Natural History o ■Y*x s 9 Field Museum of Natural History Founded by Marshall Field, 1893 Anthropology, Memoirs Volume III ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF EGYPTIAN AND PERUVIAN MUMMIES BY ROY L. MOODIE PALEOPATHOLOGY TO THE WELLCOME HISTORICAL MUSEUM, LONDON 76 Plates in Photogravure Chiefly from Roentgenograms Prepared in the Division of Roentgenology of Field Museum BERTHOLD LAUFER CURATOR OF ANTHROPOLOGY EDITOR ft03?fl Chicago, U. S. A. 1931 v.* < PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY FIELD MUSEUM PRESS &03] CONTENTS PAGE List of Plates 5 Editor's Note 9 Preface 11 Introduction 13 Development of Roentgenologic Study of Mummies 15 Bibliography 16 North American Mummies 17 Bibliography 18 Review of Mummification in Egypt and Its Relation to the Interpretation of Roentgenograms 19 Mummification of Infants in Ancient Egypt 19 Mummification in Pre-Columbian Peru 19 Detailed Report and Pathologic Interpretation of Roentgenograms of Egyptian Mummies 20 Detailed Report and Pathologic Interpretation of Roentgenograms not Illustrated 25 Summary 26 Arthritides 26 Arteriosclerosis 26 Oral Diseases 26 Diseases of the Soft Tissues 27 Detailed Report and Pathologic Interpretation of Roentgenograms of Peruvian Mummies 28 Detailed Report and Pathologic Interpretation of Roentgenograms not Illustrated 38 Summary . 45 Pre-Columbian Pediatrics 45 Infant Mummification in Pre-Columbian Peru 46 Arthritides 46 Arteriosclerosis 47 Oral Diseases 47 Caries 47 Calculus 47 Fistulae 47 Pyorrhea Alveolaris 48 Impaction 48 Injuries 49 Tumors 49 Trepanning 49 Report on Ancient Trepanned Peruvian Skulls in Field Museum of Natural History by Frank E. Wood 49 Uta 51 3 4 CONTENTS PAGE Nasal Disturbances 51 Otosclerosis and Deafness 52 Otitis Media 52 Mastoiditis 52 Syphilis 52 Appendix: Mummified Animals of Egypt and Peru 53 Introduction 53 Mummified Fauna 53 Technique of Embalming 54 Cost and Purpose of Mummification 55 Imitation Mummies 55 Mummified Anthropoids and Their Diseases 56 Other Mummified Mammals 56 Mummified Avifauna 57 Mummified Reptiles 58 Mummified Fish 59 Mollusks 59 Summary , 59 Detailed Report and Roentgenologic Interpretation of Egyptian Animal Mummies 60 Notes on Peruvian Animal Mummies 63 Bibliography of Animal Mummies 63 Index 65 LIST OF PLATES I. II. III. IV. v. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XVa. XV6. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. Montana Blackfoot Indian. North American tree burial. Woman from Predynastic Burial, Egypt. Head and trunk. 1. Right mastoid. 2. Hand and wrist. Vertebral column showing lesions. Lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx. Ossification in anterior longitudinal 1. Boy. 2. His sister. Same Woman as Plate II. Same Woman as Plate II. Same Woman as Plate II. Same Woman as Plate II. ligament. Poker Spine of an Eskimo. Torso of Mummy, Egypt. Long shadow may indicate liver. Mummy, Egypt. Detail showing genu valgum. Girl with Curvature of Spine, Roman Period, Egypt. Boy with Curvature of Spine, Roman Period, Egypt. Brother of girl in preceding plate. Unwrapped Mummy of Infant, Egypt. Unwrapped Mummy of Child, Egypt. Mummy of Child in Coffin, Egypt. Mummy of Boy Twelve Years Old, Egypt. Lower Limbs of Boy in Preceding Plate. Child Mummies, Roman Period, Egypt. Head of Mummy, Young Woman, Egypt. Mummy Head with Cartonnage, Egypt. Mummy Head and Neck, Egypt. Mummy Head of Woman Showing Painted Mask, Egypt. Archaeological Map of West Coast of South America by Charles W. Mead. Mummy of Child, Peru. Heads of Mummies, Peru. 1. Hydrocephalus in infant. 2. Mastoid and adjoining injury in adult. Skulls, Peru. 1. Impacted lower right, third molar. 2. Pyorrhea and salivary calculus. 3. Edentulous palate. 4. Effects of soft tumor on palate. Parts of Skulls of Mummies, Peru. 1-2. Pyorrhea. 3. Pyorrhea and caries. 1. Mace injury. 2. Trepanning. 1. Mace injury. 2. Trepanning. 1. Caries. 2. Antral fistula. 3. Calculus. 1. Photograph showing lesion in skull. 2. Roent- Skulls, Peru. Skulls, Peru. Skulls, Peru. Skull, Peru. genogram. Mushroom Head of Femur, Mummy, Peru of same. Arthritis Deformans, Mummy, Peru. 1. Pelvis 1-2. Different views 2. Femur. 6 LIST OF PLATES XXXII. Arthritis Deformans, Mummy, Peru. 1. Pelvis. 2-3. Femur. XXXIII. Cranial Tumor on Skull, Peru. XXXIV. Eskimo and Prehistoric Peruvian Skulls. 1. Syphilitic lesions in Eskimo skull. 2. Osteoporosis in prehistoric Peruvian skull. XXXV. Skulls, Peru. 1-3. External auditory passages. XXXVI. Skulls, Peru. 1. Small osteoma. 2-3. Auditory passages, right and left. XXXVII. Skulls, Peru. 1-3. Ear disturbances. XXXVIII. Skulls, Peru. 1. Ear disturbance. 2. Mastoid. 3. Nasal disturbance. XXXIX. Skull, Peru. 1. Sclerotic temporal bone. 2-3. Diseased mastoids in same skull. XL. Mummy of Infant, Peru. XLI. Mummy of Infant, Peru. Skeleton incomplete. XLII. Mummy of Infant, Peru. XLIII. Mummy of Infant, Peru. XLIV. Mummy of Child, Peru. XLV. Mummy of Child, Peru. XLVI. Mummy of Child, Peru. XLVII. Mummy of Infant, Peru. XLVIII. Mummy of New-Born Infant, Peru. XLIX. Mummy of Infant, Peru. L. Mummy of Infant, Peru. LI. Mummy of Child, Peru. LII. Mummy of Child, Peru. LIII. Mummies, Peru. Adult, youth, and infant included in same package. LIV. Photographs of Mummy Head, Peru. 1. Front. 2. Profile. LV. Roentgenograms of Head in Preceding Plate. 1. Anterior. 2. Lateral. LVI. Sketch of Peruvian Grave. After Eaton. LVII. Typical Mummy Packages, Peru. LVIII. Typical Mummy Packages, Peru. LIX. Deformed Skulls of Incas, Peru. Showing trepanning. LX. Skull of Adult, Peru. 1. Showing large trepanning. 2. Detail of Fig. 1 with evidences of infection and slight healing. LXI. Skull of Child, Peru. 1. Showing unusual cranial lesion and osteo- porosis. 2. Detail of Fig. 1. LXII. Skulls of Adults, Peru. 1. Showing trepanning in state of advanced healing. 2. Showing healed, depressed area due to injury or trepanning. LXIII. Mummified Baboon Skull, Egypt. Drawing. LXIV. Diseased Bones of Mummified Baboon, Egypt. Drawing. LXV. Mummies of Animals, Egypt (Photographs). 1. Baby crocodile. 2. Imitation mummy of a kitten; no skeleton in package. 3. Imitation mummy of a gazelle; only horns in package. LIST OF PLATES 7 LXVI. Mummy of a Cat, Egypt. 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram showing complete skeleton. LXVII. Mummy of a Cat, Egypt. 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram showing complete skeleton. LXVIII. Imitation Mummy of an Unidentified Animal (Cat?), Egypt. 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram showing skull only. LXIX. Imitation Mummy of a Small Animal, Egypt. 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram revealing absence of skeleton. LXX. Roentgenograms of Mummified Birds, Egypt. l.Kite. 2. Falcon. LXXI. Imitation Mummy of a Bird, Egypt. 1. Photograph. 2. Roent- genogram revealing unidentified bones. LXXII. Photograph of Mummy of a Goose, Egypt. LXXIII. Roentgenogram of a Goose Shown in Preceding Plate. LXXIV. Mummy of a Hawk, Egypt. 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram. LXXV. Mummy of a Raptorial Bird, Egypt. 1. Photograph. 2. Roent- genogram. LXXVI. Mummy of a Vulture, Egypt. 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram. EDITOR'S NOTE In 1925 Mr. E. C. Jerman of the Victor X-Ray Corporation of Chicago volunteered his services to the Museum and took a number of X-ray photographs of Egyptian and Peruvian mummies in the Museum's collections. Thirty-two subjects were made by him with such gratifying and convincing results that at my suggestion a Division of Roentgenology was established in the Museum in 1926. Mr. Stanley Field, President of the institution, manifested deep interest in this novel phase of museum work and generously presented the institution with a complete X-ray equipment especially adapted for museum purposes. Special quarters for housing this equipment were laid out, and now include an operating room, a dark room, and an office. In founding this division the Museum has taken the lead in a novel line of museum practice and technique, making an invaluable addition to methods of research which bid fair to yield important results in archaeological and biological investigations. Miss Anna Reginalda Bolan, formerly assistant professor of roentgenology and photography at the University of Illinois, was appointed Roentgenologist in charge of this division. The work of the Division of Roentgenology was favorably received by both radiologists and the general public. A number of radiographs were exhibited at the Nebraska State Fair of 1927 and at two scientific conventions held in Chicago during the same year, with demonstrations of the work done in the Division, and attracted wide attention. During the last years many experiments were conducted with a view to perfecting the technique and have resulted in producing films of greater clarity and brilliancy. Professor Roy L. Moodie does not require an introduction to the scientific public. He is well known for his numerous contributions to our knowledge of the diseases of ancient times, as evidenced by his books "The Antiquity of Disease" and "Paleopathology — an Introduction to the Study of Ancient Evidences of Disease," as well as by the long series of monographs forming his "Studies in Paleodontology." He was professor of anatomy at the University of Illinois College of Medicine, 1914-18, professor of anatomy and research librarian with the University of Illinois at Chicago, 1924-28, and has been professor of paleodontology at the College of Dentistry of the University of Southern California since 1928. He also holds the rank of paleopathologist with the Wellcome Historical Museum of London. The study presented by him in this volume of the pathological conditions found in ancient Egyptian and Peruvian mummies as revealed by roentgenograms prepared in Field Museum will be warmly welcomed by pathologists, students of the history of medicine, radiologists, and archaeologists. I wish to thank Miss Bolan and Miss Lillian A. Ross for their assistance in seeing the manuscript through the press. PREFACE The purpose of this monograph is to add to our knowledge of mummification through an interpretation of roentgenograms of the collection of unopened mummy packs at Field Museum of Natural History. The roentgenologic results of this examination are of the highest quality, as may be seen from the numer- ous plates which represent only that material which is the property of Field Museum. During the course of this study, which has extended over many months, comparative observations have been made on materials preserved in several other museums. I am thus under obligation to the officials of the American Museum of Natural History, the United States National Museum, the Army Medical Museum, the San Diego Museum, and the Museum of Anthropology of the University of California in San Francisco. It is well known that mummification was practised extensively in ancient Egypt and to a more limited extent in pre-Columbian Peru. A single mummified body of a North American Indian is in the collections of Field Museum. Mummies of sacred animals and of man represent the Egyptians. Unfortunately, the data accompanying the Egyptian mummies are exceedingly meager, so that we cannot assign any of them to a definite time in Egyptian chronology. There are more than sixty mummy packs from Peru, including a large number of children. Locality data for the Peruvian mummies are exact, and are very helpful. It seems probable that some of the mummies are post-Columbian, especially those of children. Particular emphasis is placed on the search for evidences of disease and injury. Careful accounts of the various phases of paleopathology are given in text and plates. I have been aided in this study by L. C. Kinney, a roentgenologist of San Diego, California. He has also made for me a large number of roentgeno- grams showing the pathologic conditions in the Hrdlicka Peruvian collection of the San Diego Museum, many of which have been used to illustrate a number of my "Studies in Paleopathology," published in the Annals of Medical History, and "Studies in Paleodontology," published in the Pacific Dental Gazette. Many noted anthropologists have been consulted about various matters during the course of this study. I am thus under obligation to G. Elliot Smith of London for advice concerning the Egyptian mummies. Claude Gaillard of the Lyons (France) Museum of Natural History has aided by advice, by the gift of literature, and by a roentgenogram of a sacred bundle containing snakes. A. L. Kroeber of the University of California and E. W. Gifford of the Museum of Anthropology at San Francisco have given literature, advice, and a set of roentgenograms of Peruvian mummies. Herbert U. Williams of the University of Buffalo has sent literature, and many others have contributed materially to whatever success the work may have. Members of the staff of Field Museum have been uniformly courteous and helpful throughout the long period of time the work has been in preparation. I wish to express special thanks to Miss Anna Reginalda Bolan for valuable assistance in this work. The ideals of excellence maintained by the Museum cannot be commended too highly. Roy L. Moodie Santa Monica, California January, 1931 11 INTRODUCTION Our knowledge of diseases in ancient time has been widened by the applica- tion of the Roentgen ray to the study of unopened mummy packs. A striking advance is made, especially among Peruvian material, in the possibility of studying entire skeletons. Our previous studies on pre-Columbian Peruvians have been largely restricted to consideration of isolated skeletal parts. Roentgenologic study of unopened mummy packs has its limitations. In all mummy packs there are many obscuring features, such as the use of dense materials in embalming among the Egyptians, and the inclusion of objects of metal, ears of maize, pottery, beads, shells and other trinkets, and the presence of clumpToTsand and small gravel in mummy packages from both Egypt and Peru. Slight surface lesions, osteoporosis, and in many cases trepannings, trau- matic injuries, and even linear fractures pass unobserved in a Roentgen examina- tion of unopened mummy packs, on account of the superimposition of materials denser than the involved areas through which the shadows are made. We feel, however, that the advance in our knowledge of disease in ancient times more than compensates for the disadvantages incurred in such a study. Roentgenology supplements all other methods of learning of physical troubles in early times. One great advantage in the present study is the possibility of observing the condition of many Peruvian child mummies ranging from those of premature delivery up to the age of puberty. The collections of child mummies in Field Museum are adequate to give a good cross section of the physical condition of the children of ancient Peru, in so far as the skeletal parts are concerned. We learn that there is none of the bony manifestations of rickets to be seen among the mummies of twenty-nine children less than fourteen years of age, from pre- Columbian Peru. A trace of the disease was found among the ancient Egyptians. Like syphilis, rickets apparently is a modern disease. (See also Annual Report of Field Museum for the year 1930, p. 419.) It is impressive to note the high percentage of disease and injury among the fifty -three mummy packs studied. Among the pre-Columbian Peruvian mummies, the incidence of disease and injury is 10.52 per cent. Among the Egyptian mummies studied the enormous figure of 40 per cent is deduced as the incidence of disease and injury, based on fifteen mummies. While among the twenty-nine pre-Columbian children from Peru the incidence is low, yet we are unable in most cases to determine the diseases of the teeth, as well as of all soft parts. A determination of the incidence of disease and injury of the skeletal parts of the Pleistocene saber-tooth reveals a much lower percentage, in no case over 7 per cent. This determination, however, is based on a count of about one thousand skeletons. Undoubtedly a much lower percentage would result if we could base our count on a larger series of ancient mummies. Our statistics are further vitiated by the failure of the Roentgen ray to reveal certain lesions of childhood which we know from dry skulls were prevalent among pre-Columbian children. It is of great importance to our knowledge of disease in ancient times to develop the field by further study of additional mummy packs by the roentgen- ologic method. 13 14 INTRODUCTION The roentgenograms chosen illustrate representative conditions found in unopened mummy packs. To the roentgenograms of the pre-Columbian Peru- vians especially have been added a number of explanatory photographs of pre- historic lesions found on material preserved in San Diego Museum. The reader is referred to the volume by Mark Armand Ruffer, "Studies in the Paleopathology of Egypt," for information regarding pathologic conditions found in ancient Egyptian mummies. Attention has been called by Weston Price ("Capabilities and Limitations of the Roentgen Rays," in "Dental Infections — Oral and Systemic," I, chap. 1, pp. 35-54) to the limitation of the X-rays in demonstrating all lesions, especially those which are slight, or covered by more or less dense tissue. The interpretation of roentgenograms of dry bones and mummies offers further difficulties on account of the absence of shadow-casting fluids, and of all soft parts. The roentgeno- logical appearance of mummies is quite different from that of a living body. Other difficulties are found in the intrusions of foreign bodies into the wrappings of the mummies, both intentional and unintentional. The most commonly found obstructions (Plate XXII) are clumps of sand and small gravels which have drifted into the wrappings of both Egyptian and Peruvian mummies during their many centuries of interment. The shadows cast by these materials are very confusing, although fortunately such objects are more often restricted to the periphery of the mummy pack. Objects of gold, silver, copper, pottery, ears of maize, shell beads, and many other things wrapped with the body confuse the passage of the rays. The Roentgen rays fail to reveal lesions due to trepannings (Plate XXIX), club injuries, sling shot wounds, and even linear fractures. Many of the Peruvian mummies had the skull trepanned (Plate XXVII) extensively, yet I have been unable, in an examination of the many roentgenograms of mummy packs at Field Museum, to determine the presence of a single trepanning. This failure is explained in part by the conditions met with in a pre-Columbian male skull (No. 288, San Diego Museum) from Cinco Cerros, Peru (Plate XXIX), which had been trepanned in the frontal bone above the left orbit, possibly for the relief of a sinus headache, yet the X-rays show no evidence of the cutting, and the sinuses are clear and very large. Only one skull in Field Museum (Cat. No. 168806, roentgenograms A122, A123, Field Museum) shows clearly a cranial lesion due to a blow from a star- shaped mace (Plates LIV, LV), yet such lesions were fairly common. The various embalming materials used in Egypt offer some resistance to the passage of the X-rays, as in the case of the Egyptian mummy No. 105215 (Plate XIX) where most of the skeleton is obscured by embalming materials. A hypertrophic spleen (Plate VIII), indicating malaria, is suggested by the shadow on the right side of Egyptian mummy No. 30021, but the appearance may be due to the insertion into the abdomen of a parcel of intestines, wrapped in linen, smeared with pitch, with sand adherent. I have introduced a number of illustrations to show many lesions which are not evident in ordinary X-ray examinations, but require treatment not possible with mummy packs. Such pictures are shown on Plates XXIV, XXVI, XXVIII, XXIX, XXXIV-XXXVIII. It will be evident that X-ray examinations of mummy packs are incomplete in establishing the presence of all lesions. ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF EGYPTIAN AND PERUVIAN MUMMIES DEVELOPMENT OF ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDY OF MUMMIES An historical account is given here of the use of the Roentgen rays in the study of mummies. The chronological review of literature is not for the purpose of establishing priority for anyone, but to show the development of the subject. The writers most prominent in this field are: Arthur Baessler and George F. Eaton on Peruvian material; Marcel Baudouin on neolithic material found in France; Victor Lortet, Claude Gaillard, G. Elliot Smith and Warren R. Dawson on ancient Egyptian mummified lower vertebrates and man; H. J. Means on ancient American mound-builders; Henry Snure on Pleistocene vertebrates, and Roy L. Moodie on ancient vertebrates and pre-Columbian Peruvians. The writings of Lortet and Gaillard on the splendid collections from ancient Egypt in the Natural History Museum at Lyons, France, contain the earliest reference to the use of the Roentgen rays in a study of the contents of unopened mummy packs (1903-9). No special comment was made in their work on the importance of the Roentgen rays in such investigations. It must be noted, how- ever, that these authors were chiefly concerned with the taxonomic relations of the mummified fauna of ancient Egypt. Incidentally, they picture a few osseous lesions. Baessler's folio, comprising fifteen plates with explanations, gives four roent- genograms of mummy packs from ancient Peruvian cemeteries. The roentgeno- grams in this publication show little more than the situation of the enclosed skeletons and the posture of the extremities. The small size of the pictures pre- cludes any determination of the skeletal structure. Smith in his studies on ancient Egyptian mummy packs realized the im- portance of the X-rays, but was seldom able to employ them. In the "Catalogue of the Royal Mummies of Egypt in the Cairo Museum" (1912), Preface (p. iii), he writes: "In the case of many of the mummies, especially those in the best state of preservation, there was singularly little that an anatomist could do, provided of course that he refrained from damaging the body. In such mummies as those of Ramses III, for instance, the anatomist can add little to what any one can see for himself by looking at the body encased in its resinous carapace. Examination with the aid of X-rays would, no doubt, have provided much additional informa- tion (and I hope that this will be done at some future time) but I was unable to get such investigations carried out, except in the case of the mummy of Tuthmosis IV." Smith writes (p. 94, footnote, under heading, "The Mummy Supposed to Be That of Tuthmosis I") : "There is then abundant evidence for placing this mummy in the series between those of Ahmosis I and Tuthmosis II, and it is particularly unfortunate that we are unable ... to add the testimony of the mummy of Amenothes I to the discussion. Perhaps M. Maspero at some future time may give his consent to the use of X-rays, and obtain a skiagram of the mummy of Amenothes I, which would show the positions of the arms, without disturbing the wrappings and the garlands that now hide them from view." 15 16 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES On page 44 Smith writes (under the heading, "The Mummy of Tuthmosis IV") : "Other parts of the body were examined by means of the Roentgen rays, i.e., to determine the age of the individual." Smith and F. Wood-Jones did not employ X-rays in their investigations of what proved to be the most extensive study of paleopathology ever made, i.e., the examination of thousands of bodies in the archaeological survey of Nubia. Smith and Dawson, in "Egyptian Mummies," have referred to the use of roentgenograms. They write (p. 94, footnote), "This mummy [Tuthmosis IV] is the only one so far that has been examined with X-rays." Eaton (1916) employed the Roentgen rays to explain pathologic conditions seen in crania and limb bones obtained from burials in the Peruvian highlands, in connection with the deserted city of Machu Picchu. Among the voluminous writings of Baudouin, Croix-de-Vie (Vendue), France, are a few articles devoted to the use of the Roentgen rays in the interpretation of osseous lesions found in neolithic skeletons. His contributions are brief, but written with a full appreciation of the subject. Andre' Rouillon (1923) has reviewed the work of Baudouin, advancing the subject somewhat by his own discoveries. Snure (1924) attempted to study the nature of the pathologic lesions seen in the Pleistocene fauna of Rancho la Brea. His determination of pathologic lesions in the mucosa sini frontali is a mistake. The shadows which appear in the frontal sinus of the sloth (Nothrotherium) are due to granite pebbles, which are found throughout the skull. Means (1925) studied, in an incidental way, certain lesions found on skeletal remains from the old Indian mounds of Ohio. His illustrations are splendid, and his brief determinations seem logical. My own work (Moodie, 1923, 1926, 1927) has so far been only a series of trials to determine the value of the employment of roentgenograms in the study of fossil and other ancient material. If the specimens are penetrable by the Roentgen rays, the results are valuable, but in petrified and infiltrated objects the use of the Roentgen rays is not warranted by the results. Attempts to secure serviceable roentgenograms of the huge skulls of Mylodon, a Pleistocene edentate, have so far failed because of the amount of material to be penetrated. BIBLIOGRAPHY Baessler, Arthur. — 1906. Peruanische Mumien. Untersuchungen mit X-Strahlen. Plates I-XV. Georg Reimer, Berlin. Baudouin, Marcel.— 1921. Etude radiographique de trois m£tatarsiens de l'age de la pierre polie, atteints d'osteo-arthrite chronique. L'Avenir Medical, Lyon, XVIII, No. 4, pp. 87-88, 1 radiograph. 1923. Radiographiques d'os humains pathologiques de la pierre polie. Compte- rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris. 1924. Etudes de quelques radiographies d'os d'age de la pierre polie. La Semaine Dentaire, VI, No. 37. Eaton, George F. — 1916. The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu Picchu (Peru). Memoirs Conn. Acad. Arts and Sciences, V, pp. 1-96, plates I-XXXIX. X-rays of adult female skull, showing a healed lesion on the right parietal eminence; pathological limb bones. HISTORICAL ACCOUNT 17 Lortet and Gaillard. — 1903-1909. La faune momiftee de l'ancienne figypte. Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Lyon, VIII-X, figs. 92-95. In IX, p. 29: diseased conditions in apes. X, fig. 37, p. 42: syphilitic (?) skull of young woman. Roentgenograms, fig. 103, p. 36, 2nd series. Fig. 216, p. 301: mummy pack of snakes. Means, H. J. — 1925. A Roentgenological Study of the Skeletal Remains of the Prehistoric Mound-Builder Indians of Ohio. Amer. Jour, of Roentgenology and Radium Therapy, XIII, 359-367. Six plates of unusually excellent radiographs of diseased skeletal remains. Moodie, Roy L. — 1923. Paleopathology. Urbana. Summary of work done up to that date. 1926. Studies in Paleopathology, XVIII. Tumors of the Head among Pre- Columbian Peruvians. Annals of Medical History, VIII, No. 4, pp. 394-412, 15 figs. X-rays of several tumors. 1926. Studies in Paleopathology, XIX. Pleistocene Examples of Traumatic Osteomyelitis. Same, VIII, No. 4, pp. 413-418, 4 figs., December. X-rays of lesions. 1927. Studies in Paleopathology, XX. Vertebral Lesions Resembling Myositis Ossificans Progressiva in a Sabre- tooth, Pleistocene of California; Compared with Certain Ossifications in the Dinosaurs. Same, IX, No. 1, pp. 91-102, 11 figs. X-rays of lesions. 1927. Studies in Paleopathology, XXI. Injuries to the Head among pre-Colum- bian Peruvians. Same, IX, No. 3, pp. 298-328, 65 figs., September. X-ray interpretations of lesions. Rouillon, Andre. — 1923. Lesions osseuses pr£historiques de la Vendee (France). Th£se pour le doctorat en medicine (Faculty de Medicine de Paris), pp. 1-260, 86 text figs., 10 plates, some of which are radiographs. Smith, G. Elliot. — 1912. The Royal Mummies. Catalogue general des antiques egypt- iennes du Mus6e du Caire, pp. 1-118, plates I-CII. Discusses the value of the X-ray in determining obscure anatomical facts. 1924 (with Warren R. Dawson). Egyptian Mummies. New York. Refers to the value of the X-ray in a study of mummies at p. 94 (footnote, p. 115; pp. 118, 121). 1926. The Diversions of an Anatomist in Egypt. Cambridge University Medical Society Magazine. On page 36 refers to the use of the X-ray to determine the age of the pharaoh Thothmes IV. 1927. Tutankhamen and the Discovery of his Tomb, with 25 illus. and maps. London. X-ray referred to on pp. 86, 127, 129. Snure, Henry. — 1924. A Roentgen-Ray Study of the La Brea (California) Fossils. Amer. Jour, of Roentgenology and Radium Therapy, New York, XI, pp. 351-354. Figs. NORTH AMERICAN MUMMIES No great cult of mummification has been developed in the North American continent comparable to that of Egypt or Peru. While evidence of attempts to preserve the bodies of the dead is forthcoming from most regions in North America, it does not seem that the methods employed were at all elaborate. The practice of preserving the bodies of the dead was in vogue among the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands and the Kadiak Archipelago at the time of their discovery, and probably had been the custom among them for centuries. We find nothing of it on the mainland (W. H. Dall). 18 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES The body was prepared by making an opening in the pelvic region and removing all the internal organs. The cavity was then filled with dry grass, and the body placed in running water. This in a short time removed most of the fatty portions, leaving only the skin and muscular tissues. The knees were then brought up to the chin, and the whole body secured as compactly as possible by cords. The bones of the arms were sometimes broken to facilitate the process of compression. In this posture the remains were dried. When thoroughly dried, the body was wrapped in skins and matting (Dall). Mummy bundles have been found on the Mexican plateau, the body bound in a contracted position within a network of ropes. False heads and masks were commonly used. In the great southwestern area of the United States, mummies were common in the form of desiccated bodies. The limbs were folded, and the bodies were wrapped in blankets, mats, etc., and tied with fiber ropes. A considerable number of such "natural mummies" has been recorded in the southwestern area. In Basket-Maker caves of northeastern Arizona bodies wrapped in blankets and woven cloths have been found. In the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, the body of a woman in a remarkable state of preservation, with features discernible, was discovered. The evidences show a deliberate intention to preserve the mortal remains in order that thereby the immortality of the body might be secured, a notion that is intimately associated everywhere with the practices of mummification. Plate I Field Museum Cat. No. 51701. Roentgenograms: A167, upper part; A169, lower part. Source: Medicine Lodge, Blackfoot Reserve, Montana. Age: four years, six months. Sex: female. Body extended and clothed; cotton jacket and buckskin trousers and moc- casins, also two bead necklaces. An example of tree burial. Skeleton free from any defect; in excellent state of preservation. A most remarkable child. BIBLIOGRAPHY The following list is merely introductory: Dall, W. H. — 1875. Alaskan Mummies. American Naturalist, IX, pp. 433-440. Also in the Indian Miscellany, 1877, pp. 344-351. Goddard, Pliny E. — 1921. Indians of the Southwest. American Museum of Natural History, Handbook Series, No. 2, second edition. Disposal of dead, p. 52, with picture of mummy wrapped in cotton robe. Guernsey and Kidder.— 1921. Basket-Maker Caves of Northeastern Arizona. Papers of the Peabody Mus. of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard Univ., VIII, No. 2. James, Edwin Oliver. — 1928. Cremation and the Preservation of the Dead in North ..? America. American Anthropologist, XXX, 1928, pp. 214-242. With extensive bibliography. LbuD, Llewellyn L. and Harrington, M. R. — 1929. Lovelock Cave. Univ. Calif. Publ. in Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., XXV, No. 1. Mummies, p. 31, plates VIII-XI. REVIEW OF MUMMIFICATION IN EGYPT AND ITS RELATION TO THE INTERPRETATION OF ROENTGENOGRAMS Our knowledge of the various processes of preparing the dead in ancient Egypt and Nubia is fairly complete and accurate. The factor involved which interests us here is the condition in which the body was left at mummification. It is not known whether the neolithic dwellers in Egypt cremated their dead or not. There is too little evidence. The earliest method of preservation was burial, in an extended position, in the hot dry sand of the desert; and doubtless many were left on the surface to the jackals, which also exhumed many of the burials. In an unwrapped, extended position, some of the internal organs might reveal certain pathological conditions. Calculi — renal, hepatic, or otherwise — should be revealed by dense shadows. Hypertrophic calcified cirrhosis of the liver would be revealed. Hypertrophic conditions of the spleen, whether malarial or leucemic, might be expected to show. All vascular calcifications up to arteriosclerosis would show, since some of the larger arteries are known to have been converted into tubes of bone. At the time when the technique of embalming was at its height all internal organs, and even the muscles were removed. This condition would hinder the search for evidences of disease among the softer tissues. The method of arranging the body in an embryonic or folded position would be followed by difficult roentgenologic interpretation, because of overlapping shadows. The activity, through thousands of years, of vandals in mutilating the mummies, exchanging burials, and mixing the burial arrangements, and the attempts at repairing the effects of vandalism by the priestly devotees, all have their due influence on the confusion of roentgenologic evidence. In common with the Peruvian mummy packs, the ancient Egyptian packs are infiltrated with sand, small gravel, and ceremonial objects, as well as having, at times, a mass of embalming materials to interfere. The details of the effects of these various factors on our roentgenologic findings are given in another section of this monograph. MUMMIFICATION OF INFANTS IN ANCIENT EGYPT There are only scant references in literature to even the occurrence of infant mummies. Thus G. Elliot Smith1 refers to the mummy of Queen Makeri, who died in child-bed, and figures an unwrapped bundle which possibly contains the body of her baby. He also refers to the mummy of Prince Sipaari, a child of five or six years. F. Wood-Jones2 discusses briefly the burial of infants. The field of prehistoric pediatrics in Egypt is practically untouched. MUMMIFICATION IN PRE-COLUMBIAN PERU So far the literature has indicated that mummification in prehistoric Peru was a natural process, a matter of sun-drying, wrapping, and interment in the dry 'The Royal Mummies, Queen Makeri and Her Baby, p. 98, plate LXXIV; Prince Sipaari, pp. 22, 24, plate XIX. *P. Wood-Jones and G. Elliot Smith, Archaeological Survey of Nubia, 1907, p. 217. 19 20 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES sands of the coastal deserts and in caves, rock shelters, and in huacas (small mortuaries) among the mountainous districts. Comments by Garcilasso de la Vega as to this matter are hardly of scientific value, yet his statements are largely confirmed by the conditions found. L. Reutter1 has reviewed the subject. Careful scrutiny of the many roentgenograms of prehistoric Peruvian mum- mies in Field Museum adds nothing to our present knowledge of embalming methods. No lumps of resin, pitch or other embalming materials, such as we frequently meet with in ancient Egyptian mummies, obscure the picture of any of the bodily parts. Clumps of small gravel and sand are retained within the wrappings of both Egyptian and Peruvian mummies which often obscure im- portant details. Numerous small pieces of pottery, ears of maize, metal objects, and ornaments of shell are frequently included in the mummy packs of pre- Columbian Peruvians, but I have seen nothing to lead me to think that any of the opaque materials were used in embalming. In a few Peruvian mummies traces of viscera are seen, but there is never any evidence of disarrangement. Recently statements have been published that complete evisceration was extensively practised among the population whose bodies are found mummified at Parakas in Peru. Not only was evisceration done, but the heavier muscle masses were removed, and the remains cured by "smoking." No anatomical evidence has yet been given, and we are still uncertain as to just how evisceration was done or what disposition was made of the viscera. The burial mounds at Parakas and their contents are briefly discussed by A. Hyatt Verrill, "Mummy Mining in Peru" (Art and Archaeology, XXIX, April, 1930, pp. 171-180, with 16 figs.); see also his chapters XIV and XV, "The Incans and pre-Incans," in his "Old Civilizations of the New World," 1929, pp. 277-358; and Julio C. Tello, "Antiguo Peru: Primera Epoca," Lima, 1929, pp. 1-183, illustrated. There is abundant evidence to show that bodies were often imperfectly dried before being wrapped. The commonest indication of this is seen in the disorgan- ized, slumped, and mixed condition of the ribs and vertebrae, pointing to ex- tensive putrefaction (Plates XLI-XLIII). DETAILED REPORT AND PATHOLOGIC INTERPRETATION OF ROENTGENOGRAMS OF EGYPTIAN MUMMIES Plate II Field Museum Cat. No. 31736. Roentgenogram : A229. Source: Egypt; predynastic era. Age: adult. Sex: female. Predynastic female, Egyptian mummy. A much bowed, decrepit, senile, but not necessarily old individual, crippled by disease to the point of total incapacity. Pyorrhea had robbed her of most of her teeth. Arteriosclerosis is evident throughout the field, especially around the scapula. Spondylitis deformans had consolidated the vertebral column. The ribs are fixed by osseous bands. 1 L'embaumement dans le Nouveau Monde et particulierement chez les Incas, 1912, pp. 142-144; in his De l'embaumement avant et apres Jesus-Christ, Paris, 1912. EGYPTIAN MUMMIES 21 Plate III Fig. 1: Same woman as Plate II. Roentgenogram: A229. Right mastoid of predynastic Egyptian female showing air-cells of the mixed pneumatic type, indicating a healed infection. A defect in the cranial wall above. Fig. 2: Same woman as Plate II. Roentgenogram: A029. Hand and wrist of same individual showing arteriosclerosis in the contorted interosseous artery. Plate IV Same woman as Plate II. Roentgenogram: A031. Part of the vertebral column, lower thoracics, showing the lipping of lesions of spondylitis deformans. Plate V Same woman as Plate II. Roentgenogram: A235. The lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx of same predynastic female, showing the condition of part of the acetabulum. The zygapophysial regions are firmly ankylosed. Plate VI Same woman as Plate II. Roentgenogram: A233. View opposite to that shown in Plate II. Running along the anterior surface of the vertebral column may be seen the partly ossified, longitudinal ligament, fixing the vertebrae in their bowed condition. Summary of Plates II-VI Field Museum Cat. No. 31736. Predynastic Egyptian mummy. Roentgenograms: PD1, PD3, A229, A231, A233, A235, A237, A239. Age: adult. Sex: female. Examination of head shows: * Mastoid, left, of the pneumatic mixed cell type. Cortex evidently very thin. Large posterior cells clear anteriorly, showing a cloudy granulation indicating osteosclerosis due to healed infection. Pituitary fossa large, but not abnormal. Vault normal. Frontal sinus very small, but normal. Other sinuses clear of trouble. Maxilla completely edentulous; mandible with five anterior teeth, all others lost. Possible cause: absorptive osteitis. Examination of torso and limbs: Cervical vertebrae normal. Thoracic vertebrae with a strong kyphosis. Spinous processes on mid-dorsal vertebrae indicate spondylitis deformans, i.e., ossifications in ventral longitudinal ligament. Further evidence of this condition is seen in lumbar region. Articular surfaces of vertebral arches evidently partly coalesced by partial ossification of ligaments. Sacrum and pelvis normal. Ribs 22 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES normal with indications of associated arteriosclerosis in bodies of ribs. Scapulae normal; arteriosclerosis of blood vessels on ventral surface of right scapula. Bones of arms normal, with arteriosclerosis of radial (?) artery near left wrist. Sternum and leg bones normal. Acetabulum normal and well developed. Liga- ments in lumbar region sclerosed, indicating senile changes. Plate VII San Diego Museum Cat. No. 557. Source: St. Lawrence Island, Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. A "poker spine" of an Eskimo. This condition, known as spondylitis deformans, is due to the ossification of the longitudinal vertebral ligaments. Why the ligaments should ossify is not known. This pathological condition has a wide geographical and geological range. It occurs in the Comanchian dinosaurs, among Tertiary mammals, among Pleistocene mammals and reptiles. It is common in ancient man. The condition has been ascribed to many things, but the etiology is doubtful. The ancient Egyptians offer numerous examples of spondylitis deformans, but it is rarely found among the pre-Columbian Peruvians. Plate VIII Field Museum Cat. No. 30021. Roentgenograms: A207, A211, A219, A221, A225, A227. Source: Egypt. Age: adult. Sex: female. Body extended with arms folded over chest. Head obscured by plaster mask. Apparently only a few teeth present in the lower jaw. Large mass casting shadow in right side of abdomen may be hypertrophied spleen, indicating malaria, or it may be a package of intestines rolled, pitch-encrusted, and inserted into the abdomen. Plate IX Field Museum Cat. No. 105214. Roentgenograms: A302, A304, A306, A308, A310. Source: Egypt. Age: adult. Sex: male. Head obscured by a mass of pitch; body extended, with arms crossed over chest. Details of thorax and abdomen obscured by embalming materials. Knock- kneed condition exists with femora distinctly bowed. This condition possibly indicates rickets in childhood. If this is rickets, it is the first example known from ancient Egypt.1 Chronic arthritis of the hips doubtless produced the shambling gait of this old man. It is of interest to note the association of rheu- matic effects and the edentulous condition of the jaws. Plate X Field Museum Cat. No. 30004 (sister of 30003. See Plate XI). Roentgenograms: A184, A186, A188. 1 Wood-Jones and Smith were unable to prove the existence of rickets in ancient Egypt. EGYPTIAN MUMMIES 23 Source: Egypt. Age: about twelve or fourteen years. Sex: female. Mummy of a young girl, showing lateral curvature of spine. Identical condition exists in her brother (Plate XI). There are no evidences of disease, and while improper posture may account for the curvatures, yet other factors, such as rough handling, must be considered. Elements are obscured by cowry shells over the orbits, beads and metal objects over the thorax, with gravel, clumps of pitch and sand distributed throughout the entire wrappings. Plate XI Field Museum Cat. No. 30003 (see also Plate X). Roentgenograms: A197, A199, A201. Source: Egypt. Age: ten or twelve years. Sex: male. Vertebral column exhibiting lateral curvature, pronounced to the right. No evidences of accompanying disease. Pads of rough, heavy, painted cloth in wrappings obscure some of the details. The prominent knees are those of a child ten to twelve years old, but other joints are too obscure for identification. Plate XII Field Museum Cat. No. 111469. Roentgenogram : A497. Source: Egypt. Age: infant. Sex: undetermined. Unwrapped infant mummy of Egypt. No evidences of disease. Plate XIII Field Museum Cat. No. 111522. Roentgenograms: A517, A518. Source: Egypt. Age: child. Sex: undetermined. Unwrapped child mummy of Egypt. No evidences of disease. Plate XIV Field Museum Cat. No. 30025. Roentgenograms: A0100, A0101. Source: Egypt. Age: seven years, six months. Sex: male. Mummy of boy named Pedi Amon, from Egypt. Arms entirely removed, legs broken at mid-thigh, and lower parts of femora removed, feet badly cramped, presumably so that the body could be placed in a coffin that was much too small for the individual. 24 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES Plate XV a and b Field Museum Cat. No. 30017. Roentgenograms: A0127, A0128, A0129, A0130. Source: Egypt. Age: twelve years. Sex: male. Unwrapped mummy of a boy, Egypt. No evidences of disease; cause of death cannot be determined. Skeletal parts all healthy; teeth normal. Body extended; wrappings removed. Some of the body tissues are obscured by small clumps of sand. Faint evidences of position of viscera, but not definite enough for positive determination. Muscles of legs well shown. Plate XVI Fig. 1: Field Museum Cat. No. 30003. - "**-#- **-** f "1 1 Fig. 2: Field Museum Cat. No. 30004. Photograph : 59106. ( ftU U u>€■ Source: Egypt. Age: adult. Sex: male. Egyptian mummy. Pitch and heavy wrappings obscuring head and neck, illustrating limitations of roentgenography of wrapped mummy packs. EGYPTIAN MUMMIES 25 Plate XX Field Museum Cat. No. 30007. Roentgenograms: A252, A254, A256, A258. Source: Egypt. Age: about twenty-five years. Sex: female. (In legend of Plate XX, for man read woman.) Head with mask. Arms crossed over chest with hands on shoulders. A powerful skeleton. No evidences of disease. Frontal sinuses unusually large. Mastoid filled with large air-cells, but they do not indicate disease. DETAILED REPORT AND PATHOLOGIC INTERPRETATION OF ROENTGENOGRAMS NOT ILLUSTRATED Field Museum Cat. No. 30000. Roentgenograms: A312, A314, A316, A318, A320, A322. Source: Egypt. Age: about thirty-five years. Sex: female. Mummy and case of a lady named Dje Mukesankh. v Huge masses of sand-encrusted pitch prevent adequate examination of all parts. Areas shown, apparently free from disease, except that the teeth of the maxilla have been lost by pyorrhea. This condition seems to be present also in the molar region of the lower jaw. Field Museum Cat. No. 30010. Roentgenograms: A276, A278, A280, A282, A284, A287. Source: Egypt. Age: adult. Sex: male. Man named Pu Nefer. Powerful frame extended, with arms crossed over chest. Head with mask. Neck dislocated below seventh cervical vertebra. Details of head obscure. No evidence of diseases or injury in thorax or abdomen. Details obscured by em- balming materials. Soft tissue visible on legs. Field Museum Cat. No. 30011. Roentgenograms: A288, A290, A294, A296, A298. Source: Egypt. Age: adult. Sex: female. Mummy of a woman named Men. Head normal, so far as can be determined. Legs strong and healthy. Torso and arms not included in package. Cavity normally occupied by these parts has been packed with leaves and straw (?). Head suspended by board reaching from neck to pelvic region. Field Museum Cat. No. 30018. Roentgenograms: A191, A193, A195. Source: Egypt. 26 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES Age: about ten years. Sex: male. Boy of the Roman period, Egypt. No evidences of disease apparent. Field Museum Cat. No. 30023. Roentgenograms: A242, A244, A246, A248, A250. Source: Egypt. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Body extended, with hands spread over pelvis. Femora articulating in acetabulum, but shifted. Skeleton much disarranged. No evidences of pre-mortem injury or of disease, in the parts available for study. Most of the skeleton obscured by embalming materials. SUMMARY ARTHRITIDES Manifestations of joint diseases are very common in ancient Egyptian mummies. The various aspects of arthritis, as revealed in the dry tissues of early Egyptians, have been thoroughly covered by the work of Smith and Wood- Jones,1 and Ruffer.2 Little is to be added to what we already know from an examination of the Egyptian mummies X-rayed in Field Museum. A female mummy dating from predynastic times shows many evidences of disease. Arthritis held many of her joints rigid (Plates II, IV-VI), and the vertebral column was sharply flexed forward. She was a much-bowed, decrepit, senile, but not necessarily old individual. Spondylitis deformans is evident. An example of traumatic arthritis is exhibited in Plate IX. The shambling gait of this old man was doubtless due to luxation and torsion of the left leg. ARTERIOSCLEROSIS Hardening of the arteries was very prevalent in ancient Egypt. Its details may be found in the volume of Ruffer's Collected Essays. Definite evidences of this disease are shown (Plate III, Fig. 2) in the pre- dynastic female. The arteries so afflicted are usually tortuous (Ruffer's accounts give all the histological details). Sclerosed arteries are evident over the scapula and ribs, but especially in the interosseous artery of the forearm. Here the blood vessel resembles a piece of heavy wire badly kinked. ORAL DISEASES The most obvious indication of oral disease in Egyptian mummies is the absorptive osteitis resulting from pyorrhea (Plate II) . This disease is the common lot of man, both ancient and modern. It is the most ancient, most prevalent, and most widely distributed of all oral afflictions. It occurs among fossil mammals 'Report on the Human Remains, The Archaeological Survey of Nubia, 2 vols., folio, 1907, pp. 1-375, plates I-XLIX, and numerous text-figures. Additional material is to be found in the bulletins of the Archaeo- logical Survey of Nubia by the same authors. 1 Studies in the Paleopathology of Egypt, 1921, University of Chicago Press. This book contains several papers discussing various aspects of arthritides. EGYPTIAN MUMMIES 27 and among all ancient and modern races of man. Among the ancient inhabitants of Peru and Hawaii the incidence of this disease was very high.1 The majority of the Egyptian mummies examined in Field Museum by the Roentgen ray exhibit the heads so obscured by masses of pitch or sand-coated tar, by masks, head-dresses, or ornaments, that proper interpretation of the condition of the teeth cannot be made. Only here and there are glimpses of the dental series to be had. We are not able to add anything of note to the discussions by Ruffer,2 who has written extensively on this subject. DISEASES OF THE SOFT TISSUES The only way in which disease of the soft parts may be recognized is by the calcification of areas undergoing degeneration, or by the excessive hypertrophy of organs. The oblong shadow seen on the left side of the body (Plate VIII) of a female mummy may be an hypertrophied liver due to disease, or it may be a linen-wrapped package of intestines, dipped in tar and inserted into the abdomen. Microscopic examination is the only sure way of identification. No calculi either of gall-bladder, urinary bladder or kidney have been identi- fied in these roentgenograms, although special search has been made for them. The body of a twelve-year-old boy (Plate XV a and b) shows faint evidences of hypertrophic, calcified viscera but the evidence is not clear. None of the above suggestions indicates new occurrences, since all have been discussed by Smith, Wood- Jones, and Ruffer. 1 G. G. MacCurdy, Human Skeletal Remains from the Highlands of Peru, Amer. Journ. Physical Anthro- pology, VI, 1923, pp. 218-329, plates I-XLIX. H. G. Chappel, Jaws and Teeth of Ancient Hawaiians, Memoirs Bernice P. Bishop Museum, IX, 1927, pp. 251-268, plates XLII-XLV. •See his Collected Essays, Studies in the Paleopathology of Egypt. DETAILED REPORT AND PATHOLOGIC INTERPRETATION OF ROENTGENOGRAMS OF PERUVIAN MUMMIES Plate XXI Archaeological map of west coast of South America. Plate XXII Field Museum Cat. No. 183681. Roentgenograms: A356, A357. Source: Ancon, Peru. G. A. Dorsey, collector. Age: five or six years. Sex: undetermined. Body wrapped in striped cloth. Disintegration has taken place and parts of skeleton are missing. Teeth nearly all erupted, some dropped out and mingled with bones of thorax. Legs flexed over abdomen. Inclusions of maize, gourds, pottery, and implements. No evidences of disease or injury. Plate XXIII Fig. 1: Field Museum Cat. No. 191863. Roentgenograms: A362, A363, A364. Source: Ancon, Peru. Age: three or four years (joints too obscure to be certain). Sex: undetermined. Mummy of child, well wrapped in cloth and tied with fiber rope. Bunch of orange feathers at head. Numerous small pieces of pottery in mummy pack. Head indicates hydrocephalus. Skeletal parts obscured by the many extrinsic objects, but no obvious evi- dences of disease or injury are present (see Plate LVIII, Fig. 2). Fig. 2: Field Museum Cat. No. 168806. Roentgenogram : A112. Source: Lower Chillon Valley, Peru. A. L. Kroeber, collector. Age: adult. Sex: male. Pre-Columbian, Peruvian mummy head, unwrapped. Perforated silver disks on cheeks. Roentgenogram shows mastoid and adjoining mace injury resulting in a considerable loss of skull material. Plate XXIV Fig. 1: Field Museum Cat. No. 168806. Roentgenogram: A122 (see Plate XXIII, Fig. 2). Record of impaction in prehistoric times. Fig. 2: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 206. Source: Huarochiri, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: male. Pyorrhea and salivary calculus. 28 PERUVIAN MUMMIES 29 Fig. 3: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 8. Source: Cinco Cerros, Peru. Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: adult. Sex: male. A prehistoric male skull showing total loss of teeth from the palate, probably due to pyorrhea. On the right of the picture is a large antral fistula draining a sinus infection which doubtless developed from an apical, perforating abscess. Such openings are difficult to determine in a general Roentgen examination of an unopened mummy pack, and, though common, they fail to show. The absence of teeth can usually be detected, but this depends on an accidental clear field. Roentgenograms of the mastoids usually show many details. In this specimen the mastoid on the right was diseased. Fig. 4 : San Diego Museum Cat. No. 157. Source: Chavina, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: female. Pressure atrophy in palate, due to soft tumor in the maxillary antrum. Plate XXV Fig. 1: Field Museum Cat. No. 168816. Roentgenogram : A133. Source: Cemetery A, Marquez, Lower Chillon Valley, Peru. A. L. Kroeber, collector. Age: three individuals: adult, youth, and infant. Sex: one male; two undetermined. In this unusual Peruvian mummy pack, the roentgenogram revealed an entire adult skeleton and two additional skulls, one a youth, the other an infant. The skull pictured here is of the adult, showing loss of a few teeth, and roots of others exposed by alveolar absorption due to pyorrhea (see also Plates XXVIII, Figs. 2-3; LIII). Fig. 2: Field Museum Cat. No. 183874. Roentgenogram: A51. Source: Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Pyorrhea caused the loss of most of the teeth in this individual. The roots of the remaining teeth are largely exposed. The superior alveoli are all absorbed. Fig. 3: Field Museum Cat. No. 191860. Source: Ancon, Peru. Roentgenograms: A104, A106, A108, A109. Age: adult, about twenty-five years old. Sex: female, as suggested by the slender bones and pelvis. Pyorrhea resulted in the loss of many teeth and the exposure of the roots of others. A small apical abscess is evident in one of the upper cuspids. Pneumatic mastoid of the large cell type. Outer skull wall thin. The mastoid is clear and shows no evidences of disease, such as sclerosis or absorption. No other pathologic changes evident. 30 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES Plate XXVI Fig. 1 : San Diego Museum Cat. No. 5. Source: Cinco Cerros, Peru. Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: adult. Sex: male. A much battered male, prehistoric skull obtained from the ruins of an ancient fortress at Cinco Cerros, Peru. The individual was probably a soldier. The left side of the skull shows sling shot injuries on the occiput, a huge opening due to a blow from a star-shaped mace, and the arch has been broken by a blow from a club. None of these injuries shows clearly in a roentgenogram. Huge openings, at times, cast uncertain shadows on a roentgenogram taken of an unopened mummy pack. Fig. 2: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 257. Source: Cinco Cerros, Peru. Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: adult. Sex: female. A prehistoric female skull from the ruins of an ancient fortress at Cinco Cerros, Peru, showing a large trepan opening involving the right frontal and parietal. The unhealed edges indicate that the operation was fatal. Such openings do not show at all, or but very poorly, in roentgenograms of unopened mummy packs. The majority of the prehistoric Peruvian mummies in Field Museum come from Ancon, a coastal site which, like other similar areas, has yielded few examples of trepanning. The procedure seems to have been more common in the highlands. I have elsewhere suggested the possibility of the surgical act of trepanning being regarded as a military measure. Plate XXVII Fig. 1: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 6. Source: Lomas, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: male. A pre-Columbian Peruvian skull showing in the roentgenogram distinct evidences of a severe mace injury. Fig. 2: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 285. Source: Cinco Cerros, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: male. Skull showing evidences of an anterior and posterior trepanned area. Plate XXVIII Fig. 1 : San Diego Museum Cat. No. 197. Source: Collungo, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: male. Mandible of a pre-Columbian male, showing two carious teeth on the right. The swelling on the left ascending ramus is due to a tumor. PERUVIAN MUMMIES 31 Fig. 2: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 324. Source: Pachacamac, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: female. An unusually large fistulous opening is to be seen on the right of the picture, opening directly into the maxillary sinus. This skull exhibits another large fistula in one orbit due to an abscess in the frontal sinus, derived doubtless from this antral abscess. Fig. 3: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 174. Source: Cajamarquilla, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: male. Excessive deposits of salivary calculus on the teeth. Dentists are familiar with such accumulations today. The relation of this deposit to pyorrhea is evident on examination of the plate. Plate XXIX San Diego Museum Cat. No. 288. Photograph and roentgenogram. Source : Cinco Cerros, Peru. Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: adult. Sex: male. A concrete example of the failure of a roentgenogram to show a serious osseous lesion. This skull had been trepanned immediately above the left orbit, possibly to relieve sinus headache, due to a slight infection in the frontal sinuses. The roentgenogram shows not a trace of this operation, and the sinuses are clear. Plate XXX Field Museum Cat. No. 168816. Roentgenograms: A140, A138 (see Plates XXV, Fig. 1; LIII). The roentgenological appearance, from two angles, in an ancient, unopened Peruvian mummy pack. Mushroom head of the femur designated as arthritis deformans. Etiology is uncertain. Articular surfaces of limb bones are eroded, due either to post-mortem decay or disease (tuberculosis). Plate XXXI Fig. 1: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 51. Source: Huacho, Peru. Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: adult. Sex: female. Lesion of arthritis deformans in pelvis of ancient Peruvian mummy. Fig. 2: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 60. Source: Chan-Chan, Peru. Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: adult. Sex: male. Mushroom head of femur showing same condition. This plate more fully explains the conditions seen in Plate XXX. The etiology of this lesion is unknown. 32 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES Plate XXXII Fig. 1: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 51. Source: Huacho, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: female. Roentgenologic appearance of pelvis shown in Plate XXXI, Fig. 1. Figs. 2-3: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 60. Source: Chan-Chan, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: male. Femur showing mushroom head (see Plate XXXI, Fig. 2). The disturbances in the architecture of the bones are evident. Plate XXXIII San Diego Museum Cat. No. 158. Source: Chavina, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: female. Roentgenogram of a small, female skull of a pre-Columbian Indian, showing hair-like trabeculae of the epicranial tumor; an hyperostosis cranii. Plate XXXIV Fig. 1 : San Diego Museum Cat. No. 319. Source: St. Lawrence Island. Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Syphilitic lesions of the cranium of an Eskimo. Such lesions have never been seen in prehistoric American skulls. Fig. 2: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 154. Source: Collungo, Peru. Ales Hrdlicka, collector. Age: youth. Sex: male. Posterior aspect of a prehistoric Peruvian adolescent male, showing the healed lesions of osteoporosis, due to a nutritional disease of childhood. Plate XXXV San Diego Museum Cat. Nos. 423, 429, 440. Source: Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Photographs, enlarged, of the left external auditory meatus in three pre- historic Peruvian skulls, showing the nature of the dense aural exostoses, which in the middle and lower figures have nearly closed the meatus. Such conditions are fairly common in Peruvian skulls, but rarely are such small lesions detected in a general roentgenogram of an unwrapped mummy pack. PERUVIAN MUMMIES 33 Plate XXXVI Fig. 1 : San Diego Museum Cat. No. 6. Source: Lomas, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: male. A small, ivory-like osteoma on the posterior wall of the left auditory meatus of prehistoric Peruvian skull. Figs. 2-3: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 333. Source: Chicama, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Photographs, enlarged, of the right and left auditory passages of skull, showing aural exostoses in both ears. It is probable that this individual was totally deaf. Plate XXXVII San Diego Museum Cat. Nos. 122, 262, 978. Source: Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Auditory passages of three prehistoric Peruvian skulls showing effects of a chronic discharge of infective material (pus) and indicating a long-standing otitis media, in each case. Plate XXXVIII Fig. 1: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 122. Source: Collungo, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Results of an intracranial abscess of the middle ear of a prehistoric Peruvian. Fig. 2: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 441. Source: Chicama, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Vertical section of a diseased mastoid. Fig. 3: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 101. Source: Chicama, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Disease of the alveoli associated with nasal disturbances, in a prehistoric Peruvian skull, showing an hypertrophied and deflected nasal septum. Plate XXXIX Fig. 1: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 86. Source: Chavina, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. 34 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES Roentgenogram, from above, of sclerotic temporal bones of an ancient Peruvian. Figs. 2-3: San Diego Museum Cat. No. 347. Source: Chilca, Peru. Age: adult. Sex: undetermined. Roentgenograms of both diseased mastoids of a prehistoric Peruvian. jZ-T-r-rw- {*£. X, /e/it)'3i ^ Fi^d Museum Cat. NcCl83932-> Plate XL v.*< Roentgenograms: A130, A131. Source: grave thirty-two miles northwest of Lima. Age: possibly new-born, two or three months post partum. Sex: undetermined. Prehistoric (?) Peruvian infant mummy. Normal Peruvian infant well preserved. Skull uncrushed, and parts all associated. There are no evidences of disease. Plate XLI Field Museum Cat. No. 183875. Roentgenogram: A112. Source: Ancon, Peru. Age: four months (?). Sex: undetermined. Incomplete skeleton of infant from ancient Peru. String of beads at left, undoubtedly fish vertebrae. A glass (?) bead to right. Mummy package is round; no anatomical association of parts. No evidence of disease can be detected. Plate XLII Field Museum Cat. No. 183939. Roentgenograms: A360, A361. Source: Ancon, Peru. Age: infant, full term, possibly a week old. Sex: undetermined. Mummy of infant wrapped with cloth and bound with fiber rope. Several small ears of maize. Small piece of metal in mouth. No evidence of disease. Plate XLIII Field Museum Cat. No. 183932. . Fig. 1: Photograph: 69815. Fig. 2: Roentgenogram: A482. Source: Egypt. Mummy of a hawk. The hawk was the type and symbol of the oldest of all the gods of Egypt, Heru-ur, whose counterpart at a later period was the hawk-headed god, Horus, who was the son of Isis, and hawk worship was universal throughout Egypt in predynastic times. Several species of hawks and falcons were mummified in ancient times, and they rank next to the kites in abundance and are found in the same necropolises. The hawk shown here is probably Buteo ferox. The roentgenogram shows the common method of folding the wings and legs during the processes of embalming. Plate LXXV Fig. 1: Field Museum Cat. No. 111516. Photograph: 69815 (see Plate LXXVI). Source: Egypt. Large, strong- winged, raptorial bird, in good state of preservation. Fig. 2: Roentgenogram of same: A483. Plate LXXVI Field Museum Cat. No. 111516. Fig. 1: Field Museum Cat. No. 30038. Photograph: 69815. Source: Egypt. A large vulture. Fig. 2: Roentgenograms: A527, A528. Source: Egypt. ANIMAL MUMMIES 63 Large, raptorial bird, possibly a vulture. The absence of shadows in the abdominal region would indicate evisceration before the natron bath. Relations of bones of legs and feet can be seen, with digits closely appressed. The tip of the tail was broken in handling; having been immersed in pitch, the feathers have become brittle after centuries in the tomb. The shadows alongside the body are due to bandages. NOTES ON PERUVIAN ANIMAL MUMMIES Field Museum possesses no mammal or bird mummies from Peru, and the impression prevails that the practice of mummifying animals was restricted to Egypt. It is thought that the ancient Peruvians, of whatever epoch, did not embalm either animal or human bodies, but mummified the humans by sun- drying and took no pains with animal bodies. This subject has never been adequately studied, and much remains to be learned about the practice of mum- mification in early times in Peru. Under date of April 9, 1930, writing from Lima, Peru, A. Hyatt Verrill reports, ". . . nearly all the mammals and many of the birds of Peru have been found mummied with the human bodies. Macaws, parrots, dogs, cats (domesti- cated wild species), viscachas, guinea-pigs, herons, flamingos, doves, ducks, hawks, and countless others — even including llamas, vicunas, and alpacas, are known from the ancient graves of Peru. Many of these, too, were as carefully preserved and wrapped to form miniature mummy bundles as were the human bodies. I have the mummy of a dog which I took from a grave at Pachacamac which is not only wrapped, but enclosed in a specially constructed basketry case." The parrot is depicted by Rivero and Tschudi and the species shown is regarded as probably Ara militaris, as suggested by Dr. Alexander Wetmore from an inspection of the color plate. This determination, however, could only be verified by handling the specimen. Professor A. Nehring has discussed, briefly, the nature of the Inca dog, whose skeletons are found in ancient burials as recorded by Reiss and Stiibel. Eaton gives further information on the dog and discusses the remains of guinea-pigs. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ANIMAL MUMMIES A. Egyptian Animals Budge, Sir E. A. Wallis.— 1925. Figures of Animals, Birds, and Reptiles, Sacred to the Gods. In his book: The Mummy. A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archeology, pp. 385-388. Knight, Alfred E. — 1915. Sacred Animals. In Amentet — an Account of the Gods. Amulets & Scarabs of the Ancient Egyptians, pp. 137-177. Lortet, L. C. and Gaillard, C. — 1903-1909. La fauna momifiee de l'ancienne Egypte. Archives du Museum d'Hist. Nat. de Lyon, IX-X. Introduction: Chiens et chacals; chats; insectivores; rongeurs; bovides; race et origine des boeufs de l'ancienne Egypte; antilopes; moutons; mouflon a manchettes; chevres; oiseaux; reptiles; poissons; mollusques; singes; chats; offrandes funeraires; natron antiseptique; etc. Lydekker, Richard.— Wild Life of the World. Ill: Africa. Moodie, Roy L.— 1923. Paleopathology. Chap. xiii. Rickets in ancient Egypt, p. 397, plate LXXXVII. Lesions in the mummified animals of Egypt, p. 410. 64 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES Pellegrin, Jacques. — 1900. Radiographic appliquee a la determination de momies de poissons. Bull. Mus. d'Hist. Nat. Paris, VI, pp. 175-176. Poncet, A. — 1908. Deformations osseuses pathologiques, pp. 26-32, illus. Archives du Museum d'Hist. Nat. de Lyon, in "La fauna momifiee de l'ancienne Egypte." Ruffer, Marc Armand. — 1912. Notes on Two Egyptian Mummies Dating from the Persian Occupation of Egypt. In Studies in the Paleopathology of Egypt, 1923, pp. 127-138. Imitation mummy shown in plate XXXVIII. Savigny, J. C. — 1805. Histoire naturelle et mythologique de l'lbis. Paris. Smith, G. Elliot and Dawson, W. R. — 1924. Egyptian Texts Relating to Embalming, in Egyptian Mummies, chap. Ill, pp. 45-56, illus. Embalming according to Herodotus and later authors in chap. IV. Spiegelberg— 1920. Study of the Apis Bull's Embalming. Aegyptische Zeitschrift, LVI, Iff. Pettigrew, Th. J. — 1834. A History of Egyptian Mummies and an Account of the Worship and Embalming of the Sacred Animals by Egyptians, with remarks on the funeral ceremonies of different nations and observations on the mummies of the Canary Islands, of the ancient Peruvians, Burman priests, etc., London. B. Peruvian Animals Eaton, George P.— 1916. The Collection of Osteological Material from Machu Picchu. Memoirs Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sciences, New Haven, V, pp. 1-96. 39 plates. Dog: pp. 65, 107. Nehring, A. — The Inca Dog. In Reiss and Stiibel, The Necropolis of Ancon, III, plates CXVII-CXIX. Rivero, Mariano Edward and von Tschudi, John James.— 1851-54. Peruvian Antiqui- ties, translated into English from the original Spanish by Francis L. Hawks. Human mummies shown in plates I-VIa. Parrot in plate VI. INDEX Abscesses, dental, 29, 47 Aleutian Islands, mummies of, 17 Ancon, Peru, site of an ancient necropolis, 28, 29,39 Animal mummies, of Egypt, 53; of Peru, 63 Ankylosis, 21 Apes, rickets and osteitis deformans in, 56 Arteriosclerosis, hardening of the arteries, 20; in Egypt, 22; in Peru, 47 Artery, interosseous, in Egyptian, 21 Arthritides, diseases of the joints, 26, 46 Auditory meatus, 32, 33 Aural exostoses, small tumors in ears, 32 Avifauna, mummified in Egypt, 57 Aymara deformation in Peru, 50 Baboon, mummified, diseased, 56, 60 Baby, crocodile, 58, 60 Baby, human, see Infants Baby of Queen Maker!, 19 Baessler, Arthur, 15 Bark rope, in binding mummy packs, 35 Basket-Maker caves, natural mummies in, 18 Baudouin, Marcel, 16 Blackfoot Indian child, 18 Bull, sacred in Egypt, embalming of, 56 Burials, extended, 19; folded, 19; tree, 18 Button osteomae on skulls, 33 Calculi, absence from mummies, 27 Calculus, salivary on teeth, 47 Canopic jars, 54 Caries difficult to detect in mummies, 47 Cats, embalmed in Egypt, 57 Caves, Basket-Maker, 18 ; Mammoth, mummy in, 18 Cedar oil, 54 Cobra, in mummified fauna of Egypt, 53, 59 Coca leaves in child burial, 43 Cocaine, 48 Coccyx, freedom from disease, 21 Crocodiles, worship and mummification in Egypt, 59, 60 Dall, W. H., on North American mummies, 17 Dawson, Warren R., 16, 55 Deafness, due to obstruction of passages, 52 Dje Mukesankh, 25 Dog, Inca, 63 Eaton, George F., on ancient Peruvians, 16 Embalming, technique of, 54 Eskimo, diseases of on St. Lawrence Island, 22,32 Falcon, mummified in Egypt, 61 Fish, mummified in Egypt, 59 Fistula, antral, 31 Fractures, treatment of in Peru, 49 Gaillard, Claude, on mummified fauna of Egypt, 57 Goose, mummified in Egypt, 62 Gourds in pre-Columbian Peruvian burials, 28,35 Hawk, mummified in Egypt, 58, 62 Hrdlicka, A., on pre-Columbian diseases in Peru, 46 Hydrocephalus, in Peruvian infant, 28, 46 Hyla in Egypt, 53 Hyperostosis cranii in Peru, 32 Ibis, sacred, mummified in Egypt, 58 Imitation or false mummies, 55 Impactions, dental, 37, 48 Infants, 19, 23, 34, 46 Injuries to head, club, 30; mace, 30, 49 Insectivores in mummified fauna of Egypt, 53 Insects in Egypt, 53 Jackals, 57 Joints, diseases of, 26 Kadiak Archipelago, mummies in, 17 Kite, mummified raptorial bird, 57, 61 Knock-knees, 22 Kyphosis in mummy, 21 Latopolis, the town of the perch worship, 59 Leishmaniosis, uta, 51 Leontiasis, same as osteitis deformans or Paget's disease, 56, 60 Ligaments, ossification of, 21 Linen, use of in embalming, 55 Liver, diseases of, 27 Lizards, mummified in Egypt, 59 Lortet, Victor, authority on mummified fauna of Egypt, 53, 60 MacCurdy, G. G., 27 Mace injury, 30 Machu Picchu, lost city in the Andes, 16 Maize, ears of in ancient Peruvian mummy packs, 34, 35 Makeri, Queen, 19 Mammals, mummified in ancient Egypt, 53,56 Mastoiditis, in ancient Peru, 34, 52 Mastoids, condition of in Peru, 33, 34 Means, H. J., on mound-builders, 16 Men, an Egyptian woman of this name, 25 Metal, in mummy packs from Peru, 34, 35 Mollusks in ancient Egyptian fauna, 59 Mummies, animal in Egypt, 53; animal in Peru, 63; human, in Egypt and Peru, 20; North American, 17; Peruvian, 28 65 66 ROENTGENOLOGIC STUDIES OF MUMMIES Mummification, cost of for animals, 55; in Egypt, 19; of infants, 19; in Peru, 19 Mushroom head of femur, 31, 32 Mylodon, skull of, 16 Nasal septum, diseases of in Peru, 33 Natron, 54 Nehring, A., on Peruvian animals, 63 Neoplasms, see Tumors Niter, 54 Nothrotherium, X-ray of skull of, 16 Oils, used in embalming, 54 Olivella shells in mummy packs, 40 Oral diseases, 26 Osteitis, absorptive, see Pyorrhea Osteitis deformans, 56, 60 Osteoma, auditory, 33 Osteoporosis, in Peruvian children, 32, 38 Otitis media, 33, 52 Otosclerosis, 52 Paget's disease, 56, 60 Papio anubis, 56 Parakas, Peru, mummy mining in, 20 Pedi Amon, an ancient Egyptian youth, 23 Pediatrics, pre-Columbian, 45 Perch, a Nile fish in mummified fauna, 59 Pitch, used in embalming in Egypt, 24 Pituitary fossa, 21 Poker spine in Eskimo, 22 Poncet, on diseases of apes, 56 Pottery included in mummy packs, 28 Pyorrhea alveolaris, 20, 26, 48 Ramses III, 15 Rana, a frog in ancient Egypt, 53 Reptiles, mummified in Egypt, 58 Resins, 54 Reutter, L., on embalming, 20 Rickets, doubtful evidence of, 13, 22 Rope, bark, 35; fiber, used in tying mummy packs, 34, 42 Rouillon, Andr6, 16 Ruffer, M. A., 26 Salt, used in embalming in Egypt, 54 Serpents, mummified in bundles, 59 Sinuses, frontal, 31; maxillary, 31 Smith, G. Elliot, on Egyptian mummies, 15 Snure, Henry, on X-rays of sloth, 16 Spine, vertebral, curvature of, 23; poker, 22 Spondylitis deformans, 21, 22 Syphilis, absence of in ancient times, 52 Tartar formation, 47 Teeth, diseases of, 47 Tello, Julio C, 20 Toad in Egypt, 53 Trepanation, double, in Peru, 37, 50 Trepanning in Peru, 49 Tumors, 29, 32, 49 Turtle, 54 Tuthmosis I and IV, 15 Uta, a phase of leishmaniosis, 51 Vandalism, 19, 56 Verrill, A. Hyatt, 63 Vulture, 62, 63 Williams, Herbert U., 47 Wood, Frank E., 49 / Wood-Jones, F., 16 - > b 5 I 1 3 — 1 s a _ 3 -c Eh 1 I! s I B I |l z o 1 4 H£k 7+5/7 (6'X?*) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate II WOMAN FROM PREDYNASTIC BURIAL, EGYPT J f f \3 WO Head and trunk i&^-b, ft«*« Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate III m> * 74&# far***? /V£fr * 7i /„ > '3f'Xl SAME WOMAN AS PLATE II 1. Right mastoid. 2. Hand and wrist Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate IV m * 74/szo SAME WOMAN AS PLATE II Vertebral column showing lesions Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate V /» ** 7VSZ/ SAME WOMAN AS PLATE II Lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate VI SAME WOMAN AS PLATE II Ossification in anterior longitudinal ligament Field Museum of Natural Hiatory Anthropology, Momoira, Vol. Ill, Plate VII POKER SPINE OF AN ESKIMO Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate VIII TORSO OF MUMMY, EGYPT Long shadow may indicate liver 002.J (A ( ~/c ^>&/e ) -Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate IX "X 7") MUMMY, EGYPT Detail showing genu valgum A ! Field Museum of Natural History Anthropolofty, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate X PERIOD, EGYPT Jl/j-/f <& *7 A s s > i "o S « s SB SB "8 8 fc * $ ^ V ^ K \ -v. s — si &, « o 1 S5 "3 « S Q £ a* o £ 6 ^5oozr A ■ c/ | *v> t -n I > H I > i o I s % I I c < 55 ■8 s 2 s * a » Q J o < i* o >< % P. s > I S I H P 5 s o s 2 1 2 I § E OS a S "s ■ 1 >. « o S « J h 1 O H « •= S if S3 H i J 0017 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XVI CHILD MUMMIES, ROMAN PERIOD, EGYPT 1. Boy. 2. His sister •-K (3i * rj Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XVII (7i *?) HEAD OF MUMMY, YOUNG WOMAN, EGYPT The complete mummy is in the Museum's collection Jooo^ Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XVIII (7* i) MUMMY HEAD WITH CARTONNAGE, EGYPT /// * 7+6 W (jiX3l) //?& * 74 £*^ (3ix3l) 3 4 SKULLS, PERU 1. Imparted lower right, third molar. 2. Pyorrhea and salivary calculus. 3. Edentulous palate. 4. Effects of soft tumor on palate Field Museum nt Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXV fifth * JC/ UfC* # PARTS OF SKULLS OF MUMMIES, PERU 1-2. Pyorrhea. 3. Pyorrhea and caries Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXVI /Kg* * 7V6S-? (4i> 6j SKULLS, PERU 1. Mam injury. 2. Trepanning Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXVII [4k x&) SKULLS, PERU 1. Mace injury. 2. Trepanning Field Muslim of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXVIII Afc* * 7M77- @f xs) #** * 7 ft 77-0 SKULLS, PERU 1. Caries. 2. Antral fistula. 3. Calculus Field Musoum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXIX Net- # 7£* * 747S0 -F (2iX3iJ a >*e- + 74 7 S~0 ~Xt£) CRANIAL TUMOR ON SKULL, PERU Field Museum of Natural History A/£6- * 7^/7^/ -A x6>i) Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXXIV ESKIMO AND PREHISTORIC PERUVIAN SKULLS Syphilitic lesions in Eskimo skull. 2. Osteoporosis in prehistoric Peruvian skull Fiold Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plato XXXV &* x V i) VCh tie* * 7y7?y SKULLS, PERU 1-3. External auditory passages Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXXVI i£( * 7V770 ■ W 7?7J~f (Jtx fy i) SKULLS, PERU 1-3. Ear disturbances Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXXVIII J/£6> *747S? Mb * 7? 76/ SKULLS, PERU 1. Ear disturbance. 2. Mastoid. 3. Nasal disturbance Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XXXIX 06, * 7V76JL A/{T6r 7V7L 3 ; 7 I 1 Z ■s s fc >> ■s P s - tj Q « I S E S .5 6 > £ s 3 .s x 1 3 £ 3 I a I I 5 8 P » Q § a ^ o S o s 2 g I i V $ ^ > - > I ! 3 i I x p ft. Q 3 a o s. 0 >i a i 9 > J E « < 2 •3 E \ p H w a. 5 » a; d e a 8 w .S SI ■ s 5 s & Afc* * -749^0-4 (7*7) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate XLVII MUMMY OF INFANT, PERU Wrapped in cloth and covered with rush mat s I a •8 > i I 1 •a b PS P E-" Z 55 8 o z o >< a s 5 l Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plato XLIX MUMMY OF INFANT, PERU Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate L MUMMY OP INFANT, PERU (Si * f) X I 8 5 7. I E $ -a Q § (J *rt S B O £ fa 3 ° a S a i & > ^ & ^ a 33 2 •O2 ■St* p OS Q « .5 2 I a I a 06 (7X9) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LIII MUMMIES, PERU Adult, youth, and infant included in same package > I— I 5 •3 O "S\ MV CS^'^b I x 1 3 £ | 3 7. 5 SI c a- H E-i a g 3 H o a £ s s! 9- « „• h O CO 9 5 a o ?: » p ?: H 0 « > > i £ 4) a ) ^ ^ \ i i •a > < 0 3 a C ° S - « W § & ft. < O H u H W Q 5 1 s i I ! a I I -to D tf w a, 7? H 8 < ft. 9 i •J < o p > HI 15 < PL. 7. s ►J < £ R H m & VW f Field Museum of Natural History C* x sty ) Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LIX a/^ * 7*770 f4is>4) DEFORMED SKULLS OF INCAS, PERU Showing trepanning fFt # V^ 97/ fry1 * 0) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LX SKULL OF ADULT, PERU 1. Showing large trepanning. 2. Detail of Fig. 1 with evidences of infection and slight healing /ft * 7tf?* (4i X6 -A) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXI ■'. :-v •■ v '. . - ' v.* SKULL OF CHILD, PERU 1. Showing unusual cranial lesion and osteoporosis. 2. Detail of Fig. 1 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXII SKULLS OF ADULTS, PERU 1. Showing trepanning in state of advanced healing. 2. Showing healed, depressed area due to injury or trepanning Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXIII MUMMIFIED BABOON SKULL, EGYPT Drawing fa**) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXIV DISEASED BONES OF MUMMIFIED BABOON, EGYPT Drawing //<* * 7^97^-^ fix /0) Field Museum of Natural History M& * 7417J1 6rr^ Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXV Mli /C* MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, EGYPT (Photographs) 1. Baby crocodile. 2. Imitation mummy of a kitten; no skeleton in package. 8. Imitation mummy of a gazelle; only horns in package m * 7*?7f-# Field Museum of Natural History $*P I ¥ A/Ef * 7??77~/? Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXVI (sx?J 1 2 MUMMY OF A CAT, EGYPT 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram showing complete skeleton Field Museum of Natural History #* *- 7*fs/ Qx? Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXVII MUMMY OF A CAT, EGYPT 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram showing complete skeleton /l& # Field Museum of Natural History 71/ ffc frfr *F 7 8 1 N ^b * $ Eh "J H Q £ ft fc ^ ^ 8 a •3 S | 5 8 z* O ei E-> . •< ■S Ei o. A£(- =#" /Y77V (6 x?) Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXXII PHOTOGRAPH OF MUMMY OF A GOOSE, EGYPT pet * 7?rr/ Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXXIII ROENTGENOGRAM OF A GOOSE SHOWN IN PRECEDING PLATE Field Museum of Natural History M6 # 7f?3* '3iXf) J>£6 <# 7?ff3 Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXXIV «T \3 t %K I **«e* MUMMY OF A HAWK, EGYPT 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram A/ft* 7??9? #£* *7vrfS Field Museum of Natural History Ux?) (3ix?) AnthropoloRy, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXXV *&& MUMMY OF A RAPTORIAL BIRD, EGYPT 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram ($iXf) *£fi * 7V?fi. -J3 Field Museum of Natural History Anthropology, Memoirs, Vol. Ill, Plate LXXVI 1 I MUMMY OF A VULTURE, EGYPT 1. Photograph. 2. Roentgenogram