the "unfirtunate and nipid movement of the Northern soldiers." The hiirhest ffovern-

idcred somewhat

s soon f.Uowe.l

0 establish the

1 to the United feeling on both

Battle of Bull ioual array was - of the disaster leil everywhere.

mental

Every the p:

Uliited

armv.

oftir

tterest .sar- upholders.

1 the National cause and ■on.'.-ivable falsehood was circulated to ejn.lice of the (Government of the States and the character of the Uniim On the other hand, the South was

lauded in all the forms of rhetorical exagger- ation. The Southern soldiers were heroes; the Northern soldiers were poltroons. The South was chivalrous, liberty-loving; the North was mercenary, mean. At times, the Kingdom was in a roar of delight. Confederate victories were heralded, and Union successes falsified out of the record.

All these things, when the rumor and re- piort thereof were borne back to America, pro- duced in the Government and among the people their legitimate results. Befire the close of the summer of 1801, hatred of the ^lotlier Country had supervened wherever the Stars and Stripes were still the emblem of a respected nationality.

We may now consider the causes for the conduct of Great Britain with respect to our Civil War. What reasons existed for her thus planting herself in antagonism to the United States? Was there any justification or excuse fur the course of England in giving her symjiatby and virtual support to the cause of the Contederaey •? First of all, Great Brit- ain had. in common with other nations, the sentiment which, under sin'h conditions as then existed in the United States, is fallaciously called ,/■("■(■ plai/. The South was the weaker jiarty. When a tight is on, it is the weaker ]iartv that, right or wrong, receives the sym- pathy of the world. To this extent England can only be said to have acted after the man- ner of other nations. In the next place, the intered of Enaland seemed to her at the time

to require tlie s]iee(iy sucee>- oi tiie ^oiitiieru Confederacy. It wa- out ot' the States of the South that the greater part of raw cotton which was consumed in tlie English factories was drawn. A large industrial interest in ( n-eat Britain was directh" dependent on the re-ular continuance of this supply. It is ditbcult in America to appreciate how completely, not only the operatives proper, but almost the whole people, in such manufacturing cities as Manchester were dependent on the regular de- livery of raw cotton in that mart. At the very outset the Government of the United States saw the necessity of closing the South- ern ports. This could only lie <lone by the process called blockade. According to Inter- national Law, a nation may blockade the ports of an enemy, but not its own ports.

GREAT BRITAIN. -AMERICAN COMPLICATION.

At the outbreak of the war the United States was not disposed to admit that the Soutlieni States were an "euem}-" iu the technical sense of that word. When the blockade was stretched around the Southern coast and be- came ever more rigorous, it was still held by the Government that the Southern States were in the character of insurrectionary prov- inces. There was much that was illogical iu the .«ituatiiiii. However necessary it was to establish and maintain the blockade, it was hardly logical to do so without doing pre- cisely what Great Britain had been so seriously blamed for doing at the very outset, namely, recognizing the complete belligerent rights of the Confederacy.

This pal|)able break in the policy of the National Government was quickly seized by Great Britain and France as a warrant for the unfriendly course which they were pursuing. In the former country, the condition was aggravated by the immediate cessation of the supply of cotton, and the wide-spread distress consequent thereon in the manufacturing districts. Had it not been for the strong republican sympathy which existed among the people of Lancashire and in other industrial districts of similar character, it were hard to say what evil results would have immedi- ately ensued. It was the astonishing non sequitur of the situation that the workiugmeu of jManchester, who were the real sufferers on account of the blockade, were the best friends which the United States had in England ; while, on the other hand, the worst eneujies of the Xatinnal Government were the country squires and Tory aristocrats, who did not themselves feel even an inconvenience on account of the war in America.

It was not louL', however, until Great Britain founil a niuih more tangible basis for her hostilities. The Southern Confederacy had been quick to ]icri'eivi' their advantage in England and Frau.'e. While all the rest of Europe was on the side of the National Gov- ernment, the sentiments of those two nations from whom, as Mother Country and "Tradi- tional Friend," we had most to expect, were whollv averse. This fact was quickly seized upon t\v the Confederate Government in the belief that a recognition of the independence of the South could be obtained. To accom-

plish this end, it was nece.=.sary to send abroad ambas.sadors to the courts of England and France. The story of the outgoing anil cap- ture of .Mason and Slidell has already been recounted. In tiie present chapter we are considering the matter only from the English point of view. The act of Captain Wilkes in running down the Trent, and in taking from under the protection of the British flag the two envoys of the Confederacy, and then allowing the steamer to go on her way, was irregular and illegal from beginning to end. Neverthe- less, the deed was applauded to the echo in the United States. Public meetings were held in Tammany Hall, New York, and in Faneuil Hall, Boston, at which strong indorsement and high compliment were given to Captain Wilkes for his heroic fracture of the law of nations. The National House of Representa- tives, with equal ignorance and patriotism, blinded by the one and fired by tiie other, actually passed a vote of thanks, and ordered the presentation of a sword to the commander of the San Jacinto for his capture of the " traitors," Slidell and Mason.

Great Britain, well knowing that the thing done was against International Law and an insult to the English flag, made all haste to improve the occasion. Her wrath knew no bounds. She demanded the release of the Confederate ambassadors, and an apology for the act of Wilkes, and was courteous enough to give the United States ^even datis iu which to choose between jieace an<l war ! Of course, Mason and Slide!! were lil.rrated and sent to their .lestiiiafion ; but tli.- aniimis of Great Britain had been so unhappily displayed that there was no further hope of the restoration of good feeling during the continuance of the war. By the in.sane iiassion which the British Government displayed, it betrayed itself, and it was known henceforth, by the Government of the United States and by t!ie whole American people, that Eiii;laiid only waited for an opportunity to do the Nation the greatest harm in her power.

But we are still under the necessity of looking deep down into tlie sea of motive, and of discovering there, if we may, tlie ultimate reason of British hostility to the I'nited Sttites. That ultimate reason is to be found in the deep-seated antipathy of England to the

i.S6

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

repulilicaii form of goverument as developed in iiur couiiti-v. The cii;i.'auizatiou of political siieiety on this sidr of the Atlantic had been uu too liljeral a scale to he pleasing in the British Isles. Even that limited monarchical system, wliich is the l>oast of the dominant classes in England, could but feel a mortal ofleuse at the successfid demonstration of republicanism in America. We are here on the ground of the true explanation. Great Britain had subscribed, for centuries, a histor- ical allegation to the efTect that Hereditary Monarchy, an Aristocratic organization of society, a Graduated Order of Nobility, a stratification of the people into classes, the permanent maintenance of a political and social difference between the upper and the under man, are the prerequisites of English liberty and English perpetuity. But the United States had established political liberty, and were about to demonstrate its perpetuity on a splendid scale. The American Republic had become what Lord Bacon might have defined as a " forth-.showiug instance" to all nations and peoples.

All this appeared to be in the nature of a refutation of the English order and theory of societv. While Great Britain would never have confessed that she re- garded our republican institutions as a men- ace to her own, it is nevertheless true that such was her unconcinus or half-conscious sentiment. As a matter of fact and in brief, Great Britain desired and hoped that the American Republic would go to pieces, and that the judgment of the Eugli.sh-speaking race would thus be obliged to revert; to and reaccept the ancient i>r(ler of political society as embodied and illustrated in the British Constitution. If we say that such a .sentiment, entertained by all the governing classes in England with respect to the United States and their destiny, was mnm in the lowest degree, we must also admit that it was natural in the highest degree.

The limits of the present chapter do not permit a further expansion of the subject. British society, by which is meant all the ruling and dominant parts of society, fixed itself inveterately in support of the cause of the South. Hencefbrth, the North, th.nt is, the National Government, expected nothing

from Great Britain except her sneers and ill- concealed animosity. It happened, however, that destiny was preparing for all this a remedy, or at least a compensation. Under the British Constitution and in accordance with the immemorial usages of the Kingdom, many things may be done in England at which other peoples would startle and take alarm. It was the policy of Frederick the Great, publicly announced in a witty aphorism, embodying the understanding between himself and his people, that they should say whatever they pleased, and he would do whatever he pleased. It might almost be said that this policy has l)eeu reversed in Great Britain; that is, that the sovereign may say whatever he pleases, and the people do whatever pleases them. In the case before us, it pleased the ship-builders of Great Britain to constitute themselves a naval base for the Southern Con- federacy. Scarcely had the war begun until adventurers and emissaries from the Confed- erate States began to use the dock-yards of Great Britain as the field of their operations. The Confederate States had no navy. They had no commerce on the high seas. The United States had both. The policy of the Confederates therefore fell naturally into the work of purchasing and sending forth priva- teers. In the beginning the United States would fain have remanded all such business to the category of piracy. But, unfortunately, the National Government had itself for a long time resisted the international movement for the abolition of privateering. Her folly in this respect now returned to plague the in- ventor. The Government could not consist- ently fulminate the decree of piracy against a species of warfare which she herself contin- ued to recognize with favor.

Behind this covert the Confederate Captains went forth to build, to buy, and to burn. A narrative has been given already of the course and fate of the Confederate cruisers. It is sufficient, in this place, to point out the fact that of the seven principal vessels which got afloat on the high seas, and which, for longer or shorter periods, did havoc with the merchant marine of the United States until the latter was ex- tinguished, five were notoriously and openly built in the dock-yards of Great Bii[ain. There, also, they were equipped and manned.

GREAT BIHTAIX- AMERICAN COMPLICATION. :]87

The outrage of such ;i i)rnceediiig was a steuch i other Adams, a.s ilij)liiinatisl or statesman, is in the nostrils of the nations. The conse- i worthy of a higher rank than he (jiienees entailed therehy liave lieen (lUllined it may mil he ckcmi-d iiiaii|iruj,riatL' to aln_'a.ly in r\w lii,-t..iy ,,( ,uir ,iu n r.iunuy. <le|iart In.m ilir cliiunnle-ical nnl,r <a events It may Milhee, in ll,i> roimeetin,,, l.. n-niai'k in older to f,.ll,,u the >eiiuel nt the eruise of ujion Ihe wi.-doiii nf Lin.'nhi, and the -nod llie Alitkinui, an,l <.t tlie cimneetiun .,t (ireat lortune of the United Slate- i]i lia\ ni^ at liie liritaiu tlietewUh. An aeeount has heen [ne- eulirt i.f .St. James, m these day-, tlial uia-ndi- sented, in a f.nnier eliapler, of the Treaty of cent exemplar of Anienean .hiileiiiaey, Charles ! Washington, of May, LS71, and of the pro- Francis Adams. His sleailme-s in the dark visum made therein for a Court of Arbitration, day of trial, his equanimity and firmness, his I to be convened in December of the same year,

" '•^ ^ . j*J^.

GFNr\ \ swii/m \.\D fUn ni-i_ht lit tin -itii itioii hi- <on-tint at (rPiuxa, ^w it/t il ind, tdi the puiposp of

ui„l,i lui ,,„iniMiMl ,H,li.\ nt «i.>n_d,,iiu, ,him-..,t th, Vni, ii, in (.u^,lm^Mlt a_ im-t n,d hi- hnd d..lii iti.n n.o ]n.l.-t t. L.id (.i.it P.Mt nn I. i th, d.-tiii, tieii ,,t the , em- .Tnhii Kn-, 11 wh 11 til. tun ( iil(d. lit. Mill- m, 1 , , , ,t 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1. 1 ^1 1 1. - b\ t h ( It. .hiite

u,,. ,l,.mt to , nf t . -. 1 thlt till- I- U II • (llll-.l- Ih. . \, 111 1 l..\. 1 t.. 1.. th. Ill .-t lln-

Ihlll-h <. .x.

,11 Mil- tli.i

.t 11,. r„ii.x I ii

,, luh.t I)...llll

men that no Ih it iin, It ,l\ •-« it/, i lan.l, in.i I!ia/il '1 he

388

UXIVHHSAI. HISTORY. — THE MODERy WORLD.

GREAT BRITAIN.— AMERICAN COMPLICATION.

389

judges appointed were, on the part of Eug- hunl, Sir Alexander Cockhuru, at tliat time Lord Chief-Justice of the Kingdom; on the jiart iif the Uuiteil folates, Charles Francis Adams; ou the part of Italy, Count Frederick Sclopis; ou the part of Switzerland, M. Jacques Staemptli; and on the part of Brazil, A'iscouut d'ltajiiba. The counsel for Great liritain were Lord Teuterdeu and SirEoundell I'almer, afterwards Lord Selbourue. The coun- sel for the United States were J. C. Rancruft Davis, William M. Evarts, Caleh Cushin-, and Morrison R Waite. The court, in its entirety, was the most august and alilo tril)un;d which international jurisprudence has eall.-d into being within the present century.

After the organization was effected, and the statement of the causes of the two great nations had been made, the court adjourned until June, 1S72, from which time the sessions were contin- uous to the close, in September of the same year. The proceedings awakened the profoundest in- terest, not only in the nations specially con- cerned in the controvers}', but throughout Christendom. The jjleadings and arguments were, from beginning to end, a battle of the giants, in which the representatives of the United States gained steadily to the close of the contest. Near the beginning, an action was taken by which "Three Rules relatini; to Neutral Nations," were formulated, whieh, while they have not as yet been generally in- corporated into the law of nations, Ijecanie the basis of the settlement and the final award of the court. These rules are as follows:

"A neutral Government [under such cir- cumstances as existed at the time of the American Civil War] is bound —

"1. To use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming, or ei|ui|i|iuig within its jurisdiction of any vessel which it has reason- able ground to believe is intended to cruise or carry on war against a power with wliieh it [the neutral government] is at peace; and also to use like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such ves.sel having been siieeially adapted in whole or in part within such juiisdiction to warlike uses.

"2. Not to permit or sufti?r either bellig- erent to make use of its ports or waters as the

base of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augmenta- tion of military supplies, or arms, or recruit- ment of men.

"3. To exercise due diligence in its waters as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to pre- vent any violation ol the foregoing obliga- tions and duties."

The iirinci|iles of international conduct here enuuciateti were, in the first instance, brought before tlie court tentatively as covering the jiositioii and claims held l.y th<' I'nited States. After the discussions were concluded, these rules were i'uWy adopted by the court iu a sjjecial stipulation of the treaty, as follows: "And the high contracting parties agree to ohserve these rules as hetwecii tliem.selves in future, and to luiiig them to the knowledge cit other maritime powers, and to invite them to accede to them.'

After a threi' luoiilh,-' .-essiou, the decision of the trilmnal was ivached. on liie 14th of SeptemI.er, l.s72. All the iiieiubeis of the court, with the exception (jf Sir Alexander Cock burn, signed the report and the award. The English Lord Cliief-Justice wrote a long dissenting opinion; but his views were, of course, ot no eflect (ju the general decision of the court. That deei>ion constituted what is known in diplomaey as ihi- (ij;Ni:v.v Awakd. The general p.K-itiou assuiiicl by the United States was fully substantiated, with the ex- ception of the somewhat extravagant claims made by the National Government under the title of "consequential damages.' As a final and complete settlement (jf the so-called '■Ala- l.)ama Claims," a sum in gross <.\\ litteeii million five hundred thousand dollars was awarded to the United States, as full and complete com- pensation f(U- the damages done to her com- merce and nationality liy \\\v Kiiglisli-lmilt, English-ei|uip|ied, and English-manned priva- teers of the Southern Contedeiacy.

Returning from tins anticipation of events that were to come as the legitimate fruits of . British sowing, we note the continued ani- mosity of the p]nglish-ruling classes towards our Nati.uial ( Joveniim-ut to the vry close of the war. With the exception ot Bright and Forster and a few others, such as the Duke of Argyll, all the public men of England re- mained wedded to their idols. The newspaper

!lO

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

77	veil ic. Ill f.	iver The the
V con
7ll	ml	ups.-
n-ly s	M-iiii.	(if
till 1.1	ire	itter
(ii-e;it the	Bri	;iin. lant

press ,.f the kiiicr.l.ini seeniecl t tu :i lU'luMon that it nii-hl liel streniii nf misiviin >w,tnt,n„ wi ,ini-r..ss nf th.. An,eri,-aii W: :, ^u- ha.ikfull to the o,„l. If

of tho ('oiifMloi:i,'y ill the e l.SlM, it woiil.l 1kiv<. Ihvii the

All the eherishe.l dreams <,t party in polities aii.l society sii<l.leiily hurst like a liulilile, and faded into viewless air. Great Britain awoke one .lay to the shocking realization that there was no hiuger anywhere in the world her darling Southern Confederacy, iiiit only the American Union, one and iu- dissoluhle. It may well be hoped that the lesson was sufficient, and that the arrogance, seltisliness, and iinconscionalile self-esteem which had conspired to throw the kin-d.n.i aii.l the English people into a vicious altitude and malign relation with the largest political division of the English-speaking race, and to pour the embers of heart-burning and distrust into many millions of patriotic lireasts on this siile of the Atlantic, have been forever ex- tinguished in the heart of the Britisli Xation. The Palmerstou :Miiiistrv survived until after the close of the Civil War. Though the difficulties of the Government of Great Britain were the most serious, they were not by any means the only foreign embarrassments with which the Cabi'uet of Palin.-rstou had in th.ise days to contend. In l^i;:] the Danish com- plication with Germany relative to the Prov- inces of Schleswig and Holsteiu led to hostil- ities ami the clamor of arms. Denmark, as wo shall hereafter see, was hard pressed by her more powei-ful neighbors. The iiroject of severing the disputed Pnivinces from the Danish crown struck cohlly on the conscious- ness of (ireat Britain. The integrity of Denmark had been -uarauteed by the'Congress of Vienna, to wliieh both Euglanil and France were |iarties. ( 'onsistency seemed Ifi require that Great Britain should now prevent Austria and Prussia from breaking the balance of power. The Prince of Wales had but ju.st married the Princess Alexandra, daughter of the King of r)eiimark, thus presenting her full of youth, lieauty. and almost every charm and virtue known to \yoniauhood, as the future

(^ueen of Great Britain. The marriage was as popular as the Princess was attractive to the British public. The Danish Government believed that dependence might be placed on Great Britain as a buttress of support in the war with Germany. The British jMinistry to.ik up the cause of the Danes, and was ready to declare war; but in so doing, the cooperation of France was a ueces.?ary condition of succes.s. Lord Russell accordingly became a suitor to Xapoleon III. to join him in the work of maintaining, by arms, the integrity of the Danish dominions. But what was the surprise of the English Ministry when the Emperor of France coldly refusal the overture! Great Britain suddenly fuiiid herself in the humil- iating, not to say rirliculous, attitude of a rejected suitor. The Danes were, out of the necessity of the situation, left to fight their own battle, and the English Cabinet was left to face the sarcasms of Disraeli, and the attacdcs of the whole Conservative jiarty in and out of Parliament.

It was ill this emergency that Lord Pal- nierston fought and gained his last battle in the British House of Commons. On the 4th of July, 1864, Disraeli challenged the very existence of the ^linistry by introducing a resolution to the efi'ect that the Queen's Gov- ernment had failed to maintain the policy of upholding the integrity and independence of Denmark, had lowered the just infiuence

thereliy diminished the securities for ])eace. On these propositions the adniit author of them made a ]iowerfiil and effective speech, and it ajipeare.l fir the time that the Govern- ment would be beaten. There could, indeed, be little doubt that the arraignment of the Ministry by Disraeli with respect to the mismanagement of the Danish question was a true bill. A considerable fraction of the more advanced Liberals had long been dissatisfied with Paliiiei>ton and his whole foreign policy. It appeared for the nonce that the veteran statesman, \vhose memory of great things reached back to Austerlitz, was about to be humiliated in the last year of his life. It is probable that such would have been the result if the i.ssue had been fought out on the line proposed by the leader of the Opposition. But in the emergency, an amendment was

GREAT BRITAIN.— AMKETC Ay COMPLICATION.

.■1!)J

oposed by Kiuglake, by which the question IS carefully transferred to the safer ground a (jeiiend approval or disapproval by the luse (if the Paliuerston Goveniinent. This ve opiiortuuity for the aged Prime ,AIiiii.-t.r defend himself and his measures iu the last ?eeli which he was ever to make in Parlia- 'i]t. He was already eighty years of age ; t his genius, as the event soon jiroved, had t yet taken flight. He spoke for a long lie with his usual cogency, taking advantage, th all his old-time skill, of the peculiar con- inns and temper of the H.mse. His intlu-

drli

Aloni; yh

•s li:

The proposition of Kinnlake in support of the Jlinistry was adopte<l by a clear majority, but it was the last day of the glory of En.lyniion. During the session of 18(3.5 it was ])erceived by all that Palnierston's career was at an end. He began to totter with feebleness, and became almost blind. He was still able on his eightieth birthday to ride on horseback to the Hilsea fortifications, and make a personal inspection of the works. At an ear- lier period iu the same year he had riilden from Piccadilly to Harrow, a distance of twelve miles, in a single hour — a feat which may well emphasize not only the extraordinary vigor of the man, but also testify to tlie un- conquerable force and longevity of the English race at its best estate. From his last Parlia- mentary contest, Palmerston retired to liis residence, called Brocket Hall, where, after a short illness, he expired on the IStli of Octo- ber. is(;r..

Betore finally dismissing this ppriod of English history, covering the relations ot' the Kingdom with the United States during the Civil War, w should not fail to notice the domestic cloud which, in the lurantime, had settled darkly over the Koyal Palace. After a wedded life of unclouded serenity through a span of twenty-one years, the Queen was now fated to enter the sliadows of perpetual widow-

h 1. Before speaking in particular of the

death of the Prince Consort, we may properly refer, with praise, to the fact that, in the midst of the storm and passion of the times, when it seemed that all England was in a roar

over the supposed collapse of the American Tniou, Prince Albert had the \\isilnm and generosity' to maintain, by voice

I'nitcd States. At the time, it was not kn..wu in onr country le.w steady and valualile a frien.l wc had lo>t in the'.lealh of the Queen's husband. After events have set the matter ri.cht, and the memory of the j'rince (;.>nsort will long be green on'this >ide of the Atlantic.

The pure .lomesticity of th.' Koval Family during the life of the Prince has alreaily bci'n emphasized. Viewerl politically, and with re- spect to the perpetuity of the reigning dyna.ty, the marriage had been so successfid as not only to ■satisfy but well elate the friends of the House of Saxe-Col)urg-Gotha. No fewer than nine children, strong, vigorous sons and daughters, all of whom grew without accident or distress to manhood and womanhood, were born of the fjrtunate marriage. The ehlest of these was the Princess Victoria, born in lS4(t, wedded at the age of eighteen to the Crown Prince of Prussia, more I'eeently Ger- man Empress ami widow of Frederick HI. The second was a son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, born in 18-11, to whom, in 1863, was given in marriage the Princess Alexandra of bennuuk. In our own ,lay ho still stands, as from his birth, heir expectant to the crown of England. The third was the Princess Alice, born in 1843, and married in 1861^ to Prince Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt. The fourth was Alfred, born in 1844, Duke of Edinbtu-gh in 1866, to whom was married, in b'^74, the <Trand Duchess Maria, daughter of Alexander II. of Ru.ssia. The Princess Helena was horn in 1846, and was married, in 1866, to Prince Christian ..f S,.hh<wig-Holstcin. The fourth daughter. Lnui<e, was born in ls4s, and was wedih'd, in l-sTl, to the Manpiis ,,f Lnrne. The third -on, Arthur, was b,,ni in is.-.d, and Lecipold, the fourth s.m, in Is.V}. lieatrice, the last heir of the House, was born in ls.")7. The younger, as well as the elder Piince> and Princ,

ive iieen

H..uses ,,:

some reason to be i|uerulous about the heavv pensions which have had to be settled on the multiplied and multiplying descendants of

UXIVERSAL HISTORY. — TEE MODERN WORLD.

Prince Albert, she has, on tlie other hand, I under her own theory of human government, ^ great cause to n-joice at the laot that the extiuctiou of the reiguint; dynasty, or any serious trouble with respect to the descent of the Crowu, seems to be either wholly ini- l.o"ibl,. .,r a uroat uay off

Pun.-.' All.crt th.- ('..11-. It i.romi-rd a long

life. >Vhile he could not be called a very rol)ust or vigorous man, he, nevertheless, bore good health, and was of strictly temperate habits. In the first days of December, 1861, he cnntract.'d cold, and was thrown into a fever. At fir.-t little attention wa'- paiil to his ailment ; tlien it was known that he was seri- ously, though it was not thought dangerously, ill. ' On the night of the 14th of December,

however, the great bell of St. Paul's began to toll, and with the morning light it was pnijlished i'Yom Windsor Castle that the Prince Consort was dead. He had expired having the Queen, the Prince of AVales, and the Princesses Alice and Helena by his bed- side. The event served to bring his high character and blameless life into strong relief, and into a still bolder contrast with the dark background which had been painted socially and morally by the pre- ceding kings and princes of the House of Hanover-Bruns- wick. To the Queen herself, the death of her husband was an im medicable wound. She entered with sorrowful se- renity that career of grand widowhood wliirli has now lengthened out to nearly thirty years, during which her chief domestic con- solation has been in the great family of sons and daughters, at whose head she still sitsinthedignity of royal motherhood. The death of Lord Palmerston was not the end of the Liberal Govern- ment. A modifica- tion was, of course, necessary in the ]\Iin- istry, and it was expected by the public that the Cabinet would be entirely reconstructed. Tlie Queen named Lord John Russell as Prime Minister; and that statesman, now seventy- three vears of age, assumed the direction of Government. The only other change made in the Ministry was the calling of Lord Clar- endon to (lecupv the place made vacant by Lord Russell ni the Secretaryship of Foreign

GREAT BH [TA rX.—A.]fFRirAX rOMPLICATIOX.

Affairs. The leadership of the House of Cominous still devolved on Gladstoue. The general effect of these ciiaiigps was siiirlit; hut the stii.leiit of rarlianiriitarv iiistorv c.uld imt

fail to (lisceni in th. approacliing, perha[).- revolution.

For the time beini

.Mi

ver, i)Uhlie altcii- tion was drawn away fioni tlie evohuion of home politics to tlic si-rioiis, calaniitous, .lis- graceful condition of alhiirs in .fanniira. Just two days after the death of Lord Palmerston, Governor Edward John Eyre, of that Islan.l, reported to the Colonial Serrrtary the out- hreak of an alariniiiL;- iii>urnction of the negro population under liis government. It were, perhaps, a thaiil^less task to undertake, in this eonueetion, a thorou-h an:dy>i^ of the antecedents, causes, ami <-iMiilitioiis of this revolt. Perhaps we may hest -inn up the whole hy saving that the iiisuneitiou liad its r...)ts in' the" institution of Mavery, and that its i,nme,liate cau^e was the injustiee and tyrannous conduct of the Britisii (Tovern- inent iu the Island. We have already ex- plained that, with the abolition of slavery, a state of affairs had supervened in .Tamaiea very similar to that with whicli tlie (Jovern- ment of the United States was f u- many years embarrassed after the downfall of the Confed- eracy. The laucis of the Island had been hehl, under the ancient n'gline, in large tracts by white landlords, who cultivated their estates by means of slave labor. In course of time, much of the land was -leteriorated in fertilirv and value. Parts .,f the estate, wei-e thn.uu out to the commons, cea-ed to l)e cultivated, and were overgrown with. tliicket<.

When slavery was aholi^^lied, the e\-.dave- holders of -Jamaica, who were now ol,li-ed to pay wages to the negroes fir their labor, found it espe<lieut to permit the Black men to occupy and cultivate for themselves, the aban- doned lands just referred to. Nearly all of such lauds were by this time encumliered witli delinquent taxes ami quit-rents, wdiich ha<l accumulated against them. The general con- dili lu on which tlf ncLjroe- were permitted to occu|)\' was that thev sliould discharge all delinquencies of tax and rent that might have accrued. This was done in a great number of instances, and the Black men thus acquired

for themselves a kind of property right wdiich it is ditheult to define. At length the industry of the Blacks brought the lands again into cultivatiou, and thereby restored their value. W'lieieupon, the original owners or tlieir rep- resentatives came forward to reclaim their estates, which the negroes had occupied and improved. In order to dispos.se.<s tlie latter, a jirocess was resorted to verv similar to that eni- jiloye,! in more nreiit times iu the eviction of Iri.-^h tenants l,y thei,- English landlord,^. It was resistanci. to ihis process of ilispo-.^^ession by eviction, with all of its agL'ravating cir- cumstances and inju-lice, that led to the

The revolt began .ai the 7th of Oct.iber, at a place called JNIoraut i!av, in the south- easternmost part of the I>laiid. There had lieen at this town some previous disturbances, tiiid (iovernor Eyre now sent thither a squad of troops to aid the authorities in the arrest of the offenders. On the lltli of the month the magistrates held a meeting in tlie Court-house Scpiare ..f ;\loraut Bay, where they were pro- t<'cted liy a small body of volunteer soldiers.

Wl

ings were under way, the

Court-house was attacked by a large force of rioting negroes armed with bludgeons and corn-knives, and eighteen per.sous, including the principal officer of the county, were killed, ^leanwhile, the troops sent by the Governor approached, and the rioters dispersed in all directions. No further effort at resistance was made or thought of liy the negroes, who were doubtless dazed at their ouii success. The whole country, however, was at (Jiice declared under martial law, and the authorities, under direction of the CoveriKir, proceeded to hunt down the rebels, and to hale them before

What followed is one of the most di.-^grace- ful chapters in the colonial history of the British Empire. Such another carnival of inexcusable butchery was hardly ever held under the auspices of any power claiming to be civilized. No rebels in arms were found by (niveriior Eyre's soldiers anywhere; but capture, hanging, tlogL'ing, and burning be- came the order of the day f.r many weeks together. No age, sex, or condition was exempt from the cruelties and brutalities to which the terrified negroes were subjected.

31)4

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

According to the rejiort of a Koyal Commis- simi, which was presently sent out by the Home Government to incjiiire into this reign of terror, no fewer than f<iur hiimlred and thirty-nine pers(Jiis wcic actually put to ih'atli wiih'hardly the I...ju or )n..ck.'ry of ju>tir,.! The «inR-" rcpnrt showed that'.Mx iuiudre.l

were about to become niotliers, were cruelly, bloodily, mercilessly whipped with wire catso'- niue-tails, until scores of them were ready to die.

and the j)roseeutions were at once brought to an end. An elaborate document, covering the theory and application of martial law, was jirepared by Lord (Jhief-Justice Cockburu.

Va\v was II' ved from the governorship of

.laniaiea, and was succeeded by Sir Henry Siiiik^. A measure was at once agitated for a complete leldijiiatiou of the government of the Island. In December of 186G, an act was passed by the Jamaican Assembly, re- questing the Queen to take such steps as

^ I A

JAMAICA INSURRECTION.

It was also shown that a certain George William Gordon, a Baptist negro minister of good character, who had the courage to stand up for his race, and to iiold some sort of buckler in the face of their enemies, was arrested, condemned to death, and hanged, with scarcely the semblance of evidence against him, and witli none of the ordinary means of legal defense in his hands.

The news of all this produced, as well it might, a great sensation in England. John Stuart r^IiU took up the cause of the Islanders,

would abrogate the existing order and secure the benefits of a local, civil autonomy in the Island, similar to that which existed in the other colonial governments of the Empire. Thus was tile ancient constitution under which, during more than two hundred years of abuses and wrongs, Jamaica had been mis- governed, overthrown and abolished. A new order supervened, by whicdi even the com- posite and divergent populations of the Island were brought at length to a condition re- seml.)ling harmony and progress.

GREAT BRITAIN.— FKyiASISM AND DISESTABLISHMENT.

Chapter OCXXIi.^Kexianisim and Ijiskstab- lisshmenx.

T was not u	i.ler t'av,.ialile
auspi.v^ tl	at the (lUasi-
Liliwal Mi,	i>try ..f Loi-a
Ku.-.ll a>M	i.ie.i the task
cL.^l- nf	ni'iit at the m;5. There
were in tli	■ kiugdom at
elllellt-^ .if .1	seourageineut
Ul.eirieially,	he prosperity

that (

and discontent.

of the year was ^reatly disturlied by the cattle phiixue which had spi-ead thnmwh several parts nf the Ishind, aii.l had >w.i,t away more than forty thousand animals. Even this large hiss was not the whole. Science was baffled ill dealing with the contagion, and it was fnuud necessary to prevent its further ravages by killing whole herds of cattle in the ex- posed counties. It was a time of social and tiiiaucial alarm. The premonitory nimors of the Fenian conspiracy in Ireland had reached the Government and the people. Asiatic cholera was making its way westward, stage by stage, through the sea-ports of the ^Medi- terraiieaii. The foreign relations of the King- dom, while not positively disturbed, were suffering at the extremities, like the anfeiiiiw of .some huge insect thrust out far into hospitable regions. There were also preiuoni- tiiiiis of a financial panic — a thing particularly dreatled by the great commercial interests of the Kingdom. Deep down under all this was the profound discontent of the ma.sses with their political condition. The (piestion of a reforin of the franchise, which had been post- poned during the wliole of the Palmerstou i-f'ijiiiti', was ever readv to assert itself. It was known that (lla.lstone, who was now the dominant Liberal in the ("abinet, and Bright, who was the master spirit out of the Cabinet, both seeing eye to eye on the question of a general reform of the suffrage, had long post- more ei|uitable apportionment ot the seats in the House of Commons.

The season at length arrived for the work

to begin. xVt the opening of the .session of 18b(J, the speech from the throne drew the attention of Parliament formally to the ex- tension of the surt'rage as one of the duties mcuinbent upon Her Jlajesty's Government. It devolved on Gladstone to lead in the contest. Accordingly, on the 12th of March, in the year just named, he brought before the House a Ministerial Bill, in which it was proposed to reduce the property qualification on the franchise from fifty pounds to fourteen pounds in the case of suffrage in the counties, and from ten to seven pounds for the boroughs. There were other clauses in accordance with which the franchise, under certain conditions, was to be extended to lodgers, to those having

j deposits m savings banks, and certain other classes of per.sons. Considered as a whole, the bill was very mild in its provisions, insomuch that the Radical reformers felt for it a iiieasuie of contempt, while the Conservatives, biin-- now in the Opposition, set themselves ag:iiii>t the measure as a mere matter of politi. <. h rame to pass, at feiigth, that >oine ..f the disc.mtented ami extreme Liberals bandeil themselves together and demanded of Gladstone the radical and substantial amend- ment of the pending bill. The ^liuistry found Itself between two fires. The dissen- tient Radicals were known as the AduUainites,

j so-called by John Bright from their malcontent disposition; for David had once, in the day of

I trouble, hidden in the cave of Adullam, and called to him "every one that was in distress, and every one that was dismiitfiifrii" The Adul- iamites, though from an entirely <liHerent motive, joined with Disraeli and the Con- servatives, and when the Gladstone bill came to a vote It was defeated. It only remained for L.ird Russell and the inemlH.rs of the Cabinet to put their resignations into the hands of the Queen. The Liberal Ministrv was at an end, not in.le,..! for attempting to

Parliament, but because the measure which they proposed was so tame as to create no

?,w

UMVKHSAL HlSTdUY.— TnK MoDKlLX WOin.D

entliu.-iasni, having tlif imuit' "f ret' iiu witlnait whirh he the HihstaiK-o. ; m the I'ai

A new C'niiservativf ('ahiiiet was now ])art cf

cnn.-titute,l. uith L.,nl I)e,l,y tn,- I'nn.e .Mh,i^. |aMi..i-e,l

tpr. While hi.n.-ell a -late-maii nf^ :;ivat ai:aih>t tl

abilities, the nal k-a.ha>hip tell, as hetoiv, t., cai-le. H

Disraeli, C'haiieelle.r e,t the Exehe.iuer. The ure an.l

rarliaiiientarv stniL'trle whii'i ri • ■ n-'i ■! i- iinliiieal «

one -if the (iddest epi^o.les in the political t<. kf

hi<tM,-v nf (ireat Britain. The reeent Liberal law;

MIni-trv ha.l been |,l,.,l-e,l t.. a reform of the i,,lly.

snllVa-e, a,al ha.l faih.l, being overwhelm, d the n

hy the ()p|,M>itinn un.ba- the leadership of the the h

very man who had now. liy the success of the the i

Conservatives, inherited the unsolved question. (do-e,'

The far-sighted Disraeli had. in fact, for many I heren

years hedged against the very situation in i when

found himself. He had always, ■ntary debates, merely acted the >triictionist with the measures le Liberals. He had said little oiin ot' the sutlrage as a j)rin- acks had been n]ion this meas- uopn^d by the Liberals. His iieney and adroilnos now sto.,,1

. him well in hand.

The people, in the meantime, had stirred up the king- dom with a reform agitation almost un- equaled in extent and vitality. Great meetings were lield everywhere, and the most far-seeing of them who upheld the ancient order saw the handwrit- ing on the wall. It was no lunger to be <lonbted tliat the woi'kingmen of Great Britain were in terrilile earnest in the matter of gain- ing the right of suffrage. The Re- form League became active as never be- fore. The agitators in London prepared to hold a monster meeting in Hyde Park, for the dis- cussion of the ques- tion of extending the franchise. The leaders of the move- ment were careful .vithin the forms and spirit of the the Government, in a moment of eitook to prevent the meeting. On n- of the 23d of July, 1866^ when )t the column of Reformers reached of Hyde Park, they found them :\. large division of the midtitude turned aside to Trafalgar Square, :■ masses were addressed bv John

GREAT BIUlAiy.-FEXIAXISM AXD DISESTABLISHMEXT.

But	l-efore the
g ha,	1 assen.hlea
Pari	, where the
IC ,T	.\v(l ..11 tlie ir ■! ciiii-id-
, Hun	! |».ure,l in.
,■ 1,\	th..usaii(ls
ll.l sl	outiiii; and
•h ..t	,..rwise ,li,l
■nils	an.l l.lnkrl,

„1 L.. her

iig

■ Derli III th'

Bright and other orators, chise of the day, a vast tli around the inclosures of H half-intentional pressure n iron railing caused it to l;! erable distance, and the hui The people scattered at through the park, runnini triumphing in a license \ little harm. There were I heads, mutually delivered 1iy tli^ the rough citizenship, Imt utherw onstratiou ended with iii:;lit-fall, : on the next morning, exaininin found every organ in its place an its usual functions.

It was in the face of all this th Miiii-try must now stand nr f emergency, it occurred to I)i>iai'li that the time had arrived for a new chaptir m British politics. Hitherto, it had always heen the principle of political action that tlie party in power should hold to its dogmas and defeml them until overthrown by an adverse Parlia- mentary majority. The Conservatives and Liberals had always stood each to their bat- teries until the guns were silenced by a veri- table charge and victory of the Opposition. In the present instance, it occurred to Disraeli that it would be just as well for the Conserva- tives to become reformers themselves, and thus gather the wind out of the Liberal fleet, leaving it becalmed at sea. Why should a Conservative ^Ministry go out of power and office on such a slight technicality as polit- ical consistency ? It appears that the age and time and occasion were ripe for such a change in the ethics and methods of British politics. Wherefore, Benjamin Disraeli, Con- servative leader of the House of Commons, walked boldly into the arena, and declared that the Derby Government would itself take u]) and promote a reform of the franchise.

On the 5th of February, 18(i7, the Queen's speech from the throne, at the opening of Parliament, had declared to the Commons and Lords that their attention was about to be di- rected to the method of the representation of the English people in Parliament, and to an extension of the elective franchise. In accord- ance with this policy, which had doubtless been insiiired by himself, Disraeli announced

that the Government wouhl, first by a series of resolutions and afterwards iiy a formal bill, undertake the measures on which England had determinrd. On thr 11th nf February the preliminary skirmish was ..peiied. The leader of the House proposed his resolutions, some of which were platitudes, others truisms, and still others absurdities. It was a business, however, in which Disraeli was thoroughly at home. He kept the interest of the House by this means until the 25th of the mouth, when he brought in a Reform Bill, quite similar in its provisions to the one on which he had over- thrown the Kussell ^Ministry in the preceding year. The franchise in boroughs was to be reduced from ten pounds to six pounds. That in the counties was to be fixed at twenty ]>ounils. A great numlier of instances of in- dividual and professional extensions of the suf- frage were enumerated ; but, on the whole, the Bill was the same in methdd and spirit as that which the recent house had refused to ac- cept at the hands of (Jladstime.

On tins measure the debates were taken up anew. Jlany amendments were offered, to which, while Disraeli declared he would never consent, yet he consented. The struggle over the measure as a whole continued until the beginning of March, when three members of the ^Ministry, refusing to follow Disraeli fur- ther, resigned and went out of office. On the 18th of the month another surjirise was ad- ministered to the House by Disraeli's intro- ducing a second Bill in place of the first, the provisions of which — that is, of the new Bill — ■ were so radical and thorough-going as fairly to take the breath of both Parliament find people. Nevertheless, it was perceived that the man- ager understood the situation, and that the stormy elements around him were only the sport of that Machiavellian wit, for which no parallel can be produced in the history of modern times. It was at once perceived that the country was to have its way. Even the Radicals, or some of them, took the alarm at the thorough-going character of the measure before the House. John Bright, who had fa- vored the first Bill proposed as the best which the spirit of the age demanded or would bear, set himself in opposition to the second Bill on account of its apparently revolutionary char- acter. With tlie progress of the debates,

umvehsal htstouy.— the modkrn world.

h'lwever, it iK-caiiie clrar tliat the iia-a.-^ure wouLl be ;ulM|,tiMl. A few niiiviichiielits were tniri-il thniu-h the Ilmix', aii.l other mo.lifi- catKiiis were nueh- nr acvi.i.d liy tlie Miuistry. But on the l.')th of Aii-u-t the ku was fimiliy put on Us [la-sa-o, an. I was carried through tlie Coiunioiis liy a tair majority. Disraeli had succeeded in his new seheme of outdoing the Liberals in their own ehoseii field of agi- tation and reform.

Thus, after tlie lapse of about thirty years, another of the great principles of the People's Charter was admitted into the Constitution of Great Britain. In accordance with the new Bill, all male householders in English boroughs who were assessed for the relief of the poor, and all resident lodgers who had beeu so for one year, and paying a rental of not less than ten pounds annually, were ad- mitted to the franchise. In the counties the possession of a property yielding an annual value of five pounds was the requisition. Those who occupied lauds or tenements pay- ing a rental of twelve pounds a year were enfranchised. The great principle of the Bill was Household Suffrage. It was not the pur- pose and intent of the measure that all man- ner of men in the bottom of society should be allowed to vote, but the provisions were such that all the English householding peas- antry were admitted to the suffrage. On the question of a redistribution and apportionment of the seats in the House of Commons, much was also accomplished. Many of the small boroughs hitherto represented in Parliament were disfranchised, and others were reduced in their repi-esentative capacity. At the same time the great and populous municipalities, such as Manchester, Liverpoul, Birmingham, and Leeds, received additional representation according to their increased importance in the Kingdom. The University of London was granted a member in the House of Com- mons. The principle of minority representa- tion was established to this extent, that in every borough entitled to three members of Parliament, the elector should vote for two candidates only, the effect of which was to se- cure the third candidate for the minority. In Loud<m, wiiich by the provisions of the Act was entitled to fnur hhmhIiui-s in the House, eacli elector ini-ht vote for three,

wh

the fourth

It only iviuaiiis to note the extension of the Eef(jrm Bill, in the following year, to the electoral methods of Scotland and Ireland. In the former country, the measure adopted was essentially identical with that of England, with the exception of the clause relating to the assessment for the poor, which was omitted. The Scotch api)ortioumeut of members in the House of Commons was also amended by an increase of representation. In Ireland, simi- lar provisions were made as to the qualifica- tions for the sufirage, but no improvement was attempted with respect to the representation in Parliament. It was thus, after a struggle which had extended through a whole geuera- tion, that the principles of popular liberty, ex- pressed in a broader and freer exercise of the right of suff"rage, were at last accepted as a necessity by the political parties, and were in- terwoven with the constitutional fabric of Great Britain. Nor will the thoughtful reader fail to observe with interest and instruction that new political expediency, devoid doubt- less of the moral quality, but highly suc- cessful iu application, whereby the genius and craft of Disraeli were enabled to compel the British Con.servatives of 1867 into the service of the greatest and most salutary civil reform of the age and country.

We are now at the threshold of another of those remarkable chapters which record the struggles of the Irish people against the polit- ical authority and social domination of Great Britain. No extended narrative, or even re- capitulation, can here be undertaken of the numljerless political conspiracies, secret organ- izations, and widely extended plots whereby the Celtic population of Ireland have time and again striven to free themselves from the thralldom which they profess to be galled withal. The origin of such movements is to be found deep down in the ineradicable prejudices of race and religion. Perhaps the prejudice of race alone might be overcome; perhaps the prejudice of religion alone might I be obviated; but the prejudice of race and religion has thus far constituted an insurmount- able Ijarrier to the affiliation and unity of the Iri>h and Eii,uli>h peoples.

As early as L~>.jS tlie first rumors of the

GUKAT BRlTAiy—FLMAyiSM AXD DISESTAnLISHMEST.

809

existence of the Feuiau societies were whis- pered iu Great Britain and America. The Feuiau Brotherhood may i)e detiiied as a secret politico-military oryauizaliiin lia>cd im the fiindameutal motive of the iudepeiideiice of Ireland. The tradition of such an order is as old as Ireland itself. The name Fenian is given in the Ballads of the Irish Fili, or Bards, as the name of certain miliary clans which fought for the native kings of the Island, long before the beginnings of authentic history. There is a period in the primitive develop- ment of the Irish race which may properly be called the Fenian Period, when the native sovereigns of the race, surrounded by their clans, battled for independence of each other or supremacy in Ireland. Out of these ancient traditions the Celts have always been eager to gather inspiration in their endless contests with the Saxons.

It was a happy conceit which led the dis- contented of 1857 to choose for their new political association the ancient name of Fenian Brotherhood. We must remember that, for more than ten years, the population of Ireland had been escaping in shoals to the American coasts. The exiles of Erin in the United States entered quickly and with en- thusiasm into their new relations as citizens of the Republic ; but they did not cease to turn with longing eyes to the green Mother Island across the Atlantic. To the restless Irishmen of the American cities, their new situation seemed to provoke some effort in behalf of the Old Country. At length, in 1S47, in the city of New York, the Fenian Brotherhood was founded by Michael Doheny, John O'Mahoney, and Michael Corcoran, after- wards a Brigadier-General in the Union Army. The head-quarters of the society was in Union Square. At this time an order of like character existed in Ireland under the name of the Fhcenix Society. Its founder was James Stephens, who, in 1858, came to America ; and the two societies were merged into one, under the presidency of O'.Mahoney. Correspond- ence between the Irish and American Brother- hoods was at once greatly extended. It became the order of the day to raise funds in America for the support of the Irish cause. The leading spirits from this time until the outbreak of the Civil War iu the United

States, were O'iMahoney and Stephens, who went back and forth between Old Ireland and New Ireland, estaldishing new chapters of the Brotherhood, and rapidly extendiui:- its influ- ence, not only in the Mother Island, but throughout the United States and even into British America.

At this juncture of affairs, the secession of the Southern States occurred. The side of the American Rej)ublic, so to speak, was torn out by the Confederate leaders, and the gleam of bayonets was seen everywhere in the North and the South as the marshaling lines of blue and gray soldiers swept into the field of battle. When the armies were organized, it could but be ob.served that the regiments, especially those from the great cities, had in them a large percentage of Irish soldiers. In the Confederate ranks the eager Celtic coun- tenance was seen in every line, though the numbers were not so great as in the armies of the Union. It was evident that, for the time, the Fenian enthusiasm had found vent in the unfortunate war for and against the Union of the States.

If we look closely into the heart of the question, we shall find the large Irish con- tingent in the Union army cherishing a secret or half-revealed hope and expectancy that, in the course of the conflict, Great Britain would so conduct herself as to bring on an Anglo- American war. We have seen how fatally near was that hope to a realization. The Irish-Americans who fou.i:lit for the Union, and even those who fouglit aL^ainst it, ]ier- ceived that a war between the United States and England meant, iu all jirohaliility, the revolt and independence of Irelan<l. We may well suppose that when the afliur of the Trent was amicably settled, there was a certain heart-sinking in the breasts of thousands of Irish-American soldiers— a feeling of disap- pointment that they had thus been deprived of the opportunity of marching, under the Stars ami Stripes, against a British arniy in Canada.

Canada ? Aye, that was, indeed, the region to which the Fenian gaze wa-: now directed. The Civil War in the United States ended with the complete restoration of the Union. Fenianism sprang up anew. Far and wide the Brotherhood extended its divisions. In

400

rXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

almost every con.<iiler;iblc American town, there was a Fenian lodge and muster-hall. Great sums of money were transmitted to Ireland, and in March of 18(37 a general rising of the Irish people was planned and awaited. The scheme contenijilated an Irish insurrection against wliich the British author- ities would, of course, at once proceed with vigor and animosity. Hereupon, the vast army of Fenians in the United States would arise in its might, and precipitate itself on Canada. The pressure on Ireland by the British soldiers was to be counteracted by a still greater pressure in Canada by the Ameri- can-Fenian army. In fact, the movement began to look exceedingly portentous. It can not be claimed that the politico-military plan adopted by the Fenians was irrational or even impracticable. Doubtless it would, in anv event, have ended, finally, in failure; but it would have been at such excessive cost and distress to Great Britain as to have led, in all probability, to a great change in the civil administration of Ireland, or, possibly, to the independence of the country. The trouble and weakness of the whole movement lay in that fatal want of practical ability, in that overzeal and absence of prudent foresight, which have marked all similar enterprises undertaken by the Celtic race. There is un- doubtedly in this respect an ethnic weakness in the Irish people, for which it is difficult to account on any other ground than that of a race-inaptitude for the management and con- duct of large affairs.

In the crisis under consideration, the pro- posed rising in Irelaml ended in mere agita- tion, dust, and siiKike. It has been noted by critics friendly to the Irish cause at this juncture, that the first days of March, 1867, were marked in Ireland by an unprecedented fall of snow, obstructing all the roads, filling the fields fence-deep -with impassable snow- beds, packing the mountain gorges and coverts of the pea.santry to such an extent that for nearly two weeks, including the date appointed for the insurrection, all formidable gatherings and musterings of the Fenians were made impossible. Only in a few places in the counties of Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, and Louth, did any actual rising take place. The insurrections were local, feeble, easily

suppressed by the police. For the rest, the insurgents were quickly scattered, and their leaders arrested and brought to trial. One of the most prominent of these was C<ilonel T. F. Burke, who, from being a valued Confederate soldier, had gone back to Ireland and England to lie one of the leaders of the expected revolt. On the 2od of November he was arrested, along with another Fenian Captain named Casey, and the two were lodged in the Clerk- enwell prison. Shortly afterwards a barrel of powder was exploded against the outer wall, producing a shock as if of an earth- quake. Six persons were killed ; eleven others were mortally wounded, and about a hundred and twenty others received injuries of greater or less severity. Five nwn and one woman were arrested for the crime. The woman and one of the men were soon released for want of evidence against them. Three of the other men were tried and acquitted; but the fifth was condemned and executed in spite of tiie most strenuous efforts made in his behalf Colonel Burke was himself condemned to death ; but a public meeting was held in St. James's Hall, London, and a powerful and convincing speech was delivered to the multi- tude by John Stuart Mill, who pleaded elo- quently for clemency to the prisoner. The evidence against Burke had never been con- elusive as to the commission of any crime, and the sentence of death was not carried into execution.

In a short time another startling event occurred, being the successful attempt of a band of Fenians in Manchester to rescue two prisoners, who were in a van, in charge of the police, on the way to jail. The van was .stopped in the street in open day. One of the Fenians, in the attempt to shoot the lock off of the door, had the misfortune to kill a police officer who ^vas inside. The doors were then opened, and the two prisoners, named Kellv and Deasy, making their escape, were seen no more. Of this offense against the law, five of the Fenians were found guilty, and were condemned to die. It was at length discovered that one of the condemned men had had ah.solutely nothing to do with either the plot or the criiue. One other of the con- victs also escaped the death penalty ; but the remaining three, Allen, Larkin, and O'Brien,

GREAT BIUTAiy.^FEMAXISM AXD DISESTABLFSHMEXT.

were executed. All of them wont to their death like heroes. The news of the exeeu- tiiius ;yas carried to the countries on both sides of the Atlantic, and the Fenians \Yere more than ever enraged against the English Government.

In the meantime, tlic Fmiau cause in America had run its oun-^c. In thr first plai'c, a (juarrel broke out in the liroihirlnin,!, and two separate societies WL't-r turnuMl, [uo- fessing the same general oljjectsand jirinciples, but at enmity with each oth time forth the plans of the An went always from \\<n-<f to wor

From this lean Fenians One of the the invasion )granime was Fenians and ngth the for-

favorite schemes of the ordi/r w; ■of Canada. This part of the [ now favored hy one wing of tl: disap|iroved by the other. At mer party went ahead on the liin.' of its own purpose, and throw forward a bidy of armed men to the Niagara Piivi'r. < >ii the lught (pf May 31, 1866, that stream was crossed, and F<u'-t Erie was occupieil hy the invaders. The Canadian volunteers who came against them were defeated and dispersed. It appeared for the moment that the war had actually iiegun ; but at this juncture the Government of the United States came to the front, forbade any further exodus of the Fenians, and arrested the leaders of the movement on the American frontier. By this time the Canadian authori- ties had rallied and sent f irward a body ,.f troops. The Fenians on the ('aiuulian side were overpowered, and many of them, under sentences of courts-martial, were shot. Some by retreating, succeeded in recrossing the Niagara, and saved themselves by flight into the interior. By the close of the year 1868 the excitement had subsided ; and though the Brotherhood was maintained f)r a considerable ])eriod afterwards, the ni'ilij of the eiiterpri.se was gone, and the word Fenian lost its terrors, not only in America, but also in Great Britain. this race distiirbiuice oc- the tii-st serious lireak of the Ti:Ai>i;s-rNrox.s. It

	c<	iuci	lei	tly
cu civ	■re il	1 in	E
W(	re	ditti	>ul	t
th	h	In. :	III	iii|
me	di:	■val	ti

line:

be sai.l that the fact is eoiieoiiiUant uitli jirop- erty itself Certain it i> tliat the appeaiance of Tra(K's-riii..ns is a perfectly natural phe- nomenon 111 all tlio,-e coiiiitri.s who>e people are suffieieiitly advanced to have a division of

eipially cei'tain that the appearance and de-

>ignal tor the ahirm and relentless opp,,Mtion of th.' s,,-,-alled upper classes ot society. The Trades-Union has been, from the hour of its birth, the bete noire of capital and ca]ntalists. In England the guilds of trade have had a pe- culiarly stormy career. The whole feudal system, dominant in the civil and social con- stitution of Great Britain, has fVom the first set itself with relentless animosity against the very existence of Labor Unions.

Viewed from the side of the laborer, such organizations appear to be not only natural, luit inevitable. The lab(jrer, at a certain stage of his evolution, marks the example

organization of those who purchase and emjiloy industry. In every country the employers' Unions have forerun by a considerable date the Unions of the working classes. It is indeed a peculiar sort of economic logic which concoiies to the employer the right and privi- lege of combining with his fellow III order to pro- duce results against the natural laws of trade, and which at the same time forbids the arti- san to enter into a like combination with his felhiw-workmen to seciin' himself against the effects nt the combinations above him.

The English Trades-Unions lia.l their first formiilable apparition in the great manufactur- ing towns. It was in Sheffield, Manchester, and BirmiiiLihani that the presence of trade com- binations began, at tlie e]Hich which we are now considering, t'l nianitest themsi-lves in a man- ner well calculated to alarm the existing order. As early as IS.5,5, certain secret acts of violence of a iieculiar character began to be known and riiiiionMl tlivoiigh the kingdom. The character of the thin- il,,,,,. p,,i„le,l to the Trades-Unions as their origin. A charge

a-ainst the hons.^ of some lab,„vr win. had

The

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

rorized by some kiuJ of furay or attack, designed to frighten the otfen<liug liuuseliold out of the eommuuity. Sometime^ the worlc- man himself was beaten ; simietimes his tools were broken up and destroyed. The phenom- ena were, in short, precisely such as have more recently become familiar in every American city where labor organizations exist, and where striking has been adopted as the method of obtaining redress of grievances.

The outrages again.st life and property referred to above began in Sheffield, but the same facts soon afterwards appeared in ^Man- chester and other manufacturing cities. In 1867 an investigation was begun under the auspices of a Parliamentary Commission, and many scandalous practices were brought to light as a part of the method of the Trades- Unionists. But the inquisition had not pro- ceeded far until it was demonstrated that the practices in question had been provoked by the long-stanciing abuses of society. The reader of to-day may well be surprised to know that less than a quarter of a century ago, within the distinct memory of men not yet beyonil the middle stage of life, all such organizations as Labor Unions were absolutely outlawed in Great Britain. The statutes of the realm not only did not recognize the right of such associations to be formed and to exist under protection of the laws, Init actually for- bade all such associations as unlawful, per- nicious, dangerous to the peace of society. Not only this, but the whole dominant public opinion of England held the same ground and taught the same principles. There was not an influential public journal, not a respectable pulpit, not a judicial tribunal, in the Kingdom of Great Britain wherein any other principle than that of absolute prescription of Trades- Unionism was either declared or tolerated. Nevertheless, the Unions did exist. They were a natural growth — ;just as they have been in America — of the existing industrial con- ditions. But their being a natural product of the established order did not prevent the ruling classes of society from the attempt to put them down both by suasion and by force.

We may not here enter upon the history of the struggle which ensued. It extended from 1667 to 1875, the agitation broadening and deepening until public opinion was gradu-

ally shaken into a better frame. Parliament was oljliged to abandon the old pro.-eriiilive theory, and to frame new statutes in which tlie rights of workiugmen were acknowledged fully, and fortified by law. The new statutes were, as usual in English legislation, of a very moderate and conservative character. Organ- ized society conceded ju~t .-o much to the individual, just so much to the masses, a< was ueces-ary to the ends of peace — nothing more. The principles of the new laws were, first of all, the recognition of the absolute equality of contract on the part of workmen and tlieir employers. Should there be an infraction of this principle on the part of either, the other might proceed against him by legal process for the recovery of damages. The rule of imprisonment for the mere violation of in- dustrial principles was abrogated ; a workman might no longer be imprisoned except fir the actual commission of crime. At the same time, the rights of general society were strictly guarded. Those who were employed, for in- stance, in the service of the municipality, as in the mana<:ement of the watcr-sup]ily or gas-supply of a city, might not, with impunity, break their contract to do service to the hurt of the people at large. The new rules were in some respects revere, or at least just, as it respected employers. The latter were no longer autocrats. Tlioy m'^gl t no longei-, at the suggestion of caprice or anger, violate the agreements which they had made with work- men— no longer use them aud abuse them at their will.

Another important principle, as it respected the Trades-Unions, was established by tlie legislation of 1875. The rule of striking against the reduction of wages, or for other hardship, was frankly and fully conceded ; but the right of strikers to go beyond their own act to interfere with other workmen, to forbid the prosecution of the entsrprise which they hail abandoned, to break, destroy, and perse- cute, as a means of bringing employers to a .settlement, was denied and interdicted. On the whole, the legislation of the period marked an important stage in that industrial e'.'obition through which all civilized people are now pa.'^sing. in the course of which, ere the work be fullv done, the wage-.system of labor itself must either be radically modified, or else

GREA T nniTAIX.—FEMANISM AXD I>J!S KSTA B LIS HM EXT.

give place in totn to tli-.it eniiin'riitive system of iudustry which apiicars to lie the destiny nf the times to come.

AVe may here turn luirily from tiie home

war in wliich she was eni;ni:iil. ( )iir attention in this iustance is direetr.l to Ali\-sinia, ami to the career of King Theoilore III., Kmperor, or Xegus, of that country. The story is another of those remarkable episodes in which the foreign relations of Great Britain in the present century so much abound. In the first place, it must be remembered that Abyssinia is a Christian rather than a ]\Iohainmedan State, and that the people are thus, on the side of their religious sympathies, allied some- what with the peoples of the West. In the next place, it .should be remarked that, on the ethnic side, the Abyssinians are out of unii>n with the Nigritiau races, and even with the Arabs. The race descent is rather Haniitic tlian otherwise, and the development of the country, civil and polilieal, lias throuLihont been, to a certain degree, anomalous.

The Government is monarchical. King Theodore, nearly fifty years of age at the time of which we speak, had Iiiinself olitained the throne by usurpation. His eharaeter niiiiht well remind us of some of the great lii-torieal personages of antii|nity. lie is represented as having had nnich of the native talent and all of the eccentricity and baiKarie pn-icm of Peter the Great. "Theo.lore wa-. however, by no means a barbarian. He had Inity pnrp^.ses and great ambitions. His generosity, wlien his anger was not kindled, knew no bounds. He had, in some measure, the ken of a st;ites- mau. He would have been glad to enter into relations — civil, political, and marit;d — with the Western peoples. At one period in his career he strove, with much anxiety, to open a personal correspondence with no less a personage than Her Majesty, tlie <,|neen of England. He would be her lover, and would

lead Viet..ria from her weeds of wi.lowh 1 to

the splendors of Oriental nuptials, th.^ ri.-liness

(),i..ntal erown. It does not appear that the seri..Us (^leen of Creat Hritain was gn.itly moved by the woi-hiii of her African adnivr. It is even doubtful whether his missiv.,- ever reached the steadv eves of the Koyal mi-tnss

of Wind.sor Palace. At all this, Theodore, in

the true lover's mood, beea L^reatly angered.

He could not conceive why il was that the Queen of England should not de-ire his de- votion; and if even a partial eoneept of the difterence betwen him and the(^ueen — between his people and hens — did enter his conscious- ness, it was only to aggravate the evil.

This King Theodore had his capital in the city of Magdala, a natural stronghold, situated about two hundred miles from the Gulf of Aden, latitude 11° 22' N., and longitude 39° 2-5' E. Here was reared by nature a vast Basaltic plateau to the level of nine thousand one hundred and ten feet above the sea. On this plateau a .second elevation rises alxnit one thousand feet; and on this, with preciiiitous sides all around, was built the Abyssinian cap- ital, a place which Cwsar nught well have described as "fortified by the nature of the ground." Theodore was a man of military ambition. He hail a treasury and an army, the latter eomp(ise<l of nearly a hundred and fifty thousand men of war. The sea-port of JIagdala is the island and town of .Massowah, in the Red Sea, a short distance from the African coast. It was in this island that the agents and representatives of the British Gov- ernment first made the ac<piaintance of King Theodnie, first liecame familiar with his meth- ods and principles of Government.

The king, at the beginning, conceived a great liking for the few English officers who came to his shore. This was particularly true of the British Consul Plowden, who, from Massowah, had given mateiial aid and counsel to Theodore in the matter of putting down an insurrection. Plowden joined the king in this work, and was unfortunately killed by the Abvssinian insuigents. The character of the monarc.'h was well illustrated in what en- sued. When the rebellion was suppressed, he delilierately mdered the execution of more than a hundred rebels, as a sort <.f sacrifice to the memory of his fiiemi, the Consul. Soon afterwards "Captain Cam.rnn was sent out to

:\Iasse

Ht

ndopt.d the ..1	po-it.	poli,.y from that of his
he king of Ab\	"inia	111 have little to do with . The hitter had already
lecome jealous	llld s	ispieious of England and
)f all English	nen.	The Queen would not

GREAT BRITAIX.—FEMAyiSM AXD DISESTABLISHMKXT.

40.-)

answer his love-letters, and he resented the insult. The suspicion of Theodore grew hot against Captain Cameron, and jiresentlv, in an hour of inadvertent wrath, he urdfred the arrest of all the British within his reach, Cameron himself was talien ; and the news flew to England that British subjects had been tlirown into Ab_yssinian prisons under the ca- pricious rage of an African despot.

At first an effort was made to ojien ne- gotiations with Theodore, with a view to .securing the liberation of the captives. It was a delicate work, for the fear was constantly present that the prisoners might suffer a wholesale slaughter by the king's orders. Au embassy was constituted of Mr. Rassam, British representative at Alien, Lieutenant Priileaux, and Dr. Blanc, whu, making their way to ^lagdala, openeii negotiations with the king, only to be seized in turn and added to the other prisoners. It was perceived that a military invasion for the liberation of the captives was the only remedy. In sucli an emergency Great Britain never hesitates. The Cromwellian rule of actinn was that every Englishman shall be protected if it re- quires every other Englishman tn du it. The Government of Lord Russell immediately sent despatches to Sir Robert Napier, dun- mander-in-Chief of the British army in Bom- bay, to transfer his forces to the Abyssinian coast, and bring Theodore to his knees. Tiie e.xpedition landed at Mulkutto, on Auuesley Bay, in the autumn of 1867, and the advance was thrown forward under command of Colonel Mere wether. The English General adopted the plan of m iking friends with the Abyssinian chieftains, and many of them, tired of the despotism of Theodore, made common cause with the British.

The expedition into the interior, Iiowever, was one of great hazard. Tiie advance proper began in January of ISG.S; but it was not until April that a force of three thousand men debouched into the plateau before Mag- dala. Meanwhile, the native monarch had displayed great skill an<l courage. Though a large part of his army had hi-oken away by miuiny, he defended 'him.-elf with a .•nura-e and heroism worthy of sncee->. ( )u thi- liUh of April a pitched battle wa< fon-lit. the Aliyssinians coming on te. the cliarge with tlic

ferocity of wild men, and much of the disci- pline of the civilized. But courage and enthusiasm were as naught before the dis- charges of British musketry and cannon. About two thousand of the Abyssiiiiaiis were killed or wounde<l. On tlie uijrth side of xMagdala, sitting like a fortress on a rock, a narr<jw a])proach was found, and a British storming party, making its way to the summit, shattered the city gate and rushed in. Theodore had taken his stand at the post of danger, behind the gate, and when the portal was broken, he put himself forever to rest with the rough consolation of suicide. The English prisoners already had been sent in safety to the British camp. Lord Xapier at once priiceeded to the complete demolition of

upon

Magdala. Not one stone wa^ another. Tlie widow of the king and her son were carried away by the victorious in- vaders. The mother died in the British camp, and the sou was taken to England. There he was educated at the charge of the Queen, and was sent to India; but he died before maturity, and the House of Theodore III. was ex- tinguished. The expedition, conducted by Sir Robert Napier, was regarded in England as one of the most complete military successes ever won by British arms in the East. The connnauder was made Baron Na]iier of ^lag- dala, and received a pension during the remainder of his life.

We have now arrived at that perioil in the recent history of England, when the whole narrative is colored and impregnated in every part with the spray from Ireland. From the date which we have now reached, namely, the close of the sixth decade of the century to the present day, there has been no time when the principal tone and rhythm of British poli- tics have not been derived from the ethnic, social, civil, and religious relations of the people of the two Islands, ^^'e already have remarked upon the ineradicable differences be- tween the Irish and English nationalities. Prominent among these divergent sentiments and dispositions has been the religious discord which has sounded immeniorially on the two side< of St. (;eorg..'s Channel.

It i^ not ii,.e,led to recount in this c(,nnee- tioii the eii-cniii>tances wliieli, extemliug tlii'oui:h manv centuries, have wrouu'ht out a

rSIVEL'SAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

1 ai	.1 a	caii-1	It ill	e. It w	IS percei^	•eil by tlie Lihen
-utfi. 1(1 <.t	the	ha.l. for tl	■< ut (■ ill	the II..	i:-e that 11 of an.	he time had e.niR tiler great refonii
arti,.	s to	On t	he ;	Oth (if	the nioii	ii just meiitioueil

the .■.,nti-..v<'i-v. Ill til., piv-'iit .■.•iiturv tiie Ii-i-h |.,-asuit,-y lias Ihm^u a^ i.r..loiu„lly ami

anieiitiv Calh.ilie as even tii( union lolk of

Italy, Spain, or I>..itiigal. Here the priest of tiie Mother Ciiureli has reniaine.i supreme. Here the ancient tradition has flourished, and the ancient worship lias been preserved in its fervor and reality. The inquirer, after a can- did survey of tlie field, may well turn aside and say: " What place is there for Protestant- ism in such a country as this? Wliat right- eousness, other than that which is native to the genius of this race, can here be planted and made to grow ?" The extension of the Episco- pal Establishment over the people of Ireland has been a mockery from the first day. If the world be indeed in process of evolution into better and higher forms, then the support of English Episcopaliauism by the people of Ireland, against all of their instincts and voli- tions, has been from the beginning destined to cease, and to be remembered only as an intolerable injustice, borne impatiently for a seas.in.

These ideas continued to obtrude themselves into British politics. The Conservative party oppo.sed their progress and dissemination. That party, now in power in the House of C'.iminons, sought by every means to prevent the reopening of questions relative to the Irish State Church. It could be foreseen that quietude and the mere continuance of the existing svsteni by sufferance were the onl_y means of maintaining it l.mg.'r. To debate such a .piostion is always t.i il.'strry the abuse. Hitherto, only a few radical members of Parliament, willing to hazard the consequences of extreme ideas, had ventured to pronounce the word Disestablishment. But that term (•..111. I II.) longer be discanl.'d from the vocab- iiliiv ..f British p,,liti.-. On the Kith of Mar. Ii, l.^C.^, a di'liate bn.k.' .,ut in I'arlia- ni.iit Iia-.'.l ..11 a rcs..liiti..n iiitro,luced by John Fian.i- Maiiiiire, and hearing on the general (■.,iiditi..ii ..r Irclaml. In the course of Maguiiv's speech, he spoke of the Iri.sh Episco- pal K-tal.li>hiiieiit as a "scandalous and monstr.'US aii.imaly." The question at once

Gladstone introduced a series of resolutions declaring that the Established Church in Ireland .-7i(.(//(/ cease to exist; that it was not (lesiiable for the Government of Great Britain to support that Church after the revenues derived from the Irish people should be taken away; and that the Queen be asked to sur- render her interest in the temporalities of the Irish Church.

The debate was now opened in earnest. It was perceived that in the speeches of the Conservatives, the speakers hardly dare ven- ture upon the defense of the existing ecclesias- tical order in Ireland. Even party discipline, energized l\v the leadership of Disraeli, was not siitHcinit to bring the Conservative parly to the further active maintenance of the abusive and intolerable system which had so _ long prevailed in the Celtic Island. At length the question came to the direct issue, and Gladstone's resolution in favor of dises- tablishment was adopted, in the Hou.se of Commons, by a majority of sixt_y-five votes.

The Conservatives, however, were unwill- ing, in the existing condition of aflfairs, to give up the Government. It was determined by Disraeli and the other leaders of his party, that an appeal should be made to the country. At the close of July, Parliament was accord- ingly dissolved and a new election ordered for the following November. The question of disestablishment was debated before the people, and the result of the elections showed quite an increase in the Liberal majorities. The Con.servative ministry resigned, and a new Cabinet was formed under the leadership of Gladstone. Even John Bright was brought into the Government as President of the Board of Trade. Everything went forward at full tide. The Queen's sjieech indicated to Parliament that the ^Ministry would undertake important legislation relative to the State Church iu Ireland. On the 1st of March, l.S(l!>, the Prime Minister brought in a bill in which it was provided that the Irish Church as a State Establishment should cease to exist — that it should become simply a free Ejiiscopal Church, resting on the same general

GBEAT BRITAIS.—FEMAMSM AM) DISKSTABLISHMEyT.

conditions with tlie ntlicr Dissenting organiza- tions in the country.

The result of the measure, if adopted, would be, first of all, that the Irish ]iisli(.|is in the House of Lords >hnnl<l lose tluir .eats. The Church of Ireland, l^eing reduced from all political relation, could no longer be repre- sented iu one of the Parliamentary bodies. The general eflect of the proposal was the complete severance of the Episcopal Estab- lishment in Irelan<l from the State Church of Eui^land. ]\Iai}y provisions were made in the Bdl for the preservation of the existing inter- ests and vested rights of Irish Churchmen. The Government, however, if successful, would find little difficulty in meeting all the ex- penditures and prospective outlay from the large sums which must, under the provisions ot the measure, revert to the treasury of the Kingdom. As a prudential principle, it was provided in the Bill that, after all just claims hail been met, the remaining fund coming into the liands of the Government should be reserved for the promotion of various enterprises among the Irish people.

On these propositions a great debate ensued. The Conservative Opposition adopted the policy of .saving — if that should be possible — the existence of the State Establishment in Ireland, and of granting, as a concession to public opinion, only such concessions as miuht not under any conditions be longer withheld. But the triumphant Liberals, led forward in solid plialanx by Gladstone, marched straight

ahead for the princi|ial position hold l:)y the defenders of the Past, d.'lcriuined to lie diverteil by nothing from the victory which was now withm their power. On the 26th of July, 1869, the Ministerial Bill, having been adopted by the Housp of Commons and accepted by the Hou.^e of Lonls, rocoived the assent of the Queen, and tin- Iri-h Church was struck from its foundations. It was provided in the Act that an interval should .-lapsp lid'ore the measure should go into rtii'ct. The Establish- ment was permitted to < tiniie on the old

basis until the 1st of January, 1871— this to the end that the multifuion- relations Iiy which the ecclesiastical organizatioii was bonnd to secular society in Ireland might be gradu- ally and harmlessly broken and dissolved. The legislation, considered as a whole, was one

of the most important acts of P; within the present centuiy, and, as t

lac I

whole structure of Irish society.

It had been foreseen by the Lilici istry that the movement whicli th started conid not lie stopped with the di.sestablishnient of the Irish Church, were at least two other great questions the very bottom of the contlition of

mcut I'vent ire in

Min- ha.l inple 'here iir at land

which must of necessity spring	into view	and
demand solution as soon as d	.-vestal. lishi	lent
was accomplished. Gladstone	had had	the
courage to annmince at the i	utset that	the
Liberal policy contemiilated	still fui	ther
advances in the direction of	Irish ref	)rm.
The two great issues to which	reference	has
just been made were, first, the s	■.stem of L	.\ND
Tkntki:, and, sreondly, tho Sys-	i;m 111- lOii	-( '.V-
Tinv, in Ireland. Iteouldbut !»•	loreseeii tl	at a
proper solution of each of these ,	Uestiolls 11	list,
in its turn, be as revolution	irv in na	ture
and extent as was the disestahl	shiiieut ot	the

UMVEHSAL H1>,T0RY. — THE MODERy WORLD.

CliLirch. But Gladstoue and his foUuwers were undaunted by the prospect before them, and went forward at once to attack that ancient and deep-seated Irish laud system wliich has constituted a problem in the polit- ical history, not only of Great Bi-itain, but of the whole English-sjieaking race. How the evils which have been handed down througli centuries of abuse, accumulating from geuer- ati(jn to generation, stiffening into usage first aud into law afterwards, twining by many ramifications around the Con;stitiuiiin of Great Britain, and having the general edl-ct of reducing the Irish tenantry to a lower an<l ever lower level of hardship, cruelty, ami in- justice with respect to the lands which they have immemorially occupied, but couhl not own, may be abrogated by legislatiim and rejjlaced with a new system at ouce rational, liberal, ami just — has been a question greater, perhajis, diaii the abilities of any statesman or grdup (if statesmen which England has yet prnduet'il. Nevertheless, this was the ques- t'on which the Glailstnne ^Ministry was now obliged to face. By their own act the issue had been thrown into the arena, aud the Liberal Government must stand or fall on the result.

The courage with which the Prime ^linister now took up the system of land tenure in Ire- laud was worthy of all praise. Whatever may be said of the wisdom or unwisdom of the reme- dies which were proposed, nothing can be said against the spirit and resoluteness with which the Goverumeut took up the question of allevi- ating the ills of the Irish peasantry by better- ing their relations with respect to the lamls on which they lived. Nor may we well appreciate the condition of the agitation which was now begun in Parliament and throughout the country, witlmut pausing to review, in a few paragraphs, the existing system of land tenure in' Iivland.

Ill the first place, the use of the word ,«_i/s/pi/i iu this connection, is hardly justified by the conditions to be examined. It could hadly be said that there was a "system" of Irish lauilownership. There were many fea- tures about the condition of land tenure which were iiiiniistakuble. Some of these features

were s innion as to lie recognized almost

everywhere iu Iielaud, but many others were

local and ])eculiar. The whole .social, political, and industrial condition of this unfortuuate country had beeu transmitted, like most other corresponding facts in England, from the jMiddle Ages. But the hardships of original barbarism had been aggravated by a hundred other hardships, extending through sevei'al centuries. Among these hard conditions may be mentioned, first of all, the fact of war. Ireland had been invaded, devastated, con- quered, timeand again, by the dominant people. One Irish revolt had followed another, and each revolt had, in its turn, been put down bv the same hand and the same method. Irish iusurrectious and suppressions had become a monotonous fact in the history of the Island from the times of Henrv VII. to the age of Victoria.

(Jf all the couditions of Irish society, changed by recurring British conquests, the most constant and destructive was the confisca- tion of the lands. Originally, the Irish people, like other medieval peasantry, had owned their lands. But by conquest, they had lost possession. First one province, aud then another, in revolt would be invaded, and, as a penalty for insurrection, the lands would be subjected to confi.<cation. We may not here enumerate the occasions and circumstances of the various laud-seizures by which the Irish peo]ile were ultimately dispossessed — despoiled of their own homes. But dispossession became the prevalent condition throughout Ireland — this in the face of the fact that the Island is agricultural in nearly all of its uatural sugges- tions. The same is true of the development. From an immemorial day the Irish Celts have been tillers of the soil. They were, moreover, from the earliest times, strongly attached to the soil. Hardly any other people have had a stronger home instinct. The Irishman is never, by preference, a rover. He has little of the adventurous spirit by either sea or land. On the contrary, he fixes himself by ethnic preference to a certain district, a certain locality, a certain home. However poor the condition may have been in which the Irish- man iu recent centuries has found himself in his own country, he has never been wanting in anient attachment even to the hard lot which human history has assigned him. To him the green sod, the surrounding hills, the

GREAT BRirAIX.—FEyiAyiSM AND DISESTABLISILMEXT.

intervening vales, the blue smoke ascending from the hut where his father lived before him, the humble hamlet in the distance, the sjjire of his own church -nith its ever-ringing bell, have constituted a landscape dearer tiiau any other in the scenery of thi- world. (..)f his own choice he leaves it ikvit. ( )f his kku will, he holds fast to the soil out of whicli he deduces his whole existence. Tliere is not in all Western Europe or the two Americas another people so devoted to the earth, so con- stant in handling that precious dirt out of which all things grow and blossom, as are the Irish peasants.

Of cities and towns, on the other hand, Ireland has but few. After Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Limerick, and Waterford, the remain- ing cities may be passed without mention. Great manufacturing interests do not exist here. No vast aggregations of artisans, trades- men, or miners are found. The population is distributed on the lands as a tenantry, or at most gathered in small hamlets and villages, which rarely expand into the proportion of towns. How great therefore to this people the hardshi]) of dispossession ! How extreme the penalty of living and toilini; ever on lands which they may never own ! How degrading the conditions of that perpetual rent-paying system, removed by only one degree from posi- tive servitude ! All this is to say that, in pro- cess of time, and by many methods, the prin- cipal of which was confiscation, the Irish lands passed into the hands of foreign, that is, En- glish, owners, and by these same processes and methods the Irish people were reduced to the place of renters, fixed upon the soil by a se- ries of regulations devised by British landlords in their own interest, and held down nnder the weight of ever-increasing poverty and de- basement.

Such, on the one hand, was the system of English landlordism, and such, on the other, the subjection of tlie Irish rent-paying peas- antry during the whole of the present century down to the time of the Glad.stonian reforms. While on the religious, that is, the ecclesias- tical, and on the political side, the condition of the Irish people had been alleviated by sev- eral Parliamentary acts, on the industrial and land-renting side nothing whatever had been accomplished. It is probably true, on the

contrary, *liat in 1869 the conditions of land tenure in Ireland were aggravated with more evlN and poisoned with more injustice and crui-lty than at any previous (hite in the liis- tory of tlie eountry. It had come to pass- as was said of the slaves in America — that the Iri.-h tenants had no rights which British landlords were bound to respect. Loid Pai- merston is credited with having said tliat tenant-right was landlord-right, which was equivalent, if true, to an utterance of the most absolute slavery. Another aphorism of like kind ran in this wise, that tenant-right was lau<llorirs }iT(iii(j, as mueli as to say that every syniptoMi and clairu <if rii;ht auil privilege, to say nothing of equality, on the part of tlie tenant, was an utterance not only of disloyalty, but of incendiarism and crime.

It is difficult for people living in America, and will at length be difficult for people living in Great Britain, to understand the complete autocracy of English landlordism as late as the sixth decade of the current century. The landlord had all power; the tenant, none. If the latter fell into a still more abject poverty than that which he had inherited; if he could no longer, from nn'sfortune, disease, or decrep- itude, discharge the ever-accruing rentals which his foreign master exacted, — he was sub- ject to that dreadful process called eviction: that is, he might be turned out, ejected, expelled from his home, and the poor residue of his goods be hurled after him by a sum- mary process of police, and without respect to season or condition. The history of eviction in Ireland could never be written. It is a tale of woe among the lowly — a record of heartlessness and selfish avarice applied to the suffering bodies and lives of the weak, with a relentless cruelty for the expression of which human language is wholly inadequate. The vices of the system reached to the very bot- tom. It was itself a vice of monstrous pro- portions, and its corrupting and degrading influence had gone on until a ]ioint had been reached beyond which it was impossilile for the grindintr despotism of the master-class to exact anything further.

One of the greatest curses attendant upon this universal land tenantry was the cur'^e that it inflicted on the soil itself It is in the nature of all such crimes to bend around at

411

UMV£ESAL HISTORY.- THE MODERS WORLD.

tlK- last, like the fiUjuloiis serpent with the tail-ilart, ami stiut: itself latally in the head. The \V(.irkiug <if tile >y.-teni ili.-eouraged^ almost interdicted — all ellbrt at the iniprove- meut and development of the Irish lands. In the case of a thrifty peasant who, by excess and skill of iiidu.-lry, liroo-ht liis lauds into hijrher cultivation and superior productive- Less, the landlord was always quick to dis- cover his advantage by imposing a higher rate of rent. The more the tenant toiled, the more he was taxed. The more he produced, the heavier burden was imposed upon him. On the contrary, the improvident were rather encouraged than stimulated to industry. It might almost be said that in Ireland it was better to hold poor lands under half cultiva- tion, and to keep the improvements thereon at a minimum and iu a state of decay, than for the occupant to employ his energies only to be taxed down again to the lowest possible level. It was inevitable that under such con- ditions all agricultural enterprise should sink away; that everything should revert to desola- tion ; that the renter's cot should stand in the midst of brambles and waste, rather than be improved and preserved for the benefit of foreign landlords.

These landlords were absentees. They lived in another island, across a water narrow enough for the collection of rent, broad enough to con- ceal the condition of the Irish peasantry from the open inspection of the English people. The ruling classes always possess the means of information and the processes by which it is distributed. The newspaper of modern times belongs to the upper man. The under man has no voice; or if, having a voice, he cries out, his cry is lost like a shout in the desert. Capital, in the places of power, seizes upon the organs of public utterance, and howls the huralile down the wind. Lying and mis- representation are the natural weapons of those who maintain an existing vice and gather the usufruct of crime.

The fact should here be recorded that, iu a siuule county of Ireland, the land tenure was sonu-what more tolerable than that described aii'ive. In the county of Ulster, tenant-right was not wholly the ri.irht of the landlord. For reasons that can not be enumerated here, the people of this part of Ireland had, in the

course of generations, (jbtaiued a better order I than could be found in any other part of the I Island. This is the part of the country which is circled by the North Channel, lying over against Scotland. Doubtless the industrial system of the latter country, and particularly the methods of land tenure therein, passed over liy community of race, and insured, at length, a state of aftairs m<ire happy, or at ; least less abusive, than otherwise would have j prevailed. In Ulster the tenants had a few I rights which landlords were obliged to respect. The privilege of eviction, which the master- class exercised at will in other parts of the Island, was here restricted to the case of non- payment of rent. The tenure was rather that I of a lease than of mere tenantry-at-will. The occupant of the land might hold it indefinitely, and transmit to his son after him. He might go so far as to sell out his rights by quitclaim, and the landlord was obliged to recognize the purchaser as his renter under the same rights and conditions which had held with respect to the former tenant. Many other slightly favorable circumstances in the land- tenure system of this part of the country, made the holilings of the tenants much more valuable and satisfactory than those present in the other counties. As a result, the country was better improved. It could but be noticed that just in proportion as the conditions of land-holding were ameliorated, not only were the lands brought into a higher state of culti- vation and increased productiveness, but the peasants who dwelt thereon were raised to a higher plain of contentment, industry, and happiness.

Such, then, were the aspects of the case as they were presented to the Gladstone Ministry at the beginning of 1870. On the 1.5th of February iu that year, the Prime ^linister laid before Parliament his celebrated Irish L.\xd Bill. The measure was, to a certain extent, revolutionary; for it was based on a new theory of land tenure, fundamentally different from that which had hitherto prevailed. It contemplated the abrogation of those absolute and arbitrary rights which the landlords had claimed and exercised. The new theory was, that tenantry of land was a copartnership in production; a part of the benefits belonging to the tenants as well as to the landowners.

GREAT BRITAIN.— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.

411

The aspect of afihirs iu Ulster gave the hiut and outline of the uew legislation. Oue of the most oppressive and iniquitous features of the prevalent system iu the larger part of Ireland, was the claim of the landlord to the impruvemeuts made on the lauds held by the tenant. In such improvements there is always a certain fixedness which gives to the land- owner an advautage over the tenant. When the latter is at length evicted, or reuKives at his own will to another estate, the improve- ments which he leaves behiud represent a con- siderable part of all the labor which he has exerted during his occupancy. These improve- njeuts he must, to a great extent, surrender to tiie estate which he abandons.

The rule in Ireland had been peculiarly distressing and unjust. All compeusatiou to the tenant for the properties which he had created on the estate of the landlord was refused. The uew legislation was directed to the cure of this injustice. But the principal oljject was to annul that prerogative of the 1

huiilloiil liy whii'h tenants might be evicted at will. Liidii- the provisiou of the measure, the dispossessed or removing tenant might claim aud collect by law a just compi nsuiion for the improvemeuts which he had, in whole or in jjart, put upon the estate. But hi> L;riat advantage was iu the clause which forliadr his eviction so long as he continued to jiay his rent. On these great and salutary priucijik-s the deljates in Parliament were conducted. The Couservatives did less to obstruct the measure than they had done in the matter of the disestablish meut of the Irish Church. Strangely enough, a part of the opposition to the Bill came from the Irish members of the House, who, while recognizing the great ad- vantages to be gained by the Act, regarded it as not sufficiently thorough-going to meet the demauds of the existing conditions. On the 2d of June. 1870, the Land Bill was passed by Parliament, aud on the 1st of the following August the royal assent was giveu to the measure.

Ch^i^ter c:n:>cxiii.— rekorms oe the eighth

DECADE.

r WILL lie remembered that the third branch of reform which the Glad- stone Ministry had prom- ised, related to the Higher Education in Ireland. But before this part of the governmental scheme could be brought into form, an agitation had arisen on the whole question of education, particularly the pri- mary educatiou, in England. It began to be recognized as a fact already known to educa- tors iu other lands, that the elementary edu- catiou iu England was the poorest, most irreg- ular, and inefficient to be found iu any of the Western nations above the grade of Italy and Spain. For fully a half century the German States and the United States of America had been far ahead <if England iu their systems of primary instruction. In England there was, indeed, no gydem at all. The children of the nation received their instruction iu schools |

which were supported in part by private gifts ; iu part, by eudowments ; in part, by govern- mental aid ; and, iu a few instances, by local taxation. In all of the schools, religious, or rather sectarian, influences and interests had prevailed to the extent of working the greatest hardships and injustice to the children of all the Non-conformists of the Kingdom. The lat- ter had no rights under the law in schools which were not created and maintained by themselves.

The general condition was such as to be a scandal, not only to Great Britain herself, but to the nineteenth century. It was u\\ the 17th of February that William E. Forster, Vice-President of the Council on Education, brought iuto Parliament an Education Bdl providing for a general system of public ele- mentary instruction. As might be expected in such a country as England, and among such a pciiple, as the English, the propns.-d measure looked, Hr.-t of all, to the principle

41'.

umvehsal history.— the modern world.

(it ciiiDiiulsiiin 111 atti

schools. Few thillL's British mind that liav,- imt in th-ni the pr dominating elmirnt ot authority. The For ter Bill providrd tliat all .■hihlivi, in En-lan and Wale.s shoul.l, iH-tut'cn th.- a,-es of i\\ and twvlvo years. In- compelled to attend tl pill)lic (listiict scl '

The

ig to the

.11 of th

clause was, however, left to the option of tlie School Boards of the respective districts ; that is, if in any place the Boanl ."hould decide iu favor of compulsion, that should be the rule. But if the decision should be against compul- sion, the attendance was to remain free, as before.

The Bill contemi.lated the establishment and maintenance of a public free-school in

l>liirt. The funds for the support of ,<• w.Tc to he derive! from tliiv,. geii- uir.Ts; llist, from a h.eal tax, levied lie direction ot the (School Board for -trict ; secondly, from ilirect grant out rcasury of the Kingdom ; and, thirdly, eh fi'cs as were paid into local treasuries ons not otherwise entitled to the privi- leges of the schools in those districts. As to the existing system, it was jire- served as far as prac- ticable, and carried over under the new methods. It was not found expedient that all, or even a large part, of the existing schools shonld be destroyed, but rather reorgan- ized under the new law.'

As might have been anticipated, the greatest opposi- tion to the new sys- tem was made on account of its secular character. Ultra-re- ligionists of every shade and character took arms against a measure which, if successful, would break their own nar- row monopoly of the public schools. Church -of-England men opposed the Forster Bill, be- cause the State Es- njured by the .secular Roman Catholics

tablishment might be education of the people,

' Charles Dickens, of great memory, lived to the educational atritation which was now on, : net its cousuinuiation iu the new statutory s ..( tlio ci.orli. li..ulitlrss, in his last days, iiiiu.l rrvi rtc.l witli ever-increasing pleasure llie reliiiiii winch liis genius and pen had so ,veilnlly eoiitriliuted to bring about in the leatioiuil system of (ireat Britain.

W'^

GREAT BRITAIN.-^h'EFOL'MS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE

opposed it, because they riji-ctcd the iiiiii(i|iics i_ui h\\ wliili ii.lt t |i

of secular education //( /■l^^ 'i'li.' Nniici.n- ui i\ i it\ t hi i d I i

t'ormists also autagouized tin- lu.asinv, ln'caii-c i i uitn u in I ii I they held it unjust that th.'iiiM'lvrs >linuld !«• tli ini i/ni_ ji _ii_ ii il In taxed to educate the (.•liildirn nl' ,,tlirrs in ii\ ii I tl ( m un i] ili n 1 n ii doctrines of religiou and sncjiiy wliidi tln'v in t i nt | ii I I i vhd it 1 did not accept. This, indeed, was a nmst .-.li- tl it lu i\ i iti ^ h w i i itni d ous break which Forster had t" .■..n>idii ; l.ir 1 m tli 1 i t I I I t i i\ ili the Noa-couformists represented in railiaim nt \ I \ it i il i I I i

were the adherents of the Gladstone Ministry, and their votes might, ere- long, be necessary for the. maintenance of that Min- istry in power. So great was the opposition to the measure that the Bill wa- more than once sav from defeat by the aid nt" certain Conservatives who had the same interest in the cause of education, and were as much de\ )te 1 thereto, as the Libei il^ theniselve.s. The Bil was iinally adopted, \u I it was not long until tli benefits of the new •-\-. tem were so manifest th it the voice of carping an prejudice was stilled f n ever.

Circumstances hi meanwhile supers ene I which induced the Min istry t(j continue the eda catioual reform in Eug laitd before attempting- the solution of the Iii^h educational problem The next measure undertaken was embodied in the so- called University Tests BMl, and was directed 1 emancipat to the correction of abuses existing at Ox- progress n ford and Cambridfre. Tt is an instiaietive lesson to study the orieiii and devehqnnent, the principles and methods, of the two great English Universities. Noting the difference between the spirit and organic law which prevailed in these institutions from the later Middle Ages down to a time within the memory of men still living, and the spirit and

CHARLES prrKFNS.

11 the concnniitanis nf the real progress nt mankind, receive as a rule so cold a reception in the lialls nf the higher learning; why it is that all nairnwness and littleness find there a warm aeenid : why if is that the Past is there .•ntlimned and the Future ever expelled; why it is that the birds of ill-omen, the owls of semi-barbarism, and all the deni- zens of the night take refuge and hatch their young under the eaves and roofs of ancient

UXIVEHSAL 1UST()I;y.— THE MODERN WORLD.

ivei-r-iti

i|,.s,>i,l,

At <)xl<

, littl.e,,uann,uty,ou,h.

.aiiiliri.lge the abuses of

leiv >lroiig|y iutreuclied. |

lis>.-iitrrs ill reliii-iou were

Until ;. rcvni exchi.le.l fVoni the n.lvuiita-es .,f thn... veiier- ahh: institutions. Only the eleet ut' the K- tahlisheil ('liiMvh niiglit giilher theie the treasures of elassieul learniug, the wealth of scientiiie luinriples, the lore of philosophy, the honeyed sweets of Hyniettus. It r(.'niaini-il for tiie Gladstone .Ministiv to hreak down the middle wall of partition, and to adnnt all En'Ji-hinen on terms of e.piality and jnsii.v,

f.rded at Oxford and f'andirid-e, hut al<o to the honors which those institutions had to confer ami the amiiitions whieh they had to inspire. It is a faet worthv of note that the Bill In- whirl, the ancient restrictions were removed and the law of free competition snli- stitiited therefor, was threi' tii}i':< passe, 1 hy the House of Commons before it was finally ae-

of disonteut, bv the H.-n-e of Lor.ls. There sat the Bishops of the Established. Church, last to yield to the pre.ssure of humanity, last to accei)t the generous principles of a larger liberty.

Before considering the attempt of the Government iu 1878 to reform the Irish Uui- I versify system, we may well note a few of the | leading measures which hud, in the meantime, occupied the attention of Parliament and tin- country. First of these was the liallot IJill, introduced into the H mh- of ('.nimons bv For.ster,.in February of ISTl. Hitherto, the method of votim;- at the polls in Great Britain had been rivu ,•.«•<.. Ead, elect.n- was re.,uired to speak aloud at tli,. votine-place his ,.|„,iee 1 of men and measures. It ninv be seen at a glance how maiiv and sevimis are the oh|ee- tions to such a system. If society were of a uniform I'onsistencv throuelKUtt ; if it were or- ganized on truly republii'an princijiles, so that every elector iniLzht st.and on terms of peidect e^pialitv with .•yew ..ther: if, in other words, the under man had as little cause to fear the iipjier man as the ti]iper man has to fear him, — then the method of o]ie;i voting might he preferable to the secret ballot. It may be said I

in iavor ot the former system, that in a free country it is a positive stimulus f.. indei.end- euee of ]iolitical character, that the voter be required to go openly to the p.ills and declare his choice aloud in the hearine of wit- nes.se,s. It is not unlikely that, in course of time, society will return to tlii.- iiu'lh.,.!, be- eaUM- of its independent and maiemaking chaiacter. Of a certainty, no citizen of a free government oueht to be under the slightest constraint in the matter of publicly declaring Ins preference at the jmlls. The right to do

lint, practically, the question has to be cod- sidia-ed in relati(jn to the existing condition of .society. Even in the United Htates such a soi-ial system has sui)erveue(l as to make it dangerous for the under man openly to declare Ills choice. In Great Britain, where the social

the danger of voting nrn mc- is corresjiond- ingly aggravated. \\'e have already seen how the ('haiii>ts iixed upon the secret ballot as one .it tlie six arti(des of the People's Charter. Fioiii the time of the Chartist agitation down to the epoch which we are here considering, the (piestion of the ballot liad never ceased to be revivcl by the liadicals in the House of Commons. N.ir had the I'ommon jieople ever reliiepiidicl the liope that the .safeguard of se,a-et y..tin- wmil-l, at length, be ciince.le.l to them. In the Ballot Bill proposed by Forster, It was proviiled that hereafter, at each election, efheial Voting pa|iers should be prepared and

ilmted

le p,

.llino-places. The method

of eh-ction was. that the voter should go to the ))olls where his registry was defermineil, and there .leposit his secret' y.ife iu the box from whi.'h. at the cln-e ,,f the ]iolls, the ballots were to be taken and counted liy the proper officers.

The rethrni contemplated in the measure was gi-eater than might a]iiiear to an American readi'r, Imig accustomed to similar usages of the ballot-Viox ill his own country. Many of the I'orriiptions. iiitiniidafioiis, and abuses which hail jirevailed under the old system iu Great Britain were abolished under the ne\v. But the Bill was f,u-ced through Parliament against the strenuous opposition of the Con- servatives in the Commons and the still more unreasoning hostility of the Lords. It may be

GREAT BRITAIN.— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.

uiited that in the dehatos attendant upon the passage of the Act, the (juestion of extending the ballot to women was frequently advocated, and was l)y no means regarded as so dangerous an innovation as the same measure has been reckoned to be by Conservatives in xVmerica. Still another project, which was carried out under the auspices of the Gladstone Govern- ment, was the reformation of the British army. In that department of the public service, as in every other, abuses had crept in and had become so crystallized by long prevalence, that their eradication seemed almost impossible. This was especially true with respect to the manner of obtaining commissions in the army. These, instead of being the reward of a mili- tary education ..r <.f vahu' in the lidd, were

price, anil the usage had so long prevailed that the transaction had come to ])e regarded as other business methods of the public market. The British ..tficer pinvhased his conimissi.m. He held it as l.mg as hr cli.,sr, Mibjrrt, ..f c.Kirse, tn the discipline of tli.. annv, and then sold his rank to some ..tlier a>|iinint, who, henceforth took his placr in xh>- service.

It is to the credit of tho ]',riti-h Govern- ment that this crying abuM- did not originate in an Act of Parliament, but in a Ttoyal war- rant, wherein the i:)rivile;ie of ]iunlia>ing com- missions was granted liy tlie sovi.icign. It is needless to say to how great an extent merit was discouraged and demerit promoted under such a system. It was deterndned by the Liberal ^Ministry tliat tlic practice of purchas- ing commissions should ci-ase. In the siiininer of 1S71 a Bill lor the IJe^.igani/.ntion of the Army was introduced l.v Carduell, Secretary of War, an.l, after a hot' debate, was ndopieil on the 3d of J.dy in that year. The House of Lords, however, taking advantage ,,f the fact that the session was near it- .lose, refused to c<incur, and the ( i,,vernnient su.ldcnly foun.l itself balked in the w..rk ,if reform. It re- mained for Gladstone, however, to discover a way through the endiarra-ssment, and at the same time to set the ministerial foot with some emphasis on the recusant Hon-e ot Lords. He boldly declared that the sovereign, under direction of the Government shouhl, of her own prerogative, cancel the Royal warrant on which the abuses in the army were dependent. This

was accordingly dime; but the daring procerltire on the part of the Ministry created great e.x- citemeut, and, on the whole, tended to weaken tlie hold of the Prime ^Minister even on his own followers in Parliament.

We have now arrived at that jieriod in recent English history when the Alabama Claims, hehl and urged by the Government of the United States against Great Britain, were brought to settlement before the Geneva Tribunal. An account of the proceedings before this august court, and the judgment given thereby against Great Britain, has already been presented. At the same time, England \vas shaken by the throes of Conti- nental Europe. Now it was that the Emperor Xapoleon III. i.ntercd upon the last rash act of his astonishing career. He declared war against Prussia for a cause which posterity must ever hold ridiculous. His armies were defeated, and his Empire went down with himself amid the fire and smoke from the crater of Sedan. Nominally a prisoner for a brief sea>on at Wilhelmshohe, he soon left the land of his captivity and repaired to England. There, with the dethroueil Empress and his son, the Prince Imperial, he took up his resi- dence at Chiselhurst, where, on the itth of January, 1873, he died, being in the sixty- fifth year of his age.

Kesuming the Ijroken narrative of the Edu- cational Kefnrm in Great Britain, we I'oine to consider the effiirt made li\' the (ihnlstone :\riid,strv, in 1873, for the pa.-saue of tli.^ Irish University Bill. At the opening of Parlia- ment the't^ieen had indicated in her speech

attention of the two Ilon-es'was to l,e directed. The measure inonosed was ll,e work of (ilail-

As a matter of com-.se, the Catli- exeluiled from its benefits. This is Dublin University was open to the

41 G

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

elect one-fiftli of the Irish jicople — the fifth | conipiised in large measure uf Ei]<;lishnK-ii ;iikI tiieir immediate descendants — uliile to tlie other four-fifths all of its fountains were sealed. The second institution was the comparatively recent Queen's Univei-sity, an account of the fouiidiiii: of whirh has lieen given already. This univi-rsitv was a >tiiclly secular establish- ment; and in that >\>ti'ni of L'overnnient, also,

the Catholics had n(itlj(.T part n(jr lot. In a word, the university privileges of Ireland, with the exception of those furnished by a ! small Catholic University, established and supported by themselves, were totally denied to the Irish Catholics in ilieii- own country. The Catholic youlh niiiiht in.leed enter the I Queen's University; but that institution was I conducted on ])rinciples which no Catholic ] could accept without breaking with his Church, and such a course could not rationally he ex- pected of a people so ardently devoted to the interests of their own religion.

The Bill proposed by Gladstone must, if possible, meet the contradictory conditions ex- isting among the Irish people. The project was one of extreme dilfieulty. The < ilad- stonian idea was to remove from Dublin Uni- versity its denominational eliaiai-ter, and at tlie same time to make it ceiilial and paranio\int to all the other colleges m the Wand. Dublin was to be the center and sun of the system. This made necessary tlie re val from the in- stitution of the Faculty of Theulogy; f.r it was absurd to suppose that the young men of

Irel

.odv of

.Mo

aid pass the ore instruction. In the next sary to strike from tl departments of iii(|uiry : and Modern History; for it could not be hoped that any professor m the world was sufficiently adroit to give instruction in that system of ethics which was deduced from theological dogmas, without |iutting at naught both the facts of psy.-liolo;j-y an.l violating every sentiment of those to whom he shouhl address his instrnction. The gener.il result therefore was, that Dublin I'niversity, though indicated as the center of the Irish system, J was to he considerably reduced in the extent and variety of its curricidum. Such a measure could but offend, not only the I'niversity , itself, but the whole Ei)iscoi)alian system of I

which it was a ]iart. The event soon showed that the smaller institutions, some for one reason, and s(niie for another, were in like manner ofi(?nded ; for where is the university or college which, under the inspiration of local- ism, is not fain to regard itself as supreme? Where is the college which voluntarily enters into a system where its own place is that of perpetual subordiuatiou ?

We may not here enter into all that was said in the great debates between the Liberals and the Conservatives relative to the Irish Uni- versity Bill. It had been noted already that the (.iladstoue Ministry was losing its hold upon Parliament ami the country. Occasional elections for filling Parliamentary vacancies had told against the Government. Here and there the Conservatives gained a member. The Opposition, under the leadership of Disraeli, began to display unusual spirit. There were dissensions in the ^liiiistry it-elf, and the mistakes, which not a few had been made by the dominant party during the last four years, w-ere skillfully paraded by the Conservative orators. Perhaps, moreover, there was something in that political restless- ness wliich, in all free or semi-free countries, so fre(iueutly displays itself in the change of leailers for the mere sake of changing. In the present instance, it can not be doubted that England had been constantly agitated since the accession of Gladstone to power, and now the country was tired of agitation. It was clear to the ]\Iinisters tiieinselves that their davs in office were numbered. When the Irish University Bill was put on its second reading in Parliament, it was defeated by a iiiajorify of three votes. The majority was, of course, conipi'sed of the Conservatives, the Ka<lical Irish party, and other disaflfeeted Liberals. The Gladstone Ministers resigned their offices, and the Queen called Disraeli to form a new Cabinet. The latter declined the service, for the reason that it was not clear to liim that he could command a majority in the House of Commons. The Gladstonians were accordingly recalled to office. The Cabinet was reconstructed, and the Government dragged on feebly for a season.

This method, however, was not to the liking of the Prime Minister. He determined to re.-aiu all or t.i lose all bv dissolving Par-

GREAT BRITAiy.—UEFOKMS OF THE EWHTU DEi'AKK.

liameut aud appealint,^ to the peniile. The anuuiiucement of this (Icti-riniiuitinn was a complete surprise. The ehetioiis which in- sueil were hardly lieguii until it was .l.'ur that a great politieal reaetiou had takiai ]ihir,.' throughout the country. The liditoni moiivr in it all was simply the English har that the car of Reform propelled by the Libei'al party was pushed too fast and too far. That polit- ical timidity for which the British Nation has been proverbial since its emergence from the iMiddle Ages, again prevailed to check the progress of those salutary movements which Lad marked the history of tlie last six veai-s. The Liberals were defeated at the polls, and the Conservatives came back to the House of Commons with a majority of tifty members. The Gladstone Ministry now- made haste to retire, and Disraeli was at once installeil as Prime Minister. Thus, in the spring of ls74, that extraordinary aud eccentric personauv, that genius born of an Oriental lace in the foggy island of Britain, was for the last time placed in one of the proudest iiolitical posi- tions to which the statesmen of modern times may aspire. The Cabinet wdiich he constructed was one of great ability. LoimI Cairns was made Chancellor; Lord Derby, Secretary of Foreign Affairs; Lord Salisbury, Secretary for India; Lord Carnarvon, Secretary for the Col- onies ; jSIr. Cruss, Secretary for Home Affairs ; Mr. Hardy, Secretary of War; Mr. Hunt, Sec- retary of the Admiralty; Sir Statiord North- cote, Chancellor of the E.xcheipier. As for Gladstone, he virtually retired from sight, coming into the House of Commons only at intervals, and speaking little on the questions proposed by the new Government. The lately triumphant Liberals went into a ]i<ilit- ical eclipse, which, in the C(Hir.se of the next three years, threatened to be total, if not per- petual.

For a season after the accession servative Ministry, no striking disj was seen under the new political ( of the fir.st contests in Parliament

the Con- of force r. One s over a

measure introduced into the House of Lords by the Archbishop of Canterbury for the Eeg- ulation of Public Worship. We have already had occasion to refer to the ecclesiastical move- ment, which had been observed in the Episco- pal Establishment towards the Church of

Rome. The impulse in thi> din clion had had its origin in the extreme High ( 'hinvliisni of tlie University of Oxford. As a result, an excess ..f Ritual'iMii had appeared ui many of the tirst churches in the Kingdom in-oni'ncli that the difference between the Kpi.-co],al worship thei'ein aud the ceremonies iji the Caiholic

But not all, not even a maj.irity, of the

the wake of this movement. Many held back, preferring the simpler and severer forms of worship wdiich had I.c.mi handed d..wn from the reign of Edward VI. As a result, there

in the religious manners an.l doctrines of the people — this inside of the Established Church. The existing ecclesiastical law was not suffi- cient to prevent the divergences of practice and l)elief, and an appeal was made to the civil law to regulate what the Church Courts could

no longer t trol. A spiiitcd debate ensued

..n the Archbisho|. of Canterbury's Bill, and the measure was at length forced through Parliament by the dominant party. But it was soon discovered that, so far from accom- plishing the expected results, so far from bringing the methods of worship and doctrine to a common standard, the Act proved to l)e a mere nullity, standing in the statute as the expression of a wish and purpose rather than as a vital energy.

The next governmental measure which demanded the attenti.m of Parliament was a liill for the ]irotection of th.m that go down to the sea in ships. It hail come to the atten- tion of the public that a large part of the

vast merchant mari I (ircat Hiatain was

nnseaworthy — unsafe as a vehicle of coinmerce aud passage. The exisiing laws on the subject were imperfect, inellective. Indeeil, the cur- rent legislation was of a character to aggra- vate the abuse : for the laws of insurance provoked and ]ierpetuated the evil. The ship- owners little cared to biar the expense of nun-ine im|iroveinents and of such outlays as were rcpusite to ke,.p then- ships in rjpair, for the reason that thev were well insurcl,

].i-olltal.]e to the owners that their vessels should go to the bottom of the sea. But this method of security and gain involved the loss

UNIVEItSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

exi.-tiii;

Wit

British

ercl	audise au	d still more v	ilu-
•es.	The	agitation	agaiust	the
was led	bv	Mr.	PlimsoU	a
lU'I	iliL-r 1	f tl	e House of C	JUl-
■V \	.TV :n	d :	ngry	debates,	ex-
	iiuiuei	, a	bill	was fin	dly
l)<	ttcT	in it	L'CtiulJ	of Eug	ish
r,	w",	dit	cau,.	licli ma\	era

second circumstauce was the existence of the British East Indian Empire, and the relations of that vast country and of those multitudi- nous populations with the Kussian Power. As far back as the days of Lord Clive, more j)ar- ticularly as long ago as the times of "Warren Hastings, tlie British mind perceived certain gorgeous outlines, certain splendid cumuli in the Oriental heavens, under the shadow of which the existing social and political ?enti- nients of Great Britain were somewhat nuidi- lic<l. In the third phiee, ^ve may ri'ler the hall-rorme.l Imperiali.-t .■.i.i.'epts of tli. --e ,lays

tn the Prime ^Minister of

"* EiiL;l;uid. Disraeli was un- ddubtedly one of the most g<irgeuus and spectacular of modern statesmen. Hiiu- self of Eastern descent, his mind naturally inclined to till- va.-t and splendid, not to say the factitious, m iiatiniial eharaeter. Few men i.f the century have ell, Tithed and Inl'hiwed va-trr and higher amhithins tliaii he. .Soon after his ac- cession to pow-er, it became

counted for b\ th of these ■wi th it tion b^ \\h\ h th

\^

n.K	-
ice El	The fii«t in Ques	Em press strousriv
t En ml	lull ^^as 111 1 fi m	was, pel English
III t	li 1 1 t— th Ott	was, in istrv aL'

ev	dent that his dreams were
of	mauv colors, and i>f a
foi	eigu cast. One nf the
str	king manifestatiiins of
th	N disposition came to the
Sll	lace at the opening of
Pa	liament m 187H. The
Pr	me ^linister announced
th;	t the Queen .if Eng-
lai	.1 was aliiiut to a. hi to
he	• ri.val titles that of

gl «

theie

f Em ihiiit\ uitli tht ( ui e tho f 11 1 111 1 I I 11 ht ct nece th T ^ lilt I it\in m licnm ot will h til II h the\ mi ht ne\Pi h h il wtie ne\eithele ] knted tu il consoi\'itone and h < 1 ed n th =ome wondei as intere ting exotic The

; of India. The pr.iposition was .ipi»ise.l bv many of the Liberals, and

■hajis, distastel'ul to a majority of the ]ieople. The pressure from without

this re.spect, so emphatic that the Min-

■leed that the new honor and title sli.iiil.l 11. it be employed in the Home King- Iniii .if fJreat Britain, but only abroad; that is ill Iii.lia itself There were many statesmen s... ^t.iiit ill their English preferences as to argue that the Imperial diadem of the Indies, made new, so to c-pcak, for the occasion, was no addition to the crown of Alfred and the

GREAT BRITAIN.— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.

Conqueror, of Plautageuet and Tik' the .-pleudor-loviug Prime Mini>trr nay, aud Victoria reigned as Va\

It is in evidence that tlii' t^hir.ii

aijle jiersouage at the head .it her ( i(.\ We nuiy not assume that tliis i i mi personal, or that it was even a reciprocal senti- ment for the Prime Miu-

tii>u to herself The daughter of the Duke of Kent has never heen sentimental. Her Ger- man descent and English education, as well as the traditions of the English criiwn, have conspired to make and to keep her one of the most practical of great women. Her admiration for Disraeli rested rather upon that strong conservatism which he displayed in politics and his ficTelity to the royal and aristo- cratic order in Great Britain. To these ele- ments nf English natio,,- ality nniie was more

It was natural under these conditions that the Queen should devi- some distinguished houn: for the man who hte! served her Governmeni so long and well. If the honor were ever to come, the time was at hand l. confer it. Disraeli w:i-

already in his seventy-tir^t year. At ili; age a statesman can hardly he 1)Uime<l f looking back upon the hard-fouLdit liatt of life, an.l f.r enn-i.lering the exi.e.lien. of a hrief ,lav of re^t ere the .■urta f,l!. In su.-h a condition of atfiirs an E trli^h leader n:,tni-nllv h-ks to the peera-

Di.- ' in	raeli a I	'eer of the leel thai t	realm. !.■ time
is 1	tireiiieii	from Iha	i^reat
lie	f Conu, lonor t,,	on<. lie hiin.-,lf.	a.-e..rd- .11 1 ac-
vile	the till	■ ami .lie	ity of
^■a.	oll>liel(l.	In l^TC,	he e.ili.
L-e	d. Uii	the llth	it An-

EARL OF P.E.

ot the tliire." iineeil i>raeU tic of

420

rXIVERSAL HISTORy.^THE MODERX WORLD.

the Earl uf Beaeon>fR-l(l ; nor wa.- the li.iiior le.-s distiugviished for the fact that it once had been tendered to Edminid liuikc, and Ky him declined.

The Ameriran ivad.,- Nvill not understand that sueh a .■han-v of r.-hitioi, as that thn.n.uh whirh Eord r„a,-onMirM |,as>rd in l.s7r, iui- plies tlir ai-a|M"'aian.-,. .,( th.- a. 'lor In.nj pub- lic life. It in.-an> ni Hn,Jand that his active career in Parliament, more [larticularly in the House of Commons is at an eicL In the case of Beacinsllcld, he was destined yet to api)ear in one of the most (hamatic spectacles of the last i|naiter of the nimieenth century; namely, in tlie Con-rcss of lleilin. We shall

Question in European politics, the war be- tween Turkey on the one side and Servia and Mouteuegro, inspired hv Kirs-ia. on the other; the conference at (Jon-tantiieipl,. ; the progress and incidents of tin- Tinco lius-ian War; the issue of that conflict ; and, tiiially, the assendjly and delilierations of the International Andias- sadors at Berlin, ni July of IsTs. All these matters iielong rather to the recent lii-tory of Eastern Europe than to tlie annals of (ireat Britain It is snlticieiit in this connectiou to reconl tlie fact tliat tiie interests luid reputa- tion uf England were su,-tainiMl in the Con gress of Berlin by the Enl of Beac.n.-field in a manner most satist'actory to the nation. The Brilfsh public saw with .ieliju her represent- ative standine- in t'.at -leat cont'creiice face to face with I'lince Bi-)iiarck, his e(pial in in tellect and almost his e.pial as a diplomatist. We here draw near the close of the chapter covering tlu' most recent events in English historv. It oid\' remains to present an outline of a few aililitional movements to bring the narrative to a clo.se. It is exceedingly difhcult to give a true historical estimate of those teml- eucies and tispects of society lying immedi- ately under our own olis( ivation. In such a case, perspe<'iive is w.anline. and the mind of the writer is nncon-.'iously swayd by the dominant temper and pas.sion of tli.' day. On the rarliamentary si,h., the t;reatest by far of all the mo,v recent aeitations in England is that sn-L'ested bv the words IboiE Kui.E. The expre-sion was „ot new. Ever since the uni..n of Ireland uilli En-land at the beeiu-

ning of the present century, an occasional demand had been made for the creation of an Irish Parliament, as a means of dissipating the chronic di.scontent of the people of that Island. It was belh'vd by a snuxll body of public nu'ii, that, with(jut any general disturbance of the so-called Imperial system by which Great Britain and Ireland were held in union, a Parliaineutary body might be properly per- mitted in the latter country, having jurisdic- tion and prerogative in all matters of local legislation. This would signify, in a word, thtit the vexed and vexing question which had so much disinrbi'd the Great Parliament with respeit to the allairs of Ireland might be re- ither in a sul)sequent manded cnusiitutionally to an Irish House of vival of the Eastern ' Commons, tor satisfactory settlement.

As early as 18t3.S, Disraeli himself, in a canvass of the country, had spoken of an agi- tation at that time appearing in Ireland for the measure afterwards known as Home Rule. An Irish political (jrganization already had lieen etlecled nndi'r the name of the Home Rule League for the promotion of this cause. During the ei.trhth decade which followed, and running beneath the events narrated in the preceding pages, was this new form of agitation. At length the jiarties in England began to con- sider the (piestion, and to divide on the new issue presented in Irish politics. Meanwhile the (iovernmeut got on its hands two petty African wars, ail account of which will be given pres- ently. The great conflict between Turkey and Russia came and went. In 1877 a period of liusiness depression came, to be followed with tluit inevitable distress and discontent among the common people which always train after c<mimercial panics and collapses. The winter of 1878 was one of great severity. There is one fact in modern society which, jierhaps f irtunatcly fir the world, political parties can not explain awtiy. Iv'o lie, however adroit, can make a hungry nurn believe that he is full. No loiid-mouthed professions of devotion to the cause of the suffering ou the part of a dominant faction in Government can make thi' siiflerers follow longer the banners of pre- tenders. It is foi- this obvious reason that the days .if distress are always days of political revulsion. In 1^7'S and 1879 the poorer ]ieople of the kingdom, especially in Ireland, felt the Jiangs i.if hunger, and, resorting to the

GREAT I!J;iTAiy.~]!KFOi;MS OF THE EIGHTH DECAIiE.

laiil tlu- Iilame i not ouly a wdinan's nmrtitiratii

i-rrvalivf Gov- I grief, at tlie Liberal triuinpli.

ii-t:nirf>, whirl) j this respi-ut were still further

, a.hle.l (n the ' fa.-t that ( ila.l.-tnii,. must a,t:aii

e.,u,.„t weakrii- head of the G.iveninieiit. Tl huruan eimuuh to try t.. ol

' sen, hou', 1- sent f-r Lonl Ilarlinuton , an

•ir .lountall in t..tornia n.u Cahinel : hut lli

sublime fallacy of pain

of their couditiiui on t

erameut. ]Many othrr

may not be enumerate-

]inpular iliseonteut and the eonseipnnt w

in- ot the :\[inisterial j.artv.

As to the Liberals, ne jiave sern ho^ pl.te and dispiriting was their do«n 1X74. AVith the retiremonl of t;hi(Ut ronipi-teut leader of the ( >ppo,-.ition r,<\ found, and the Liberal party wvnt Iro

said to have reaeh.d the nadir. T-nt it is in reason uhirh had the nature of politieal viri-itndes that the It oidy remainod

arlion and levival. The Lib.rals enier-ed I iiower. Thi~ aee.

I, but a (^ueen ; Her feelings in

lobh

br

Lil

The

at tlie very time when the Co weighed down by the unfortnnat ot the country, began t(j sink. Rule agitation lay like a bank across St. Ge(n-ge's Chann.d. Tb. come; Gladstone suddiadv looun his retirement, where he had amu: in the meantime, with eontiovi' against the Papacy, and cbalhai-r, the policy, but the existcnrc of th tive"(;overninent. He .hii.'d th and .hired them t., submit tlin

givat leader of the n thou call.d Lord liMlinod, f.r the same li-d with Ilartiiigton.

(.iUrru to viel.l to the

(ihnl.ton^ again to ,• was done, and a new- Ministry was con.-tituted, into whose hands some of the most im[iortant i-sur.- of the age were remanded at once tbr ?oluiion.

But we may jiroperly here turn a-iih- from

hiniMdf. nnujic Afri.'an 1 es-avs j G.ivernnient b- not only ceudencv of Vn-.

>[in

in which the British involvr.l .luring the as- hl. Thrfiisl. if these was A- \ the Ashantee War. The p.tly African king- ■v ! dom of Adiautr,. li, ,. on iho interioi- of the .'l Cold Coast, caslwar.l from Liberia. It cm- their measures to the ]iiM.pli'. Tlic cliallongi- prises an area of about srvmty thousand wa.~ not at the first accepted. The Parliament s.piaie miles, aud a population of more than a ^va- ahea.ly nearing its Constitutional limita- million. The cajiital is Cooma>>ie, at a con- tion. At "length the .Ministers were rather siderable distance from the ena>t. Here the jirovoked aud taunted into a di-obitiou and native monarch hehl his court in a sort (jf

an appeal to the people. The sun 'curred , barbaric splendor. The Ashantee Kingdom

in Marcli ot Issu, and the el.vtious toll,, wed j was organized on the baH> of a military aris- soon afterwar.l-. A- soon as the results be- tocracy. A luuuber of petty lords had each

gau to be declared, it wa the greatest political rea England had taken place were routed. When tli- and the footings \yere n Liberals came out of tii jority of a hundred and

tocracy. A iiui

vid.nt that one of his local court and government. ^Manyof

ins ever kniiwu in the usages id' the Asllanle.^ are ii-pulsive

The Conservatives to the sentiments „i' ]-:ui-opeans. The lu-ac-

nn.ke .'Kared up, tice of polygamy is universal, ami the

e, the triumphant constitution of the kingdom as.-i-ns t.. the

test with a ma- m.march an e.xact maxinuim of ihice thou.sand

■ntv members, and three hundrcl and thirty-three wives. The

the humiliation which they had >ullere.l six religion uf the land .hmands human sa.-rifices,

rears bef,re was viMted iii double measure such olfering> being mad.' in the belief that

upon their opp ,nt-. the .ha.l are in need. ,,f servants an.l attetid-

At the fir-t, it -.•em.. I that the sh..ck had ants in the ..th..' worl.l.

been felt as high a< th.' Thnme itself. The F..r a Ioul' tim.' tl,.- Ashantees ha.l held

Queen, in so far a- -h.' was p.rndtted under r.lati..ns with th.' Dul.h ..n th.' African cast,

the English C.'n.-titulion t.. have iH,liti.-al Fr.an them th.' king, by tr.aly, nceiv.-.l an

.sentiments, was h.-artdy with llie C..nserya- , annual tribut-' in i.tui'ii toi- the a.lvanta'j.'s

lives, and it may n..t be .l.ud.t.'d that she felt ' \vliich the Dutch min.rs ha.l in the country.

U^'IV£Bi>AL HISTORY.— TEE MODEHN WORLD.

GREAT BRITAIN.— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.

423

lu order to uiulertstand the situation we must take into consideration also the Fantees, whose territory lay between Asliantee Ivand and the Gulf of Guinea. The Ashantecs and llir Fantees were kinsmen liy lacr disci'nt, and had been in alliance, but at leunth became estranu'ed and hostile. The territories of the two States were divided by the river Prah, and across this stream warlike excursion-^ were (Vei|uently made, the one people into the cduiitry of the other. Ou two or three former occasions the English had been at war with the Asliantee

Ashautees to terms, compelling the king to pay an indemnity of six thousand ounces of gold, and to give up his sou as a hostage. A

tee Land, and all tlic other potty drpnideucies between the river Prah and the sea. In 1843 the Crown of England assumed the govern- ment of this part of the coast, and from that time forth there was mutual suspicion and mutual misunderstanding between the Euro- peans and the Ashantees. At length, in lsfi7, au arrangement was made between the En-

uitun ml in lue c n p u us iii tin hil sutieiel 1 di i^ti iis ml hninili itiiu d t U Ou the 7th jt August 1SJ( Su thaile^, McCiith\ then m dm. 1 Biiti h mteie t^ n th (t 11 < It to ht 1 bittl «ith the aim\ 1 ih VI Hit 1 111 t n th u ml sti n_ It L)n 1 \m1 \m 1 I it 1 b\ th n gioes ml liini It liin < 'iih ib ut ift\ men f the \\l 1 t i u 1 1 in i i Inn

the English hea 1 (pni tcis ii 1 mt t I in 1 which wai the base of ipenti ns

Of couise Gicit Biitun so n bi Uf,ht the

lish an 1 th	Dut h li\	uhi h dl th t Its jf
the httei hi	1 1 tu 1	1 t til '^« t Finer
weie sun ii 1	1 1 t (.	1 It 1 Ml nil uhile all
the EnJi h 1	It w t	th It ii\ 1 \\ It ^i\ea
to th Dot 1	1,\ Ihl	ti 11 1 ti 11 the king
t Vhiiit hll 1 LU 1 11	1 t th t hllll t	iniiiiil til 111 «hich It! lilt t occu
1UK^ In t	1 Diit h	\ 1 n ,ene
h |U th 1.	n 1 tint	tl 1 n li h ill tik
iinu . th 11	1 ill ill iti 11	1 tl I)ut(h hll x^ t 1 nil elf But this
<lum ^^^s 1	dl «( 1	1 inflected h\ the

424

UNIVERSAL HISTOliY — THE MODERN WORLD.

I'.rilisli authorities, iui.l lucainc tla lia-i> of hostility.

Thi- iiiunediate occa-mu ot thr outliieak of the war, however, was tlic a. t of cue of the Ashantee chieftaius. iu .Im.jmui; toui I^uio- peaus into his tuwu au.l ni.ikiut; them pii-ou- ers. The British (lov.nm, .hniau.U.l the Mil render of thesr raptiv, - an.l th. d. ui.ni.l ua-

refused h\ the Ashantee king. Several other circumstances aggravated the difficulty. The Fautees were in alliance with the English, or rather under their jirotection, and this fact was a .source of alarm and jealousy on the part of the king of A-hantee. His ' ill-feeling grew to such a pitch that, early in ls7:l. he took the hazardous step of cn.issing the T'rah with an annv, thus iuvadiui; the land of the Fautees.

By this act he was brought into direct contact with the British, and the Home Government was constrained to send out an army to bring the refractory nation to submi-ssion. The com- mand iif the expedition, which was sent out HI the fall of 1873, was given to Sir Garnet Wolseley, who reached the C.,!,! Cast in the beginning of October, and f.,uijd an armv of

Ashantees, f.rty

"^ thousand strong, ' ready to opj)ose his ]irogre.?s. But if ihey had been four hundred thousand -tiong they could 11}, by their half savage methods of warfare, liave staged the British invasion of their tounti} .

On' tlie 20th of January, iu the fol- ng year, the English crossed the Prah, and entered Ashantee Land. Tiiey met and de- feated the native army in two or three lattles, and on the 4th of February reached Coomassie. The Ashantee king was now glad to make what terms he might with the con- queror. Everything must be done with tlie utmost haste. It was well known to Sir Garnet that a month's delay iu that region would be fatal to his army ; for the fevers anil other maladies to which Europeans were subject in the African summer were far more fatal than the exigencies of battle. The English Commander accordingly exacted his terms in haste, and set out for the coa.st. Cooma»ie was burned. An indemnity o^ fifty thousand ounces of gold was agreed to by tiie king, and the latter was obliged to

GREAT BRITAIX.—REFOHMS OF THE EKllITH DECADE.

I, III

iir-Dntch

renounce liis claims of sovereignty over the as it i< snineliiii.s wilttni. I'm- a coiisiilcialilr

petty States which liad hitherto been subject peiioil In- hail hicn (.11 ttrms of fririiiUlMp ami

to him. He was also obiiL^^ed to grant free- iiiliiiiac_y with the V

(lom of trade between his ea|)ital and the stant (biheidty with

coast, and to keep open tiie higliwav from peoples of tlie adjaeent Transvaal itepni.li.'.

Comassie to the rivr Prah. Finailv, he The same (hing wa^ trne of oiler nat ive irihes,

must agree to renonni'e and abolish the some of whom wen- always at war with tiie

practice of human saerilice. Sir ( iarnet lioers. It appears that the eivil aliairs of the

Wolseley then retired fmm th<- country, and Transvaal were badly managed. When Sir

the expedition returned lo England. Theophihis Shepstone was sent out as (Jov-

IMoro important by fir was the war with eruor of the British colonies on this part of

the Zulus of S.,ulh-(asteru Afriea. Zulu the African coast he was led to helieve that

Land lies to the north of the colony of Natal. It has a seadine of about a huudre.l and thirty miles, and includes among its population several important trilies. The coun- try is to a great extent aboriginal in both its people and productions. The wild animals peculiar to the region represent several African types, such as tlie antelope, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the butt'alo, and the lion. The people are brave, warlike, energetic. At the time of the outbreak of tlie Zulu war, the king of the country was Cetewayo, or Cetshwayo,

to jiass under the He accordingly ] effect that the ome a part of t

the Boers desi of Great Brita declaration to Republic ha.l Dominion. It thus happened that by an act of usurpation, inherited th. and ditficulties of the Boers with tin bors. The Zulus were greatly alarm, new as|iect of atfiiirs, and becanu- - and jealous of everything done by t peans in their part of the country. One of the disputes between Z

dominion d.lishe.l a Pransvaal e British England, ■ iiuarrels

Land

421

VyiVEnSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

pui

111

1!:

L-h C< favor

aii.l the Tnuj^vaal i;.puhlir «a> with to tlie owilershlii (.t between the two Sta referred tu the deeisi siouers. who made th

Zulus. VUM the lieu Bartle Frere, ivtii.-.d or iir-leeted to exeeute the terms ot the ^etthiiieiit. Cetewayo was surprised aud aiiirered tliat the English author- ities, after having decided the question in his favor, should l)e guilty of what seemed to liim — and to all the uorhl— to he an aet of liad taith. Iio>(ilities hroke out. The Engli.-h Governor demanded that the Zulu army should be disorganizeil and di.-persed. Cete- wayo refused to acquiesce, and the British

fQ,.„po K,.^,.,„ ..,, ; ;,	1' ot the country of the
Zulu- <', J. i	1 Januat^, 1S79, a
	^e\eie battle ■\\as
jii^M^	fonuht and the
^W^	Engh-h ueie ut
r'-"- 1	t.ih defeated
WafesTI	'Ihe di^a^tei ^\as
l^p^-f	humilidtmg m
k4^ ^-^	the 1 t-t degiee,
< ^MIBSSk&^	md \\a>, as a
^^^^M'^	mattei of couise,
H^^i^^'--	^ soouietiie\ed A
	^ new foice under
command of Lord
	Chelmsford, again
CETEWAYO, IN ENGLISH GA	p^ marched into Zu- lu Land, routed
the barbarians, capture	1 the king, and brought
the war to an end beh.r	■ the middle of autumu.
The native luoiKiivhy	was aholwhed, and a
civil goverumeiil, kiio\\	,1 as the New Republic,
was organized in it,-	stead. As for the
dethnnied king, he u.	> ivniaiid.-d to iin|iri>-
oiiment, hut the prim	i|i,il native chiefttiins.
wlio had been his sulijc	ct>, were iiermitted to
remain in local author	ty.
One of the primipa	incidents of this petty

anil hv no means hniioialile war, was the death, in one of the skirmishes with the Zulus, of the Prince Imperial of France. An account has alreadv been given of the retirement of Napoleon "ill., with Eugenie and their sou, to Chiselliurst, in England. There, for about seven years, the education of the Pi'ince was conducted at the military school of Wool- wich Arsenal. After his graduation he

would fain see actual warfare. The Prince appears to have had in him mrndi sentim.-nt and romance. When the Zulu war broke out, several of his classmates were in the army of Lord Chelmsford, and the Prince, at his own earnest request, was assigned to a place on the 'Teneral's stall. In this relation he entered Ziihi Land, and exhibited during the campaign iniirh military spirit. He was assigned, on a certain occasion, to the command of a recon- iioitering ]iarty, liaving the duty of deter- mining the situation of ati'airs aliout twenty miles trom camp. While ou this expedition, his comi.iany was surrounded by a large force of Zulus, and in the efliirt to cut his way through, the Prince was killed. His body was taken back to England, and deposited in the Memorial Chapel at Chiselliurst, beside the sarcophagus of his father.

The death of the Prince was a severe shock, almost a death-blow, to the hopes of the Boiiapartists of France, who had looked to the son of Napoleon III. as the embodiment and imiiersoiiation of all Imperial expectations for the future. But the world at large was less concerned with the political efiect of the Prince's death than with the shocking calamity which it brought to the beautiful but now wi<lowed ex-Empress of the French. To her the lo>s ot' her son was the final stroke. Nothing; in history — that is, in its merely per- sonal jiarts— is more melancholy and aflecting than the sj)ectacle of this lone woman, fallen from glory, a widow in a foreign land, stripped of her Imperial diadem, her husband dethroned and dead, and now, at last, her promising and gallant sou cut down in the wild chaparral of S.mth-ea>terii Africa, .-:^tabbed to death with twiiitv wounds, and hacked into mutilation with the assagais ot the Zulus.

At the very time these events were occur- ring in South Africa, England found herself again at war in Atghanistau. The situation and relations of that country with respect tu the British East Indian Empire have already been described. In every instance in wdiich the Eastern Question, by disturbing the jieace of Eiiroi>e, has brought the ominous name of Uu.-sia to the attention of the Western Powers, (ireat Britain has taken the alarm with respect to her Indian frontier ou the side of Afghanistan. The latter country

GREAT nJ!JTAI.\:— REFORMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE

ha^ seemed to Russia to cciistiiui.' a smt ( soiith-easteru passage into India, jii-t as tl ISosphurus has coustitutril ihc xiiitli-wi-tii l)assaf;o into the onuitrirs (if Simtlirrii Kurn|i The tiravitatidU "f tht- Kii-siaii Kiniiire h ,,iv>mm1 in hntii .liivrli.uis, iH-ann- alil<,' on tl l'in,jaul.au.ltl.r(<rtn„iaiian,nii,iui,s. Inl.,, .lin-.-tM.ns the pn-.-suiv ha.l U-vu .li>tn-sii,i:- as tar as auv ijlivsieal torce luav i>v sai.l t.. I

before. The conflict with Tiula-y seenicd to imply auother Au^flo-l;u»ian war, and tlie ex- pi'ctatiou of swell an evmt ua- I'or a wliile rife

It c.u d Kussi

Br

.■ak of hostilities between England the armies ot the Czar would pour ,y ,.f I'.Tsia, through Cabul or the lie Hindu Kush, and precipitate

For about tiftv d dread ou ac

distressing — to Great Bri years she has suffered al: count of her exposure in this ijirceti was .«o on the occasion of rhe ,lilli,'uhie: culmiuated in tic- Tiino ItuvMan Wai atrgressions of Kn^-ia limught to 1 serious ajiprehensioTis tlial the seltlemeii followed the Crimean invasion ot' bs.i. have to be reviewed bv tlie same met

men pel

The be

Wlliel, would

,d Cal.ul a 1st Bu.siai

th.

re I )f great ilish (Env-

ied .Shere AH. It tauce tliat an En- should be estab-

UNIVERSAL Hl^lOh] —Jin M(lDFl:\ UOIilD

lisluMl ;,	If tlu-	■ ciiurt	of	SI	here	Ali,	<( t
Homo	(iliV(	■rnnicnt		li-	ht Ui		list in
fdrnied	of 1	the mn-	a-ii	ne]	Its .11	r i;.
remote	regio	u, and ]	ino	re	•.'eiii-i	■ally	thit
fluence	of Great Bi	■ita	iu	migli	It he	a.i.l
paramount i	n Afdu	lui;	sta	u.
To t	his e	nd it w	as	ar	range	,1 tl,	at 1
dition i	11 tht	• rhaiac	ter	')	f a ,M	-aeai	lie ei

lit tli( r liiuiu 111 N| t mil 1 f 1S7S iiid tame

tl\ in t til fi iiti 1 liii li\ilni_ \f_hiiii^t\n from

ill til it Ii ill Hi ti \ w K ill t li\ nil ^-engers

th ill li m sheie \h, iiittidu tiii^r Uie tuithei ad-

1 ill nil \ mte Siuce the Biiti^h Eiul)i--\ came iu a pc iceable eliaiaetei, tiie liihnhling of its pro-

1 I \pi _ii ~^ lilt ( dull w 1-. < 1^1 1\ < 1 ii-ti iiid iiiti' an

iiu -\, I 1 -ult uid let lit ht stilit) V^.iiiiattei ot faet,

-^'

but really bearing with it the potenej' of war, tlie expedition at once took the character of

should be despatched from India to Cabiil. It was known that the Russian Government had either sent nr was about tci send an aniliassa- dor ..r its nun til the rmirt .it Shrre Ali, and the English were determined not to be behind in esstablishing their mission at the same place. The expedition accordingly set out from

xsion, and the movement, supported

itary force, continued uutil Cabul w^as again

iipicd by British soldiers. Another divis-

iif the army tiiok possession of Candahar, 1 the Government was soon in condition to (ate its (iwn terms of settlement. At this juncture Shere Ali died, and was

GREAT ERlTAiy.—EEFOBMS OF THE EIGHTH DECADE.

42!»

succeeded by bis son, Yakoob Khau. Tbe latter made haste to couter with the British authorities, and at a place called Gandamak a new treaty was made and signed, on the 5th of IMay, 1879. It was agreed that the Ameer should grant new bouudary-lines for British

shoul<l support that country against all f ireigu enemies. The establishment of the English mission at Cabul was also granted by the Ameer, and Sir Lewis Cavagnari became the representative of England at the Court of Yakoob Khau. Everything seemed to have

India, and that lie should lie compensated the cession by the payment from the treasury of British India of sixty thousand pounds. It was also agreed that, for the concessions thus gained by Great Britain, she should hereafter regard Cabul as under her protectorate, and

.ins and

tlu

ul until I revolt It uludi had hap- x.uuki Barnes, 'u

UMVEBSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

weie attacked b^ tht iiiMii^ent^ inJ mui leied	iieh	tl
Tlieati cit\ \\ IS in t\Ln 1 i ect shockiu j ind	Is u	11-
auothei Bluish uiii\ 1 1 1 t > be sent iiit \f	tlu 1	ICsl.

tail to (juell the insurrectiou. The En- forces a second time fought their way without serious resistance to Cabul, which was en- tered and taken on the 24th of December, 1879, Yakoob Khan was, of course, deposed, made prisoner, and sent to In- dia to await his trial on a charge of perfidy aud massacre. The rebellion was completely sup- pressed, aud British gar- risons were established in > the country to hold, as if

\ it were au outpost, the

conquered province of Cabul.

It was soon perceived, hone\er, that the subju- _ itiou was only real in the ueai neighborhood of the _imsou. The remainder t the people were re- stiaiued from hostility (jiih SI) far as the danger of punishment was felt. The question thus arising tl 111 tlie occupation of Vl_l istan, aud thepro- I 1 I stablishmeut of a new fiontier-line for Brit- ish India on that side, weie tiausmitted by tiie (Toveiumeut under Dis- tls undei Gladstone ; and the 1 the tontioversy have not, to lieeu satisfactorily adjusted.

CHAPTER CX:X:X;i\'— BATTLE KOK HOME RULE.

ITH the opening of the Parliamentary session of 1881 began the la.st great contest with which the re- cent history of England is conri-rnod respecting the civil iind domestic cou-

The Ilniiie liule party, as

a party, now made its formal apparition in the Hou.se of Commons. On most questions of national policy the new party was in nat- ural sympathy with the Liberal Ministry, aud on the Irish question the Liberals were in nat- ural sympathy with the new party ; but the vicissitudes of politics destroyed, or reversed, these natural relations. The Home Eulera

GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.

were brought around to tlir si.le of the Con- servatives in opposition to the ( iovernnient, and the Gkdstone ]Miiii>tiv had to content Itself with Liberal Mippoit only. At the head of the Home Kule party appeared a new leader ill the person of Charles Slewurl I'ariiell. The Ijudy of his following was made up exclusively of Irishmen, many of them poor men and of small reputation in tlio political world, while a few, such its the historian McCarthy and ]Mr. Shaw, were already leaders of note and in- fluence. All, however, w e r e profoundly de- voted to the cause of Ireland, and to this cause every other priu- c i p le , every other poliey, was made subserv-

lu the Gov- ernment, that is, in the Mini-trv, th, Honiel;,,],',. had no pait or lot. At the tir^t

sible, i-imred hv

both the d(_,mi-

nant parties, but

this method of

dealing with the

men of one idea

soon had to he

abandoneil. A

state of affairs

had now supervened in Ireland which could no

longer be put aside or hidden under the cloaks

of the Ministry. Suffering had come — want,

distress, passion, rebellion, hatred, every specter

that arises at the conjuration of tyranny, around

the huts of the lowly. Tiie celebrated Land

League was formed, having for its object the

alleviation of the hardships of the Irisli ten-

antry, without much regard to the existing laws. Crime began to express the prevailing sense of the people. Outrages were done to life and property, and the Government was obliged, by the mere stress of the existing con- ditions, to take up the difficulties of Ireland, to present therefor some sort of remedy. In January, 1881, it was thought necessarv tr.

pass a Coercion Bill against the Irish tenants and members of the League, whose lawless, or at least unlawful, proceedings took con- stantly a bolder form. The measure proposed was, in its leading ])rinciple, a suspension of the Haben>: Corpuf, permitting the officers, ni any district designated by the Lord-Lieu- tenant, to arrest and imprison without judicial

43li

UNIVERSAL HISTORY^— THE MODERN WORLD.

process the disturbers of the peace. At the same time a uew Land Bill was announced, which was merely an extension and amend- ment of the Act of 1870, by which the ten- ant-right of Ulster had been made the standard for the whole of Ireland. With the intro- duction of these measures into Parliament, the Home Rulers adopted the policy of Ob- struction ; that is, they systematically impeded the consideration and passage of the bills by every parliamentary artifice and expedient known to English usage. The Constitution of the House of Commons was such as to give great liberty in this respect. In that body everything had hitherto been conceded to the freedom of debate and the rights of the mi- nority. There was no rule for the " previous question," or other expedient for bringing a pending question to vote, so long as a member continued to debate it or offer amendment thereto. Even the motion for "closing the debate" at a given time was amendable, and might itself be debated.

The Home Rulers in Parliament at this time numbered thirty-seven. They deter- mined that the diereinn Bill shuuld not he lirought to a vote, and from the 6th of Jan- uary to the 2d of March the debate was pro- longed. It was seen by the Jlinistry that some measure, even if if wcvi- without precedent and actually nncnnstitutiimal, must be adopted in order that tin- will nf tlnj majority might be legally expressed. The method finally em- ployed was found in tin- prerogative of the Speaker. It was agreed that, on the 2d of March, he should arbitrarily announce that the debate was closed, and that the vote should thereupon be taken. This was accordingly done against the uproarious opposition, the protests, and cries of "privilege," on part of the Home Rulers. The Bill was carried, and measures were at once instituted under its pro- visions for the suppression of violence in Ireland.

On tlie day following the passage of the Coercion Bill the leaders of the Irish party were forcibly expelled from the House of Com- mons, and at length three of the members, including Parnell and O'Brien, were thrown into prison, where they remained until the following year. It is in the nature of British public opinion to undergo reaction, to take on a different complexion under every change of

condition, and to express the altered state of affairs in some new political theory. No sooner had the (^ioverumeut triumphed (jver the Home Rulers, no sooner were the leaders imprisoned, than sympathy for them and their cause began to be expressed, not only by the public, but in the Ministry itself The com- position of the Liberal party at this time was peculiar. The members composing it were- graduated in their political opinions all the way down from a strict conservatism at the- one extreme to a rank radicalism at the other. The Liberals of the latter type had all along been in sympathy with the Irish cause. There was danger that Gladstone would lose largely by disintegration on both wings of his army. On the whole, he himself inclined towards the Radical and Reformatory camp ; but for a while the exigencies of the Government re- quired of him a prudent conservatism, lest he might lose what may be called the upper division of the Liberal party.

The Government now w'ent on with other legislative enactments bearing on the Irish cause. The Land Bill was passed, by which It was Ixipcd til stnj) the clamor of the Irish tenantry. It was soon seen, however, that the measure was of little avail. What would at a former period have satisfied the tenants was now, when they were aroused to the point ot war, neglected and disregarded liy them as ;i .scheme to defraud them of their rights. The cry had m.w lieeii nii-ed for the absolute na- tionalization of the Irish lands, which meant, of course, the destruction of the very principle of English landlordism. The foreign land- tenure became ever more precarious. Partly by the piiverty of the people, and partly by recu.sancy, thJ rents fell into arrears. There was almost a universal refusal to pay any longer the immemorial tax which the j^easants owed to the landlords. Violence became the order of the day. Outrages against life and property multiplied. Evictions were resisted, and it seemed at times that the foreign domi- nation was about to be ended by a universal insurrection of the peasants against their mas- ters. In a single month, in the summer (jf 1882, ni) fewer than five hundred and thirty- one outrages were reported against the system of foreign landlordism and that status in Ire- land by which landlordism was upheld.

GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.

433

It ivas iu this coiiditiiin of atiliirs that the astute Gladstoue perceived the necessity of a change of policy. Tlie Cdorcion Rill expired iu October of 1882. It had i>n.v.<l a sigual failure. The Anus Bill, imder tlif provisions of which the Irish people were t(j be disarmed, and which had resulted iu the surrender of their weapons by all the better classes, and in the concealment of arms by the lawless and the criminal, had also completely failed of the intended results. All the measures which the Government had thus far taken to suppress violence, restore order, bring the country again into a state of contentment, or even acquies- cence, had proved abortive. The Land League seemed about to triumph over Parliament ami the country.

It was at this juncture, that cumniunica- tious were begun between Gladstone and Paruell, who was still iu prison. An alleged "treaty" was formed between the two, in which it was understood that the Irish leader would be content with a l/ill alinlishiug Arrears ■ot Rent, and with a just extension of tenant rights. These being conceded, the Home Rulers would join the Government iu the at- tempt to restrain the Land League, or rather the lawless adherents ot that body, from further violence and crime. It was in Ajiril nf issi' that Gladstoue threw out the tir.-t hints in the House of Commons that a lu-w policy might l)e expected, and that the release of the Irish prisoners was contemplated as a measure of pacification. By this time the Irish jails were well filled with per.sons who lunl liteu arrested •on suspiciou under the suspension of Habeas Corpus, and in accordance with the Coercion Bill. More than eight hundred persons, many of them of excellent character, had lieen im- prisoned. It was known to the (lovernment that it was needless to bring the suspected persons to trial before Ii'isli jinii's. Of a cer- tainty, such juries would never convict their fellow-countrymen of crime for conimittiiig -acts iu which they themselves liad either actually participated, or with which they were in svnipathv. The law in such cases required that thejury should he.lrawn fiom the vicinage, an,l this' assured to the piisoners a trial l.elore their neigldK.rs and tVieiids. 'I'he Govern- ment, therefore, was ol.ll-eil to hold the sus- pected persons bv a suspension of the Ilabms

Corpus; but this could not continue forever; and now for the first time the policv of con- ciliation was to be tried.

Unfortunately, at this very juuctui-e, an event occurred which threateiieil to undo the very history and tendency of the times. In the lawless period, which it was hoped was now about to close, many murders and assassina- tions had been committeil. At the time of which we speak Lord Frederick Cavenilish, who was holding the jjosition of Financial Secretary of the Treasury, was appointed Chief Seecretary for Ireland, to succeed Mr. Forster, whose antipathy to the Irish cause had been so great as to lead to this change in official relations. With Lord Cavendish as undersecretary, was appointed Thomas Henry Burke, a man of distinction, who was also sup- posed to be friendly to Ireland. The new officers were sent out, and arrived in Dublin. On the evening of the 6th of iMay, 1882, as they were driving in Plueiiix I'aik, in that city, they were attacked by four murderers, partly disguised under slouched hats. It is thought that Mr. Burke was the first to fall under the knives of the assassins. It appeared that Lord Cavendish sought to defend his friend from tli.- assault, and. in doing so, he too was stabbed to death. .Many |hi>oiis were

sitting or walking within a i'vw 1 (lre<l feet

of where the crime was comniilted, and yet tlie assassins were enabled to mount a car and

drive from the park witl t discovery. A

consideralde quantity of gold coin, bauk-ijotes, and other valuaMes wvyv found on the bodies of the murdered im-ii, and it was perceived from the first that the as,-assination hail been for political, and not ior iiieicenary. motives.

A great sensation was |)rodnced liy this event throughout Ir<'hiud and (ireat Britain. It was natural, ineviiahle, that the crime sh.ndd be charged t., the Land League. Paruell, Davitt, and others who might speak authoritatively for that association, made haste to deny for it all connection with the murder of Cavendish and Burke, and to denounce the crime in the strongest terms. Nevertheless, the Land Leaguers and the Home Rule party had to bear the odium of the assassination. -As a matter of tiict, the L;ind League, as such, was organized on a plane altogether too high for the patronage or justilication of such deeds

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

as that ,1	me in Phiciiix I'lirk.	But the oi-
gaiiizatii.i	hail drawn after it	hc very dratf
aua oHhl	(if Irish ili^cuiteiit.	Such associa-
tioiis imis	necils have about th	'm a penumbra
of crime.	They are created for	the correction
of abuses	the removal of ojipi	essioD, the at-
taiiiiiK-iit	-.f ju-ti.v. lint all tl	is implies that
in tlu-ir t which, ill	urn, imply that kirn the hail. Is of the ign.	■e ; and these, of resistance rant ami vile,

The murder of the Irish Secretaries, in the country to which they had been sent, was a great shock to the Government. Parnell had now been liberated from prison, and soon re- turned to his place in the House of Commons. In that body violent denunciations were poured upon his head, and it was demanded of him and his coUeagties that they should wash their hands and the hands of the League of all complicity in the great crime. The course of Parnell was such as might have been expected from a brave, high-spirited man. In his reply he scarcely deigned to disclaim knowledge or participation on the part of himself and his friends in the assassination of Cavendish and Burke, saying that all defense of himself and his party, and of the principles of his party, was impossible in such a court as the English Parliament. His cause was prejuilged. His jmlges were his enemies and the enemies of his people; um- was he anxious under such circumstances to justify himself at the I)ar of British opinion. At that bar he was con- demned already — both he and his cause. He was responsible only to the people of Ireland. It was to the public opinion of that country that he made his appeal. Crime was crime, by whomsoever comniitied. As for the rest, he stood for the cause of an oppressed people. For that cause he had suffered an unjust im- prisonment, and for that cause he and his party were now maligneil, slandered, ami reduced to the category of criminals.

It could but be that the Irish party suffereil greatly in the ordeal through which they now passed. It could but be that the Government was held liack from its natural gravitation in the diricti'iii nf Home Rule, and it could but be that the justice and reasonableness of the position held by Parnell and his associates must become constantly more evident even in

the high places of England. The embarra.ss ment of the Ministerial party was extreme. They had a fair working majority through the wdiole of 1882, and the same in 1883; but the incidental elections which occurred at inter- vals in Ireland showed that the Land League was predominant in that country over all other forces conihincd. The Home'llnle party

I gained at the Irish elections, and their num- bers increased to over seventy. It was evi- dent that their strength was likely, erelong,

; to enable them to hold the balance of power between the two major parties in Parliament, and thus virtually either to direct the course of legislation, or to stop proceedings altogether. It can not be doubted that in this situation of affairs the Liberal party, though in the ma- jority, had Iiefore it the alternative either of depending on the Conservatives for support against the common enemy, or else of entering into combination with that eneniv in order to keep the Con.servatives from again coming into power. As for the Home Rulers them- selves, they had one definite object in view, and that was the nationalization of Ireland. To this, with them, all other cuiestiniis were subordinate. For this they were willing to enter into combinations with any [jarty soever, so that their one great end might be attained. It could hardly lie doubted, however, that Gladstone himself, whose influence over the Liberals was so great as to constitute an au- tlioiity, would never enter into a treaty with the Conservative leaders against the Irish cause. It became, therefore, a question when anil how the Parnellites and the Liberals would combine in the work of a radical reform on behalf of Ireland.

Such, in general, was the aspect of English history from the Parliamentary side in the yc:ir lN^-">. ])iiiiiig the session which ex- tendi-.1 to the bi-giuning of summer in that year, the condition of parties and of policies was not materially altered. The attention of the Home Government began to be drawn to the very .serious consideration of the affairs of Egypt. In that country a war had broken out, some account of which will be given near the conclu.sion of the present chapter. In Ire- laud the policy of the Government had done something toward the restoration of order. The outrages, for which the preceding year

(iREAT BRITAIN-BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.

had been memorable, wore in great measure suppressed; but it cduld not lie said that the determination of tin- Hdine Rulers was weak- ened or in any wi^. diviTtrd fmni their ..ne great objeet. Then tnlh.wcd th.' vacation of Parliament during tho siinmi.'r months, and until the beginning ot < )it(iiii'r.

At the next session the I'arncllites were in full forec. An element .d weakness had, in the meantime, made its appearance in the So- ciety ot Orangemen, who, being Protestant, and seeing their Catholic fellow-countrymen wdiolly given up to the work of land reform and nationalization, naturally fell into their traditional opposition. The Irish leaders sought zealously, during the after part 'if 1SS4, to allay the merely religious prejudices ot their countrymen, to the end that a uniled Ireland might compel the English Ministry to the adoption of such meas\ires as the Home- Rulers arlvocated. In the meantime, a seri(rns break had occurred in the (rovernment on the immemorial question ot the franchise. It hail been determined liy the Ministry, in answer to the call of the country, that still another effort should be made for the more complete enfranchisement of the Eugli.sh jieople. It had been found that even the Liberal measures of 1867 required revision and amplification to meet the demands of the working-classes of Englishmen. A new Franchise Bill was accord- ingly prepared, and passed by a decisive ma- jority through the House of Commons. As has always happened in the case of such legisla- tion, the House of Lords disapproved of the proposed extension of the suffrage, and in this particular case refused their assent to the Bill. The iliuistry had to accept the defeat of their measure for the time, and it was only after an additional Act covering the distrihutioii, or, as Americans would say, the re-ipportionment iif the new seats provided for under the Franchise Act had been adopted, that the Lords with- drew their opposition, and assented to the measure as a wdiole.

But hy this time the foreign relations of Great Britain had become so critical as to de- mand the best skill of the Covernment in the prevention of great wars. For a season, it a|i- peared that England and Kussia were to try their prowe.ss on the side of India. Egypt ■was in an uproar. Khartoum fell, and Charles

George Gordon went to his death at the hands of the Mahdi's assassins. All these things called for immediate and extraordinarv exer- tions. Arndes must be at on. quipped ;u„l

sent to Egypt. The strain upon ihe .Ministry l.e,"ime extreme. The Covernmint was n."-

liritish interests in thi' Fast, p';utienhii-|y in

w.inls were sufficient to expivs- the disgust of the people at the weakness and folly of the Administration. "The country," said that organ ot Conservative opiidipu, •■ is ohliged to confess that everything has been done that could be done to add to the risks of detent. Advice has been spurned, time wasted, and opportunity lo.st."

The (^ueen, in her speech to Parliament, had indicated the necessity for greatly increased expenses, and, to provide for these, it became necessary to increase the revenues of the Kingdom. A new budget was pre-cnted in June ot ]s,s,5, in which the policy of the (Tovernment was defined. It was pi-..po-eil that the increased expenditure ot the ensinng year shoidd be met by phning a dutv of a

one ye,-u- from the ilate of the Act. The mea.-uie was ailvocated by the Seeretary of the Exchequer, but the Conservatives opposed the budget on the ground that all the additional expenditure could have lieen provided for bv a slight increase of the duties on tea and the light wines. It was argued that ale and beer were the drinks of the common j-ople, and that the :\Iini>terial P.ill pn.po>e.l to put on them the expenses of the Egyptian war. The debate on the adoption of the hudget was concluded by (iladstmie on the evening of the

second readiuL; in the Ibm^e of Common,s. .Mu.di to the >ur|.ri.-e of the country at large, and m all inolKd.ihty to the (;,,vernment itself, the hudget was rejected hy a majority of twelve votes. Precedent has estalili-hed the rule in the Briti.sh Parliament, that a de- lent of the hudget signifies the end of the Mini.-try |.roposing \L It is not clear that such was the intent of the IIou.se of Commons in the i)resent instance; hut (^iladstone, never- theless, determined to follow the precedent, and he and his fellow]\Iinisters accordingly

43(1

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

teudereil their resignaticms to the Queen. The same were accepteil hy Her .Mnj.sty. whu immediately sent for the Mai.jiii- nf Salishury, aurl intrusted him with thp duty of torming a new Conservative Mini>tiy.

Such was another reiuarkahle example of the vicissitude which may he expected at intervals in the political history of Great Britain. It would have been thought im- possible, only a few months before, that the Gladstone Government could be overthrown

in any present emergency. The ]ihiIosophy of the question lay in the fact that, on the whole, the statesmen of the Liberal party in England have not shown themselves the equal of the Conservatives in the management of foreign affairs. On the other hand, the Conservatives have fallen far short of the Liberals in the Home Administration of tlie Kingilom, and in all measures of progre-s and refirm. It can hardly be dnubted that the attention of the Gladstonian i>artv had lieen almost whujlv

fixed upon domestic questions, and, in particu- lar, on the e.stablishment of some .satisfactory ami ]>ermanent policy for the settlement of the ditiiculties with Ireland. This withdrawal of the attention of the Government from the multifarious foreign complications in which the whole modern history of England is in- volved, contributed to the disaster of Khar- toum, left the public mind uncertain as to the ability of the existing Government to cope with the trouble in Afghanistan, and led to the withdrawal of the support of thirty or forty members of the Liberal party from the Ministry in the matter of the budget. Though the proposi- tion of the Grovernment to increase the revenues by the taxation of beer and spirits was eminently proper, though the ^Ministry, with all of its outside difficulties and inside dissensions, was still full of vi- tality and force, the Conserva- tives and the Parnellites, by combiuing their cohorts and gaining a modicum of support from disaffected Liberals, suc- ^> ceeded in overwhelming the Government with an adverse vote on the budget, and the Gladstone Ministry was at an end.

The :Ministerial crisis in the British system frequently signi- fies the defeat of the victors. In the present case, the tri- umjili of the Conservative party was of dubious im- port. The victory was achieved in the very face of impend- ing measures which threatened to divide and wreck the Liberal party. The time had arrived when it was necessary either to aban- don or renew the Suppression of Crimes Act, under the operation of which the peace, or at least the quiet, of Ireland had been for a while secured. It was the disposition of the Glailstonians with respect to reviving this measure that led the Parnellites to vote with the Conservatives against the ^Ministerial budget. It was clear that the Home Rule

GREAT BIUTAIX— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.

4 ."7

party would prove to the SalislniiT Goveru- ment a broken reed. Little were the Parnell- ites coDcemed about auythinu- except the cause of Ireland, and that was the very issue which the Conservatives, more than the Liberals, would have avoided. The Homo Rulers had thus at last worked their way iiitn a |>osition where they could defeat ami overthniw a JMiu- istry of either party at will, aud it became evident that their political aim was to beat down first one, and then the other, until the cause of Home Rule for Iix'Iaiid ^houlil be at length adopted by one "t the [laities as a means of keeping itself in [mwcr.

There was another rea>^iiii, alsn, why the Earl of Salisbury hesitated uiidrr >w\\ ccinditious to accept the responsibility nt the ( invornnient. The Parliament (if l^.'^n had m.w nearly expired, aud a new election was at hand. Gladstone himself had foreseen the impending struggle before the people, and it is not im- ]irobable that he was less averse to the adverse vote on his budget than might have been sup- ])0sed. Be that as it may, it was clear that, during the remainder of the existing I'ailia- ment, the Salisl)ury ^Ministry inu>t adopt a temporizing and conciliatory policy with the L-ish party, aud, by vigor abroad and Consirv- atism at home, win, if possible, fVoni tlic (ilad- stouians a victory at the ensuing election. In tlie canva.ss that followed, there was a dispo- sition on the part of both Conservatives and Lilierals to ignore and gloss over the one great question of the day, namely, the settlement of the issue raised and defended with so much vigor by the Home Rulers. Parnell was now supreme in the management of his party. He passed the word to his following that every- where and under all circumstances they should strike at the Liberal majorities, and reduce or reverse them wherever they might.

The elections were held for a new Honse of Commons in December of ]ss('>. The question really was whether the Liberals would be alile to obtain a majority of all the seats in the House. Soon after, the ehetions began; and as the first reports came in troni the center of England, the Conservative, -all.ered a transient hope that they nii-ht !«■ vietovimi-. hut the news from the eouiitrv-side (le>troyed all such expectations. From ^\ ales and :~eotlanil the news came of great Lilieral eains, and tin-

aggregate result in Great Britain showed a ma- jority of about eighty for thi; Liberal party. But the Irish elections turned everything to con- fusi.m. In all that country, ,/../ „',.;„,,/;. lAhmd

Irish seals in the Conim.ms, tewei- than twenty were won by the Conservatives. Dublin University sent two of these, and nearly all the remainder were from the extreme Xorth, in Ulster. Parnell came out of the battle with a compact body of eighty-five fol- lowers.

The ]ii.iliticians and statesmen were now easily able, l.iy a few figures, to count the probabilities. Should the Parnellites, in the new Parliament combine with the Conserva- tives, they would be able to bear down the Liberals with a small maioritv c,t about five It should they condiine with the the majority over the Conservative I the Sali.-bury .Ministry would be uindrod and seventy. Such was the at the opening of the Par- in .Tanuarv of 1886.

.tes; b

party and the ^ nearly a hundrot situation of affai liameutary sessio

what

It now remained to b the Earl of Salisbury w.add take m his en- deavor to conduct a minorit\' Government. The development of tendencies at the opening of the session was awaited with intense in- terest by the nation. It was clear to all that the Irish question could no longer be thrust into the liackgrouml, except by a coalition of the two dominant parlie> a-ain>t the third; and it was equally clear that sueh a comljina- tion could never be eilected. The debates began over the answer of the House to the speech of the Queeu. Before the discussion was closed, the Prime Miuister gave notice of the intention of the Government to introduce, at an early day, a bill for the further repres- sion of the Irish land-troubles on the line of coercion and punishment. It was foreseen Ijy the Liberals that they themselves wmdd be placed at a disadvantage by having either to support or oppose a mea-ure like that sug- srested bv Sali-I.urv. It was therefor,' di-emed

es voted iigh the calendar

4:38

r'xirr.RSAL history.— the MODF.Ry world.

l\v clisaffeetioii, the Gdvernnipnt was nver- wheltued, niid the ^Ministers resigned.

It now remained to he seen whether a new Lilieral Ministry cnnld he formed, which should he aide to command a intijovitv <<{' the Hoine

\VILLI.\5I E GLADSTONE.

on matters relating to the Irish question. Gladstone was, as a matter of course, and out of the necessity of the situation, recalled to the place of Prime ^Minister. Sir Farrer Herschell was made Lord High Chancellor;

Earl .'Spencer, President of the Council; H. C. E. Childers, Home Secretary ; Earl Ro.se- bery, Secretary for Foreign Atlairs ; Earl Oranville, Secretary for the Colonies; Earl for India ; Campbell- Baunerman, Secretary for War; Sir William Vernon-Harcourt, Chancellor of the Ex- chequer; the Marquis of Ripon, First Lord of the Admiralty; Joseph Chamberlain, Pre.«ident of the Gov- ernment Board; George Otto Trevelyan, Secre- tary for Scotland ; A. J. JMundella, President of the Board of Trade; and John M or ley. Chief Secretary for Ireland.

But it was not so much with the consti- tution of the new j\lin- istry as with the Irish policy which was to be proposed thereby, that the public was now concerned. For a con- siderable period it had l)een uoLsed abroad that G]ad.stoue was grad- ually inclining in his sympathies and opin- ions to the cause of Home Rule in Ireland. It was observed on the first night of the session that Parnell's speech could only be inter- preted as signifying the probable support of the Liberals by the Irish party, and the ]irobable support of Home Rule principles by tlie former. The event justified the anticipation. Gladstone at once devoted himself to the prep- aration of an elaborate scheme for the establish- ment of an Irish Parliament, and the virtual concession of nationality to the Irish people. The

GREAT Bh'ITAiy.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.

439

plan iiro|io.<ed cnutenijilati'd the cMiitiiiuancc nf the National Union ni Irehiml aii'i (ireat Britani, under the Government of the Crown and the Imperial Parhament at Loudm,. The Prime .Alini.-ter ehihorated a .-eheme which was perhaps the most exteii>ive, not to say revolntionarv, ot any sin-le measure proi.o>ed in Parliam.mt siiiee' the aeeesH.ai of Victoria. The matter eame speedily to an issue. In June of l.SSC, the .piestion' was ,le- bated before the House of Commons, the speech ot Gladstone himself heiiii,' awaited with the greatest interest, not onlv bv the British public, but by the [ pie of all West- ern Europe and Amei-ica. In the latter eoun- try, the daily press ot the followin- iiiornin- presented American readers with a report ver- batim ot the Prime Minister's addre.-s, in which he defended and advocateil with the preate.st ability the establishment of Home Pule for Ireland. When the rpiestion went to vote, it

the .Ministerial Bill had carried; but th.' .Ii- visiou showed a negative result. Tlie i\Iiiiis- terial measure was beaten by a small and in- decisive majority. This was effected liy the combined votes of the Conservatives and those of nearly a hundred Liberals, who refu-ed to follow the majority of their party on the (pies- tion before the House and the country.

The break in the Liberal party [n-oved to be hopeless, and, since the Irish ipiestion was now uppermost iu all men's minds, the <ilad- stone Ministry passed from power. At first, however. Parliament was |>rorogiied, and the (ple^tiou at issue was remanded to the people. It could hardly be hoped that, under existing conditions, the policy of Gladstone could gain from the country a more emphatic indorse- ment than he and his party ha.l received at the late election. It only remained fir the Prime JMini.ster to resign his othce. The be- ginning of 1887 found matters in a condition of chaos. Though the Earl of Salisbury was presently recalled to the head of the (iovern- meut, though the Conservative party, with the aid of the so-called Liberal-riiioni>is — a divi.sion made up of those who had luoken away from their allegiance to the (Gladstone ^Ministry — were able for the next two years to maintain a doubtful ascendency over the Lib- erals and Parnellites, yet it \vas an ascendency

gained by Millcm rath.

As to the Iri.^h ,|Uestion, remains' uux'ttlcd, and iies.-ed the ivmarkal.le n tiation between th.' Parii: of Sali>biiry's (iovcrnmei

•llites and the Karl

s..me limited hum, the principle of Jlome Pule for Ireland.

The year l.^.S? was memorable for the cele- bration of the jubilee or fiftieth anniversary of the accession of Queen Victoria. It had not been often in the history of Knelaml that such an event had been pos-ibh-. Only m two or three instances had so long a reign oc- curred, or one on the whole so benign in its character and tendencies. The Queen herself had been a popular sovereign, though this is said rather of English society — by which is meant the upper third of the people — than of the ma.sses at large. The principal day of Her Majesty's Semi-ceutennial was, of cour.se, the 21st of June — that being the anniversary of the accession — and the principal scene of the home celeliration, the Abliey of Westmin- ster. On that .lay aii.l to that place the (,)ueen was c.ndncteil In' her snn<, her sons- in-law, and her grandsons, as a guard of honor. About ten thousand per.snns a.ssembled at the Abbey to participate in the ceremonies. Kepresentatives were present, bearing con- gratulations from all the reigning Houses in Europe and from the Governiuents of the Xew Worid. London was spleielidly dccorate.l f .r the occasion, and the other cities of the United Kingdom expressed their loyalty with a variety of festivities and celebiations. The Poet Laureate, now become P>aioii Tennyson, honored the occasion with a personal poem addressed to Her :\[ajesty. From the center the jubilee spirit exteiideil into all the liritish colonies of the world; and from the font-hills of Burmah to where the moumain- of British Cobind.ia lonk down on the Pacilic, the (>ueen's

■tch of tl .1 Egypt

of bSllO.

440

CM VERS AT. inSTOKY.-THE MODERN WORLD.

ning of the niuth decade of the eeutury, it might almost be said that Egypt was a foreigu dependency of the British Emi)ire. The pre- pooderauce of tlie influence of the English Government in South-eastern Africa at this ejjoch, and for some time previously, may be referred to two general considerations. The first of tliese was the long-standing policy of

But whatever tin

Great Britain in upholding the independence and autonomy of Turkey. This theory carried with it the niainteuauce of Egypt as a Prov- ince of the Turkish Empire. The expression "Province of the Turkish Empire," however, is too exart to express the dependent relations of the diti'crent countries under the general sway of til.' Sultan. In tiio case .,f Egypt, it could not 1m- said tjiat the countrv was an

integral part of the Ottoman dominions ; and yet the Egyptian Government had its origin and authority from Constautiuojjle.

The Egyjitian Viceroys had no constant rank or power. Sometimes they were merely satraps of the Sultan, and sometimes they ached the condition of semi-independence, laracter of the Govern- ment might be, Great Britain held to the policy of .sup- porting the existing order, believing, as she did, that this course was condu- cive to the integrity of her eastern line of defense against the aggressions of Russia.

In the second place, a financial reason existed for the support given by England to Eg3-pt. The latter country had become indebted in several ways to England and to En- glish cai)italists. A large part of the bonds representing the Egyptian debt were held in Great Britain, and the rev- olutionary tenden- cies in Egypt seemed constantly to threat- en the validity of the bonds. The principle of inter- national law which decrees the integrity of a delit through the vicissitudes of revolu- tion, making each successive Government re- sponsible for the valid indebtedness of its pre- decessor, and which denies the coufiscability of national bonds, was not sufficiently well recognizeil in Kgy|it to make the obligations of the Government to England perfectly se- cure; and this fact constituted a powerful reasou for upholding the existing statui.

GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR ROME RULE.

441

tsomething of the same reasons existed iu the case of France. She also had a large fuud invested in Egypt. The 8uez Canal was the product of French capital. France had in general cooperated with Great Britain, under the theory that the integrity of the lurkish Empire should be maintiiiued iu all its parts. Such were the conditions which made it ex- pedient, it not necessary, for England and France to assume a sort ol protectorate over Egypt as a part of their international policy, and as a means of protecting their interests in the East. This pohcy, however, was much more ably and persistently followed by Great Britain than by the French Government ; but in course of time the English ascendency in Egypt aroused the jealousy of France, and led to an effort on her part to regain her relative influence in the Nile Valley. For a con- siderable period the Egyptian Khedive had had an arrangement with France and England by which the latter countries exercised what was called Financial Control of the affairs of Egypt. This condition remained in force until 1883, when Lord DuHuriii, win. had been sent from Coustautiudiile tn E.^yjit as the representative of British interests in that country, secured the withdrawal of the "Con- trol," to the end that a greater autonoiny might be secured to the local L^nverunieut in the management of its own afhiirs.

>s() adecjuate understanding, however, may l)e hail of the general condition of Egypt in our day, without noting the historical progress of tlie country during the larger part of the century. At the time of the Napoleonic in- vasion, Egypt was broken up into petty Muslim princijjalities, having little coherence or governmental unity. The general con- sequence of the shock given to the land of the Pharaohs by the impact of Europeanism was to bring about the ascendency of Jlehemet Ali, and the establishment of his house as the reigning dynasty down to our own time. We have seen how nearly, at one or two crises, this able General and statesman succeeded in securing the complete autonomy and inde- pendence of his country and people. At the close of the fourth decade he seemed, indeed, on the eve of actually reversing the relative places of Cairo and Constantinople. In 1840 the Turkish Empire was saved from dismem-

berment only by the actual intervention of the Great Powers, staying the progress of Egyptian arms in Syria, and rendering of no avail tiie iricat victories of Hoius, K<inieh, and y^mh, in tlie latter of uliicli battles Ibrahim Pasha, son (,f .Meheuiet Ali, over- threw and dispersed a Turkish army of eighty thousand men.

The veteran Mehemet, already more than seventy years of age, next turned his atten- tion to the revision of the constitution and laws of Egypt, working after models which he had drawn from the great governments of Europe. Nearly all the methods of administration which the inquirer discovers to-day as the springs of civil action iu Egypt were devised by Mehemet Ah. He established new systems of taxation, revised the customs-duties, ar- ranged the laws of quarantine, patronized manufactories, planted colleges of languages and of medicine, and introduced printing- presses and journalism as a means of dissem- inating information and creating a public opin- ion in a country long dominated by the gross- est forms of Orientalism. In the last years of his life he visited Constantuiople, was there received with many marks of distinction, and was honored with the title of Vizier.

When the Western Powers came, as we have just seen, to the rescue of Turkey, and forced Egypt back from her course of devel- opment, the terms of depeudency upon the Porte were made as mild as possil)le. It was agreed that Mehemet AH should retain for himself and his successors the Pashalic of Egypt, on the simple condition of the payment of one-fourth of his net revenues to the Sul- tan. The subordinate conditions of the settle- ment wei-e that the Turkish fleet, which had been treacherously surrendered to the Egyp- tians, should be restored; that Syria, which had been gained by conquests, should be given up; and that the standing army ot Egypt should be limited to eigliteeii thousan<l men. Already, ^lehemet and his son Ibrahim had succeeded in reducing the rebellious Egyptian Beys to subjection, and a considerable degree of unity had been attained in the Government.

Ibrahim Pasha acceded to his father's po- litical honors and authority, m 1844, and con- tinued in office until his death, four years afterwards. The veteran Mehemet lived a few

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODERN WORLD.

mouths louger, and the Government of Egypt descended to bis nephew, Abbas Pasha, whose character reverted to the Oriental type, Avith many disastrous cousecjuences to the Egyptian people. His death, in 1854, was bailed as a deliverance, and the reaction which followed brought the fourth sou ol" Mehemet Ali, Said Pasha, to the throne. It was uuder bis reigu mat the concession was made to France of the right and opportunity to construct the 8uez Canal. The abilities of Said were, how- ever, not as great as bis political prmcijjles were salutary. At bis death, in 1863, the crown descended to bis nephew Ismail, who, with Ins title of Khedive, granted to him in 186(3 by an Imperial firman, was destined to a long and important reign. Nearly all of the events in the recent histoiy of Egypt, in which European and American readers are likely to find inteies^t and instnictiou, have happened during the Ailiiiuii>ti:iiinii of Isiiinil Khedive. He continued in jiowei until 1879, when he was deposed by the Porte at the in stigatiou of France and England This action was deemed essential to the interests of the A\ estern Powers in securing that financial con- trol of the country to which we have referred above. The title'ot Klie.hve was trausferre.l to Mohammed Tewtik. A new system of liquidation for the Egyptian creditors was de- vised on the basis of a four-and-a-half per cent, fund, that rate being agreed to by France and England jointly.

Without pausing to notice in this connec- tion the events of Lsmail's reign, we mav here refer to the decisive effect of his deposition from jxiwer. The foreign intervention was, from the first, hateful to the large and grow- ing class of intelligent Egyptians who desired the freedom and independence of their country. It can not be doubted that the objection to Ismail on the part of England and France was his too great independence of character and his desire that Egypt might be first of all for the Egyptians. On the other hand, Tewfik was thought to be sufficiently subservient. History is not the place for tirade and denun- ciation, but every calm-minded and just patriot in all the world must be shocked and angered at this spectacle of the suppression and abuse of a helpless country and people l)y means of the imbecility of the Viceroy, and for merely

mercenar}' considerations. The Egyptians found themselves subject to a foreign bonded del>t, the financial control of their country as- sumed by the holders of that debt, and them- selves reduced to the rank of hewers of wood and drawers of water for capitalists more than three thousand miles away.

It was not long, uuder these circumstances, until the mutterings of discontent were lieard. In February of 1881, some regiments of the Egyptian army stationed at Cairo carried a petition to the Khedive, demanding the dis- missal of one of the mini.sters, justice for the soldiers, and a general reform for the people. This movement was heartily ratified by the Egyptians generally. Other petitions were sent in to the Government, and the army was e.xlioited lo iiiaintaiu the honor of the country. A leadei u[ both s(il(liei-s and people appeared in the person of Ahmed el Arabi, who became at once the recognized chief of what was henceforth known as the Kational party. The movement resulted in a general uprising of the native Egyptians against all the foreign oiipie.ssion anil distresses under which Egypt had loiit; lieeii groaning. The Khedive at first yielded to the i)ressure, and iu September of 1881 a new IMinistry was appointed in har- mony with the [lopular demands. Aralii himself, who had hitherto been' a Bey, was raised to the rank of Pasha, and his leading followers received honor and jiromotion at the hands of the Government.

The next movement was in favor of a re- vi-^eil Coiistitiition. A Chamber, composed of Egypiiaii notables, was couvoked, and it was ]iropo>ed to leelaini the management of the Egyptian finances m all particulars, excejit so much as related to the foreign bonded debt. At this juncture it was found that a sort of counter-revolution was makiug head in the army, the same being fomented by certain Cir- cassian officers, jealous of the influence and growing fame of Arabi. The latter put down the mutiny with a strong hand, and the re- bellious officers were condemned to death. The English and French officials representing the Control interfered to prevent the execu- tion of the sentence, and, as a precautionary measure, some iron-clad vessels from the allied squadron were ordered to take station in the Bay of Alexandria. In that citv a riot broke

GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RUEE.

443

out, induced by a (juarrel in the street Ije- tween nu Arab and a Maltese, and followed by a massacre, iu which uiauy Europeans, includ- iug some of the officers of tlie city, lust their lives.

Meanwhile, the m w l-^L^yptian Cnnstitution was published in En-huiil, and popular sym- pathy iu that Cduntry \va> directed strongly to the National party. L'p to this time, the rev- olution had gone no further thau a revolt against the foreign, tliat is, the Circassaiu, of-

Foreigu xVtlki time in the a.- ment, deturni „olicv. In>t.

>, and M. Gamhetta, cnilunt in the French ic(l uiH.ii au exactly

llie KlRMlive auuouucmg then- mlunti' hold the L-.\isting order iu Egy))t, an ing in a tone of menace aud dictatior the pojHilar party. The Khedive was even against what were, perhaps, his cret wishes iu the premises, that his

at that Crovern- opposite d,i, the

d sp.ak- against assured, own se- Govern-

had usrd and al.ns,-,! tlir autho,-i,v u l„dd from th.- Klicdiv.. and thr Port and the revolutioni^i- l.iok,-d to Imi: France for the support of their rau>. the beginning of l^'^l'. thorf ^vas pi pectatiou that the Egyptian Natim would be ujihekl by the iuterventii Western Powers. For some reason, the nature of which iias never been vulged, Lord Granville, Englisii .Sc'ci

irtaiis, ment >hould l.o in not iin 1 i tin t dl i N It

li thoy andchmurr, uhetl i U m uitli ut tl hi

Aral'ii d..ininion-. Then mnu vw In tn 1 it ^^l

d and at on.-,- p,.,,vivod 1 ^ th N iti nil [ iit\ thit

nd, in tho Khodivo hmi It ii 1 In uh 1 the nn

party u\' iht- popular I il i w i turned e pccnlh

if the a-aiiist Shorif Pa hi th L_\ptiin Alnii ter

v,-vrr, who was believed t I e U ne Mith thr 1 lei n

lly di- intervention. Tint th i « i lli e 1 in Kl) rv for , ruarv of l.S.Sl>. i, il i_n hi fhee ml Viibl

UNIVERSAL HISTORY. — THE MODEL' X WORLD.

at the heail nf

nu

It wn,-: on tlio ITtli of May in this year that the Eii.L'lish ami French fh'ets were ordered to Alexandria. The representatives of Great Britain demanded the dismissal of the National Ministry aii<] the exilo nf Arnl.i Pasha. The

first clause of this demand was complied with, but it was found impossible to depose Arabi witli a mere document. On the contrary, he became practically the dictator of Egypt. In this emergency the Sultan took the matter in hand, and sent out Dervish Pasha as a sjiecial commissioner to reestablish order and tran-

.|uillity 111 the country. The Turki.-ii troops, however, were forbidden to laud. Dervish Pasha was himself admitted to Cairo with many demonstrations of loyalty, but the whole matter was superficial. Aralii had the hearts and confidence of the people, and they refused abso- lutely to ])ermit liis dejiarture from the country. It was at this juncture that the Alexandrian riot occurred. About fifty Europeausand nearly four hundred natives lost their lives in the outbreak, the responsibility for which lias never been satisfac- torily determined. Doubt- less the inflamed condition of public opinion in the city, rather than any other patent circumstance, was the efiicient cause of the liot. However this may have been, the effect in ^\'estern Europe was suf- licieutly decisive. The Tondon Thnes raised the cry of immediate and act- ive intervention. The Gladstone Ministry wa- vered for a moment under the combined assaults of the Tory organs and the English bondholders, A\ hose Egyptian securities had fallen to fifty-two cents on the dollar. At this time the Admiral of the English squadron in the Bay of Alexandria was Sir Beauchamp Sey- mour. On perceiving that the Egyptian Nationalists were repairing and man- ning certain fortifications in the harbor which bore upon his position, he sent an ultimatum to the town that the works in cpiestion should be aliandoned under threat of bombarding the city. Within two days the menace was carried into execution. The English vessels o])ened fire on Alexandria, and the shot and shell wrought great hav(]c to property and life. The Egyp-

GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.

44.^

tians, finding that they were unable to hohl out against the rain of death, evacuated Alexandria, setting fire to tlie city as they withdrew. The Eun^pcan .|U:irtrr «as l.unicd to the ground, and niucli daiiiauc was ilouc in other parts, especially those di>tri(ts undcT fire of the British ships. It was rstiniat<-d that the loss of property amounted tn I'nur million pounds sterling. The bombardment resulted in a hopeless break between the two Egyptian parties. Alexandria had been defended by the joint action of the Khedive and Arabi, but the former now went over to the English and put himself under protection of the fleet. Arabi, with the Nationalist

command of .Sir Garnet Wol.seley, was accord- ingly brought over from India, and pitched against Arabi's forces at Tel-el-Kcbir. In this vicinity f"iu- hard Kattlcs wcir i\>wA\i before IJritish discipline ciiuld (ivtrccjnic the cour- :iL;eiiiis E;:yplians, liLJiling f'(ir indepenilence. The (Iccisi-.c cnLia-riiMiit occurred on the 9th (if S|.ptenil)ci-, 1>;S2. Aialii's forces were com- plet.lv n.ute.l, and thr.iwn Imck ..n fain,. The

Bnti4i a.lvan.v > i iva.-jied tluit city; the

provisional (iovernnieiit was overthrown, and Arabi surrendered hinjself as a prisoner. The Khedive was soon restoi-i'il to office, but it was evident that the power was in the hands of foreigners. The national arniv was disorgan-

army, withdrew

Alcxa

ria

to Kafr I ized. Arabi was about t.

tje

leath,

A

L---A'^.^^ ' ' '^^ '"

^m

I i-i

Do\\ii about Md\ nil listint in 1 th intienched himself \\ith «o much '•kill tint was found impossible to dislodge him fn his position.

Cairo was now ma.le the Natimialist ca] A decree was passed by the provisional O.iv eminent, deposing Khedive Tewfik from power 1 fit

ital.

The whole public opinion of Egy] as a puldic opinion existed, was

tear

Arabi and the revolution. Great Britain, however, was now committed to the cause of Tewfik, or, rather, to the cause of her own iu- con/.istent consistency. It became necessary, therefore, that the British contingent in Egypt should be strongly reinforced. The Anglo- Indian army, thirty thousand strong, under

1 ut 1 ictction m But h ] ul lie opinion brought ibrut a c mnuitatnn i his sentence. He and five of his fellow-Nationalists were con- demned to pevpetiiiil exile, and on the 4th of January, b'^.S-S, wer.. earri.d away for Ceylon. During the remainder of the year, and until the beginning of 18.'^3, the financial control of Etrvpt was retaine.l by England and France. This arrangement, h<.wever, <'eased by the acti.in of the Powers in .Tannary, 1883, and a certain degree of autoni.niy was restored to the Egyptian Government. Later in the same year, a new scheme of government, jiart En- glish, part American, and part Oriental, was devi.sed under the inspiration of Lord Dufferin, and became the organic law of the country.

ghkat britaix.—battle for home rule.

44:

A general amnestj- was gi-autcd by the Kli -dive, aud mauy retbrms were iiitruiluced in the admiuistratiou. It could but be nutieei however, by the people who had aliuady brt borne down with taxation and other abu.-i-s i power, that the new sehedule was more e cessive than the old. < >ne of tlie princip changes now iutrodueed was tiie reorgani/. tion of the Egyptian army, which was etfeett

under direction of General W 1, an l'.iii:ii-

officer, aud twenty-five other >ulini-ilinate eoi mauders of the same nationality. Tiie civ police of Egypt was intrusted to a fori wdiich was put under command of Baki Pasha. The defense of the Soudan, to whit we must now turn our attention, was in trust t to a division of the army under command i

auce as the leader anil avenger of his people is, to the present day, somewhat similar to that of the German peasants, who hold to the tra- ihtiun that Frederick liarbarn.-a Mill >its nod- ding in the cave of Sal/Jiuiv, and will come forth whenever Fatherland i- emlangereil. The Mohamnjedan supersliliun, however, is relig- ious, ^lessianic in its character. The Shiites are ever in expeclatiun of the coming of El Mahdi. Thriiughout the ]\Iohammedan Em- jiire, the ignorant and infatuated are ever ready to .-.ay^, Lo, here! or, Lo, there! It has freipiently hapjieiied that .-everal .Alahdis have lived at the same time. In LS,s2 there were at least three pretenders of this character. FlSenusi appeared in Tripoli, another led the iguoraut in Aidiu ; aud the third, namely the

k

m

Hicks Pasha, and that force was ..lil November of 1883, to confront the Mahdi.

Who, then, was the Jlahdi? T notes of the ninth decade of < abound with references to his nan bottom of the whole question is Mohaiuiuedau superstition, rurnii its ultimate origin almn>t to the Prophet. The third Caliiih nf th Abbas was the first to lie called 1^1 is, "he who is guided aright." the term was adopted by the Shi raedans as the name of their expcci In 879, A. D.. the twelfth of the Imam: named Mohammed Abu'1-Ka-im, my~terinn<l disappeared, but the Shiite- never aeee|iteil h death as a fact. Their belief in hi< reiippea

ox THE ^	•IITTE XILE.
.,l,li.,eil, in	Sheikh ^b.hammed	of Do	i;:nla, ap]>eared in
ho>ts.,f the	the Egy].tian Soud	m as tl	e tllie Fl :\[ahdi.
	At the very time wh	•n Arab	I'asha was leading
he historical	what . promised to	be a M	ccosful revolution
lur centurv	in Lower Egypt,	his M,	liammed el Mahdi
le. .\t the	gained tlie ascemlai	t over t	he wild natives of
a jirofound	the Soudan. Whil,	Aral.i	vas attempting, by
vs back in	rational mean- am	in a	Kit oral mnnner, to
ilavs nf the	throw etr the f.iivi::	, voke	It Cairn and Alex-
. Ib.u.e ,,f	andria. the ^lah.li.	Mith n	. le." eiithu.dasm.
Mahdi. that	wa< leadill- the S,„	dani-e	in a wild rebellion
Afterwards,	a-aiii-t the c.,n-titii	ed auti	nritv.
ite :\Iol,am-	" The student nf	hi>lnrv	will readily recall
ed Messiah.	the southern limit	'f am-ii	III l-'-ypt, as fixed

It 111 modern ti

the direction

istlv exten<led.

448

UyiVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

tilt' explorations of Sir Samuel \\ . Baker, iu the years 1862-64, opeued up a new world to geojrraphy, and possibly to (.-ivilization. The base of his own and of all subsecjuent move- ments into the valley of the White Xile, was the town of Khartoum, lyiu.u' at the junction of the White Nile with the piiiieipal river. Sir Samuel W . Baker Hrst niadr in.- way among the branehiui; triliutarics of the Blue Nile as far as Gond-kon.. somewhat south of the fifteenth parallel. From this place his explo- rations were extended .-nuthward hi \'ictoria Nyanza, under the e(piator, and tlience west- ward to the companion lake, tn which he gave the name of Albert Xyanza, in hmior of the Prince Consort.

The country thus ri'vi'ah'd was of vast ex- tent and iin[)ortance. In l^li'.t the Khedive Ismail followed up the w.jrk by .•^ending a body of troops with Bakt-r to occupy the country which he had explored, to extend the boundaries of Egypt to the head-waters of the Nile, to suppress the .slave-trade, and to in- troduce the cotton plant into the fertile val- leys travt-rsed by the English adventurer. In April of 1S71, Baker was a.L^iin at ( ioiid.,k<iro. He had now, however, excited the animo.sity of the slave-merchants and the hostility of the ignorant natives. For two years he held his own, penetrating the country as far as Ungoro, and finally, iu isT-'i. falling liaek to Gondokoro, and thence into IC-ypt. In with- drawing from the Soudan he left as his suc- cessor, and the inheritor nf his enterprises, Colonel Charles George Gorilon, better known by his title of Chinese Gordon. The latter now became the principal figure of the Soudan. He maintained himself precariously and with in- sufBcient forces during the period of the revolutionary movements in EL'yi^t, keepinir at bay, while he was unable to sulidue, the hostile Soudanese.

We may now go firward at once to the year LS.'^o. France and ICuLihind agreed finally to withdraw their " Financial Control" of Egypt, and to leave the Khedive's Govern- ment to such a feeble autonomy as it might be able to assume. The overthrow and banish- ment of Arabi, however, was not sufficient to bring the wild natives of Upper Egypt and the Soudan to a submissive spirit. On the contrary, El Mahdi and his array became, in

that far region, more formidable than before. In 1^84 the useless Conference of London was held for a general consideration of the condi- tion of Egyptian affairs. The meeting came to nothing. At that very time Chinese Gor- don, with his mixed force of English and Egyptians, was cooped up in Khartoum, and the insurrection wdiich the Mahdi hail kindled in the Soudan was spreading down the valley. It now became a question most serious whether the Englishman could any longer hold liack the ri.sing tide of revolt which, like the an- nual inundation of the Nile, threatened to deluge all Etiypt.

From this time forth, the insurgent natives, led by the ^lahdi, increa.sed in numbers and ferocity. In July, and again in August, of 1884, Gordon fought and won several battles with the Prophet's forces; but it was like beat- ing down the Hydra. Dm-ing the remainder of the year he continued to hold his place at Khartoum. It can not lie doubted that he might well have abandoned the place and re- tired to safe ground in Middle Egypt; but such a movement was not in Chinese Gordon's nature. His character, indeed, is one of the strangest, and we might almost say most attract- ive, within the limits of modern biography. While he was willing to receive reinforcements, he was also willing to take his chances single- handed against the armies of the ]Mahdi. All of his messages in the after part of 1884 con- tinned to give the note of confidence, repeat- nig the assurance that he was able to hold Khartoum against the enemy. But in mid- winter the pressure around the town became constantly greater. The mixed character of the garrison also constituted an element of <langer. In fact, it could hardly be expected that the native forces in the Khedive's army should be free from certain sympathies with the Mahdi. We have already said that he represented the ignorant and superstitious side of the very same Tuovement which Arabi had so nearly led to success in Lower Egypt. Gordon's case grew constantly more desperate. He was finally hemmed in, cut off from com- munications, reduced in supplies, and brought to miserable straits. About the middle of January, 1885, negotiations, partly between Gordon himself and the Mahdi, and partly secret and treacherous between the natives of

GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.

449

the garrison and the euemy oiit.'^iile, were opened, and the result was the admission by night of the Mahdi'.s host into Khartoum. Gordon was obliged to surrcndtr, Ikhiic dnwn as he was by mere stress of numhers. On the 27th of January, when he was standing in the street, giving some directions relative to tlie capitulation, some of the Malidi'.s assassins sprang ujjon him from behind and stabbed him to death. 8uch is the riirn-nt rcjinrt of the occasion, and the manner (if ids murder.

A considerable

part ut

its leaders, and tin unconquerable Iri

latter

It could

uggling with the S went speedily L'ourse be only a mattur (if time \vii(_'n an army would be sent up tilt- Xile, wlien Kiiartoum would be retaken, when tlie .Maluli's l)arl)aric Islauntes would be scattered, and Gordon's memory avenged. But for the time being, the shock, having its origin even so far away as the confluence of the White Nile and the Blue, was felt to the liottom of the political order of Great Britain, resulting in a reversal of the Govern-

Vl-'S FORCKS

fate; Khartoum fell into the liauds of the Mahdi, and the general result was the tem- porary annihilation of foreign influence on the Upper Nile.

The reader will readily jierceive the tre- mendous effect ^\\u(■\\ the news of this disaster must produce in England. It was the one cir- cumstance which was wanted by the Tories in their assaults on the Gladstone Ministry. The charge that Gordon had been crimually aban- doned to his fate was precisely the kind to tell upon the British public. The whole calamitous episode bore hardly on the Liberal Party and

ment and the construction of the Salisbury Ministry.

It was at this latest period in the history of Great Britain that the public mind, and, indeed, the attention of the civilized world, was again turned to African exploration and discovery. The real knowledge of mankind respecting the character of Central Africa had begun with David Livingstone. How that indefatigable explorer made his way into the heart of the Continent, how he disappeared from sight, how he was for some years lost to the civilized nations, and how, at length, the

450

UXIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

youug American adveuturer, Heury M. Stanley, sent out by James ( ionlou Bennett under the single mandate, " Find Living- stone," succeeded in reaching Victoria Nyanza and in discovering the object of his search, is known to the world. Fi-om this date travel- ers, geographers, explorers, began to penetrate

and thence to the Equatorial Province, as a medical officer on the staff of Charles George Gordon. The career of that brave but eccen- tric commander down to his death at Khar- toum, has already been sketched above.

By this time, Dr. Schnitzer had become first an Effendl, then a Bey, and finally a

DAVID LIVINXtSTONE.

the equatorial regions of tli and to contribute alnmst y mation of mankind relati\ and its inhabitants. At Eduard Schnitzer, a Silesiai olute and advi-utiirmis spiri to Egypt, and to.ik srrviiv Khedive. He wa:^ s.-nt 1'

)ark Continent, ly to the iufor- to the country igth, in 1876, aturalist of res- k-t't hume, went Ihv array of the to Kliart..um,

J'd.-'lia. according to the Egyptian military l)liia.<e()l(igy. He had taken the name of Eniin, and is known henceforth as Emin Pasha. He was left in the South when Gordon fell back to Khartoum. With the capture of that place, Eriiin found himself hemmed in by the forces of the IMahdi on the north, and those, of ;\I\vango, Kinf; of Uganda, on the south.

GREAT BRITAIN.— BATTLE FOR HOME RULE.

451

Enough was known in Europe of the African situation to excite the keenest interest and the liveliest apprehensions for the safety of Eniin Pasha, and plans began to be devised for his relief

In England an Eniin Bey Relief Commit- tee was formed in 188G. Of this body, 8ir William Mackinnon, Secretary of the Eoyal Geographical Society, was chairman. At this time Henry il. Stanley was in the service of the King of the Belgians; but it was felt by the English Relief Committee that no other than Stanley could be in- trusted with the expedition in search of Emin. The Belgian mon- arch had at this time a fleet of transports in the River Congo, and these he cheerfully placed at the disposal of Stanley, to whom the command was given liy commou consent.

By the beginning of 1887 tlie expeilition had been fully equipped. Stanley was called from New York to London, and on the 27th of January reached Alexandria on his way to Zanzibar. It was finally determined, however, that the best route for penetrating the interior was up the valley of the Congo. This was accordingly taken, and in June of 1887 Stanley and his f .rces were lost to sight.

More than a year went liy, and it was not until September of 1SS8 that the first authentic information of the progress of the expedition was received in London. Then followed another long period of silence and anxiety ; but on the 15th of January, 1889, a letter fi-i was received at Brussels, and all doubts as to his whereabouts and the success of the expe- dition were set at rest. Emin Pasha had been found and rescued. The sources of the Nile had been more fully determined than ever be- fore. A fresh-water lake, named Albert Ed- ward Xyanza, nearly thirty thousand miles in extent and nine hundred feet above the level of Victoria Nyanza, had lieen discovered and exploreil. The command had suffered untold hardships, had traversed vast stretches of al-

most impassable country, had fought severe and critical battles, had been decimated with fever and famine, but had courageously accom- plished its mission and regained the coast, to hear afar off the plaudits of mankind.

We have thus reached the point in the recent annals of Great Britain at which per- spective ceases for want of distance. The events to be considered are only of yesterday, disproportioned by their nearness, undeter- mined ill their historical relations. There is a

inlev

point at which the serious and elevated nar- rative of liistory descends through contempo- rary ilocuments and reviews into mere jour- nalism, and is lost in the miscellany of the morning paper. It is inexpedient for the writer to attempt to follow this descent and distribution of the historical lines, from the liiiih plani' of judicial ami iiiiiiiipassioned crit- irisni, dowmvai'd info the malarial region where political prejuilice, local passion, and mere obscurity and confusion darken the vis- ion and confound the understanding. Not

UNIVERSAL HISTORY.— THE MODERN WORLD.

withijiit a niomeuts regret may any .■^eriuus luiud tiini tVuin the eoii.<iderati(.ii of ;^o great a foct as the Histury of the Briti:-h Empire in the present century. It is doubtless true that the authors and readers of the twentieth cen- tury will look back upon a laudscape diiiereutly adjusted from that niiieh the clearest sight of (iur own time is ahle to discover and de- scrilje. But much has been already discerned in the dust and distraction of the epoch ; much more will soon take its true place and propor- tion on the historic page. Much which has already arisen in the Victorian Age stands out sublime and tall against the background of revolutionary tumult, of storm and chaos, with which the century was ushered in. Eng-

land abides. The Island-built shaken by the tempest.

:.mi)ire is un-

Tlie Lion has laid his magniflcL-nt head Bctweeu his paws; but he is not dead! The Uceuu of Atlas rolls and swells L'pou the shores where the Briton dwells; Tlie tide is high, and the sea-god sprawds Against the wave-worn, chalky walls! The sailors have made the anchors fast,

Tlic crooked flukes are under the sea ; The heaving deep, 'neath the billowy blast That tosses the sea-mew, surges ])ast —

I'.iitannia. what cares she? Tlir iHirt's .hist, with the dust of the king,

Is shrined l.y the Abbey wall; And the Church of Elizabeth spreads her wing Above the dome, while the singers sing

In the famous Chapel of Paul !

r '-'^

_^

^^^^^'

P'W-

VMM.M

«.*.«.«:;« t

•„*»#•-

*^^M

t:«.c«i-*:c#^^«#A«^

« J»JI^.C« :§

m:»:§^^

w#

'••■••V.V'

'ft

.*»*t*«%«^f'»w

:f:i«:)i:#-

1^^$

'^^i!i