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THE ROYAL

NATURAL HISTORY

THE ROYAL
NATURAL HISTORY

EDITED Br

RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.G.S., F.Z.S., Etc.

WITH PREFftGE BY

P. L. SCLATER, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. O.

SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON

ILLUSTRATED WITH

Seventy-tu'o Coloured Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings

W. KUHXERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF,
GAilBIER BOLTON, F.Z.S.: AND JUNY OTHEKS

fc-

LONDON
FEEDER I CK WARNE & CO.

AND NEW YORK

1893-94

[All Riijldi Reserved}

UOSRISOK A-VD GIBB, PRINTERS, EDI>-BrRCH.

TUB KIEI.D VOLE

PREFACE

rnHERE appears to be no limit to the demand for popular works on
Natural History in these days, especially if they be accompanied by well-
executed Illustrations. There can be little doubt, therefore, that The Royal
Natural History will meet with a favourable reception, and, so far as I am
acquainted with it, I have great confidence in commending it to mj' bi-other
naturalists.

The text has been planned in such a way as to render it available not onlj^
for general information about the objects described in it, but also as a guide
to their classification : and on such lines it will indeed be of priceless value to the
travelling naturalist an<l to the resident in foreign countries. Applications for

vi PREFACE

advice as to a <,'oocl general book on Natural Historj' are amongst those very
frequently to be found in the foreign letter-box of the Secretary of the Zoological
Society of London, and it will be a great satisfaction to him to be able to answer
them in a definite wav.

As regards the Illustrations to be employed in the present work, there need not
be any apprehension as to their fitness for the purpose. They are mainly drawn
from what is newest and most satisfactory in the current and largely augmented
edition of Brehm's Tierleben, which is familiar to naturalists as one of the best
illustrated works on popular Xatural Historj' ever issued. Specht and Miitzel,
for instance, to whose artistic pencils a large proportion of these pictures are due,
are well known as being among the most charming portrayers of animal life of
the present day, rivalling even Joseph Wolf and Keulemans in their .sketches ;
and many of the other illustratore are of equally favourable reputation. Moi'eover,
to this nucleus of acknowledged excellence there have been added many original
drawings and engravings of a similar standard of pictorial merit, including not
a few electrot\-pes from the Procecdintjs of the Zoological Society and other
recognised sources of recent and trustworthy animal portraiture.

The public are much indebted to private entei-prise for ventures of such
magnitude as The Royal Natural History, in which, on an unusually wide
scale, there is a genuine endeavour to give the results of modern investigation in a
convenient and appropriate form, worthy in every respect of the subject, and under
such arrangements as practically place the volumes within eveiybody's reacL

The study of Natural History has always been deservedly popular with
young and ol<l ; its interest and its educational value as an incentive to thought
and as a stimulant to observational power have ever held high place. The whole
civilised world gains by any addition to the facilities of its pui-suit, and by any

PREFACE vii

enterprise that promotes inquiry into the structure and conditions of existence
of the breathing myriads around us.

Tlie Publishers have, I think, very wisely determined to devote a rather large
proportion of the six volumes of The Royal Natural Histwy to the Mammalian
class. Mammals, as of all the animal kingdom approaching man most nearly
in structure, are naturally of the greatest interest to him ; thej* are, moreover, in
most cases, the first objects likely to attract notice in a strange country, though on
this point it nuist be admitted that in some parts of the world Birds run them
hard. It can, however, be no matter of complaint on the part of the public in
general if two volumes and a half of Tlie Royal Natural History are devoted to
Mammals.

Finally, I may remark that it is now more than ten j-eai-s ago since the last

general work of Xatural History of this character was published in this country.

Science moves fast nowadays, and during the past ten years numerous and

remarkable discoveries have been made in every branch of zoology. These require

to be annexed and incorporated in a new work. Knowing the energetic character

of the Editor, how ably he is suppoi-ted in his task, and how well acquainted he

is with what is going on in every part of the zoological world, I have little

doubt that The Royal Natural History will be quite up to the present level of

information in every branch of this wide subject, and will form a Reference Work

of the highest value.

P. L. SCLATER.

3 Hanover Square, London, W.

NOTE

rpHE Editor desires to take this opportunity of stating that in such portions
of the work as are not from his own pen, the Chapters will be signed
by their respective authors. His thanks may, at the same time, be offered to
the Publication Committee of the Zoological Society of Loxdox for the
kind permission afforded to make use of numerous figures from the Society's
publications ; and they are likewise due to Messrs. Macmillan, Mr. John Murray,
Mr. T. Southwell, and Mr. Rowland Ward for similar permission.

FOX-TERRIER "SPOT," THE PROPERTY OF H.M. THE QUEEX.

CONTENTS

MAMMALS

CHAPTER I. — Geseral Characteristics of Mammals.

P40E

Principles of Classification— Genera, Families, Orders, and Classes— Structure of Vertebrates
—Characteristics of Mammals — External Covering — Skeleton — Teeth — Importance of
Mammals — Their Past History — Mammalian Orders, ..... 1

CHAPTER II. — Apes, Monkeys, and Lemdrs {Primates).

The Man-like Apes (Simiida'). — General Characteristics — Distribution — Special Features —
Chimpanzee — Bald Chimpanzee — "SaUy" — "Mafuka"— Gorilla — Orang-Utan— Fossil
Ape.s — Gibbons— Siamang — White-Handed Gibbon — Hoolock— Agile Gibbon — Wou-
Wou— FossU Gibbons, . . . . . . . . .14

CHAPTER III.— Apes, Moxkeys, and Lemurs, — continued.

The Old-World Monkeys and Babooxs (Cercopithecidw). — Structure — Distribution —
Laiigurs (Scmnopithccus) — Hanuman — Himalayan Langur — Madras Langur — Banded
Leaf-Monkey— Xegro Monkey — Crested Lutong— Nilgiri Langur— Capped Langur—
Dusky Leaf-Monkey — Hose's Langur — Douc— Tibetan Langur— Fossil Langurs—
Proboscis Monkey (iVa^aiis) —Thumbless Monkeys (C'o/oftits)— Guereza — Black Colob—
King Monkey— Ursine Colob— White-Thighed Colob— Bay Colob— Crested Colob, . 66

CHAPTER IV.— Apes, JIoskeys, and Lemurs,— conhnwerf.

The Old-World Monkeys and Baboons, — continued.— The Guenons {Cercopithecus)—
Talapoin Monkey— Malbrouck Monkey— Vervet—Grivet— Green Monkey— Mozam-
bique Monkey— Patas and Xisnas Monkeys— Sykes's Monkey— Mona Monkey— Diana
Monkey- OtherSpecies— Pluto Monkey— Moustache Monkey —Hocheur—White-Xosed
Monkey— Ludio—Mangalieys, or White-Eyelid Monkeys (Cercocehis)— Sooty Maugabey
—Grey -Cheeked Mangabey — Macaques p/nracj^s)- Bonnet Monkey— Crab-Eating
Macaque— Lion-Tailed Monkey— Bengal Monkey— Pig-Tailed Monkey— Burmese Pig-
Tailed Monkey— Brown Stump-Tailed Monkey— Magot, or Barbary Macaque— Its
Habits at Gibraltar— E.\tinct Macaques— Black Ape (Cynopithecusy—GeUda. Baboon
(The)opithec us)— Tnie Baboons (Ci/7iocf/)/ia?it6')— Arabian or Sacred Baboon— Chacma—
Anubis Baboon— Yellow Baboon— Guinea Baboon— Mandrill— Drill —Extinct Baboons, 92

CHAPTER v.— Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs,- co»(inMerf.
The American Monkeys (Ccfci^fB). —Distinctive Characters- Sapajous, or Capuchins (Cebus)
— 'ttliite-Cheeked Sapajou— Bro\^-n Sapajou— Slender Sapajou— Weeper Sapajou—

CONTENTS

PAGE

White-Fronted Sapajou — Wliite-Tliroated, Smooth-Headed, and Crested Sapajous —
Woolly Monkeys {Layothrix} — Woolly Spider-Monkeys (iVMrft-s) — Spider-Monkeys
(yl(eics)— Red-Faced Spider Monkey — Other Species — Variegated Spider-Monkey —
Douroucolis (Xydijnthecus) — Three-Banded Douroucoli — Other Species — Squirrel
Monkeys (Chriisothi-ix) — Common Squirrel-Monkey — Short -Tailed Squirrel-Monkey —
Black-Tailed Squirrel-Monkey— Titi Monkeys— Red Titi— Collared Titi— Moloch Titi
—Black-Fronted Titi— Black-Handed Titi— Saki Monkeys (PiV/icrjVi)- White-Headed
Saki — Humboldt's Saki— Red-Backed Saki— Black Saki — Wiite-Xosed Saki — Uakari
Monkej-s (Z/acaria)— Bald Uakari — Red-Faced Uakari — Black-Headed Uakari —
Howling Monkeys (Mijcefi's) — Black Howler — Vera Cruz Howler — Red Howler —
Brown Howler — Mantled Howler— Fossil American Monkeys, . . . .144

CHAPTER VI. — Apes, Moxkey.s, and Lkuvrs,— continued.

The Marmosets (Hapalida'). — Distinctive Characters — Sliort-Tusked Marmosets (Hapale) —
Common Marmoset — Black-Eared and White-Eared Species— Silver Marmoset— Black-
Tailed Marmoset — Pigmy Marmoset —Long-Tusked Marmosets, or Tamarins (Midas)
— Kegro-Tamarin — Red-Handed Tamarin — Brown-Handed Tamarin — Moustached
Tamarin— Pinche — Silkv Marmoset, ....... 188

CHAPTER VII.— Apes, Monkeys, axd Lemxius,— continued.

The Lemurs (Lemurida;). — Characteristics — Indri Lemur (Indris) — Propitheques, or Sifakas
(Pi-opithecus) — Diademed Sifaka — Verreaux's Sifaka — Crowned Sifaka — A vain Lemur
(Arahis) — True Lemurs (Lemur) — Ring-Tailed Lemur — Red-Fronted Leiuur —
Mungoose Lemur — White-Fronted and Black-Fronted Species — Black Lemur — Ruffed
Lemur — Gentle Lemur (Htqmlcmur) — Weasel-Lemur (LepidoUmtir) — Mouse-Lemurs
(Chirogaleus) — Their Various Species — Galagos, or African Lemurs (Galaijo) — Great
(lalago — Garnett's Galago — Allen's Galago — Senegal Galago — Demidoft's Galiigo- Slow
Lemurs, or Loris (Nycticehus and Loris) — Common Loris — Slender Loris — Pottos, or
African Slow Lemurs (Pcr(«/(V(ini.«)— Bosnian's Potto — Awantilio — Fossil Lemurs, . 199

CHAPTER VIII. — Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs, — concluded.

The Tarsier and the Aye- Aye. — The Tarsier (Tarsius)— Its, Peculiarities of Structure, and
Mode of Life— The Aye-Aye (C'hiromys) — Its Rodent-like Teeth — General Structure
and Appearance — Food and Habits, ....... 237

CHAPTER IX.— Bats,— Order Chiroptera.

Their Flight — Structure — Migration.s — Distribution — Fruit-Bats (Pteropodidw) — Common
Fruit-Bats, or Fox-Bats (P(eroj«(s)— Tailed Fox -Bats (A'fl«(/mr;7!/!'n)— Epauletted Fruit-
Bats (Epomophorus) — Short-Nosed Fruit-Bat.-; (C')/HO/iJer»s)— Tube-Xosed Fruit-Bats
(Harpyiu) — Cu.sped - Toothed Fruit - Bat (Ptemlopex) — Long - Tongued Fruit-Bats
(Carponycteris), .......... 247

CHAPTER X.—^Aia— continued.

The Insect-Eating Bats (il/i'crae/i/ro^J^era).— Distinctive Features— Horseshoe and Leaf-
Xosed Bats (RhinolopJiida;)—Yahe Vampire-Bats and their Allies (Nycteridev) — Typical
Bats (rcs^Krii'/iOHiWd')— Long-Eared Bats — Barbastelle, Pipistrelle, Noctule, and
Serotine— Parti-Coloured Bat— Silver-Haired Bat— Hoary Bat and Red Bat— Tube-
Xosed Bats— Daubenton's Bat, Xatterer's Bat, etc.— Schreiber's Bat— Sucker-Footed
Bats, ........... 262

COXTEXTS xi

PAGE

CHAPTER XL— Bats— co«c?«de(f.

The Free-Tailed Insectivorous Bats— Smooth-Nosed Free-Tailed Bats (Emballonuridw) —
Slieath-Tailed Bats {E mbathn ura) — Pouch-Winged Bats {Saccoptei-yx) — Tondj-Bats
(Tapho-ous) — White Bats {Dididurus) — Hare-Lijjped Bats {Noctilio) — Long-Tailed Bat
(Rhinoponta) — Mastiff-Bats QIolossus) — Naked Bat (Chiromeles) — Wrinkled-Lipped Bats
(A'yctinomus) — New Zealand Bat (Mystacops) — Vampire Bats (Fhyllostomatida;) — Chin-
Leafed Bats (Chilonycteris and Morinops) — Harmless Vampires (Vampirus) — Javelin
Bats (PhyllnMoma) — Long-Tongiied Vampires (Glossopharia) — Short-Nosed Vampires
(^rh'icits)— Blood-Sucking Vampires (Dtsmodiis and Diphylla) — Fossil Bats, . . 289

CHAPTER XIL-The Ixsectivores,— Order /»werfn-ora.

Characteristics of the Group — Cobegos, or Kaguans (Gnleojntheddte) — Philippine Cobego —
Tree-Shrews, or Tupaias (TupaiidfE) — Pen-Tailed Tree-Shrew (Ptilocercus) — Fossil Tree-
Shrews — Jumping Shrews (Macroscelididre) — Typical Forms {Macrosceles) — Rock
Jumping Shrew — Long-Nosed Jumjiing Shrew (Rhyachocyon) — Its Habits — Hedgehogs
and Gymniiras (Erinaceidce) — Hedgehogs (Eriitaceus) — African S])ecies— Extinct Repre-
sentatives— (Jymnura.s(6'i/)HH «)•<() — Extinct Forms — Shrews (.S'orj'ciW'c) — Typical Shrews
(Sorej:) — Common Shrew — Lesser Shrew — Aljiine Shrew — North American Shrews —
Short-Tailed, or Earless Shrews (Bhtrina) — Water-Shrew (Crossopus) — Musk-Shrews
{Crocidura) — Burrowing Shrews (A nurosorex) — Swimnung Shrews (Chimarroyale) — Web-
Footed Shrew {Xectoyale) — Desmans and Moles (Talpidce) — Desmans {Myogale) — •
Russian Desman — Pyrenean Desman — Mole-Shrews (JJrotrichus) — Web-Footed Moles
{Smlops) — Hairy -Tailed Moles (Scapauits) — Star-Nosed Mole (Condylura) — The True
Moles (Tiilpa) — Extinct Species — Yellow-tiiiled Mole — The Tenrecs {Gentetidee) — Struc-
tural Fe;itures — Common Tenrec {Gtntetes) — Streaked Tenrec (Hemicentetes) — Hedgehog
Tenrecs (Erkulits) — Long-Tailed Tenrecs (Microgale) — Rice-Tenrecs {Oryzorides) —
Solenodons (So/e;iO(Jo)i<!y(B)— Haytian Solenodon — Cuban Solenodon — The Potamogale
(Potamogalidw) — The Geogale — The Golden Moles (Ghrysochloridce), . . . 307

CHAPTER XIIL— The Carnivores,— Order Carnivora.

The Cat-Tribe (Ft/iVte)- General Characteristics — Distincti\-e Features of the Cat Tribe —
The Lion — Present and Past Distribution — Varieties — Habits — Its Roar — Its Prey —
Perils of Lion-Hunting — The Tiger — Habits and Haunts — Partiality for W^ater — Its
Prey — Loss Inflicted on Cattle-Owners — Man-Eating Tigers — Their Victims— Modes of
Destroying Tigers — The Leopard — Its Coloration and Characteristics — Black and 'WHiite
Leoi)ards— Distribution — Mode of Life and Haunts— Partiality for Dogs — Leopard-
Hunting and Trapping — Snow-Leopard, or Ounce— Distribution and Haliits — Jaguar
— Distinctive Features and Dimensions— Its Prey — Animosity to the Puma— Lassoing
Jaguars — Puma— Its Colour and Size — Adaptability to Climates — Attacks on Horses —
Gentleness to Man— Food and Habits— Fossil Pumas— Clouded Leopard— Marbled Cat
— Golden Cat — Fishing Cat— Its Habits and Daring — Leopard-Cat — Serval— Rusty-
Si)0tted Cat — Flat-Headed Cat — Ocelot — Its Remarkable Variability — Margay —
Jaguarondi— Eyra — Its Weasel-like Form — Colocollo— Caffre, or Eg}-ptian Cat — Its
Relation to Domestic Cats— Wild Cat — Its Present Rarity in Britain — Fierceness of its
Disposition— Pallas's Cat— Indian Desert Cat— Domestic Cats— Different Views as to
their Origin — Various Colours — Persian, or Angora Breed — Siamese Cat — Manx Cat
— Mombas Cat— Pampas Cat— Jungle-Cat— Caracal— Lynx— Distribution and Races
of Lynxes— Northern Lynx— Canada Lynx— Bay Lynx— Pardine Lynx— Hunting-
Leopard (C'i/?iff?HrHs)— Name Chita not exclusively applicable to this Species— Capturing
Black-Buck with Tamed Huuting-Leojiards— Extinct Cats, .... 349

xu

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIV.— Carnivores,— fonimuerf.
Civets, Aard-Wolf, and Ht^xas.— The Civet Tribe (FifemWw)— Fossa {prypio-proda)—
True Civets ( Firerra )— African Civet — Indian Civet — Burmese Civet— Javan Civet —
Basse— Genets (GeneHn)- Linsangs (Linsany) — Palm-Civets (Pnratfoxwrw;,-)— Indian
Palm-Civet— Malay Palm-Civets— Cliincse Palm-Civet— Small-Toothed Palm-Civets
(Ardogak) — Hemigales {HemigaU) — African Palm-Civet (A'ajirfuiw) — Binturong
(ylrrfirfis)— Cynogale {C'iinogak)—ll\mg,ooses (fl«ycsf<;s)— Egj-ptian Mungoose— Indian
Mungoose, and its Encounters with Snakes — Introduction of llimgooses into Sugar
Plantations— Crab-EatingMungoose— Other Species— Four-Toed Mungooses(C!/nic<is) —
Smooth-XosedMungooses(i?/»'HO(;a?<;) — Cusimanse (CcossnrcftHs) — The Meerkat (SHnca/a)
and its Interesting Habits — Madagascar Mungooses (Galididis and Eupleres) — Extinct
Civet-like Animals— Aard-Wolf (rroteleidce)—Kyxnas (iy;/<y«irf(s)— Characteristics-
Striped Hyaena— Bro-n-n Hytena — Spotted Hyscna- Extinct Species,

448

CHAPTER XV.— Carnivores

i-ontinued.

The Dog Tribe {Canido!). — General Characteristics, Distribution and Habits — Extent of the
• Genus {C'anis) — The WoK — Its Numerous Varieties and Wide Distribution — Habits
— Indian Wolf — Coyote— Antarctic Wolf — Kaberu— JackaLs — Black-Backed Jackal —
Side-Striped Jackal — Dingo — Domestic Dogs — Origin — Eskimo Dog — Hare Indian Dog
— Pomeranian Dog — Sheep-Dog — Collie — Drover's Dog — Pariah Dogs — English Grey-
hound— Italian Greyhound — Deerhound — Irish Wolf-Dogs — Other Greyhounds-
Hairless Dogs — Lurchers — Field-Spaniels— Irish Water-Spaniel — Setters — Retrievers

— Newfoundlands — Bloodhound — Staghound — Foxhound — Harrier — Otterhound —
Beagle — Turnspit — Dachshund — Pointer — Dalmatian Dog — Mastiff— BiUl-Dog — BuU-
Terrier — Boarhound — Pugs — Tibet Dog— Fox-Terrier — Irish Terrier — Skye-Terrier —
Dandie Dinmont — Yorkshire Terrier — English Terrier — Poodle — Maltese Dog —
Jlexican Lap-Dog — Asiatic Wild Dog — Siberian Wild Dog — Indian Wild Dog — Malay
Wild Dog — Extinct Specie.s — Maned Wolf — Azara's Wild Dog — Crab-Eating Dog —
Short -Eared Dog — Raccoon Dog — The Foxes — The Common Fox — Grey Fox — Kit Fox
Arctic Fox — Desert Fox — Corsac Fox — Indian Fox — Hoary Fox — Asse Fox — Pale Fox

— RuppeU's Fennec — Common Fennec — Cape Hunting-Dog (Lycaon) — Bush-Dog
{Idiajon) — Lalande's Dog (Odocyoti) — Extinct Dogs, .....

492

Index,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

COLOURED PLATES

Lion and Lioness,
Macaques,
Baboons, .
Fruit-Bats,
Web-Footed Shrews,
Tigress and Cubs,
Leopards,

Jaguar killing Tapir,
WjLD Cat,
Linsangs, .
Common Fox,
African Fennecs,

Frontispiece
Facing pafjc 112
128
256
331
' 373
387
394
422
456
557
568

PAGE PLATES

A Young Chimpanzee, .

Gorillas at Home,

Orangs in their Native Woods,

West African Green Monkeys,

Group op Douroucolis,

The Hammer-Headed Bat and the Xaked

Lion and Lioness,

Caracals Hunting,

Egyptian Mungooses, .

A Gathering of Striped Hy.«nas,

An Eskimo and his Dogs,

Bat,

Pa

9<!

19

39

47

96

167

246

348

434

467

484

511

TEXT ENGRAVINGS

The Royal Bengal Tiger,
Skeleton of Lion, .
Foot-Bones of a Mammal,
Human Skeleton, .
Teeth of the Dog, .
Skull of Pig,
Jaw of Fossil Marsupial,
Hands and Feet of Ajies a
Skeleton of Gorilla,

PAGE

PAGE

1

Head of Chimpanzee,

23

7

The Chimpanzee " Mafuka,"

28

8

The Chimpanzee " Sally," .

30

9

Head of " Mafuka,"

32

10

Side View of do. .

33

11

Young Gorilla at Play,

35

12

Head of Orang,

50

nd Monkeys,

15

Young Orangs and Gibbons,

55

17

White-Handed Gibbon, .

58

XIV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Hoolocks in a Bamboo Jungle,

63

The Yellow Baboon,

66

Hanuman Monkey, or Langur,

70

Negro Monkey,

76

The Douc, ....

82

Proboscis Monkey,

85

The Guereza Monkey,

88

Ursine Colob and Black Colob, .

90

Patas Monkey,

99

Mona Monkey and Diana Monkey,

101

Black-Bellied Monkey, .

103

Sooty Mangabey, .

106

Burmese Pig-Tailed Monkey,

108

The Bonnet Monkey,

110

The Lion-Tailed Monkej',

112

Bengal Monkey, .

114

The Pig-Tailed Monkey, .

116

The Magot,

118

Black Ape,

123

Gelada Baboon,

124

Arabian Baboon, .

128

Chacma Baboon, .

133

The Yellow Baboon,

137

The Mandrill,

139

The Drill, ....

141

Red-Faced Spider- Monkey,

145

Typical Spider-Monkeys, .

146

Group of Sapajous,

150

Horned, and Weeper Sapajou,

152

Humboldt's Woolly Monkey,

157

Woolly Spider-Monkey, .

159

The Chameck,

161

Variegated Spider-Monkey,

164

Common Squirrel-Monkey,

170

Head of Short-Tailed Squirrel-Monkey,

171

■Uliite-Headed Saki,

174

Humboldt's Saki, .

176

The Black Saki, .

177

Bald Uakari,

179

Black-Headed Uakari,

182

Head of Vera Cruz Howling Monkey,

183

The Black Howler,

184

Jaws of American Tertiary Monke\",

187

Group of Marmosets,

189

Silver Marmoset, .

192

The Pinche,

194

Silky Marmosets, .

197

Skeletons of Squirrel - Monkey anc

Lemurs, ....

200

Black Lemur and Young, .

202

Indri Lemur,

204

Head of Sifaka, .

206

Heads of Common and Smooth-Earec

Black Lemur, . . . .

210

The Ring-Tailed Lemur, .

The Mungoose Lemur,

The Black Lemur, .

Ruffed Lemur,

The Gentle Lemur,

Forked Mouse-Lemur,

Murine Mouse-Lemur,

The Great Galago, .

Senegal Galago,

The Common Loris,

Slender Loris, in Waking and Sleepinj

Postures,
The Slender Loris,
Sleeping Potto,
Bosnian's Potto,
The Awantibo,
Teeth of Extinct Lemuroid,
Tlie Tarsier,
The Aye-Aye,
The Tarsier, according to Dr. Guillemard
Skeleton of Bat,
Skeleton of Fruit-Bat,
Head of Wallace's Fo.\-Bat,
Kalong, or Malay Fox-Bat,
Collared Fox-Bat and Young,
Tube-Xosed Fruit-Bat,
Fruit-Bat, .
Greater Horseshoe Bat,
Head of Leaf-Nosed Bat, .
Face of Flower-Nosed Bat,
Head of False Vampire Bat,
The Long-Eared Bat,
The Barbastelle, .
The Pipistrelle,
The Noctule,
Head of Hoary Bat,
Head of Tube-Nosed Bat, .
Daubenton's Bat, .
Head of Tall-Oowned Bat,
Skeleton of Bat in Creeping Posture
Head of Tomb-Bat,
Long-Tailed Bat, .
Head of Mastiff-Bat,
Head of Female of the Naked Bat,
Head of Blaiuville's Chin-Leafed Bat
The Great Vampire-Bat, .
The Javelin- Vampire,
Head of Long-Tongued Vampire
Head of Centurion Bat,
Skeleton of Hedgehog,
The Cobego,

The Common Tree-Shrew,
Pen-Tailed Tree-Shrew, .
Cape Jumping-Shrew,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

XV

PAGE

Eock Jumping-Slirew,

317

The Common Hedgehog, .

319

Hedgehog and Young,

320

Eaffles's Gymnura,

322

Teeth of Swimming-Shrew,

323

Skeleton of Water-Shrew,

324

The Spider Musk-Slirew and Common

Shrew, ....

325

The Water-Shrew,

328

The Common Musk-Shrew,

329

Skeleton of Mole, .

332

Russian Desman.s, .

333

Fore-Foot of Mole,

337

The Common Mole,

338

Tritubercular Molar Tooth,

340

The Tenrec,

341

The Culjan Solenodon,

344

The Potamogale, .

34.5

Skeleton of Tiger, .

349

Skull of the Common Fox,

352

Flesh-Tooth of the Striped Hyscna,

353

Flesh-Tooth of an Extinct Dog-like Car

nivore, ....

353

Cape Maned Lion, .

358

Teeth of Sabre-Toothed Tiger, .

359

Lion at a Pool,

363

Maufless Lion from Senegal,

367

The Tiger and the Tigress,

373

The Bengal Tiger, .

376

The Struggle in the Stream,

384

The Leopard,

387

Black Leopard,

389

Leopard on the Prowl,

391

The Snow-Leopard,

393

The Puma, ....

398

The Clouded Leopard,

407

The Marbled Cat, .

409

The Fishing-Cat, .

410

The Leopard-Cat, .

412

The Serval,

414

The Ocelot,

417

The Margay,

418

The Eyra, ....

419

The Caffre Cat, .

421

The Domestic Cat,

426

The Angora Cat, .

428

The Pami>as Cat, .

431

The Jungle-Cat,

432

The Northern Lynx,

437

The European Lynx,

439

The Pardine Lynx,

441

The Hunting-Leopard,

443

Skull of Sabre-Toothed Cat,

447

Upper Jaw of the Indian Civet, .

449

PAGE

The Fossa, ..... 450

The Civet, . . . . .451
The Indian Civet, .... 452
The Basse, ..... 454
The Genet, .... 455

The Common Palm-Civet, . . 458

The Malay Palm-Civet, . . .460

The Chinese Palm-Civet, . . . 461
The Biuturong, .... 463

The Cynogale, . . . .464

The Indian Mungoose, . . . 469

The Crab-Eating Mungoose, . . 473

The Thick-Tailed Miuigoose, . 474
The Cusimanse, .... 475

The Banded Mungoose, . . . 476

The Meerkat, . . . .477

The Aard-Wolf, . . . .480

Skeleton of Spotted Hya;na, . . 481

Lower Jaw of an E.\tinct Hysena, . 482

The Brown Hyajna, . . . 487

The Spotted Hya;na, . . . 489
Teeth of Common Fox and Azara's Fox, . 493

Skeleton of Wolf, . . . .494

The Wolf, . . . .496

The Coyote, . . . .500

Tlie Jackal, . . . .503

The Black-Backed Jackal, . 505

The Side-Striped Jackal, . . . 506

Variety of the Side-Striped Jackal, . 507

The Dingo, . . .509

The Pomeranian Dog, . . . 517

Rough-Coated Collie-s, . . . 519

English Greyhound, . . . 521

Italian Greyhounds, . . . 523

Persian Greyhound, . . . 524
Clumber Spaniel, .... 526

Irish Setter, . . . .527

Newfoundland Dog, . . . 529

Rough St. Bernard, . . .530

Bloodhounds, . . . .531

Staghounds after a Chase, . . . 532

Foxhounds in Full Cry, . . . 533

The Otterhound, . . . .534

The Beagle, . . . .535

The Dachshund, . . . .536

Liver-and- White Pointer, . . . 537

The Bull-Dog, . . . .539

German Boarhounds, . . . 540

Pet Pugs, . . . . .541

Tibet Dog, . . . . .542

Welsh Terriers, . . . .544

Yorkshire Terrier, . . . 545

Smooth and Rough Terriers, . . 546

White and Black Poodles, . . .547

XVI

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Siberian Wild Dog,
Indian Wild Dog, .
Malay WUd Dog, .
Azara's Dog,
The Eaccoon-Dog, .
Skeleton of Fox, .
Arctic Foxes on the Ice,
Fox and Cubs,

PACE

PAGE

. 548

The Grey Fox,

561

. 550

Arctic Fox in Summer Dress,

563

. 551

Arctic Fox in Winter Dress,

564

554

The Corsac Fox, .

566

. 556

Cape Hunting-Dog,

570

557

Hunting-Dogs chasing Gemsbok, .

572

. 559

Lalande's Dog,

574

. 560

Foxhound, ....

576

THE liOYAL NATURAL HISTORY.

?>AJ^

MAMMALS.

CHAPTER I.

Gexeral Chakacteristics, — Class Mammalia.

Ix describing any group of objects, whetlier they be artificial or whether they be
natural, some method of classifying is absolutely essential to a right understanding
of their relations to one another; and nowhere is this more important than in
Natural History. To a certain extent such a classification is already made in our
ordinary language, since we are accustomed to divide the higher animals into several
distinct primary groups, under the names of Mammals or Quadi-upeds, Birds,
Reptiles, and Fishes ; and these primary groups coincide in the main with those
employed by zoologists. Such a popular classification depends almost entirely
upon similarity or dissimilarity of outward appearance and form ; and although
this is a good and dependable guide in manj^ cases, it is by no means always
trastworthy, and may, indeed, frequently lead us into serious error. For instance,
whales and dolphins are generally associated in the uninstructed mind with fishes,
Avhereas, as a studj'' of their internal structure at once reveals, they are reallj^
Mammals, which have been specially adapted for a purely aquatic life.

VOL. I. — I

2 MAMMALS.

To ariive, therefore, at a correct idea of the mutual i-elations and affinities of
animals, and thus to formulate a natural scheme of classification, it is absolutely
essential to have a certain knowledge of their internal anatomy, as well as of their
external appearance and their habits. Since, however, such intimate knowledge
can only be attained after a protracted coxu-se of study quite impossible for the
majority of persons to imdertake, it is una^'oidable that they must receive a good
deal on trust from those who have devoted their time to such studies. And j-et,
with a certain amount of attention, every reader should be able to comprehend
some of the main and leading charactei-s in the structure of animals, by means of
which they are classified and arranged in a series, wliich may either commence
(as in this work) with the highest and descend to the lowest, or may take the
opposite direction.

Species and In regard to classification, we commonly divide animals into what

Genera. j-j^g zoologist terms species. Thus all the individuals of the animal
we call a rat constitute a species, while all those to which we applj' the name
mouse form a second species. The rat and the mouse are, however, obviously
closely allied species, and are accordingly grouped together by the zoologist as a
genus, in this particular instance termed 2Ins. In the large majority of instances
there is no great difficulty in deciding what is a species, but opinions may
legitimately ditier as to what amount of variation between particular species is
necessary in order that they should be assigned to different genera.

Besides the rat and the mouse, there are, however, found in many parts of
the world certain other animals, known as voles, which differ so markedly fi-om
rats and mice as clearly to form a distinct genus (in this case termed Microtus),
although allied to them in so manj' points as to show that they are veiy
near relations.
Families and Such nearly related groups of species or genera ai'e accordingly

Orders. grouped together in a family, whicli takes its name from one of the
component genera. We, accordingly, have the genera Mus and Microtits con-
stituting the family Mui-idiV ; but the number of genera in a family may be
much larger than this, while in a few instances a family is represented by one
genus only.

All, however, who have ever observed with any ordinary attention such
animals as rats, hares, beavei-s, and guinea-pigs, will have noticed that there is a
general similarity in their outward appearance, and that all of them have a single
pair of chisel-like teeth in both the upper and lower jaw, with which they are in
the habit of gnawing their food, or any obstacles they may wish to vemove.
Animals thus obviously related to anothei-, although differing in other respects too
widely to be included in a single family, constitute an order, or assemblage of
families : the animals to wliich we have alluded forming the order of Eodents, or
Rodent ia, which will thus include the families Leporida (hares and rabbits), Muriditi
(rats and mice). Castor idw (beavers), Cav^iido} (guinea-pigs), and many others.

Our grouping by no means ends, however, with an order, for we

find that groups of orders, from the possession of one or more common

characters by all of them, may be brigaded together as classes. Thus the Eodents,

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 3

the Hoofed Animals or Ungulates (pigs, deer, cattle, horses, etc.), and the
Carnivores (cats, dogs, etc.), which form three distinct ordex-s, all agree with one
another in that their young are nourished by milk sucked from the mother. Con-
sequently such animals, together with all others showing the same peculiarity, are
grouped together to form the class of Mammals or Mammalia.

* If, however, a mammal, a bird, a reptile, and a jBsh be compared together, it
will be found that althougli the three latter differ from the former, in that tlie
young are not suckled by the female parent, j-et all agree in the possession of what
we connnonly call the backbone; this backbone consisting of a column running
along the back of the animal, and composed of a number of jointed segments,
which, although usually formed of bone, may be of cai'tilage. Such joints are
technically known as verfebrcc, and the whole column as the vertebral column;
wliile all the classes possessing tliis vertebral column are grouped together under
thi' name of Vertebrates, or Vertebrata, this largest group being known as a sub-
kin<:dom.

We accordingly have a scheme of classification like the following: —

Subking.lom VERTEBRATA, or Vertebrates.
Class Mammalia, ur .Maannals.
Order KoOKNTiA, or Rodents.

Family MURID^, or Rats and Voles.
Genus Mus, Rats and Mice.
Genus Mivrotas, Voles.

structure In saj'ing that the Vertebrates, or highest of all animals, are

of the characterised by the presence of a backbone or vertebral column, we
Vertebrates, j-^g^yg given only the primary feature of this great group ; and we must
accordingly say a few words more on tlie subject of their structure. Now an
essential feature in the structure of all Vertebrates is that on that side of the back-
bone 13'ing nearest to the back there runs a tube or canal, formed by arches of bone
or cartilage springing from the bodies of the vertebra, witliin which tube is the
so-called spinal marrow or cord, which is a rope-like structure formed of nerve-
tissue, and running backwards from the brain to the hinder extremity of the body.
On the opposite side of the backlione to that occupied by the spinal marrow there
is a much lai-ger cavity containing the viscera, such as the heart, lungs, stomach, etc.
In a cross-section of the body of any vertebrate animal we therefore see two
tubes — a small one containing the nervous system placed above the backbone, and
a much larger one containing the viscera sitviated below the backbone.

Another noteworthy peculiarity of Vertebrates is that the limbs, which never
exceed four in number, are always directed away from that part of the body which
contains the nervous system, and towards that enclosing the viscera; whereas in
nearlj'- all the lower animals, collectively known as the Invertebrates, the reverse is
the case. Vertebrates are likewise distinguished by the circumstance that the two
jaws work in a vertical plane, or, in other words, are upper and lower, instead of
being right and left, as they are in insects.

Having said thus much as to the general characters of the Vertebrate sub-
kingdom, we come to the consideration of those of its highest class, the Mammals.

4 AfAMMALS.

With the exception of the word Beasts, we have no true English term for this
group of animals. The term Quadrupeds was, indeed, long in popular use, but
since it is inapplicable to whales, while it would also include most Reptiles, it is
now largely superseded by the term Mammals, derived from the most obvious
peculiarity of the class.
Characteristics ^^^ addition to the presence in the females of mammary glanos

of the secreting the milk, by means of wliich the young arc nourished,
Mammals. Mammals difl'er from the other higher Vertebrates by the mode in
which the lower jaw is articulated to the skull. Thus in other "\'ertebrates this
articulation is eflected by the intervention of a separate squared bone, known as the
(juadrate, upon the lower end of which the articular hollow of the lower jaw plays,
while its upper end is articulated to the skull proper. In Mammals, however, tliis
intermediate bone is absent, and the lower jaw consequentlj' articulates bj' means
of a convex surface, or condyle, dirt-ctly witli the walls of the skull itself. Moi-e-
over, in all Mammals, each half of the lower jawbone consists of but a single bone,
instead of several distinct bones joined together. Thus an isolated jawbone is
alwaj's sufficient to prove whether its owner was a Mammal or some other
Vertebrate. Another very important feature of Mammals is that they ah\ays have
hair (although it may be only a few bristles on the mouth) on some portions of
their bodies during a certain period of their existence. Again, that portion of
the large cavity of the body wliich contains the heart and lungs is completely
separated by a horizontal partition, known as the midriff or diaphragm, from the
one containing the stomach and intestines. Moreover, at least in all li\'ing
members of the class, the brain of Mammals is much more highly organised than
that of other animals: one of its distinctive features being the presence of a
transverfse band on its lower surface, by means of which its two lateral halves
are intimatelj- connected together.

The above are a few of the chief features distinguishing Mammals from all
other Vertebrates, but we may now briefly notice some in wliich they differ from
certain of the lower classes, although agreeing with others. One of the most
important of these dilierences is that the skull of Mammals is jointed to the first
vertebra by means of a pair of transversely disposed bosses, or condyles, as they are
technically called. In this respect ilammals are broadly distinguished from Birds
and Reptiles, in which there is but a single condyle, placed in the middle line of
the skull. Frogs and newts, constituting the class of Amphibians, agree, however,
with JIaiiimals in the mode by which the skull is jointed to the backbone ; although
they differ from them very widely in other parts of their organisation.

, ^. On the other hand, Mammals differ from Fi.shes, Amphibians, and

Circulation. t> •, . . ' i ■

Reptiles, in having warm blood, which is propelled from a four-
chambered heart through a double circulatory system ; one part of this system
causing the blood to pass through the lungs for the purpose of taking in a fresh
s^PPb' of oxygen from the air, and the other being subservient to the supply of
freshly oxygenated blood to the various organs and members of the body. This
circulatory system also differs from that of Birds and Reptiles in that the blood
for the nourishment of the body is propelled from the heart by a single vessel,
known as the aorta, which passes over the left branch of the windpipe ; whereas

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 5

in the other two classes mentioned the aorta crosses either the right branch or both
branches of the windpipe.
Respiration. ^^ MamrnaLs, whether they live on the land or in the water,

breathe air by means of lungs suspended in the chest ; and during no
period of their life do they ever develop gills; neither do they ever underTro a
metamorphosis analogous to that presented by the change of a tadpole into a frof.
By these last two negative characters they are, therefore, sharply distinguislied
from the Amphibians, with which, as we have seen, they agree in the mode by
wliich the skull is articulated to the first joint of the backbone.

Young-. '^\\X'^ the sole exception of the egg-laying Mammals, or Mono-

tremes, of Australia and New Guinea, which are the lowest members
of the class, the young of Mammals are invariably born in a living condition.

Vertebra of A remarkable feature in Mannnals is the circumstance that, with

Neck. oj^iy yjj.gg constant exceptions, the number of joints, or vertebrae, in

the neck i.s seven ; this number being equally constant in the enormously elongated

neck of the giraffe, or in the extremely short(>ned one of the whale, where the

vertebrae are reduced to tliin plates of bone.

Structure. ^^ '^ ^'"^'^' M^"""*!'** l^^ve the two pairs of limbs characteristic of

Vertebrates, but occasionally, as in the whales, the hinder pair may be
wanting. In a large proportion of specie.s the hind- and fore-limbs are of approxi-
mately equal length. In some cases, however, tJie hind-limbs may be enormously
elongated at the expen.se of the fore-limb.s, as we .see in the kangaroos and junqiing
mice ; and progression is then effected by means of leaps and bounds from these
strong hind-limbs. The opposite extreme of iimb-stnicture is shown among the
bats, where, while the hinder pair retain their normal structure, the fore-limbs are
enormously elongated to afford supjiort to a leathery wing-like structure, by means
of which these strangely modified creatures are enabled to fly in the air with the
.same ease and swiftness as Bird.s. In the wliales and doljjhins, which lead a purely
aquatic life, we find the fore-limbs modified into paddles for swinnniug, while the
hind ones are, as we have .said, totally wanting. Similar conditions obtain in the
dugongs and manatis ; but in the true .seals, which are less completely aquatic,
the hind-limbs are still well developed, although directed backwards to form, in
connection with the tail, a kind of rudder. The bats are the only Mammals which
are wholly adapted for flight, but we meet with certain forms in other groups, such
as the flying squirrels among the Rodents, and the flying phalangers among the
Pouched Mannnals, which are enabled to take long leap-like flights from tree to
tree by means of a kind of a parachute formed of folds of skin running along the
.sides of the body from limb to limb. The limbs themselves are not, however,
.specially modified ; and true flight, in the sense of propulsion caused by up-and-
<lown strokes of the fore-limbs, is not performed by these Mammal.s. We shall
have something more to add on the subject of limbs in the paragraphs devoted to
the skeleton.

Almost as great variations are displayed in the modifications and uses of the
tail of Mammals. In tlie majority of cases the tail is present and forms a tapering
axis, often clothed with long hair, which may considerably exceed the total length
of the body. The Mannnal, in which the relative length of the tail is greatest, is

6 MAMMALS.

a small one from Madagascar, belonging to the Insectivorous order, and named
Microrjale, in which the tail is nearly three times as long as the body. In some
of the apes and monkeys the tail is absent ; and it is very short in the bears among
the Carnivores, and in many deer among the Hoofed Mammals, or Ungulates. In
many Ungulates, however, such as cattle, it is of great length ; and in that group
it has its extremity furnished with a tuft of hair, and thus forms an effectual
instrument for brushing away flies from the body. In the spider-monkeys of
South America, as well as in the opossums and phalangers, in certain porcupines,
and other forms, the tail is prehensile, and thus serves as an important aid in
climbing, or to suspend its owner's head downwards. In tlie beaver the tail is
expanded into a flattened oar-like form, which probably acts as a rudder in swim-
ming. But the most remarkable modification of this useful organ occurs in the
whales and dolphins, when it is expanded into a large forked structure, termed
by whalers ' flukes,' and is the main organ in propelling the bod}- through the
water.

External In regard to the external covering, we have already said that hairs

Covering. are always present on some portion of the body during some period
of life. In the whales these hairs may, however, be reduced to a few bristles in
the region of the mouth, which disappear when the animal attains maturity.
Mammals never develop that modified kind of hair-structure known as feathers,
which are peculiar to Birds. The body may, however, be covered with overlapping
scales, like those so common in Reptiles, but this occurs onlj- in the pangolins, or
scaly ant-eaters of Inilia and Africa. The tail of the common rat is an example
of a part of the body covered with scales, having their edges in apposition ; but in
both these instances liairs are mingled with the scales. Still rarer than scales are
bony plates, developed in the true skin. At the present day these structures are
only met with among the well-known arnuidillos of South America, wliicli are
furnished with bucklers and transverse bands of these bony plates, and are in some
cases able to roll themselves iip into a ball, presenting on all sides an impenetrable
coat of mail. In the Pleistocene, or latest geological period before the present.
South America pi'oduced, however, a number of huge Mammals allied to the
armadillos, and known as gl\iitodonts, M'hich were covered with a continuoiis
cuirass of bony plates, reaching in some cases more than an inch in thickness.
That these huge and well-armoured forms, which one might regard as typical
examples of animals fitted to withstand all enemies, have perished, while their
smaller and less completely defended allies have lived on, shows us that there are
other causes at work than the attacks of foes in the destruction of animals.
Between the plates of the armour of the armadillos hairs are always developed,
and in one species these are so abundant as to completely hide the plates themselves,
and render the general appearance that of an ordinary hairy mammal.

The use of hair is mainly to protect the body from cold, and thus to aid in the
maintenance of a uniform high temperature : and when hairs are absent, we find
this function performed by a more or less thick fatty layer beneath the skin, which,
when it is excessively developed, as in the whales, is known as blubber. To com-
pensate for the difference between the tempei-ature of winter and summer, many
Mammals which inhabit the colder regions of the globe develop a much thicker

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

coat of hair in the former than in the latter season, of which we have an excellent
example in the hoi-se. In some Mammals, such as the hare and cat, the body is
covered with only one kind of hair ; but in other cases, as in the fur-seals, there is
one kind of lone and somewhat coarse hair, which appeai-s at the surface, and
another of a softer and finer nature, which forms the thick and warm under-fur.
This under-fur is oreath' developed in Mammals of all groups inhabiting Tibet,
where it is locally kno\vn as ' pashm ' ; and it is this pashm of the goat of these
retrions which afibnls the materials for the celebrated Kashmir shawls. Curiously
enough, too, animals which usually do not develop pashm almost immediately tend
to its production when taken to tlie Tibetan region, as is notabl}^ the case with
dogs. Less frequently the hair of the body takes the form of stiff bristles, as on
the pig : and still more rarel}' tliis thickening is carried to such an extent as to
produce spines, of which we have the best instances in the porcupine and hedge-
hof', belonging, it should be home in mind, to distinct ordei-s.

The solid horns of the rhinoceroses, and the hollow hornj' sheaths of cattle
and antelopes are very similar in their nature to hairs, and maj'^ indeed be com-
pared to masses of hair welded together into solid sti'uctures.

Althoucdi a fair idea of Mammals as a whole may be gained
THe Ske eton. .^..j^j^^^^ investigation into the nature of their soft internal parts, yet
any one who desires to obtain

any really accui-ate know-
ledge of them must make
up his iiiinil to acquire at
least some slight idea of the
general structure of the bony
skeleton, and also of the fonn
and nature of the teeth, since
these parts are of the liighest
importance in classification.

We have already in-
cidentallj' mentioned that the
skull consists of two portions,
— the skull proper, which
contains tlie brain, and the
lower jaw. It will sufiice to
mention, in addition, that the
hinder part of the skull is
known as the occiput, and that on tlie front surface the pair of bones roofing over
the cavity of the nose are known as the nasals, while those behind them, fomiing
the region of the forehead, are termed frontals. Further, in the upper jaw, the bones
which carry the hinder or cheek-teeth are known as the maxillas, while those in
which the front cutting-teeth are implanted are termed the preniaxillfe. All the other
numerous bones of the skull have received distinct names : but the reader desirous
of becoming acquainted with them must refer to other works. Our notice of the
other parts of the skeleton must be equally brief. In the backbone or vertebral
column, the first vertebra, or that which articulates with the skull is kno\vn as the

SSELETON OP THE LIOX.

sk. skuU ; zy. cheek-bone (zygomatic arch) ; m. vertebrffl of the neck ;
d. vertebrae of the back ; /. vertebrae of the lonis ; s. sacrum ; cd.
vertebrre of the tail ; sc. shoulder - blade (scapula) ; h. arm - bone
(humerus) ; r. u. bones of fore-.arm (radius and ulna) ; cp. wrist (carpus) ;
inc. metacarpus ; ph. toe-bones ; pv. haunch-bone (pelvis) ; fm. thigh-
bone (femur) : p. knee-cap (patella) ; lb. fh. bones of lower leg (tibia
and libula) ; fc. ankle (tarsus) ; m. metatarsus.

MAMMALS.

atlas ; following which is the axis vertebra, remarkable for ha^■ing the body or
basal portion of the atlas vertebra fixed to it, and known as the odontoid process.
This sej^aration of the body of the atlas vei'tebra from its proper segment is
constant thi-oughout the greater part of the vertebrate subkingdom. The remaining
five of the cervical, or neck-vertebras, are distinguished fi'om the dorsal, or vertebrae
of the region of the chest, by the absence of ribs. The ribs of most of the doi-sal
vertebrae articulate in the middle line of the inferior aspect of the body with the
breast-bone, or sternum, which is itself composed of several segments. The dorsal
vertebriB are succeeded ^posteriorly by a smaller number, forming the region of the
loins, which have no ribs, and are termed lumbai-s. Behind the latter there are
several coalesced vertebrae forming the so-called sacrum, to which the haunch-bones
articulate ; and these are again succeeded by the tail, or caudal, vertebra?, of which
the number varies accorcHng to the length of the tail itself.

In the majority of Mammals the fore-limb is
connected with the trunk simply by the blade-bone,
or scapula, which lies on the back surface of the
anterior ribs ; and in front by the collar-bone, or
clavicle, which connects the scapula with the ster-
num. The bones of the fore-limb are, firetlj', the
arm-bone or humerus, which has condyles at its lower
end ; and, secondly, the two parallel bones of the
fore-arm, of which the outermost (when the palm of
the hand is turned forwards) is the radius, and the
other the ulna. The radius is always present, but
in man}- Hoofed Mammals onlj^ the upper end of the
ulna remains, which is fused with the radius. The
radius articulates below with the upper of the two
transverse rows of small solid bones forming the
wrist or carpus: bej'ond these we have in man and
monkeys, as well as in certain other groups, five
elongated bones, termed metacarpals, the four outer-
most of which are succeeded by the thi-ee phalangeal
bones of the fingei-s or digits. The thumb, or first
digit, which lies on the same side as the radius, has,
however, only two of these phalangeals.

The hind-limb differs from the fore-limb in that,
the innominate, or haunch - bones, which together
form the pelvis, are connected by an immovable bony
union with the sacral region of the vertebral column. The thigh-bone or femur,
corresponding to the humerus of the arm, articulates with a cav-ity in the innominate,
termed the acetabulum. The leg has two parallel bones articulating with the
lower end of the thigh-bone or femur : of which the larger, or tibia, occupying the
inner side of the limb, corresponds to the radius of the fore-arm, while the smaller
outer bone, or fibula, represents the ulna. The ankle, or tareus, corresponds to the
carpus in the fore-limb, and likewise consists of two transverse rows of small
bones. Two bones of the uppermost row, viz. the calcaneum or heel-bone, and

DIAGRAM OF THE BONES OF THE LEFT
FORE-FOOT OF A FIVE-TOED MAM-
MAL [Phcnacodiis). (^ uat. size.)

The bones marked 5, I, c, t, f^, in,
and 11, form thewTist ; those numbered
/- 1' are the metacarpals, and the re-
mainder the finger or toe - bones. —
After Osbom.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

the astragalus or ankle-bone, are specially modified. In the foot proper the
bones correspond with those of the hand ; those representing the metacarpals being,
however, termed metatareals. It Mill fre-
quently be found convenient to speak of the
extremity of the fore-limb, or hand, as the
manus ; wliile the hind foot may be termed
the pes.

In the foregoing summary we have spoken
of the hand and foot as consisting of five
fingers and toes, or digits ; and this is the case
with most Monkeys, many Carnivores, Rodents,
etc. In other cases, however, and especially
among the Hoofed Mammals or Ungulates,
there is a tendency to the reduction of the
number of digits. Thus in the cattle and deer,
commonly known as Ruminants, the number
of functional digits is reduced to two, corre-
sponding to the third and fouith of the typical
series of five ; while in the horse only a single
digit rersains, which in the fore-limb corre-
sponds to the middle or third finger of the
human hand, and in the hind -limb to the
middle toe.

Arrangement of Almost all Manunals when

the Teeth. adult liave both jaws provided
with a series of teeth, varying greatly in number
and structure in the different groups. These
teeth are almost invariably fixed in separate
sockets ; and while the front teeth have but a
single root or fang, tlie side or cheek - teeth
very generally have two or more such roots,
each of which occupies a separate division of
the socket. In all cases the teeth are fixed in
their sockets merely by the aid of soft tissues
connected with the gum, and are never welded
to the jaws by a deposit of bone. Very gener-
ally there is a sharply-marked line of division, termed the neck, between the root,
or portion of the tooth implanted in the jaw, and the crown or exposed portion.

In most of those Mammals, in which the teeth of different parts of the jaw
differ in structure from one another, there are two distinct sets of teeth developed
during life. The first of the two includes the milk- or baby-teeth, which are
generally shed at a comparatively early age, are of small size and few in number,
and are finally succeeded by the larger and more numerous permanent set, which
remain during the rest of life, unless previously worn.

In those Mammals in which the permanent teeth differ from one another in
fomi in different regions of the jaw, we are enabled from their position, and also

HUMAN SKELETON.

MAMMALS.

from their relations to the temporary series of milk-teeth, to divide them into four
distinct groups. Taking one side of the upper jaw, as that of the dog, of which tlie
teeth are shown in the tig-ure, we hnd the front bone, or premaxilla, carrying a small
number (in this instance tliree) of simple cutting teeth, tenned incisore. Behind
these teeth, from which, as in the figure, it is generally separated by a longer or
shorter gap, there is a tooth with a simple and often conical crown, which, like the
incisoi-s, is insei-ted in the jaw by a single root. Thi.s tooth, wliicli is usuallj' larger
than the incisors, is termed the tusk, or canine tooth, and in the wild boar and
most Carnivorous Mammals attains a very large size. It can always be distin-
guished from the incisoi-s by the fact that it is implanted in the maxilla, or second
bone of the jaw, or at least on the line of junction between that bone and the
premaxilla. Behind the canine wc have a series of teeth, which may be as many as
seven, although only six in the figure, with more complicated crowns, and, except the
first, inserted in the jaw by two or more roots. This series may be collectivelj- known
as the cheek-teeth ; but they may be di%-ided into two minor groups according as
to whether they are preceded by milk-teeth or not. In the dog the four teeth

immediately behind
the canine, with the
exception of the fii-st,
ai-e the vertical stic-
cessoi-s of milk-teeth,
and are known as
premolai-s : while the
two hindmost teeth,
which have no such
temporary predeces-
sor, are known as
true molai's,or molai-s.
In the lower jaw the
tooth, usually larger
than the others, which bites in front of the upper canine is the lower canine.
In advance of this tooth are the incisoi-s, and behind it the premolai-s and molare,
distinguished from one another in the same manner as are the con-esponding teeth
of the upper jaw.

With the exception of tlie Pouched Mammals, with which we shall not have
to deal till we come to the middle of the third volume, there are, in practically
all the Mammals with teeth of different kinds, never more than three incisors, one
canine, four premolars, and three molai-s on either side of each jaw : so that the
total number of teeth on both sides of the two jaws is not more than forty-
four. In the figured upper jaw of the dog the number falls short of this full
complement, o^^-ing to tlie circumstance that there are only two in place of three
molars.

Dental As it would be exceedingly inconvenient always to have to

Formute. describe the number of teeth in any given Mammal by writing

them down at length, a graphic formula has been invented bj- which the number

of teeth of each species can be shortly and clearly expressed. Thus, taking

OUTER VIEW OF THE EIGHT MILK AND PER.MA^•E^T UPPER TEETH OF THE DOO.

The lower row are the milk-teeth, and the u]>]wr the permanent
teeth.— After Sir W. H. Flower.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

SKULI, OF PIG.
To show ilistinction 'between incisors, tusks, nml clicek-tcetli.-

-Alter Nehring.

onlj- one side of each jaw, and indicating the incisors l^y tlie letter i, the canines
or tusks by c, the premolars by p, and the molars by m, and taking the num-
bers above the lines as rejjresenting the teeth of the upper, and those below the
.same the teeth of the lower jaw, we may express the number and kinds of the
teeth of tlie dog by the
formula : i \, c \, ^j|, rtx^.
The total thus given is
21, and double this num-
ber will of course give
the entire number of
teeth on both sides of
the two jaws, which in
this case will be 42.
structure of A few

the TeetlL \vords must
now be said regarding
the internal structure of
teeth, as ^\^thout this it
is quite impossiljle to
understand the modifica-
tions which they undergo in different groups of Mammals. Taking a simple
more or less conical tooth like the tusk of a lion or tiger, or any tooth of a
sperm whale, it may be observed that when such a tooth first appears above the
gum it is open at the ba.se, M'here it forms a liollow cone. And in teeth like the
tusks of the elephant, which grow tlirougliout tlie whole life of their owner, such
a condition remains permanent. Usually, however, a tooth ceases to grow after a
certain period, and tlie base of tlie root or roots then becomes completely closed,
and assumes a pointed shape. A tooth of this simple conical type is composed
internally of a substance known as the ivory or dentine, coated externally with a
thin layer of a much harder nature and highly polished appearance, which is termed
the enamel. Moreover, outside the base of the crown there may be patches of a
coarser substance, called the cement. A model of .such a tooth may be made by
taking the finger of a kid glove, filling it with bees-wax, and putting some smears
of sealing-wax at the base of the outer surface, when the bees-wax will represent the
i\ory, the kid the enamel, and the sealing-wax the cement. If we then cut oft" the
stunmit of tlie finger we shall have a central di.sc of bees-wax (ivory) surrounded
by a circle of kid (enamel), which will represent the con<lition of such a type of
tooth when its snnnnit has been worn away by use against the opposing tooth of
the opposite jaw. If. however, before cutting oft' the end of our model, we indent
the summit with several ileep pits, and also mark the sides with one or more
grooves, and fill up such pits and grooves with sealing-wax, it is obvious that we
shall have a much more complex tj-pe of structure. This complex model will serve
to explain the type of tooth structui-e found in many of the Hoofed or Ungulate
]\Iamnials : and it will be obvious that if we now cut off the summit of our model
we .shall find a series of irregular di.scs of bees- wax (ivory), each surrounded by a
sinuous border of kid (enamel), in the folds of which will be masses of sealing-wax

12 MAMMALS.

(cement). Such a model will enable us to understand the nature of the cheek-teeth
of the Ungulate Mammals wlien we come to them.

From a utiUtarian point of view Mammals are of extreme
Importance of „ , t • n j?

Mammals importance to man, since it is from them— and more especially from

to Man. thy Ungulate order — that by far the greater part of his animal food

is procured, wliile their skins or fur furnish him largely with raiment ; and it is

from their ranks alone that all liis beasts of burden and draught are recniited.

Moreover, since these creatures are the highest representatives of the animal

kingdom, among whom man himself must, from a zoological stamlpoiut, be

included, their study is one which commend.s itself most forcibly to all who are

in an J' way interested in Natural History.

Mammals in Numerous as are the Mammals now living, it must never be

the Past. forgotten that they form but a small moiety of those which flourished
at earlier periods of the history of our earth. The ]\Iammals of the present day
may, indeed, be compared to the topmost branches and twigs of a giant forest tree,
of which the larger limbs and tmnk are concealed from our view. And it will
accordingly be manifest that anj^ one wlio confines his studies to the existing species
will liave but a very imperfect idea of the whole array of Mammalian life, and of
the mutual connection of its various branches. The study of fossil Mammals is,
however, a difficult one, and one requiring an extensive knowledge of comparative
anatomy. All that can, therefore, be done in a work of the present nature is to
call attention, as occasion arises, to some of these extinct Mammals which are of
especial importance and interest as showing the manner in which groups now widely
separated from one another were formerly more or less completeh" connected.

Altliough the number of
extinct Mammals is very large,
yet b}' far the greater propor-
tion of these belong to the
latest of tlie tliree great epochs
into which the geological his-
tory of our globe has been

THE LEFT HALF OK THE LOWEH JAW OF AN EXTIKCT POUCHED MAMMAL. liviflpd WhereaS durillO'

From the Cretaceous Rocks of North America. The tusk is ^ long-past epOch knoWU a*^

marked a. — After Marsh. » i ^

the Secondary period, during
whicli our chalk and oolites were deposited, the earth was tenanted by gigantic
reptiles of strange form, it is not till we come to the rocks overlying the chalk,
such as the London clay and overlying strata, that we find Mammals taking an
important place among the inhabitants of the earth. It was, indeed, during this
so-called Tertiary period that these animals attained the dominant position which
they now occupy ; and tlte present stage of the earth's history may be truly called
the age of Mammals and Birds. "VVe are not. however, to suppose from this that
Mammals were unknown before the Tertiary period ; a considerable number of
species, mostly of small size, having been already discovered.

An additional importance attaches to the study of extinct Mammals, since it is

GEXERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 13

by their means alone that we are able to explain sevei-al apparent anomalies in the
geographical distribution of living gi-oups. How, for instance, could we possibly
explain the present existence of tapii-s only in such widely remote areas as the
Malaj- Peninsula and Islands and South America, xmless we had learnt by geolo<ncal
explorations that these animals formerly roamed over large portions of Europe
and Asia, from whence their descendants gi-adually migrated to the reoions where
they now remain \

The former occurrence of an epoch of great cold in the northern hemisphere
known as the Glacial period, furnishes us with an explanation of how nearly related
animals are now confined to isolated mountain chains ; their ancestors having been
enabled, during the prevalence of the cold, to spread over the plains of the temperate
regions, from whence thej"^ retreated with the advent of warmer conditions to seek
a congenial climate in the nearest mountain region.

Orders of Mammals may be ilivided into eleven main groups or ordei-s,

Mammals, which may be arranged as follows, and will be treated of in the same
sequence, \-iz. : —

1. Apes, Monkeys, and Lemui-s — Primates.

2. Bats — Chiuoptera.

3. Insectivores — Insectivora.

4. Carnivores — Carxivora.

5. Hoofed Mammals — Uxgulata.

6. Manatis and Dugong.s — Sirenia.

7. Whales ami Porpoises — Cetacea.

8. Rodents — RoDEXTlA.

9. Sloths, Anteaters, etc. — Edextata.

10. Pouched Mammals — ilARsrpiALiA.

11. Egg-la \'ing Mammals — Moxotremata.

-00

It is not to be supposed that all these groups are separated from one another
hj differences of equal importance. For instance, Xo. 10 diflei-s from the preceding
gi-oups by charactei-s of far more importance than do any of those nine from one
another; while the members of Xo. 11 differ fundamentally, not only from the fii-st
nine groups, but almost equally markedly from Xo. 10.

Ha\-ing said thus much by way of introduction, we proceed to the considera-
tion of the first order of Mammals.

CHAPTER II.

Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs, — Order Primates.

The Max-tike Apes.

Family SlMIID^.

Everybody knows what an ape or a monkey i.s, anil the proverb " mischievous as
a moakey" I'eveals the estimation in which the latter animals are commonly held.
The more or less hvunan-like form, the freijuent tendency to a.ssume an upright
position, coupled with their hand-like feet, would be amply sufficient to distinguish
the group to wliich these animals belong from all othei-s, were it not for the
circumstance that there are the less well-known creatures tenneil Lemui-s, which,
while evidently related to monkeys, yet difter from tliem in so many respects as
to render it almost or quite impossible to give any characteristics which will
absolutely distinguish the order to which they Ix-long from all othei-s. Tliis is,
however, a difficulty with whicli the zoologist has often to put up with, and to
make the best of.

That the higher apes are closely related in their bodily sti-ucture to man
is obvious to all, and it is a fact that the diffi-rences between some of these apes
and man are, from a purely anatomical point of view, of far le.ss importance tlian
those by which the lower monkeys are .separated from the higher ajies. It lias,
indeed, been attempted to show that apes and monkeys are .sharply distinguished
from man by the circumstance that while man is two-handed, apes and monkeys
are four-handed. The difference between the foot of one of tlie lai-ger apes and
that of man is, however, merely one of degree, and is much le.ss than that between
the apes and the lowest representatives of the order, as is well .shown in the accom-
panying illustration, which illustrates the various forms assumed by the hand and
foot of these animals.

Although the larger apes are those which come nearest to man in their
general organisation, yet the strong ridges on tlie skulls of the adults, and the
consequent overhanging and prominent eyebrows, give them an expre.s.sion which,
at the best, is but a gross caricature of the human countenance. It is, however, in
the young of these animals, where the ridges on the skull are much less developed,
and the tusks or canine teeth of the males have not attained the dimensions which
they reach in the adult state, that we find a much more human-like cast of
expression. Moreover, some of the smaller apes, in which the great ridges on the
skull are never developed, approach much more neai-ly in the .shape of their skulls
to the human t^'pe. The larger apes are, indeed, repulsive animals in the adult
condition ; and it is usually only the smaller kinds of monkeys which are kept as
pets.

CHAR A CTERISTICS.

15

HANDS AND FEET OK APES AND MOXKEYS.

1, 2, Gorilla ; 3-8, Chimpanzee ; 9, 10, Orang ; 11-13, Gibbon ; 14, 15, Guereza ; 16-18, Macaque ;

19, 20, Baboon ; 21, 22, Marmoset.

1 6 APES, MONKEYS, AND LEMURS.

Most of the Primates are animals essentially adapted for living

in ^varm climates, and are never found in regions which have not at

least a hot summer. Some of them are, however, capable of withstanding a

considerable amount of winter cold ; and it is no uncommon sight in the outer

ranges of the Himalaya to see troops of monkej^s leaping from bough to bough of

the snow-laden pines. Moreover, two species of monkeys inhabit the elevated

regions of Eastern Tibet, where at least part of the winter must be intenselj' cold.

With the exception of the apes found on the Rock of Gibraltar, which must either

have reached their present habitation when Spain was united by land with Africa,

or have been introduced by man at a later period, none of the Primates are

found in Europe ; they occur, however, thi'oughout the warmer regions of the

remainder of the globe, with the exception of the Australian region ; but whereas

all the apes and monkeys of the Old World belong to two well-marked families,

those of the New World represent two other families closely allied to one another,

but markedly different from both those of the Old World. The lemurs, as we

shall see later on, are without exception Old World forms, and are especial!}'

characteristic of Madagascar, although also represented in India and on the

continent of Africa, as well as in certain islands. In past times, however, lemurs

were distributed over the greater part of the globe ; and monkeys even roamed over

the ancient forest-lands of Essex, as is proved by the discovery of a single tooth in

the bi'ick earth of Ilford in Essex ; and they were also abundant over the more

southern regions of Europe.

Nearly the whole of the Primates are adapted for a more or less completely

arboreal life, most of them being inhabitants of forest regions. Aided by their

hand-like feet, all of them are expert climbers, and many, like the oriental

gibbons and tlie South American spider - monkeys, but rarely leave the trees,

leaping from bough to bough, and thus from tree to tree, far above the heads of

the travellers below, to whom their presence is made known only by tlieir

continual howling or chattering. The climbing powers of the South Amei-ican

monkeys are largely aided by their prehensile tails, wliich serve the purpose of a

fifth limb. Owing to the warmth of the regions in which most of them dwell,

no monkeys ever hibernate. Contrary, howevei", to what is often supposed to be

the case, several of the smaller species are expert swimmei-s, and will fearlessly

cross comparatively large rivers.

It is now time to take a glance at some of the more characteristic
Characteristics. - ,.,...

features which distinguish the order as a whole from other Mammals.

In the first place, both the hand and the foot are, as a rule, provided with five

digits, although in a few instances the thumb is wanting. Then, again, the hand

is always adapted to act as a grasping organ, and, with the single exception of man,

the same is the case with the foot, though it has recently been discovei-ed that the

foot of the newly-born human infant displays distinct traces of having been

originally a grasping organ. In those cases where the hand attains its most

perfect development, the thumb can be opposed to the fingers, but in some of the

lower forms this action is only possible in a limited degree. The great toe is, in a

similar manner, opposable to the other toes, although in man, as is well-shown in

our figure of his skeleton, this action has been lost, and the bones of this toe lie

CHAR A CTERISTICS.

parallel to those of the other toes. In this respect, as the figure shows, the foot of

man is markedly ditierent from that of the gorilla and the other apes. With the

■curious exception of the orang, in which the great toe is often entirely devoid of

any trace of such appendage, all the fingei-s are furnished with nails. In the liigher

forms these nails are of a flattened .shape in all the digits: and this flatness is

always characteristic of the nail of the great

toe, although the other digits of the lower

forms have curved nails. In order to form an

efficient support for those nails, the hones of

the terminal joints of the digits, with the

exception of the index finger of the lemurs,

are transversely flattened out : and are thus

veiy different from tliose of the Rodents and

Carnivores. That the hand and foot should

have perfect freedom of motion, it is of coui-se

necessar}^ that the bones of the fore-arm and

lower leg should remain completely separate

from one another: and, as we see from the

figured skeletons, the radius and ulna in the

fore-ann, and the tibia and fibula in the leg,

are both equally well developed and capable of

motion upon one another. Another important

point as regards the free use of the arms is

the presence of complete collar-bones, wliieli

are always well developed in apes and

monkej's, as they are in ourselves.

If we look once more at the figures of the
skeletons of man and the gorilla we shall not
fail to observe that in tlie .skull the .sockets,
or orbits, of the eyes are completely sur-
rounded by a ring of bone, and that tlie
sockets themselves look almost directlj- for-
wards. This complete bony ring round the
eye-sockets at once serves to cUstinguish the
skulls of all the Primates from those of most
of the Carnivores.

In correlation Avith the herbivorous habits
of the majority of the species, the teeth of the
Primates are adapted for giinding ; the cheek-
teeth having broad flattened crowns, wliich
may either, as in ourselves, be surmounted by tubercles, or by transverse ridges.
Except in one family of American monkeys, there are always three molar teeth in
each side of either jaw, the last of which corresponds with our own " wisdom-
tooth " : and these molar teeth are invariably larger and more complicated than
the premolars. Very generally, as in ourselves, the number of the latter teeth is
reduced to two on each side, and no living member of the order has more than

VOL. I. 2

SKELETON OF THE GORILLA ;

and male (c?) and (j) female skulls.

i8 APES AXD MONKEYS.

three of these teeth. Very frequently again, and indeed invariably in the apes and
monkeys, there are but two incisor teeth on each side of both the upper and the
lower jaws.

With the single exception of the curious aye-aj"e of Madagascar, there are at
least two mammffi situated on the breast of the females of all membei-s of the
order.

These, then, are the cliief common charactei-s possessed by apes and monkeys
on the one hand and lemui's on the other; but, such as they are, they are
considered of sufficient importance by a considerable number of zoologists to justifj'
the inclusion of both groups in a single order. The two groups constitute, however,
separate suborders, of wliich the fii-st is termed the Anthropoidea, and the second
the Lemuroidea. We shall point out how the latter gi-oup is cUstinguished from
the former when we come to the consideration of the lemurs themsehes ; and
we accordingly now proceed to consider the fii-st family of the Apes and ilonkej'S.

The Man-like The Man-hke Apes ai-e but few in number, and are also those

Apes. which come nearest, in point of stinicture, to man himself. Con-
sidered, indeed, from a purely zoological point of view, man represents merely a
separate family — Hominkhe — of the Primates, which should occupy the place of
honour at the head of all the other Mammals. »Since, however, the special sciences,
anthropologj'- and ethnologj', are devoted solely to the history of man, we shall
here content ourselves bj' incidentallj' mentioning a few of the stinictural featui-es
by which he is distinguished from the Man-like Apes.

Apart, then, from man himself, the Man - like Apes include the largest
representatives of the Primates. They are exclusively restricted to the Old World,
whei-e they are found only in the dense forests of the warme.st and dampest
regions. They are all characterised by their strikingly human-like form, although
none of them habitually walk solely on their hind-limbs without obtaining
additional support from their long arms.
Resemblance In all the larger species the resemblance to man is more marked

to Man. ijj ^}jg young than in the adult ; while in the adult the human
characteristics are more pronoxmced in the female than the male. Dr. Robert
Hartmann, of Berlin, who has devoted much attention to the Man-like Apes,
observes that " in the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan, the external
form is subject to essential modifications, according to the age and sex. The
difference between the sexes is most strongly marked in the gorilla, and these
differences are least apparent in the gibbons. WTien a young male goi-illa is
compared with an aged animal of the same species we are almost tempted to
believe that we have to do with two entirelj' different creatures. Wliile the j'oung
male still displays an evident approximation to the human structure, and develops
in its bodily habits the same qualities which generallj^ characterise the short-tailed
apes of the Old World, with the exception of the baboon, the aged male is
otherwise formed. In the latter case the points of resemblance to the human type
are far fewer ; the aged animal has become a gigantic ape, retaining indeed, in the
structure of his hands and feet, the characteristics of the Primates, while the
pi-otruding head is something between the muzzle of the baboon, the bear, and the

A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE.

MAN- LIKE APES. 21

boar. Simultaneously with these remarkal)le alterations of the external structure

tliere occurs a iiioditication of the skeleton. The skull of an aged male gorilla

becomes more projecting at the muzzle, and the canine teeth have almost attained

the length of those of lions and tigers. On the upper part of the skull, which is

I'oundeil in youth, great bony crests are developed on the crown of the head and on

the occiput. . . . The arches above the eye-sockets are covered with wrinkled skin,

and the ah-eady savage and indeed revolting appearance of the old gorilla is

thereby increased."

In all the ]\[an-like Apes the number of the teeth is the same as
Teeth

in man himself — that is to say, there are on each side of both the

njiper and lower jaws two incisors, one canine, two premolars, and three molars ;

the formula thus being: i|, c\, i^%, m]|, making a total of 32 teeth. Not only

do the teeth agree in number with those of man, but, with the exception of the

great size of the tusks, or canines, of the males, they likewi.se resemble them in

structure. We are familiar with the form of our own molar teeth, wliich have wide

crowns, with their angles rounded off and surmounted by four main tubercles set

somewhat obliquely to one another ; and the molars of tlie Man-like Apes are of the

same general tyi)e of structure. In the apes, however, the whole series of teeth

does not present the hoi-se-shoe-like contour which i.s so characteristic of our own

teeth ; but, on the contrary, the cheek-teeth form nearly straight lines, having an

angulated junction with tlio curved line of the front teeth.

other None of these apes po.ssess the peculiar pouches in the cheeks

cnaracteristics. occun'ino- in many of the monkeys, and none of them have any trace
of a tail. Moreover, the naked patches so often found on the buttocks of the other
Primates are either absent or, if present, are of very small size. All of these
animals agree, howe\er, witli the monkeys, and thereby differ from man in the
great lengtli of the arms as compared with that of tlie legs ; this difference being
very clearly indicated in our figures of the skeleton of man and the gorilla. Another
characteristic of the Man-like Apes shown in the figures last referred to is the great
l)readth and flatness of the breast-bone or sternum, tliis being a feature in which
they agree with man, and ditl'er from baboons and monkeys. Then, again, some of
the Man-like Apes differ from the latter and resemble man in the absence of a
small bone occupying a central position in tlie wrist, and hence known as the
centrale of the carpus.

In addition to the points already mentioned, man is distinguished from the
Man-like Apes by the greater i-elative size of his brain and the portion of the skull
in which it is contained, as compared with the face and muzzle. His canine teeth are,
moreover, but little longer than the other teeth, and are thus quite unlike the huge
tusks of the male gorilla and orang. The great toe is also relatively longer, and is, at
the most, only op]iosable in a very limited degree to the other toes. Moreover, the
wliole skeleton of man, as will be seen from our figure, is of a lighter and neater
build, with certain peculiar curvatures of the lower part of the backbone, which
permit of the assumption of the perfectly upright position without fatigue, and
without need of any support from the arms, which do not reach below the
middle of tlie thigh. Again, no ape has an ear modelled on the beautiful lines
of that of the human species. The naked body of man is not, however, a

2 2 AFES AND MONKEYS.

character which a zoologist would consider of any importance as distinguishing
him from the apes.

From their evident structural resemblance to man, the apes and monkeys are
rightly placed at the head of the Mammalian class. This must not, however, by
any means be taken to imph^ that all, or even any, of these animals are necessai-ily
higher than the members of all the others. Although the intellect of the Man-like
Apes may, and probably does, in some respects, exceed that of a dog ; yet, for its
own peculiar line of life, a dog is as fully and highly organised as an ape. Then,
again, the lower monkeys and all the lemurs are far inferior in intelligence to the
higher Carnivores, and indeed to the more higlily-developed members of some of
the other groups : but this is, of course, no bar to their being included in the order
which heads the list.

With these remarks on the Man-like Apes in general, we proceed to the con-
sideration of the various genera and species which comprise the family.

The Chimpaxzee.
Genus Anthropopithecus.

Of all the large Man-like Apes, tho.se which, on the whole, make the nearest
approach in bodily structure to man are the chimpanzees of Western and Central
Equatorial Africa, of which there appear to be two distinct species, one known as
A. niger the other as A. calviis.

The chimpanzee has been long known in Europe. It has, indeed, been con-
sidered that the so-called "gorillas," met ^^•ith by the Carthaginians of Hanno's
voyage round the Cape in B.C. 470, on the rocky coasts of Sherboro Island, off
Sierra Leone, were chimpanzees. According, however, to JMr. Winwood Eeade, who
travelled in Western Africa for the express purpose of obtaining authentic infor-
mation about the chimpanzee and the goriUa, the creatures seen and captured by
Hanno's party were neither gorillas nor cliimpanzees, but dog-faced baboons. Be
this as it may, that the chimpanzee was known in Europe as far back as 1598 is
proved by an account brought back from the Congo by a Portuguese sailor, named
Eduardo Lopez, and published at Frankfort by Pigafetta in his account of the
Congo district. In 1613 there appeared, in Purchas's Pilgri'mages of the Woi'ld,
the historj^ of the wanderings of an English sailor, named Andrew Battel, in the
lower part of Guinea, in 1590, who appears to have heard of or seen, not only the
chimpanzee, which he designates the Enjocko (a coiTuption of N'djeko or N'Schego),
but likewise the gorilla, which he calls the pongo.

Battel's account may be quoted at length, as follows. He states : " There are
two kinds of monsters common to the woods of Angola ; the largest of them is
called Pongo in their language, and the other Enjocko. The pongo is in all its
proportions like a man (except the legs, which have no calves), but he is of gigantic
height. The face, hands, and ears of tliese animals are without hair ; their bodies
are covered, but not very thickly, witli liair of a dunnish coloui'. Wlien they walk

CHIMPANZEES.

23

on the ground, it is upright, with the hands on the nape of the neck. Thej^ sleep
on trees, and make a covering over their heads to shelter them from the rain.
They eat no flesh, but feed on nuts and other fruits ; nor have thejr any under-
standing beyond instinct. When the people of the country travel through the
woods they make fires in the night, and in the morning when they are gone the
pongos wiU come and sit round it till it goes out, for they do not possess sagacity
enough to lay on more wood. They go in bodies to kill many negroes who travel
in the wood. When elephants happen to come and feed where thej'' are, they will

HEAD OF CHIIIPAXZEE.

fall on them, and so beat them with their clubbed fists and sticks, that they are
forced to run away roaring. The grown pongos are never taken alive, owing to
their strength, which is so great that ten men cannot hold one of them. The
young hang upon their mother's belly with their hands clasped about her. Many
of them are taken by shooting the mothers with poisoned arrows."

From that date om- knowledge of these animals has been gi-adually added to,
although there is still room for fuller authentic accounts of their habits in a state
of nature. Young chimpanzees have been frequently brought ahve to Europe, and
exhibited in the Zoological Gardens of this and other countries. They require,
however, the greatest care and attention, and even with these they invariably die
after a few years or months from the eflects of our climate, which generally show

24 APES AND MOXKEYS.

themselves in various organic affections, although not, as has been supposed, in the
form of tubercular disease of the lungs.

In all points of their structure the chimpanzees are very closely
related to the gorilla, although the latter is now generally referred to
a separate genus. Originally the cliiuipanzees were described under the name of
Troglodytes ; but since that name had been applied at an earlier date to the wrens,
it has now been superseded by the somewhat cumbrous, although appropriate name
of Anthropopiflu'cus. This change is, liowever, not to be regretted on other grounds,
since, as the name Troglodytes means a dweller in caves, while chimpanzees are
purely forest animals, it is highly inappropriate to them.

In addition to certain distinctive featiu'es in the teeth, such as the relatively'
small size of the tusks or canines of the males, and the circumstance that the
upper " wisdom-tooth " is smaller than either of the tM'O molars in advance of it,
chimpanzees may be readily distinguished from the gorilla by the circumstance
that the males are but very slightly larger than the females. Moreover, the skull
of tlie male chimpanzee is characterised by the absence of the enormous bony
ridges which overhang the sockets of the eyes in that of the gorilla ; while in the
lower jaw the length of the bony union between the two lateral branches is much
less than in the latter. In both these respects the chimpanzee is decidedly nearer
to man than is the gorilla; and a further approximation to the human type is
presented by the relatively shorter ai-ms, Avliich in the pei-fectly upright posture
only reach a short distance below the knee. The hands and feet also are longer
and more slender than those of tlie gorilla, as may be seen by comparing figs. 3-8
with 1 and 2 of the illustration on p. 15. jMoreover, as in man, the middle finger
is longer than either of the others ; and although there is some degree of variation
in the relative length of the thundj in different individuals, as a rule this digit
readies to the base of the first phalangeal joint of tlie index finger. The male
chimpanzee does not appear to exceed five feet in height when full grown, and is
thus considerably inferior in size to the male gorilla.

General Dr. Hartmami remarks of the chimpanzees that, although the

Character, arched ridges above the eyes " are not so excessively prominent as in
a gorilla of the same age, they are strongly developed, covered with wrinkled
skin, and in this case also there is a species of eyebrow, stiff and bristly, with
shorter hairs between. The large, wrinkled lids ax-e f ui-nished with thick eyelashes.
A general phj'siognomical distinction between the gorilla and the chimpanzee
consists in the fact that the liridge of the nose is shorter in the latter than in the
former. In the chimpanzee this part of the organ is depressed, yet the depression
is of a conical and convex form, and is covered with a network of wrinkles of
varying depth. In the chimpanzee the interval between the inner angle of the
eye and the upper lateral contour of the cartilaginous end of the nose is shorter
than in the gorilla. There is also some difference in the form of the nose : it is on
the whole flatter, the tip is less apparent, and the nostrils are not so widely opened,
nor so thickly padded. The external ear of the chimpanzee has, on the whole,
less resemblance to the human ear, and its contour is larger than that of the
gorilla. But this organ varies so much in individuals that it is difficult to lay

CHIMPANZEES. 25

down anj^ rule for its average size. The skin of the chimpanzee is frequently of a
light, yet mucldj' flesh-colour, which sometimes verges upon brown. Spots, varyino-
in size and depth of colour, sometimes isolated, sometimes in groups, and of a
blackish-brown, sooty, or bluish-black tint, are found on diflerent parts of the
body of manj' individuals, especially on the face, neck, breast, belly, arms and
hands, thighs and shanks, an<l more rarely on the back. The face, which, soon
after birth, is of a flesh-colour, merging into j-ellowish-brown, assumes a darker
shade with the gradual de\'elopment of the body. The hairy coat is sleek, or only
in rare cases slightly curled, and the coarser and bristly hair is generally stitl" and
elastic. The parting on the forehead is often so regular that it might have been
arranged by the hairdresser's art. Close beliind that part of the head at which
tlie projecting ridges over the eyes of the gorilla generallj' meet there is in the
chimpanzee (as is well shown in our figure of the head) an altogether bald place,
or often only a few scattered hairs. Round the face the growth of hair streams
downwards like a beard. On the neck it is of considerable length, and it falls in
the same long locks over the shouldei-s, back, and hips. The hair on the limbs is
not so long, and takes a downward direction on the upper arm, and an opposite
direction on the fore-arm, while there is often a longitudinal parting on the centre
of the inner surface of this part of the limb. On the back of the wrist the hair
grows in a kind of whorl; the upper hairs turn upwards and backwards, the
middle ones turn backwards, the lower ones backwards and downwards. The
l):icks of the hands and the roots of the fingei's are hairy. On the front of the
thigh the hair takes a downwai'd direction, while behind it gi'ows backwards.
On the shank it grows downwards in the region of the tibia, and turns back on
tlie inside of the leg. The back of the foot and the roots of the toes are likewise
liairy. There is a shorter growth of these hairs on the face, chin, and ears. In
other cases the hair of the true chimpanzee is of a black colour. Short whitish
liairs may be observed on the lower part of the face and chin, as well as round
the posterior ; and sometimes the colour of the hair is shot throughout y<\i\\ reddish-
or brownish-black.

The foregoing description ajjplies to the true chimpanzee, AtithropojAtheciis
nifjer. Many varieties of this species seem to exist, some of which have been
regarded as distinct species; but with the exception of the bald chimpanzee, to
be mentioned immediately, it does not appear that any of these can be satisfactorily
distinguished as true species. The natives of Africa have many names for
chimpanzees in the various districts. In the Gabun region they are known as
N'Schego, in Malimbu as Kulu, in Manyema as Soko, and in the Niam-Niam
district as Ranja ; while to the Ai-ab traders they are knowTi as the Bam or M'Bam.

The Bald In liis Equatorinl Africa Du Chaillu gave a description of a

Chimpanzee, chimpanzee, which he said was known to the natives as the N'Schego
M'Bouve, and which he proposed to call Troglodytes, or as it should properly be,
A »fJ/ rojKipithecus calvus. For a long period zoologists were in doubt whether this-
bald-headed chimpanzee was really a distinct species. In the autumn of 1883 a
young chimpanzee was, however, purchased by the Zoological Society of London,
wliich Mr. Bartlett, the superintendent of the Society's Gardens, recognised as being

26 APES AND MONKEYS.

very diflPerent from the true or common chimpanzee, and which he regarded as in all
pi-obability identical with Du Chaillu's bald chimpanzee.

Writing of this animal, Mr. Bartlett remarks that, while " the colour of the
face, hands, and feet in the chimpanzee are white or pale fle.sh-colour, the same
parts of the animal under con.sideration are black or brownish-black. Another
well-marked difference is to be found in the hair upon the head and face. In the
true chimpanzee the hair on the top of the head, and that passing down from the
centre (where it divides) to the sides of the face or cheeks, is tolerably long and
full, forming what may be considered rather bushy whiskers ; whereas the figure
(given in the memoir), clearh' shows the front, top, and sides of the head and face
to be nearly naked, having only a few short hairs on the head, quite destitute of
any signs of the parting so veiy conspicuous in the chimpanzee. Another striking
diflerence may be noticed in the size and form of the head and ears. Out of the
number of chimpanzees I have seen and examined, both old and young, none have
possessed the large flat ears so conspicuous in this individual. The form of the
head, the expression of the face, the expanded nostrils, the thicker lijDS, especially
the lower lip, together with the more elevated skull, cannot fail to distinguish this
animal from the chimpanzee. . . . Again, the habits of this animal differ entirely
from those of the well-known or common chimpanzee. She has always shown a
disposition to live upon animal food. Soon after her arrival I found she would
kill and eat small birds; seizing them by the neck, she would bite off the head ami
eat the bird, skin, feathers, and all ; for some months she killed and ate a small
pigeon every night. After a time we supplied her with cooked mutton and beef-
tea; upon this food she has done well. I have never found any ordinary
chimpanzee that would eat any kind of flesh.

'• Another singular habit was the producing pellets or ' quids,' resembling the
castings thrown up by raptorial birds. They are composed of feathers and other
indigestible substances, that had been taken with her food. Moreover, she is an
expert rat-catcher, and has caught and killed many rats that had entered her cage
during the night. Her intelligence is far above that of the ordinaiy chimpanzee.
With but little trouble she can be taught to do many things that require the
exercise of considerable thought and understanding ; she recognises those who have
made her acquaintance, and pays mai-ked attention to men of colour, bj- uttering
a loud cry of him, bun, bun. She is never tired of romping and plajang, and is
generally in a good temper."

We shall have something to saj- in regard to the mental faculties of this
chimpanzee later on, but we have now to consider, firstly, the geographical dis-
tribution of chimpanzees, and then their mode of life and habits.

As already mentioned, chimpanzees inhabit Western and Central
Equatorial Africa, where they range over a considerable area of
country. On the west coast their range appears to be limited to the northward
approximately by the river Gambia, while their southward range extends about to
the river Coanza, which flows into the ocean at the boundary between Angola and
Benofuela. Their limits on either side of the Equator do not, therefore, exceed some
twelve degrees, the northern range in latitude being greater than the southern.

CHIMPANZEES. 27

With regai-d to the extent of their range across the continent to the eastward,
chimpanzees are kno\vn to occur to the north-west of the great lakes in the Xiam-
Niam district, in 28° east longituile, and they are likewise recorded from Monbottu.
Dr. Emin Pasha, writing to the secretary of tlie Zoological Society of London,
considers, however, that the}' range to about the pai'allel of 32° east longitude.
Dr. Emin's letter states, " It maj' be interesting for you to hear that an anthropoid
ape exists in Uganda and XJnyoro (the districts lying between the Victoria and the
Albert Nyanza). I cannot say whether it is identical with the Monbottu
chimpanzee or not. AVhile staj-ing in these coimtries the negroes told me much
about this animal, and in a manuscript map which I forwarded to Dr. Petei-mann,
I fixed its northern limit at 2° north latitude. Now I hear that this ape is
frequent in the thick forests near Ugoma, and I hasten to beg my friend King
Kabrega for some specimens." If this application to the king ever reached him it
does not appear to have been successful. Later on, however, Dr. Emin forwarded
to Encrland the skull of a chimpanzee shot by himself near Lake Albert Xj'anza,
which does not appear to ditler from that of the West African form.

Like all the other Man-like Apes the cliimpanzees are forest-

Habits . .

dwelling animals, although on the coast of the Loango district they
are found in the mountains. Their food is usually the various wild fruits which
grow abundantly in these dense forests, but, as we have seen, at least the bald-
headed species will take kindly to an animal diet in captivity.

The following account of the habits of the chimpanzee is taken from Dr.
Hartmann, who draws much of his information from the German traveller,
Schweinfurtli, as detailed in his work entitled Frora ihe Heart of Africa. Dr.
Hartmann observes that the cliimpanzee either lives in separate families or in
small groups of families. " In many districts — as, for example, in the forest-regions
of Central Africa — its habits are even more arboreal than are tho.se of the gorilla.
Elsewhere as, for instance, on the south-west coast, it seems to live more upon the
ground. The Bam chimpanzee of Niam-Niam inhabits the galleries, as they were
called by Piaggia and Schweinfui'th — that is, the forest trees growing one above
another in stages, of which the growth is so dense that it is diflBcult to get at them.
The powerful stems, thickly overgrown with wild pepper, have branches from
which hang long streamers of bearded moss, and also a parasitic growth of that
remarkable fern to which Schweinfurth gave the name of elephant's ear. The
large tun-shaped structures of the tree termites (white ants) are found on the
loftier boughs. Other stems, rotten and decayed, serve as supports for the
colossal streamers of Mucuna uren.9 (a climbing leguminous plant with yellow or
white flowei-s and large leatherj^ seed-pods), and form bowers overhung with
impenetrable festoons, as large as houses, in which perpetual darkness reigns.

" When the chimpanzee goes on all-fours, he generally supports himself on the
backs of his closed fingers (compare Fig. 6 of the illustration on p. 15) rather than
on the palm of the hand, and he goes sometimes on the soles of his feet, sometimes
on his closed toes. His gait also is weak and vacillating, and he can stand upright
on his feet for a still shorter time than the gorilla. At the same time he seeks
support for his hands, or clasps them above his head, which is a little thrown back
in order to maintain his balance."

28

APES AXD MONKEYS.

Chimpanzees appear to be continually shifting their haunts in order to find fresh
feeding-grounds, and will not unfrequently \is\t and pillage deserted native
plantations. They utter loud cries, which may be heard resounchng through the
forests at all houi-s of both day and night. Dr. E. Pechuel-Loesche, who accom-
panied the expedition sent to Western Equatorial Africa during the j^eai-s from
1873 to 1875, observes that chimpanzees "are really accomplished in the art of
bringing forth these unpleasant sounds, which may be heard at a great distance,
and arc reproduced by the echoes. It is impo.ssible to estimate the number of
those who take part in tlie horrid noise, but we often seemed to hear more than a

THE CHIMPANZEE "MAl'UKA."

Iiundred. Tliey generally remain upon the gr'ound among the dense underwood
and thickets of Araortium (a member of the ginger family) and other scitamineous
plants, and only climb trees for the sake of obtaining fruit. Their track may be
plainly discerned on soft ground; they stop short wherever the Amomum grows,
of which the}' are very fond, and the red husks of the fruit of which may be seen
strewn ai'ound."

There seems to be no doubt but that chimpanzees build a kind of nest high
up in the trees for their families : and it is stated that the male of the famih' takes
up his position for the night beneath the shelter afforded by the nest. It is
probable that this habit has given rise to the idea that these animals construct
pent-houses for themselves ; an elaborate illustration of such a structure being
given in Du Chaillu's Equatorial Africa.

CHIMPANZEES. 29

It is said that chimpanzees will generally take to flight at the sight of man,
but that when driven to bay, or their retreat cut oli", they will attack him fiercely,
and are then very awkward customei-s to deal with. Dr. Livingstone, in his Last
Journals, gave an account and .sketch of a chimpanzee hunt by the Manyema
tribe, describing these animals under their name of Soke, but apparently confusincr
them with the gorilla. The doctor's graphic sketch shows four cliimpanzees
.surrounded by natives, one of the former haxdng received its death-wound, a
second with a spear in its back, and a fom-th making a \-igorous onslaught on one
of the hunters, whose hand it has seized in its mouth. Dr. Livingstone states that
the chimpanzee " kills the leopard occasionally, by seizing both paws and biting
them, so as to disable them ; he then goes up a tree, groans over his wounds, and
sometimes recovei-s, while the leojjard dies. The lion kilLs him at once, and
sometimes tears liis limbs off, but does not eat him. The soko eats no flesh ; small
bananas are his dainties, but not maize. His food consists of wild fruits, and of
these one is large, a large sweet sop but iudiflerent in taste. The soko brings
forth at times twins."

Intelligence In captivity chimpanzees, when in health, are gentle, intelligent,

in Captivity. j,uj attectionate, readily learning to feed themselves with a spoon, or
to drink out of a glass or cup. Unfortunately, however, their span of life in this
country is but brief. The longest periotl that a chimpanzee has hitherto lived in
the Zoological Society's Gardens is eight years; "Sally," who died in 1891, having
been kept there for that time.

One of the earliest accounts of the chimpanzee in captivity was given by the
late Mr. Broderip, and is to be found quoted in mo.st works on Natural History.
It relates to a young male brought from the Gambia in the year 1835, which was
deposited in the menagerie of the London Zoological Society. Dr. Hartmann has
also jiublished an interesting description of the habits of another male, which was
exhibited in the Berlin Aquarium in 1876, and was remarkable for its unusually
livelj' and cheerful disposition.

Moi-e recent, and thus probably less widely known, is, however,
the description by Dr. J. G. Romanes of the mental power of the bald
chimpanzee, " Sally," already mentioned as having liveil so long in London. This
account wa.s written in 1889, after the creature had been neaidy six years in the
Zoological Gardens. The intelligence of " Sally " is compared by Dr. Romanes to
tl^at of a child a few months before emerging from the period of infancy, and is
thus far higher than that of any other Mammal (exclusive of man). In spite,
however, of this relatively high degree of intelligence, the creature's power of
making vocal replies to her keepers, or those with whom she was brought into
contact, were of the most limited kind. Such replies were, indeed, restricted to
thi-ee peculiar granting noises. One of these indicated assent or aflSrmation ;
another, of veiy similar intonation, denoted refusal or distrust ; while the third, and
totally different intonation, was used to express thanks or recognition of favours.
In disposition " Sally" was, like many of her sex, apt to be capricious and uncertain ;
although, on the whole, she was good-humoured and fond of her keepers, with whom
she was never tired of a kind of bantering play, which was kept up at intervals

APES AXD MONKEYS.

almost continually. By singing in a peculiar kind of monotone, in imitation of her
own utterance, her keepers were usually able to induce her to go tlu'ough a series
of remarkable actions, the meaning of which is not very apparent. First she would
shoot out her lips into a tubular form, uttering at the same time a weird kind
of howling note, interrapted at regular intervals. The pauses would, however.

THE CUIMP.VXZEE "SALLY.

gradually become shorter and shorter, while the sing-song cry became louder and
louder, until it finallj- culminated in a series of yells and screams, not unfrequently
accompanied with a stamping of the feet, and a \-iolent shaking of the netting
of her cage. After this climax the utterance of a few grunts terminated the
performance.

Some time previously to 1889, it occurred to Dr. Komanes (from whose account
we are paraphrasing) that " SaUy " would be a good subject to test the powei-s of

CHIMPANZEES. 31

the simiine intelligence by a series of special experiments. It was found, however,
that such experiments were seriously hampered by the effects on the creature of the
visits of the numbers of people who were constantly passing in and out of the room
in which she was kept ; and there is consequently but little doubt that, under more
favourable circumstances, the results obtained would have been more remarkable
than they are. Dr. Romanes, having secured the assistance of the keepers, caused
them to ask " Sally " repeatedly for one, two, or three straws, which she was to pick
up and hold out from among the litter strewing her cage. Tlie number of straws
asked for was constantly varied, and never followed any regular order ; and when
the correct number was presented the animal was rewarded by a piece of fruit,
while if the number was incorrect her offer was refused. " In this way," observes
Dr. Romanes,! « i^-^^ ^-^^^ y^.^^ taught to associate these three numbers witli their
names. Lastly, if two or three straws were demanded, she was taught to hold one
or two in her mouth until she had picked up tlie remaining straw, and then to
hand the two or three straws together. This prevented any error arising from her
interpretation of vocal tones. As soon as the animal undei-stood what was required,
and had learnt to associate these three numbers with tlieir names, she never failed
to give the number of straws asked for. Her education was then extended in a
similar manner from three, to four, and from four to five straws. Here I allowed
her education to terminate. But more recently one of the keepers has endeavoured
to advance her instruction as far as ten. The result, however, is what might have
been anticipated. Altliough she very rarely makes any mistake in handing out
one, two, three, four, or five straws, according to the number asked for, and although
she is usually accurate in handing out as many as six or seven, when the numbers
eight, nine, or ten are named, the result becomes more and more uncertain, so as to
be suggestive of guess-work. It is evident, however, that she understands the
words seven, eight, nine, and ten to betoken numbers higher than those below them ;
and if she is asked for any of these numbers, she gives some number that is above
six and not more than ten ; but there is no such constant accuracy displayed in
handing out the exact number named, as is the case below six. On the whole, then,
while there is no doubt that this animal can accuratelj' compute any number of
straws up to five, beyond five the accuracy of her computation becomes progressively
diminished. It is to be noticed that the ape exhibits some idea of multiplication ,
for she very frequently doubles over a long straw so as to make it apjaear as two
straws. Any of the rare errors which she makes in dealing with numbers below
six are almost invariably due to her thus endea-vouring to duplicate her straws. In
this connection it is to be remembei-ed that, owing to the method above described,
when any high number is demanded, a considerable tax is imposed upon her
patience ; and as her movements are deliberate, while her store of patience is small,
it is evident that the doubling of the straws is intended to save trouble by getting
the sum completed with greater rapidity. Of course we do not recognise these
doubled straws as equivalent to two straws, and therefore the persistency with
which she endeavours to palm them off as such is the more noteworthy. Moreover,
I am disposed to think that the uncertainty which attends her dealing with the
numbers six and seven is more due to her losing patience than to her losing count ;

1 We have somewhat abbreviated the extract.

32

APES AND MONKEYS.

although after seven I believe that her computation of the numbers becomes
vague."

Before her death, as we have been informed by Dr. Romanes, " Sally " was
able to count up to as many as ten straws ; and if her life had been prolonged she
might even have advanced beyond this. Dr. Romanes proceeds to state that it
would be unreasonable to assume that this chimpanzee really employed any system
of notation in delivering the correct tale of straws, and we may rather consider that
.she executed her task by a direct perception of the difference between a higher and

nE,VD OF CHIMPANZEE "MAFUKA."

lower number, without anj^ actual process of counting ; tliis inference being con-
tirmed by the power possessed by men of simultaneously estimating with accuracy
the number of a low series of small objects set before them without any direct
enumeration.

In addition to these attempts to detennine "Sally's" capacity for numbers.
Dr. Romanes instituted a series of experiments designed to test her powers of
recognising and distinguishing between colours. "It appeared to me," says the
experimenter, " that if I could once succeed in getting her to know the names of
black, white, red, green, or blue, a possible basis might have been laid for further
exj)eriments wherein these five colours could have been used as signs of artificially
associated ideas. The resiilt, however, of attempting to teach her the names of

CHIMPANZEES.

33

colours has been so uniformly negative, that I am disposed to think the animal must
be colour-blind. The method adopted in these experiments was to obtain a number of
brightly and uniformly coloured pieces of straw — each piece being either white,
black, red, green, or blue. OUered the straws two by two of ditlerent colours on
each occasion, the ape was in\-ited to select the straw of the colour named from the
one whose colour was not named, and, of coui-se, on choosing correctly was rewarded
with a piece of fruit. In this waj- she quicklj- learned to distinguish between the
white straws and the straws of anv other colour ; but she never could be taught to

SIDE VIEW OK HEAD OF CHIMPiSZEE ".MAFUKA.

go further. Now the distinction between the white straws and the straws of any
other colour is a distinction which can be drawn bj' an eye that is colour-blind ;
and from the fact that the ape is always able to perceive this distinction, while she
cannot be taught to distinguish any of the othei-s, I conclude that her failure in this
respect is not due to any want of intelligence, but to some deficiency in her powers
of colour-perception."

We must conclude our notice of chimpanzees by the mention of

a very remarkable ape which was brought from the Loango Coast in

1875, and exhibited in the Zoological Gardens at Dresden. This animal was a

female, and from its peculiar phj'siognomy, as shown in our two figures of its head,

has given lise to much discussion as to what species it really belonged. The

VOL. I.-

34 AFES AND MONKEYS.

creature was of a fierce disposition, and was generally known by the name of
Mafuka. Although presenting many of the features of a chimpanzee, it had very
projecting jaws, the eai-s were relativelj' small and placed rather high on the head,
while the end of the nose was wide and expanded. The most remarkable feature
about tills animal was, however, the presence of a great bony ridge overhanging
the eyes, very much as in the female gorilla. So like, indeed, was Mafuka to a
gorilla in this respect, that Dr. Hartmann tells us when he fii-st saw her he felt
almost convinced that he had to do with a female gorilla which had not quite
attained maturity. This opinion was, however, \'igorously confuted by other
zoologists ; and it was subsequentlj" suggested that the creature might be a half-
breed between the chimpanzee and gorilla. Dr. Hartmann concludes by saying
that "for me and many other naturalists Mafuka i-emains up to this time an
enigma." Unless, which is very improbable, this animal indicates a third species
of chimpanzee, we confess that the half-breed theory' appeai-s to us the most
probable solution of the mystery.
Extinct ciiim- A word in regard to a fossil-ape found in the north-west of

pannes. India in rocks, belonging to the Pliocene or later division of the
Tertiary period, and we have done with chimpanzees. It has always been a matter
of surprise that no large Man-like Ape now inhabits the dense ti-opical forests of
India or Burma, which would appear to be just as suitable for these creatures as
are those of Borneo or Equatorial Africa. The discoveiy in India of a jaw of a
large ape apparently belonging to the same genus as the chimpanzee shows us,
however, that large Man-like Apes must have once roamed over the plains of India.
Why chimpanzees, together with hippopotami and girafies, which are likewise found
fossil in India but are now confined to Africa, should have totally disappeared from
the former country, is, however, one of those puzzling problems connected with the
distribution of animals wliich we have but little hope of answering satisfactorily.

The fossil Indian chimpanzee was found in the arid districts of the Punjab,
and since we know that the living Man-like Apes dwell in the deepest gloom and
solitude of primeval foi-ests, where vegetation grows luxuriously and offers a
constant supply of fruits throughout the year, we may probably infer that the
Indian chimpanzee inhabited a similar forest - clad countiy ; and that, conse-
quently, the present area of the Punjab was in parts at all events clothed vr\\h.
forests in which dwelt this ape, instead of being, as now, a sun-scorched and
somewhat desolate region. E\*idence of the former existence of these forests is
afforded bj'' the occurrence of numbei-s of fossil tree-stems in various parts of the
same sexies of rocks from which the remains of the fossil chimpanzee were
obtained.

The Gorilla.
Genus Gorilla.

Under the heading of the Chimpanzee we have already seen how, as far back
as 1590, the English sailor Battel heard of the existence of a gigantic ape living
in the forests of Guinea, and known to the natives as the Pongo ; this ape being

GORILLA.

35

l^'L^^ ^^---^

|::'|r:M^

^^^^1^1

'if^'T^r:

A

V < >' "*

/ \

THE YOUNG GORILLA AT PLAY.

'''k

\l

36 APES AND MONKEYS.

also known under the names of Jina, X'Jina, or Indjina, or N'Guyala, while bj-
Europeans it is universally termed the GorUlaw The naturalist BufFon appears to
have given credence to Battel's pongo (X'Pungu, or M'Pungu, as it is variouslj'
spelt); but his account was summarily rejected by the gi-eat Cu\-ier as a mere
traveller's tale. StUl, however, vague mmoui-s of the existence on the West Coast
of Africa of an ape of larger size and fiercer habits than the chimpanzee from
time to time reached Europe ; and in 1819 Bowdich, in his account of the " Mission
from Cape Coast Castle to Ashanti," definitely stated that among the many curious
apes found in the Gabun district the ingenu (or gorilla) was by far the largest
and strongest. It was not, however, till the year 1847 that anj^ precise e^^dence
of the existence of this mj-sterious ape reached Europe. In that j'ear, however,
Dr. Savage, an English missionaiy stationed at the Gabim, wrote to the veteran
comparative anatomist. Sir Richard Owen, enclosing drawings of the skull of an
ape from that district, which was described as being much larger than the
chimpanzee, and feared by the negroes more than they di-ead the lion, or any
other wild beast of the forest. These sketches clearly showed the bold bony crests
over the eye-sockets, which mark the skull of the gorilla as distinct from that of
the chimpanzee. " At a later date in the same year," writes Sir Richard Owen,
■' were transmitted to me fi'om Bristol two skulls of the same large species of
chimpanzee as that notified in Dr. Savage's letter; they were obtained fi-om the
same locality in Africa, and bi'ought clearly to light e\ndence of the existence in
Africa of a second larger and more powerful ape." In the following year these
specimens were described by the English anatomist under the name of Troglodytes
savagei. It appeai-s, however, that about the same time that Dr. Savage forwarded
the sketches to Sir Richard Owen, he also sent a skull of the unknown ape,
together with a description of the animal itself, by the hand of a feUow-missionary
named Wilson, to Boston in the United States. And in an Ameiican scientific
journal for the j^ear 1847, the new ape was described, and named Troglodytes
gorilla. Thxis mattei"s stood tiU the j-ear 1851, when a Captain Harris presented
to the Roj'al College of Surgeons the fii-st skeleton of a gorilla that had ever
been brought to England ; while in the same year another skeleton was sent to
Philadelphia by Mr. Foi-d. This at once made a great advance in our knowledge
of the creature ; and in 1852 a French natm-alist came to the conclusion that the
gorilla ought not to be included in the same genus as the chimpanzee ; and he
accordingly proposed for it the name of Gorilla genu. By the iiiles of nomenclature
adopted among zoologists, he had, however, no right to supersede the specific
name proposed by Sir Richard Owen ; and the gorilla is accordingly now known
scientifically as Gorilla savagei.

In 1856 the well-known African traveller, Du ChaUlu, arrived at the Gabun.
preparatoiy to his expedition into the interior; and two years later the British
Museum i-eceived from the Gabun an entire gorilla presei-\-ed in spirits, the skin
of which was soon afterwards mounted and exliibited to the public.

Such is the history of the gradual acquisition of our knowledge of the largest
of the apes. On his return from the Gabun to America, Du Chaillu set to work
to publish an accoimt of his travels and adventures ; and in 1861 the world was
startled bj- the appearance of his Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial

GORILLA. 37

Africa, which gave a full and illustrated narrative of numerous personal encounters
with gorillas. Somewhat later, an Englishman, Mr. Winwood Eeade, made an
expedition to the Gabun for the purpose of verifying these accounts ; the results
of his journey being given in a work entitled Savage Africa, of which the first
edition appeared in 1863. In this work it is asserted that neither Du Chaillu nor
any other European had up to that date ever seen a wild, livino- gorilla in its
native haunts, though he possibly did not refer to those driven to the shore in
1851 ; and his assertions are supported by the members of the German Loango
Expedition of 1873-76. Be this as it may, Du Chaillu's accounts of gorilla-hunting
have been so frequently quoted that we need hardly dwell on them hei-e.

, . ,. We now proceed to describe the gorilla, noticing especially the

cnaractenstics. . . , . o i j

more important characters in which it difiers from the chimpanzee.

In the first place, it may, however, be observed that both these animals agree in the

deep black colour of their skin, and the blacki.sh hue of a large portion of the hair.

One of the most obvious distinctive features of the gorilla, as distinguished from

the cliimpanzee, is that the males are very much larger than the females, while

their skulls have the beetling, ])ony ridges overhanging the sockets of the ej-cs,

whicli give to the living animals their peculiarly ferocious and forbidding aspect.

Then, again, the arms are relatively longer than in the chimpanzee, reaching, in

the upright position, some considerable distance below the knee, although never

below the middle of the lower leg or shin. In regard to our figure of the skeleton

of the gorilla, given on p. 17, it should, however, be observed that it is taken from

one mounted in a somewhat slouching position, so that the hands reach lower

down than would have been the case had it been set perfectly upright. Another

point in which the gorilla difiers from the chimpanzee, and thereby departs still

further from the human tj^e, is the greater length of the median bony union of

the two branches of the lower jaw. Moreover, the " wisdom-tooth," or last molar,

in the upper jaw, is larger than either of the two molars in front of it; this being

another departure from the chimpanzee and man.

Such are some of the leading structural features by which the gorilla is

distinguished from the chimpanzee, and they are those on which zoologists chiefly

rely in referring these animals to ditferent genera. We shall see, however,

immediately that there are many other points of difference, but before noticing

these we must mention certain characteristics by which the chimpanzee and

gorilla are collectively distinguished from the lower Man-like Apes, and thereby

agree with man. One of these is that the total number of joints in the backbone,

or vertebrae, lying between the solid mass called the sacrum and the neck is

seventeen, or the same as in man. It is true, indeed, that whereas in man only

twelve of these vertebras carry ribs, in the gorilla and chimpanzee thirteen are so

provided ; but this is a matter of minor import, which is entirely overbalanced

by the numerical identity of the vertebrae. The other point is the absence of the

central bone in the wrist; so that whereas in man, the cliimpanzee, and the

gorilla the total number of separate wrist-bones is but eight, in all the other

Primates it is nine. This is a very important characteristic in connecting these

two apes with man.

38 APES AND MONKEYS.

Relationship Here we may make a brief digression to explain what zoologists

to Man. niean by the connection and relationship of these apes with man. A
great deal of nonsense has been written about the impossibilitj' of man being de-
scended from the chimpanzee, a gorilla, or an orang. No one, however, who knows
what he is talking about, can ever suppose for a single moment that such was the
case. What zoologists do contend for is that, supposing some kind of evolution to
be the true explanation of the origin of animals, — and all the available evidence
indicates that it is so, — man is so intimately connected, so far as his bodily
stmctui'e is concerned, with the higher apes that, in this respect at least, he
cannot but be considered to have had a similar origin. And on this view both
man and the Man-like Apes are regarded as diverging branches descended from a
common ancestor, — " the missing link," — long since extinct, and as much unlike any
living ape, as such apes are unlike man himself. The gorilla and chimpanzee
are presumed to be descended from apes which diverged from the common ancestral
stock, subsequently to the assumption of the human attributes of seventeen
veAebrae between the sacrum and the neck, and the loss of the central bone in the
wrist.

With these few words on this deeplj^ interesting and important subject, we
proceed to a more detailed examination of the gorilla.

A full-grown male gorilla, if standing in a perfectly upright
structure. .. .^ ° '^ Y . .

position, will generally measure rather more than six feet in height ;

and since his botly is much more bulky, and his limbs are longer than those of a man,
he is considerably the largest representative of tlie Primates. As in the chimpanzee,
there are distinct eyebrows on the forehead and lashes to the lids of the eyes. The
nose has a relatively long bridge, and its extremity is high, conical, and widely
expanded ; the whole length being divided by a distinct furrow running down the
middle line, and becoming more marked as age advances. The upper lip is remark-
able for its shortness ; and the whole of the dark skin in the region of the nose,
cheeks, and mouth is marked by a number di rugose folds. The massive jaws
are extremely projecting, and ^vith their huge tusks, or canine teeth, complete the
repulsive aspect imparted to the expression by the overhanging eyebrows. The
lower jaw has scarcelj?^ any indication of the prominent chin which is such a
characteristic feature in the human countenance, but it slopes rapidly away from
the middle line in front, so as to assume a somewhat triangular contour. The
whole skin of the face is of deep black colour, of a glossy appearance, and sparsely
sprinkled with coarse hairs. The ears are comparatively small, with their hinder
border shai-ply angulated in the middle, and appear to be fastened above and
beliind to the sides of the face. Like the face and lips, the ears are of a deep black
hue. The head is joined to the trunk \>y a very short and thick neck, which gives
the appearance of its being set into the shoulders ; and the tei-m " bull-necked " is
therefore strictly applicable to the creature. This great thickness and power of
the neck is largely due to the backward projection of the occipital region of the
skull, and the tall spines surmounting the vertebrae of the neck. In con-elation with
the great development of this region, we find the muscles of the shoulders and chest
equally powerful, as is essential for the movements of the mighty anus. On the

GOUILLAS AT nOlIE.

GORILLA. ' 4,

latter the arrangement of the hair is the same as in the chimpanzee ; but we notice a
great chfference in the form of the hands, as may be seen from the illustration on p. 15.
Thus, in marked contrast to that of the chimpanzee, the hand (1) is remarkable for
its great width and stoutness, coupled with the shortness and generalljr clumsy make
of the fingers, which are united together by a strong web, reaching nearly to the end
of their first joints. The thumb is short in proportion to the fingers, reaching but
slightly beyond the middle of the metacarpal bone of the index finger, and is nearly
conical in shape at its extremity. The fingers, on the contrary, are somewhat
flattened at their extremities. There is but little difference, as seen in our figure,
between the lengths of the index, middle, and ring fingers ; the fonner being some-
times as long as, biit at others shorter than the middle finger. In all cases, however,
the " little " finger is true to its name in being shorter than either of the others.
The skin on tlie back of the wrist is thrown into a number of deep folds, with an
oblique direction ; while a network of wrinkles covers the backs of the fingers, which
have large callosities on the first and sometimes also on tlie second joints ; these
callosities being produced by the animal walking, when on all-foui'S, with its
fingers doubled on the palms of the hands. On the deep black and naked skin of
the jjalms of the hands, -which are hard and horny, there ai-e generally numerous
wart-like growths.

With the exception of noticing its enormous bulk, especially in the lower part,
we need not devote any particular attention to the body of the gorilla ; and we
accordingly direct our- observation to the hind-limbs or legs. One of the most
important features in these is that the calves are more developed than in any of
the other Man-like Apes. The foot, as contrasted with that of the chimpanzee in
the illustration on p. 15, is characterised by its great breadth and width, and also
by the extreme shortness of the ver}^ thick toes. The great toe varies somewhat in
length, as compared with that of the others, reaching in some individuals as far
as the end of their first joints, and in others to the middle of the second. In con-
trast to the thumb, the great toe is expanded at the end; and, in opposition to the
otlier toes, forms a grasping organ of great power. None of the other toes are as
thick as the great toe ; the middle toe being slightly longer than either of the
adjacent ones, while the little toe is considerably shorter. The sole of the foot is
somewhat convex, but its upper surface is very flat, and there is no soi't of re-
semblance to the human instep in the whole foot. The upper surface of the foot,
as far as the commencement of the toes, is thickly covered with hair, but on the
latter the hairs become thinly scattered ; while the sole is bare, and covered with a
thick horny skin. Owing to the habit of its sometimes walking with the toes bent
under the sole of the foot, the gorilla has callosities on the upper surface of the
toes.

With regard to the colour of the hair, of which, as we have
Colour. . . . . , , ,

already said, the general hue is blackish, there is considerable

individual variation, and likewise a change attendant upon age; very old gorillas
becoming more or less completely grizzled. As a rule, we may notice a reddish-
brown tint on the hair at the top of the head, although it may be dark brown, or
even black ; the hairs generally being differently coloured in different portions of
their length. On the sides of the face the hair is greyish at the roots and dark at

42 APES AND MONKEYS.

the tips ; while on the neck and shoulders it tends to become Kghter at the tips.

A dark grey colour seems to characterise the tips of the haii-s over the greater

portion of the body and the upper parts of the limbs : but below the tips these

hairs have a dark brown ring, beneath which they again become lighter. On the

lower parts of the Hmbs and hands the haii-s are darker at their tips, where thej'

varj' from brown to black ; but in some indi\-iduals these portions of the limbs

may be covered, like the tnmk, with a mixture of grey and brown haii-s.

External The hair consists of an outer coat of long stiff bristles, and of a

Covering-. shorter inner coat of fine short cui'ly hairs, approximating to a woolly

nature. The moderately long hair on the crown of the head is veiy stiif, and can

be erected when the animal is enraged. Although the front and sides of the chin

have but a short covering of hair, its under portion has a distinct beard or iiiff

By far the longest hair on the upper part of the body is that growing on the

shoiddei-s, and hanging down thence on to the back and upper part of the arms. The

lenjrth of this hair is, however, somewhat exceeded bv that growing on the thighs.

On the chest and the rest of the under parts the hair is much shorter ; that on the

chest generally taking an upward and outward direction. The woolly under-haii

is not verj" thick, and has no tendency to mat together. The long hair of the

shouldei-s, back, and tliighs communicates a generally shaggy appearance to the

gorilla, although this is much less marked than in the orang.

The female jjorilla, as we have already mentioned, is much
Female. o ' v '

smaller than the male, and does not generally exceed some four and

a half feet in height. The whole build is, moreover, relatively weaker, the tusks
are but slightly developed, and the skull is proportionately smaller and more
rounded, lAnthout the huge bony arches over the eyes. It appeai-s, moreover, that
in the adult female the bridge of the nose is relatively shorter than in the male,
while the cheeks are wider, and the upper lip longer than is usually the case in the
latter. The general appearance of the female gorilla is, therefore, considerably less
ferocious and repulsive than that of her lord and master.

Ha\nng now made our readers acquainted with the chief characters of the
gorUla, we proceed fii-stly to notice the tUstricts and nature of the countrj- it in-
habits, and then to say something as to its mode of life.
Geographical The geographical range of the goi-illa is veiy much more re-

Distribution. gtricted than is that of the chimpanzee, being limited to that district
of Western Equatorial Afiica, Ijnng between 2° north latitude and 5° south latitude,
and apparently not extencUng further into the interior than 16° east longitude. Tliis
hot and miasmatous region includes the mouths of the rivei-s Ogavai, Gabun, and Muni,
and also the range of mountains mnning for about a hundred miles in a northerly
direction between the former and the Camemns, known as the SieiTa do CristaL
According to the medical missionary, Mr. H. A Ford, already- alluded to, gorillas
are most common in the Sierra do Cristal, and have al.so been found a day^'s journey
from the mouth of the Muni. During the years 18.51 and 1852 numbere of goiillas,
probably driven from the interior by want of food, were seen on the coast of the
Gabun district, several of which were killed : the specimens sent by Captain Harris
to London, and by Mi". Ford to Philadelphia being probably some of these. Subse-
quently to 1852 they appear never to have been seen on the coast. According

GORILLA. ,,

to the report of the German Loango Expedition, already alluded to, gorillas are
very rare in the Loango district near the coast, but are met with in or near the
mountainous region further inland, ^^'ritiug■ in 1859, Sir Richard Owen gave the
following account of gorilla-land in the district between the Gabun and Muni (or
Danger) river, which he appears to have derived from the narratives of corre-
spondents residing in these regions. He observes, " The part where the gorilla has
been most frequently met with presents a succession of hill and dale, the heights
crowned with lofty trees, the valleys covered by coarse grass, witli partial scrab or
scattered shrabs. Fruit trees of various kinds abound both on the hills and in the
valleys; some that are cinide and uncared for by the negroes are sought out and
eagerly eaten by the gorillas ; and as different kinds come to maturity at different
seasons, they afford the great denizens of the woods a successive and unfailing
supply of these indigenous fruits." The professor then goes on to mention tlie
various trees which have been identified among those which afford food to tlie
gorillas. Among these the most important appears to be the oil-palm (Elais), of
whicli the part eaten is the undeveloped spathe, known as the palm-cabbage ; next we
have the so-called grey plum-tree {Parinarium excelsum), bearing a grey, somewhat
insipid fruit of the size of a large plum. Another is the papaw tree (Larica) ; two
kinds of wild plantains (Musa); several sorts of Amomum, one of which produces
the Malaquetta pepper — a tree bearing a walnut-like fruit, of which the gorilla is
said to crack the shell with a stone, and which may be allied to the kind wliich
produces the kola-nut. Lastly, we have a tree which, at the time when Sir R.
Owen wrote, had not been identified, but which bears a fruit somewhat resembling
a cherry. According to later accounts, gorillas will also visit the plantations of the
natives, and do nmcli damage to them.

„ ^ ,,., In regard to the actual mode of life of the gorilla there is a great

Mode of life. ,,»,..„ ^ °

deaiih of authentic niformation. The old stories that these animals

would seize M'ith their foot natives passing beneath tlie trees on which they dwelt

and di-ag them up, and likewise those to the eftect tliat they gathered round the

deserted camp-fires of the natives, as well as the legends that they drove off" the

elephant with clubs, were disposed of once for all by Du Cliaillu. Unfortunatelj^

however, we are equally unable to accept his own stories as to the male gorilla

coming on to the attack in an upright position, and beating its chest witli its fists,

since, as we have already mentioned, Mr. Winwood Reade denies that Du CJliaillu

ever saw a living, wild goriUa. Tlus is supported by the circumstance that all the

skins of gorillas purchased by the British Museum from Du Chaillu show tliat

their owners were killerl by a wound in the back from the weighted spears which

the natives are accustomed to suspend in the paths of these animals. The

members of the German Loango Expedition fi-ankly confess that they never saw

a living, wild gorilla, although they brought home a J^oung one which had been

captured by some native hunters ; neither did Winwood Reade himself ever come

across these creatures in their native wilds. A later German traveller, Herr von

Koppenfels, appears, however, to have been more fortunate, and states that he once

observed a male and female with their two young quietly feeding.

From this account, and also from the natives, we know that gorillas habitually

44 APES AND MONKEYS.

live in small families (as in our illustration), having young ones of various ages
with them ; and that they frequent the most gloomy recesses of the forest, vrhere
the light of day is reduced to a twilight so dim, that on cloudy days it might be
supposed that the sun was eclipsed. The climate of these forests is hot and damp,
suo-crestive of a Turkish bath or hothouse ; and, as in most primeval forests, signs of
animal life are extremely rare, although the stillness may be broken now and then
by the voica of a bird. According to the account given by Herr von Koppenfels
(although this does not appear to be supported by others) gorillas are in the habit
of making a kind of nest in the trees by bending the boughs together and covering
them with twigs and moss at a height of several yards above the ground. In this
nest the female and young pass the night, while the male takes his station at the
bottom of the tree, where he i-emains in a sitting posture during the night, ready
to protect his family against the attacks of prowling leopards. This writer like-
wise assures us that gorillas do not frequent the same sleeping-place for more than
three or four nights consecutively ; and this is but natural when we reflect that
these creatures must needs wander considerable distances in search of fre.sh supplies
of suitable food.

Contrary to the custom of most wild animals, other than monkeys, goi-illas
appear to roam the forest in search of food solely during the daj-time, and are
totally stationary during the night. As a nile, they appear to walk on all fours ;
and while, in walking, the fingers of the hand are usually doubled on to the palm,
the whole sole of the foot is applied to the ground. They can, however, walk with
the fingers extended, and likewise with the toes bent ilovra. on the sole of the foot.

Although in appearance male gorillas are somewhat unwieldy creatures, yet,
like all their kindred, they are most active and indefatigable climbei-s, and are said
to ascend to the very tops of the forest trees, where they will pass from tree to
tree almost as readily as the far lighter spider-monkej^s of Brazil. They also
appear capable of taking leaps from great heights to the ground without damage to
themselves, since Herr von Koppenfels tells us he even saw an adult spring from a
tree at a height of some thirtj' or forty feet, and on alighting rapidly disappear
into the scrub.

Although when driven to close quarters the gorilla is doubtless one of the most
terrible of foes, yet it appears certain that very exaggerated accounts have been
given of the natural ferocity. Herr von Koppenfels, as quoted by Dr. Haiimann,
informs us that so " long as the gorilla is unmolested he does not attack men ; and,
indeed, rather avoids the encounter." And when these creatures catch sight of
men, they generally rush off precipitately in the opposite direction through the
underwood, giving vent at the same time to peculiar guttural cries.

It apj^ears that many gorillas are killed by the natives with the aid of a
weighted spear suspended by a cunningly devised system of cords in the creature's
path. Others are, however, undoubtedly shot by the negroes, although it would
seem that, at least in many instances, such animals have been accidentally met by
the hunters as they travelled through the forest rather than deliberatelj' sought
out and tracked. As we have already seen, both the members of the German
Loango Expedition and Mr. Winwood Reade express their belief that up to the
dates of their respective explorations of the West Coast no European had ever shot

GORILLA. 45

a goi-illa. According, however, to letters from Herr von Koppenfels, referred to by
Dr. Hartmann, that traveller states that up to the early part of 1874 he had
himself shot four gortUas.

With regard to gorillas in captivity, the accounts to hand are
necessai-ily somewhat meagre ; but, apart altogether from the cUmatal
difficulties of keeping these creatures alive for any length of time in Europe, all
authoiities seem to be agi-eed that the}' are utterlj- untameable. Du Chaillu states
that he had two young gorillas, the first of which was exceedingly ferocious and
unmanageable, and both of which came to an untimely end. Herr Lenz, who
l)ublished in 1878, at Berlin, imder the title of Sketches from West Africa, the
results of his African expenences, received from the natives of the Gabun a young
male gorilla, of which he wrote an account in a letter addressed to and published
bj- Dr. Hartmann. Nothing definite is, however, stated in this account as to the
disposition of the animal, attention being mainly directed to the question how to
accustom it to a diet such as could be obtained on board ship or in Europe. In
spite of this training pi'ocess, this gonlla died on the voyage to Gei-manj^

We have already mentioned that the membei-s of the Gemian Loango Expedi-
tion received in 1875 a young male gorilla captured by native hunters. From the
account of this animal, given in the report of the expedition by Herr Falkenstein,
it appeai-s that when firet received at the station of Chinxoxo in Loango, the hard-
si dps which it had undergone in its transit down country had reduced the creature
to a deplorable condition. By the aid, however, of a plentiful supplj' of wild and
other fruits, and tlie milk of a goat, the J'oung animal was gradually restored to
something approaching its normal state of health; and preparations were then
made for its transport to Berlin. Having been thus gi'aduaUy accustomed to eat
fniits and other food which could be procured on board ship, as well as to be in
the company of Europeans, this young gorilla was finally shipped for Berlin.
During the voyage it appeare that it was never chained up, and it was soon allowed
to wander freely about the ship, with but very slight supervision. This animal
appeal's to have been of a gentle cUsposition, and although self-willed was never
malicious. In taking its food it was remarkably well-behaved, helping itself from
a plate with its thumb and two fingei-s ; and even can-j-ing small vessels of water
to its mouth, and replacing them undamaged when empty. When larger vessels of
liquid were put before it, it would lower its mouth to them and drink by suction.
Its regard for pei-sonal cleanliness was also noteworthy; and when foreign sub-
stances adhered to it, it either bmshed them oft' or held out its amis in a manner
clearly indicating that it wished them removed.

When not able to obtain any article it desired, or when otherwise thwarted in
its wishes, this young creature had recourse to various clever devices bj' which its
object might be attained. For instance, it is related that '' when he felt a desire
for the sugar or fruit, wliich was kept in a cupboard in the eating-room, he would
suddenly leave off'plapng, and go in an opposite direction to the room, only altering
his course when he believed that he was no longer observed. He then went straight
to the room and cupboard, opened it, and made a quick and dexterous snatch at the
sugar-box or fruit-basket, sometimes closing the cupboard door behind him before

46 APES AXn MONKEYS.

beginning to enjoy his plunder, or, if discovered, he would escape with it ; and his
whole behaviour made it clear that he was conscious of transgressing into forbidden
paths. He took a special, and what might be called a childish, pleasure in making
a noise by beating on hollow articles, and seldom missed an opportunity of drum-
ming on casks, dishes, or tin trays, whenever he passed hy them." Strange noises,
more especially thunder, alarmed him much.

This gorilla arrived safely at Berlin, where it was for a considerable period an
inmate of the Aquarium. There it throve at first, and was docile, though inclined
to be mischievous. Eventually, however, it succumbed to the malady which sooner
or later carries off all the large Man-like Apes in our climate, d^'ing of a rajiid con-
sumption in the autumn of 1877, after having lived for fifteen months in Berlin.

By the intervention of Messrs. Pechuel-Loesche and Falkenstein, a second
living gorilla was obtained from the Loango district, and safely transported to
Berlin, where it arrived in the early part of 1883. The journey during the winter
appears, however, to have left its mark on the constitution of this animal, and after
li\H[ng for fourteen moutlis in the Aquarium it died of the same disease as its
predecessor in the spring of 1884. Dr. Hartmann states that there was a third
live gorilla at Berlin in the autumn of 1881, which died soon after its arrival.
There was also a young gorilla a few years ago in the London Zoological Gardens,
which only lived a few months.

These appear to have been the onlj^ living gorillas which have been exliibited
as such in Europe. Curiously enough, however, as far back as the j-ear 1860, a
travelling showman in England actually had a veritable living gorilla in his
exhibition, which he considered to be a chimpanzee, no one suspecting till long
after the creature's death the treasure he had possessed.

The Oeaxg-Utax.
Genus Simia.

Partly- from the reddish hue of its hair, and partly from the conformation of
its face and skull, as well as from the much greater proportionate length of its
arms, the great man-like aj^e of Borneo and Sumatra is a very difl'ereut looking
creature to either the chimpanzee or the gorilla. Owing, however, to the
circumstance that our figures of these animals generally take the form of woodcuts,
the marked contrast between the coloration of the orang (Simia satyrus), and that
of its African cousins is unfortunateh' not presented to our view.

The name Orang-Utan (generally shortened in works on zoologj' to Orang) is
a Malay word, signif png Man-of-the-Woods : and the ape so designated was known
to Linnaeus, at least as far back as the year 1766. It was not, however, till a
considerably later date that it became fully known in Europe. It is ti-ue, indeed,
that in 1780 Baron Wurmb, then the governor of the Dutch settlement of Batavia,
transmitted to Holland the entire skeleton of an orang ; but he did not recognise
it as such, calling the animal to which it belonged the Pongo — a name which, as
we have seen, belongs to the gorilla. In 1804 an orang was, however, living in the

ORAXGS IN THEIK NATIVE WOODS.

ORANGS. 49

menagerie that belonged to the Prince of Orange ; and this example was in that
year described and depicted by a naturalist named Vosmaer. Subsequentlj' to this
the identity of Wurmb's pongo with the orang was fully demonstrated ; and from
that period our knowledge of the structui-e and habits of this ape has gradually
increased. Among those who liave especially contributed to advance our know-
k'dge of the orang in its living condition we may mention " Raja " Sir James
Brooke, of Borneo, and Mr. A. R. Wallace, the latter of whom has given us such
graphic accounts of the ci-eature's habits, in his fascinating work, the Malay
Archipelago.

In the uncongenial climate of Europe, orangs are as difficult to keep for anjr
lengthened period in confinement as are the large Man-like Apes of Western Africa.
The case is, however, very ditierent in the moist subtropical climate of Calcutta,
where adult orangs have thriven well in cages exposed to the open air, and have
taught us many facts in relation to their habits.

The leading or, as zoologists say, generic characters distinguish-
' ing the orang from the chimpanzee and gorilla are to be founil in tlie
proportionately greater length of the arms — which in the upright position reach to
the ankles — in the form of the skull — which is elevated almost into a point at the
summit — as well as in a difference in the number of the joints in the backbone and
of bones in the wrist Thus there are sixteen (instead of seventeen) vertebrfe in
the backbone between the neck and the sacrum ; twelve of these carrying ribs, as
in man. In regard to the number of bones in the wrist, we find that the orang
pos.sesses the central bone which is wanting in man, the chimpanzee, and the
goi-illa ; and tlius has nine, in place of eight, bones in tlie wrist. In this respect the
Bornean ape agi-ees with tlie lower members of its order ; liut in the absence of
callosities on the buttocks it shows its kinship with the gorilla and chimpanzee.

All these characteristic features cleai-ly indicate that the orang is decidedly
lower in the scale than the two Man-like Apes of which we have already treated ;
liut before going further we must examine more closely into its structure and
appearance.

An adult male orang stands about 4 feet 4 inches in height
when in an upright position, in which posture it can almost touch the
ground with its fingei-s. The legs are extremely short and thick, and are twisted
in such a remarkable manner that the knees are turned outwards, and the feet
consequently set veiy obliquely to the line of the leg. From the peculiar structure
of its legs and feet the orang walks entirely on the outer sides of its feet, of which
the soles are turned inwards, so as to almost face one another. Although this
arrangement is ill-adapted for walking rapidly on the ground, it is one admirably
suited for climbing, in which these animals excel.

As shown in our illustration of the adult, the orang has a tall, elevated forehead,
very difierent from the retreating one of the chimpanzee ; and the whole aspect of
the face is curiously flattened, with an oval contour. Not unfrequently there is a
well-marked prominence in the middle of the forehead. Although tliere are slight
ridges over the eyes, these are much less developed than in the cliimpanzee, and
have, therefore, no sort of resemblance to the enonnous ones of the gorilla. The

VOL. I. — 4

5°

APES AND MONKEYS.

extraordinary height of the crovni of the head is well exhibited in our figure of the
head and shoulders of an immature individual, the whole of this part of the head
being curiously shortened and compressed from back to front. In the immature
animal, of which the head is figured, the jaws are not very prominent, but they
become much more projecting in old males. The briilge of the nose is generally
much depressed and flattened, Ijut the wliole nose is generally larger than in the
chimjjanzee and gorilla, and not so much expanded at its termination, the wings of
the nose being arched and narrow, and the small oval nostiils separated from one
another by a narrow partition. Tlie mobile lips are usually comparatively smooth

HEAD OF ORAXG.

and thin, the upper one being characterised by its great lengtli and breadth. In the
adult of the orang, as shown in our illustration, the neck is surrounded by a kind
of collar formed of folds of skin containing an internal cavity communicating with
the larynx or upper expansion of the windpipe. In some very old males these
pouches attain enormous dimensions, and by no means add to the personal beauty
of tlieir owner. The ear is small and well formed, and it is much more human
than that of the gorilla. Frequently tlie sides of the cheeks of the males have a
warty protuberance, or callosity.

The body is b\- no means so powerfully built as that of the gorilla ; and the
sloping and stooping shoulders and extremely prominent abdomen make the whole
shape of the animal ungainly in the extreme.

ORANGS. 51

We have already alluded to the great length of the extremely powerful arms,
which vastly augment the animal's climbing powers. Tlie hand (shoAvn in Fi"-. 9 of
the illustration on p. 15) is even longer and more slender than that of the chim-
panzee, and is characterised by the extreme shortness of the thumb, which scarcely
reaches as far as the root of the fii-st joint of the index finger. The fino-ers them-
selves are connected by a web, which extends for a third, or nearly half, the length
of their fii-st joints. With regard to the relative lengths of the fingers, there is some
amount of individual variation : but the midille finger n\&y exceed either of the
others, while the ring finger is longer than the index, and the little finger relatively
long. All the fingers are narrow and tapering, with well-formed arching nails.

The calves of tlio legs are less develojied than in either the chimpanzee or
gorilla, and the narrow flat heels are less projecting. The long and slender feet
(shown in Fig. 10 of the illustration on p. 15) are likewise of a lower tj-pe of
sti-ucture, as is pai-ticularly shown in the very small size of the great toe, which is
peculiar among the Primates in fretpiently having no trace of a nail in the adult.
Curiously enough old animals often lose the last joint of the great toe, apparently
not through disease, but as a normal condition. Both the hands and feet on the
backs, and the hands on their under surfaces, have wart-like callosities.

The genei-al colour of the orang s skin is bluish-grey, although it may have
a more or less decided tinge of brown. In marked contrast to the general slaty
hue of the face, there often occur yellowish-brown rings round the ej^es, nostrils,
and upper lip. The full reddish-brown hair is long, shaggy, and bristly, with a
small admixture of woolly under-haix-s. The hair of the head may either have a
natural parting in tlie middle, as in our figure of the head and shoulders, or
may be tossed in wild confusion, in some individuals standing almost upright.
Usually there is a well-developed beard on the cheeks and neck. On the whole of
tlie under surface of the body the covering of hair is thin and scanty, and it is even
less developed on the face, eai-s, and the backs of the hands and feet.

The tusks of the male are of enormous size. In the female they are, however,
much smaller ; and this sex is also characterised by the lesser development of the
folds and poiiches of skin around the neck.
Geographical As we have said, orangs appear to be confined to the great islands

Distnbution. Qf Borneo and Sumatra; and there has been considerable discussion
as to whether there is more than one species. It was once thought that the large
orang of Sumatra was specifically distinct from that of Borneo, and it accordingly
received a separate scientific name. Later investigations indicate, however, that
this is not the case, and that »S'. satyrus is common to both islands, although in-
dividuals vary considerably in their colour; and Dr. John Anderson is of ojjinion
that a dark and a pale race may be distinguished, the latter being devoid of the
warty callosities on the sides of the face of the males. The Dyaks of Borneo,
by whom the orang is generally designated the Mias, appear to be fully acquainted
with these two races, calling the one provided with cheek excrescences the Mias
jxippan, and the one without these appendages the M. rambi.

In addition to these two varieties of the true large orang, the Dyaks recognise
a third kind, which they distinguish as the M. kassir. These animals are much
smaller than the true orancr, and never have the excrescences on the cheeks. A

5 =

APES AXD MONKEYS.

young individual of tliis orang was described many years ago by Sir Richard
Owen as Simia vioi'io. An orang wliich lived a short time in the London
Zoological Society's Gardens was at first considered to be an adult of this form, and
to prove its right to be regarded as a distinct species. Tlie orang in (juestion was
presented to the Zoological Society, in whose Gardens it was received during the
spring of 1891, by Commander E. Rasoii, R.N., who wrote to Mr. R L. Sclater, stating
that he obtained the animal at Kuchiug, near Sarawak, in Borneo, from some natives,
who brought it to him slung on a pole. " At fii-st it was extremely savage, and
tried to bite, but soon became comparatively tame, and after a week would allow
itself to be carried about and made a pet of. After three months' time, ' George,' "
as Commander Rason calls his pet, " does not seem to have grown in height at all,
and, judging by the look of his teeth, nmst be about ten years old ; but, having
liad plenty to eat and but little exercise, has grown much fatter." On the death
of this animal, it was found, however, that its age was much less than had been
supposed, all the milk-teeth being still in place. Although the shape of its head
was decidedly larger than in the ordinary orang, this specimen does not appear to
indicate decisively that the lesser orang is a distinct species.

Orangs are stated to be much more numerous in Borneo than in
SuTnatra; and, since dense, low-lying forests are essential to their
existence, they are not found in the neighbourliood of Sarawak, Avhere the ground
is hilly. The unbroken, large areas of pi-imeval forests, occurring in many parts
of Borneo, are the true home of the orangs ; such forests, according to Mi-. Wallace,
being like open ground to these apes, since they can travel in every direction from
tree to tree, as easily as the North Amei-ican Indian traverses his native prairie.
In all their movements these apes are slow and deliberate : this being especially
noticeable with the perfectly healthy adults which have been exhibited in the
Zoological Gai'dens at Calcutta, where they enjoyed a climate not unlike their
own. This deliberation in their movements is noticeable in Mi-. Wallace's descrip-
tion of the manner in which orangs travel through the forest when midisturbed
and at ease. We are told that they proceed ■VAath gi-eat circumspection along the
larger branches of the trees in the half-upright position rendered necessary by the
great length of their arms and the shoi-tness of their legs. Almost invariably they
select such trees as have their branches interlaced with the adjacent ones ; and, when
such boughs are within reach, they catch hold of them with their arms as if to trj'
their strength, after which thej^ deliberately venture upon them. Although the
orang never leaps or jumps, and never seems to be in a hurrj^, yet he will make his
way overhead in the forest as fast as a man can run on the ground below. In
this progression the long powerfid arms are of the greatest service ; and it is b}-
their aid that the orang plucks the choicest fniit from boughs too light to support
his weight, and likewise gathers the leaves and young shoots to form his nest.

The orangs, like gorillas, go in small family parties, consisting of the parents
accompanied frequently by from two to four young ones. Although they will
devour leaves, buds, and young shoots, — more especially those of the bamboo, — the
chief food of the orang consists of fruiis of various kinds, the prime favourite
being the luscious but ill-smelling durian or jack-fi-uit. Of this fruit they waste a
vast quantity, throwing the rejected rinds on the ground below.

ORANGS. 53

Mr. Wallace describes the nest, or sleeping-place, of the orang as being
generally constructed in a comparatively small tree, at a height of from some
20 to 50 feet from the ground ; a situation at this elevation being protected
from wind by the taller surrounding trees. The Dyaks believe that the orang
constnicts a fresh nest every night ; but, as Mr. Wallace remarks, if this were the
case, the deserted nests would be much more common than they really are. These
animals remain in their nests till the sun has risen sufficiently high to have dried
the dew from the forest leaves. Their feeding-time is during the middle of the
day ; but it appears that they seldom return for more than two consecutive days to
the same tree for this pui-pose. Mr. Wallace observes that the orang must have a
task of considerable difficulty in getting at the interior of the durian, since this
fruit is protected by a thick and tough skin, covereil with strong conical prickles.
Probably, however, the animal first bites off a few of these prickles or spines, and
then makes a small hole into which it inserts its fiagers, and thus manages to pull
the fruit in pieces.

Many accounts have been given of the habits of orangs in
ap mty. ^^.^p^j^.j^.^. Qf these the earliest is the one by Vosmaer relating to the
young female, which, as we have akeady mentioned, was living in the menagerie of
the Prince of Orange in 1776. A later account of an orang brought to Java was
given about the year 1830 by Dr. Clark Abel. On board ship this animal was
allowed to roam freely about, and soon became on good tei-ms with the sailors,
whom it sui-passed in the agility with which it ascended the rigging. It was,
indeed, often pursued by the sailoi-s from one part of the rigging to the other,
when, finding itself unable to escape from tliem by direct .speed, it would swing itself
out of their reach by grasping a loose end of rope, and thus bring the chase to an
end On other occasions this animal wouLl wait among the rigging, or at the
mast-head, till the .sailors were almo.st within touching distance, when it would
suddenly lower itself to the deck by the nearest rope, or pass from one mast to
another by means of the mainstay. Any attempts to dislodge the animal when
aloft, by violently shaking or swaying the ropes by which it was suspended, were
found to be quite ineffectual, although it often appeared to the spectator that the
muscles of the orang would be unable to withstand the strain to which they were
exposed. In its playful moods this orang is described as swinging itself suddenly
within arm's length of one of its pui-suei-s, and after having struck him a hamiless
blow with its outstretched hand, as suddenly swinging oft' in the opposite direction.
Dr. Abel states that while in Java tliis orang was lodged in a large tamarind
tree growing near the house of liis master. Here he was accustomed to foi-m a
kind of nest or bed for himself by plaiting the smaller boughs together, and
strewing the platform thus made with leaves. In the daj^ime the animal was in
the habit of lying in this couch with his head projecting over the edge, and thus
watched with interest all tlie passei-s-by. When any of these happened to be
carrying fruit, the ape would descend from his lair and endeavour to obtain a
portion. At sunset, or even sooner, it would retire to its nest for the night ; while
at the first rays of dawn it would be again afoot, and endeavouring to obtain its
usual food. When on board ship the mast-head formed its usual sleeping-place,

54 APES AND MONKEYS.

where the creature would comfortably ensconce itself in the fold.s of a sail for tlie
night. "In making his bed," writes Dr. Abel, "he used the greatest pains to
remove everything out of his way that might render the surface on which he
intended to lie uneven ; and, having satisfied liimself with this part of his arrange-
ment, spread out the sail, and lying down upon it on his back, di-ew it over his
body. Sometimes I preoccui^ied his bed, and teased him by refusing to give it up.
On these occasions he would endeavour to pull the sail from under me or to force
me from it, and would not rest until I had resigned it. If it was large enough for
both he would quietly lie down by my side. If all the sails happened to be set, he
would hunt about for some other covering, and either steal one of the sailor's
jackets or shii-ts that happened to be drying, or empty a hammock of its blankets.
His food in Java was chiefly fruit, especially mangosteens, of wliich he was
extremely fond. He also sucked eggs with voracity, and often emploj^ed himself
in seeking them. On board ship his diet was of no definite kind ; he ate readily of
all kinds of meat, and especiallj' raw meat ; and was very fond of bread, but always
preferred fruits when he could obtain them. His beverage in Java was water ; on
ship-board it was as diversified as his food. He pi'eferred coffee and tea, but would
readily take wine, and exemijlified his attachment to spirits by stealing the
captain's brandy-bottle ; since his arrival in London, he has preferred beer and
milk to anything else, but drinks wine and other liciuoi"s. In his attempts to get
food, he afforded us many oppoi-tunities of judging of his sagacity and disposition."
The continuation of Dr. Abel's account is too long to be quoted at length, but he
gives several other interesting paiiieulars of tlie habits of the animal during the
voyage from Java to England. Although habituallj'^ gentle, this orang could be
excited into paroxysms of violent rage, which he expressed bj^ opening his mouth,
showing his teetli, and seizing and biting such persons as were in his vicinitj'.
This animal survived its arrival in England for about fifteen months, when it fell a
victim to the disease so fatal to its kindred in our climate.

The ferocious nature of the orang, when angered or di-iveu to bay, is confirmed
both by Sir James Brooke and Mr. Wallace. An instance of this is related bj' the
latter writer in the following words : — " A few miles do\\Ti the river there is a Dj'ak
house, and the inhabitants saw a large orang feeding on the young shoots of a palm
by the river-side. On being alarmed lie retreated towards the jungle, which was
close by, and a number of the men, ai-med with spears and choppers, ran out to
intercept him. Tlie man who was in front tried to ran his spear through the
animal's body, but the mias seized it in liis hands, and in an instant got liold of tlio
man's arm, which he seized in his mouth, making his teeth meet in the flesh above
the elbow, which he tore and lacerated in a dreadful manner. Had not the others
been close behind, the man would have been more seriously injured, if not killed,
as he was quite powerless ; but they soon destroyed the creature with their speare
and choppers. Tlie man reiiiaine<l ill for some time, and never fully recovered the
use of his arm."

The same writer relates the history of a young orang which he received in
Borneo when it was only a foot high. Wlien first carried home tliis tiny creature
took such a firm grasp of its new owner's beard, that it was with difficulty it could
be made to loose its hold. At the time of its capture there were no signs of teeth

b

ORANGS.

55

YOUNG ORANGS (1-5), AND GIBBONS (C-S).

56 APES AND MONKEYS.

in its mouth, but in the course of a few days two of the lower incisor teeth were
cut. There was at the time unfortunately no means of attaining a supply of milk
for the little ape ; but Mi-. Wallace overcame this difficult}' by feeding it with rice-
water sucked from a bottle with a quill through the cork. The animal soon
managed to suck comfortably enough from this contrivance ; and when sugar and
cocoanut milk were added to the mixture it thrived well enough on the diet. If
its owner introduced his finger into the ci'eature's mouth, it first of all sucked away
vigorously, but soon found out its mistake, and pushed the finger away with angry
screams like those of a disappointed child. When caressed this ape was contented
and happy, but when laid down soon began to scream : and for the first two nights
of its captivity was very noisy and restless. It was kept in a kind of cradle, made
of a box, with a soft mat at the bottom. The little orang seemed to appreciate a
frequent bath ; and, indeed, when it required one announced the fact by loud
screams. The process of drj-ing and nibbing after each bath seems to have been a
source of gi-eat enjojTnent ; and this was likewise the case when its hair was
combed and brushed At fii-st it clutched vigorously bj- all four limbs at any object
in its neighbourhood, so that its owner had continuaUj^ to be on his guard to save
liis beard. ^Mien it could find notliing better to do, it would nuree its own foot.
Little by little the strength of the tiny creature's giip decreased, probably owing to
the want of sufficient exercise. In order to remedy this, Mr. Wallace made a short
ladder, from which the ape was suspended by its hands and feet for a quarter of an
hour at a time. This exercise seemed at first to afford it pleasure, but afterwards
it loosed its hold, fii-st ■v\-itli one limb, and then ^\'ith another, till it finally- fell to
the ground. These tumbles did not appear, however, to do it any material harm.

Mr. Wallace endeavoured to construct a kind of artificial mother out of buffalo
hide, wliicli the baby orang might fondle. For a time this appeared to atibrd satis-
faction, but eventually was discarded, as the animal was nearly choked with the hair
it had torn off the skin and swallowed. After a week's capti^^ty, the young ape was
fed from a sjjoon, containing a mixture of soaked biscuit, egg, and sugar, or, at other
times, sweet potatoes. This food was swallowed reacUly, and with apparent satis-
faction ; the creature making di'oU gi-imaces to express either pleasure or the reverse.
When it had swallowed anj-thing which appeared grateful, it drew in its cheeks, and
screwed up its eyes ; while, when the food was distasteful from want of sufficient
sugar or other cause, the creatiu-e, after timiing it about in its mouth for a short
time, finally ejected it. If this rejected food were again offered to it, the animal
displayed marked displeasure by loudly screaming and throwing its arms about.

After three weeks a young macaque monkey was introduced to the orang, and
the two, although very different in demeanour, soon became fast friends. Mr.
Wallace particularly noticed the helplessness of the young orang when compared
with the macaque : and it appeai-s that this character distinguishes the young of
all the Man-like Apes from those of the lowi'r moiikey.s. Even after the young
orang had been about a moiitli in captivity, it was veiy uiLsteady when placed on
its hands and feet, and would frequently overbalance itself and topple over. When
it required attention, it would ciy loudly for a time, but if this met with no reply,
the young creature would remain quiet till a step was heard approaching, when its
calls would be at once renewed. Although at the end of four- weeks the two upper

GIBBONS. 57

iiicisor teeth had been cut, the little creature, doubtless owing to improper food, had
not increased perceptibly in weight; and soon after it sickened and died of a kind
of intermittent fever, to the great regret of its owner.

The illustration on p. 55 shows some of the postures assumed by a young
orang formerly living in the Aquarium at Berlin.

Under the head of the Chimpanzee we have already mentioned
pes. ^^^^ ^ fossil sp3cies of ape apparently referable to the same genus has
been found in the later Tertiary strata of Northern India. The same strata have
also yielded the broken tu.sk, or canine tooth, of another large ape, which there is
every reason to believe was a species of orang. If this be so, we shall Ije justified
in considering that India was the oi-iginal home of the ancestors of all the large
Man-like Apes of the present day ; and that from this centre their descendants have
gradually dispereed to the eastward and south-westward. We thus have an easy
explanation of the present peculiar geographical distribution of the various groups
of large Man-like Apes now existing.

In addition to these fossil Indian apes we have, moreover, sure evidence that
at an earlier part of the Tertiary Period, known as the Miocene Age, at least one
species of large Man-like Ape inhabited Western Europe. This extinct creature has
been named the Dryopllhecus, and its remains have been found in France. It
appears to have been about the same size as the chimpanzee : but differs from all
the living Man-like Apes in the great length of the bony union between the two
branches of the lower jaw. In this resjject this ape, as we might have expected
would be the case, approaches decidedly towards the lower monkeys.

The Gibbons.

Genus Hylobates.

With the gibbons we come to the last of the Man-like Apes, distinguished from
those which we have hitherto considered, not only by their smaller size, lighter
build, and longer arms, but also by the presence of small naked callosities on the
buttocks, resembling those of the lower monkeys. They are, moreover, the only
apes accustomed to walk in an upright position, in which, as shown in the illustra-
tion on p. 55, they are at times assisted by their long arms, although they can walk
perfectly well with their hands clasped behind the neck.

The gibbons, or long-armed apes, comprise several species fou

nd

Characteristics.

n the warmer regions of South-Eastern Asia, and more especially in
and around the Malay Peninsula. The largest of all the species only slightly
exceeds 3 feet in height, while the others are not more than about 80 inches.
Their ai-nis are so long that they reach to the ankle, so that these animals can
actually walk ui)right and at the same tinu! touch the ground with their fingers.
The head is well-shaped, without the upward prolongation of the crown that is
so characteristic of the orang; and the lower jaw is remarkable for the great
development of the chin, which is more human-like than that of any other ape.
Moreover, from the absence of prominent ridges and crests, and the nearly

58

APES AXD MONKEYS.

upright forehead, the whole skull strikes one as approaching the human tj-pc far
more nearly than do those of the other apes. This must not, however, be con-
sidered as an indication that the gibbons are of a higher tj^pe than the other
Man-like Apes, since the contrary is clearly demonstrated by their long arms and

THE WHITE-HAKDED GIBBON'.

the callosities ou the buttocks. The resemblance of their skulls to the human
t\^e is, indeed, merely a superficial one, due to the circum.staiice that small animals
must necessarily ha\e proporiionately larger brains than the laiger meml)ei-s of
the same group : and also to the absence of the sti-oug ridges which are necessary
for the powerful skulls of the larger forms, but woidd be quite useless in their
smaller cousins. The supei-ficial human-like charactei-s of the skulls of the gibbons
are, however, to a gi-eat extent destroj'ed by their long slender tusks, or canine

GIBBONS. 59

teeth, wliich project far beyond the level of the other teeth. The long and narrow
liands and feet of these animals (shown in Figs. 11-13 of the illustration on p. 15)
are characterised by the great extent to which the thumb and great toe are
respectively separated from the other fingers and toes, as well as by the flatness
of all the nails. In colour, the gibbons vary from black to yellowish-white ; this
variation occurring even in difierent individuals of the same species. The com-
paratively well-formed nose, as seen in our figure of the white-handed gibbon,
imparts to their physiognomy an expression far less repulsive and forbidding
than tliat which characterises the larger Man-like Apes.

In disposition the gibbons are gentle and confidinsr: and wlien
Disposition. , ^ , " , ,. ° , rr,, • •

captured young they can be readily tamed. Their constitution is,

liowever, even more delicate than that of the other Man-like Apes ; and consumption
soon terminates their existence in Europe, even when the greatest care and atten-
tion are bestowed upon them. In the Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, gibbons
tlirive excellently; and one, kept there some twelve years ago, was accustomed to
make his presence known to people living more than a mile away by the loudness
of his morning and evening cries.

All the fjibbons are thorou"lily arboreal in their habits; and in
Habits. ... r^ J '

the rapidity of their movements among the trees they offer a marked

contrast to the more deliberate and somewhat sluggish motions of the orang. So

rapid and lightning-like are these movements that one species — the hoolock

— lias been observed, when in captivity at Calcutta, to catch bii-ds on the

wing tliat had flown into its cage ; and there can be but little doubt that

such habits are natural to these animals in their wild condition, when it is pi'obable

that birds thus captured constitute an appreciable portion of their food.

Although several of the species are found in the forests of the plains, the
hoolock appears to be almo.st if not exclusively restricted to those of hilly districts.
In marked contrast to the lai-ger Man-like Apes, most of the gibbons go in large
flocks or droves, whicli may comprise from fifty to a hundred, or even more
individuals ; although, as \\\{\\ most gregarious animals, solitary males ai-e
occasionally obser\'ed. The long arms are the chief agents in their active
movements among the trees : and bj' their aid the distances they can swing
from bough to bough, and tlius from tree to tree, are of surprising length.
When going down-hill they travel at an extremely i-apid pace, by swinging
themselves in a downward direction from one bough till they catch another on a
lower level, and so from that to the next one.

Altliough walking rapidly when on the ground, gibbons, as Mr. W. T. Blanford
tells us, can easily be overtaken bj^ men. The same writer observes that, " when
walking on the ground, the hoolock rests on its hind-feet alone, with the sole flat on
the ground, and the great toe widely separated from the other digits. The arms
are usually held upwards, sometimes horizontally, their great length (as shown in
our illustration on p. 58) giving the animal a very peculiar aspect."

We have already mentioned the fondness of the hoolock .for small birds, and,
in addition to this kind of diet, gibbons subsist mainly on various fruits and leaves,
as well as young and tender shoots ; they also feed on insects and spiders, and the
eggs and callow nestlings of birds.

6o APES AND MONKEYS.

The habit which makes the gibbons known to (as well as cordially hated by)
all who dwell in the districiS which they frequent, is tlieir custom of uttering at
mom and even cries of a peculiarly loud and somewhat unearthly nature. These
cries consist in the repetition of two syllables in quick succession ; and the name
hoolock is given to the Indian representative of the group in imitation of its cry.

The late Mr. Blyth observes that, " in all the genera of gibbon the thumbs of
both the hands and feet are separated from the other digits to the base of the
metacarpal and metatarsal bones," and then states that this character is also found
elsewhere among the Primates only in two genera of lemurs {Indrh and Fropithecus).
The same writer goes on to say that at the time of his wiiting it was " not generally
understood that the long-armed apes are true bipeds when on the ground, applying
the sole flatly, with the great toe widely separated from the other digits ; the
hands are held up to be out of the way, rather than for balancing, even when
ascending a flight of steps, as I have seen repeatedly, but they are ever ready
to seize hold of any object by which the animal can assist itself along, even as a
human being commonly grasps a banister when ascending a staircase."

The Siamang {Hylohates syndadylus).

The siamang is the largest of all the gibbons, and since it also dift'ei-s in certain
structural peculiarities, it may be taken first. This fine species is apparently
confined to Sumatra, and its habits were described many yeare ago by the French
naturalist Duvaucel. The animal, when full-grown, stands a little over three
feet in heiglit when in tlie upright position. It is of a uniform glossy black
colour, with the exception of a grey or whitish beard ; the hair on the body
and limbs being comparatively long. The hair on the fore-arm is directed upwards
towards the elbow, as in the larger Man-like Apes, whereas the other members of the
genus have it pointing towards the wrist. There are, moreover, two other features
in which this species thflers from the other gibbons. The firet of these peculiarities,
and the one from which the animal derives its scientific designation, is the
circumstance that the second and third toes of the foot are joined together by a thin
web of skin, reaching in the male as far as the last joint, but in the female only to
the middle one. The second distinctive peculiaritj^ of the siamang is the possession
of a pouch formed by folds of skin round the neck and throat, resembling that
which has already been mentioned as occurring in the orang. Moreover, the chin
is l;)ettsr developed than in all the other gibbons.

Duvaucel's is one of the earliest authentic accounts of the siamang
that we possess. Writing from the neighbourhood of Benculen
in Sumatra, he states that " this species is very common in our forests, and
I have had frequent opportunities of observing it, as well in its wild state as in
bondage. The siamangs generally assend>le in niunerous troo]is, conducted, it is said,
by a chief, whom tlie Malaj-s believe to be invidnerable, pi-obably because he is more
agile, powerful, and difiicult to reach than the I'est. Thus united, they salute the rising
and setting sun with the most terrific cries, which may be heard at several miles'
distance ; and which, when near, deafen, when they do not frighten. This is the
moming-call to the mountain Malaj^s, but to the inhabitants of the towns it is a

GIBBONS. 6 1

most insupportable annoyance. By way of compensation, they preserve a most
profound silence during the daytime, unless when disturbed in their repose or sleep.
These animals are slow and heavy in their gait ; they want confidence when they
climb, and agility when they leap, so that they may be easilj"^ caught, when they
can be surprised. But nature, in depriving them of the means of readily escaping
danger, has endowed them with a vigilance which rarely fails them ; if thej- liear a
noise which is strange to them, even though they be at a mile's distance, fright
seizes them, and they immediate!}' take flight. Wlien .sui-prised on the ground,
however, they may be captured without resistance, being either overwhelmed with
fear, or conscious of their weakness and the impossibilitj- of escaping. At first,
indeed, they endeavour to avoid their pursuei-s by flight, and it is then that their
awkwardness in this exei'cise is most apparent. Their bodj*, too tall and heavy for
their short, slender thighs, inclines forwards, and availing themselves of their long
arms, as crutches, they thus advance by jerks, wliich resemble the hobbling of a
lame man whom fear compels to make an extraordinary eflfort."

Their want of agility when surprised on tlie ground is, however, amply made
up for when in the trees, where they take long flying leaps. According to a
German writer, Hen- Rosenberg, siamangs inhabit forests in Sumatra at an elevation
of some three thousand feet above the sea-level, rarely leaving the trees to descend
to the gi'ound. At any sudden fright they rush -saolently down the mountain sides,
bj^ leaping from bough to bough and from tree to tree in the manner already
mentioned. According, however, to Mr. Wallace, in his Malay Archipelago, the
siamang is decidedly slower in its movements than the other gibbons, not taking such
tremendously long leaps, and keeping at a lower elevation in the trees. The
extraordinary relative length of its anns is well indicated in the description of
the same writer, who observes that in an individual about three feet in height,
they measure five feet six inches from hand to hand, when stretched out at right
angles to the body. A young siamang brought to Mr. "Wallace, was at first
somewhat savage, but soon became more amenable to discipline, feeding readily
on rice and fruits. This individual, which Mr. Wallace had intended to transport
to England, did not, however, long survive in captivitj'. And it appears that
the IVIalays, who are stated to be adepts in keeping and taming wild animals, find it
exceedingly difficult to keep siamangs for any length of time. Siamangs have been
exliibited alive in the Zoological Gardens at Calcutta. In disposition they are
regarded by the Malays as stupid and dull. Mr. Wallace considers that this species
is found in the Malaj' Peninsula, but tliis is doubted by Mr. Blanford ; and it appears,
according to Mr. Wallace, to be but little kuo^vn, even in Singapore, where the
captive specimen, already mentioned, attracted a considerable amount of attention.

A white siamang is recorded by Sir Stamford Raffles as having been obtained
by him in Sumatra.

The White-Handed Gibbon (Hylobates lar).

We may take as our firet example of the more typical species of the group,
all of which are verj^ closely allied, the white-handed gibbon, represented in the
figure on p. 58. This species, like all the other typical gibbons, is consider-

62 APES AND MONKEYS.

ably smaller than the siamang, standing about thirty inches in height ; and it is
also of a lighter and more slender build. Although subject to great individual
variation in colour, it may be always I'ecognised by the pale colour of the hands
and feet, of which the upper surfaces are usually either white or j-ellowish-white.
Another distinctive characteristic is to be found in the usual presence round the
black skin of the naked face of a complete ring of more or less nearly white
hairs ; which, as is well shown in our illustration, imparts a most peculiar physi-
ognomy to the animal. Occasionally, however, tliis wliite ring is almost absent ;
diffei'ent indi\'iduals showing a gradation in this respect from those in which it is
but very slightly developed, to those in which it attains its full proportions. The
general colour of the body and limbs of this gibbon varies irom a full black, through
various fulvous shades, to a yellowish-white. In opposition to what usually obtains
in Mammals some individuals of this species have the back lighter than the under
parts of the body ; and it may occasionally be much variegated.

The white-handed gibbon is found throughout the Malay Peninsula, as far
north as the province of Tenasserim, and may possibly reach into Lower Pegu.
It inhabits the forests skirting the mountains, at elevations varying from about
three thousand to three thousand five hundred feet above the sea-level.

Colonel Tickell has given an excellent account of tliis gibbon,

Mode of Life. ... . fe >

both in its \n\.A state and in confinement. It appeai-s from this

description that the wliite-handed gibbon is somewhat more hea\'ily built and less

agile than the hoolock (to be noticed next); while it walks on the ground less

steadily. It is also said to differ from the hoolock in its manner of drinking —

scooping up water in its hands, and thus can-ying it to its mouth, instead of

applying its mouth directly to the sui-face of the water. The same observer also

notices a great difference in the voice of the two species. The white-handed

gibbons are also stated to go in smaller parties than the other species ; the number

in a drove, according to Colonel Tickell, being usually from six to twenty. They

depend almost entirely on their hands in passing from bough to bough, and use

their feet to carry food. He has seen a drove of these apes escape in this maimer

with the plunder stolen from a garden made by the Karen tribes near the foi'ests

which they frequent. Like other species of the gi'oup, the white-handed gibbon

almost invariably has but a single young one at a time. The young are bom at

the commencement of the winter season ; and cling to the body of the mother for

neai'ly seven months, after which they shift for themselves.

The Hoolock {Hylobates hoolock).

One of the best known of all the gibbons is the hoolock, or white-browed
gibbon, which, as we have said, takes it name from its characteristic dissyllabic
ciy. This is the only species which occurs in India, where it is confined to the
north-eastern districts, being found in the hill ranges south of the Assam valley,
as well as in the provinces of Sylhet, Cachar, and Manipur. Thence it ranges to the
east and southwards into the hill-forests of the Irawadi valley near Bhamo, in
Upper Bui-ma, and in the neighbourhood of Chittagong and Arakan. It may also
occur near Martaban, in Upper Tenasserim ; and the extent of its range on the

GIBBONS.

63

east side of the Irawadi river is not
yet definitely determined.

The hoolock maj-be readily dis-
tinffiiishod from the white-handed
gibbon by the presence of a white
or grey band across the eyebrows,
and also by the whole of tlie rest
of the head, as well as the upper
surfaces of the hands and feet,
being of the same colour as tlie
bodJ^ Tins general colour varies
from black to a light yellowish-
grey ; the females being generally
paler than the males. As we have
seen, their build is rather lighter, while their habits are more active than those
of the last-named species.

All who have written of the hoolock agree as to its docile and
engaging disposition, and the readiness with which, even when adult,
it can he thoroughly tamed in a short space of time. Writing of a pet hoolock,
formerljr in his possession, Mr. R. A. Stei-ndale, in his Mammalia, of India, says,
" Nothing contented him so much as being allowed to sit by my side with his arm

HllOLOCKS IX A BAMBOO JCNGLE.

Mode of Life.

64 APES AND MONKEYS

linked through mine, and lie wonld resist any attempt I made to go awaj'. He
was extremely clean in his hal)its, which cannot be said of all the monkej'' tribe.
Soon after he came to me I gave him a piece of blanket to sleep on in his box, but
the next morning I foim<l ho had rolled it up an<l made a sort of pillow for his
head, r.o a second piece was given him. He was destined for the Queen's Gardens
at Delhi, but, unfortunately, on his way up he got a chill, and contracted a <lisease
akin to consumption. During his illness he was most carefully attended by my
brother, who had a little bed made for him, and the doctor came daily to see the
little patient, who gratefully acknowledged their attentions ; but, to their dis-
appointment, he died. The only objection to these monkej'S as pets is the power
they have of howling, or rather whooping, a piercing and somewhat hysterical
' whoop-poo ! whoop-poo ! whoop-poo ' ' for several minutes, till fairly exhausted."

Under the heading of gibbons in general wc have already alluded to the wide
distance over which the cries of a hoolock kept in the Zoological Gardens at
Calcutta could be heard. Mr. Blanford, writing of the cries of these animals,
observes that " at a distance the sound much resendiles a human voice ; it is a
peculiar wailing note, aucUble from afar, and in the countries inhabited by these
animals is one of the most familiar forest sounds. The calls commence at day-
break, and are continued until 9 or 10 A.M., several of the flock joining in the crj',
like hounds giving tongue. After 9 or 10 o'clock in the morning the animals feed
or rest, and remain silent thi'oughout the middle of the day, but recommence calling
towards evening, though to a less extent than in the earlier part of the day."'

Like the white-handed gibbon, hoolocks have been exhibited, although less
numerously, in the Gardens of the Zoological Society in Regent's Park.

The Hainan gibbon {H. hainanus), from the island of Hainan, China, is allied
to tlie hoolock, but differs from that and all other species, except the siamang, by
the absence of a white band on the forehead, and is thus black throughout.

The Agile Gibbon (Hylobates agilis).

According to Dr. John Andereon, the agile gibbon is subject to such an amount
of individual vai'iation that several so-called species, such as the Malay gibbon (H.
rafflesi), of Sumatra, and the crowned gibbon {ff. 2nfeatiis), of Siani, have been founded
upon what appear to be nothing more than local races of one and the same species.

Inclusive of all these local varieties, the agile gibbon has a rather wide
geographical distribution, ranging from Cochin-China to Siam ; it is also found in
Sumatra and Borneo, as well as in the small islands of the Sulu Archipelago Ijnng
between Borneo and the Philippines.

The activity of the agile gibbon is sufficiently attested by its name. It was this
species which was first observed to have the power of catching birds while on the wing.
According to Duvaucel, these animals are capable of taking clear leaps of forty feet
when passing from bough to bough. They are stated to live generally in pairs rather
than in droves ; and are known to the natives of Sumatra as Ungka, or Ungka-puti.

In the typical form of the agile gibbon from Sumatra the general colour is
usually dark brown : the face being bluish-black or bi'own, and surrounded by
whitish hair, through T\'hich the ears are only partially visible, and the hands and

GIBBONS.

65

feet of the same general colour as the body. It may be distinguished by the
prominent arches on the skull above the eyes, the comparatively flat nose, and the
large nostrils. The colour of the back in the darker varieties is lighter than that
of the under parts. The variety named after Sir Stamford Eaffles, H. rafflesi,
is of a nearly black colour, tending to bro\vn on the sides and back. The
Siamese variety, known as the crowned or tufted gibbon (H. pileatus), is likewise
of a blackish colour, but differs in that the hands, feet, and a ring round the crown
of the head are white. The white patch on the cro\\Ti helps to distinguish this
variety from the tj-pical agile gibbon ; although it must be confessed that all these
Malay gibbons are singularly alike, and often difficult to distingiiish even by the
jiractised zoologist. Tliis so-called variegated gibbon (ZT. variegatus) appears to bo
but another of the numerous varieties of H. ayilifs.

The Wou-Wou, ou Sil\t:r Gibbon {Hylobates leuciscus).

The grey or silver gibbon, or wou-wou, — a name often incorrectly applied to
the agile giblion, — comes from the island of Java, and most zoologists agree in
regarding it as a distinct .species. It is characterised by its general ashy or bluish-
grey colour ; the presence of a large square black patch on the top of the head ;
and also by the white or gi'ey fringe of liair surrounding the blackish face. The
fur also appears to be longer, thicker, and of a more woolly nature than is the case
in the other species ; and the colour is stated to be usually lighter on the under
parts than on the back. Specimens of both tliis and the preceding species have
been exliibited in the London Zoological Societj's Gardens.

F0S.SIL Gibbons.

In the exploi-ations which have been conducted in tlie caves of Boi^neo remains
of gibbons, probably belonging to species still existing in the same regions, have
been met with in a sub-fossil condition. This is only what we should naturally
have expected to be the case. Very different, however, is the occurrence of fossil
gibbons in fre.sh-water strata belonging to the middle portion of the Tertiary
pei-iod in France and Switzerland ; for it is quite certain that these animals could
not have existed in a climate at all apjjroaching that now characterising Europe.
We shall, therefore, be safe in assuming that, at the period in question, portions of
Southern Europe were clothed with dense forests, growing in a hot and moist
climate closely resembling that of the Malay Arcliipelago of the present daj-. The
e\adence for the former prevalence of this tropical European climate does not,
however, rest solely on the fo.ssil gibbons, since many of the other animals found
in the same strata are very similar to those now characteristic of the wanner
regions of the East; while the presence of palms, resembling those of tropical
regions, as %vell as other plants, supplements the evidence of the animals in a
manner which must be con\'incing to all who pay any attention to the subject.
After the middle or miocene division of the Tertiary period we have no evidence
of the existence of gibbons in a.wy part of Europe, although many kinds of
monkeys were abimdant until much later.

VOL. I.— 5

THE YELLOW BABOON.

CHAPTER III.

Apes, Monkeys, and Lemvrs,— continued.

The Old World Monkeys and Baboons.

Family CERCoriTHECID.E.

Although tliere is some degree of uncertainty as to the precise si(;qiifieance to be
attached to the names Apes, Monkeys, and Baboons, we shall take leave to restrict
the former term to the Man-like Apes described in the preceding chapter, and use
the two latter for those other Old World Primates which do not belong to the
group of Lemurs. The name Monkeys is, however, also applicable to one family of
the Primates of the New World. Using, then, the temis Monkeys and Baboons in
this sense, we may mention, in tlie first place, that zoologists include the whole of
those inhabiting the Old World in a single family, for which they adopt the name
Cereopithecid"', taken from a genus of African monkeys. Our next point is
to consider how all these numerous species are to be distinguished as a whole
from the Man-like Apes on the one hand and from the American monkeys on
the other.

Old World monkeys. 67

As regards the number of their teetli, all the Old World monkej^s

and baboons agree -w-ith the Man-like Apes; the total number of

teeth being thirty-two, among which there are two premolars and three molars on

both sides of eacli jaw. This character, as we shall subsequently see, will at once

serve to distinguish any Old World monkey from an American monkey or mai-moset.

The Old World monkeys and baboons may, hoM-ever, be distinguished from the

Man-like Apes by the fonii of their cheek-teeth. We have, indeed, stated at the

beginning of the preceding chapter that the premolar and molar teeth of the latter

gi'oup closely resemble those of man ; the crowns of the molai-s being relatively

broad and surmounteil by four low main tul^ercles situated at the four corners of

each tooth, Ijut arranged somewhat obliquely to its long axis. We may add that

the last molar in the lower jaw is of the same general form as the two teeth

immediately in front of it.

If, however, we take up the skull of any species of Old World monkey or

baboon and carefully examine its molar teeth, we shall find that the}' will by no

means accord with the foregoing description. We shall, indeed, recognise in these

teeth the four tubercles at the comei-s ; but instead of these tubercles being low,

and set obliqueh' to one another, M'ivhout any connection between those forming

the front and hind pairs, we shall find that they are comparatively high, and are

placed in pairs opposite one another, while each pair is connected together by a

low imperfect transverse ridge. This two-ridged character of the molars, which is

more distinct in the lower than in the upper teeth, is therefore a readily available

method of distinguishing between an Old World monkey or baboon and a Man-like

Ape. Moreover, with the single exception of one Afiican genus of monkeys, and

one Oriental species of another, the last lower tooth of all the monkeys and baboons

of the Old World may be thstinguished from that of the Man-like Apes by having

a kind of projection or heel behind the second transverse ridge.

There are, however, other characters distinctive of the present
Nostrils. ■ 1 T 1

grouji which must now be mentioned. In the first place, if we observe

the nose of an Old ^^'o^•ld monkey we shall not fail to notice that the \'ertical

partition chviiliiig one nostril from the other is com])aratively thin : this character

afibrthng a well-marked distinction from the monkeys and marmosets of the New

World. We have already seen that no Man-like Ape has a tail; but

there is great variation in this respect among the members of the

present group, some of them having exceedingly long tails, others short tails, and a

few no tails at all. In no instance, however, are the tails of this group endued

with the power of prehension, as they are in the American monkeys. Here we may

remark, in passing, that it has been very often considered that the term Monkey

should be restricted to such species as have long tails, while those with short tails

should be called Baboons, and those with no tails at all Apes. Tliis application

of terms ^all not, however, hold good when put in practice; since, if it were adopted,

we should have to call certain of the different species of one single genus of monkey.s

by all the three names.

In all the monkeys and apes of the Old World, those peculiar patches of hard

naked skin on the buttocks, known as callosities, which we have already mentioned

as occurring in the gibbons, are invariably present. These callosities, wliich are not

68 APES AND MOXKEYS.

unfrequently bright-coloured, afford another character by wliich we can at once

distiuguislx an Old World monkey from any and all of its American cousins. Their

use is to afford a comfortable rest for the body in the upright sitting posture

assumed by the monkeys and baboons of the Old World.

Chesk Another feature absolutely peculiar to the monkeys and baboons

PoucHes. Qf ^Q Qij World, although by no means common to the whole of

them, is the presence of those pouches in the cheeks, with which all who have fed

tame monkej's must be perfectly familiar. These cheek-pouches are formed by

folds in the skin, and when empty lie flat on either side of the face. They can,

however, be so distended as to contain a large quantity of food, and then stick out

pi-ominently on either side, so as to communicate a peculiarly bloated appearance

to the face. The possession of these pouches must ob\-iously be a great advantage

to the monkeys in which they are found, since by their means a large quantity

of food can be hurriedly gathered, stowed away, and aftervvai-ds eaten at leisure in

some place of security. It might, indeed, be ui-ged that the monkeys which do

not possess these convenient receptacles appear to get on in life quite as well as

their relations who are thus provided : and that, therefore, these pouches are of no

real advantage. To this it may be replied that such Old World monkeys as have

no cheek-pouches feed much more on leaves and shoots than on fi-uits ; and that

they are furaished ^-ith a peculiarlj' complex stomach in which this food can be

rapitlly stowed away pre\'iously to undergoing complete digestion.

With regard to the limbs of the Old World monkeys and baboons,
Limbs. * ''

it may be observed that the anus never present that gi'eat excess in

length over the legs which we have seen to be the case among the Man-like Apes ;

and the legs may, sometimes, be the longer of the two. The thumb of the Old

World monkeys and baboons can in all cases be fully opposed to the fingers,

except, of course, in the African species in which it is either absent or inidimentary,

and therein have another mai'ked point of difference from the American gi-oup.

Finallv. the skeletons of all membere of the present group may

Breast-bone. . ' . . . . a r j

be readily distinguished from those of the Man-like Apes by the

breast-bone being narrow and flattened from side to side, instead of broad

and flattened from back to front. Moreover, all of the species have a central bone

in the wrist, — a characteristic they have in common with the gibbons and orangs

among the Man-Uke Apes.

Such, then, are the leading features by wliich the monkevs and
Distribution. , , « .

baboons of the Old World (fomiing a larger gi-oup than any other

in the order) are distinguished from the gi"Oups immediately above and below
them in the zoological scale ; and the reader who has followed us carefully thus far
ought to be able to tell at once whether any particular monkej' that is set before
him should or should not be included in the present group. When we speak of the
members of this gi-oup occupj-ing a position immediately below that of the Man-
like Apes, we must guard oureelves from conveying the idea that the one can in
any sense be regarded as the ancestor of the other. The chfference in the structure
of the molar teeth of the two gi-oups is alone sufiicient to prove that this cannot be
the case ; those of the Man-like Apes being of a more primitive type than are those

LANGURS. 69

of the monkeys and baboons. The common ancestor of the two groups must indeed
probablj^ be sought in some long extinct type more nearly akin to the lemurs.

Although the majority of the Old World monkeys and baboons are inhabitants
of the warmer regions of the eastern hemisphere, yet the group is by no means
so strictly confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions as we have seen to be the
case with the Man-like Apes. Indeed, some of the Asiatic species are capable of
withstancUng a veiy considerable degree of cold, and may be found among the
snows of the Himalaya and Tibet.

The Langurs.
Genus Semno]>itheciis.

With this group of long-tailed Asiatic monkeys, we come to the first of three
nearly allied genera, all of which are characterised by their extremely slender and
" lanky " build, by the excessiw; length of their tails, by the legs being longer than
their arms, and by the absence of cheek-pouches. All the above characteristics can
be verified in the living animal, but there is one otlier for the examination of which
we must turn to the dissecting-room of the anatomist. This internal character
relates to the stomach, wliich, instead of having the simple bladder-like form which
it assumes in all other meiiiberH of the order, is divided into a number of pouches
or sacs. When the peculiar pouched stomach was first described scarcely anything
was known as to the habits and food of the monkeys in which it is found. Sir
Richard Owen, however, sagaciously suggested that from the analogy presented by
this peculiar type of stomach to that which characterises the Ruminating Hoofed
Mammals, as well as some other vegetable-feeding animals, it would be found that
the food of these monkeys consisted in gi-eat pai-t of leaves. This suggestion has
been fully confirmed by subsequent observations ; and although the habits of the
langurs are still but impeifectly known, yet it is stated by Mi-. W. T. Blanfonl tliat
they are more purely herbivorous than those monkeys which are provided with
cheek -pouches, and that a very considerable portion of their food consists of leaves
and the tender shoots and young twigs of trees. The presence of this remarkable
kind of stomach is, indeed, as we have already mentioned, a kind of compensation
for the absence of cheek-pouches ; it being more suited to the needs of these animals
than the pouches would be.

The langurs are so-called from the name applied by the natives of Northern

India to those species of the group which inhabit the outer ranges of the Himalaya.

Langurs, which are known in Germany as Schlankaffen, or slender monkeys, are

found over a large portion of South-Eastem Asia, being especially abundant in

India and Burma, and represented by one species in the highlands of Tibet.

As their German name implies, the bodies and limbs of these
structure.

monkeys are exceechngly slender ; while the tail is so long that very

generally, and invariably in all the species from India, Ceylon, and Burma, it is

actually longer than the whole length of the head and body together. This is well

shown in our figure of the trae langur or hanuman monkey. In all the species

the thumb is well developed ; this being a character of great importance, as the

70 APES AND MONKEYS.

chief one bv -which these monkej-s are distinguished from some closelj' allied
African monkeys. The row of long stitf black hairs seen in our figure, projecting
from above the eyebrows of the langiii-s, is anotlier feature by which these monkej-s
may be easily recognised. Further, the skulls of all the langui-s may be readily
distinguished from those of all other monkeys, with the exception of the allied
African gi'oup mentioned above, by the circumstance that the aperture for the

THE HAXDmXs MONKET, OR TRrE LANGUR.

nostrils, which is exceedingly narrow, extends upwards between the sockets for the
eyes, instead of stopping at about the level of their lower border.

Almost the earliest account that we have of the langurs relates to those of
Ceylon, and was given in the year 1681 by one Robert Knox, an English seaman,
who for nearly twenty j^ears had been a prisoner in that i.sland. Knox says that
some of the Singalese monkeys " are as large as our English spaniel dogs, of a
darkish-grev colour, and black faces, -with great white beards round from ear to
ear, which make them show just like old men. They do but little mischief, keeping

LANGURS. 71

in the woods, eating only leaves and buds of trees ; but when they are catched they
will eat anything. This sort they call iu their language wanderows (wanderus)."
This account has been thought to apjjly to the lion-tailed monkey (a maca([ue),
which was formerly incorrectly called the Wanderu. That monkey is, however,
black ; and there is not the slightest doubt but that Knox described the langurs,
which are the wanderus of the Singalese.

The HanumAx, or True Laxgur (SemnojMhecus entellus).

Perhaps the best known of all tlie langurs, and the one whicli gives the
scientific name to the genus, is tlie hanuman monkey, or true langni-, of wliicli
we give a figure. This fine monkey is found tliroughout the northern part of
Peninsular India, from South- Western Bengal and Orissa to Gujerat and Bombay,
and is also found in Kattywar, and probably Katch, although unknown in Sind and
the Punjab. Southwards it ranges into the Bombay Deccan ; while its extreme
northern limit extends to the outer ranges of the Himalaya, although there is still
some doubt as to where the range of this species ends and that of the next begins.

The lianuman is one of four species of Inflian langurs, characterised by having
the hair covering the crown of tlie liead i-adiating in all directions from a central
point situated on the forehead. It is distinguished from its allies by the absence of
any crest of hair on the head, of wliich tlie colour is scarcely, if at all, paler than
that of the back; and by the full black colour of the upper surfaces of the hands
and feet. The hair of the cheeks does not cover the relatively large ears. The
general colour is greyish-brown, paler in some iiidi%iduals than in others ; but the
face, ears, feet, and hands, ai-e coal-black. In size a large male hanuman will
mea.sure some 30 inches in head and body ; but average specimens will be about
25 inches, while their tail ^^^ll measure as much as 38. As Mr. Stemdale has
well observed, " the iout ensemble of the langur is so peculiar that no one who
has once been told of a long, loose-limbed, slender monkey, with a prodigious
tail, black face, and overhanging brows of long, stiff, black hair, projecting like
a pentliouse, would fail to i-ecognise the animal."

Langurs are exceedingly common tlii-oughout a large part of India,
and in most districts are held sacred by the Hindus, by whom they are
allowed to plunder the grain-shops at will. Mr. Stemdale considers, however, that the
best times of the hanuman are over, and that it is not now allowed the free run of the
bazaars so readily as it once was, while in some districts the aid of Europeans has even
been invoked to rid the natives from the devastations of these monkeys, \vhich take
their name from the god Hanuman, to whom they are sacred.

As Ml-. W. T. Blanford observes, the protection accorded to the hanumdn by
the Hindus of Xorthern India has caused these animals to be so tame, and so utterly
regardless of the presence of man, that there are but few mammals whose habits
can be so well observed. The same writer states that " the hanuman is usually
found in smaller or larger communities, composed of individuals of both sexes and
of all ages, tlie youngest clinging to their mothers, and being carried by them,
especially when alanned. An old male is occasionally found solitary, as with so
many other mammals. The story that males and females live in separate troops.

72

APES AND MONKEYS.

though ajiparently believed by Blyth and quoted by Jerdon, I agree with Hutton
in regarding as fictitious, though, as the latter observer justly remarks, females
w'itli very young offspring may keep together, and temporarily apart from the
remainder of the troop to which they belong."

In regard to the cry of these langurs, Mr. Blanford observes that " their voice
is loud, and is often heard, especially in the morning and evening. The two
commonest sounds emitted by them are a loud, joyous, rather musical call, a kind
of whoop, generally uttered when they are boimding from tree to tree, and a harsh
guttural note, denoting alai-m or anger. The latter is the cry familiar to the tiger-
hunter, amongst whose best friends is the hanuman. Safely ensconced in a lofty
tree, or jumping from one tree to another, as the tiger moves, the monkey by gesture
and cry points out the position of his deadly enemy in the bushes or grass beneath,
and swears at liim heai-tily. It is marvellous to observe how these monkeys, even
in the wildest foi'ests where human beings are rarely seen, appear to recognise
men as friends, or at least as allies against the tiger. It is a common but en-oneous
notion of sportsmen that tliis giittural cry is a sure indication of a tiger or
leopaixl having been seen, whereas the monkeys quite as often utter it mei'ely as an
expression of surprise ; I have heard it caused by the sight of deer mnning away,
and I believe that it is frequentl}^ due to the monkeys catching sight of men."

The food of the hanum^ consists largely of leaves and young shoots, and

also grain of all kinds, especially in the towns. In disposition the hanuman is

gentle, and appeai-s never to attack human beings. Its constitution is delicate when

in captivity, — probably from the want of suitable food, — but the species is generally

weU represented in the London Zoological Society's Gardens.

That troops of lansnirs sometimes enffatje in fierce contests is
Their Battles. . ^ . " . *' ^

proved by an interesting account given by Mi-. T. H. Hughes, from which

the following extract is taken. Mr. Hughes sa^^s that "in April 1882, when encamped

at the \dUage of Singpur in the Sohagpur district of the Rewa State, my attention

was attracted to a restless gathering of hanumans in the grove adjoinmg the one in

which my tent was pitched ; and, wisliing to form some idea as to its cause, I strolled

to where the excitement was gi'eatest, and found two opposing troops engaged in

demonstrations of an iinfriendly character. Two males of one troop, fair-sized

brutes, and one of another, a splendid-looking fellow of stalwart proportions, were

walking round and displaying their teeth. The solitary glacUator headed a much

smaller following than that captained by the other two, and, strange to say, instead

of the whole number of monkeys joining in a general melee, the fortune of the

question that had to be decided appeared to have been intrusted to the representative

champions. It was some time, at least a quarter of an hour, before actual hostihties

took place, when, having got within striking distance, the two monkeys made a rush

at their adversaiy. I saw their arms and teeth going \-iciously, and then tlie throat

of one of the aggressors was ripped right open, and he lay dying. He had done

some damage, however, before going under, having wounded his opponent in tlie

.shoulder ; and matters then seemed pretty evenly balanced between the remaining

strugglei-s. I confess that my sympathies were with the one champion who had

gallantly withstood the charge of his enemies ; and I fancy the tide of victory would

have been in his favour had the odds against liim not been reinforced by the advance

to

LANGURS. 73

of two females. I felt that the fight was not a fair one, but was deterred from
interfering by a wish to see what the end of the affray would be, and the end, so
far as the solitary hanumiin was concerned, soon came. Each female flung herself
upon him, and though he fought his enemies gallantly, one of the females succeeded
in seizing Iiim. Possibly he would have been killed outright had I not been
present, but when I saw him so helpless, I interfered on the chance of being able
to save him. He was, however, hopelessly mutilated, and before the morning he
was dead. Not one of his own troop came to his aid. I presume they were either
awed by the array of numbers on the other side, or they had full confidence in
their leader. Had they assisted, they might in the end have been better off, for
the result of the defeat of their champion was that the whole of the aggressors
entered upon a guerilla warfare, and, isolating several of the members of the weaker
troop, kejit them prisoners under surveillance. Whenever the latter tried to break
away, their guards stopped them, and then effectually watched them by occupying
every piece of vantage-ground. One female with a young one was most viciously
chased, and when, in her cffoi-ts to escape her enemies, she climbed to one of the
liighest limbs of a big tree, those in pursuit actually shook the branch on which
she was, and jerked her to tlie grouiuL The fall was a nasty one, and she was so
badly hurt tliat in the course of the niglit she went to swell the list of the fatally
wounded. The defeated troops were thoroughly cowed, for one of the number
actually allowed me to approach it qiaite closely without moving. I certainly do
not ascribe the onslaught I saw to sexual excitement. It was plainly an incursion
of a stronger troop into the domain of a weaker one ; and, under mistaken counsel,
the weaker hesitated too long in yielding their feeding gi-ound."

The Himalayan' L.vxguu {Semnojnthecus schistaceus).

Very closely related to the hanumdn is the Himalayan langur (S. sc}iififaceu.<^),
so closely indeed that Dr. John Anderson considers it ought only to be reckoned
as a variety of that species. In the opinion of Mr. Blanford — our most recent axitho-
rlty on Indian Mammals — it is, however, considered to be entitled to rank as a well-
marked sjjecies ; and this observer gives the following characters by which it may
be distinguished from the hanumdn. The Himalayan species is characterised " by
being somewhat larger, — -although there is probably no great difference between
large individuals of both species, — by the head being much paler in colour than the
back, and by the feet being but little, if at all, darker than the limbs ; by the
smaller ears, and by their being concealed by the long hair of the cheeks ; by the
form of the skull."

This species is found throughout the greater part of the Himalaya proper,
ranging from Bhutan in the south-east to the Kashmir valley and adjacent regions
in the north-west. It appears not to be found below five thousand feet, and
in the interior of Sikhim it ranges as high as twelve thousand feet. One of the
first, if not actually the first record of the occurrence of the Himalayan langur
in the interior of Sikhim will be found in Sir J. W. Hooker's Hinudayan Journals.
The author of that charming book of travel says, on arriving at a Tatar village, at an
elevation of about nine thousand feet, " I saw a troop of large monkeys gamboling

74 APES AND MONKEYS.

in a wood of Ahies brunoniana ; this surprised me, as I was not prepared to find
so tropical an animal associated with, a vegetation typical of a boreal climate."
Other writei-s have observed these langurs in the outer ranges of the Himalaya
in the neighbourhood of the hill stations of Simla or Jlussuii, leaping from bough
to bough of the snow-clad pines and deodars. And the present writer was himself
once sufficiently fortunate to behold a similar sight when crossing a pass called
the Rutten Pir, in the mountains to the south of the valley of Kashmir. On a
sudden, when passing through a forest composed partly of pines and deodar cedars
and partly of rhododendrons, a whole ti-oop of these langui-s dashed across the
path, springing from tree to tree, and scattering in all directions the thick wreaths
of snow with which the dark fir boughs were concealed ; the season of the year
being the middle of the spring.

In the autumn these langurs are to be found in large dx-oves in the extensive
forests of the higher valleys surroundmg Kashmir. Hei"e they are a decided
nuisance to the hunter, as their cries will not unfrequently alarm the deer or bear
which he may be pui-suing. Desirous of secui-ing a .skull, the writer was once
tempted to shoot a large male out of one of these droves; but the cries and
expres.sion of the poor wounded bnite were so hmnan-like that he never again
could persuade himself to shoot a monkey of any kind.

The Madras Laxgur {Semnopithecus priamu^).

In Madras and Ceylon the hanuman is represented by an allied species
known as the Madras langiir (S. jyrianvus), distinguished by possessing a
distinct crest of hair on the crown of the head, and by the upper surfaces of the
feet and hands not being black. The following account of the habits of this species
is taken from Sir J. Emei-son Tennent's Xataral History of Ceylon, where aU the
langurs are known as wandenis. The Madi-as langur " inhabits the northern and
eastern districts and the wooded hills which occur in these portions of the island
In appearance it diflei"S both in size and colour from the common wandeni
{S. cephalopterus), being larger and more often greyish ; and in habits it is much
less resei'ved. At Jaflha, and in other pai-ts of the island where the population is
numerous, these monkeys become so familiarised with the presence of man as to
exhibit the utmost daring and indifference. A flock of them wiU take possession
of a palmyra palm ; and so effectually can they ci-ouch and conceal themselves
among the leaves that, on the shghtest alarm, the whole pai-ty becomes invisible
in an instant. The presence of a dog excites, however, such an irrepressible
curiosity that, in oi-der to watch his movements, they never fail to betray
themselves. They may frequently be seen congregated on the roof of a native
hut ; and, some years ago, the child of a European clergj-man stationed near Jatiha,
having been left on the ground by the nui-se, was so teased and bitten by them
as to cause its death."

Tlie Malabar langur {S. hypoleucus), which is common not only in the forests,
but likewise on the cultivated lands fringing the Malabar coast, is the last member
of the group in which the hair of the cro^\'n of the head radiates from a single
point on the forehead.

LANGURS. 75

The Baxded Leaf-Moxkey (Semnopithecus femoralis).

A mre laugur from Sumatra, Borneo, aud the Malay Peninsula, extending as
far north as Tenasserim, is the banded leaf -monkey, of whose habits little,
unfortunately, is known. It ditFers from all those already mentioned in that
the hair of the crown of the head radiates from two distinct points on the fore-
head. The hair on the hinder pait of the head stands up so as to form a crest ;
while that over the temples bends forwards to overhang the eyes. In cohnir this
monkey is niucli darker than any of the above species ; it varies from blackish-
brown to black over the greater part of the body, but is white over a larger
portion of the under surface of the body and inner sides of the thighs; the
white area always including the abdomen. Tlie young are of a whitish hue
throughout.

A closely allied, if not identical, kind of langur from the same regions has
received the name of S. chrysomelas, and dift'ers merely bj^ some details of
coloration.

It is a curious circumstance that the skulls of both these species or varieties of
langurs can be distinguished from those of all others bj^ the form of the last molar,
or " wisdom-tooth," in the lower jaw. In all the other langurs this tooth has five
tubercles, in the lianded leaf-monkey it has but four, as in the under-mentioned
group of giienons.

The Negro Monkey (Semnopithecus maurus).

Far better known than the last species is the negro monkey, or Budeng, as
it is callrd by the inhabitants of Java, of which we give an illustration. This
langur, whicli was originally obtained from Java, but, according to Dr. J. Anderson,
is also found in Sumatra and the JIalay Peninsula, takes its English name from
the full black colour prevaiKng over all the body in the adult, except a portion of
the under surface, and the root of tlie tail, where it is replaced by grey. It agrees
with the last in the forward projection of the hairs on the front of the crown of
the head, as is well shown in the figure. The length of the head and body of
this monkey is about 24 inches; the tail being longer than the head and body,
and frequently furnished with a small tuft at the extremity. The young are
light-coloured, being of a yellowash or reddi.sh tint ; the dark colour of the adult
appearing first on the hands, and then gi-adually spreading over the limbs and
body. This light colour of the young shows that the dark tint of the adults is
an acquired or specialised charactei'.

Nearly allied to this species is another and much rarer monkey, found m
Java, where it is called by the natives the lutong. It is knowni scientifically as
S. pyrrhva; and it difiei's from the negro monkey in being of a ferruginous
red colour at all ages, and is therefore evidently a less specialised form.
So like, indeed, are the two that Dr. J. Anderson considered the lutong
to be merely a light-coloured variety of the budeng. More recently, however,
Dr. Jentiuk, of Leyden, has shown that the skulls of the two present considerable

76

APES AND MONKEYS.

structural diffei-ences, and he has accordingly no doubt that the two forms indicate
perfectly distinct species.

Although in Java these two monkeys have perfectly distinct names, the
Malays call both by the name lutong, cUstinguishing the negro monkey as the

Lutong itam, and the red species as
the Lutong mora ; the words itam
and mora signifying respectively
black and red.

The opinion that these two
monkej's are distinct species is
confirmed by a marked diflference
in then- disposition, which was long
ago pointed out by the late Dr.
Hoi-sfield, from whose work on the
Zoology of Java we take the fol-
lowing account, with some slight
verbal alterations. After observ-
ing that the black budeng is much
more abundant than the red lutong,
Dr. Horsfield observes that " the
latter, both on account of its rarity
and comparative beauty, is a fav-
ourite with the natives. Whenever
an individual is obtained, care is
taken to domesticate it, and it is
treated with kindness and atten-
tion. The budeng, on the contrary,
is neglected and despised. It re-
quires much patience in any degree
to impi-ove the natural sullenness
of its temper. In confinement, it
remains during many months grave
and morose ; and, as it contributes
nothing to the amusement of the
KKGBo MoxKEv. uativcs, it is rarely found in their

villages or about their dwellings.
The budeng is found in great abundance in the forests of Java ; it forms its dwell-
ing on trees, and associates in numerous societies. Troops, consisting of fifty
individuals and upwards, are often found together. In meeting them in the forests,
it is prudent to observe them at a distance. They emit loud screams on the
approach of a man, and by the violent bustle and commotion excited by their
movements, branches of decayed trees are not vmfrequently detached, and thrown
down on the spectators. They are often chased by the natives for the purpose of
obtaining their fur. In these pursuits, which are generallj' ordered and attended
by the chiefs, the animals are attacked ^\•ith cudgels and stones, and cruell}'^
destroyed in great numbers. The skins are prepared by a simple process, which

LANGURS. 77

the natives have acquired from the Europeans; and they conduct it at present with
great skill. It affoi'ds a fur of a jet-black colour, covered with long silky liaii's,
which is usually employed, both by tlie natives and by the Europeans, in preparing
riding equipages and military decorations."

The Crested Lutong {Semnopithecus cristatus).

The crested lutong of Sumatra and Borneo is closely allied to the negro
monkey, from which it appears to be cliiefly distinguished externally by the blackish
fur being iisually grizzled, or washed with gi-eyish-white. A male obtained by Sir
Stamford Raffles in Sumatra, and presented by him to the Indian Museum (now
disestablished), is described by Dr. Anderson as of a brownish-black colour, with a
fuliginous tinge on the flanks, fore-arms, and crest : the short crest on the vertex of
the head being directed backwards, and the long black liair on the temples coming
forwards. The same writer describes a female as black, with the tips of the hairs
on tlie head and body of a lustrous grey tint ; the liair of the liiidjs being yellowish-
grey, except on the hands and feet, where they are black. On the under parts the
hair is paler, with yellowish-grey tips ; while the tail is black, tipped with grey
above but yellowing underneath, more especially near the root. The face has a
bluish-black hue.

The young of this monkey is yellow in colour ; and Sir Stamford Raffles
records the existence of a race in which the colour of the adult is either light grey
or whitish.

The Nilgiri Langur {Semnopithecus johni).

With the Nilgiri langur we come to the first of a large group of langurs, in
which the hair of the crown, instead of radiating from one or more points on the
forehead, is unifonnly directed backwards without any trace of parting.

This species, which derives its Latin name from a former member of the
Danish factory at Trauquebar in Madras, belongs to a subgroup characterised
by the absence of a crest of hair on the ci-own of the head; the hair of the
crown itself being not longer than that on the temples and the nape of the neck.
The Nilgiri langur is a comparatively small species ; the length of the head and
body varying from about 21 to 23 inches, and that of the tail from 32 to
35 ; though larger individuals are occasionally met with. The hair of the body
is long, fine, and glossy ; and the general colour black to blackish-brown, with the
exception of the head and rump, of which the former is brownish -yellow, and
the latter ashy-gi-ey. The young of tliis monkey are black throughout, and
this appears to be the case in the next species. The character serves, there-
fore, to distinguish these langurs very markedly from those of the preceding
group, in which, as we have seen, the young are light-coloured ; and it may be
taken as an indication that the present group is the most specialised of all the
langurs, not only having acquired the black tint in the adult, but even in the
earlier stages of their existence.

As its name implies, it is found in the Nilgiri Mountains (or Hills as

78 APES AND MONKEYS.

they are commonly called bj- Anglo-Indians) of Southern India; and its range
extends from the WjTiaad southwards to Cape Comorin.

According to Mr. W. T. Blanford, this langur " is shy and Avarj-, the result of
human persecution. It inhabits the sholas, or dense but abruptly limited woods of
the Nilgiris, and other high ranges of Southern India, and is also found in the
forests on tlie slopes of the hills, usuallj- in small troops of from five to ten indi-
\-iduals. It is very noisy, having a loud guttural alarm-cry, used also to express
anger, and a long loud call. Jerdon relates that when the sholas of the Xilgiri
range were beaten for game, these monke\'s made their way rapidly and with loud
cries to the lowest portion, and thence to a neighbouring wood at a lower level.
In consequence of the beauty of their skins, and the circumstance that certain
castes eat their flesh, these monkeys are more frequently shot than most of the
Indian species, hence their shjiiess."

The Purple-faced Monkey (Semnopitkecus cephalopterus).

The pui"ple-faced monkey is the representative of this group in the island
of Ceylon. It is known to be liable to considerable variations of colour, and
at least, in a popular work like the present, we may follow Dr. Andei-son in
reirai'diucr the Siu<ralese lanjnii-s kno\\^l as the wliite moukev (S. senex), and the
bear monkey {S. nrsinus) as nothing more than well-marked varieties of this
species.

There is a ready means of distinguishing the purple-faced monkey from
the Nilgiri langur. In the latter the cheeks are of the same brown colour
as the rest of the head, in the former they ai'e always much paler than the crown.
Tj-pically this species is of small size, the length of the head and body being
only 20 inches, and that of the tail 2-ii inches. The so-called bear monkey is,
however, somewhat larger; the length of the head and body being 21, and that of
the tail 26 inches. In colour the tjijical pui-ple-faced monkey varies from dusky-
to smoky-brown and black, more or less tinged with gi"ey on the back and upper
parts, this grey being always present on the haunches. In the head the long
whiskere on the cheeks stand out in striking contrast to the brown hue of the
rest of the head. Some varieties are more decidedly brown; and in the bear
monkey duskj' -brown is the prevalent hue, with complete absence of the grey on
the haunches. The white monkey, which we are disposed to regard merely as a
variety of this species, is a curious-looking animal, being of a general yellowish-
white colour, with a faint brownish tinge on the head, and tending to a dusky hue
on the shoulders and do\vn the middle of the back. Tlie face and eai-s i-etain the
usual black colour, but the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are flesh-
coloured.

The tj-pical form is found over the gi-eater part of Ceylon at low or moderate
elevations, and apparently not ascending above some thiiieen thousand feet above
the sea-level. The bear and wliite monkeys are, however, confined to the southern
parts of Ceylon, and ascend to much greater elevations ; the foi-mer variety being
especially abundant in the high mountains in the neighbourhood of the town of
Newera EUia.

LANGURS. 79

Sir Emerson Tennent, writing of the typical purple -faced
Mode of Life. , , • , , , xi i ,. ^ i i •' i: r v

monkey, which Jie terms tlie wanderu oi the low country, says that it

is far the commonest of the Singalese laugurs, and that " it is an active and intelli-
gent creature, little larger than the common bonneted macaque, and far from
being so niiscliievous as the other monkeys in the island. In captivity it is
remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour, and for an air of melancholy in
its expression and movements which are completely in character with its snowy
Ijeard and venerable aspect. In disposition it is gentle and confiding, sensible
ill tlie highest degree of kindness, and eager for endearing affection, uttering
a low plaintive cry wlien its sympathies are excited. It is particularly cleanly
in its habits when domesticated, and spends much of its time in trimming its
fur, and carefully divesting its liair of particles of dust. Those which I kept at
my house near Colombo M'ere chiefly fed upon plantains and bananas, but for
nothing did they exhibit a greater partiality than tlie rose-coloured flowers of
the red hibiscus. These they devoured with unequivocal gusto; they likewise
relished the leaves of many other trees, and even the bark of a few of the more
succulent ones."

After referring to the white monkey, wiiich he regards as merely a variety
of the lowland wanderu. Sir Emerson Tennent proceeds with his account of the
latter, and states that " when observed in their native wilds, a i>arty of twenty or
tliii-ty of these creatures is generally busily engaged in the search for berries and
bud.s. They are seldom to be seen on the ground, except when they may have
descended to recover seeds or fruit which have fallen at the foot of their favourite
trees. When disturbed, their leaps are prodigious ; but, generally speaking, their
progress is made not so much by leaping as by swinging from bianch to branch,
using their powerful arms alternately ; and, when baffled by distance, flinging
themselves oblii[uely so as to catch the lower bouglis of an opposite tree, the
momentum caused by their descent being sufficient to cause a rebound of tlie brancli,
that carries them upward again till they gi-asp a higher and more distant one, and
thus continue their headlong flight. In these perilous achievements wonder is
excited less by the surpassing agility of these little creatures (frequently encumbered
as they are by their young, which cling to them in their career) than by the quick-
ness of their eye and the unerring accuracy witli which they seem almost to
calculate the angle at wliich a descent will enable them to cover a given distance,
and the recoil to attain a higher altitude."

The same writer then goes on to say that in the hills the typical black form
of this monkey is replaced by the so-called bear monkey. "The natives, who
designate the latter as the Maha, or Great Wandeini, to distinguish it from the
Kala, or Black one (the typical purple-faced monkey), with which they are familiar,
describe it as much wilder and more powerful than its congener of the lowland
forests. It is rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the country having till
very recently been but partially opened ; and even now it is difficult to observe its
habits, as it seldom approaches the few roads which wind through these deep
solitudes. At early morning, ere the day begins to dawn, its loud and peculiar
howl, which consists of a quick repetition of the sounds how, how ! may be frequently
heard in the mountain jungles, and forms one of the characteristic noises of these

So AFES AND MONKEYS.

lofty situations." There is a record of one of these monkeys having attacked a
native laden with a bag of rice.

The Capped Langur {Semnopithecus pilcatiis).

Of somewhat smaller dimensions than the hanuman is the capped langur of
Assam and the neighbouring districts of Korth-Eastem India and Upper Burma.
This .species may be readily distinguished from the Nilgiri langur and the purple-
faced monkey (with its varieties) by the hair of the cro\\"n of the head being longer
than that on the occiput and temples, thus having somewhat the appearance of a
cap, from which character the species derives its name.

In colour tliis monkey varies from a dusky-grey to a brownish ashy-grey on
the upper parts ; the upper part of the back, and sometimes also the crown of the
head, being darker. The hands and feet are dark or black above, but occasionally
some or all of the fingers may be yellowi.sh. Tlie tail is dark-brown, but maj' be
black at the tip. The face is always black, but the sides and lower parts of the
head, as well as the neck, vary from a golden brown or orange to a pale yellow or
yellowish-white tint. The light colour of the sides of the face extends backwards to
a line just above the ears, so that, with the light-coloured nape of the neck, the dark
cap is well defined, and gives to this monkey a peculiar and distinctive appearance.

According to Mr. Blanfoixl, notliing is known of its habits in a wild
state, although they are probably very similar to those of most of the other
species of the genus. In capti^'ity it is said to be gentle if captured when quite
j^oung, but if not taken till adult it is morose and savage, this being especially the
case with old males.

The so-called red-bellied langur (S. chrysogaster) is only known by an adult
female and a young one preserved in the Museum at Berlin, and reputed to have
been obtained from Tenasserim. In the adult the upper parts, the limbs, and
the tail are jet black, with the lower portions of the indi\idual liairs ruddy, ami
their extreme bases white ; the band on the forehead, as well as the cheeks to behind
the ears, and the sides and fi'ont of the neck, together with the chin and the upper
part of the breast are pure wliite. The remainder of the under parts ai-e of a deep
bright ferruginous red, which also tinges the inner sides of the limbs, and gives
the animal its distinctive appellation. The young are of a uniform reddish-white
colour. The head of the adult appeare to have a small crest, and by this it is
distinguished from the typical capped langur.

From this description it would appear that this monkey is the most brilliantlj'
coloured of all the langurs ; and Mr. Blanford considers from this circumstance that
if it really comes from Tenasserim other examples ought ere this to have been
obtained. Dr. Andei-son regards tliis monkey merely as a brilliantly coloured
vai-iety of the capped langur, but this view is not accepted by Mr. BlanforcL

The Dr.sKT Leaf-Monkey (Semnojnthecus obscurus).

The duskj^ leaf-monkej', which is found in Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and the
Tenasserim pro\Tnces, while agi'eeing with the Nilgiri and the capped langur in

LANGURS. 8 1

the backward direction of the crown of the head, is distinguished by the possession
of a distinct crest of longer hairs on the occiput, arranged in a jDointed form.

The adult of this langur is of comparati\'ely small size, the length of the head
and body measuring 21 inches, and that of the tail 32. Usuallj- the general
colour of the head, bodj-, and limbs is dark ashj'-grey, but it may vary to
blackish-bro-mi. The imder parts and tail are generally lighter, but the hands
and feet are black. The crest on the back of the head is always distinctly lighter
than that of the rest of the crown, and may be almost white. The J'oung are of a
bright golden ferruginous coloui*. According to Mr. Blauford this .species is known
to the Malays as Lutong itam, a title wliich appears properly to belong to the
black variety of the negro monkey.

Closelj' aUied to this species is Phayre's leaf -monkey (S. ijhatjrei), distinguished
by the crest of hair being placed on the crown of the head instead of on the occiput ;
and by this same crest being compressed and longitudinal, instead of pointed ;
while the colour of the body is dark grey above, and whitish underneath. Phayre's
leaf-monkey inhabits Ai-akan, part of Pegu, and Northern Tenasserim.

Writing of tliis species, Mr. Blanford states that it " is found in dense, high
forests, or amongst bamboos on the liill-sides and on the banks of sti-eams, usually
in flocks of twenty or thii-tj' individuals. It is very shy and wary, and is con-
sequently more often heard than seen ; the whole flock when alarmed rushing
thi'ough the forest, shaking the branches -sdolently, and leaping from tree to tree.
But occasionally, as Tickell observes, an old male stays beliind in a safe post of
vantage on the top of one of the highest trees, where he may be heard uttering his
short, deep alarm-cry at frequent intervals. This ciy is an angry bark, not unlike
that of the hauuman. I was once well scolded from a tree by an old monkey, I
believe of this species, on the edge of a half-deserted clearing in Southern Arakan,
I had done nothing to oftend his monkeyship, but he e\'identhr considered me as
sometliing imusual and susjiicious. Blyth observes that the young, besides making
a whining noise to express their wants, emit a cry that might be mistaken for the
mew of a cat."

Hose's Laxgtjr {Semnopithecws hosei).

This very handsome and peculiarly-coloured langur from Boi-neo belongs to the
group in which the hair of the crown extends evenly backwards. It is about the
same size as the dusky leaf -monkey. The crown has a longitudinal crest, starting
about half an inch behind the centre of the forehead. The general colour of the body
is a hoary grey, caused by the mixture of black and white hairs. The crest, as well as
the centre of the crown of the head, the nape of the neck, and the eyebrows, are of
a deep glossy black ; and the hands and feet are of the same jetty hue. In marked
contrast to these sombre tints is the brilliant white of the forehead, temples, sides of
the head and neck, and chin. This white is continued down the throat and chest
to the under surface of the body, and the inner sides of the upper parts of the limbs.

This exceedingly handsome species differs from all the langurs yet mentioned,
in the marked contrast presented by its black crest to the brilliant white of the
temples and cheeks. A specimen was obtained by Mr. John Whitehead on Kina
Balu, the gi-eat mountain of Borneo, at an elevation of some four thousand feet

VOL. I. — 6

82

APES AXD MONKEYS.

above the level of the sea; and this explorer states that the species is fairly
common in certain patches of forest on the mountain and in its neighbourhood.

The reader might well be excused for tliinking that with this he had reached
the end of the alreadj" long list of langurs; but thei-e are several other species
more or less closely related to those we have mentioned. As, howevei-, even the
enumeration of these might be wearisome, we pass on to the consideration of

The Douc {Semnopithecus nenucus).

The douc, or variegated langur, is an inhabitant of the forests of Cochin-China,
where it is found near the coast, as well as in the interior, and is remarkable for its
brilliant coloi-ation. There seems to be great doubt as to the origin of the name
Douc, which was a^jplied to this nioukej' by Button, and it is stated to be unknown

in Cochin-China; it has, however,
been so long in use that there would
be no advantage gained b}' chang-
ing it.

The general form of the douc
is so (-liflerent from that of other
langui-s, that the late Dr. Gray pro-
posed to make it the tA'pe of a
distinct genus. Thus the general
build is more robust, and the limbs
are stouter, and of nearly equal
lengths; whereas in the tj-pical
langurs the arms are considerably
shorter than the leirs.

The hair on the top of the
head is directed backwards, with-
out any crest; and the brilliant
whi^e wiaiskei-s have hkewise tlie same dii'ection, ami are closely pi'essed to
the face. The general colour of the head is brown, but there is a narrow
band of bright chestnut passing backwards under the ears; and the naked
face is of a brilliant yellow, wliich makes a bold contrast to the pure white
whiskers. Owing to the haii-s of the body ha\-incr alternate dark and lierht
rings of colour, the genei-al tint of the body is a mottled, gi-izzled grey, darker
on the upper than on the under parts. Tlie upper parts of the arms and legs, as
well as the hands and feet, are of a deep black ; but the lower legs are of a full
chestnut, and the fore-arms white. A large patch on the rump near the root of
the tail, as well as the tail itself, are likewise white. All these coloui-s are
extremely brilliant, and sharply defined, without any tendency to blend with one
another at their junctions, so that this monkey is one of the most gorgeously
coloured Mammals kno^\^l.

AVe have very little information as to the habits of the douc in a state of
nature, and it does not appear that it has been exhibited alive (at least of late
years) in this country. M. Rey, a French captain, who visited Cochin-China in the

LANGURS.

83

years 1819 and 1820, has given us an account of a number of doucs wliicli ho tsaw
during an expedition into the interior of the country, in the course of wliich it is
stated that a hundred individuals were slauglitered on a single occasion in the
endeavour to capture some living specimens.

The Tibetan Laxgur, — Semnopithecus roxellance.

Perliaps the last place in which we should expect to lind a living monkey
would be the highlands of Eastern Tibet. Nevei-theless, that one — and a
very peculiar one — does exist in those elevated regions has been proved by the
researches of the French missionary. Abbe David, who has done so much to increase
our knowledge of the fauna of that inaccessible jjart of the world. The monkey
in question, which niay be known as the Tibetan langur, although a true
SemnopitheciLS, may be recognised at a glance among all its congeners by its
" tip-tilted " nose. Although shoi-t and small, the nose is so much turned up that its
tip reaches to the level of the lower border of the ej'es. Some writers, relying on
this ijeeuliar foruuxtion of the nose, have separated the species from the other
langurs under the name of Rliinopitheciis, but this multijDlication of generic terms
is confusintr and unnecessarv.

Although this remarkable monkey was first made known in Europ(! from
specimens obtained in Eastern Tibet, subsequent researches have shown that it also
ranges into Nortll-^V('st China, where it is found on the mountains of the province
of Kansu. It appears, indeed, from the researches of the late Professor Moseley,
that it has been known to the Chinese for an inunensely long period. There
is a Chinese work known as the Shun Hoi Kiiuj, or mountain and ocean
record, of very great anti(juity, — so old, indeed, that one commentator even assigns
to it as early a date as the year 2:^0.5 B.C., — in which there is a woodcut representing
a man of the Heu Yeung Kingdom, wherever that may be. Professor Moseley
reproduces this figure in his Notes of a Naturalist on the Challenger, and says that
it evidently represents a monkey closely allied to, and perhaps identical with, the
species under consideration ; the prominent nose turned uj) at the tip being clearly
sho^vn in the engraving. Professor Moseley adds that " the wide but unscientific
distinction commonly drawn between men and the higher monkeys is an error
of high civilisation, and comparatively recent. Less civilised races make no such
distinction. To the Dyak the great ape of Borneo is simply the Man of the Woods
— orang-utan." The Tibetan langur differs from the Indian langurs by its stouter
build, and relatively .shorter limbs. The upper surface of the body, the crown of
the head, the outer sides of the limbs, and the whole of the tail, are an olive-brown
colour, flecke<l with yellow; while the sides of the face, the lower part of the fore-
head, and all the under parts and the inner sides of the limbs, are of a brilliant
yellow, tending to orange, the naked parts of the face being bluish-grey.

These langurs inhabit the forests of the mountain region between Moupin and
Lake Khokonor, where snow is said to lie for a large portion of the year. They
are stated to live in numerous troops, always ascending the loftiest trees, and
feeding on fruits, but when pressed by hunger eating also the leaves and shoots
of the bamboo.

84 APES AND MONKEYS.

Fossil Laxgues.

As we might naturally suppose would be the case, fossil remains of langurs
have been found in their native land of India. Some of these have been obtained
from caverns in the Madras Presidency, and do not date back much, if at all, beyond
the human period. Other remains occur, however, in the much older Siwalik
sandstones forming the ranges on the flanks of the Himalaya, and belonging to the
upper part of that di^nsion of the Teriiaiy period known to geologists as the
Pliocene. This does not, however, by any means limit the i-ange of extinct langurs,
since their remains have been found in the Pliocene deposits of the Val d'Amo in
Tuscany, and also in strata of equivalent age in the south of France. We have,
therefore, e\adence that these monkeys, which are now confined to the Oiiental
region, were formerly widely spread over the eastern hemisphere.

The Proboscis Moxket.
Genus Xasalis.

If the physiognomy of the Tibetan langur strikes us as ludicrous, it is hard to
say what epithet we ought to apply to the far more grotesque-looking creature
represented in the accompanj-ing figiu'e. The nose of the proboscis monkey is
indeed so enormous in proportion to the face that it presents the appearance of an
absolute deformity, and it is very hard to imagine of what possible advantage it
can be to its owner.

The proboscis monkey (iY. larvatus) is an inhabitant of Borneo, and its
marked difterence from other monkeys is one of the many pi'oofs indicating the
great antiquity of that island, and the long period during wliich it has been isolated
from other lands. In general structure the proboscis monkey conforms so closely
to the langurs that the peculiai-itj' of its nasal organ would not alone justify its
separation from that gi-oup as the i-epresentative of a distinct genus, although it
was on tills groimd alone that the separation was originally made. Subsequent
researches have, however, shown that the skull can be distinguished at a glance
from that of anj' of the langui-s, and also from those of the African genus Colohus,
to be mentioned immediatel}', by the form of the aperture of the nasal cavity.
Thus, whereas in the latter this apei-ttire extends upwards between the sockets
of the eyes, in the probo.scis monkey the nose bones which roof over this apertiu-e
descend considerably below the lower margin of the ej-e-sockets. In this respect
the species vmder consideration resembles the macaques and their allies.

The proboscis monkej^ was first made known to Eiu'opean science in 1781
by Baron Wui-mb, sometime Dutch governor of Bata\-ia. Wui-mb described it
under the name Kahau, a term apparently made up from a resemblance to its cry,
but unknown to the native inhabitants of Borneo, by whom it is said to be called
Bantajau. Specimens were subsecjuently sent to Europe by Sir Stamford Raffles,
and it was considered by Messrs Vigors and Horsfield that these indicated two

PROBOSCIS MONKEY.

85

distinct species ; but it was afterwards discovered that these supposed two species
were founded upon the male and female of the one and only proboscis monkey, in
which the two sexes differ considerably in point of size.

The proboscis monkey is a rather large animal, the combined lenotli of the
head and body of the male being about 30 inches, while the tail measures some
27 inches. The general colour is a kind of ochre-yellow, the head and upper
parts of the body being chestnut. The under parts are lighter; a large patch on
the rump above the root of the tail, as well as the tail itself, together witli tlie

THE PUOBOscis MONKEY (j", iiat. size).

fore-arms and lower legs, being grejnsh-yellow. The forehead is very low, and the
dark chestnut hair is directed backwards from a nearly straight line immediately
over the eyes ; while the hair of the temples is continued dovvTi the sides of the
face as whiskers, which meet as a beard beneath the chin. The whole of the large
naked face is, therefore, surrounded by a hairy frame. In stuffed or dried specimens
the skin of the face fades to a dull leaden hue ; but when the animal is alive the
tint is of a reddish-brown flesh-colour.

The light-coloured area on the loins near the root of the tail usually takes the
form of a number of large rectangular spots, producing a very peculiar and
characteristic kind of colox-ation, which is, however, absent in the female.

86 AFES AND MONKEYS.

The enormous nose, from which the proboscis monkey derives both its popular
and scientilic appeUations, projects several inches in front of the mouth, with the
nostrils placed on its under surface, although separated by a much narrower septum
than in man. This excessive development of the nose is, however, only reached
in the adult male ; it being much less throughout life in the female, Avhile in the
young of both sexes it is comparatively small, and upturned as in the Tibetan
langur.

No living examples of the proboscis monkey have, we believe, been exhibited
in this country ; and accounts of its habits in the ^^^ld condition are few. The
following extracts are taken from a translation of the original account given bj-
Baron Wurmb. After stating that these monkeys are found in large troops, the
author says that " they assemble together morning and evening, at the rising and
setting of the sun, and always on the banks of some stream or river; there
they may be seen seated on the branches of some great tree, or leaping with
astonishing force and rapiditj' from one tree or branch to another, at the distance
of fifteen or twenty feet. It is a curious and interesting .sight ; but I have never
remarked, as the accounts of the natives would have you believe, that they hold
their long nose in the act of jumping : on the contrary, I have uniformly observed
that on such occasions they extend the legs and arms to as great a distance as
possible, apparently for the purpose of presenting as large a surface as they can to
the atmosphere. The nature of their food is uuknow^l, which renders it impossible
to keep them alive in a- state of confinement."

The THUjrBLE.s.s Moxkeys.
Genus Colohus.

The langui-s, which as we have seen are widely distributed over South-Eastern
Asia, and more especially that poi-tion forming the Oriental Eegion of zoologists, ai'e
replaced in Africa by a group of monkeys closely allied to them in all respects, but
distinguished either by the total absence, or rudimentary concUtion, of the thumb.
When present at all this digit merely takes the form of a small tubercle, which may
or may not be pro\"ided with a minute nail. Such a point of difference from the
langui-s is rightly regarded as worthy of generic distinction, and these African
monkeys have accordingly been described under the name of Colohus, in allusion to
the feature in question. There is no popular name by which these monkeys are
generally known, and we have accordingly entitled them the Thumbless Monkeys.
Since, however, this term would be somewhat cumbersome when prefixed to another
denoting the various species, it has been usual to anglicise the scientific name Colohus.

There are rather less than a dozen species of tliis group known to science.
Our acquaintance with their habits is, however, extremely imperfect, and few of
them have been brought alive to Europe, since, hke their cousins the langui-s, they
are delicate, and do not thrive well in confinement. The sacculated stomach
indicates that their food, like that of the langurs, is in all probability largelj'
composed of leaves and twigs. If, however, their habits at all resemble those of

THUMBLESS MONKEYS.

87

the group last mentioned, it is not easj- to see why tliey should have lost their
thumbs, — unless, indeed, the small thumbs of their Indian cousins are practically
useless.

In adtlition to being strictly African, all the thumbless monkeys, with one
exception, appear to be confined to the west coast, where they must be very
abundantly represented. Most of them are remarkable for the length and beauty
of the silky hairs with which their bodies are clothed; their f\u- being laro-ely
inipoi-ted into Europe for use as trinuning for other furs and various kinds of
apparel.

Our imperfect acquaintance with this group in their native haunts must be
largely attributed to the neglect witli which travellers and sportsmen treat
monkeys and baboons. In every book of travel or sport we are sure to find
chapter after chapter tlevoted to the hoofed mannnals and the carnivores, but very
seldom is there a M'ord about monkeys. We lia\-e no desire to place any check on
the continuous flow of infoi-mation relating to any of the animals, but we venture
to put in a plea that at least some attention may be devoted to these when
opportunity otfers.

Before noticing sonn; of the species of this gi-oTip it may be mentioned that the
hair of all tlie thumbless monkeys is coloured uniformly, and by this character
even a small piece of tlieir fur may be distinguished from that of all other African
monkeys, in which each indiviilual hair is ringi'd with ditterent hues.

The Guereza (Colohiis guereza).-

We commence our account of the thumbless monkeys with this strikingly
liandsome animal, wliich diftei-s so much in external appearance from the otlier
members of the group that it was referred by Dr. Gray to a distinct genus.

It is commojily reported to inhabit Abyssinia, but Mr. Blanford, who accom-
panied the Abyssinian Expedition under Lord Napier of Magdala, states that he
never heard of the animal in the part of the country traversed by the army,
and that the skins which are often offered for sale to travellers at Aden are really
brought from the mountains in the interior of Somalilan<l. As, however, Somali-
land and Abyssinia are continuous, it is highly proljable that it may be foun<l on
the eastern borders of the former ; and that it is found in Centi-al Abyssinia in
the neighbourhood of Samen, we have the evidence of several of the earlier
travellers to prove. In Southern Abyssinia it appears to be of comparatively
common occurrence in tlu; district of Gojam, and thence it extends further to the
southward into the Galla country. From the Galla country and Somalilaud the
guereza appears to range to the south-west into the Niam-Niam district, lying to
Uv north-west of Lake Albert Nyanza, and to the southward as far as Kilima-
Njaro on the east coast.

The head, body, and limbs of the guereza ai-e covered with jet black hair of
moderate length : but on either side of the back there arises a line of long hair,
hanging down below the flanks, and forming a kind of mantle of a pure white
colour. The dark face is also surrounded with a fringe of the same white hair,
which forms long whiskers Iving flat on the cheeks, and directed backwards. The

88

APES AXD MONKEYS.

long tail temiinates in a white tuft. The contrast of the white of the mantle
cheeks, and tail against the velvety black of the rest of the body is most striking
and without exact parallel among other mammals, although the coloration of the
skunk is somewhat suggestive of it.

Handsome as is the ordinary guereza in these respects, it is, however, exceeded
by a variety occurring conunouly at an elevation of about three thousand feet on
the flanks of Kilima-Xjaro, while the common race is believed to exist in the
plains around. In the common guereza the first 12 or 16 inches of the tail are
black and short-haired, the wliite tufted portion including only the last 8 or 10
inches; while the white mantle of hair depending from the back conceals only

THE GUEREZA MONKEY (Jj nat. size).

about one-third of the black portion of the tail. In the Kilima-Xjaro varietj', or
large-tailed guereza, only some 3 or 4 inches of the base of the tail are black and
short-haired, while the remainder is covered with long wliite hair for a length
of some 20 inches, each individual hair measurintj from 8 to 9 inches. Moreover,
the white haii-s of the mantle entirely conceal the Vjlack of the root of the tail, so
that the mantle and tail-brush practically become continuous. The tail of this
variety reminds us of the larger tail of half-bred yaks used in India as fly
flappers, under the name of choicris; and indeed the whole arrangement of the
long hairs of the eruereza, as well as its coloration, recalls a half-bred yak.

The guereza has never been brought alive to this country. One
of the earliest accounts of its habits is given by Pearce in his Life
and Adventures in Abyssinia, in which it is stated that guerezas are common

Habits.

THUMBLESS MONKEYS. 89

to the Galla country, and that while they are known in the Amharic dialect of
Central Abyssinia under the name of Focha ; in the Tigre tongue thej^ are called
Grazer ( = Guereza). At this period, and even up to the date of Salt's second journey
into Abyssinia in the first quarter of this century, these animals were supposed to
be a species of lemur. Riippell, however, definitely assigned the guereza to its
proper zoological position, and has left us an account of its habits, from which the
following particulars are taken.

The guereza is said to live in small companies, and usually inhabits the tallest
trees it can find in the neighbourhood of running water. It is restless, and con-
stantly on the move, bxit is said to be completely silent. The leaps which it takes
from tree to tree are described as of tremendous length. It subsists mainly on
various kinds of wild fruits, seeds, and insects ; and it spends the whole day in
collecting these, retiring to sleejj high up in the trees. In Gojam, on the southern
frontier of Abyssinia, it is common : and it is largely hunted for the sake of its
fur, which is used for covering the shields of the Abj'ssinian soldiers.

There are good grounds for believing that this monkej^ is the true callithrix of
the ancients, although this name is now applied in zoology to a totally different
group of monkeys, as we shall see below.

The Bl.vck Colob (Colobiis satanas).

In marked contrast to the pied coloration of the precetliug species is the sable
hue of the black colob, first described from specimens obtained at Fernando Po, on
the West Coast of Africa, in 1838.

The uniform black colour of this monke}', of which a representation is given
in the right-hand figure of the woodcut on p. 90, suffices indeed to distinguish
it at once from all its congeners. In addition to this black coloration, the crown
of the head has a crest of long hair projecting over the temples and eyes ; and the
whiskei's are long and expanded. The whole of the body is covered with long and
rather coarse hair : but the tail is short-haired throughout the greater part of its
lenf^h, and has no trace of a tuft at the end. The whole of the hair has a dull
and shaggy apjiearance, recalling, as an earlier writer has observed, that of the
sloth bear of India. The length of the head and body is 32 inches, while that of
the tail reaches 40 inches.

Although this species is mentioned by Du Chaillu as inhabiting Western
Equatorial Africa, it is to be regretted that we have no record of its mode of life.

The King Monkey (Colohus polycomus).

The king monkey of Sierra Leone is one of the few colobs that have been
exhibited alive in the Gardens of the London Zoological Society, a single specimen
having been purchased in the spring of 1873. It has no crest on the head, but a
long mane on the throat and chest ; the hair of the sides of the body being likewise
lone:. The greneral colour is black, but the mane, the forehead, and the sides of the
face, as well as the whole of the tail, are of a dazzling wliite. The tail has a well-
marked tuft at the end ; and the entire coat of hair is very glossy.

9°

APES AXD MONKEYS.

The Ursixe Colob (Co?o6 us mj'.sm) its).

Closely allied to the last species is the so-called ursine colob from Fernando Po,
in which the mane is grej'ish, and not longer than the hair on the sides of the
body. Yet another nearlj' related West African monkey is the Angola colob

THE UltSlNE LuLUIi AM> BLACK COLOB ( J liat. Size).

(Colohios angolensis), which diffei-s from the king monkey in that the chest and
two-thirds of the lower portion of the tail are black.

The White-thighed Colob (Colobus villerosuii).

More markedly distinct than the preceding from the king monkey, is the
white-thighed colob of Western Africa. This species is distinguished by the
absence of a mane on the head and throat, although it has a small fringe round
the face. The general colour is glossj^ black ; but that of the forehead, of the
frill round the face, and on the cliiu, is white. The tail is also white ; but the

THUMB LESS MONKEYS. 91

most distinctive characteristic of the species is the silveiy-wliite of the thighs, from
which it derives its name. The haunches are, moreover, generally grev. The
white hair of the thighs is shorter than that on the bodj^

The Bay Colob {Colohus ferrugineus).

Very different in coloration from any of tlie species yet mentioned is the bay
colob, definitely known from the Gambia and the Gold Coast, and of which a
single specimen was brought alive to England in the autumn of 1890, but,
unfortunatel}-, did not long survive its arrival.

This handsome species lias comjiaratively short hair, which, on the crown of
the head and the back and upper part of the sides is blackish-grej-, while the
cheeks and throat, as well as the under parts and tlie limbs, ai-e of a rich
fermginous bay. The upper part of the root of the tail is blackish, but the
remainder of a reddish-ljrown. The ears and tiie greater part of the face are bluish,
but the nose and lips are flesh-coloured. Altogether the bay colob is a striking
species, which, once seen, will always be easily recognised.

The Crested Colob {Colohus cristatus).

The last of the thumbless monkeys we shall mention is the crested colob,
which is likewase a West African species. It is readily distinguished by its short
yellowish-brown fur, which becomes grej'er on the front of the body; the
shoulders and outer sides of the arms, the thi-oat, chest, under parts, and inner sides
of the limbs being greyish-white. It differs from all the other species in that the
hair on the forehea<l railiates from two points on the temples, and that there is a
low erect crest of longer hairs running along the middle line of the head.

CHAPTER IV.

Apes, Monkeys, axd LEMrRS, — continued.
The Old World Monkeys axd Baboons, — continued.

1\ the preceding chapter we have considered such of the Old World monkej's as
have no cheek -pouches, but possess sacculated stomachs, and in -sxhich the legs
are longer than the anns. In systematic zoology these constitute the subfamily
Colobince, of the family Cercopithecidcc. We have now to consider the remainder
of the Old World monkeys, together with the baboons, which, although belonging to
the same great family, constitute the separate large subfamily of the Cercopithecinoi.
This group is chai-acterised by the circumstance that all its members are furnished
with cheek-pouches, but their stomachs are simple, and the arms and legs are of
nearly the same length.

The Guexons.
Genus Cercojnthecus.

Since we have no English name to distinguish this group of African monkeys
from others of the same family, it wiU be found convenient to use the French name
Guenon, meaning one who grimaces, which appears to have been esi^ecially applied
to the monkeys of this group, as being those with which we are most familiar in
menageries and shows.

As we have said, these monkeys are strictly confined to Africa, where they are
represented by more than twenty species, of which the larger proportion are found
on the western side of the continent. None of them are of large size, and they
present the following features by which they are characterised as a genus.

In build they are comparativelv slender, and their muzzle is either
sljort, or at least not very long. Their tail is invariabl}' long and
slender, and the naked callosities on the buttocks are of comparatively small size.
For another im^^oriant point of distinction we must have recourse to the dried
skulls, an examination of which will show that the last molar or wisdom-tooth on
each side of the lower jaw consists of four tubercles onl}-, and of these the front
and hind pairs are connected by a pair of transverse ridges. In this respect the
guenons cUtfer, not only from the monkeys described in the last chapter, but likewise
from all those to be subsequently noticed, in which the last lower molar has a fifth
tubercle forming a kind of heel projecting from behind the second ti-ansvei-se ridge.

In general appearance, more especially as regards their slender build and
long tails, the guenons are the members of the present subfamily which make

GUENONS. 93

the nearest approach to the langurs and their allies. All of them, like the other

African monkej-s to be subsequently mentioned, are characterised bj- each individual

hair being marked by a series of different-coloured rings, which imparts to the

fur the peculiar mottled appearance with which we are familiar.

In chsposition these monkeys are docile and easily- taught, and so well do thej'

thrive in captivity that it is not uncommon for them to breed in menageries. In

consequence of this docile disposition, and their comparatively hardy constitution,

as well as from the facility \n\\\ which they learn tricks, and to obey the word of

command, they, or the representatives of the next genus, are generally chosen as

companions by the peripatetic organ-grinders. Mischievous as a monkey, is truer

of the guenons than of any other members of the order to which they belong;

and it is largeh* to them that the monkey-house at the Zoological Societj's Gardens

owes it popularity.

Like the langurs, the guenons are essentially arboreal ; and they
Mode of Life. , , . , ° V. *=.,,. . , "^ ... , , •

are round in their native wilds in large troops, wmch reveal their

proximity by their incessant chattering. Not only, therefore, is the solitary

monkey of the London organ-grinder to be commiserated for having exchanged

the sunny atmosphere of his native African f(jrests for the gloom of an Englisli

winter, but likewise for the loss of the merry companions with which he was wont

to associate.

In saying that the guenons are docile, we should guard ourselves by adding,
docile for a monkej-, since in the strict sense of the word all monkeys are far less
docile and less susceptible of education than many other Mammals. This, however,
bj' no means implies that monkeys have not a very high degree of intelligence.
In regard to this point we may quote a very suggestive paragraph from Mr.
Blanford. " It is the commonest mistake," he writes, " amongst superficial observers,
and even among.st naturalists, to confound docility and intelligence among animals,
and to measure their intellectual powers by the facility with which they can be
taught. Hence the very common, but, as it appears to me, very incorrect notion,
that monkeys are of inferior intelligence to such animals as dogs and elephants.
In realit}- they are less docile, less willing to learn, and less adapted to captivity ;
moreover, being of but little use to man, far less trouble has been taken in studying
their habits. Thus while dog- and elephant - breaking engage all the time and
mental resources of particular classes of men, the instruction of monkeys is left to
the unaideil efforts of amateure and organ-grimlers. The negro race amongst men
appeai-s to be far better adapted for slavery than most savage races, being more
docile in a state of captivitv : but it is scarcely proved to be more intelligent on
that account. Tiie same reasoning will doubtless applj' to animals. I have often
seen dogs and monkej^s kept together, and in every instance it has appeared to me
that the monkey ruled the dog, and that the dog, although the more powerful
animal, feared the monkey; and I can only account for this by the superior
intelligence of the monkey."

In their native condition the guenons go in separate families or droves, each
under the leadership of an old male ; and it appears that each drove has its own
particular limits of territory beyond which it cannot go without intruding on the
domains of another drove, an invasion which is treated as at once being a casus

94 APES AND MONKEYS.

belli. Indeed, this principle of teriitorial rights appears to be so deeply implanted
in the guenon nature that it persists even in captivity, when it is no uncommon
sight to see two or more of these creatures rehgiously guarding one portion of the
cacfe from all intruders.

As being the common monkeys of Africa the guenons would
naturally be well known to the ancient Egyptians ; and it is probable
that most of the long-tailed monkeys we see on their old sculjjtui-es are either
guenons, or mangabej-s, as the members of the next group are called The thumb-
less monkeys, as being almost exclusively West African, would be less likely to be
intimately known to the inhabitant < of Eg\-pt. Xot only were the guenons
familiar to the Egj'ptians, but they appear to have been likewise imported into
classic Greece and Rome ; and it is believed that the Gi'eek and Latin tenn Cehus
was used to designate them, although the name is now applied to a South American
genus.

The Talapoix Monkey (Cercopithecus talapoin).

The somewhat rare and tinv monkev from the Gabun and other regions of
the West Coast of Africa is taken as oiu- first example of the guenons, on account of
the possession of a peculiaritj- wliich led Dr. Graj- to sepai-ate it from all the othera
as the representative of a distinct genus (Myopithecus). This peeuharity is to be
found in the circumstance that the last molar in the lower jaw has only three, in
lieu of the ordinary four tubercles on its crown. Another chstinctive feature, which
can be obsei-ved in the living animal or in stuffed specimens, is the relative shortness
of the hands as compared with those of the other guenons, and also the presence of
a web uniting the bases of the ftugei-s. The talapoin, which is scarcely larger
than a squirrel, is the smallest of the guenons. In colour it is olive-green above
and whitish beneath, with short whiskers of a pale golden yellow tint, forming a
striking contrast to the face, which is black, with the exception of the upper hp
and rings round the eyes, which are yellow or orange.

The Malbrouck Monkey (Cercopithecus cynosurus).

With the malbrouck monkey of Western Africa we come to the first of a
group of guenons characterised by their oval heads and somewhat long muzzles, as
well as by their stiff and backwardly-directed whiskei-s. The fur is invariably
grizzled, each hair being marked with greenish or reddish rings.

The malbrouck is distinguished fi-om the other membei-s of this group by the
large and broad face being flesh-coloured. The general hue of the fur is yellow,
grizzled with black ; a distinct band on the forehead, as well as the whiskei-s,
throat, the under parts, and the inner surface of the limbs being whitish.

The fii-st specimen of this monkey exhibited alive in England is described as
ha\ang an unusually mild and gentle expression of countenance, and was calm,
circumspect, and inactive in its general habits. It did not, however, appear anxious
to become at all familiar either with its keepers or with strangers, and was always
ready to resent any interference with its liberty.

WEST AFBICA2.- GREEN llOSKEVs.

GUENONS. 97

The Vervet Monkey {CercojnihccxiH lalandi).

Still butter known tiian the nialtjrouck is the S<nith African vervet monkey,
or black-chinned vei'vet, as it has been calleil, in w liich, as in all the other members
of this group of guenons, the rather small and narrow face is entirely black or
blackish.

The fur of the vervet is of a greyish-green colour, finely speckled with Ijlack
on the greater part of the body. The face, hands, and feet, and the terminal tiiird
of the tail, are of a deep ])lack ; while the cheek, throat, and under parts of the
body are reddish-white, and the root of the tail and adjacent regions red. The band
on the forehead is distinct, and yellowish. The red root and black tip of the tail
and chin are absolutely distinctive of this species.

In size the vervet is .somewhat smaller than the niona mentioned hereafter.
With the exception of the .samango monkey, it is the .sole South African repre-
sentative of the guenons. It is common in forest districts throughout the Cape
Colony and adjacent regions, more particularly along the tract of coast extending
from Cape Town to Algoa Bay, and thence through Kaffraria and Natal. It is said
to feed chiefly on the gum from the acacias known to the Boers as camel-doorn
and rhinaster-bosh ; and its habits appear to be similar to those of the green
monkey.

The Grivet Monkey (Cercopithemis griseoviridis).

As the vervet is one of two South African representatives of the guenons, so
the grivet is one of two members of the group found in North-Eastern Africa.
In colour the fur of this species is olive-green, speckled with yellow and black,
while the chin, whiskers, and under-parts of the body are white, and the root of
the tail and adjacent regions grey. The forehead has a broad whitish band, IjTit
faintly niarked. The white chin and grey root to the tail serve to distinguish
this monkey from the vervet, with which it agrees in size.

Writing of the grivets in Abyssinia, Mr. Blanford observes that they are but
rarely seen, and then only in forest. " On the highlands," he states, " I only once
saw a flock — this was near Dildi, south of Lake Ashangi. I met with large numbers
on the Anseba, where they inhabited the high trees on the banks of the stream.
The flocks seen were small, not exceeding twenty to thirty individuals. I had but
few opportunities of observing their habits, but they appeared to differ but little
from those of macaques, except that CercopitJtecus is a quieter animal and less
mischievous. In captivity they are well known as excessively docile and good-
tempered, and fairly intelligent."

The Green Monkey (Cercojnthecus callitrichtis)}

One of the commonest of the guenons usually to be seen in menageries is the
West African green monkej^ The colour of the fur may be described as a mixture
of black and yellow, giving a general dark green hue to the upper parts ; tin; crown

' Frequently known as Cercopitfti'CKS sabtn/ti,
VOL. I. — 7

98 APES AND MONKEYS.

of the head, the hands, feet, and the upper part of the root of the tail being blacker.
There is generally no hght band on the forehead, and if -this be present it is very
narrow. The whiskei-s, ttroat, and the under side and end of the tail are yelloAvish,
sometime.s tending to orange ; and as in the last species, the base of the root of
the tail Ls grey.

Tins monkej', of which we give a representation in the woodcut facing p. 97,
is closely allied to the gi-ivet, from which it may be distinguished by the more
yellow-green hue of its upper parts, the j'eUowish whiskers, and the general
absence of the white band on the forehead

The green monkey is about the size of a large cat, the length of the head
and body being 16 or 18 inches, and that of the tail rather more. It is one
of the hardiest of the guenons, on which account it is so frequently seen in con-
finement, as it beai-s our climate well. Althougli gay and gentle during youth, it
usually becomes morose and vicious when old, and is therefore not one of the
species usually selected for exhibition by travelling organ-grinders. Like the
other membei-s of the group, it does not appear that the gi-een monkey ever utters
a sound when in captivity, and from an early account of the species it appears to
be similarly silent in its wild condition.

The Mozajibique Moxkey (Cercopitheeiis rufoviridis).

The guenons ai'e also represented in the Mozambique and Zambesi districts of
the East Coast, although far less abundantly than on the West Coast. The
Mozambique monkey agrees with the vervet in having the root of the tail and
adjacent regions of a ferniginous red, but diflfei-s in the more j-ellowish-grey tint
of the fur of the upper parts, which tends to a blacker hue on the crown of the
head, the tail, and the outer sides of the limbs ; while the under-pai-ts and the
inner sides of the limbs are pure white, instead of reddish-wliite.

The Patas Moxkey (ferco2>i</iecifcs^xttas).^

The West African patas, or red monkey, from Senegambia, difFei-s from all the
other membere of this group of guenons j'et noticed by the red colour of the fur of
the greater part of the body ; the nose, an arched band on the forehead, and the
outer surfaces of the arms being blackish. The reader will, therefore, have no
difficulty in recognising this species whenever he meets with it, and it is weU
represented in the accompanying figure. In addition to these leading features, we
may notice that beneath the large and blackish eara there are thick bushy tufts of
light grej- hair, which extend forwards on to the cheeks and lower jaw, so as to
cause the naked part of the face to be limited to a narrow space between the eyes
and the upper lip. From these tufts the grejash-coloured hair is continued on the
whole of the under surface of the body, as well as on the inner sides of the limbs.
The hands are of a dusky brown colour, with very short fingers, and the thumb is
reduced almost to the conchtion of a tubercle. The animal is about the same size as
the green monkey. The black of the nose continuing upwards to the arched band of

* Frequently known as Cercopithecus ruber.

GUENONS.

99

the same colour above the eyes conimunicates a very peculiar and characteristic physi-
ognomy to the patas, whicli led Burton to describe it as the monkey a bandeau noir.
One of the earliest accounts that we possess of the patas is given b\r an old
French traveller, Brue, but it is not to be relied on in all particulars. A livinrr
example was first exhibited in the London Zoological Society's menagerie aliout
the year 1834, since wliich date it has been abundantly represented. This ori'dnal

THE PATAS MONKEY (J nat. .size).

example, which was very young, was described as being lively and active, but
somewhat irascible if disturbed or handled.

The NisNAS Monkey {Cercopithecus pyrrhonotus).

On the opposite side of Africa, in Nubia and Somaliland, the place of the
patas is taken by a closely allied monkey, known as the nisnas. So similar, indeed,
are these two monkeys that Dr. Gray considered them merely as varieties of the
same species ; and it is quite probable that if we knew all the monkeys from the
intermediate districts of North Central Africa we should find that the one passed
into the other. However, as they are considered by the learned secretary of the
Zoological Society to be distinct, we must, at least for the present, allow them to
stand apart. According to Dr. Gray, the nisnas is distinguished from tlie patas
merely by the red colour of the body being continued on to the shoulders and the
outer sides of the arms, instead of those parts assuming a blackish tinge.

The nisnas is the species so frequently. represented on the ancient Egyptian

loo APES AND MONKEYS.

monuments: and it appecars to bo nndouhtcilly tho Cehus of tho ancients, wliich, on
tlir aiithoi'ity of Pytliayoras, was clcscriliccl l)y /Kliaii as inlialiitin;^ tlic Eed Sea
littoral, and was saiil to be of ;i bi-iylit Haiin'cnldiir. witli wliitisli whiskers and
under-parts,

SVKES'S MoN'KEV (('<'rci>liifll''i-ti.i illlioijiiliirtK).

With tho nisna.s wo concluded our notice of the group of f^uenous in which tho
head is oval, the muzzle .sotnewhat produced, the whiskei-s stiff, and the general
colour greenish or red.

With the East African Sykes's monkey we come to the second and more
typical group of these animals which ai'e distinguished hy the general form of the
head being rounded,- the-muzzle very short, the whiskei-s short and rounded and
not directed backwards, and tho fur generally of a blackish hue, more or less
tinged with yellow.

The present species appeai-s to be the East African representative of the mona
monkey, to be innnediately mentioned, from which it is distinguished by the absence
of tho white spot on the haunches, and the pure white colour of tho under-pai-ts
and chest, which extends on to the throat, and thus suggests the scientific name of
the species. It is also of larger size than tho mona, being tho largest representative
of the genus.

This monkey was originallj' brought to England by Colonel W. H. Sykes,
by whom it was described in IS.Sl. The original .spocinu-n was purchaseil at
Bombay, and was said to have come from Madagascar (where, hy the waj', monkeys
are unknown), but it was doubtless imported from Zanzibar.

In describing the original living specimen, Colonel Sykcs observes that its
manners " are grave and sedate. Its disposition is gentle, but not affectionate ; free
from that capricious petulance and mi.schievous irascibilitj^ which characterise so
many of the African species, but yet resenting irritating treatment, and evincing
its resentment by very sharp blows with its anterior hands. It never bit any
person on board ship, but so seriously lacerated three other monkeys, its fellow-
passengei-s, that two of them died of the wounds. It readily ate meat, and would
choo.se to pick a bone, even when plentifully supplied with vegetables and dried
fruits."

The Mona Monkey (Cerrojnthe^tis mova).

One of the most familiar of all the gucnons is the mona monkey, represented
in tho ujipcn- tigtn-o of the accompanying woodcut. This beautiful little monkey
may bo always easily recogniserl bj- the presence of a large and distinct white spot
of an oval shape, situated on each hip immediately in front of the root of the tail ;
the feature Ijeing quite peculiar to the species. In size it is rather smaller than
the patas.

The mona is a West African monkey ; and has no real right to its name,
which is merely the Moorish M'ord for monkeys in general. The general hue of the
fur of this monkey is described by Dr. Gray as blackish-olive, finely grizzled with
j'ellow : this graduallj' darkens towards the hinder parts of the body, so that the
tail and the outer surfaces of the limbs are nearh' black. The under surface of the

GUENONS.

body is of a ueurly pure white, these white pai-ts being separated from the darker
regions by an abrupt division : and we liave ah'eady alhided to the .Hstinctive white
spot on eaeli side near the root of the tail. The naki-d portions of tlie face are
purphsh, witli the exception of the hps and cliin, which are flesh-coloured. The

r\

^Ml0'

i'lfm

THE MON.\ MONKEY AND DIANA .MONKEY (i Hat. size).

bushy whiskers, which Cdinc foiward .so as to conceal a lai-gc ])art of the cheeks, are
straw-colunriMl, with a mixture of a few black liair.s. A black transver.se ban<l,
surmounted liy a thin streak of grey, extends from above the eyebrows to the base
of the ears ; the latter, together with the hands and feet, being of a livid flesh-tint.
Writing of this species, which may be described as decidedly more docile and

I02 APES AND MONKEYS.

gentle thau some of its allies, the French natui-alist, Cu-\aer, observes that " if
elegance of shape, gracefulness of movement, gentleness and simplicity of character,
united with penetration and intelligence of expression, can inspire affection or
make an animal sought after and admired, all these qualities are united in the
small group of monkeys allied to the mona, itself distinguished not less by the
vai-iety of its coloura than by its temper and disposition " — a somewhat flattering
description applicable as a rule onlj- to young individuals of both sexes, and to
females of all ages, for the adult males are awkward and capricious creatui-es to
manacle.

The Diana Monkey {Cercopithecus diana).

Before noticing some of the beardless species more nearly allied to the mona,
we must mention the well-knowTi West African diana monkey, which derives its
name from the distinct white crescent on the forehead above the eyebrows. Its
most characteristic feature is, however, the long pointed white beard, so well shown
in the lower figure of the woodcut on the preceding page ; while the white streak
on the haunches near the root of the tail is also distinctive.

The general colour of the fur is black, finely speckled with white, thus pi-oducing
a grejnsh grizzle. In addition to the white beaixl and the crescent on the forehead,
the cheeks, the chin, tliroat, chest, the front of the shouldei-s, as well as the inside
of the tloighs and the streak across the haunches, are likewise white. On the other
hand, there is a broad streak dowTi the back of a bay colour, and the same tint also
prevails on the I'ump. The face, tail, and the outer sides of the wi-ists and legs ai"e
black, as well as the hands and feet.

All the coloui's of this animal are sharply defined from one another ; and the
long, narrow, black face, terminating below in the long and pointed beard, and
surmounted by the crescent above the eyebrows, give it a peculiar and characteristic
expression. The whole length of the head and body is about 18 inches, while
the lenofth of the tail reaches to some 24 inches.

The real name of the diana monkej' in its native districts is said to be Roloway
on the Gold Coast, although Exquima is given as its title on the Congo. In
disposition it is one of the most gentle and easily tamable of the guenons ; but,
like the greater number of its tribe, its temper is milder in youth than in mature
age. When young it appreciates caresses, and it nods and grins when pleased ; but
these expressions of feeling are generally abandoned at a later period

TuE Bearded Monkey {Cercopithecus pogonias), Cajipbell's Monkey {C.
camphdli), The Red -Bellied Monkey (C erythrogaster), and Wolf's
Monkey (C. wolfi).

Wo may notice under this collective heading four species of monkeys closely
allied to the mona, but distingiiished lx)th from that species and the diana by the
absence of anj' spot or streak of white on the haunches. While the fii-st three
species ai-e West African, the fourth, which has only recently been described from a
specimen lix-ing in the Zoological Gardens at Dresden, is from West Central Africa.

The bearded moukej', also known as Erxleben's monkey, has the fur of the

GUENONS.

103

upper parts either greyish or olive-bi'owai, finely grizzled with grey or yellow.
From above the eyes to the ears there is a black streak, while thei'e is also a stripe
down the back of the same hue ; and the hands and feet, as well as the tail, are
likewise black. The forehead, the whiskers, the small moustache, and the under
parts of the body and the inner sides of the limbs are yellowish. This species has
been obtained from Fernando Fo and the Gabun.

Campbell's monkey, which inhabits Fernando Po and Sierra Leone, may be
distinguished by the absence of the black streak running from above the eyes to
the ears, and also by the whitish colour of the under-parts and inner sides of the
limbs. The general colour is blackish-olive, washed witii yellow.

The red-brown colour of the chest and under-pai-ts, from which it takes its
name, are amply sufficient to distinguish the red-bellied monkey ; but as additional
characters we may mention that the outsides of the thighs and legs are greyish-
black, while the front of the thiglis and the luider surface of the tail are greyish-
white.

Finally, Wolf's monkey, which has light mider-parts, differs from the other
species in the fenniginous colour of the legs, as well as by the light patches on
the inner sides of the arms and thighs. This species is interesting as being the
only representative of the mona group (if we exclude the larger Sykes's monkey)
which is found eastward of Western Africa.

The Black-Bellied Monkey (Cercopithecus pluto).

The black -bellied or pluto monkey, from Angola, is another West
species, readily distinguishable hj the
dark colour of the under - parts of
the body and the inner sides of the
limbs, which are tj^jically of a reddish-
black.

Like the species of the mona group,
there is no beard, but large bushj'
whiskers, well shown in the accompany-
ing figure.

The general colour of the fur is black,
finely grizzled with grey; the forehead
has a white band, and the sides of the
forehead, as well as the shoulders, chest,
tail, and limbs, are entirely black, and
there is no white on the haunches in the
typical fomi.

Dr Anderson identifies, however,
with this species the so-called diadem
monkey {C. leucocnmpyT), which also
has black under-parts, but is distin-
guished by a white streak across the

5' •' THE BLACK-BELLIED MONKEY.

haunches. (From Gray, I'roc. Zool. Soc. )

African

I04 ' APES AXn MOXKEYS.

The Moustache Monkey (C'evcopithecus cephiis).

lu all the round-headed and shoi-t-muzzled guenons yet mentioned the nose and
boily are of the same colour. There is, however, another division of the guenons,
ill wliich the colour of the nose ditiere from that of the body. Out of the seven
species of this subgroup recorded by Dr. Gray wo shall select for notice the four
which have been represented of late yeai-s in the Gardens of the Loudon Zoologiciil
Societ}-, jjremisiug that the whole seven are West African.

The leading charactei-s of the moustivche monkey are to be found in the presence
of a triangular blue mark on the nose and in the yellow whiskei-s. Its general
colour is olive-green, speckled with yellow ; the throat and under-pails being grey,
the face and temples black, and the feet and hands blackish.

The Hocheur Monkey (jCercopithecus nictitans).

The hocheur monkey is one of several species belonging to this subgroup of
guenons, collectively known as white-nosed monkeys, from the circumstance that
the nose in all of them is covered with white haire. This particular species is
distinguished by the blackness of the fur on both the upper and lower sui'faces of
the body, that of the back being finely speckled with yellow. The naked part of
the face is of a bluisji-black colour: the upj^er eyelids are flesh-coloured, and the
hands and feet jet black.

This species, sometimes known as the larger wliitc-nosed monkey, may be
readily distinguished from the next, not only by its superior size, but also by its
more prominent nose. It has been described as lively and good-natured, but not
so gentle and familiar as the next species, and more resembling in its temper and
general character the mona monkey. It has been obtained both from Femando Po
and Guinea.

The Lesser White-Nosed Monkey (Cercopithecus petav/rista).

This elegant monkey, which comes from Guinea and Siei-ra Leone, is one of the
smallest of the guenons. It w;us described in the works of the French naturalist
Button under the well-chosen name of Blanc-nez ; and is readily distinguished, as
we have said, from the hocheur by its smaller size and the flatness of its nose, as
well iis by the lighter tint of the uuder-parts. In colour the fur of the back is
olive-green, speckled with yellow ; the face black ; the white spot on the nose small
and nearly triangular: and the cheeks, chin, under-pai-ts of the body, the inner
sides of the limbs, and the under side of the tail white.

The following account of the habits of this species in continement is taken from
an anonj-mous writer, who states that the manners of this monkey " are playful and
engaging beyond any other species we have ever observed, and it has an amiability
and innocence in its conduct and expression which, united to its lively and familiar
disposition, never fail to make it a prime favourite with its visitors. An individual
of tliis species, which formerly lived in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, was

MANGABEYS. ,05

contiiiL'd ill the sHiiie caj^e witli a youii^f liaiiunuiii, wliosu gravity was sorely disturbed
Ijy the uuwcarie<l activity and playfuluuss of its iiiercuiial coiiii:)anion. Whilst the
white-nose was frolicking rcjuiid the cage or plaj^-ing witli the spectators, the
liaiuniian would sit upon the percli, tlie very picture of melancholy and apathy,
with his long tail hanging down to the lx)ttoni ; but his attention was roused and
his secunty endangered every mouient by the tricks of the restless little creature,
which in its spoi-ts and gambols continually caught the hanuman's tail, either to
swing itself out of the reach of the spectatoi-s, or, like a boy at his gyiiniastic
exercises, to assist it in climbing up to tiie perch. All this, however, was done with
great good-nature on lioth sides, and it was highly divei-ting to see the playful
innocence of the one, and the gravity witii whicli the other regarded it, like a fond
parent enjoying the innocent follies of a favourite cliilil."

The Luuio Monkey {Cercupithccus hulio).

The last of the guenons that we siiall notice is the ludio monkey, which is
another of the white-nosed group. Its fur is ])lack, profusely grizzled with grey ;
the chin, che.st, and the inner .sides of tlie upper arms being white ; while the temples,
nape of the neck, shouldei-s, and the greater portions of the limbs, as well as the
end of the tail, are pure black. The white spot on the nose has an oblong shape,
and is liigher than broad.

The species is said to range into Central Africa. The red-eare<l monkey (C.
erythrotis), which is likewise West Afi-ican, ditiei-s from the other members of the
group in having red haire on the nose and cars.

The Manuaisevs, or Wuite-Evelio Monkeys.
Genus Cercocehnx.

The mangabeys, or, as they are often called, white-eyelid monkeys, coinpri.se a
small group of four West African species, which, while agreeing in all external char-
acters with the guenons, are distinguished by the presence of a projecting heel at the
hinder end of the last molar tooth on each side of the lower jaw, so that the crown
of this tooth carries five, in place of four tubercles. In this re.spect the mangabeys
agree with the gr'eat group of macaques, which folicnv ne.xt in the series; and on
this ground these monkeys have been separated from tiie guenons to form a distinct
genus under the name of Cercocehits. There has been much discussion as to the
advisability of thus separating the mangabeys, but it has at least the advantage of
somewhat restricting the unwieldy group of the guenons.

The name Mangabey, it may be observed, is taken from the district Mangabe,
or Manongabe, in Madagascar, and was applied by the French naturalist Buftbn to
these monkeys, from the mistaken idea that they came from that island, which in
his time appears to ha\-e lieen a kind of refuge for the destitute, in regard to animals
who.se habitat was unknown. In spite, however, of this totally erroneous origin the
name is a convenient one, and has been subsequently almost uni\ersally adopted
for this gi-oup of monkeys.

io6

APES AND MONKEYS.

All the mangabeys have an oval-shaped head, -with a somewhat long muzzle ;
and they maj'^ be reacUly recognised in the li\dng condition by their white eyelids.
Moreover, their haii-s diifer from those of the guenons in not being ringed with
different colours.

The Sooty Mangabey (Cercocebus fidigiTiosus).

We select as our first example of these monkeys, the sooty mangabey, repre-
sented in the accompanying woodcut. This monkey belongs to a gi-oup containing

THE sooiv jiAXGAEEY ,i uat. size

three out of the four species, and characterised liy the hair of the crown of the
liead being directed liackwards, without any prolongation into a crest. As its
name implies, the fur of the sooty mangabey is of a deep and dull black hue ; the
chin and under-parts being ashy. The face is livid, markeil with dark brown
lilotches about the ej'es, nose, muzzle, and cheeks ; the ears, as well as the pahus of
the hands and the soles of the feet, being of a blacker brown.

MACAQUES. 107

At least, in captivit3% this species is said to be characterised by the unusual
habit of keeping its lony tail tui-ned forwards over the bo<ly. In confinement this
maugabey is docile and good-tenij)ered, and more amenable to instruction than is
the case with the majority of the larger guenons. A sjDecimen, which lived more
than tifty yeai-s ago in the Zoological Society's Gardens, was said to be a most
importunate beggar ; " but instead of snatching the contributions of his visitors
with violence or anger, like the generality of monkeys, he solicited them by
tumbling, dancing, and a hundred other amusing tricks. He was very fond of
being caressed, and would examine the hands of his friends with great gentleness
and gravity, trying to pick out the little liairs, and all the while expressing his
satisfaction by smacking his lips, and uttering a low surprised grunt."

The white-collared mangabey {C. cuUurif<) may be easily distinguished from
the sooty mangabey by its blackish-grey colour, the white round the neck, and the
bay on the crown of the head ; the white of the collar extending on to the cheeks,
throat, and chest.

The thir<l i-epresentative of this group is the white-crowned mangabey, which
takes its name from a characteristic white spot on the crown, and is also dis-
tinguished by a white streak running down the middle of the back.

The Guey-Cheeked Mangahey {Cercocebus albigena).

The circumstance that the hair of the crown of the head is lengthened so as
to form a distinct ci'cst affords a ready means of distinguishing the grey -cheeked
mangabey from its three congeners. The general colour of this monkey is blackish,
but its name comes fi'om the grejdsh hairs on the sides of the throat and cheeks.
It was first made known to science in 1850 by the late Dr. Gray, from specimens
sent home from the West Coast of Africa by Du Chaillu, previously to his great
expedition of 1855.

The Macaques.
Genus Macacus.

After having devoted so much space to the monkeys of Africa, we turn
to those Asiatic species kno-\\^i as Macaques, of which a group is represented in
our coloured Plate.

We have already seen the curious origin of the term mangabey, applied to
the group of African monkeys last mentioned, and it appears from what we have
to say immediately that there is a kind of fatality in regard to the misapplication
of names among monkeys. So far as can be learnt, the name Macac or Macaque
seems to be a barbarous word wliich, in Margrave's Natural Histm-y of Brazil,
published in the year 1648, is given as the native name of a monkey from the
Congo and Guinea. Button, however, with a facility for misappropriation for
which he was rather celebrated, transferred this name to the Indian group forming
this part of our .subject, and to them it has ever afterwards clung, having been
Latinised into Macacuss. In spite of its origin, the name is good enough, and so
must remain.

io8

APES AXD MONKEYS.

Characteristics.

Under the lieadiny of tlie luangabeys we liave seen liow these monkeys ditier
from their cousins the ^uenons in having a heel, and thus five cusps, to tlieir hist
lower molar teeth, and also in tlie uniform coloration of tlieir individual hairs.
As this is ahso the case in the macaques, it is obvious that in this respect the
mangabey.s form a transition to them from the guenoiis; and we may now
consider how the macacjues and mangabej^s are to be distinguished from one
another.

In the first place, macaques are always of stouter build than the
niiuigabeys ; and they are further distinguislied by tlie considerably
greater prolongation of the muzzle, and the larger size of the naked callosities

on the buttocks. Some
of tlie macaques have
tlieir tails as long as
those of tile guenons and
mangabeys ; in others
these appendages are very
short, while in a few they
are actually wanting;
thus showing tliat the
presence or absence of a
tail is of no import either
as a generic character,
or as indicative of a
higher or lower degree
of organisation. In com-
mon with all the monkeys
we have liitherto con-
sidered, the no.strils of the
macaques do not reach as
far forwards as the ex-
tremity of the muzzle.

From these characters
it will be appai-ent that
while the macaques are
.sufficiently distinguished
from the mangabeys to be
entitled to rank as a
separate genus, yet both
groups are closely allied.
And, as we shall see that as in the opposite direction the macaques are intimately
connected through one singular intermediate form with the baboons of Africa,
we have evidence tliat an almost complete ti-ansitioii exists from the guenons
tlirough tlie mangabeys to the macaques, and thus to the baboons.

In .speaking of the niacaijues as Asiatic monkeys, we must guaivl tmrselves by
mentioning that one solitary outlying species is found in the mountains of North-
West Africa, and also on the opposite coast of Gibraltar. The greater majority

THE BUUMESE PIG-TAILED MONKEY.

(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1860.)

MACAQUES. 109

of tlie species are, however, confined to India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and
tlie islands of Borneo, Sumatra, etc. Some rang(> as far cast as China, wliile one
is found even in Japan. To the northward, macaques extend into the outei'
ranges of the Hiiii;d;iya, while a single species inhaliits the secludetl highlands of
Kastem Tibet.

1'he wluile of the large! number of monkeys reckoned as macaques
seem to have much the same general habits, being always found
gathei-ed together in troops, which may be of considerable nvimbers, and always
comprise individuals of both sexes, and of all sizes and ages. They are forest-
dwelling animals ; and, while active and rapid in their movements, are less
markedly so than their compatriots the langui's. As regards food, macaques have
a varied appetite, most, if not all, of them eagerlj^ eating insects as well as seeds
and fruits. Moreover, thej^ have occasionally been observed to devour lizards, and
it is reported that frogs also form part of their food on rare occasions ; while one
species is known to subsist partly on cinistaceans. Their cheek-pouches are of
verj^ large size, and it is the general habit of these monkeys to stuff" these receptacles
as full as they will hold on eveiy available occasion.

According to Mr. Blanford, from whose works the above accounts of their
habits is paraphrased, the voice and gestures of all the macaques are similar, and
ditler markedly from those of the langiirs. In regard to these points, the same
writer gives an interesting quotation from the manuscript notes of Colonel Tickell —
an excellent observer of the habits of Indian animals — which we repeat. Colonel
Tickell says, " Anger is generally silent, or, at mo.st, expressed by a low hoarse
' heu' not so gular or guttural as a growl. Ennui and a desire for company by a
whining ' horn.' Invitation, deprecation, entreat}^ by a smacking of the lips and a
ili.splay of the incisors into a regular broad grin, accomjmnied with a subdued
grunting chuckle, highly expressive, but not to be rendered on paper. Fear and
alarm by a loud harsh shriek, ' kra ' or ' kraouk,' which serves also as a warning to
the others who may be heedless of danger. Unlikt! the langurs and gibbons, they
have no voice if calling to one another."

In confinement most of the species are docile if caught young ; but old males
that have been captured when full grown are sometimes exceedingly spiteful ; and
the present writer has a vivid recollection of a pig-tailed macacjue formerly in the
Zoological Gardens at Calcutta that was very ferocious, and would fly at every
visitor who approached his cage with open mouth and the most menacing gestures.
In their wild state it also appears that these monkeys will occasionally show fight.
Thus Mr. Stemdale tells us that on one occasion during the Indian Mutiny he
came acro.ss a party of rhesus macaques, among whom were several females with
young ones. He endeavoured, without success, to run them down, in order to
capture the latter, when he was deliberately charged by the old males of the party,
the leader of whom he had to despatch with a pistol-bullet. Several of the species
will breed in captivity. As a rule, their manners when in the latter state are the
reverse of pleasant.

Since the number of species of macaques is very large, we shall select for
especial notice only some of the better-known types, commencing with those with
the tails so long that their length exceeds three-ijuai-ters of the combined length

no APES AND MOXKEYS,

of the head and body, and concluding with those in which the length of this
appendage is less than three-quarters of that of the head and body.

The Bonnet Monkey {Mncocus sinicv.s).

One of the best and longest known of the longer-tailed macaques is the South
Indian bonnet monkey, which is one of two closely alHed species characterised by

THE BO>"SET MOXEET.

the circumstance that the hair of the crown of the head is lengthened, and aiTanged
in a radiating manner from the middle line. A representation of this monkey is
given in the accompanj-ing woodcut, and in Fig. 3 of the coloured Plate.

This species takes its name from the crest of hair on the crown, which instead
of coming over the forehead, as a rule stops short of that part of the head, and thus
assTimes a toque-like form. On the forehead the short hair is usually parted down
the middle line. The fur, which is of moderate length, and generally straight and

MACAQUES. Ill

smooth, is brown or grejash-brown above, and pale brown, or whitish on the under-
parts. The face and eai-s are flesh-coloured, and in some examples the ends of the
liairs are ringed. The tail is generally nearly or quite as long as the head and
body ; the length of the two latter being about 20 inches.

This maca(iue, which occurs all over Southern India, and extends westward to
Bombay, is the common monkey of those regions, l)cing found not only in the
forests, but likewise in the towns, whore it pillages the shops of the hhanias, or
native grain-sellers. It is exceedingly mischievous, and a ready mimic, althouo-h
Mr. Blanford believes that the rhesus monkey is its equal in these respects.

In Ceylon this monkey is replaced by the closely allied toque monkey
{31. pileahis), wdiich appears only to differ in colour, although the long hair of the
crest of the head seems to be more generally continued on to the forehead. It is
shown in Fig. 5 of the coloured Plate.

Among the Singalese this monkey is known as the Rilawa. Sir Emerson
Tennent speaks of it as being " the universal pet and favourite of both natives and
European.?. The Tamil conjurors teach it to dance, and in their wanderings carry
it from village to village, clad in a grotes([ue dress, to exliibit its lively performances."
After all, however, the mimicry and amusing tricks of a monkey in captivity are a
mere shadow of what they are in its native condition, so that persons who have
only seen these animals in confinement have but a faint idea of their true nature.

The Crab-Eating Macaque {Macacus cynomolgus).

This species derives its name from its peculiar hal)it of feeding largely- on crabs
from the brackish water of the lagoons and swamps on the coast. It is the true
macaque of Button, and is known to the Malays, apparently from its cry, as
the Kra. This monkey is shown in Fig. C of the coloured Plate.

It may be at once distinguished fi-om the bonnet monkey by the circumstance
that the hair on the crown of the head is neither longer than the rest nor distinctly
radiated from the middle. In some individuals there is, however, a trace of a crest,
with slight radiation of the hair from one or more points on the forehead. As a
rule, the general colour of the fur of the upper parts varies from a dusky or greyish-
brown to a rufous or golden-brown ; the under-parts being either light greyish-
brown or nearlj' white. The hairs of adult individuals vary in colour in different
parts of their length, and are ringed at their tips. The naked parts of the face and
the callosities on the buttocks are flesh-coloured or dusky. The eyelids are either
white or bluish -white. The tail is nearly as long as the head and body, the
combined length of the two latter reaching to 22 inches.

In the dark and smaller variety of this common monkey the fur is dusky;
while in the lighter or golden-rufous variety, its hair is flesh-colour.

The range of the crab-eating macaque is a very wide one, extending from
Siam in the east through the Malay Peninsula into Lower Burma and the
Arakan coast. It is also found in the Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal,
although Mr. Blanford considers that it has probably been introduced there by
human agency.

What induced the ancefstors of this monkey to forsake the usual simian food

112 APES AND MOXKEYS.

and take to a diet of crabs and insects it is difficult to conceive ; unless, indeed, thej-
may have been driven to it during a season of scarcity, and found it so niucli to
their liking that they have continued it ever since. Be tliis as it may, there is no
iloubt whatever as to the crustacean-devouring procli\ities of tliis species. For
instance. Sir Arthur Phayre mentions that " these monkeys frequent the banks of
salt-water creeks and devour shell-fish. In the cheek-pouches of a female were
found the claws and boily of a crab. There is not much on recoi-d conceniing the
habits of this monkey in its wild state beyond what is stated concerning its
partiality for crabs, \\lncli can also, I believe, be said of the rhesus in the Bengal
saTiderljans." According to Colonel Tickell, as (juoted by iMr. Blanford. the crab-
eating macaque is common on the tidal creeks and livei-sof Burma and Tenasserim,

THE UON-TAILED MONKEY (^L Uat. sizc).

especially in the delta of the Irawadi. They go usually in small family pai-tiep of from
five to fifteen individuals, including an old male and four or five females with their
offspring. Their home is among the roots and Ixiughs of the mangrove trees, and
they spend a large portion of their time in searching for insects and crabs. From
the constant presence of human beings on the water-ways near which they dwell,
these monkeys become very tame, and can be easily approached. They will even.
Ml". Blanford tells us, pick up rice or fniit thrown down to them. Still more
i-emarkable is the facility witli which they can swim and dive. Colonel Tickell
states that on one occasion a male of this species that had been wounded and placed
for security in a boat, jumped overboard and dived several times over to a distance
of some fift}^ yards, in order to prevent recapture. Like most macaques, this species
is gentle if captured at a sufficiently eai-ly age, but the old males always become

macaquls

MACAQUES. 113

fierce and morose. On account of the white eyelids of this monkey care must be
taken not to confound it with the mangabej-s noticed above.

The Liox-Tailed Monket {Macacus silenus).

With the peculiar-looking lion-tailed monkey of Western India, well represented
in the woodcut on the opposite page, and also in Fig. 2 of the coloured Plate, we
come to the first of the macaques in wliich the length of the tail is less than three-
quarters of that of the head and body taken together.

The lion-tailed monkey, often incorrectly called the wanderu (a term which
as we have seen, should be restricted to the langurs of Ceylon), may be distinguished
from all the other species by its genei-al black colour, and the enormous grey beard
and rutf, which surrounds the black face, with the excjption of the middle of the
forehead, whera it stops short. The fur is long, and the slender tail is tufted at its
extremity, and measuring from half to three-quartei'S the united length of the head
and bodj^ The thin and tufted tail, like that of a lion, is one of the characteristic
features of this species, and that from which it derives its name. The enormous
nifi' totally concealing the ears, is, however, that which especially attracts attention,
and gives the owTier somewhat the appearance of a black-faced old man with
shaggy whiskers and beard.

These monkeys inhabit the Malabar, or Western, Coast of India, from Cape
Comorin to about the fourteenth parallel of latitude, being especially abundant in
the districts of Travancore and Cochin. They i-estrict themselves to the forest-
lands on the range of trappean mountains known as the Western Ghats, and are
always found at a considerable elevation above the level of the sea. Dr. Jerdon
saj-s that they associate in troops of fi-om twelve to twenty or more in number.
They are excessively shy and wary, and when caught are sulky and savage in
captivity, so that it is only with great difficulty that they can be taught to perform
any feats of agility or mimicry.

The Bengal Monkey (Macacus rhesus).

Perhaps the best known of all the macaques is the common Bengal or rhesus
monkey, the bandar of the Hindus, which is found all over Northern India. It is
shown in Fig. 1 of the coloured Plate.

This monkey presents but little resemblance to the last species, having no trace
of a beard or a ruff, and its colour being brown, with a tinge of grey. As a species
it is characterised by the straightness of its moderately long hair, and also by the
buttocks being naked for some distance round the callosities. The tail is about
one-half the length of the head and body, and tapers regularly from base to tip,
without any trace of a terminal tuft. The face, as well as the callosities on the
buttocks, are flesh-coloured, except in the adults, when they are blight red.

In India the Bengal monkey is found continuously northward from the valley
of the Godaveri to the Himalaya, extending to the west coast at Bombay. It
inhabits the valley of Kashmir and surrounding regions, at elevations of and above
four thousand feet. In the neighbourhood of the hill sanitarium of Simla these

VOL. I. — 8

114

APES AND MOXKEYS.

monkeys are found at an elevation of between eight and nine thousand feet above
the sea-level : and it is one of the regular expeditions from Simla to ride or walk to
see the monkeys on their own hill, which rejoices in the approjiriate name of Jako.
Here they are regularly fed bj' a fakir, who has taken u]i his abode on the same
mountain, and they come down in troops at liis well-kno\^■n call. Indeed, these
monkeys are almost invariablj^ found in large droves ; usually in the forests or more
cultivated lands, but occasionally near and in the towns. Although not regarded
as sacred, it appears that the rhesus moukcj' is frecjuently protected by the Hindus,
and in Kashmir the writer has seen them forming part and parcel of the appanages

of tlie temples. In sevei*al
parts of India the Hindus
have, indeed, a strong ob-
jection to the slaughter of
these monkeys.

The rhesus is an intel-
ligent creature, and, if cap-
tured young, is docile and
easily- taught. It is the
common monkej^ carried
abovit \iY itinerant jugglere
in Northern India, by whom
it is taught manj- amusing
tricks. Old animals, more
especially males, become
vicious and spiteful.

In their wild state
these monkeys make a
hideous noise with their
incessant chattering, and
they are alwaj's mischiev-
ous. In addition to the
consumption of large quan-
tities of fruit and seeds,
the}' also subsist on insects
and spiders, and parties of them maj- frequently be seen careful!}' searching the
ground for these delicacies. Mi-. Blanford tells us that the rhesus, like the crab-
eating macaque, swims well, and takes readily to the water.

Professor Ball relates a curious anecdote of these monkeys : " Wlien at Malwa
Tal [near the Himalaj-an Station of Xaini Tal], which is one of the lakes wliere I
spent a day, I was warned that, in passing under a landslip which slopes down to
the lake, I should be liable to have stones thrown at me by monkeys. Regarding
this as being possibly a traveller's tale, I made a particular point of going to the
spot in order to see what could have given rise to it. As I approached the base of
the landslip on the north side of the lake, I saw a number of brown monkeys
(i¥. rhesus) rush to the sides and across the top of the slip, and presently
pieces of loosened stone and shale came tumbling down near where I stood. I

THE P.E^■GAL !:0>'KET.

MACAQUES. 115

f allj' satisfied myself that this was not merely accidental ; for I distinctly saw one
monkey industriously, with both forepaws, and with obvious malice prepense,
pushing the loose shingle off a shoulder of rock. I then tried the effect of throw-
ing stones at them, and this made them quite angrj-, and the number of frao-ments
which they then set rolling was speedily doubled. This, though it does not actually
amoimt to throwing or projecting an object by monkeys as a means of offence,
comes very near to the same thing, and makes me think that there may be truth
in the stories of their throwing fi-uit at people from trees."

It is probable that the Bengal monkey ranges to the north-east into Assam
and Upper Burma, and thence into the province of Yunnan, in Western China.
In Szechuen, and eastwards into the interior, it is replaced by the closely allied
Ciiinese rhesus (M. lasiotis).

Another nearly related species is the Himalayan macaque {31. assamensis),
found at considerable elevations in the Eastern Himalaya, Assam, the Mishmi Hills,
and parts of Upper Burma. According to Mr. Blanford it is distinguished from
the Bengal monkey by the wav}- nature of the hair, which in the Himalayan
specimens assumes a decidedly wooUj^ texture. Dr. Andei-son tells us that it is
larger than the last-named species, and more powerfully and compactly built, and
thus approaches the under-mentioned pig-tailed monkey. Mr. Blanford further
observes that, whether wild or tame, it is more sluggish in its movements than the
Bengal monkey ; and also that there is a slight difference between the voice of the
two species.

The Pig-Tailed Monkey {Macacus nemestrinus).

The next species of macaque we select for notice is the one represented in
the figure on the following page, and commonly known as the pig-tailed monkey.
It is distinguished from those we have already mentioned bj' the shorter tail, which
is thin and wliip-like, and onlj' about one-third the length of the head and body.

It is a comparatively stout and long-limbed monkey, easily recognised by the
hair radiating from the centre of the head, the slender pig-like tail, and the very
projecting muzzle, which approximates to that of the baboons. Dr. Anderson
compares an ailult full-grown male to a good-sized mastiff, both as regards size
and strength. This monkey has been long known to science, and was described bj^
Buffon as tlie maimon. It inhabits the province of Tenasserim, and thence extends
southwards into the Malay Peninsula, and is also found in the islands of Borneo
and Sumatra.

The voice and manners of this monkey are described as being very similar to
those of the Bengal monkey. Its habits were long ago described by Sir Stamford
Raffles from specimens observed bj' him in Sumatra ; and this writer relates that
the inhabitants of that i.sland train these monkeys to ascend the cocoa-palms, and
select and then throw down the ripest fruit. It seems probable that it must be
only young or female individuals that are thus taught to serve their masters, since
the old males are exceedingly fierce and vicious, and from their size and powerful

build are formidable antagonists.

ii6

AFES AND MONKEYS.

The Burmese Pig-Tailed Moxkey {Macaciis leoninus).

In Arakan and Upper Bui-ma the place o£ the pig-tailed monkey is taken by
the nearly allied species, known as the Burmese pi<j-tailed monkej-, represented in
the woodcut on p. 108.

This animal may be easily distinguished from its relations by its shorter limbs,
shorter muzzle and longer hair, as well as by the black horseshoe-like crest on

THE PIG-TAILBD MOSKET (J nat. size).

the temples above the eyes, which stands out in marked contrast to the general
bro^vn colour of the rest of the fur. Moreover, the short tail, which is generally
carried over the back, is more hairy, and more or less distinctly tufted at the end
The males are dark bro^vn above, but the females somewhat hcrhter : the face in
both sexes being of a dusky flesh-colour, while the combined length of the head and
body is about 23 inches ; the tail only measures some 8 inches, exclusive of the
hair at its extremity, which adds another 2 inches to its length.

The late Mr. E. Blyth, wlio speaks of this species as the long-haired pig-tailed
monkey, in contrachstinction to the short-haired pig-tailed monkey (M. nemes-
trinus), says that it does not appear to be at all common, and that it chiefly
inhabits the range of limestone mountains from the north of Arakan to an un-

MACAQUES. 117

determined distance soutliwards. The Burmese pig-tailed monkey serves to
connect the other species with the Bengal monkey.

The Brow.v Stump-Tailed Monkey {Macacxis avctoides).

The brown stump-tailed monkej- may be taken as an example of another
group of macaques inhabiting Burma and the Malayan region, and thence ranging
into China, Tibet, and Japan, and characterised by the reduction of their tails to a
mere rudimentary stump.

The present species is characterised by the length of its dark brown or blackish-
brown hair, which may measure more tlian 4 inches ; and also by the bright red
hue of the naked portions of the face and buttocks. As in the last-named species,
the terminal portions of the hairs of old individuals are decorated with rings of
different colours. The length of the head and body is probably about 24 inches,
while that of the tail does not exceed 1 or 2 inches.

This monkej^ appears to range from the southern parts of Assam into Upper
Burma, and is also found in Cochin China. We have not, however, full information
on the subject of its geographical range, and absolutely none as to its habits, although
it is said to he an inhabitant of hilly districts.

It has its tail sparsely clad with hair, or naked in old individuals. In the
coldest and least accessible forest of Eastern Tibet the stump - tailed macaques
are represented by a species {M. tibetanus) characterised by its larger size, and
the thickly-haired tail. We have already seen how the same elevated regions are
inhabited by a langur : and if Europeans ever obtain free access to Tibet, it will be
an interesting subject of investigation to discover on what these monkeys subsist
dui-ing the long ami cold wintei-s of that country.

The Moor macaque {M. muurus), which has received .several distinct names —
M. ochreatus, for instance — alone represents the stump-tailed monkeys in Celebes,
and is a dark, black-faced species.

In Japan the group is represented by the Japanese macaque (J/, fuscatus),
which is one of those in which the tail is thickly haired. W^e have, however, still
much to learn as to the number of species of these stump-tailed macaques, and their
exact geogi-aphical distribution; wliile information as to their mode of life is
desirable.

The M.\got, or Barbaey Macaque {Macacus inims).

In the preceding sections we have seen how a gradual shortening of the tail can
be traced as we pass from the bonnet macaque, through the Bengal monkey and its
allies, to the pig-tailed, and thence to the stump-tailed group. From the latter it is
but a step to the total loss of the tail ; and the magot, or Barbary macaque (the
Barbary ape of many authors), presents us with the culminating member of the
series. This total absence of a tail was long regarded as a reason for separating
the magot as a distinct genus from the other macaques ; but it is quite clear that
there is no sort of justification for this view. The species is represented in Fig. 4 of
the coloured Plate, as well as in the woodcut on the following page.

In addition to being the only tailless macaque, the magot is the sole existing

ii8 APES AXD MONKEYS.

species of the group which is not Asiatic. The niagot inhabits, indeed, the north-
west corner of Africa, in the districts of Morocco and Algeria, being especially
common in the latter country in the neighbourhood of the city of Constantine.
It is also found across the Straits in Gibraltar, and some of the neighbouring
parts of Spain, but whether indigenous there, or introduced from the opposite

THE MAGOT (J n.it. size).

continent by human agency, does not appear to be clearly made out. The wide
separation of this macaque from its Asiatic congenei-s suggests that it is the direct
descendant from those extinct species wliich are found in the later geological
deposits of various parts of Europe, at a date when we know that the genus was
already in existence in India.

That the magot is the Pithecus of the ancients there is not a doubt, as the
description given by Aristotle is enough to identify it. This species was indeed, in
all probability, the only tailless member of the order with which the ancients were
acquainted. It was, moreover, the animal from which the ancient Greeks obtained
such knowledge as they possessed of human anatomy; and an account of its

MACAQUES. 119

anatomy, given by Galen, has been handed down to our own times. The name
Magot is of French origin, and was applied by Butibn.

This monkey is as large as a good-sized dog : and the upper parts of its body,
and the outer sides of the limbs, are of a light yellowish-brown, becoming somewhat
deeper on the head, and also along a line bordering the cheeks. The under-parts
are of a dull yellowish-white, while the naked poi-tions of the face, hands, and feet,
as well as the callosities on the buttocks, are flesh-coloured. The rudiment of the
tail consists merely of a little fold of skin, having no sort of connection with the
end of the backbone.

One of the best early original accounts of the magot is gi\en by the French
naturalist, Rene-Luiehe Desfontaines, who resided for some time in Algeria, during
the closing decades of the last century. This writer observes that the magots
■ live in troops in the forests of the Atlas Mountains nearest to the seashore, and
are so common at Stora that the surrounding trees are sometimes covered with
them. They live uj)on the cones of the pine, sweet chestnuts, and the figs, melons,
pistachio nuts, and vegetables which thej- steal from the gardens of the Arabs, in
spite of all the pains taken to exclude these mischievous animals. '\\'hilst in the
act of committing these thefts, two or three detach themselves from the general
body, and keep watch from the tops of the surrounding trees or rocks ; and as soon
as these sentinels perceive the approach of danger, they give warning to their
companions, who presently scamper oti" \\'\i\\ whatever they have been able to lay
their hands on."

jjjg A military officer, formerly stationed at Gibraltar, writing in 1880,

Gibraltar "Apes has given the following excellent account in the Field newspaper of the
oftneRock." jj^agots at that place. After stating that Gibraltar is the only
European locality where monkeys occur, the author observes, that young magots
" may frequently be seen in summer in the Moore' part of the market-place, brought
over from Barbary ; and, doubtless, the ancestors of the existing colony were similarly
imported. The census frequently taken by the sergeant in charge of the signalling
department gives their pi-esent number as twenty-five. . . . These apes were formerly
very numerous on the rock, and there were se\'eral gangs of them, but they were so
predaceous in their habits, coming down to the gardens in the upper part of the town,
and stealing fruit, especially figs, that they were killed by trap or poison, so as nearly
to bring about their extinction. In November 18.56, a garrison order was published
for the guidance of the signalmaster," which forbade the destruction of the monkeys,
and gave directions as to their being counted at regular intervals. " From that time,"
continues our author, " the register has been very regularly kept by the signalmaster.
There were only four or five at this time, and but three in 1863, when General Sir
W. Codrington, who was then governor, saved them from destraction by a fresh
importation from Africa. The following note occurs in the Journal of the 26th May
1863, ' Turned out four apes, wild from Barbary, two males and two females, all
young.' After some time the newcomers made friends with the apes of the old
stock ; and the band increased, but very slowly, however, owing to the great
preponderance of females, until the present time, and it maj'^ be expected, as the
signalmaster observes, now that there are two adult and rival males, that it will
divide. Those who wish to see them will do well to remember that their haunts

120 AFES AND MONKEYS.

on the rock are determined by the direction of the wind. Thej' prefer the ledges
of the [to man] inaccessible, abrupt escarpment of the Mediterranean face ; but
cannot stand the cold damp Levanter ■ftdnd which, as its name indicates, blows from
the eastward, and compels them to resort to the western slopes on the town side of
the rock. At the bottom of Charles V.'s wall, overhanging the Alameda Gardens,
is a favourite spot. On the western side, the Monkej's' Alameda, a small bushy
plateau half-way dow-n the precipice, is another choice resort, as is also Monkeys'
Cave, close to the sea. Of late years thej^ have become sufficiently confident in
their friend and protector, the signalmaster, frequently to enter the enclosure of the
station, especially in the summer drought, when they come for water. In a letter
to me, of the 3rd of May, Sei-geant Brown [the signalmaster] says : ' The monkeys
are sitting on the wall of the station as I write this — the fii-st time this season that
they have come up for watei-.'

" Their food consists of grass (the young blades of which I have seen them
eating with avidity), and of a variety of roots and bulbs ; those of the yellow Cape
oxalis being much sought after. The fruits of the palmetto — monkey-dates, as the
Gibraltar urchins, who also much appreciate the little brown viscous clusters, call
them — are greedily devoured when ripe. The signalmaster has never observed
them take anj^ food left in their way at the station but a few grapes, of which they
seemed very fond.

" In Sergeant Brown's letters I find several notes concerning these interesting
animals, which may be here introduced. ' In the spring of 1872, two were shot by
a young officer, who had been but a short time in the gari-ison, and probably did
not know that the monkeys were so strictly preserved. He replaced them with
either two or three of the same kind from Barbary, but the rock monkeys killed
them. Some yeare ago, when first stationed at Gibraltar, I saw a very large male
monkey in captivity at the signal station. He had been captured in one of the
ammunition boxes in the enclosure, baited with fruit. It had taken the united
efforts of three artillerjTnen, who mshed upon him ^vith their cloaks, to secure him.
After a while he got reconciled to his fate, but from his position, chained to the
wall and overlooking the eastern precipice, he was always scanning the cliffs in great
apparent anxietj^ and fear, which was quite unmistakable when his late comrades
appeared in sight. If he had rejoined them he would probably have been torn in
pieces. In June 1874,' saj's Sergeant Brown, ' a fire broke out on a Sunday
afternoon, and a strong south-west wind carried it up the slope of the cliff". . . .
The monkeys seemed in great distress while the tii-e was raging, and a full-grown
one was missed afterwards, but several births kept up the total. In the spring of
1875 the troop consisted of six full-grown females and two large males, with several
young ones. One of the males was very mangy, had a bowed back, and appeared
very old ; the other, a full-grown powerful monkey, I should judge to be nearly
3 feet long in the body, and standing nearly 5 feet high when stretched up.
He was lord of the tribe, kept it in order by chasing or biting any refractory
member, and took the lead when shifting from one side of the rock to the other,
which they usually did a few hours before the wind changed. I missed the large
male on Augu.st 7th, 1875, and in the beginning of September he was found
dead.' The death of this monkey seems to have been a serious blow to the

EXTINCT MACAQUES. 121

community, for writing again on the last day of 1877 Sergeant Brown sa3's, ' There
are now four very large adult females, four younger and rather smaller, four females,
and one male of middle size, probably four years old, and five small ones just
entering on their third year. I tliink there are four females and one male, but am
not certain vet. There have been no births since 1875. Thej- still travel together
from place to place, but straggle more, and seem to srjuabble more among themselves
since the old male died.'

" In a letter, May 3rd, 1880, the sergeant saj-s, ' The monkeys are all doing well ;
the vountT male born in 1874 is now master of the troop. There were four young
ones last spring, two of which had about an inch rudiment of. tail. I expect seven
or eio-ht births this summer. One large female was found by a labourer on May
20th, 1870. looking very sick : he gave it some coffee, but it died ; its breasts were
full of milk, and it had probablj^ just given birth to a young one, which was not
found. Last July I saw two full-grown females, each with a young one ; they sat
down close to each other on the path, and were chattering and examining one
another's younf, when the male monkey came and sat down between them, and all
three were chattering away together for several minutes. Through the summer
the male was nearly always carrying one or other of the J'oung ones.'

'■ Sometimes a fight occurs among the monkeys, when it is surprising to witness
the rapidity with which they will follow an offender down the stupendous precipice
of the eastern face ; tumbling one after another, and catching at bits of bush or
projecting ledges on their way, they descend hundreds of feet in a moment or two.
Sometimes the sergeant dresses wounds on them, probably from this cause, but
they soon heal up."

In captivity the magot, at least during youth, is lively, active, intelligent, and
good-tempered; but with advancing years it becomes sullen and capricious, and
finally spiteful and capricious. The French naturalist, Frederic Cuvier, observes
that the natural instinct, which causes these monkeys when in a wild condition to
a.s.sociate together in troops, leads solitary individuals in confinement to make
fi-iends of such animals as they are thrown in contact Avith. Such animals, if
sufficiently small, are carried about by the magots, who express their satisfaction
by hugging and caressing their burdens, and become furious when any attempts
are made to remove them.

Tlie magot is perhaps brought oftener to Europe than any other monkey;
its native climate being such as to permit of its existing with tolerable comfort
in more northerly regions.

ExTixcT Macaques.

Under the heading of the magot, incidental reference has been made to the
occurrence of fossil species of macaques, but as this is a subject of considerable
interest in regard to the present geographical distribution of these monkeys, we
must say a few words more. Asia being the headquarters of the group, it would
only be naturally expected that we should find these monkeys represented in a
fossil state on that continent. As a matter of fact, with the exception of India, we
know comparatively little of the geology of Asia. In India, however, fossil remains

122

APES AXD MOXKEYS.

of macaques are found in the caverns of Madras, and in certain deposits of com-
pax'atively late age in the Punjab which belong to that epoch of geological history
known as the Pliocene.

In Europe fossil macaques occur in fresh-water deposits belonging to the same
Pliocene period, both in the south of France, in Switzerland, and also in the north
of Italy, in the valley of the Arno. The occurrence of these extinct monkeys need
not imply any very great change of climate in those regions. The ease is, however,
very diffei-ent with the single fragment of the jaw of a macaque which has been
found fossil in our own country, near the village of Grays, in Essex, in strata
which belong to the latest or Pleistocene epoch of geological hi.story. This monkey
must have lived in England during the time when man had already made his
appearance ; and there is no reasonable doubt that the climate must then have
been considerably milder than it is at the present day, since it is impossible to
imagine that monkeys could survive our English winters, even if they could
find a living in our woods during the summer. We have already mentioned that
these extinct European macaques maj' be those fi'om which the magot has taken
origin.

In addition to these extinct macaques, there occur in the Pliocene rocks of
Attica and the south of France other monkeys which appear to indicate a transition
from the macaques to the langurs. These monkeys, which are respectively known
as the mesopitheque and the dolichopitheque, have indeed short and stout limbs
like those of the macaques, but skulls resembling those of the langur. Unfortmiately
we shall never know the structure of their soft parts, so that their exact relation-
ships cannot be determined.

The Black Ape.

Genus Cynopithecus.

The Island of Celebes is remarkable for possessing several altogether peculiar
types of Mammals, among which is the so-called black ape {Cynopitliecas nic/er),
the sole representative of a genus in some respects connecting the preceding group
of the macaques with the follo^ving one of the baboons. It was represented many
years ago by one living example in the old menagerie at the Tower, and by another
in that of Exeter Change. At that time, however, the true habitat of this animal
was quite unknown, Cuvier suggesting that it came from the Philippines ; but its
home was subsequentlj' found to be Celebes. This monkej', which is shown in the
accompanj-ing figure, is a decidedh^ handsome animal, the whole of the fur, as well
as the naked parts of the face, hands, and feet, being of an intense black, the only
exception to this coloration being the large callosities on the buttocks, which are
flesh-coloured. The hair of the body is long and woolly, but that on the limbs
shoi'ter. The tail is represented by a mere tubercle, not more than an inch in
length. The face is characterised by the marked protnision of the muzzle, which
is abruptly terminated ; the nostrils opening obliquely, and placed some distance
behind the exti-emity of the muzzle. It is this position of the nostrils which
connects this monkey with the macaques, and distinguishes it from the true

BLACK APE. 123

baboons, in which they are situated at the very end of the still more produced
muzzle. The sides of the face have the peculiar longitudinal swellinii-s character-
istic of the latter, and the cheek-pouches are very capacious. On the toij of the
head the black ape has a broad tuft of long hair.s, curling backwards, and forming
a very characteristic crest.

The earlier specimens of this monkey brought to England are described as
being rather violent in temper, and tyrannising over the other monkeys with which
they wore placed in company. Others, however, are stated to have been more

THE ELAi_K .ilE Ij V.M. slZeJ.

gentle in disposition, and thus very different from the fierce baboons. But few
specimens of this monkey have been exhibited of late years in the London
Zoological Society's Gardens.

Dr. F. H. Guillemard, in his Critise of the Yacht Marchesa, states that his
party found the black ape very common in the forest near Wallace Bay, in Celebes ;
and describes these animals as swinging from bough to bough in small flocks.
This monkej' is also fouml in the small Island of Batchian, Ijnng to the eastward
of Celebes, and forming a part of the Molucca group. On account of the circum-
stance that none of the other Mammals of Celebes extend to Batchian, Mr. Wallace
is inclined to consider that the black ape " has been accidentally introduced by the
roaming Malays, who often carry about with them monkeys and other animals.

124 APES AND MONKEYS.

This is rendered more probable hy the fact that the animal is not found in Gilolo,
which is only separated from Batchian by a very narrow strait. The introduction
may have been ver}^ recent, as in a fertile and unoccupied island such an animal
would multiply rapidly." In its arboreal habits, and predilection for fruit, the
black ape is essentially a macaque, and not a baboon.

The Gelada Baboon.

Genus The)'opitkecus.

The extraordinary-looking animal represented in the accompanj-ing woodcut is
our first example of the group of baboons, or dog-faced monkeys, so called from the

THE GELADA BABOOS (J liat. Size).

great prolongation of their muzzles, which far exceeds that obtaining in the black
ape, and gives to them an expression quite difl'erent from that of anj- other members
of the ortler We reserve our remarks for the other peculiarities of the baboons till

BABOONS. 125

we come to the more typical representations of the group mentioned under the next
generic heading, and here content ourselves with indicating the chief characteristics
of the species represented in the woodcut.

The gelada {Theropitheciis gelacla) is an inhabitant of the southern parts of
Abj'ssinia, and is distinguisheil from the true baboons by the circumstance that the
nostrils are placed some distance behind the extremity of the snout. In this respect,
therefore, the gelada forms a connecting link between the black ajie of Celebes and
the true baboons.

This animal is of comparatively large size, and of a dark colour ; the shoulders,
back, rump, and fore-arms, as well as all the naked parts, being of a deep black,
whereas the head, whiskei's, neck, and sides are of a sooty grey, sometimes tinged
with brown. The most peculiar feature about the creature, is, however, the great
mantle of long black hair growing fi-om tile neck, and flowing over the shoulders.
The chest is naked, while the moderately long tail is cylindrical, ami furiii.shed
with a long black tuft at the end.

Taken altogether the aspect of the gelada forcibly suggests a large black poodle
dog, with an unusually abundant mane. A good account of the habits of this baboon
has been given by Dr. Riippell, who travelled many years ago in Abyssinia. From
this it appears that its mode of life is very siudlar to that of the true baboons.
The geladas live in large troops, and are especially addicted to rocky regions,
whence they desceml to plunder the cultivati'd grounds of the natives, occasionally
entering into conflict with troops of the Arabian baboon.

A few examples of the gelada have been exhibited from time to time in the
Gardens of the London Zoological Society.

The True Baboons.
Genus Papio.

With the true baboons we come to the most hideous and repulsive-look-
ing members of the order of Primates; their repulsive appearance being only
equalled by the fierce and untamable disposition of several of the group. A
party of these creatures is shown among their natural surroundings in our coloured
Plate.

All the baboons are confined to Africa and the countries h'ing on the north of
the Red Sea, so that they are totally absent from the Oriental region. They are
found over the whole of Africa ; but, as is so generally the case, are represented by
a greater variety of species on the west coast than elsewhere, and it is also in that
region that the most hideous representatives of the group are to be found. Next to
the Man-like Apes, the baboons include the largest members of the Primates, some
of the species being as large as a pointer dog.

While agreeing with the gelada baboon in the great length of their snouts, the
true baboons are readily distinguished from that species by the nostrils being placed
at the very extremity of their snout ; indeed, in the Arabian baboon ihty actually
project slightly beyond the upper lip, as is the case in most dogs. This canine form
of countenance led the ancient Greeks and Romans to apply the name Cynocepkali

126 APES AXD MONKEYS.

(dog-headed) to these animals; and ii is this name which has heen adopted in
scientific phraseologj- as the distinctive appellation of the group. Tliis great
prolongation of the snout shows that the baboons are the lowest of the Old
World monkeys, and they bear the most marked signs of relationship with the
inferior orders of Mammals.

In addition to their long snouts, baboons are likewise distinguished by the
large proportionate size of their skulls, this being most markedly the case with some
of the West Afi-ican forms. Moreover, the bones foi-ming the upper jaws are greatly
inflated, so as to give a swollen look to this j^art of the face in some of the
species. They may also carry prominent oblique ridges, which fonn the support,
for the peculiar fleshy tumour-like stmctures occurring in certain West African
examples.

In all the baboons the callosities on the buttocks ai-e unusually large, and may
be ver}^ brightlj' coloured. The tail is never very long, and maj^ be short. The
aiTQS and legs, or, as thej* maj* be better termed, fore- and liind-legs, are nearlj- equal
in length, and are thus far better adapted for progress on the gi-ound than for
climbing. Indeed, none of the baboons appear to be adepts at climbing, and many
of them pass almost their whole time on the gi'ound. As we shall have occasion to
notice more fully later on, several species of this group show an especial predilection
for rocky ground, and are accustomed to go in large troops — this association being
probably necessary for defence against the attacks of leopards and other Carnivores,
to wlileh their terrestrial habits render them peculiarly hable.

Their defence does not, however, rest solely on the sti-ength of numbers; for
the male baboons, which are considerably superior in size and strength to their
consoi-ts, ai-e armed with tusks of the most formidable dimensions. Indeed, a bite
from one of these animals must be almost, if not quite, as severe and dangerous as
a leopard's ; and there are instances on record where leopards have been successfully
attacked and mastered bj* a few old male baboons.

The great size of the head, coupled with their general bodily conformation,
rendei"s all the baboons much less capable of assuming and maintaining the
erect posture than any of the other Old World monkeys. They are, indeed,
accustomed to go almost invariably on all-foui-s ; and when on tolerably flat ground
can gallop at a pace that requires a hoi-se to overtake them. When brought to
bay, a baboon wdU, however, stand on its hind - quartei-s to defend itself more
readily.

In the wild state scarcelv anv kind of food comes amiss to baboons :
and although the bulk of their nutriment may take the fonn of seeds,
fruits, roots, and the gum which exudes from the stems of many of the African acacias,
the}' also search for and eat insects, lizards, and birds' eggs. In regions where culti-
vated lands exist much harm is done by the noctui-nal excureions of baboons. During
such raids most travellers agree in saying that a certain number of the troop are
selected to act as sentinels and to give timelj' warning of the appi'oach of an enemj".
How much credence is to be given to the statements that on these occasions the
marauders are accustomed to range themselves in long lines leading from the
cultivated ground to their homes, and to pass the stolen plunder from hand to
hand, it is not for us to decide.

BABOONS. 127

In ilisposition all the baboons are the reverse of amiable, and they are
accustomed to fly into paroxysms of fur\- at any object which enrages or excites
them ; but some of the species are capable of being moi'e or less completely tamed,
and even learning a certain number of tricks; and it appears that members of
one species were habitually tamed by the ancient Egj^tians.

We shall have occasion again to refer to the early period at which baboons
must have been known to the Egj^tians, and we have already mentioned that they
take their scientific name from their ancient Greek title. To show that they were
known in Europe at least two centuries ago, we extract an account which, though
often quoted, is so interesting and so quaint that it will bear another repetition.
This work is by one Ludolph, and relates to the ancient Ethiopia, the modem
Abyssinia : the English translation being published in the year 1684. "Of apes,"
writes Ludolph, " there are infinite flocks up and down in the mountains, a thousand
and more together ; there they leave no stone unturned. If they meet with one
that two or three cannot lift, they call for more aid, and all for the sake of the
wormes that lye under ; a sort of diet which they relish exceedinglj'. They are
verj^ greeily after emmets. So that having found an emiuet-hill, they presently
surround it. and, laying their fore-paws with the hollow downward upon the ant-
heap, as fast as the emmets creep into their treacherous j)aliHS, they lick 'em oft"
with great comfort to their stomachs ; and there they will lie till there is not an
emmet left. Thej' are also pernicious to fruit and apples, and will destroy whole
fields and gardens unless thej- be carefully look'd after. For they are very cunning,
and will never venture in till the return of their spies, which they send always
before ; who gi^^ng information that all things are safe, in they rush with their
whole body, and make a quick dispatch. Therefore they go very quiet and silent to
their prey : and if their young chance to make a noise, they chastise them with
their fists : but if they find the coast cleai', then eveiy one hath a difterent noise to
express his joy. Nor could there be any to hinder them from further multiplying,
})ut that they fall sometimes into the ruder hands of the wild beasts, which they
have no way to avoid but by a timely flight, or bj' creeping into the clefts of the
rocks. If they find no safety in flight, they make a virtue of necessity, stand their
ground, ami. filling their paws full of dust or sand, fling it into the eyes of their
assailant, and then to their heels again."

Although Ludolph maj- have mixed up some other monkej's with them, there
can be little doubt but that in the main this marvellous account refers to the
Arabian baboon, which is still so common in Abyssinia. This identification is
strongly supported by his mention of the large number of individuals in a troop,
by the reference to rocks, by the search after insects, and also by the allusion to
encounters with leopards. It must, however, be confessed that the figures of
monkej-s with which Ludolph's narrative is illustrated, bear but little resem-
blance to baboons, although this may well be explained by the degree of licence
which the engravers of his epoch seem to have allowed themselves in such
matters.

We now proceed to notice in detail the better known of the various species
of baboons, commencing with the more tj-pical ones with comparatively long
tails, and concluding: with the others, like the drill and mandrill, in which these

128

APES AXD MOXKEYS.

appendages are reduced to their smallest dimensions. Our tirst example
will be

The Arabian or Sacred Baboon {Papio hamadryas).

The Arabian, or sacred baboon, is the species so commonly represented on the
ancient monuments oi Egypt, and may be easily recognised by its generally ashy-

THE ARABLIX E.iBOOX (J nat. size).

grey colour, and the large mane with which the neck and shoulders of the males
are covered, as is well shown in our illustration. The males of this species are
about as large as a good-sized pointer dog. The tail is of considerable length, and
terminates in a tuft of long hair. The face has long whiskers of a slaty colour,
and is itself, like the ears, flesh-coloured. The hands are black, and the large
naked callosities on the buttocks bright red. The shaggy mane on the neck and

^/^rve^'i'.

BABOONS.

BABOONS. 129

shoiil(lei-H of tlie males extends backwards over a considerable portion of the body ;
and all the hairs are ringed with ditlerent colours, so as to produce that speckled
appearance common to so many African monkeys. The females and young are
quite devoid of this mane ; the former being nearly as large as the males. The
snout is very long, and has not the jjrominent tumour-like swellings characterising
the short-tailed baboons. The nostrils project somewhat in front of the plane of
the upper lip, like tliose of a dog, and are similarl}' divided bj^ a vertical furrow.
The eyes are surrounded by a light-coloured ring ; and the whiskers are brushed
back so as to cover the eai-s. If the gelada baboon be rightly compared to a black
French poodle, the males of the present species might be still more appropriately
likened to a grey one, did such a creature exist.

The Arabian baboon, as its name implies, iidiabits Arabia, but it is more
common on the African continent, in Abyssinia and the Sudan. It is not now
found in Egypt, but it may have been in ancient times ; although, on the otlier
hand, it is quite probable that it may have been imported by the ancient Egyptians
from the Sudan. It is just possible that the animal mentioned in the Scriptures
under the name of satyr may be this species.

Among the ancient Egyptians the baboon occupied a prominent
place in the long series of sacred animals, and was consecrated to the
god Thotli. When sculptured by itself, it is the male that is represented, and it is
always placed in a seated position, with the hands resting on the knees; the mane
investing the body like a huge cloak. Hermopolis, the city of Thoth, was especially
devoted to the cult of these animals ; while in Thebes a special necropolis was
arranged for the j^reservation of their mumniitied bodies. In spite, however, of its
sacred character, the ancient Egyptians, if we may trust their sculptures, were not
averse to making use of the sacred baboon in the ordinary afiairs of life. For
instance, there is a bas-relief extant representing a fruit-bearing sycamore, in the
branches of which are three monkeys, which from their long snouts, well-developed
tails, and thickly-haireil shouMei-s and necks, may be at once recognised as Arabian
baboons. On either side of the tree are two slaves, with baskets laden with sycamore-
tigs, othei-s of which they are receiving from the hands of the baboons. It thus
appears that the ancient Egyptians had succeeded in training these intractable
animals to gather fruits and hand them to their masters, precisely after the fashion
that the modern Malays are said to have trained a langur in Sumatra to perform
a similar kind of service ; the fruit in the one case being sycamore-figs, and in the
other cocoa-nuts.

In addition to being represented on the monuments of Egypt, it appears highly
probable that of two large monkeys sculptured on a bas-relief on one of the obelisks
brought by Sir Henry Layard from Ninn-oud, the one depicted with a heavy
mantle of fur on tlie shoulders is intended for the Arabian baboon.

Under the general heading of baboons we have already alluded
to Ludolph's account of this species in the seventeenth century.
There are many later descriptions of the habits of this species, but we shall content
ourselves with some of the more recent of these. Mr. Blanford, in his account of
the Natural History of Abyssinia, relates his first meeting with these baboons when
on the march to Magdala in the following words : — " On rising the next morning I

VOL. I, — 9

I30 APES AND MONKEYS.

saw a singular spectacle. A large troop of baboons, at least two hundred in number,
were hunting for any corn dropped upon the ground in the place where the horses
had been picketed. They were the first I had seen, though the sight of these
uncouth monkeys soon became familiar enough. The species (C. Icamadryas) is
the well-known dog-faced baboon of North-Easteni Africa and Arabia, the same
which is frequently represented on Egyi^tian monuments. The male is a most
formidable-looking animal, something between a lion and a French poodle in
aj)pearance, with long hair over his shoulders and fore-parts."

In another part of the same work the writer just quoted observes that in
Abyssinia this baboon " was met with everywhere, from the plains around Annesley
Bay to the top of the Dalanta plateau, although most abundant, perhaps, in the
tropical and subtropical parts of the country. I saw a small herd close to Theodore's
old camp at Baba, on the Dalanta plateau, at about nine thousand feet of elevation.
In the passes leading from the table-land to the coast, immense numbers were
constantly seen, and the animals evidently keep much to the sides of rocky
ravines.

" The herds vaiy in number ; some cannot include much less than from two
hundred and fifty to three hundred monkeys of all ages. The old males usually
take the lead when the troop is moving ; some of them also bringing up the rear ;
others placing themselves on high rocks or bushes, and keeping a shai-p look-out
after enemies. A troop collected on a rocky crag presents a most singular appear-
ance. I several times saw large numbers assembled around springs in the evening
in the thirsty Shoho countrj' between Komayle and Senafe. On such occasions
every jutting rock, every little stone more prominent than the rest, was occupied bj^
a patriarch of the herd, who sat, with the gravity and watchfulness Ijefitting his
grizzled hair, waiting patiently until the last of his human rivals had slaked his
own thirst and that of his cattle. Around, the females were mainlj- occupied in
taking care of the young ; the smaller monkeys anmsing themselves by gamboling
about. Occasionallj^ if a young monkey became too noisy, or interfered with the
repose of his seniors, he ' caught it ' in most unmistakable style, and was dismissed
with many cuffs, a wiser if not a better monkey."

The same writer mentions that the food of this baboon consists mainly of small
fruits, berries, and seeds ; although young shoots and buds of trees form a portion
of its diet. Like the rest of its kind, it avoids forests and ti-ees, and keeps mainly
to the open countiy, pi-eferring rocky spots. When it climbs, it does so in a heavy
and ungainly manner, very unlike the active movements of the genei'ality of
monkeys. Its movements, when on the ground and in a hurry, partake more of
the nature of a steady gallop than the bounding motion of other monkeys.

As Mr. Blanford observes, the association of these baboons in such large troops
is doubtless for the purpose of mutual protection. The old males are, indeed,
formidable antagonists, and there are many anecdotes of their attacking, or at least
threatening, men. From the circumstance that none of the members of the
Abyssinian expedition were attacked bj' these animals, ilr. Blanford is, however,
of opinion that it is but seldom that such onslaughts take place. There is one
well-authenticated instance of a ti'oop combining to attack a leojiard wliich had
carried off one of their number.

BABOONS. 131

Sir Samuel ^^ "' concluile our notice of the species with two accounts given

Baker's observa- by Sir Samuel Baker, when in the Sudan. "Troops of baboons,"
tions. observes Sir Samuel, " are now exceedingly numerous, as, the
country being entirely diied up, they are forced to tlie river for water, and
the shady banks covered with berry - bearing slu-ubs induce them to remain.
It is very amusing to watch these great male baboons stalking majestically
along, followed by a large herd of all ages, the mothers carrying the little ones
upon their backs, tlie latter with a regular jockey-seat riding most comfortably,
while at other times they relieve the monotony of the position by sprawling at
full length and holding on by their mothers' back hair. Sudilenly a sharp-eyed
young ape discovers a bush well covered with berries, and, his greedy munching
being fjuickly observed, a general rush of j-oungsters takes place, and much
squabbling for the best place ensues among the boys ; this ends in great uproar,
when down comes a great male, who cutis one, pulls another by the hair, bites
another on the hind-(|uarters just as he thinks he has escajied, drags back a would-be
deserter by his tail and shakes him thoroughly ; and thus he shortly restores order,
preventing all further disputes by sitting under the bush and (juietly enjoying the
bei-ries by himself. These baboons have a great variety of expressions, that may
perhaps represent their vocabulaiy. A few of these I begin to understand, such as
the notes of alarm and the cry to direct attention ; thus, when I am sitting alone
beneath the shade of a tree to watch their habits, they are at first not quite certain
whiit kind of a creature I may be, and they utter a peculiar cry to induce me to
move and show my.self more distinctly."

On another occasion when a troop of about a liundred of these baboons were
obsi'rved gathering gum from the miiiiosii trees, Sir Samuel Baker was asked by
the natives whether La<ly Bakei' would like to have a girrit, as these creatures are
called by the Arabs of the Sudan. " Being answered in the affirmative, awaj' dashed
the three hunters in full gallop after the astonished apes, who, finding themselves
pursued, went ott' at their iDest speed. The ground was rough, being full of broken
hollows covered scantilj' with mimosas, and the stupid baboons, instead of turning
to the right into the rugged and steep valley of Settite, where they would have
been secure from the agageers [swordsmen], kept a straight course before the
horses. It was a curious hunt. Some of the very young baboons were riding on
their mothers' backs : these were now going at their best pace, holding on to their
maternal steeds, and looking absurdly human ; but in a few minutes, as we closely
followed the Ai-abs, we were all in the nndst of the herd, and with great dexterity
two of the agageers, while at full speed, swooped like falcons from their saddles,
and seized each a half-grown ape by the back of the neck, and hoisted them upon
the necks of the horses. Instead of biting, as I had expected, the astonished captives
sat astride of the horses, and clung tenaciously to the necks of their steeds, screaming
with fear. The hunt was over, and we halted to secure the prisoners. Dismounting,
to my surprise the Arabs immediately stripped from a mimosa several thongs of
bark, and having tied the baboons by the neck, they gave them a merciless whipping
with their powerful coorbatches of liippopotamus hide." This cruel treatment,
which was eventually stopped by Sir Samuel Baker, was intended to make the
unfortunate baboons docile, and prevent tlieii- biting.

132 AFES AND MONKEYS.

The doguera baboon {P. doyaera) is a closely allied species or variety, also
found in Abyssinia. It is of a more olive colour than the sacred baboon. Dr.
Anderson describes a male preserved in the Museum at Calcutta as being of a
luiiform yellowish-olive colour on the -vvliiskei-s and all over the lx)dy, above and
below, except on the hands and feet, which are uearl}- black. The coai-se hair on
the fore-pai-t of the body is about 6 inches in length, and is ashy -grey in colour
for the first 2 inches, while the remainder is banded with nine rings of orange
and black.

The Ch.\cma Baboon (Pajno porcarius).

The species last noticed is an inhabitant of the countries bordering on the Red
Sea littoral and the Upper Nile valley, but to reach the habitat of the chacma,
or pig-tailed baboon, we have to travel to tin; southern extremity of the African
continent. The name Chacma, it may be observed, is a somewhat euphonised
rendering of the word T'chackamma, by wliich the Hottentots of South Africa
designate this animal.

Like all the remaining representatives of the long-tailed baboons, the chacma
diftei-s from the Arabian baboon by the absence of the mane on the neck and
shoulders of the males. We have, indeed, in this respect a gradual descending series
from the gelada baboon, in which both sexes are maned, through the Arabian
baboon, in which only the males are so ornamented, to the chacma, in which both
males and females are maneless. In size the chacma is one of the largest of the
group, and it has been compared in this respect, as well as in its bodily strength,
with an English mastirt'.

The general colour of tliis animal is grejdsh-black ; but there is often a
kinil of greenish reflection in the fur when seen in certain lights. The head, as
well as the hands and feet, are deep black ; while the small whiskers on the sides
of the face, which do not conceal the eai-s, are grejnsh. All the hair of the body is
comparatively long ami shaggy : while that on tlie nape of the neck, more especially
in old males, forms a slender crest. The roots of tlie haii-s are dun-coloured, but
their extremities are ringed. The tail differe from that of the Ai-abian baboon by
the absence of any thstinct tuft at the end. The muzzle is perhaps even more
prolonged than in the last-named species : but the nose is similarly extended beyond
the upper Up. The naked callosities on the buttocks are smaller than is generally
the case among the baboons. The naked pari of the face is of a pui-plish hue, with
the exception of a white ring round each eye, and the whole of the upper eyelids,
which are likewise white. In the latt«r point, curiously enough, tliis species
resembles the African mangabey monkeys already described. Like the other
membei-s of this group of baboons, the chacma cariies its tail at fii-st curved some-
what upwai'ds, and then hanging sti-aight down.

The chacma, like its cousin the Arabian baboon, is essentially a dweller in
mountainous districts, and is found in all the mountain-ranges of the Cape district,
such as the Snieuberg and the Drachenfels. How far it extends to the northward
we liave not been able to ascertain, since, as we have already had occasion to
mention, travellei-s and sportsmen are, as a nile, very reticent on the subject of
monkeys and their kindred.

BABOONS.

133

Habits.

The habits of tliis species appeal' to bo very similar to tliose of its
North African cousin, since we read tiiat it goes in large troops, the
members of which scramble up th(> rocks when their territories are invaded, and,
having gained a safe refuge, seat themselves gravely down to gaze upon the strangers.
In climbing up the rocky cliffs they are often much assisted by the tendrils of the
creeping plants with which so many of the South African crags are clothed. Writing
of the kind of scenery among which these animals dwell, the great African hunter,
Gordon Gumming, saj-s : " I continued my march through a glorious country of liill
an<l dale, throughout which water was abund.int. Beautifully Vioodcd hills and
momitaius stretched awaj' on e\ery side ; some of the mountains were particularlj'

THE CHACMA BABOON (J iiat. .'iize).

grand and majestic, their sunmiits being .surr.junded by steejj precipices and abrupt
parapets of rock, the abodes of whole colonies of black -faced baboons, which,
astonished to behold such novel intruders upon their domains, leisurely descended
the craggy mountain-sides for a nearer inspection of our caravan." It is said that
there are instances where these animals have rolled down stones from the heights
on a passing caravan, although there is no proof that such missiles were not
merely fragments of rock accidentally detached.

The late Professor Moseley, who fell in with chacmas when at the Cape,
during the Challevgov e.xpedition, states that they " live especially about the sea-
cliffs and steep slopes leading down from there to the sea ; but they are to be met
with also on the open moorland above. They live in droves or clans of thirty,

134 APES AXD MONKEYS.

forty, or even up to seventy ; and there were three such bodies of them in the
country immediately about Simon's Bay, and in the tract stretching dowTi to Cape
Point. When on the feed, two or three keep watch, and one usually lieai-s them
before one sees them. The warning cry is like the German huch, much prolonged
As soon as they see one, three or four of them mount on the scattered rocks so as
to have a clear view over the bushes and heaths, and watch everj' movement of
the enemy, so that it is extremelj- difficult to get witliin shot of them. If one
stands still, or does not go any nearer, merely passing by, they employ themselves,
as they sit unconcemedly, in scratching in the usual monkey fashion, but still never
losing sight of their object of suspicion.

" Once I came across a troop on a sudden, on looking over a low cliff. They
dashed off at a tremendous pace, galloping on all foui-s, till far out of shot, when
they climbed up on to a rocky eminence, and calmh' sat down to watch me. The
baboons live on roots, which they chg up, and on fruits, and they turn over the
stones to look for insects and such food underneath. It is striking thus to see
monkeys roaming about on open moorland, where there are no trees.

"The track of the baboons on the sand is unmistakable. The foot makes
a mai-k where the animal has been galloping, just like that of a child's foot;
the fore-limb makes a mark not half so deeply indented, the hand being used
merelj^ to touch on, as it were, to prepare a fresh spring with the feet. I found the
skeleton of one of the baboons in a cave at Cape Point. The animal had evidently
crawled into the cave to die."

Mrs. A. Martin, in Homp Life on an Ostrich Farm, also gives an excellent
description of the habits of the chaema in the Cape district, from which the
follo-\vino- extracts are taken : " On mountain excui-sions," writes tliis ladv, " you
frequently hear his sui'ly bark, and sometimes see him looking out defiantly at you
from behind a rock or bush, where possibly you have disturbed him in the niirLst of
an excitinof lizard-hunt, or careful investigation of loose .stones in search of the
centipedes, scoi-pions, and beetles hidden beneath. These creatures, uninviting
though they appear to us, are among his favourite dainties, and he catches them
with wonderful dexterity. In the silence of night his voice is so distinctly audible
from the homestead that you would imagine him to be close by. though in reality
he is far off in one of the kloofs of the mountains. One night, as we strolled up
and down near the house, enjoying the bright moonlight, a loud choiiis of distant
baboons, to which we were listening, was .siiddenlj- interrupted, evident!}- by the
spring of a hungry leopard, the moment's silence being followed by the agonised
and prolonged yells of the victim. . . . Xo vegetable poison has the slightest effect
on the baboon's iron constitution : and, indeed, if there exists any poison at all
capable of killing him, it is quite certain that, with liis superior intelligence, he
would be far too artful to take it ; and when the fiat for his destruction has gone
forth, a well-oi-ganised attack has to be made on him with dogs and guns. He can
show tight, too, and the dogs must be well trained and have the safety of numbei-s
to enable them to face him ; for in fighting he has the immense advantage of hands,
with which he seizes a dog and holds him fast, while he inflicts a fatal bite through
the loins. Indeed, for either dog or man, coming to close quartei-s with Adonis [as
the chaema is ironically called by the Boers] is no trifling matter. One of our

BABOONS. 135

friends, travelling on horseback, came upon a number of baboons sitting in solemn
parliament on some rocks. He cantered towards them, anticipating seeing the
ungainly beasts take to their heels in grotesque panic ; but was somewhat taken
aback on finding that, far from being intimidated bj- his approach, they refused to
move, and sat waiting for him, regarding him the while with ominous calmness.
The canter subsided into a trot, and the trot into a sedate walk, and still they sat
there ; and so defiant was the expression on each ugly face that at last the intruder
thought it wisest to turn back and ride ignominiousl}- away."

The most general food of the chacma is afforded by the bulbous roots of an
iris-like plant, known as ixia, of which there are several South African varieties,
one of which is specially known as the baboon's ixia. These bulbs the chacmas dig
up with their strong hands, and carefully peel before eating. Other kinds of
bulbous and tubei-ous roots are also eaten by these animals ; while buds and young
twigs form a less important part of their food. In addition to this vegetable diet,
the chacmas also search for and devour various kinds of insects and allied animals,
such as locusts and scorpions; the latter being carefully deprived of their stings
before being consumed. Lizards and frogs are dainties less commonly eaten ; while
bix'ds' eggs, together with various worms and grubs practically complete the
chacma's bill of fare.

These baboons are well represented in all menageries, where they thrive well.
When J'oung they arc fairly tractable, but their temper steadily deteriorates with
advancing age.

The Anubis Baboon (Papio anubis)

Although there existed for a long pei-iod much uncertainty as to their true
habitat, it is now definitely known that the whole of tlu^ five species of baboons
remaining for consideration are, with one exception, confined to the western side
of Africa, and are therefore compatriots of the chimpanzee and the gorilla. It is
probable, indeed, as we have already mentioned, that it was one of the short-tailed
kinds that was met with in Hanno's \'03'age.

The anubis baboon, together with the two following species, may be readily
distinguished from the chacma by the circumstance that the hairy pai'ts of the
hands and feet are of the same colour as the hair of the back, instead of being
black. The general colour of the present species is olive-green, whence it is some-
times known as the olive baboon. There is a small crest on the nape of the neck ;
and the hairs are grey near the roots, and ringed with black and yellow at the tips.
The habits of these baboons appear to be nuich the same as those
of the other sj^ecies of the genus. They go in troops, and inhabit
rocky mountainous regions, Ijeing especially common at a place some two hundred
miles in the interior of Angola, known as the Black Rocks. Away from the river-
valleys the country is aii<l in the extreme, and it is these thirsty districts which
are the chosen abode of the baboons. Here they subsist largely on that very
remarkable kind of West African plant known as the uvhvitschia. So remarkable
is this plant, that we may venture to briefly describe it. The welwitschia is a
plant which in its earlier stages of growth consists of the two ordinary seed-leaves.
These ajjpcar to grow considerably, and extend horizontally outwards in opposite

136 APES AND MONKEYS.

directions, raised but little above the surface of the sand ; whilst the intervening
stock tliickens and liardens, assuming a somewhat conical shape, flattened at tlie
top, and rapidly tapering Ijelow into the i-oots. In time the original pair of seed-
leaves, having attained their full size, and acquired a hard and fibrous structure,
instead of dying, gradually sjilit up into shreds ; at the same time the woody mass
upon wliicli they are borne, although rising but little in height, increases in width
both above and below the insertion of the leaves, so as to clasp their bases in a
deep slit on the margin. Every year several short flowering stalks are developed
from the upper side of the base of tlie leaves. Each of these stalks forms an erect
jointed stem, dividing in a fork-like manner, varying in height from 6 to 12
inches, and carrying at the end of each branch a cone, witli the flowers and seeds
beneath its scales. The result is that the country is studded with these tabular
or anvil-like masses of wood, who.se flat tops, pitted with the scars of old flower-
stems, never rise to more than a foot above the ground, but vaiy, according
to age, from a few inches to upwards of 5 or 6 feet in diameter. Even those
whicli are not more than 18 inches in diameter are supposed to be fully a
century old, although still retaining their original seed-leaves, which, albeit toni
and tattered by the wear and tear of time, are, when entire, fully 6 feet in length.
It is uj)on the stems and exposed portions of these extraordinary plants that the
anubis baboons feed ; tearing and ripping the woody tissue with tlieir powerful
tusks.

The Yellow Baboon {Papio babuin).

Our next example of this groap is the yellow baboon, represented in the
accomjianying figure, and also on p. 66. This species may be distinguished from
the preceding by the absence of a crest of hair on the nape of the neck, and likewise
by its coloration. It takes its popular name from the pale brownish-yellow hue of
the fur, which is rather darker on the sides of the back than elsewhere, while it
tends to a whitish tint on the cheeks. The hair on the crown of the head is some-
what elongated. As in the anubis baboon, the liairy parts of the hands and feet
agree in colour with the boily ; but the naked parts of the face, hands, and feet
are, as in the other members of the group, of a deep black.

It was long thought that the yellow baboon came from Nubia and the Sudan;
it is now knov;^n to occur on the West Coast ; but according to Mr. H. H.
Johnston, there is a baboon found in the neighbourhood of Kilima-Njaro, on the
East Coast, which he provisionally identifies with this species. He states that these
baboons generally frequent the outlying parts of the plantations of the natives,
subsisting largely on the maize and other products stolen therefrom. In certain
localities they are extremely numerous, going about in troops composed of from
about fourteen individuals of both sexes and of all ages. They have but little
fear of man, and instead of running away will turn round and face an intruder,
with threatening gestures, at a distance of only a few j^ards. The natives are in
the habit of driving them away from the crops, when the baboons retreat in a
leisurely manner, with their cheek -pouches crammed full, and often dragging oft'
some of the plunder in their hands. In one instance it is related that a troop of
these animals pursued a native lad for some time, until he had placed a river

BABOONS.

137

between himself ami liis pui-suei-s. On anotlier occasion Mr. Johnston relates how
ho killed a female out of a troop of baboons he encountered in these districts,
who received him with snarlinjjjs and other expressions of hostility. Aftei- takini;;
the carcase home, he proceeded to cook and eat a portion of it, and although he
states that he found the flesh succulent and palatable, we venture to think that his

THE YELLOW BABOON (J nat. size).

example will not be generally imitated by those who follow in his footsteps. As
we sliall see later on, the nati\cs of Guiana are in the habit of eating roast monkey
— or at least they were so in the time of Humboldt.

The Guinea Baboon {Fajrio .iphinx).

There are few species of llaiiiinals that have given ri.se to more confusion in
Natural History literature than this one, of which examples have been described

138 APES AND MONKEYS.

under at least two distinct names, and regarded as different species, though it is
a well-ascertained fact that the common baboon, or papio, belongs to one and the
same species as the sphinx, or Guinea baboon.

The Guinea baboon is characterised by the uniformly reddish-brown colour
of its fur, which is washed with a yellowish tinge, more especially upon the head,
shoulders, back, and limbs ; the cheeks and throat being paler, and the whiskers
fawn-coloured. As in the chacnia, the upper eyelids are white. The nose pro-
jects rather beyond the upper lip, but is somewhat less elongated than in the
chacma, and has small swellings corresponding with those so enormously developed
in the next species.

As its name indicates, it is an inhabitant of Guinea ; and although, judging
from the number of specimens that are imported into Europe, it must be common,
we have no record of its habits and mode of life in a state of nature. Of those
in a state of confinement we have, however, numerous accounts, from the time of
Buffon downwards; the species being frequently carried about by itinerant
showmen.

The Mandrill (Pa'pio mtyrmon).

With the hideous ci-eature represented in the accompanying woodcut we come
to the fii-st of two West African species of baboons, distinguished from all those we
have liitherto considered by the reduction of the tail to a short stump, and also by
the long tuberculous swellings on either side of the muzzle, which communicate the
peculiarly hideous expression to the face. Moreover, tlie whole head is larger
in proportion to the boily than in the other baboons, and as the fore-quartei-s also
appear to be relatively higher in proportion to the hinder pai-ts, the general
appearance is iingainly in the extreme. In fact, the whole appearance is far
more suggestive of the forms imagined during a nightmare than is the case with
any other living Mammals.

It has been suggested b}^ several naturalists that these two species ought to
be separated from all the other baboons in a genus by themselves : and the late Dr.
Gray even went so far as to make each of them the t^'pe of a distinct genus.
This separation is, however, uncalled for, since both are tnie baboons in all
essential charactei-s ; the small size of the tail being merely analogous to the con-
dition which we have seen in certain membei-s of the macaque monkeys, while the
huge swellings on the face are only exaggerated developments of the smaller ones
found in the Guinea baboon.

The mandrill, as the species represented in the accompanjang illustration is
called, is the largest of all the baboons, and is, in truth, a brute of tremendous power
and ferocity. Its leading characteristics as a species are to be found in the circum-
stance that its short and tuberculous tail has its under surface naked, and that the
swellings on the face are ornamented with a brilliant coloration in the adult state,
and are of enormous dimensions.

From the great development of these swellings on the sides of the muzzle.
Pennant gave to the mamlrill the name of rib-faced baboon, but this has
generally been discarded by modern writers in favour of the former term. And
here we may take the opportunity of mentioning that, accorcUng to the investigations

BABOONS.

139

of Professoi' Huxley, the name mandrill seems to signify ci man-like baboon ; the
term ilrill being an old English word of which one meaning denotes a baboon
or ape.

The limbs of the mamlrill ai'e characterised by their relative shortness and
powerful build, and in correlation with these the fonn of tlie body is likewise
powerful and robust. The uglj' and massive head has scarcely any distinct forehead,
the prf)Mlo slojiing almost uninterruptedly upwards from the muzzle to the 9cciput.

c::^%)

' m

TEE MANDMLL (j\j liat. size).

The nose, instead of projecting in front of the upper lip, as in the sacred baboon, is
somewhat truncated; while the projecting eyebrows and deeply sunk ej^es com-
municate a forbidding expression to the whole countenance. The tubercular
swellings on either side of the muzzle are supported on ridges arising from the
.swollen bones of this part of the skull, and are themselves almost the size of a man's
fist. As a whole, they are somewhat sausage-shaped, and are marked with a series
of prominent transversely- disposed ribs of light blue, with deep pui-ple in the
gi-ooves, while the middle line and the tip of the nose are scarlet. The contrast

I40 APES AND MONKEYS.

batwecn such brilliant coloui-s an<l the general line of the fur ami the hazel eyes is
most marked. The stump of a tail, which, as we have seen, is naked on the under
siile, is carried erect ami l)ent over the hack soiiiewliat after the manner of tliat of a
pug-dog. The general colour of the fur is a blackish-olive, darker on tlie ci-own
of the head, the middle line of the back, the nape of the neck, and the flanks ; and
lighter on the cheeks. The summit of the head is crowned with a crest of dark
hair directed backwards in a pointed and peaked form, while the chin is orna-
mented with a small pointed beard of an orange-j'ellow colour. To add to the
strange effect of aU these varied tints the large naked callosities on the buttocks
are of a bright blood-red colour. The pointed crest on the crown gives to the whole
head a somewhat triangular fomi ; and in harmony with this peculiar contour we
iiml the nakeil bluish-black ears angulated at their fore-and-aft boixlci-s, suggesting
the appearance of having been cropped. Tlie truncateil muzzle is surrounded
by a i-aised border like tliat of the swine; from M'liich circumstance it has been
considered by some writei-s that the niamlrill is the problematical animal alluded
to by Aristotle as Clweropithecus (hog-ape), but this identification is l)y no means
certain.

Such are the coloui-s of the adult male mandrill, but the brilliant scarlet of the
middle and end of the muzzle is not assumed until the first, or milk-set of teeth have
been replaced by the permanent series, while at a still younger age the whole of the
face is black. Moreover, it is onlj- in the adult of the male sex that the swellings on
either side of the snout assume the enormous dimensions we have noticed. In both
the young males and in the females of all ages, these swellings are but of moderate
dimensions ; and in the female they are coloured blue only. In correlation with the
smaller size of the fleshy swellings, the skulls of females and yoiuig males are
characterised b}- the much slighter development of the l)ony ridges underlj-ing these
structures, which form such prominent features in the skulls of old males.

In the wild state on the western coast of Africa mandrills appear
Habits. . . .

to ha\e habits very like those of other balxxjns, li\ing iia large troops :

and on this account, as well as from their size and strength, being exceediuglj'

formidable antagonists. The accounts given by the earlier travellei-s of their

attacking men without being provoked require coufirniing : and we are in want

of full information as to their habits in general.

In confinement the chief characteristic appeai-s to be that the ferocity and
moroseness common to the old males of all baboons is intensified. There is also
a marked liking for spirituous liquoi-s of all kinds, which is likewi.se a trait
exliibited by other species of the genus. One of the earliest examples of an adult
male mandrill exhibited in London was the famous " Jerry," immortalised by Mr.
Broderip, which was kept fii-st in the menagerie at Exeter Change, and then
transferred to the Surrey Zoological Gardens. This animal had leamt to drink
daily a pint of porter, which he seemed thoroughly to appreciate, and he had also
been taught to smoke tobacco in a short clay pipe, although this accomplishment
did not appear to be so much to his taste.

Of late yeai-s the mandrill has been represented by a comparatively small
number of specimens in the London Zoological Society's Gardens. An extra-
ordinary animal was bom in the Society's menagerie in the autunm of 1878, being

BABOONS.

'4'

;i female hybrid iiroiluced b}^ a cross between a female mandrill and a male of the
crab-eatinf^ maca(]ue {Macavus cynomolgus)

The mandrill is strictly contined to the tropical parts of West Africa; the
Gabun district being perhaps its headqnartera

The Drill {Papio leucophobxis).

Although described by Frederic Cuvier as far back as the year 1807 as a
distinct species, the West African baboon represented in the accompanying figure,

THE DlilLL (jlj Uat. size).

and knoAvn as the drill, had for many years previously, in s])ite of a figure given
by our countrjnnan, Peiniant, been considered to be merely the young of the
mandrill, which had not acquired the characteristic coloration of the face. The
acquisition of adult specimens of the drill by our museums and menageries proved,
however, the correctness of the English and French naturalists' determination.
It is exclusively West African, but its range in latitude appears to be somewhat
more extensive than that of the maudiill.

142 AFES AND MONKEYS.

It may be distinguished from its larger cousin the mandrill by the absence of
any bright eoloure on the naked pai-ts of the face, which are entirely black. The
short tail is covered with hairs over the whole of its surface : while the general
build, and especially that of the limbs, is of a much more slender t}-pe. Again,
although the face has the long sausage-like swellings of the mandrill, these are
considerably smaller and less inflated. The drill is ugly enough, but it is, to our
eyes at least, one degree less repulsive than the male mandrill.

The general colour of the fur is brown, tending to a whitish tint on the
forehead and the crown of the head, and darker on the shouldei-s and the limbs.
The under-parts ai-e also lighter, being either of a pale brown or a silvery grey tint.
The hair of the upper parts is very long and fine, and is of a light brown colour at
the root, but ringed with black and yellow at the tips. These rings of two coloui-s
give a greenish tinge to the fur when seen under certain lights. The whiskei-s
are thin and dii-ected backwards like those of the mandrill ; and the di'ill also
resembles that species in the presence of the peaked crest on the crown of the
head, as weU as in the small yellow beard beneath the chin. The apology for a tail
terminates in a small tuft of hair. The naked jaw and eai-s are of an ivory-black
appearance, and the swellings on the snout are not marked by the oblique transverse
furrows and grooves which characterise those of the mandiill. The naked portions
of the hands and feet are copper-coloured, while the bare callosities on the buttocks
are bright red. The colour of such portions of the skin as are covered with hair is
of a uniform dark blue. Tlie female drill is distinguished from her lord and
master by her smaller size, and also by the relatively shorter head and paler
coloration, in which the young males resemble her.

We have alreaily alluded to the unsatisfactory natui-e of our knowledge of the
mandrill in its wild state, but in the case of the jjresent species our infonnation
appeai-s to be absolutely nil. In confinement, however, the drill seems to be very
similar in its habits to the mandrill, and there can be no reasonable doubt but that
there is the same similarity in the wild condition.

With the drill we conclude our notice of the living monkeys of the Old
World; but before passing to those of the New World we must devote a short
space to a few extinct baboons.

Extinct Baboons.

Our survey of the long series of Old World monkeys has shown us that as we
pass from the Man-like Apes through the true monkeys to the baboons, we have
been gradually receding further and further from a marked approximation to the
human tyjje, until we have reached forms that show a decided resemblance in their
projecting muzzles and general contour to the lower orders of Mammals. These
lowest forms being the baboons, it is but natural to assume that they are likewise
old in the history of the animal kingdom, so that we should expect to find them in
a fossil state. In Europe, however, no traces of fossil baboons have yet been
discovered ; while in Africa we only know of them as occurring in the supei-ficial
deposits of Algeria. The latter circumstance must not, however, be taken as an
indication that other species of fossil baboons will never be found in Africa, since

EXTINCT BABOONS. 143

our knowledge of the geology of the greater part of that continent is of the most
limited nature. We must, indeed, with our present knowledge, travel to the
extreme north of India before we obtain evidence of fossil baboons beloncrimr to a
period antecedent to that during which man has existed on the globe. And it is
in the sandstones forming the outer flanks of the mighty Himalaya to which
we have previously alluded as containing the remains of the extinct Indian
chimpanzee and orang, that those of the fossil baboons occur. These rocks, as we
have elsewhere stated, belong to the lower part of that division of the Tertiary
period which geologists designate the Pliocene. The remains of the Pliocene Indian
baboons are, like those of all the Primates, extremely few, yet tliey are amply
sufficient to prove the existence in that country of two distinct species. Both
of these appear to have been closely allied to some of the longer-tailed African
species; and we may therefore conclude that these Indian species were allied
to the sacred baboon or the chacma. Tliere is, moreover, evidence that baboons
continued to exist in India to either the early human or Pleistocene peri(;d, since
a single tooth has been obtained from deposits in a cavern in JIadras which has
likewise 3'ielded remains of man.

We have, therefoi'e, decisive proof that at a former epoch of the earth's history
such an assembly of Primates was gathered together on the plains of India at a
tnne when the Himalaya did not exist, as has been seen nowhere else beyond the
walls of a menagerie. Side by side with langurs and macaques closely resendiling
those now found in that region, were chimpanzees antl baboons as nearly related to
those of modern Africa ; while the extinct Indian orang recalls the existing species of
Borneo and Sumatra. India, therefore, in the Pliocene period, seems to have been
the central point whence the main groups of Old ^^'orld Primates dispersed them-
selves to their far distant homes.

The generalised character, and the large size of the baboons, have suggested
that it is to them we should look as the original ancestral stock from which the
Man-like Apes took their rise. There is, however, found in the rocks of the
Miocene period (the one immediately antedating the Pliocene) of Europe, a baboon-
like ape known as the mountain ape (Oreopitliccn^:), which condiines to a certain
extent the features now characteristic of the Man-like Ajjes and the baboons. It is
this creature, therefore, which we should rather be justified in regarding as the
ancestral stock of the Man-like Apes; the baboons being survivors from a still
older stock, from wliich the mountain ape was itself derived.

Whether the relationship which must once have existed between the baboons
and the inferior orders of Mammals will ever be revealed to us, is a question which
time alone can decide.

CHAPTER V.
Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs, — continued.

The Ajierican Monkeys.

Family Cebid^.

TiiE monkej'S of Ainci'ica ditfer so remarkably from tluwe of the Old World,
tliat they cannot be included in either of the families treated of in the
two precedini^ cliapters. The true monkeys of tlie New World form, indeed, a
perfectly distinct family by themselves, known to zoologists as the Cdtidm. In
addition to these, there is another group of American Pi-imates known as the
marmosets, which, although nearlj- related to the Cehidce, constitute a second
family, which will be treated of in the next chapter.

Not only is this distinction between the monkeys of the Eastern and W^estern
Hemispheres a feature characteristic of the present state of the world's history, but,
so far as we know, it was the case throughout geological history, for not a trace of
a New World monkey has been found in any of the formations of the Old World,
while those of the New World have j'ielded remains of species allied to those now
inhabiting the same regions. We have thus decisive evidence that both these groups
are of great antiquity ; and it has even been suggested that they have taken their
respective origins from animals probably allied to the lenuirs quite independently
of one another.

For a long period zoologists were accustomed to class the ajjes, monkeys, and
baboons of the Old World in one group, to \\liicli they applied the name of narrow-
nosed monkeys (Catarhini), from the circumstance that the partition between the
nostrils is a thin one ; while the American monkeys and marmosets, owing to the
width of this partition, were grouped together as broad-nosed monkeys (Platyrhini).
Although there is a certain amount of convenience in this arrangement, it has now,
by common consent, been pretty generally abandoned ; and the whole of the
Primates, exclusive of the lemurs, are divided simply into four families, of which
two belong to the Old \A'orld and two to the New. In the present chapter we shall
take into consideration only the true monkeys (Cehidoi) of the New World, — the
better known representatives of which are popularly designated howlers, spider-
monkeys, sapajous, and titis — as it is to these alone that the tenn American monkeys
should be restricted.

Characteristics Proceeding to notice the characters by which these animals are

distinguished from their distant cousins of the Old World, we have

to mention, in the first place, that no New World monkey has naked callosities

on the buttocks. This character will at once serve to distinguish any American

monkey from all those of the Old World, except the larger Man-like Apes, with

AMERICAN MONKEYS.

US

wliieli there is not the slightest fear of its being confounded. Then, again,
all the monkeys of the New World are charactei-ised by the absence of cheek-
pouches; so that whenever we see a monkey cramming nuts into his cheeks,
we may be perfectly sure that he does not come from America. It is time, indeed,
that this absence of cheek-pouches will not help us to distinguish an American
monkey from an Indian langur or an African thumbless monkey, but then both
the latter have naked callosities on the buttocks. Moreover, if wo were to dissect

THE UED-KACED SPIDER-MO!iKEV (^ liat. .size}.

an American monkey, we should find that it had a simple stomach, quite different
from the sacculated one which characterises the langurs and thumbless monkeys.

Another peculiarity of some, although unfortunately not all, of the American
monkej^s is that the tail is prehensile, and capable of being coiled round a bough so
as to foi-m a most efficient aid in climbing. These prehensile tails are characteristic
only of the howlei-s and the spider-monkeys, and their kin ; the tails of the titis and
their allies being non-prehensile, like those of the Old World monkeys. The
reader may note, however, that whenever he sees a monkey swinging suspended by
its tail, he may at once put that animal down as an American.

Regai'ding this peculiar organ of the spider - monkey, Charles Waterton,

VOL. I. — lO

146

APES AND MOXKEYS.

who travulled so much in South America, writes as follows : " Tliis prehensile tail
is a most curious thing. It has been denominated, very appropriately, a fifth hand.
It is of manifest ad\antage to the animal, either when sitting in repose on the
branch of a tree, or when in its journe}- onwards in the gloomy recesses of the
wilderness. You may see this monkey catching hold of the branches with its
hands, and at the same moment twisting its tail round one of them, as if in Avant
of additional support ; and this prehensile tail is sutiieiently strong to hold the
animal in its place, even wlu'u all its four liudjs are detached from the tree, so that

it can swing to and fro, and
amuse itself, solelj- through
the instnimeutalitj' of its pre-
hensile tail, which, b}' the
way, would be of no manner
of use to it did accident or
misfortune force the monkej'
to take up a temporarjr abode
on the ground. For several
inches from the extremity, by
nature and by constant use,
this tail has assumed some-
what the appearance of the
inside of a man's finger, being
entirely denuded of hair or
fur undiTueatli, but not so on
the upper part. "

A more important featui-e
of the American monkeys, as
being common to the whole
of them, is the great width of
the vertical partition between
the two nostrils, of which
mention has already been
made. Tliis broad paiiition
causes the end of the nose to
be much expanded ; and a
comparison of any of our full-
faced figures of the New
World monkeys with those of the Old will show what a marked difference there is
in this respect between the two groups.

Another character which we must not omit to notice is that in those of the
American monkeys Avhich are furnished with a thumb, this digit cannot be ojiposed
to the other digits of the hand. The American monkeys agree, however, with their
cousins of the Old World in having all their digits pro\idcd with well-developed
nails.

We have left to the last the most important and perfectly constant distinction
between the monkeys of the Old and XeAA' World, since it is one which can only be

TYF1C.\L SriDiill .MllNKEVS.

AMERICAN MONKEYS. 147

observed in the dried skulls. It will be remembered that in our description of the
characters of the man-like apes, it was stated (p. 21) that in these and all the
uionkeys of the Old World, the total number of teeth was thirty-two. Of these,
on each side of both upper and lower jaws, two were incisors, one was a canine, two
were premolars, and three molars ; the series being expressed by the formula
i|, c\, p\, rii\ ; total, 82.

If we now examine the skull of any American monkey (always excluding the
marmosets) and count the teeth, we shall find that their total number is thirty-six,
or four more than in the Old World monkeys. A closer examination will show
that the additional tooth on each side belongs to the premolar series — the so-called
bicuspids of human dentistry. Thus whereas all Old World monkeys have but two
bicuspids on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, the American monkeys
have three of these teeth ; and the number of teeth in the latter may accordingly
be expressed by the formula i'\, c\, 'p\, tti^ ; total, 3G.

If we care to carry our examination a little further, we shall not fail to notice
that the upper molar teeth of the American monkeys differ very decidedly in the
form of their crowns from those of the monkeys of the Old World, so that a single
detached specimen of one of these teeth is amply sufficient to decide to which of
the two groups its owner belonged. Thus whereas in the Old World monkeys
(exclusive of the man-like apes) the crowns of tliese teeth are tall and nan-ow, with
the four tubercles arranged in pairs nearly at right angles to the long axis, and
each tubercle nearly conical, in the monkeys of the New World the crowns of
these teeth are much shorter and broader, with their pairs of tubercles ai'ranged
obliquely to the long axis; the outer tubercles being much flattened, and the iinier
crescent-.shaped. Those acquainted with the details of anatomy will also find
characters by which the skulls themselves of the Old and New World monkeys
can be mutually distinguished.

Having now shown the leading characteristics by which the
Amex-ican monkeys, as a whole, are distinguished from those of the
Old World, we may refer to a few other mattei-s before proceeding to the description
of the various species.

In the first place, none of the American monkeys make any approach in jjoint
of size to the large man-like apes, or even the baboons, of the Old World. Then,
again, the whole of them are essentially adapted for a purely forest-life. Indeed,
in the great primeval forests of the Amazon, where the ground is either swampy
or entirely under water, the monkeys, together with several other animals, pass
the whole of their lives in the tree-tops, ti-avelling from tree to tree, and rarely,
if ever, descending to the trround.

In this purely arboreal life it will lie easily seen that the prehensile tail of
those species which possess such an organ must be a great assistance to tlieii'
owners in travelling from bough to bough, and thus from tree to tree. Considering,
however, that the species, like the titis, in which the tail is not prehensile, are
equally as arboreal in habits as those with prehensile tails, it is quite clear that the
latter type of organ can only be regar<lod as a kind of luxuiy. Indeed, the whole
question as to the reason why s(;me monkeys have long tails, others short tails, and
others, again, no tails at all, is involved in great obscurity.

148 APES AXD MOiYKEYS.

The IiL'udiparters of the American monkeys are the great forest-regions of the
Lower Amazon Valley, known as the Selvas ; although they are also abundant in
many other parts of Brazil, and likewise in the Orinoco Valley in Venezuela. All
these animals are truly tropical and subtropical, although they extend to a longer
tUstance on the south of the equator than they do on the north. To the northward,
indeed, it appears that monkeys do not extend beyond the Tropic of Cancer in the
southern half of Mexico ; whereas in South America they are knowni to range as
far as the Rio Grande do Sul, in latitude 30°.

In the vast forests of South Amei'ica, monkeys make their presence known by
their loud cries much more than in any other part of the world, unless, indeed,
it be those parts of the Oriental region inhabited by the gibbons. The best
description extant of the nocturnal noises of the American forests is that given
by Humboldt. " After eleven o'clock," writes the great German traveller and
philosopher, " such a noise began in the contiguous forest, that for the remainder
of the night all sleep was impossible. The wild cries of the animals rang through
the woods. Among the manv voices that resounded together, the Indians could
only recognise those which, after short pauses, were heard singly. There was the
monotonous, plaintive cry of the aluates [howling monkeys], the whining, flute-like
notes of the small sapajoiis, the grunting murmur of the striped night-monkey
(JVyctipithecus trivirijafus), which I was the tii-st to describe, the titful roar of the
great tiger [jaguar], the cuguar, or maneless American lion [puma], the peccaiy,
the sloth, and a host of parrots, parracjuas, and other pheasant-like birtls. When-
ever the tiger approached the eilge of the forest, our dog, Avho before had barked
incessantly, came howling to seek protection under the lianmiocks. Sometimes
the cry of the tiger resounded from the branches of a tree, and was then always
accompanied by the plainti\"e. piping tones of the monkeys, who were endeavouring
to escape from the unwonted jnii'suit.

" If one asks the IntUans why such a continuous noise is heard on certain
nights, they answer, with a smile, that ' tiie animals are rejoicing in the beautiful
moonlight, and celebrating tlie return of tlie full moon.' To me the scenes appeared
rather to be owing to an accidental, long-continued, and gradually increasing
conflict among the animals. Thus, for instance, the jaguar will pursue the j^eccaries
and the tapirs, which, densel}^ crowded together, burst through tlie barrier of tree-
like shrubs which opposes their flight. Terrified at the confusion, the monkeys
on the tops of the trees join their cries witli those of the larger animals. This
arouses the tribes of birds who build their nests in communities, and suddenly the
whole animal world is in a state of commotion. Further experience taught us that
it was by no means always the festival of moonlight that disturbed the stillness of
tlie forest ; for we observed that the voices were loudest during the violent stoinns
of rain, or when the thunder echoed and the liglituing flashed through the depths
of the woods. The good-natured Franciscan monk, who accompanied us, used to
say, when apprehensive of a storm at night, ' May Heaven grant a ([uiet night both
to us and to the wild beasts of the forest ! ' "

In connection witli tliis subject, we may mention that a subsequent traveller, the
late Mr. Bates, when on the Tapajos Eiver, writes : " I heard for the first and almost
the only time the uproar of life at sunset which Humboldt describes as having wit-

SAPAJOUS. 149

iieHsed towaids tln'soiirci' of tlie Oiiuoco, Init wliicli is unknown on the l)ank8of the
haver rivers. Tlie noises of animals be<,faii just us the sun sank beneath the trees
after a sweltering aftenioon, leaving the sky above of the intensest shade of blue.
Two flocks of howling monkeys, one close to our canoe, the other about a furlou"-
distant, filled the echoing forest with their dismal roaring."

We have alreadj' mentioned the circumstance tiiat a European traveller on one
occasion supped on roast baboon ; and we maj- here call attention to the fact that
in Humboldt's time monkey-flesh fonned a by no means inconsiderable portion of
the food of the natives of certain parts of Soutli America, at least on particular
occasion.s. Humboldt tells us that when his party was travelling in Ecuador, and
had arrived at Esmeraldas, they found a native festival in progress. And in the
room where the feast was held they observed luimbers of large roasted monkeys (of
what species we are not informed), blackened bj- smoke, and arranged round the
walls. These monkeys were bent into a sitting posture, with the head generally
resting on the long and skiiniy arms, and hail been roasted by being placed on a
grating of \ery hard wood over a clear fire. Humboldt observes that on seeing
the natives devouring an arm or leg of one of tliese roa.sted monkeys, it was
difficult not to Ixdieve that this habit of eating animals so closely resembling man
in their physical oi-ganisation, had, to a cei-tain degree, contributed to diminish
among these people the horror of cannibalism.

THK S.\P.\.IOT-S, OI? r.VPT'CHIX MONKEYS. -

Geinis ( 'fill's.

The long and priihensile-tailed monkeys so commonly seen in menageries, and
known respectively as .sapajous or capuchin monkeys, and spider-monkej-s, may be
regarded as the tj-pical repre.sentatives of the family Cehida' ; and, together with
two other genera, constitute a group which can be easily recognised, and as easily
distinguished from all their cousin.s. With the exception of the howlers, of which
more anon, this group of monkeys is indeed the only one furnished with prehensile
tails : and, altogether apart from the question of voice, and the presence of certain
structures connected therewith, all its members differ from the howlers by their
rounded heads, and the nearly vertical plane of the face.

The sapajous may at once be distinguished from the three other genera
included in this group by the circumstance that their tails, which are comparatively
stout and of only moderate length, have no naked pai-t on the lower surface of the
extremity. In this respect they are not so perfectly adapted for the purpose of
prehension as are those of the other genera. Another feature of these monkeys is
that the hair does not partake of a woolly nature : while the general build of the
body is i-ather stout : the arms and legs acconling in this respect with the body,
not being excessively long nor excessively .slender.

The native name of these monkeys on the Amazon is Caiarara, or " macaw-
headed," the woi-d Arara meaning a macaw. It seems, however, that Caiarara is
abbreviated frequently into Cai, and from the latter it appears that the name

ISO

APES AXD MO y KEYS.

Sajou or Sapajou has been e\'olved liy a curious moditication, originally due to the
French naturalist, Butfon, using the word Sai (evidently tlie equivalent of Cai)
for the weedier capuchin, and Sajou for another species of the genus. The tenn
Capuchin doubtless takes its origin from the cowl-like ajipearance of the hair on
the forehead.

The sapajous are represented by a large number of species, ranging ivQwx

THE WHITE-CHEEKED SAPAJOU (1), THE BROWN SAPAJOU (2), THE WHITE-THROATED SAPAJOU (3),
THE SMOOTH-HEADED SAPAJOU (4)- (J Uat. siZe).

Central America to the south of Brazil. Our knowledge as to the real number oi
species is, however, still very incomplete, as there is a great amount of individual
and racial variation, and the whole group requires to be carefully revised befoi-e
anything definite can be said in regard to this point. We shall therefore allude
only to some of the bettei'-known kinds.

Like most of the South American monkeys, the sapajous go in troops, and in
Brazil ascend to the very summits of the lofty forest trees. The late Mr. Bates

SAPAJOUS. 151

mentions one which he shot at a height of fully one hundred and fifty feet above
the ground. Writing of one of the Chilian species, M. Germain states that " these
monkeys usually have a permanent sleeping-place, whence they issue every morning
to explore the neighbouring trees ; the eggs and young of birds, insects, tender shoots,
and, above all, fruits forming their chief food. I have never seen them," continues
M. Germain, " on the gi-ound, and I believe thej' never leave the tree-tops ; while I
have observed that they have particular routes in their journeys through the forest.
The troops in which they live are not numerous, comprising from eight to a dozen
individuals, under the leadership of an old and experienced male. When they
arrive at the locality, where the fruits of which they are in search are to be found,
each endeavoui-s to seize as speedily as pos.sible the best upon which it can lay its
hands ; but, both on its arrival and during its i-eturn, the band is far from being in
disorder. In dangerous places, where a kind of gynniastic performance has to Ije
undertaken, the troop passes in single file ; each one not risking the jump till the
one in advance has safely passed, and then seizing firmly the same boughs and
jumping in just the same manner as the latter. I have sometimes seen them at
a height of about one hundred and fifty feet from the ground suspend themselves by
the tail from a branch, then balance themselves, with all four limbs stretched out,
then, all of a sud<len, let themselves go, and falling for a distance of some twenty or
thirty feet, seize hold of another bough by the tail. In such falls the outstretclied
amis seem only ready in case of acci<lent, for there is never any {pieKtion of
maladroitness."

Together with the spider-monkeys, the sapajous are the most docile and the
most readilj' taught of all the American monkeys, and since they bear confinement
and the European climate well, they are the most common of the moidveys carried
about by the peripatetic organ-grinder.

The White-Cheeked Sapajou (Cebus lunatus).

The white-cheeked sapajou, of which a representation is given in the middle
upper figure of the woodcut on page 150, is an inhabitant of Brazil. According
to Dr. Gray's description, this animal is characterised by the length of the hair
on the head, which is directed backwards, while that round the jaw is longer,
and curved so as to form a kind of crest on each eyebrow. On the cheeks the
hair is short and flattened down. The fur of tlie Ixidy and head is long, .soft,
and silky, its general colour being blackish, but tliat on the cheeks and temples is
yeUowish-white. It is tliis light hair on the cheeks that gi\es its distinctive
name to the species. The head is relativelj- large.

The Brown Safxjov (Crbus fatudlus).

In Guiana the sapajous are represented by a species commonly kuo\\ni as the
brown sapajou, which presents a certain variation due either to difierences of age,
or to individual peculiarity, in regard to the form of the hair on the head, which
has led to the supposition that there were two distinct species. In one of these
fomis, as represented in tlie upper right-hand figure of the woodcut on p. 150, the

152

APE^ AND MONKEYS.

hair on the crown of the lioinl i.s noarly Hat. ami ilircctdl l)ack\vai-ils : this
form liavinj;- hfen ilescribed as C. alalia. In tlie othor variety, as sliowii in
the left - hand figure of the acconipaiiying engraving, the hair on tlie sides of
the crown of the head is k-ngthened, so as to form a pair of more or less
distinct longitudinal ci'ests; this variety being hence known as tlie horned
sapajou.

Althougli subject to great individual variation in this respect, the general
colour of the thick and rather harsh fur is reddish-brown, becoming darker on the
middle of tlio back, as well as on the legs and tail. Tlie fore-arms, together witli a

^^^.

THE HORNED SAPAJOC AND THE WEEPElt SAPAJOC (4 Hat. .size).

broad .spot on the ei'own of the head and the whiskers, are nearly or ([uite black ;
while the front of the shoulders is j'ellowish. It is on either side of the dark spot
on the crown of the head that the ci'ests are situated in the " horned " ^^ariety.
The face and other naked parts have a violet tinge.

This sapajou has been long known to science, a specimen having been exhibited
in the King's Menagerie at Paris .soon after tlie middle of the last centurj-, and
described by the French naturalist Brisson. Another example, described hy
Fredei-ic Cuvier, was exhibited in the same collection in the year 1820. It is in
winter, when the fur is longest, that the crests of the " liomed " variety become
most prominent ; these never making their appearance until the animal has cut its

AMERICAN MONKEYS.

'S,-

|)cnii;inent canine trctli. Like tliat of its confreuers, tlie ilispositiou of this species
in captivity is mijil aini ati'eeticjuate.

The Slender Sapajou {C'ehus pallidm).

The slender or wliite sapajou appears to be a rare local species allied to the
jireceding, and inhabitinjj; Bolivia in the nei<;;hbourhood of Santa Cruz. It is dis-
tinguished by the smaller size and lighter colour of the dark spot on the crown of
the head, which is generally brown, and often has a small crest on each side.
The general colour of the fur is fulvous, or greyish-fulvous, the limbs and tail
being of a darker brown, and the beard a golck-n yellow. There is also a nearl}-
white variety. Mr. Bates, who alludes to the slender sapajou as the Caiaiara Branca,
heard of its reported existence in the forests of the Tapajos River, which tlows into
tiie Amazon from the Cordillei'a Goral, on the Bolivian frontier of Brazil. His
search was, however, in vain : and he was subsequently informed that the species
only occurred across the watershed in Bolivia.

Another nearly related monkey, more widely spread in South America, is tlie
tufted sapajou {G. cirrifer), in which the general colour of the shoi-t fur is black,
but yellowish-white on tlie cheeks, chin, sides of the forehead, and a narrow band
over the eyebrows. Two long, I'ecurved tufts of hair, which often occur on the side
of the head, give the distinctive name to this monkey.

A monkey known to the natives of the Lower Amazon valley as the Macaca
Prego is provisionally identified with this species by Mr. Bates, who .speaks of it
as frequenting the cultivated lands ; where it commits wholesale depredations with
the most iniblushing effrontery. The worst of these thefts is that, from the
hasty and random manner in which the fruit is broken and plucked, the creature
wa.stes far more than it can eat. When about to return to its native forest, it
carries away as much phnider as it can hold in its hands and under its arm.s.

The Weeper Hmwjov (Cehis capiicimts).

One of the best-known and most connnon species of the genus is the weeper
.sapajou, or capuchin, of Brazil, represented in the right-hand figure on p. 152. It
is characterised by the hairs on the crown of the head being short and directed
evenly backwards, without any tendency to form crests on the sides. The colour of
the fur is brown, with a golden tinge ; the .sides of the forehead, cheeks, throat, and
chest, as well a-s the front of the shoulders, being pale yellow ; while a black, or
dark bro-v\Ti, line extends from the base of the nose to the back of the neck,
gradually expanding as it goes backwards.

These sapajous have a wide range, extending right across Brazil, from Bahia in
the east to Colondiia in the north-west. With the exception of the occasions when
they descend to drink, their whole life, according to Rengger, is spent in the trees
of those regions of the forest where there is no underwood. They generally live in
small parties, numbei-ing from about six to ten or twelve individuals, of which the
majority are females. From their shy and timid habits they are very difficult to
ob.servc. Their cry appears to be limited to a kind of low whistle, which serves to

154 APES AND MONKEYS.

attract attention to tlieni. On one occasion tlic traveller mentioned above observed
a jiarty of these sapajous despoiling an orange tree of its fruit. They were led on
by an old male, the females carrying their young on their shoulders. "When all had
reached the tree, .some commenced to eat tlie lu.scious fruit as soon as plucked, while
others can-ied oft' their share to the stronger boughs of the neighbouring trees in
order to secure a better resting-place in M'hich to devour their plunder at leisure.
These seated themselves on such boughs, with their tails tirmly curled round the
same, and, placing the oranges between their liind legs, tried to open the skin with
their fingei-s. If they did not quicklj- succeed in this, they flung the fruit against
another bough in order by this means to soften the rind, at the same time venting
their displeasure at this unnecessary trouble \yy snarls and growls. Probably on
account of its bitter taste, none of them attempted to tear off the rind with their
teeth, but, as .soon as an opening was made with their fingers, they proceeded to
tear out the jnicy pulp, licking up the juice as it flowed out, and then eating the
pulp itself. When satisfied Avith their repast, the elder members of the family
stretched themselves along the boughs to sleep: while the junioi-s gamboled around,
swinging themselves by their tails from the branches, or going up them hand-over-
hand, like sailors up a rope. The gambols of these young ones are, however,
descrilied as being awkward ami ungainl}', instead of light and graceful. The
mothers exhibited great care towards their j-oung, carefullj' tending them, and
assiduously dressing and searching their fur.

On another occasion the same traveller had the good fortune to witness a troop
of the.se sapajous descending from the forest to pillage a maize field. They were
seen to climb cautiously down from the trees, and venture by twos and threes into
the maize field ; and, having hastily gathered a few cobs, returned witli all speed to
the forest to devour them at leisure. On the appearance of the spectator of their
movements, the whole of the membei-s of the troop in the field promptlj* scampered
back to the trees, not forgetting, liowever, to carry with them their booty. Rengger
then shot a female carrying off' a young one, which, though badly woinided, clung
for some time b}- her tail to a bough. At length, however, she fell lifeless to the
ground, with the young one still tightly clinging to her body ; and, indeed, it was
not until the bod}' had become cold that the hold was relea.sed. The young capuchin
thus caught readily became tame, ami would recognise its master even in the dark
by the mere touch of his clothes. When wearied, it uttered a low whistling sound ;
and, when it had occasion to demand any particular object, it groaned. Its
anger was expressed in rough tones resembling the .syllables " lai ! hu ! " fear bj-
shrieks, and pleasure by soft chuckles.

When captured j'oung the capuchin is always easily tamed, but older animals
refuse all food, become mopish, and do not live more than a few weeks. Tlie
3'ounger ones soon take to their mastei-s, and exhibit remarkable fidelity. Thej'
become, however, more readily attached to coloured than to white people : and they
are generally very fond of other animals, so that in Paraguaj' it is a common
custom to bring them up A\-ith a J'oung dog, upon which thej^ ride. To some
pei-sons they at once conceive a rooted dislike, which cannot be eradicated. Their
intelligence is shown by the manner in which they learn to open an egg: most of
the contents being lost at the first trial, but carefully secured at the second attempt.

AMERICAN MONKE ) -.V,

'55

Althougli tlit'V fliwrisli in captivity' if well atteiidi'd to, <jroat care must he taken
to protect tlu'iii from eolil ami damp. Their averaj;e term of life seems to he ahout
tifteen yea is.

Like most otiu-r iiKnikeys, captive capuchins arc the \ery sjjirit of mischief,
aud are also prone to theft, more especially of eatuhles. When detected in tlie act
of stealing;, they will cry out hefore heinj,' touched ; hut, if not cauolit, they prett'nd
perfect innocence, going ahout as if nothing had happeneil. When disturbed, small
substances are hidden by these creatures in their mouths, and consumed subsequently
at leisure. They are extremely covetous, and this covetousness is taken advantage
of to capture them. The negroes are in the habit of removing the pulp of a gourd
through a small aperture, and then putting sugar inside ; such a prepared gourd
is then placed near the haunts of the capuchins, who come down and endea\our to
extract the sugar, and during the process they suti'er themselves to be caught.

The White-Fronted S.vp.v.iou (Cchus albifrons).

The white-fronted sapajou is a common monkey in many parts of South America.
It is allied to the last species, but is distinguished by its pale reddish-brown coloui-,
which becomes redder on the back and tlie outer sui-faces of the lind)s. The most
characteristic coloration is, however, the white which occupies th(( face, I'oi'ehead,
throat, shoulders, and chest.

Mr. Bates, who desci-ilieil this species as Ix'ing of a light lirown colour, states
that it is pretty generally ilisti'ibuted over the forest-lands of the level parts of
Bi'a/.il ; and it was seen by this explorer in large flocks on the banks of the Upper
Amazon. The members of such a tlock art^ d(>scribed as affording a wonderful
sight when leaping from tree to tree ; for, according to Mr. Bates, these
monkeys (and we may presume their fellows of the same genus) arc far-and-away
the best performei-s in this gynniastic exercise. " The troops," observes Mr. Bates,
" consist of thirty or more individuals, which travel in single file. When the fore-
most of the flock reaches the outermost branch of an uiuisually tall tree, he springs
forth into the air without a moment's hesitation, and alights on the dome of
j'ielding foliage belonging to the neighbouring tree, maj-bo fifty feet beneath ; all
the rest following his example. Thej- grasp, on falling, with hands and tail, right
themselves in a moment, and then away they go along branch and bough to the
next tree."

The same traveller, who had one of these monkeys as a pet, states that it
kept the house in a perpetual upi'oar, screaming in a piteous manner when alai'med,
excited, or hungry. It was alwaj-s making a noise of some kind ; frequently
screwing up its mouth and uttering a succession of loud whistling notes, resembling
those mentioned by Rengger in his account of the preceding species. Fi-equently
this young sapajou, when following its master, would walk upon its hind-legs alone,
although it had never been taught to do so. One day, however, in endeavouring
to wrest some fruit from an owl-faced night monkey, it attacked the latter so
fiercely that it cracked its skull with its teeth, upon which Mr. Bates considered
that he had had enough of pet sapajous.

156 ArE5^ AND MONKEYS.

The White-Thkoated Sapajou (Cebus hypuleucim).

Tliis species, represented in the lower tlgure of the illustration on p. 150, is au
inhabitant of Central America. It belongs to the same group as the preceding one,
from which it is distinguished by its coloration. Tlius, while tlie general colour of
the fur is black, the forehead and part of the crowni of the head, as well as its sides,
together with the throat and neck are white : while the naked portion of the face
is of a pale flesh-colour.

The Sjiooth-Headed S^vpajou {Cehua vionachus).

The smooth-headed, monk, or yellow-headed sapajou, is a species from Rio
Janeiro and other places in South-Eastei-n Brazil, which takes all its three names
from the extremely close and short yellow hair with which the front of the head is
covered. It is represented in the left-hand upper figure of the illustration on p. loO.

The fur of this species is very short and stiff. In colour the crown of the
head, the whiskera and chin, together with the shoulders, haunches, limbs, and tail
are pui-e black ; the sides and back, more especially in the hinder half of tlie body,
are yellow, more or less mixed with black ; wiiile the sides of the neck, the chest,
and the front of the shoulders ai-e yellow ; the forehead and temples being whitish-
yellow. Such is the striking coloration of the tj'pical form of this species, but
there are several variations therefrom, and the specimen represented in our
illustration belongs to an olive-coloured variety, which has been described as a
<listinct species, under the name of C. olivaceiLS.

The Crested Sapajou {Cehiis 7'o6«sf«.s).

The last member of this genus we shall notice is the crested sapajou of Brazil.
This species is distinguished from all those previously mentioned by the long
hair on the crown of the head forming a single centi-al crest of a more or less
conical shape. Tlie general colour of the fur is bright rod, with a black spot on
the top of the crown, and the limbs and tail blackish.

The Woolly Monkeys.
Genus Lagothrix.

The woolly monkeys are best kno\\na by Humboldt's lagothrix (Lfigothrix
humholdti), first cHscovered by the traveller whose name it beai-s on the Orinoco,
but also common in the upper part of the valley of the Amazon. This species,
which is represented in our illustration, is the only one we shall describe, although
three or four others are recognised by many zoologists.

The woolly monkeys take their name from the tliick coat of woolly fur which
is found beneath tlie longer hair.s. Tliis is one of the points by which they are

SAPAJOUS. 157

distinguished froui the sapajous. A more inipoi'tant point of diHerenco is, ho\ve\er,
to be found in the naked skin on the under part of tlie end of the tail — a character
in -which these monkey's resemble those of the next two genera. The woolly
monkeys have, however, the same robust build as the sapajous, and thereby difi'er
from the other members of this group of genera. They have well-developed

nrMBoiDT's wnoLi.T MoxKF.y (J\ nat. size).

thumbs. The great lengtli of the tail in the wooll}- monkeys, together with its
naked tip, render it a prehensile organ of the most perfect tj^je.

To the Portuguese colonists of Brazil these animals arc known as Macaco Bar-
rigudo, frequently abbreviated into Barrigudo ; the full name signifying " big-
bellied monkey," and being applied to them in allusion to their bulky build, as
contrasted with the slender form of their cousins the spider-monkeys. Tlie ordinary
form of Humboldt's lagothri.x has a general blackish-grey colour, with tlie head,
chest, under - parts, and tail black. The individual Jiairs are dark grey, with
very shoi-t black tips, on those parts of the body which are not black. Younger

158 APES AND MONKEYS.

animals are more grey. Another fomi, wliicli has been regarded as a distinct
species by some zoologists, diti'era from the aljuve variety in having grey I'ur un the
head. Mr. Bates states that both these monkeys live together in the same places,
and are probably only diti'erently coloured individuals of one and the same sj)ecies.
In one of the largest examples obtained by that traveller, the length of the head
and body was 27, and that of the tail 26 inches : these dimensions only being
exceeded among the American monkeys b}' the black howler, whose head and body
may measure 30 inches in length.

Mr. Bates observes that in Humboldt's lagothrix the skin of the face " is black
and wiinkled, the forehead is low, with the eyebi'ows projecting ; and, in short, the
features altogether resemble, in a striking manner, those of an old negro. In the
forests the barrigudo is not a very active animal ; it lives exclusively on fruits, and
is much pei-secuted by the Indians, on account of the excellence of its flesh as food.
Fi-om information given me by a collector of birds and mammals, whom I emplo^'ed,
and who resided a long time among the Tucana Indians, near Tabatinga, I cal-
culated that one horde of this tribe, two hundred in number, destroyed twelve
hundred of these monkeys annually for food. The species is very inuiierous in the
forests of the higher lands, but owing to long persecution, it is now seldom seen in
the neighbourhood of the larger villages. It is not found at all on the Lower
Amazon. Its manners in captivity are grave, and its temper mild and confiding,
like that of the coaitas [spider-monkeys]. Owing to these traits the barrigudo is
much sought after for pets ; but it is not hard\- like the coaitas, and seldom survives
a passage down the river to Para."

From the account given by Mr. Bates as to the partiality displayed by the
Indians of the Upper Amazon for this monkey as an article of food, it would seem
that it is the one referred to in Humboldt's narrative of the roasted monkeys at
Esmeraldas, quoted on p. 149.

The Woolly Spider-Monkeys.
Genus Eriod.es.

The woolly spider-monkej's form a kind of connecting link between the woolly
monkej's on the one hand, and the true spider-monkeys on the other ; having the
woolly under-fur of the former, but the slender build of the latter, while their
thumbs are rudimentary. They difler, however, from both in that their nails are
extremely compressed from side to side, and sharply pointed at the ends ; while the
partition between the nostrils is narrower.

Not much appears to be known of these monkeys, which have never been
represented in the collection of the Zoological Society. They are confined to South-
East Brazil ; and have been divided into three species, mainly according to the
degree of development of the thumb. The late Dr. Gray was, however, of opinion
that these are merely varieties of a single species {Eriodea arachnoides), since
some individuals have a i-udiment of a thumb on one liand and not a trace of one
on the other. In the typical variety', as represented in our illustration, the general
colour is ashy brown, often tending to ferruginous at the base of the root of the

SPIDER-MONKEYS.

159

tail, with the naked parts of the face flesh-coloured ; the females being of a paler
hue. The thumb is totally wanting-. Another varietj', with a distinct rudiment
of a thumb, is of a dark brown colour, with white on the sides of the face.

THE WOOLLY SflOEI! MONKEY (J Uat. sizc).

The Spider-Moxkf.ys.

Genus Atelcs.

The spider-monkeys may be regarded as those members of the group most
admirably adapted for a purely arboi'eal life, as is especially shown by their slight
bodies, the long prehensile tail, naked below at the end, and the long spider-like
limbs from which they derive their popular title. In the rudimentaiy condition, or
total absence, of their thumbs, the spider-monkeys may be regarded as holding the
same relationship to the sapajous as is presented by the thumbless monkeys (Colohus)
of Africa, to the langnn's (Srmvopifhecus) of India: and it is probable that in both
instances the abortion of the chundj is due to the uselessness of this digit in a
liand adapted to act merely as a kind of hook in swinging from branch to branch.

i6o APES AXn MOXKF.YS.

lu general characters tlie true H2'i'l''i'-ii'<"il^t!ys agree witli tlie woolly spider-
luoukeyH, but are readily distiuguished from them by the total absence of a
woolly under-fur, the comparatively slight degi-ee of comjjression in the nails, and
the greater width of the partition between the nostrils ; the thumb being generally
absent. They are, moreover, of far more active habits ; and in this respect are
only equalled by the langurs and gibbons of the Old World, over which they have
the advantage of the prehensile tail. To the description quoted from Waterton
on p. 146, in wliich these monkeys are especially referred to, it may be added that
tliey not unfrequently use this tail to convey fniit and other articles of food to
their mouths. Those who have seen spider-monkej'S swinging from rope to rop)e
and leaping from side to side of their cages in menageries, can, when the cage is
sufficiently large, gain some idea of their marvellous activit}', although in such
contined spaces their movements bear no comparison to what they are M'hen in the
boundless freedom of their native forests.

It is notew'orthy tliat the stomachs of the spider-monkeys have a trace of the
sacculated condition wliich distinguishes those of the long-limbed and long-tailed
langurs and thumbless monkeys of the Old World. Their fur is generally smooth
and stiff; and, as a I'ule, the hair on the crown of the head is directed forwards.

The number of species of spider-monkeys is very lai'ge, and we shall thus
be compelled to limit our notice to some of the better-known types. The genus
has a wide geogi'aphical range, extending from Uruguay in the south to Southern
Mexico in the north.

The Red-Faced Spider-Monkey (Atele^ pnnit^cus).

The monkey represented in the figure on p. 145 is one of tlie best-known
representatives of the genus, and is commonly termed the x'ed- faced spider-
monkey, although known to the natives of Brazil as the coaita. It is found over a
large area of Brazil and Guiana : and, altliough exceeded in bulk by the woolly
monkeys, is in absolute length of body the tallest of all the monkeys of these
regiou.s. It has been long known to science, its scientific name having been given
by Linnfeus, while its native designation, coaita, Avas in use in Europe as far back as
the time of Button. The coarse fur is black in colour, and short on the crown of
the head, although long and projecting on the forehead. The distinctive feature of
the species is, however, the ta^^^ly flesh-coloured hue of the prominent naked
portions of the face, from which it derives its name.

In Brazil this species is found all over the lowlands of the vallej^ of the
Amazon, but it does not range to the southward beyond the limits of the river-
plains, where it is replaced bj' the white-wliiskered spider-monkej". Like the other
species, it lives in small parties ; and is comparatively silent. Its flesh is much
esteemed by the natives of Brazil, who capture it alive by shooting it with arrows
tipped with weak urari poi.son, and restoring it, when fallen, with salt.

On one occasion when out hunting these animals on the Lower Amazon, Mr.
Bates remarks that his attention was first called to one of them by hearing a
rustling in the boughs above. " There was something human-like in its appear-
ance," he says, " as the lean, dark, shaggy creature moved deliberately among

SPIDER-MOXKE \ S.

i6i

the branches at a groat height. I tired, but unfortunately onlj- wounded it in
the bell}'. It fell with a crash, headlong, about twenty or thirty feet, and then
caught a bough with its tail, which grasped it in.stantaneously, so that the animal
remained susf)ended in mid-air. Before I could reload, it recovered itself, and
mounted nimbly to the topmost branches, out of the reach of a fowling-piece, where
we could perceive tiie poor thing apparently probing its wound witli its finger.s.

THE CHAMECK, OB THUMBED VARIETY OF THE RED-FACED SPIDER-MOKKEY (i nat. size)

Coaitas are more frequently kept in a tame state than any other kind of monkey.
The Indians are very fond of them as pets, and the women often suckle them when
young at their breasts. They become attached to their masters, and will sometimes
follow them on the ground to considerable distances. I once saw a most ridiculously
tame coaita. It was an old female, which accompanied its owner, a trader on the
river, in all his voyages. By way of giving me a specimen of its intelligence and
feeling, its master set to and rated it smartly, calling it scamp, heathen, thief, and
so forth, all through the copious Portuguese vocabulary of vituperation. The poor
monkey, quietly seated on the ground, seemed to be in sore trouble at this display

VOL. I. — I I

1 62 APES AXD MOXKEYS.

of anger. It began by looking earnestlj' at liim, then it whined, and lastly rocked
its body to and fro with emotion, crying piteously, and passing its long gaunt anus
continually over its forehead ; for this was its habit when excited, and the front of
the head was worn quite bald in consequence. At length its master altered his
tone. ' It's all a lie, my old woman ; you're an angel, a flower, a good affectionate
old creature,' and so forth. Immediately the poor monkey ceased its wailing, and
soon after came over to where the old man sat." Mr. Bates adds that the disposi-
tion of these monkej's is mild in the extreme, haNdng none of the painfid, restless
vivacity of their cousins the sapajous, and none of the surlj* and untamable temper
of their more distant relatives, the howlers.

In the typical form of the red-faced spider-monkey, the thumb is absent.
There is, however, a monkey similar to it in all respects, with the exception that
it has a rudiment of the thumb on one or lx)th hands. This monkey, wliich is
known as the chameck, and is represented in the figure on the last page, has been
regarded as a distinct species, under the name of A. subpentadactylus, but it
seems preferable to consider it merel\- as a variety of the red-faced spider-monkey.

Other Species.

Black Faced In Eastern Peru the place of the red - faced spider - monkey

Spider-Monkey. \^ taken by a closely allied species (.4. ater), in ^^•hich the face is of
the same black tinge as the fur. From this feature the species derives its
distinctive title of the black-faced spider-monkej'. According to Dr. Gray, it is
further chstinguished from the red-faced sjiecies by the shorter hair on the
forehead.

Hooded Spider- Passing by one or two species, such as the grizzled spider-

Monkey, monkej- {A. r/risescens), we come to a very well-marked form,
known as the hooded, or black-capped spider-monkey (^4. eucullatus), first
described bj' Dr. Graj' from a single example living in tlie London Zoological
Society's Gardens, of whicli the exact habitat was unknown, although believed to
be Colombia.

This species is ihstinguished by the length of the flaccid hair, which is of a
mixture of black and silvery grey in colour; and on the cro«ai of the head is
elongated, so as to form a large hood, or penthouse over the ej-ebrows. The fur of
the hands, the feet, the crown of the head, and the nape of the neck, is deep black ;
while the naked parts of the face are flesh-coloured.

WhiteWiiskered The chuva, or white-wliiskered spider-monkey (A. marginatus),
Spider Monkey, jj^g already been incidentally mentioned as found in the Lower
Amazon ^•alley, to the southward of the river-plains Avliich are inhabited by the
red-faced species.

It is of nearly the same size as the red-faced spider-monkey: but has
moderately long hair, of a uniform black colour, -n-ith the exception of that on
the forehead and the whiskers, which is white : the face being flesh-coloured.
As in the last species, all trace of the thumbs has disappeared. It does not appear
to be common, since Mr. Bates seems only to have come across one pair, both of
wliich were shot, while specialh" searching for it in the valley of the Tapajos

SPIDER-MOXKEYS. 163

River. Being at the time unable to procure other animal food, this enterprising
traveller was fain to trj-^ the flesh, and describes it as being the best-flavoured meat
he had ever tasted, although it was with difiiculty that he persuaded himself to
make the attempt.

Brown Spider- Tliis species (^A. hyhridus) is a native of Colombia, and is of an

Monkey. ashy-grey colour, sprinkled with black over the greater part of the
bod}- ; the fur being very soft, with a tendency' to cui-1, and mixed with a certain
number of long and stiff blackish hairs. Other parts, however, such as the crown
of the head, the fore-amis, the thiglis, and the greater part of the tail, are black ;
the face being blackish, ^vith white haii-s on the lip. The inside of the thigh and
upper arms are grej-ish. This monkey is but little known in Europe.

Black Handed In Central America, northwards of the Istlimus of Darien, this

Spider-Monkey, group of monkej's is represented b}' A. geotrroyi, noticeable as being
found at very high elevations. Tliis species, wliich is al.so known as A. inelanochiriLS,
is the black-handed spider-monkey, readilj- recognised by the hands, feet, and the
crown of the head being of a fuU black, while the fur of the bodj' is generally some
shade of pale or reddish-brown, although more rarely yellowish, or even yellowish-
white, and indeed extremely variable in coloration. It is commonl}'^ found on the
volcanic mountain known as Orizaba, near Vera Cruz, in the south of Mexico,
where it ranges up to an elevation of some two thou.sand feet, living in troops in
the forests of the deep valleys. In the neighboui-ing district of Oajaca it reaches,
however, to a height of four thousand feet.

White-Bellied With the wliite-beUied spider-monkey (A. bdzebufh) of Bi-azil we

Spider-Monkey, come to the fii^st of a gi'oup of two or tliree species of spider-monkejs,
distinguished from all those hitherto noticed b}- the under surface of the lx)dy
and the inner sides of the lower legs and fore-arms Ijeing wliite or gi-ejTsh-white.
The present species is verj- variable in colour, shading from black to reddish, with
the loins paler, and the under-parts and inside of the fore-arms, together with the
front of the thighs, the inner surface of the legs, and the under side of the tail,
whitish ; the hair being rather long, and somewhat limp.

A Brazilian monkey, with rather longer hair and the under side of the tail
black, has been described as a distinct species, under the name of the long-haii-ed
spider-monkey (A. vellerosu-s) ; but it may more probably be regarded as a well-
marked variety of the species under consideration. These monkej's have been long
known, and were descrilied by CuWer under the name of Coaita a ventre Mane.
Besides inhabiting Brazil, they were met with by Hmnboldt on the Orinoco. They
are stated to assemble in considerable troops.

The Variegated Spider-Moxkev {Ateles variegatus).

The last of the spider-monkeys we shall notice is the species represented in
the figure on page 164. It is remarkable for its brilliant coloration, and
for its wide geographical distribution which extends from the upper reaches of
the Amazon in Peni to the banks of the Rio Negro, flowing from Venezuela
into the lower portion of the Amazon, and northwards into the Andes of Ecuador
and Colombia. It was originally described by the German naturah-st Wagner, from

i64

APES AND MONKEYS.

specimens obtained on the Rio Negro. Later on, however, Dr. Gray described a
monkey, brought by Mr. Bartlett from the River Tigri, which flows from the north
into the Amazon soon after it takes its great easterly bend on k^aving Peru, as a
new species, under the name of Bartlett 's spider-monkey {A. bartlett i). It proved,
however, to be identical with the variegated spider-monkey of the Rio Negro.

/ < '^

/^/.l;-'

THE VAHIEGATED SPIDEB-MONKEV (J nat. Size).

The variegated spider-monkey is characterised by its thick, long, and soft hair.
The general colour of the fur is black, but the cheeks are white. Thei-e is a band
oF bright reddish-yellow passing across the forehead a little distance above the eyes ;
wliile the under surface of the tail, the under pai-ts of the body, and the inner sur-
faces of the limbs are yellow in the male and greyish-white in the female. With
the above variations in colour it will readily be imagined that the male of this
species is a striking animal. In addition to the more sombre tints of the female,
the lines of separation between the colours are less marked.

nOUROUCOLIS. 165

On the River Tigri Mr. Bartlett describes these monkeys as living in small
parties and travelling rapidh' through the forests in the search of their favourite
food, wliich is a berry resembling a goosebeny in size, but with a hard stone
inside. Mr. Bartlett states that he had to ascend to the very summits of the ranges
bordering the Tigri valley before his search was rewarded. " Here," he writes, " we
came across a number of them — about eight or nine. I shot the male that is now
in the British Museum, and my Indians brought down another with a poison dart.
Having obtained two of them I was satisfied that I had foinul a new species.
Wliile, however, I was busily preparing the first specimen, my ludiaus had quietly
placed the other on tlie fire, and, to my gi-eat horror and disgust, thej- had singed
the hair off, and thus spoilt the .specimen. Of course I was obliged to keep the
peace, for thej' hatl not tasted meat for some days, and the monkey proved a very
dainty dish."

The first example of this monkey brought alive to England came from the
Upper Caura river in Venezuela, and arrived at the Gardens of the London
Zoological Society on July 14th, 1870. Its stay there was, however, of the briefest,
since it died on August 18th following.

The Doueoucolis.
Genus NyctipithecVyS.

The douroucolis, or nocturnal owl-faced monkeys, belong to a gi-oup of three
t'enera, distinguished from all the American monkeys hitherto noticed b}- their long
tails not being prehensile. All of them have well-developed thumbs, and their
o-eneral form is massive. They agree with the members of the preceding group in
the upright profile of the face, and also in the circumstance that the front or incisor
teeth of the lower jaw are placed verticalh^

The douroucolis, of which a party is represented in our illustration on p. 1(57,
are distinguished from the other genera of the group bj- their rounded heads and
the enormous size of their eyes. The latter are, indeed, so large that in the dried
skull their sockets occupy almost its entire width, being separated from one another
by a mere line of bone, considerably narrower than the opening of the nostrils.
Another distinctive feature is the narrowness of the partition between the two
nostrils, which is more like that of the monkeys of the Old World than of the other
Xew World monkeys.

The ears are short, and the hair round the eyes is ai-ranged in a radiating
manner, after the fashion of the disc of feathers round the eyes of an owl. All the
species are of relatively small size, and of purelj^ nocturnal habits.

Apparently from the small size of their ears the traveller Humboldt gave them
the name of earless monkeys (Aotus), but the name nocturnal monkey {Nyctipiihecus)
had been applied at an earlier date. We are unacquainted with the origin of the
name doui'oucoli.

According to Mr. Bates, they are known to the inhabitants of Ega, on the
Upper Amazon, by the name of E-ia.

i66 APES AXD MONKEYS.

Writing of them at Ega, he says : " I found two species, closely related to each
other, but nevertheless quite distinct, as lioth inhabit the same forests, namely,
those of the liigher and drier lands, without mingling with each other or inter-
crossing. They sleep all day long in hollow trees, and come forth to prey on
insects, and eat fruits only in the night. They are of small size, the body being
about a foot long and the tail 14 inches, and are thickly clothed with soft grey
and brown fur, similar to that of a rabbit. Their physiognomy reminds one of
the owl or tiger-cat. The face is round and encircled by a ruiT of whitish hair:
the muzzle is not at all prominent ; the mouth and cliin are small ; the ears are
very short, scarcely appearing above the hair of the head ; and the eyes are large
and yellowish in colour, imparting the staring expression of nocturnal animals of
prej'. The forehead is whitish, and decorated -with three wliite stripes."

The Three-Banded Douroucoli {Nyctipithems tfivirgatus).

This species was first discovered by Humboldt on the banks of the River
Cassiquiare, near the headwatere of the Rio Negro, in Venezuela ; but it is likewise
found in Guiana and Brazil. Its chief distinctive character is to be found in the
circumstance that the three banils on the forehead continue distinct from one
another on to the crown of the head. The fur is relatively short, and tlie tail
cjdindrical. The general colour is a greyish-brown, with a darker stripe down the
middle of tlie back ; the chest and under-parts being feiTuginous, and the tail
blackish-brown, except on the under part of its root, where it becomes j'^ellowish.

The account given of this animal by Humboldt accoi'ds very closeh' with
the descrij^tions of later naturalists. Humboldt refers to the difficultj- of taming
it, and states that one kept in his possession for nearlj' five months could
not be reconciled to captivity. It slept during the daj', concealing itself in the
darkest corner it could find, and when awake could but seldom be induced to plaj'
with its master. Its agility in capturing flies was very remarkable. If irritated
it hissed, and struck out with its paws after tlie manner of a cat, at the same time
inflating its throat. Its voice, for so small an animal, was very powerful, and
Humboldt compares its crj' on some occasions to the roar of the jaguar, while at
othere it is described as a kind of me^ving, accompanied by a deep guttural sound.

Mr. Bates describes how he kept an individual of this species for many
months when on the Amazon. He observes that " these monkej's, although
sleeping by day, are aroused bj- the least noise ; so that when a person passes by a
tree in wliich a number of them are concealed, he is startled by the apparition of a
number of little stx'iped faces crowding a liole in the trunk. It was in tliis way
that my companion discovered the colony from which the one given to me was
taken. I was obliged to keep my pet chained up ; it never became thoroughly
familiar." After referring to an individual of the next species, Mr. Bates states
that his douroucoli " was kept in a box, in which was placed a broad-mouthed glass
jar : into this it would dive head-foremost wlien anj'one entered the room, turning
round inside, and thrusting fortli its inqui-sitive face an instant afterwards to stare
at the intruder. It was very active at night, venting at frequent intervals a hoarse
cry, like the suppressed barking of a dog, and scampering about the room, to the

GROUP OF DOUROUCOLIS.

SQUIUJiEL-MOXKEVS. 169

length of its tether, after spiders and cockroaches. In climbing between the box
and the -wall, it straddled the space, resting its hands on the palms and tips of the
outstretched fingei-s, with the knuckles bent at an acute angle, and thus mounted
to the top with the greatest facility. Although seeming to prefer insects, it ate all
kinds of fniit, but would not touch raw or cooked meat, and was very seldom
thirsty. I was tohl by persons who had kept these monkeys loose about the house,
that they cleared the chambers of bats as well as insect vermin. When approached
gently, my Ei-a allowed itself to be caressed ; but when handled rouglily, it always
took alarm, biting severely, striking out its little liands, and making a hissing noise
like a cat." As is so frequently the case with small pets, this animal came to an
untimely end, having been killed by the fierce attack of a sapajou monkey, as
already related.

Other Species.

Feline Dourou- Tlie feline douroucoli {X. vociferans) takes its Latin name from

cou. i]^(, 1q|j,i gjy characteristic of all the monkeys of this genus. It is

closely allied to the last species, from which it is distinguished by the circumstance
that the three dark bands on the forehead meet on the top of the forehead itself,
instead of continuing separatelj^ to the crown. It is an inhabitant of Brazil,
dwelling in the same forests as the three-banded douroucoli, but always remaining
separate.

Mr. Bates mentions that he once came across a perfectly tame individual of this
douroucoli, belonging to the judge of Ega. It is described as being as lively and
nimble as the sapajous, but far less mischievous, and more confiding in its disposi-
tion, delighting in l^eing caressed bj' all visitors to the house of its owner, among
whom it was a gi-eat favourite from the prettiness of its appearance, and its gentle
ways. It was only, however, b^- a great attention and kindness, continued for
many weeks, that the owner of this little monkey had been able to make it so
perfecth' tame.
Broad-Tailed The broad-tailed, or lemuriiu' douroucoli (X. /("//lU /'(»«.«), derives

Douroucoli j^j^ name from its broad and bushy tail, in which the hairs spread out
on either side like tliosf in the tail of a sciuirrel. It is further chai-acterised by
the greater lengtli of the hair on the head and body, and also by the presence of
a round pale-coloured spot over each eye, sejmrated by a broad dark median line ;
the tlu-ee frontal bands of the first two species being wanting. This douroucoli
is an inhabitant of Colombia, but we have not met with an account of its habits,
wliich are, however, doubtless, much the same as those of the other species.

The Squirrel-Monkeys.

Genus Chrysoihrix.

The pretty little squirrel-monkej's comprise a small gi-oup of species closely
allied to the under-mentioned titis (under which name those of the group are
often included ), but distinguished by several impoi-tant features. In the first place.

lyo

APES AXD MONKEYS.

the eyes are very large, approaching in tliis respect those of the douroucolis, from
which these monkej's are, however, distinguished by the wide partition between
the nostrils, and the peculiar form of the head. The pecidiarity in the shape of
the head consists in its gi-eat elongation from front to back ; the aperture by which
the spinal cord passes out from the brain to the backbone being situated far in
advance of the hinder occipital region of the skull, which projects backwards be-
hind the neck in a manner unknoAATi in any other monkey's. Other characteristic
points arc to be found in the relatively large size of the tusks or canine teeth.

THE COlIMOy SQUIBREL-MONKET (} nat. size).

and also the comparatively shoi-t hair clotliing the tail. The squiiTel-monkeys, or
saimaris, as they were called by Buifon, also differ from the douroucolis by their
diurnal habits.

Common The common squirrel-monkey (C sciurea) is far the best -known

Squirrel-Monkey, j-epj-gggntative of the genus ; it is an inhabitant of Brazil and the
valley of the Orinoco. It is a small animal, not much larger than a squirrel, with
the head grizzled grey, tending to blackish, and the hairs of the fur of the bod}'
also grey, with a black mottling, but more or less tinged -with gold in the region
of the back. The outer sides of the fore-arms are yellowish ; the paws whitish ;
and the long and slender tail tipped at the end with black.

Writing of this species, the traveller Humboldt observes that no other monkey
has so much the physiognomy of a child ; it exliibits a similar expression of inno-

SQ UIRREL-MONKEYS.

cence, a similar plaj^ful smile, and a similar sudden change from joy to sorrow, or
vice versa. When seized with fear its eyes are suddenlj- suffused with tears. The
one in possession of Humboldt was extremely fond of spiders and insects ; and
when sho^vn uncoloured figures of wasps, etc., in a work of Natural History, darted
forward as if to seize the insect. It remained, howe\-er, perfectly indifferent to
figures of heads and skeletons of Mammals.

When several of these monkeys confined in one cage were exposed to a shower
of rain, they twined their tails round their necks, and huddled close together in
order to impart to one another mutual warmth. The Indians of the Orinoco in-
formed Humboldt that they often met with groups of ten or twelve of these
monkeys thus cowering together, whilst others remained outside the group utter-
ing mournful cries at not being allowed
to enter. By shooting poisoned arrows
at such groups the natives are accus-
tomed to obtain a number of young
squirrel monkey.s at a time ; the j^oung
clinging to their dying mothers as they
fall, and, unless wounded, not leaving
them even when dead. All the move-
ments of these little monkeys are rapid,
light, and graceful. They have a habit
of steadfastly watching the mouth of
a person when speaking ; and if allowed
to sit on the shoulder of their master,
they will frequent Ij' touch his lips,
tongue, or teeth. Mr. Bates speaks of
the squirrel-monkeys in Brazil as living in large flocks, and, when on tlie move,
taking flj'ing leaps from tree to tree.

Short-Tailed This specics (C ustci) is ilistinguishod from tlie preceding one

squirrei-Monkey.ii^ainly by its shorter tail and naked ear. It inhabits the same
regions as the last. In some specimens the outer side of the fore-arm is of
the same colour as the bodj^, but in others it is shot with gold, as in the
typical squirrel-monkey. A side view of the head is given in the accompanying
woodcut.

Black-Tailed In Bolivia the squirrel - monkeys are represented by a well-

Squirrei-Monkey.niarked species, (C. entomophaga), differing from both the above by
its black head, and by the hairs of the body being yellow with long black tips.
These parti-coloured hairs cause the general hue of the fur to be golden-brown.
The upper part of the body is, however, of the same black hue as the head ; and
this colour likewise prevails on the tail, which is of moderate length. The face,
throat, and the inner surfaces of the thighs are, on the contrary, of a yellowish-grey
colour.

SIDE VIEW OF THE HEAD OP THE SHORT-TAILED SQVIBREL-
.MONKEY. (From Sclater, Proc. ZooL Soc. 1872.)

172 APES AND MONKEYS.

The Titi Moxkeys.
Genus Callithrix.

The titis, which form the last members of the present group of American
monkej-s, are distinguished from the squirrel-monkeys by their round and well-
formed heads, which are not elongated posteriorly; by their smaller eyes, less
developed canine teeth, and the much longer hair clothing the tail. They are chiefly
inhabitants of Brazil and other parts of the Amazon valley, and are representeil
by some ten species ; three of which have been exhibited alive in this country. We
shall notice only some of the species.

The red titi of Brazil, (C. cuprea), which belongs to a group in
which the fur is soft but intermingled with a number of long, stifi'
hairs, takes it name from the reddish-bay colour of its liands, which forms a ready
means of distinguishing it from the next species. The colour of the upper parts
is blackish mixed A\ath grey, but the cheeks, throat, under-pai-ts, feet, and legs are
of the same reddish-bay hue as the hands : the tail being generally i-ather darker
than the back, although instances are known in which it has a white tip.

The second Bi'azilian species (C torquata) is readily distinguished
from the last b\' the white hair of the hands. In general colour it
is reddish-brown tending to black, the hairs being red at the root and black at
the tips. The face is surrounded bj' a narrow band of pure white hairs, and there
is a nari'ow reddish-white collar round the neck, from wliich the .species takes its
name. The forehead, feet, and tail are quite black.

The remarkable coloration of tliis animal has obtained for it among the Creoles
of Brazil the name of the Widow Monkey; the white rim round the face, the
whitish collar, and the white hands being compared to the veil, handkerchief, and
gloves worn by widows in its native country.

Bjr the natives of Brazil this and other titis are known by the name of
Whaipu-sai. Although alluded to as the Moloch titi, it appears, judging by the
reference to the long brown hair and the whitish hands, to be this sj^ecies that was
observed by Mr. Bates on the banks of the Tapajos River — the great southern
tributary of the Lower Amazon. Be the species what it may, his description
is the best that we have in English of the habits of the titis. He says that these
animals have none of the restless vivacity of the sapajous and their allies, but arc
dull and listless ; going in small parties of five or six individuals, and having the
habit of running above the main branches of the fore.st trees " One of the speci-
mens which I obtained," he observes, "was caught on a low fruit tree at the
back of our house, at sunrise one morning. Tliis was the only instance of u
monke\- being captured in such a position that I ever heard of. As the tree was
isolated, the animal must have descended to the ground from the neighbouring
forest, and walked some distance to get at it. The species is sometimes kept in
a tame state by the natives : it does not make a very amusing pet, and survives
captivity only a short time.'

In Guiana tliis species is replaced by the closely allied wliite-chested titi (C.

SAKl MONKEYS. 173

amicta), which is distinguished by tlie presence of a pure white spot ou the chest ;
the general colour being black tinged with i-ed.

Another Brazilian species is the Moloch titi (C. moloc/i) which,
while agreeing with those just noticed in the nature of the fur,
differs in the colour of the hands and feet being of nearly the same grej' hue as
that of the back. The general colour of the upper parts is dark gi'cy, with a
grizzle of black and red ; the cheeks, chest, and uuder-parts being reddish : and
both tlie hands and feet dark grey.

The reed titi (C. doixicophila) is a paler form, closeh' allied to the moloch.
Mr. Bates states that while on the Lower Amazon, wlien going ashore early one
morning, lie found the forest resounding with the yeljiings of a flock of whaiapu-
sai monkeys, which he thought probably belonged to this species. Althongli un-
successful in obtaining a specimen, he was enabled to .see them for a moment, and
describes them as of small size, and clothed ^^^th long fur of a uniform gi"ey colour.
Black-Fronted The black-fronted titi (f. 7ny//v7'/*oH.s'), differs from any of those

Titi yg^ noticed b}' its rigid and bristly fur, and also by both the hands

and feet being black. Its general colour is grey, tinged with black ; but it takes
its name from the black forehead ; the eare, a spot on each side of the neck, as well
as the hands and feet, and the inner surfaces of the fore-arms and legs being of
the same sombre tint. The fur of the tail has a reddish tinge ; while the back of
the crown of the head and the nape of the neck are of a wliitish-grey.

The nearly related brown titi (C. hrunnea), which is also known by the name
of the masked titi, is subject to a great amount of individual variation in colour.
Black-Handed The last representative of these monkeys we shall notice is the

Titi. black-handed titi (('. inelanoclitra). which is one of two species which,

while agreeing with the one last-mentioned in its black hands and feet, is readily
distinguished from the wliole of those j'et mentioned by the fur being soft and
woolly, without any intermixture of long stiff" hairs. The general colour of this
titi is reddish, but the crown of the head, the throat, and the inner surfaces of tlie
limbs are a mixture of black and grey. There is a varietj- known in \\liich the
fur is bright red.

This species has been obtained from Bahia, on the eastern side of equatorial
Bi-azil, but we have not come across any account of its habits, neither are we aware
that it has ever been brought alive to Europe.

The Saki Monkeys.

With tlie saki monkeys we come to a group containing only two genera, which,
while resembling the douroucolis and their allies in the non-prehensile character of
their tails, are distinguished from them (and likewise from all other American
monkeys) by the circumstance that all the front or incisor teeth of the lower
jaw, instead of being vei'tical, are inclined forwards. In this respect these monkeys
resemble the lemurs. Like the titis, they approximate to the howling monkeys
by having the sides of the hinder part of the lower jaw considerably expanded.

ilost of the sakis are characterised by having long hair on the crown of the
head, which may either be divided in the middle line, or may radiate from the

174

APES AXD MOXKEYS.

centre ; and they all have whiskers and a Ijeard, the latter being either broad and
single or separated by a division in the middle, and inclining back on either side.
While in some species, like Humboldt's saki, the long hair covers the head, body,
and tail ; in others this long hair is confined to the head, Avhere it may be present
on the crown, cheeks, and chin, or only on the two latter.

THE WHITE-HEADED SAKI {\ nat. size).

The headquarters of the sakis appear to be Guiana and the Valley of the
Amazon, although they are also found in other districts. Mr. Bates speaks of them
as being delicate animals, difficult to keep in cajjtivity. They are described as being
gentle and inoffensive in disposition when in confinement ; but we know very little
of their habits in the wild state, although it appears that they are normally silent.

The White-Headed S.\ki {Pithecia leucocephala).
The white-headed saki, of which we give a figure, is an inhabitant of

SAKI MONKE YS. 1 7 5

Guiana, and may be regarded as the typical representativ-e of the group. It is
characterised by its white or yellowish foreliead, marked by a central streak of
black, the rest of the long fur being black, and the individual hairs of the same
colour throughout. In common with the two following species, the hair on the
crown of the head is arranged in a radiated manner, the beard is broad and single,
and the tail clothed with long hair, which, like tliat on the body, is stiff and coarse

Humuoldt's Saki (Pithecia vionachusX

In the Amazon valley, as far M'est as Ecuador, the white-headed saki is re-
placed by a species distinguished by having no black streak down the middle of the
wliite or yellowish forehead, and also by the greater length of the hair covering the
head and body. This species is Hundjoldt's saki, also known as the hairy saki
{P. hirsuta), and — by the inhabitants of tiie Upper Amazon — as the parauacu. The
general colour is black with a grey grizzle, and the tip of each hair white. There
is, however, a paler varu-ty {P. ulbiaiiiK), in wliich the genei-al colour is greyish-
white, with only a large patch on the back anil the tail black, the individual liairs
being tipped with pure white, as in the ordinary variety.

When at Ega, far up on the Amazon, and at no ver}- great distance from the
frontier of Ecuador, Mr. Bates saw several specimens of this monkey. He describes
it as being "a timid, inoffensive creature, with a long bear-like coat of speckled grey
hair. The long fur hangs over the head, half concealing the pleasing, diminutive
face, and clothes also the tail to the tip, which member is well-developed, being
18 inches in length, or longer than the body. The parauacu is found on the
terra firma lands of the north shore of the Solimoens, from Tunantins to Peru.
It exists also on the soutli side of the river, namely, on the banks of the Tefte, but
there under a changed form, which differs a little from its type in colours." The
variety here alluded to is the whitish one, which we have already mentioned,
Mr. Bates goes on to .say that this saki is " a verj' delicate species, i-arely li\-ing
many weeks in captivity : but any one who succeeds in keeping it alive for a
month or two gains by it a mo.st affectionate pet." Our author then proceeds to
notice a specimen of the pale variety whicli belonged to a French inhabitant of
Ega. This animal " liccanie so tame in tiie course of a few weeks that it followed
him about the streets like a dog. My friend was a tailor, and the little pet used to
spend the greater part of the day seated on his shoulder, whilst he was at work on his
board. It showed, nevertheless, a great dislike to sti-angers, and was not on good terms
with any other member of my friend's household than himself. I saw no monkey that
showed so strong a personal attachment as this gentle, timid, silent little creature.
The eager and passionate cebi (sapajous) seem to take the lead of all the South
American monkeys in intelligence and docility, and the coaita (spider-monkey) has
perhaps the most gentle and impressible disposition ; but the parauacu, although
a dull, cheerless animal, excels all in this quality of capability of attachment to
individuals of our own species. It is not wanting, however, in intelligence as well
as moral goodness, proof of which was furnished one day by an act of our little pet.
My neighbour had fjuitted his house one morning without taking the parauacu
with him, and the little creature having mi.ssed its friend, and concluded, as it

176

APES AND MONKEYS.

seemed, that he would be sure to come to me, both being in the liabit of paj-ing me
a daily \-isit together, came straight to my dwelling, taking a short cut over gardens.
trees, and thickets, instead of going the roundabout way of the street. It liad never
done this before, and we knew the route it had taken only from a neiglibour having
watched its movements. On arriving at Tsxy house, and not finding its master, it
climbed to the top of my table, and sat with an air of quiet resignation waiting for

%3i-

HUMBOLDT'S SAKi (J uat. size).

him. Shortly afterwards my friend entered, and the gladdened pet then jumped to
its usual perch on his shoulder."

It would appear that this interesting little creature did not long survive, as its
skin was brought home by Mr. Bates, and is now preserved in the British Museum,
If the life of these sakis is thus short, when in comparatively free captivity in their
natiN'e land, it must be doubly .so when in our cold climate. We find this confirmed
by the record of the two which have been exhibited of late years in the London
Zoological Gardens, one of which was received on the 15th of Mayl8C6, and died on
the 2(3th of the following June.

The last representative of this group of sakis is the Brazilian
whiskered saki (P. rufiventer), wliicli is distinguished, among other
features, by the hairs being marked by a yellowish ring near the end. It is also
characterised in the adult state by the red colour of the under-parts, as well as by

Whiskered Saki.

SAKI MONKEYS.

177

the forehead being of the same greyish-black colour as the bodj-. The moustache
Ls yellow.

In the young of tliis species the moustache is white, while the uuder-parts of
the body are grey.

The Red-Backed Saki {Pithecia chiropoies).

Witli the red-backed siiki, wliicli was tirst obtained liy Humboldt on the banks
of the Urinoco, and also occurs in Guiana, we come to the first of another group of
tlie genus, distinguished in several points from all the species j-et described.

,..ll^^l^,#

^^.s^:^;;^--

THE BLACK SAKI (J Hat. sizej.

In the first place, the hair of the head, although ra<liating from a central point
in the young, in the adult is divideil by a median parting, and falls down on either
side. Then the long beai-d is divided by a gap in the middle of the chin into two
lateral moieties, while the fur on the body, instead of being long and harsh, is short
and soft. The tail also has shorter hair than in the last gi'oup, and is thick and
club-shaped. Finally, the hinder part of the lower jawbone is more expanded than
in the t^-pical group. The peculiar form of the neatlj'-divided and flattened hair
of the head gives these animals the appearance of wearing a wig.

The general colour of the fur in this saki is blackish-brown, but there is a
considerable area on the back and shoulders of a yellowish-red tint, from wliich the

VOL. I. —12

178 APES AND MONKEYS.

species derives its name. The tail is very thick and hnsliy, and the beard greatly
developed.

Humboldt describes the i-eil-backed .saki as " a robust, active, fierce, and un-
tamable animal ; when irritated it raises itself on the liinder extremities, grinds its
teeth, rubs the end of the beard violently, and darts upon the person who has
excited its displeasure. In conlinenient it is habitually melancholj'', and is never
excited to gaiety, except at the moment of receiving its favourite food. It seldom
drinks, but when it does so the operation is performed in a peculiar manner. Thus,
instead of putting its lips, after the manner of other monkeys, to the water or the
vessel containing it, this species convey.s it to its moutli in the hollow of the hand,
at the same time bending forwani its head. It is not, however, easy to witness tliis
singular trait of character, since the animal is unwilling to satisfj- its thirst when
watched or likely to be observerl." In their wild state the same tra\-eller relates
that these animals live only in pairs. Their voice, which is but seldom heard, is
described as a kind of disagreeable grunt.

Clo.sclv allied to the precedint: species is the one represented in
Black SaJri. , . ' j^ r- i

tlio figure on the previous page, (P. satanas), which is an inhabitant of

Brazil. It is readily distinguislied by the absence of the yellowish-red on the back

and shoulders : the whole of the fur being of a uniform blackish-brown colour,

generally tending to a more decided black in the males, and being browner in the

female. In a male example in the Paris Museum the back is bro^\Ti and the wig

black, while in a female both the back and the wig are more fulvous. Unusually

black individuals were described bj'^ Dr. Gray as a distinct species, under the name

of Chiropotes afer.

The black saki, or cuxio, as this species is termed in Brazil, appeai-s to be

restricted to the lower parts of the Amazon valle\'. It was observed bj^ Mr.

Bates at Cameta, on the southern side of the Amazon delta, and is stated to dwell

in the most retired parts of the forests, in regions where the groimd is not subject

to inundations. Tliis naturalist was, however, unable to learn anything as to its

habits in a wild state.

White-Nosed The last representative of these monkeys is the white-nosed

Saw. saki (p_ alhinasa), which is likewi.se an inliabitant of the dense forests

of the valley of the Amazon. It is of a deep black colour, with a paler tinge on

the tips of the hair, except on the nose, which is pure wliite, and thus renders the

animal easiljr recognisable.

The Uakari Moxkeys.

Genus Uacarla.

As we find among the monkeys of the Old World a great variation in regard to
the relative length of the tail in closely allied forms, so in the New World there is
a group of monkeys closely allied to the sakis, but distinguished by the extreme
shortness of tliis appendage : and therein diffei'ing from all the other American
monkej-s. From their peculiar coloration two of the uakaris, as these monkeys
are called, are among the most remarkable mammals in the world.

UAKARI MOXKEYS.

179

All the three species of uakari have lonp,- and silkj- hair, whicli is directeil
forwards ou the foreheail ; but tliey liave scarcely any distinct beard. The tail is
very shoi-t, never being more than aljout a tliirtl the length of the body, and some-
times being reduced to a mere stump. From the shortness of their tails they
received at tirst the very appropriate name Bmchyurus ; but since this term had
been previously applied to another group of animals it had to bo changed, and
Dr. Gray proposed the uncouth name Uacaria, as a Latinised form of their native

tJ« ■-

*^%g^fc^

THE BALD CVKAKI {Ij llat. size)

title. The shelving forwards of the lower incisor teetli, which we have already
noticed as characteristic of the sakis, is .still more mai'ked in the uakaris.

The Bald Uakaei ( UacaHa calva).

Tlio species represented in our figure is one of two closely allied monkeys
fouml in the valley of the Upper Amazon, and readily distinguisheil by their
brilliant scarlet faces, and the liglit colour of tlie long hair of their bodies. The
leng-th of the liead and body of this .species is about 18 inches; the whole of
the body, from the neck to the tail, being clothed with long, straight, and shining
hair of a whitish colour. The head is nearly bald, having only a very thin crop of
short grey liairs. Beneath the chin and on the sides of the face there are busliy
whiskers of a sandy colour; while the tint of the eyes is reddish-yellow. Tlie

I So APES AND MONKEYS.

contrast between these colours and tlio vivid scarlet of tlie naked part of the face
must be very striking when the animal is alive ; but, owing to the fugitive nature
of the face-pigment, all this is lost in iuusihuh specimens.

This monkey has an extremely limited distribution, being foinid only on the
left bank of the Amazon, in the neighbourhood of Ega; it« small area being
limited to the east by the River Japura, and to the west by the Puttuiiayo, or lea,
as it is often called Mr. Bates states that in this area the uakari " lives in small
troops amongst the crowns of the lofty trees, subsisting on fi-uits of various kinds.
Huntei-s saj' it is pretty nimble in its motions, but is not much given to leaping,
preferring to run up and down the larger boughs in travelling from tree to tree.
The mother, as in the other species of the monkej- order, carries her young on lier
back. Individuals are obtained alive by shooting them with the blow-pipe and
arrows tipped with diluted urari poison. They run a con.siderable distance after
being pierced, and it requires an experienced hunter to track them. He is
considered the most expert who can keep pace with a wounded one, and catch it
in his arms when it falls exhausted. A pinch of salt, the antidote to the poison,
is then put into its mouth, and the creature revives. The species is rare, even in the
limited district which it inhabits.

" Adult uakaris, caught in the way described, very rarely become tame. They
are pee\-ish and sulk}-, resisting all attempts to coax them, and biting any one who
ventures within reach. They have no particular cry, even when in their native
woods : in captivitj' they are quite silent. In the course of a few days or weeks,
if not carefully attended to, they fall into a listless condition, refuse food, and die.
Many of them succumb to a disease which I suppose from the symptoms to be
inflammation of the chest or lungs. The one which I kept as a pet died of this
disorder, after I had had it about tlu-ee weeks. It lost its appetite in a very few
days, although kept in an airy verandah : its coat, which was orginaUj' long,
smooth, and glossy, became dingj^ and ragged, like that of the specimens seen in
museums, and the bright .scarlet colour of its face changed to a duller hue. This
colour, in health, is spread over the features up to the i-oots of the hair on the
forehead and temples, and down to the neck, including the flabby cheeks, which
hang down below the jaws. The animal in this condition looks, at a short chstance,
as though some one had laid a thick coat of red paint on its countenance. The
death of my pet was slow ; during the last twenty-four hours it lay prostrate,
breathing ([uickly, its chest slowly hea^-ing ; the colour of its face became gradually
paler, but was still red Avhen it expired. As the hue did not quite di.sappear until
two or three hours after the animal was quite dead, I judged that it was not exclus-
ivelj^ due to the blood, but partly to a pigment beneath the skin, wliich would
probably retain its colour a short time after the circulation had ceased.

" After seeing much of the morose disposition of the uakari," continues Mr.
Bates, " I was not a little surprised one daj' at a friend's house to find an extremeh'
lively and familiar indiA-idual of this species. It ran from an inner chamber
straight towards me, after I had sat down on a chair, climbed my legs, and nestled
in my lap, turning round and looking up with the usual monkey's grin, after it
had matle itself comfortable. It was a young animal, which had been taken
when its n^other was shot with a poisoned arrow ; its teeth were incomplete, and the

UAKARI MONKEYS. ,8i

ftice \\';is pale and mottled, the glowiug scarlet hue not superveniui;- in these animals
before mature age ; it had also a few long black hairs on the eyebi'ows and lips.
The frisky little fellow had been reared in the house amongst the children, and
allowed to run about freely, and take its meals with the rest of the household.

" The uakari is one of tlie many species of animals which are classified by the
Brazilians as mortal, or of delicate constitution, in contradistinction to tho.se whicli
are dura, or hardy. A large proportion of the .specimens sent from Ega die before
arriving at Para, and scarcely one in a dozen succeeds in reaching Rio Janeiro
alive. The difficulty it has of accommodating itself to changed conditions probably
has some connection with the very limited range, or confined .sj^here of life, of the
species in its natural .state, its native homo being an area of swampy woods, not
more than about sixty .s(juare miles in extent, although no permanent barrier exists
to check its dispersal, except towards the south (where the Amazon Hows), over a
much wider space."

Mr. Bates then goes on to i-elate how he had a captive uakari on board his
vessel, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, which escaped into the forest. On the day
after its escape it, however, reappeared, and took up its accustomed position on the
vessel, having evidently discovered that the forests of the Rio Negro were by no
means so suited to its existence as those of the delta-lands of its native Japura
River. Uakaris are never known to descend of their own accord to the ground,
the forests inhabited by them being inundated during the greater part of the year.
Hence the .shortness of their tails is no indication of their habits being more
terrestrial than those of the loujjf-tailed .sakis.

Other Species.

Red-Faced On the western side of the Putumaycj River the bald uakari is

UakajL replaced by a closely allied species, known as the red-faced uakari
{U. ruhicanda), whicli appears to have an equally confined distributional area,
although the exact westei-n limits of its range are unknown. This uakari differs
from the preceding by the hair of the body and the limbs being of an almost
uniform rich deep chestnut hue, only becoming rather paler on the neck. This is
in marked contrast to the pale sandj' white, tending slightly to rufous, on the
under-parts and the inner surfaces of the limbs, characteristic of the bald-headed
uakari. Both species agree, however, in their brilliant scarlet faces, and in haviiig
hair of a rich chestnut tint beneath the throat ; and there can be no doubt but
that they are extremely closely related, and have acquii'ed their slight diftei-ences
of coloration by being now completely separated from one another, although
descended at no very distinct epoch from a common ancestor.
Black-Headed The most northerly representative of these monkeys is the

Uakari. black - headefl uakari (l\ 'iiwhinocepludd'), which is found in the
forests to the north of the Rio Negro, especially on tlie Cassiquiare and the Rio
Branco. It thus enters the basins of both the Amazon and the Orinoco, so that it
has a consideraljly larger distributional urea than either of the other species, from
both of which it is widely different in coloration.

The general colour is blackish, but the back and sides of the body are

l82

APES AND MONKEYS.

yellowish, while the loius, the outer surface of the thighs, and the tip of the tail
are reddish cliestnut : the face, hands, and feet being completely black.

i:ADED CAKABI.

The Howling Monkeys.
Genus Mycetes.

The liowling monkej''s, or howlei's, derive their name from their vociferous
cries, which are sufficient in the living condition to distinguish tliem from all the
other American monkeys. To produce this extraordinary noise — of M'hich more
anon — there is a peculiar hollow shell of bone joining on to the upper pai-t of the
windpipe, corresponding to the so-called hyoid bone of man, which is a very small
and solid structure. The resonance of the voice within tliis cavity communicates
to the crj^ its peculiar intensity. In order to provide space for this bony sliell
the sides of the lower jaw-bone are extremely deep, and by this character, as well
as by the extreme flatness of the part containing the brain, the peculiar skull may
alwaj's be recognised. A front view of the head of a liowler is given in the wood-
cut on the next page, to illustrate the fonn of the nostrils in the American monkeys.

The liowlers differ from the two preceding groups, and agree with the spider-
monkej's and their allies, in liaving prehensile tails, in which the under surface of
the extremity is naked. In addition to the presence of the large bonj- .swelling
at the top of the windpipe, they uiay be at once distinguished from all other
prehensile-tailed monkeys by the extreme obliquity of the plane of the face and

HO U -LIXG MONKEYS.

183

^J^^

the projecting muzzle. This obliquit\- of tlie face is connected with the tiattening
of the liinder part of the skull, already referred to ; and is so marked that the
profile inclines backwards almost in a straight line from the muzzle to the crown.
Like all American monkej-s, except the spider-monkej'S and some of their allies, the
howlers have well-developed thumbs. Their face is naked, with the muzzle very pro-
jecting : the naked parts being surrounded \y\ a fringe of long liair on the forehead,
cheeks, and chin. On the forehead tliis long hair may be directed either backwards
or forwards, but tliat of the whiskers and beard always liangs down. The hair of
the body, although shorter than that surrounding the face, is relatively long.

The howlers are especiallj' abundant in Brazil, but they also range into Central
America. They are represented \>y a considerable number of species, but since
those are chiefly distinguished from one another hy the colour of tlieir hair, and
there is considerable individual and sexual
variation in this respect, it is in some cases
difficult to decide as to which variations we
ought to regard as indicating distinct species,
and which merely as local races. The food of
these monkeys is stated to consist entirely of
leaves.

Humboldt .says that, when travelling in
the neighbourhood of the Oi-inoco, the risintr of
the sun was always heralded by the cries of
the howler.s. Fretjuently tliis traveller and his
companion, Bonpland, observed troops of them
moving slowly in procession from ti'ee to tree.
A male was always followed by a number of
females, several of the latter bearing their
young on their shoulders. The uniformity
with which they perform their movements is
described as being very remarkable. According
to the observations of Humboldt, as detailed
by one of his biogra])hers, whenever the
branches of neighbouring trees do not touch
one another, the male, who leads the party,
suspends himself by the naked prehensile part
of his tail, and, letting fall the re.st of his body, swings himself till in one of his
oscillations he reaches the neighbouring branch. The whole file performs the same
movements on the same spot. The Indians told the travellei's that when these
monkej's filled the forests Avith their howling there was always one that chanted,
as leader of the chorus. During a long interval one solitary and strong voice
was generally distinguished, till its place was taken by another of a diflferent pitch.

Writing in relation to a .specimen of one of the.se monkeys, brought to him
when travelling on the Lower Amazon, Mr. Bates observes that " the howlers
Hi'e the only kind of monkeys which the natives have not succeeded in taming.
Thej' are often caught, but thej^ do not survive captivity many weeks. The one
of which I am speaking (apparently a female of the black howler), was not quite

HEAD OF THE VERA CBUZ HOWLING MONKEY.
(From Sdater, Proc. Zool. Soc.)

1 84

AFES ASB MOXKEYS.

full-grown. It measured 16 inches in length, exclusive of the tail ; the whole
body was covered with long and sluning dingj'-white hair, tlie whiskers and beard
only being of a tawny hue. It was kept in a Ik^usc, together with a coaita and a
caiarara mouke}' {Cebiis albifronis). Both these liveh' members of the monkey order
seemed rather to court attention, but the howler slunk away when any one ap-
proached it. When it first arrived, it occasional]}- made a gruff' subdued howling

i§'i:^>^sj{!/i..Jt

THE BLACK HOWLEB (J n.lt. size).

noise early in tlie morning. The deep volume of sound in the voice of the howling
monkeys, as is well known, is produced by a drum-shaped exjjansion of the larynx.
It was curious to watch the animal while venting its hollow cavernous roar, and
observe how small was the muscular exertion employed. When howlers are seen
in the forest, there are generally three or four of them mounted on the topmost
branches of a tree. It does not appear that their harrowing roar is emitted from
sudden alarm : at lea.st, it was not so in captive individuals. It is probable, how-
ever, that the noise serves to intimidate their enemies."

HOWLING MONKEYS. 185

The Black Howler {Mycetes caraya).

\Vc select as our first example of that group of howlers iu which tiic hair of
the forehead is directed forwards so as to overhang the eyes, and the crown of the
head is smooth, with radiating hairs, the black howler, either a young male or
female of which is alluded to in tlie passage cited above.

It is a native of Brazil. The adult males have their fur mainly of a uniform
bhick colour, interspersed with red hairs on the flanks and loins. The females
and j'oung males are of a dingy white, and were described as belonging to a distinct
species, under tlie name of M. straminetis. At one time there were young males of
the black howler in the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, which actually clianged fi-om
the white into the black .state. Mr. Bates's exainjjle was obtained on the Madeira
River, the largest southern tributary of the Amazon.

The yellow-handed howler (J/, hdzehul) is another Brazilian representative of
this group, wliicli has been known since the time of Liunajus. It appears to \&vy
considerably in colour, so that one variety was desci'ibed as a distinct species {M.
jiavimanus). According to the late Dr. Gray, tlie general colour of i\w fui- may be
either uniform black or reddish, with some brown hairs on the shoulders ; but the
hands and feet, as well as a line running down the middle of the upper surface of
the tail, the tip of the same, together with a spot in front of each ear, and another
on the knee, are invariably reddish-yellow. Mr. Bates states that the variety
which is reddish coloured all over is the prevalent tj^pe of howler in Para, on the
southern side of the delta of the Amazon ; while in the island of Marajo, or Macajo,
in the middle of the delta, this fonu is replaced bj' the darker one with yellowisli
hands and feet.

The red-anil-yclKnv limvler (M. aandas) is a third .species from Brazil bchnig-
ing to this group, in wliich the general colour is dark chestnut-brown, witli the
back and sides golden yellow, and the bear<l somewhat darker. Dr. Gray also
applied distinct names to two other Brazilian howlers.

Other Species.

Vera Cruz As the black howler is the most southerly representative of the

Howler. genus, so M. villosus, the Vera Cruz howler (of which tlie head is

figured on p. 183) is its most northerly example. This S23ecies dift'ers from tlie

black howler by its long soft hairs, which near tiieir bases show a rufescent tinge,

iu the hair of the face being inclined forwards instead of reversed, and also in the

colour of the female and young being black, like that of the male.

The red or golden howler (31. senieulus) is perhaps the best-
Eed Howler. =. . , • , xi f • • v x i i

known representative of the group in which the hair is bent back

so as to fonu a ridge across the centre of the crown of the head. The general
colour is a reddish-chestnut, but golden-yellow in the middle of the back. It
appears that in young indi\-iduals the hairs are short and stiff', without any under-
fur, and uiiifonnlj- coloured throughout their length. In older individuals, how-
ever, they become long, soft, and silk}', and are brown at the roots, and golden or

i86 APES AND MONKEYS.

chestnut - coloured at their tips ; wliiU' at tlie same time a thick under - I'ui- is
developed. It was old individuals with this long silky kind of hair that Dr. Gray
described as a distinct species, under the name of the silky howler (J/, laniycr).

This liowler appears to be mainly a northern form, occurring in Colombia
on the west, and in Guiana on the east side of South America; while, according to
Mr. Bates, who describes its fur as being of a shining yellowish-red colour, it is the
sole representative of the howlers in the Upper Amazon valley. It also occurs in
Ecuador ; and, according to Dr. Gray, is represented by a pale variety in Bolivia.

The red howler is one of the two species of this genus that have been exhibited
in the Gardens of the London Zoological Society. It is, however, difficult to keep
alive for any length of time, and of two specimens received from the Dekka River,
near Cartagena, on August 28th, 1863, the one died on September 25th, and the other
on October 7th of the same year. Wiiting of these howlers, which he states are
known to the natives as ouarines, and on the Demerara in Guiana are commonly
known as red monkeys, the ti'aveller Charles Waterton states " that nothing can
sound more dreadful than the nocturnal bowlings of this red monkey. Whilst
lying in your hammock amiil these gloomy and innneasurable wilds, you hear him
howling at intervals from eleven o'clock at night till daybreak. You would
suppose that half the wild beasts of the forest were collecting for the work of
carnage. Now it is the tremendous roar of the jaguar, as he springs upon his
prey ; now it changes to his terrible and deep-toned growlings, as he is pressed ou
all sides by superior force ; ami now you hear his last dying groan ])eneath a
mortal wound. Some naturalists have supposed that these awful sounds, which
you would fancy are those of enraged and dying wild beasts, proceed from a
number of red monkeys howling in conceii;. One of them alone is capable of pro-
ducing all these sounds; and the anatomists, on an inspection of his trachea
(windpipe), will be fully satisfied that this is the case. When you look at him, as
he is sitting on the branch of a tree, you will see a lump in his throat the size of a
hen's egg. In dark and cloudy weather, and just before a shower of rain, this
monkey will often howl in the day-time ; and if you advance cautiously, and get
under the high and tufted trees where he is sitting, you may have a capital oppor-
tunity of witnessing his wonderful powers of producing these dreadful and dis-
cor<lant sounds. Thus one single solitary monkey, in lieu of having others to sit
down an<l listen to him, according to tlie report of travellers, has not even one
attendant. Once I was fortunate enough to smuggle myself under the very tree,
on the higher branches of wliich was perched a full-grown red monkey. I saw his
huge mouth open ; I saw the protuberance on his inflated throat ; and I listened
with extreme astonishment to sounds which might have had their origin in the
infernal regions."

The brown howler (il/. ursiniis) is a Brazilian species, apparently
found only or chiefly south of the Amazon. Its u.sual colour is a
blackish-brown, moi'e or less washed with j-ellow: and some varieties are almost
entii-ely yellow, tliis being most marked on the limbs and tail. The howler
described as M. fancufi, of which specimens have been exhibited in the London
Zoological Society's Gardens, is regarded by Dr. Gray merely as a variety of this
species. It has been observed that the specimens of this monkey from the more

FOSSIL AMERICAN MONKEYS.

187

Mantled Howler.

northerly regions of Brazil are rufous or ferruginous in colour, while the females
and those from the more southern regions are brown or blackish-bi'own. This
species is very closely allied to the red howler.

In Costa Eica, and probably also in other districts of Central
America, the howling monkeys are represented by a veiy well-
marked species, known as the mantled howler (il/. iKdliatus). This animal is
characterised by the presence of a fringe of long brownish-yellow hair running
along the lower part of the flanks, so as to form a kind of mantle on each
side of the body. The general colour of the fur is blackish-brown, the hairs
on the middle of the back, as well as on the upper parts of the sides, being
yellowish-bi-own, with black tips.

F0.SSIL American Monkeys.

In previous chapters we have seen how all the fossil uionkej-s of tiie Old World
are more or less closely allied to the recent monkeys of that half of the
globe, none of them showing any signs of closer
affinity with their western cousin.s. The .same holds
good with regard to the extinct monkeys which have
left their remains in the great caverns of Brazil, or
in the fresh-water superficial deposits which cover
such large areas of country in Argentina and other
parts of South America ; all these belonging either to
existing genera, and in some cases even species, of
American monkej-s, or to extinct types of the same
great family.

At tlie time when the huge ground-sloths known
as megatheres and mylodons roamed over the pampas
of South America, the forests of Brazil re-echoed as
now with the cries of howling monkej's, apparently
identical with the species still living ; while titis and
sapajous are known to have existed at the same

epoch, and remains of other living genei'a will doubtless also be found in the same
deposits, which belong to what geologists term the Pleistocene period. At the same
time, with these existing genera there also lived a totally extinct genus of monkeys,
known by the name of Protopithecus. These monkeys appear to have been nearly
related to the modern howlers, but were considerably larger than anj' living
American monkey. In Argentina and Patagonia remains of monkeys, apparently
belonging to this family, occur in much older strata, which have been con-elated
with the Eocene rocks of Europe. Marmosets are likewise represented in the
superficial South American deposits.

UPPER AND tilUE VIEWS UF LuWEU JAW
OF AMERICAN TERTIARY MONKEY

(.ffOT«Knc«/KS.)— After Amegliiiio.

CHAPTER VI.

Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs, — continued.

The Marmosets.

Family Hapalid.^.

The last, and at the same time the smallest, of all the true Primates are the
tiny and beautiful little creatures popularly known as marmosets and tamarins.
Tliese elegant little animals, many of which are much smaller than a squirrel, are
confined to Soutli and Central America, and, although agreeing in many points with
the American monkeys (Cehidce), yet differ in so many others as to render it necessary
to refer them to a distinct family.

The most important point by wliich the marmosets are distinguished from the
American monkeys relates to their teeth. It will be remembered that the American
monkeys are distinguished from all their Old World cousins by having thirty-si.x
in place of thirty -two teeth ; the increase being due to the presence of an additional
bicuspid or premolar on either side of each jaw. Now, if we take the skull of a
marmoset and count its teeth, we shall find that their number is the same as in the
Old World monkeys, viz. tliirty-two. If, however, we carefully compare the cheek-
teeth with those of an Old World monkey, we shall find that there is a veiy
important point of difference. Thus, whereas in an Old World monkey there are
on each side of both the upper and the lower jaw two bicuspids or premolars (teeth
whicli are preceded by milk-teeth) and three molars, we shall find that in our
marmoset there are three premolars and only two molars. That is to say, in place
of there being two cheek-teeth with a pair of cusps on the crown, which are pre-
ceded by milk-teeth, and three teeth with four cusps which are not so preceded,
there are three of the former type and only two of the latter. Altliough, then, a
marmoset agrees with an Old World monkey in the total number of its teeth, yet
in the much more important character of the nundDer of premolars it resendjles
an American monkey, from whicli it differs by the comparatively unimjiortant
feature of the loss of tlie last molar in each jaw. A marmoset may, indeed, be
defined as a small American monkey wliich has lost its wisdom teeth; and
the dentition of the.se animals maybe expressed by the formula i%, c\,p^,m%;
total m.

The next most impurtaut feature iu wliieli the marmosets differ from tlie true
American monkeys is tliat, with the exception of the great toe, all their fingers and
toes are furnished with pointed claws, instead of more or less flattened nails ; this
cliaracter, like the presence of the additional premolar tooth in each jaw, clearly
allying them to the lower types of Mammals. It is in this group, moreover, that

MARMOSETS.

189

we for the first time fiml the tail rinrjed with alternate dark and lio-ht bands ; a
feature occurring also in the lemurs, ami in some of the lower Mammals. As in the
American monkeys, the tluunli of the hand cannot be opposed to the lingers, neither
are there naked callosities on the buttocks, nor are there pouches in the cheeks.
None of the marmosets have prehensile tail.s. Their hind-limbs are always con-
siderably larger and more robust than the front ones, and the great toe is invari-

MARMOSETS — (1) COMMON MARMOSET, (i) BLACK-TAILED MARMOSET, (3) BLACK-EARED MARMOSET {\ liat. sizp).

ably of such small dimensions that, in a literal sense of the term, it has no sort of
right to its name.

Many of the marmosets have the ears fringed with long pencils of hairs, which
give them a very peculiar and unmistakable appearance. Both in .size and habits
they are more like squirrels than monkeys, and they climb in the same way.
They are, indeed, essentially arboreal animals, .subsisting not only on fruits,
but likewise to a large extent on insects. As we shall see later on, marmosets
usually live in small parties, and all of them appear to be gentle in disposition.

igo APES AXD MOXKEYS.

although frequentl}' requiring a considerable amount of trouble and patience before
they can be tameil. Whereas other monkej-s usually give birth to but a single
young one at a time, marmosets normally have littei-s of two or three: ami in this
respect, therefore, show decided signs of their aflinity with animals of inferior rank
in the zoological scheme. They retain, however, the exjjressive and mobile faces
characteristic of the higher monkeys.

There are a large number of kinds of marmosets, although there is still some
iincertainty as to how many are entitled to rank as valid species. The whole of
them are verj' similar in general appearance, but they maj' be convenienth^ divided
into two irenera, accordinir as to whether the lower tu.sks or canine teeth are or not
longer than tiie fi-ont teeth or incisors.

The Short-Tcsked Marmosets.
Genus Hapale.

The marmosets of this group are characterised by the tusks not being longer
than the incisoi"s in the lower jaw, so that all the teeth present an even series. It
is only in this genus that we meet with species in winch the hair of the tail is
marked by darker and lighter rings.

Common The common marmoset, or ouistiti {H. jricchus\ is one of the

Marmoset, best and longest known membei-s of the family, haWng been first
described by Linnaeua It is an inhabitant of Brazil, more especially the south-
eastern regions of that country, and belongs to a gi-oup in which the ears are large
and bald over the gi-eater part of their expanse, but furnished with a pencil of
long hail's, which forms an expanded tuft on the front edge of their aperture ;
the hair on the sides of the crown of the head being likewnse elongated The tail
is alternatelv ringed with bands of black and white, and the back has likewise
darker and lighter cross-bands.

The common marmoset, which is represented in the left figure of the woodcut
on p. 189, is of a generallj- blackish colour, the back and outer surfaces of the
thighs being mai'ked with transvei-se bands of srrev, and the head havini; a white
spot on the upper part of the nose. The especial point of distinction is, however,
that while the head is black and white, the tufts of hair on the eai-s are pure white.

The contrast between the black face and the wliite ear-tufts gives a very
peculiar expression to this animal, reminding us somewhat of a white-haired negro.
It is frequently brought to tliis country as a pet, and its beha\-iour in captivity
has been many times described.

The following account of the habits of a favovirite ouistiti is given by a writer
in Loudon's Magazine of Natural History for the year 1829. This specimen was
procured at Bahia, and at first it is described as being " exceedingly bold and
fierce, screeching most vehementlj- when anj'one dared to approach it. . . . It was
long before it was so reconciled even to those who fed it as to allow the slightest
libertj' in the way of touching or patting its body : and it was almost impossible
to do this by surprise, or bj' the most quiet and cautious approach, as the monkey

MARMOSETS. 19,

was not steady a moment, but was constantly tiu-ning its head round from side to
side, eyeing every person with the most suspicious and angry look. Its sense of
hearing apjiearcd to be excessively acute, so that the slightest whisper was sure
to arouse it. The voice of this little animal was peculiarly sharp and disagi-eeable,
consisting of a very quick succession of harsh and shrill sounds (imitated by the
name ouistiti), so loud, that thej^' might be heard from the remotest part of the
ship.

" For a considerable time there was no evident change in its habits, as it
continued to be nearly as wild as when I tirst got it, ami showed none of the
playfulness and vivacity which characterise most of tlie monkey tribe. As ion"-
as the fruit which we had on board lasted, it would cat nothing else; but, when
these failed, we soon discovered a most agreeable substitute, which it appeared to
relish above everytliing. By chance we observed it devouring a large cockroach
whicli it ha<l caught running along the deck of the vessel; and from this time
till nearly the end of the voyage — a space of four or five weeks — it fed almost
exclusively on these insects, and contributed most effectually to rid the vessel of
them. It fre(piently ate a score of the lai-gest kind, which are 2 or 2i inches
long, and a very great number of the smaller ones, two or three times in the course
of the daj". It was quite amusing to see it at its meal. When lie had got hold of
one of the large cockroaches, he held it in his fore-paws, and then invariably
nipped the head off first ; he then pulled out the viscera and cast them aside, and
<k'voured the rest of the body, rejecting the dry elytra and wings, and also the
legs of the insect, which are covered with short, stiff bri.stles. The small cock-
roaches he ate without such fa.stidious nicety. In addition to the.se, we gave him
milk, sugar, rai.sins, and crumbs of bread. Hitherto tlie weather was warm, the
thermometer never being below Go' or GO Fahr.; but as we reached a moi-o
northern latitude, and approached England, the change of temperature affected
the nionkej' very considerably, and now he would not even touch the cockroaches
when given to him : the hair, especially that on the tail, fell off; and, at the end
of the voyage, this organ was almo.st (juite bare and naked. He kept constantly
in the kennel, rolling himself up in a piece of flannel, which had been put in for
warmth, except when he could reach a sunny part of the deck, where he might
bask in the heat. There was a considerable continuance of cold north-easterly
winds, the thermometer ranging as low as from 42' to 86°, and as the monkey ate
little or nothing, and was quite inactive, I hardly expected to have kept it alive.

" When I got it on shore I kept it for some days in a warm room ; it gradually
recovered its nimbleness, running about the room, and dragging its kennel after
it. Even then it would not eat any insects, and its food consisted of milk and
crumbs of bread ; it was particularly fond of any sweet preserve, as jelly, and of
ripe fresh fruits."

Mr. Bates, who compares the ouistiti to a kitten, banded with black and
grey all over the body and tail, and having a fringe of long white hairs around
the ears, only observed this marmoset in the neighbourhood of Para. On a certain
occasion he observed one of these animals comfortably seated on the shoulders
of a mulatto girl, whom he met walking in Para ; and, on inquiry, learnt that it
had been captured in the island of Jlarajo, at the mouth of the Amazon.

192

APES AND MONKEYS.

Another closely allied form from Brazil has been named the white-necked
marmoset (H. albicoUis), and is distinguished from the common form merely by
the circumstance that the hinder part of the head and the back of the neck are
grey instead of black.

Black Eared In South-Eastern Brazil there is yet a third nearly related form.

Marmoset, known as the black-eared marmoset {H. pfnicUlata), of which a
representation is gi\'en in the right-hand tigures of the illustration on page 189.
The distinctive feature of this marmoset is to be found- in the circumstance that
not only the whole of the head and neck, but likewise the tufts of long hairs on
the ears, are completely black.

There are other varieties or species, differing somewliat from either of the

al>ove in tlie coloration of the liead and ears.

White-Eared The white-oared marmoset (H. auritu), wliich i.s likewise a

iiarmoset. Brazilian species, is the representative of a second gi'oup, in which the

pencil of liairs on the ears is inuch more slender than in the common marmoset,

while the hair on the back is
generallj'^ somewhat speckled, al-
though faint traces of banding are
occasionally observable. The tail
is ringed like that of the common
marmoset.

The general colour of this
marmoset is blackish, minutelj-
speckled with yellow or a reddish
tint on the back ; the sides of the
head, the limbs, and the hinder
part of the body being pure black ;
while the crown of the head is
brown, and a spot on the forehead,
as well as the tufts on the ears,
are grey. In sonie instances, wliere
the back is more decidedly red
than usual, there are faint, paler
cross - bands in this region, and
more especially on the loins.

The white - shouldered mar-
moset (H. humeralifer) is a closelj'
allied Brazilian form, distinguished
by the face, shoulders, chest, and
arms, as well as the tufts on the ears, being white ; the thighs being a mixture of
brown and white in colour.

With the silver marmoset of Brazil (H. eJirywIeucus) we come
to the iirst of three species, distinguished from those yet noticed
either bj' the absence of rings of colour on the tail, or by the arrangement or
absence of the longer haii-s on the ears. They are all tiny little creatures, not
much larger than a rat, and have no bands of colour on the back.

f 4

THE SIL^"ER MARMOSET.

Silver Marmoset.

MARMOSETS. 193

The silver marmoset has large and nearly naked ears, covered on both sides
near the margin with long hairs, forming a double fringe instead of a pencil.
The fur of tliis elegant little creature is soft and silky, and either pure wliite or
yellowish-wliite in colour. In the white variety the limbs and tail are, however,
invariably yellowish : while in the variety in which the fur of the bodj- is yellowish,
that covering the limbs, tail, and under-parts may be chestnut-brown. Tliese two
varieties were regarded by Dr. Gray as distinct species, but this is not generally
admitted by other M^riters.
Black-Tailed This species {H. melanura) is reaihl}- distinguished from the

Marmoset, preceding by the absence of the fringe of hairs on the large and flesh-
coloured ears, and likewise by the black tail. Usually the general colour of the
fur is ashy-brown, paler on the front of the body, and whitish on the front of the
thitfhs and loins : while the head and limbs are dark brown. There is, however,
a variety which is entirely white, with the exception of the characteristic black tail.
It is represented in the top figure of the illustration on p. 197.

Of this species, wliich he mentions under the name of Midas argentatus,
Mr. Bates writes that it is one of the rarest of the American marmosets.
" Indeed," says this writer, " I have not heard of its being found anywhere except
near Cameta, where I once saw three iiidi\iduals, looking like so many white
kittens, running along a branch in a cacao grove ; in their motions they precisely
resembled the M. ursulus," of which a descrii)tion is given later on. "I saw after-
wards a pet animal of this species, and heard that thei'e were many so kept, and
that they were esteemed as great treasures. The one mentioned was full-grown,
although it measured only 7 inches in length of bo<I\'. It was covered with
long, white, silky hail's ; the tail being blackish and the face flesh-coloured. It was
a most timid and sensitive little tiling. The woman who owned it carried it
constantly in her bosom, and no money would induce her to part Avith her pet.
She called it Mico (the native name of these animals). It fed from her mouth, and
allowed her to fondle it freel}^ but the nervous little creature would not permit
strangers to touch it. If any one attempted to do so, it shrank back, the wliole
body trembling with fear, and its teeth chattered whilst it uttered its tremulous
frightened tones. The expression of its features was like that of its more robui-t
brother, M. ursulus; the eyes, wliich were black, were full of curiosity and
mistrust, and were always kept fixed on the person who attempted to advance
towards it."

The third and last of the three diminutive species constituting
Pigmy Marmoset. . . , / ir \ i • i • ri ■

this group is the pigmy marmoset, (//. pyfjmcua) whicli is likewise

found in the primeval forest regions of Brazil. This species is distinguished

by the smaUness of its shoi-t ears, which, although slightly hairy on their outer

surface, have no tuft or fringe of long hairs, and are entirely concealed beneath

the backwardly -directed and elongated fur of the croAvn of the head. A further

distinction is to be found in the presence of darker and lighter rings on the tail.

The general colour of the body is a tawny or ferruginous brown, more or less

varied with black and red on the back ; the neck, under-parts, and inner surfaces

of the limbs being yellowish, and the hands and feet yellowish-brown.

Three specimens of the pigmy marmoset were obtained by Mr. Bates on the

VOL. I. — 13

it)4

APES AND MONKEYS.

upper Amazon, at San Paulo, near Ega. Thej' are described as measuring only
7 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. The tiny little face is furnished with long
brown whiskers, brushed back over the ears ; the general colour of the body being
brownish-tawny, but the tail elegantly ringed with black. 3Ir. Bates adds, that
this marmoset ranges as far north as Mexico, and is the only Amazonian primate
that wandei-s far from the great river plain. The silky marmoset has, however,
also been x-ecorded from Mexico.

THE PrNCHE \\ nat. s:\Vi).

The Loxg-Tusked Marmosets, or Tamarixs.

Genus Midas.

The mai-mosets of this gi-oup are at once distinguished from those of the
preceding genvis by the circumstance that the tusks, or canine teeth, of the lower
jaw are considerably longer than the front, or incisor teeth ; so that the whole
series of lower teeth does not present the even and regular height characteristic of
the short-tusked marmosets. Why Buffon applied the name tamarin to one
member of this group, we are vmaware ; but it has been subsequently very
generally adopted for two of the species, and is a short and convenient name by
which to designate the entire genus. None of the tamarins have pencilled ears :
neither, as we have already mentioned, have thej' ringed tails, although some of
the species have the back marked with dark and light ci-oss-bands.

. The Xegro Tamarix (Midas ursidus).

One of the liest known of all the species is the common or negro tamarin, which
is found in C4uiana and the lower part of the Amazon valley. It belongs to a
group in wliich both the forehead and face are hairj-, and the hair of the head

MARMOSEIS. 195

not loni;iT tluui that of the body: the ears beiiio- lar<;-e and naked. Tlie colour is
a nearly uniform black, especially on the nose, lips, and hands ; but the hinder
part of the body has the fur more or less mottled with greyish-white. Although
not known as a distinct .sj^ecies at the time of Linnajus, this marmoset was described
by the early French naturalists, and distinguished by Butfon as the Tamarin negre.
Mr. Bates writes that the negro tamarin " is never seen in large flocks, three or
four being the greatest number observed together. It seems to be less afraid of
the neighbourhood of man than smy other monkey. I sometimes saw it in the
woods which border the suburban streets [of Para], and once I espied two individuals
in a thicket behind the English consul's house at Nazareth. Its mode of progression
along the main boughs of the lofty trees is like that of the squirrel ; it does not
ascend to the slender branches, or take the wonderful flying leaps which the Cehidce
do, whose prehensile tails and flexible hands tit them for .such headlong travelling.
It ccmtines itself to the larger boughs and trunks of trees, the long nails being of
gi-eat assistance to the creature, enabling it to cling securely to the bark ; and it is
often seen passing rapidly round the perpendicular cylindrical trunks. It is a
quick, timid, restless little creature, and has a great share of curiosity, for when a
person passes by under the ti-ees along wliich a flock is running, they also stop for
a few moments to have a .stare at the intruder. In Para, M. nrsulun is often seen
in a tame state in the houses of the inhabitants. When full grown it is about 9
inches long, independently of the tail, which measures 15 inches. The fur is
thick, and black in colour, with the exception of a reddish-brown streak down the
middle of the back. When first taken, or when kept tied up, it is very timid and
irritable. It will not allow itself to be approached, but keeps retreating backwards
when any one attempts to coax it. It is always in a querulous humour, uttering a
twittering, complaining noise ; its dark, watchful eyes, expressive of distrust,
observant of every movement which takes place near it. When treated kindly,
however, as it generally is in the houses of the natives, it becomes very tame and
familiar. I once saw one as playful as a kitten, running about the house after the
negro children, who fondled it to their hearts' content. It acted somewhat difl'er-
entl}' towards strangers, and seemed not to see them seated in the hanunock which
was slung in the room, leaping up, tr^'ing to bite, and otherwise annoj'ing them.
It is generally fed on sweet fruits, such as the banana ; but it is also fond of
insects, especially soft-bodied .spiders and grasshoppers, which it will snap up with
eagerness when witliin reach. The expression of countenance in these small
monkeys is intelligent and pleasing. This is partly due to the small facial angle,
which is given as 60° ; but the quick movements of the head, and the way they
have of inclining it to one side when their curiosity is excited, contribute very
much to give them a knowing expression."

Allied Species.

RedHanded This species (]\f. rufimanus), which is the true tamarin of Buflbn,

Tamarin. j^. ^n inhabitant of Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, and difl'ers from the
preceding by its yellowish or orange-red hands : its habits being, doubtless, precisely
similar. Like the negro tamarin, it has been exhibited alive in England.

196 APES AND MONKEYS.

Brown-Headed The brown-headed tamariu (J/, fiavifrons) is the Brazilian

Tamarin. reijresentative of several species or varieties distinguished from the
two preceding forms by the face being brownish, with a few grey hairs, although
the nose still remains black. The general colour is black, with a white mottling
on the hinder part of the back; the head being pale brown, with some black
markings. In the male the outer surface of the limbs generally has a bright
rufous tinge, while tlie under-parts and tlie inner surfaces of the limbs are
reddish-brown. The so-called black-and-red tamarin (J/, rufoniger) would appear
to be only a brighter coloured variety of this .species, in which the back, loins,
thighs, and legs are of a bright chestnut-red. It occurs in Brazil, and appears to
have been met with by 3Ir. Bates on the upper Amazon in the neighbourhood of
Ega. In referring to the marmoset, provisionally identified with this form, this
traveller writes as follows : — " One day, wliilst walking along a forest pathway, I
saw one of these lively little fellows miss his grasp as he was passing from one
tree to another along with his troop. He fell head-foremost from a height of at
least fifty feet, but managed cleverly to alight on his feet in the pathway ; quickly
turning round, he gave me a good stare for a few moments, and then bounded off
gaily to climb anotlier tree." Mr. Bates adds that the habits of this animal are
precisely the same as those of the negi'o tamarin.

Deville's tamarin (Jf. derillei), from Peru, is another nearly related species,
with tlie head, neck, front of the back, fore-liudjs, and tail black ; the hinder part
of tlie back marked with gi'ey and black ti-ansverse bars: and tlie loins and legs
hriglit cliestnut-red.
Moustached This curious little creature {M. mystax) belongs to a well-

Tamarin. marked group of two or three species readily recognised bj' having
the tip of the nose and the Jips covered with white hairs, giving a veiy peculiar
look to the face. It is found in the ujiper Amazon valley, both in Brazil and
Peru. It is black, with a brownish tinge on the back and thighs ; the white hairs
on the nose and lips being long, and forming a broad tuft. Mr. Bates, who met
with this species on the upper Brazilian Amazon, near Tabatinga, says that, when
seen from a short distance, it looks exactly as though it were holding a ball of
snow-white cotton in its teeth.

The red-bellied tamarin {M. lahudas) is an allied upper Amazonian species,
with a veiy smooth and glossy coat, of a deep Ijlackish-brown colour on the back ;
while the under-])arts are a mixture of rich black and reddish hues. The white
hairs on the nose and lips are much shorter and less conspicuous than in the
moustached tamarin ; those on their lips merety forming a thin line on the margins,
instead of a distinct tuft.

The Pin'che {Midas aidipios).

In Colombia (New Gi'anada) and Panama the tusked mannosets are represented
by two closely allied species differing in certain points from all the sjjecies found
in the more southerly or easterly regions. Both have the face and sides of the
head but sparsely haired, while there is a distinctly marked patch of hair different
from the rest on the crown of the head, and the hair on the neck is elongated.

MAR^fOSETR.

197

The present species is restricted to Colombia, and has been long known in
Europe; it received its name of Pinche — on what grounds we know not — from the
French naturalist Bufibn. It is represented in our illustration on p. 194, and is of a
greyish-bi-o^\na colour on the back ; the outer surface of the limbs and the I'oot of
the tail being tinged with red, while the long tuft of hair which forms a crest on

;«S^

SILKY MARMOSETS (J nat. size).

the top of the head, as well as the throat, under-parts. arms, and the front of the
legs, are white ; the tip of the tail being black.

Geofii-oy's marmoset (J/, geqrfroyi), which is the representative of the Pinche
in Panama, is distinguished from that species by the hair on the crown of the
head not being elongated into a crest, but being short, and forming a narrow
patch of an oblong shape. Its coloration is very nearl}^ the same as that of
the Pinche, with the exception that the hair on the nape of the neck is chestnut-
coloured.

198 APES AXD MONKEYS.

The Silky ^Iarmoset (Midaf! rosalia).

The last group of the marmosets is represented by the well-known silky mar-
moset, shown in the figure on the preceding page, and the golden-headed marmoset ;
both of which inhabit the forests of South-Eastem Brazil, and are conmionly
exhibited in the menageries of Europe. They are cUstinguished by having the
head and part of the neck covered vrith. long hair, forming a kind of mane;
the hair round the face being directed backwanls. The face itself is but sparsely
haired ; and the naked ears are partly concealed by the mane. The colour is a
bright golden yellow, more or less tinged ■with red ; but there is a variety in which
the head, hands, and feet, as well as the end of the tail, are blackish.

The silky marmoset was known to Buffon under the name of the 3Iarikina ;
and has also been described as the lion mannoset {M. leoninus). Mr. Bates,
who alludes to it under the latter name, which is due to the long mane of brown
liair hanging from the neck giving it very much the appearance of a miniature
lion, states that he once saw a tame individual of tliis species wlien on the upper
Amazon. After commenting on its plaj-ful and intelligent disposition, he observes
that it was familiar with every pei-son in the house where it was kept : and
seemed to take particular pleasure in climbing about the bodies of the various
visitors who entered. " The first time I went in," writes Mr. Bates, " it ran across
the room straightway to the chair on which I had sat down, and climbed up to
my shoulder ; arrived there, it turned round and looked in my face, showing its
little teeth, and chattering, as though it would say, ' Well, and how do you do ? '
It showed more affection towards its master than towards strangei-s, and would
climb up to his head a dozen times in the course of an hour." These marmosets
are described as keeping to the very top of their cages — a habit probably retained
from the native one of living in the tree-top.s. When descending they always
come down backwaixls, witli the tail pendent. Mr. Swainson, who observed
these animals in their native Brazilian forests, states that their ways are very
similar to those of the common marmoset. He mentions, however, their habit of
bounding from tree to tree with incredible rapidity, which is scarcely consonant
with the account given bj' Mr. Bates of the movements of marmosets in general
They are stated to utter sharp but weak cries of alarm when frightened.

The total length of this marmoset is rather less than two feet, of wliich one
is occupied by the long tail.

The golden-headed marmoset (M. chrysomelas) may be regarded as a black
representative of the preceding species: its general colour being black, with the
face, fore-arms, hands, feet, and the base of the tail tawny.

CHAPTER VII.

Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs — continued.

The Lemurs.

Family Lemurid^.

The whole of the animals treated ot' in the four preceilint^ chapters, a.s possessing
many characters in common, to which we have alluded in the course of our descrip-
tion, are regarded by zoologists as collectively constituting one great gi'oup of the
order Primates. And since this group is also taken in zoological classitication to
include man himself, it is spoken of as the Anthropoid or Human-like group ; the
individual mendx'rs thereof being refci'red to as Anthropoiils.

We now come to another and lower group of animals, which, wliile sufficiently
nearly allied to the above to bo included in the or<ler Primates, are so ilifterent as
to be entitled to stand as a group of ecjuivalent rank. These animals ai'e primaiily
represented by the lemurs. The group also includes two other creatures whicli
cannot be classed in the same family as the lemurs, and of which we shall treat
in the succeeding chapter. As it is desirable to have a conunon name for all
the members of this group, and as it would be incorrect to allude to the whole
of them as lemurs, the term Lemur-like creatures, or, shortly, Lemuroids, has been
proposed, and will be found convenient.

Although these Lemuroids may always be distinguished at a glance from
tlie apes and monkeys by their foxy, expressionless faces, it is difficult to point
out the important structural features by which they dift'er from the former without
entering into anatomical details unsuited to a ])opular work like the present. The
reader must, therefore, take it on trust that there are such important differences
between the Anthropoids and the Lemuroids. In spite, however, of these differ-
ences, there are such resemblances between the two groups as to suggest that the
lemurs and their allies are not far removed from the group from which we may
presume (if the doctrine of evolution be the true key to the book of nature) the
apes and monkeys to have originated.

That the lemurs are much lower in the zoological scale than the

Gii3Jr3iCt/6nstiics

apes and monkeys is shown by the simpler structure of their brains,
which have far fewer foldings on their surface than is the case with those of the
latter ; the amount of such foldings, as giving a larger extent of superficial surface,
being indicative of the mental powers of the owners of the brains.

A peculiar feature of all the lemurs and their allies is to be found in the
circumstance that the second toe of the foot (corresponding to the index linger of
the hand) is alwaj-s fiu-nished with a sharp claw. All lemurs have a well-developed

200 LEMURS.

thumb and great toe : but, curiously enough, in some of them the index finger of
the hand is rudimentary. They may or may not have tails, liut these are never
prehensile, althougli, as in some of tlic marniosrts. they may lie maikrd by alternate
dark and light rings.

A point of resemblance to the monkeys and apes is sho'\\n Ijy the number of
incisor, or front teeth, being very frequently two on each side of both jaws, in
place of the three which are so commonly present in other Jrammals. In the
apes and monkeys, however, the central pair of incisors in the upper jaw are in

SKELETON OK SQrrRREr.-MO>-KEY (1), OF MOXGOOSE LEMUR (2), AXD OF SLENDER LORIS (3).

contact with one another, while in the lemurs they are almo.st invariably separated
by a gap in the middle line. This affords a ready means of distinguishing the .skull
of a lemur, at a single glance from the .skulls of almost all other Mammals except
bats and some of the Insectivores. The lower front, or incisor, teeth of the
lemurs shelve forwanls, after the manner we have already mentioned as character-
istic of one group of the American monkeys (p. 173).

Many lemurs are ]Hirely nocturnal animals, and it was probably from this cir-
cumstance, coupled with their silent habits and stealth}- movements, that Linnaeus
was induced to give them the name by which they are now universally known.
It is, perhaps, almost superfluous to mention that the name lemur is taken from
the Latin term lemures, which, together with that of larvcc, was applied by the

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 201

ancient Romans to such shades of the dead as wex-e supposed to be of malignant
propensities. It is somewhat curious tliat hoth these terms sliould have been
introduced into zoolo;^ical nonieiichiture ; thi! former to denote the animals of the
present gronp, \vhil(! the latter is applied t(J i\w fji'ub staj^e of insects.

Altogether, there are somewhere about fifty species of lemur-like
animals, of which the distribution presents some very remarkable
features. In tlie first place, they are all restricted not only to the Old World, but
also to the southern regions of the great land masses of that hemisphere, none of them
being found to the northwai-il of the tropic of Cancer, while the tropic of Capricorn
very nearly limits their southward range. Within this area a few species are
found respectively throughout the warmer regions of Africa, and in Southern India
and Ceylon, while their eastern limits are marked by the island of Celelics and the
Philippines. In all these regions the numlx'r of species is comparati\ely few, and
they form but an unimportant element in tlu- general fauna of the country. The
case is, however, verj' different in the great island of JIadagascar, which is the
headquarters of the whole gi-oup. Here we find them constituting no less than
one-half the entire Mannnalian fauna of the island, being represented by six
genera, which include more than thirty species; most of the other Mammals
being com])aratively small fonns, unknown either on the continent of Africa
or in Asia. The ti'ue lemurs occur only in Madagascar, and it is very remark-
able that all the species of the group found in that island scarcely show any
closer relationship to those of the African mainland than they exhibit to those
of Asia. So abundant, indeed, are lemurs in Madagascar, that, according to
Monsieur Grandidier, who has done .so nuich to increase our knowledge of this
group, at least one indi\idual is almost sure to be found in every little copse
throtighout the island.

It will be evident that such a numerous population of helpless animals like
lemurs could not exist in a land overrun with large carni\-orous animals ; and in the
whole of Madagascar we find only a few civets and an allied creature known as
the foussa. Now to account for these peculiar features — the absence of all largo
Carnivores, except civets, and the abundance of lenuirs — we have to call in the aid
of the geologist. He will tell us that lemur-like animals, accompanied by civet-like
Carnivores, existed in England, France, and other parts of Europe during the early
part of the Tertiary period. And we are accordingly led to conclude -that the lemurs
and civets of Madagascar obtained an entrance into that island, doubtless by way
of Africa, at a time when that continent was still free from the presence of the large
Carnivores and the host of hoofed mammals which now form such a dominant
feature in its animal population. After the lemurs and civets had obtained an
entrance into Madagascar that country became separated from the adjacent nuiin-
land, and it has remained as an island ever since. There, secure from molestation,
the lemurs have attained a develojiment une(iualled at any time in any part of the
globe, and afford us an admirable instance of the importance a group of animals
may attain when living under favourable conditions.

We have already said that many lemurs are essentially nocturnal

creatures. To this we may add that they are all of essentially arboreal

habits. Indeed, except when compelled to descend to the ground to obtain water,

202 LEMURS.

or for the purpose of crossing from one plantation or coppice to another, tliey Vmt
rarely leave the trees. Their diet is extremely mixed, scarcely anything coming
amiss to them, as will be inferred when we mention that lea\es, fruits, insects,
reptiles, birds' eggs, and birds themselves are eagerly consumed by most of these
animals.

By the natives of Madagascar the lemurs are looked upon with suspicious

FEMALE BLACK LEMUR WITH YOUXG. (From Sclater, Ptoc. Zcol. Soc, 1S85.)

awe, and are consequently but seldom molested. This is doubtless due to their
nocturnal habits and ghost-like movements : while the large eyes essential to these
and all other nocturnal creatures have perhaps contributed to this feeling. In
Cejdon and India, as we shall subsequently see, the large glaring eyes of one of the
prettiest of the lemurs used to lead to the unfortunate creatures being put to a cruel
deatL None of the lemurs attain anjr very large size, and all of them, when
unmolested, are perfectly harmless and inoffensive animals, except to the birds,
reptiles, and insects upon which they prey. The nostrils of a lemur, which are
always situated at the extremity of the muzzle, differ markedly in form from

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 203

those of a monkey. In all tlie lattor, whotlior tliev lie thin-nosed like tlie Old
World kinds, or l)road-noscd like those of Aiueriea, the nostrils are ahvays more
or less rounded in form, and thus a[i[)roach to tlie human type. In lennns, on
the other liaud, the nostrils are ahvays in the form of a curvetl slit, widest
above, and with the convexity directed outwax'dly, as is well shown in the figure
on p. 206. The nostrils of a lemur are in fact almost precisely similar to those
of a dog or a cat, and we have in this another proof of a relatively low zoological
position.

In the lemurs proper, the first point to be noticed is that the upper fi-ont, or
incisor teeth are always two in number on either side of the jaw, and tliat tlie
midfile pair are separated from one another by a distinct gap. The upper premolar
teeth may be either two, as in the Old Woi'ld monkeys, or three, as in theii- cousins,
of the New World ; the molars l)eing inxariably three in number. The front
teeth in the lower jaw, together with the one corresponding to the tusk, or canine,
alwaj's shelve foi'wards, and are of small size. This small size and shelving
direction of the lower tusk renders it necessary that some other tooth should be
enlarged so as to bite against the upper tusk. And we accordingly find that the
first premolar in the lower jaw takes on the form and size of a tusk, and bites
against the true tusk, or canine tooth of the upper jaw. It has been mentioned
in the introductory chapter that whereas true tusks, or canines, have usually
but a single root, premolar teeth neai'ly always have two I'oots, except when there
are four of these teeth, in which case the first generally has but one root. Now
the tusk-like lower premolar of the lemurs has the usual two roots, and hence wo
have a ready means of distinguishing a lemur's skull from that of most other
Mammals; that is to say, by the lower tusk having two distinct roots.

The last feature we shall mention as being distinctive of the lenuirs projier, is
that, \\\i\\ the exception of the second toe of the foot, all the fingers and all the toes
have well-formed flattened nails like tlio.se of the majority of monkeys.

The Indri Lemur.
Genus In drift.

The peculiar-looking animal represented in the illustration on the next page is
one of the numerous lemurs from Madagascar, and occupies the proud position of
being the largest member of the entire group. It is likewise the sole representative
of its genus ; and in scientific parlance is designated Indris hrevicaiidata, its second
title referring to its apology for a tail. The name indri, or indris, is a corruption
from the native name Endrina, used in certain districts bj^ the inhabitants of
Madagascar for this animal. In other districts it is, however, designated Babakoto,
or "little old man."

The indri is the first of a group of three genera, restricted to Madagascar,
which present certain characteristics in common not found in other lemurs. Among
these characters the most obvious is the large proportionate size of the legs as com-
pared with the arms. Another is, that with the exception of the great toe (which

204

LEMURS.

is capable of beiiif;' fully opposed to the others), the toes of the foot are joined
together 1)y ,i weli as far as the eml of their first joints. For thfise wlio desire to
enter more fully into the strueturc of these lennirs, it may l)e mentioned that the
total number of teeth in the ailult condition is limite<l to ;TO : the series being
represented by the formula if, c\,'p% tw^. All the members of this gi-oup differ
from the other lemur-like animals in that thej' do not give birth to more than a
single young one at a time. From this circumstance, together with certain features
in their structure, these indris are regarded as the most liiglily organised of all

THE IXDRI LEMCR (J liat. size).

the lemurs, and are accordingl}' placeil at the head of the list. They subsist ex-
clusively on a vegetable diet.

The indri is sufficiently distinguished from the other two genera included in
the group by its mere stump of a tail : although there are also certain other
features which support its right to stand as the representative of a distinct genus.

We have alreadj^ mentioned that the indri is the largest of all the lemurs : and
in a fully adult animal the length of the head and body is about two feet. Although
there is great individual variation in this respect, the indri is verj' strikingly coloured.
Verj' frequently the forehead is blackish, but, like the cheeks and throat, it may be
grey. The head, shoulders, back, and arms are of a full velvety black : and the black
e.ars are large and prominent, and covered with longer hairs than those on the head.

INDRI. 205

From the loins to the tail there is a large triangular patch of either pure white or of
a yellowish tinge ; this patch terminates in front in a sharp point, and is bordered
on all sides with black. The flanks are also light-coloured ; and the dark bands
which usually separate the light area of the loins from that of the flanks are continued
down the front of the legs ; but the sides of the legs ai-e in general whitish, and their
liinder surface grey ; the heel being reddish. The hands and feet are black, and,
unlike the specimen we flgure, they are, as a rule, almost denuded of hair.

Such are tlie common colours in the largtT nmuber of .specimens of the
indri. In almost every flock, liowever, individuals are found in wiiich the light-
coloured areas intrude more or less extensively upon those which are u.sually
black ; and from these intermediate forms a complete transition can Ije traced to
others in whicii the whole of the fur is white. The intermediately coloui'ed
individuals very generally retain tbc brn,i<l black streak down the front of the leg,
and the black ears.

In.stead of being distributed over tlie whole of Madagascar, the indris arc

confined to the forests on the east coast of tlie island ; this restricted distribution

being due to the gi-eat i-ange of mountains running longitudinally through

Madagascar, which cuts oft' these animals from the plains on the western side.

In contradistinction to most of the lemurs, the indris are purely
Habits

<liurual in tlieir habits; they are counuonly found in .small parties of

four or five, although during the day single individuals, more or less widely separated

from their companions, may fi-e(|uently bti seen. Their general habits appear to

be similar to those of the propitheques, to which we shall refer later on. Unless

injured so badly as to be unable to make its escape, the indri does not give

utterance to the least sound when wounded : if, however, it is so severely hit

as to fall to the ground, which it will only tlo wlien its extraordinary powers

of holding on to the branches of the trees are exliausted, it gives vent to piercing

shrieks.

It is related by Granditlier that some of the inhabitants of ilailagascar

have an extraordinaiy superstitious veneration for the indri, and will on no

consideration harm it. Dift'erent families assign difl'erent reasons for this special

veneration : and while it may be of the most marked description in one village, in

a neighbouring one it may be totally wanting. The autlior referred to considers

that it may be largely due to tlie plaintive and mournful cries with which these

animals freijuently make the forests re.sound, — cries which can be heard at great

distances, and have a more or less marked resemblance to agonised human wailings.

The Propitheques, or Sifakas.

Genus Propithecus.

The sifakas, as they are called by tlie native inhabitants of Madagascar,
con.stitute tlie only genus of this group of leuun-s whicli is represented by more than
a single species. Although closely allied to the indri, they are at once distinguished
by their long tails ; the muzzle is also rather shorter, and the ears are considerably

2o6

LEMURS.

smaller, and are partly concealed by the fur, as is shown in our figure of the head
of one of the species. Their skin is of a deep black ; but the general colour of the
fur is usually white, more or less tinged with yellow, and, in some indi\iiluals,
passing into red or even black. The fur on the breast is alwaj's much thinner
than that of other parts of the body.

Three species of the genus are recognised, which are restricted to different
parts of the island ; but of these species there are se\eral more or less cUstinct
races, which are likewise confined to particular localities. It has been observed
that while those individuals of the several species wliich tend to assume a black
coloration are found in the damper parts of the island, those which are most com-
pletely white frequent the drier regions at the northern extremity of Madagascar.
The sifakas, as Grandidier observes, live in bands of from six to eight
individuals. They are completely diurnal in their habits, and may be observed at

morning and evening, when the heat is not
too great, leaping in tlie forests from tree
to tree in search of food. At sunrise they
may often be seen sitting on the horizontal
bough of a tree, close to M'here it branches
off fi-om the main stem, with their long legs
bent, so as to touch their chin, and their
hands resting on their knees. At other
times they will be seen sitting in the same
position, but with their arms extended, so as
to receive the genial warmth from the
rising sun on their bodie.s. During the heat
of the day they conceal themselves in the
depths of the foliage. When sleeping, they
incline the head forwards on the chest, and
cover it with their arms: at the same time the tail is either curled up .spirally
between the legs, or allowed to hang straight down.

Their shelving lower front teeth are admirably adapted for removing part
of the rind of the fruits on which they so largely subsi.st, and thus making an
aperture through which the pulp is removed piecemeal. The skins of the finiits are
always rejected ; and it is stated that sifakas exhibit a marked preference for
gi-een rather tlian ripe fruit.

In all ways thej^ are admirably adapted for a purely arboreal life. So
strong indeed are their hind limbs that thej'^ can readily take leaps of from ten
to eleven yards in passing from bough to tough ; and so rapid are their motions
that Granditlier speaks of them as appearing to fly rather than leap. On the
rare occasions when they descend from their favourite trees, they advance by
means of long leaps, as o^ving to the shortness of their anns it is not easy for them
to walk on the ground on all-fours like the majoi-ity of monkeys. To see them,
observes Gran<Iidier (from whom the whole of tliis account is taken), resting on
their himl feet, and at eacli leap throwing up tlieir arms in the air, the spectator
might be led to think for a moment that lie was looking at children at play.
Indeed, a troop of these creatures ad\ancing across the plains in the manner

UEAD ov VEUKEACx's siFAKA. — After Grandidier.

SIFAKAS.

207

described, is said to bo a tiuly ludicrous sight. ISot only are the hands of the
sifakas of no use to their owners in walking, but tliey are almost ecjually useless
as organs of prehension ; and when a sifaka has occasion to pick up a fruit from
the ground, he will usually stoop down and seize it in his mouth. When conveyed
to the hand, such an object is grasped between the bent lingers and the jifdm,
and not between tlie fingers and thumb. As purely grasping organs, adapted to
atibrd a firm hold to the branches of trees, both the hands and feet of these lemurs
are, however, perfect.

In disposition the sifakas are described as being gentle, and they but seldom
attempt to bite, while if they do so the wound they inflict is not serious. At
certain seasons, however, the males are wont to engage in contests among them-
selves, the results of which are frequently visiljle in their torn and tattered ears.
Unlike many other lemurs, the}' are, as a rule, silent; but when frightened or
angry they give vent to a low cry somewhat resembling the clucking of a fowl. In
a word, so far as character goes, these animals may be desci'ibed as being but little
active, but little restless, and but little intelligent.

The diademed sifaka (P. diadema), known to the nati\es of

Diademed Sifaka. ... . ,

JIadagascar as the simjiona, is the largest of the three sjiecies, and

at the same time the one which was first brought to the notice of science, having

been described by E. T. Bennett in the year 1832. It takes its name from the band

of white haix's running across the foi'ehead, which, with the grey fringe of hair on

the cheeks and chin, surrounds the black face, and thus gives to the animal a

peculiar and striking physiognomy. The crown and back of the head, together

with the outer surface of the ears and the nape of the neck, are a dark brown

colour, and the same tint extends over the shouldei-s, so as to give somewhat the

appearance of a mantle, and ends in a point on the back ; this point in some

individuals being only just below the neck, while in others it reaches as far back as

the loins. Occasionally this <lark mantle-like area, in.stead of being dark brown, is

of a grey tint. The hjins and flanks are generally grey, varying considei'ably in

diflferent individuals ; tlie grey passing gradually into the brown of the back and

the orange round the tail, and extending on to the upper parts of the arms, or even

enveloping the whole of the upper arm. The fore-arms, together with the region

round the tail and the legs, are generally of a bright orange yellow, altliough

occasionally yellowish-white with some intermixed black hair.s. The hands are

mainly black, but the feet have a good deal of yellow in them ; the basal half of

the tail is yellowish, while the rest of it is grey.

Such are the colours of the tj^ical form of this species. In the moist regions
of the south of Madagascar there is, however, a nearly or quite white race of this
lemur, while in the dry regions of the north there is a black race ; in each case
intermediate forms occurring which connect these varieties with the ordinary
type.

The diademed sifaka inhabits the narrow striji of forest-land extending along
the whole length of the eastern coast of Madagascar, and bordering the chain of
granite ami slaty minintains which dips down towards the sea on the east, and is
the cause of almost daily rain. It is where this chain almost dies out at the
northern end of the island that the black race occurs.

2o8 LEMURS.

Verreaux's This and the next species, which are smaller than the last, and

Sifaka. ^re those -which are known to the natives as the sifakas, are restricted

to the western and southern coasts of Madagascar. Here they are only found in

the thick forests which here and there occur among the desolate solitudes of the

western and southern sides of the island, — regions of sandy plains where fertilising

rains but seldom occur.

The fur of P. verreauxi (of which the head is figured on p. 20G) is woolly

and soft to the touch ; its colour being typically white with a faint tinge of yellow.

The summit and hinder part of the head are, however, often of a marone colour,

and more rarely redchsh, wliile some individuals show more or less marked grey

tints in various regions of the body. In no case, however, does the brown of the

head ever extend on to the neck and back, as it does in the diademed species.

There are two well-marked varieties of this species, one being pure white, with the

exception of patches of bright red on the anus and thighs.

A writer relates how he once had for .some time two females and their J'oung

of this species in a cage. ' Nothing was more toucliing than to see these poor

mothers holding their young lying in their arms. At the least movement, the

young sifaka left its mother's breast and leapt upon lier back, where, with its hands

resting on her shoulders, and its feet bui'ied in her fur, it took so fiiTn a gi-a.sp that

it was impossible to make it leave go ; and one could thus readily understand how

that, whatever leaps the mother might take, the ofl'spring would never be unseated."

The last species of the ijropithenues (P. coronatus) agrees in size
Crowned Sifaka. '^ . ^. . i ,,■ , t •

with tlie jireceding, to which it is closely allied. It has, indeed, a crest

of long blackish hairs on the foreliead, from which it derives its name ; but since a

similar crest is found in some individuals of YeiTeaux's sifaka, this cannot be taken

as the ground for specific distinction. Neither can its coloration, peculiar though

it be, form the distinction, since the difference in this respect from the typical fonu

of the latter species is scarcely if at all greater than that occurring between the

various races included under that heading.

It is, indeed, mainly from the characters of the skull that the crowned sifaka is
ranked as a distinct species. Thus the skull is altogether larger than that of the
preceding species, in addition to wliich it has a proportionately larger muzzle ; while
there are other distinctive features, into the consideration of which it would be
beyond the .scope of the present work to ent^".

In colour, the forehead, the crown of the head, and the cheeks are blackish-
brown ; in bold contra.st to wliich stands out the white fur with wliich the eai-s are
covered. The neck and upper parts of the bodj^ as well as the limbs, are of the same
white colour, having a more or less distinct rosj" tinge on the limbs and at the root of
the tail ; this rosy tint being most distinct in the more southern race of this species,
in which it may extend on to the back. There is a patch of grey or brown, vaiyiug
in size, on the nape of the neck. The tail and hands are invariabh' pure white.

This species is restricted to a small area on the nortli-west coast of Madagascar,
situated to the north-eastward of Cape St. Andre, and lx)unded to the east by the
River Betsiboka, and by the Manzaraj' Ei\er to the west.

In concluding their notice of these animals, Messrs. Milne -Edwards and
Grandidier remark how curious it is to find the various races and species so

A VAHI. 209

sharply separated from one another that it is suflBcient to cross a river — it may be
of no great width — in order to find that, while on one bank all the sifakas belong
to one race, on the opposite bank they will be of another race, if not of a distinct
species. No satisfactory explanation of these peculiar features in topographical
distribution has, however, suggested itself to the authors quoted.

The Avahi Lemur.
Genus Avahis.

The third and last genus of the present group of lemurs is represented only by
the avahi or woolly lemur (Avahis laniger); a species discovered at the same time
as the indri in the year 1870 bv the French traveller Sonnerat. The avalii, althouirh
furnished with a long tail like the .sifakas, is i-eadily distinguished by the still sliorter
muzzle, and also by the ears being completely concealed by the fur, which is of a
woolly instead of a silky nature. Althougli these differences are amply sufficient
to distinguish the avahi from the sifakas when they are seen together, it is not on
these alone that the zoologist relies when referring them to distinct genera. There
are, indeed, well-marked differences in their teeth ; but it will be sufficient for our
jjresent purpose to merely record the existence of these points of distinction. The
avahi differs, moreover, from all the other members of the group to which it belongs
in being of nocturnal instead of diurnal hal)its.

The avahi is the smallest member of all this group of lemurs, its dimen.sions
being rather less than two-thirds of those of the diademed sifaka. In colour, the
long hairs on the forehead immediately above the eyes are grey at the base and
pinkish at the tips ; while there is in some individuals a small white or yellowish
band, more or less irregular, across the crown of the head. The rest of the head,
the neck, the back, and the arms are covered with woolly fur, of whicli tlie
individual hairs are grey at the roots, reddish in the middle, and black at tlio
tips; an arrangement which communicates a i:)eculiar aj^pearance to the whole fur.
The concealed ears are reddish, and the cheeks grey. The loins and flanks are
of a much lighter colour than the back, especially in the region of the tail, where
there is a large triangular patch of pinkish-white running forwards into the dark
area of the bod}'. The hind-limbs are still lighter in colour, and as the hairs here
tend to grow into bunches or tufts, they reveal their grey bases and pinkish tips,
thus giving to the pelage a mottled appearance. The bushj^ tail is of a decidedly
pink tint, more especially for the first third of its length. The hands and feet are
I'eddish.

There are, however, great variations of colour among different individuals of
the avahi, inhabiting even the same district ; some having the pelage almost
uniformly reddish, while in others all the parts above the thighs are nearly pure
white.

According to Messrs. Milne -Edwards and Grandidier, the avahis, instead of
living in .small troops like the indris and sifakas, are found either solitary or in
pairs. They are completely nocturnal, sleeping dui-ing the day curled up in the
fork of a bi-anch, and issuing forth in search of food with the falling shades of

VOL. I. — 14

2IO LEMURS.

evening. Like their allies, they are sluggish in their movements, and but seldom
descend to the ground, and, when thej- do so, they walk in the same peculiar manner
as the sifakas.

The avahis are found in two parallel bands of forest on the east side of
Madagascar, and also in the woods of a small area on the north-west. They are,
however, totally unknown on the west and south coasts, where the vegetation and
climate are totally different. The members of the colony on the north-west coast
are of smaller size and somewhat different coloration from those on the east side of
the island. From their smaller ^e and nocturnal habits the avahis are less noticed
by the natives of Madagascar than are the other members of this group, and do not
figure conspicuously either in their legends or in their superstitions. The name avahi
is the one by which they are known to the Antauala tribe. By other tribes the}' are,
however, termed Ampongi, Fotsi-fe, or Fotsi-afaka; the two latter terms respectively
meaning " white legs " or " white fork," m allusion to the peculiar coloration of the
hinder parts of these animals.

The True Lemurs.

Genus Lemur.

With the true lemurs, which are likewise confined to the island of Madagascar,
we come to the first of a group differing in several respects from those already

noticed. The first and most
easily recognised feature by
wliich the true lemurs and their
allies may be distinguished
from the group containing the
imlri and the avahi, is that the
toes of the foot are not con-
nected togetlier at their bases
_^ g by a web. In none of those

HEADS OF COMMON (a) AND SMOOTH-EARED (b) BLACK LEMCR. animals are tlie legs SO long in

(Ftom ScMer, List of Animals in Zool. Gardens.) ' proportion to the arms aS we

have seen to be the case in the
members of the preceding gi-oup ; wliile the M-hole of them have long tails, Then,
again, it may be mentioned that the members of tliis group are distinguished by
the presence of an additional front tooth on either side of the lower jaw, and
likewise by having one more premolar tooth on each side of both jaws; tlius
bringing up the total number of teeth from thirty to thirty-six. The formula is
i |, c j, ^> j;, ?7i I : which may be comparer! witli that given on p. 204, as distinctive
of the indri group.

The true lemurs are confined to Madagascar and the Comoro islands,
which are situated half-way between it and Zanzibar. Although some of
them are nocturnal, and others diurnal in their habits, all these lemurs difier
from the indri group in subsisting on a mixed diet : insects, small reptiles,
birds' eggs, and the callow j'oung of birds fonning at least as importaint a part of

TRUE LEMURS. 211

their food as fruits. It is probal)ly owing to this mixed diet that they
are of a much hardier disposition tlian are those of the indri group, so that
they flourish in confinement in this country so well as not unfrequently to breed ;
the number of young produced at a birth being either one or two.

In consequence of their arms being longer in proportion to their logs than
in the indri group, the true lemurs and their allies, when on the ground, are in
the habit of going on all-fours, although capable of taking leaps of great length.
The true lemurs may be distinguished from the other members of the group to

THE RING-TAILED LEMCR (f Iiat. sizc).

which the}^ belong by the length of their snouts, and the large size of their tufted
ears, as well as by their diurnal habits.

Ring-Tailed Lemur (Lemur catta).

One of the best known, and at the same time the most easily recognised of all
the true lemurs, is the ring-tailed lemur, represented in the accompanying woodcut.
This animal, which may be compared in appearance to a very small fox, is of an
ashy grey colour, darker on the back, and white on the under-parts, as well as on
the sides of the face, ears, and the middle of the forehead. Its most distinctive
feature is, however, to be found in the alternate rings of black and white on the
tail, from which it derives its name. It has no fringe round the face.

The ring-tailed lemur is found in the central parts of Madagascar, ranging on
the west coast to Mouroundava, and on the east coast to Andrahoumbe. Like the
other members of the group, this lemur lives in small parties, and is most active at
early morning and evening ; sleeping during the night with its bushy tail curled

212 LEMURS.

round its body, and likewise taking a siesta during the heat o£ the day. Unlike
the members of the indri group, it is a noisy creature ; and tlie whereabouts of a
ti-oop in the morning or evening is discoverable \>y the loud cries which they arc
continually uttering.

In captivity this species thrives well, and it is generally numerou.sly repre-
sented in the menagerie of the London Zoological Society, although it does not
appear that it has ever bred there.

Mr. G. A. Shaw, writing of the ring-tailed lemur, states that they ai-e found
only in the south and south-western borders of the Betsileo province of Madagascar.
This province is about one hundj-ed and fifty miles in length, by fifty or sixty in
width, and is situated on the central table-land, about one hundred to two hundred
and fifty miles south of Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar. A forest extends
along the whole eastern side of this province, flinging the table-land, and covering
all the slopes down into the lowland bordering the sea ; but nowhere in these
forests have the ring-tailed lemurs been found. Their habitat in the south and
.south-west is among the rocks; over which they can easily travel where it is
impossible for the people, although bare-footed, to follow. An examination of their
iiands will show that they are pre-eminently adapted for this kind of locomotion.
The palms are long, smooth, level, and leather-like, and enable the animal to find
a firm footing on the slippery wet rocks, very much on the same principle as that
which assists the fly to walk up a pane of glass. The thumbs on the hinder hands
are very much smaller in proportion than in the lemurs inhabiting the forests,
which depend upon their grasping power for their means of progression. These
spring from tree to tree, and rarely, if ever, touch the ground, except in search of
water. Hence the ring-tailed lemurs are an exception to the general habits of the
Lemuridce, in that they are not arboreal. There are ver\^ few trees near their
district ; and those which do grow there are verj^ stunted and bushy.

Other Species.

Red-fronted The whole of the other species of true lemurs are readily

Lemur. distinguished from the preceding by their imiformly coloured

tails. The number of nominal species is, however, too large to permit of reference

to all of them, and the one wliich we select as the next representative of the genus

is the red-fronted lemur (L. rufifrons.)

This lemur may be easily recognised by the two small white stripes running
across each side of the rump. The general colour of the fur is grey ; the throat
and under-parts being reddish ; the nose and the middle of the forehead black ;
while the sides of the nose, the cheeks, and a large spot on either side of the fore-
head are white. The tail is blackish, with a reddish tinge at the root.

The species represented in the accompanyincf figure (L. munqoz),
Mimgoose Lemur. . ^ r .' o & '_ ./ />

■was described as far back as the time of Linnaeus. It inhabits the
western coast of Madagascar : and may always be kno'mi by its black nose and
the iron-grey spot on each side of the forehead. The fur, which is of a somewhat
woolly nature, is reddish-grey in general colour ; but the face, chin,' the middle line
of the forehead, and a streak across the crown of the head are black : while the

TRUE LEMURS. 213

cheeks and the sides of the forehead are grey. There is considerable individual
variation in the width of the black band across the head.
White-fronted The white-fronted lemur {L. albijrons) appears to be restricted

Lemur. ^o the north-east coast of Madagascar. It is mainly distinguished
from the allied species by its colour ; its most distinctive feature being a broad
band of white woolly hairs extending across the forehead, and including the base
of the eai's, the cheeks, and part of the throat and neck. The prevailing colour of
the back and flanks is a grizzled brown, tinged with red ; the long muzzle and
face, together with the hands and feet, and the end of the tail being black. The
under-pai-ts and inner surfaces of the limbs are whitisii-grey. This prettj- lemur

THE jinxGoosE LEMUit (! uat. .size).

was first described by the French naturalist Geoft'roy St. Hilaire ; and was exhibited
in the London Zoological Gardens as far back as 1830.
Black-fronted This (i. nicjrifrons) is another closely allied lemur, also first made
Lemur. known to .science by the naturalist last mentioned. In comparing it
with the preceding species, E. T. Bennett, who had the ojiportunity of seeing living
examples of both, observes that " their size, it is true, is nearly- equal, and there is
little if anj' difference in their form : but their colours, invariable as we have
hitherto found them, furnish suftieit-nt ground for regarding them as distinct. The
present animal has the elongated muzzle of the last, but the black colour embraces
in it the forehead and sides of the face, as well as the base of the muzzle ; and
the hair on the former parts, instead of being long and woolly, is short, smooth,
and even. While the black is thus extended backwards over the head, it is bounded
on the fore part of the muzzle, which instead of being uniform in colour, as in the

214

LEMURS.

preceding species, becomes grizzled towards its extremit}', and at last almost
white. The general colour of the upper parts of the body is a dark ashy grey,
most of the hairs terminating iu a tawny tip, which is so strongly marked on the
back as to give a decided tinge. The tail is light grey at the base, and darker
towards the tip ; the outside of the limbs is of a light ashy grey ; the chin, chest,
and throat are pure white ; and the uuder-parts, together with the inner side of

THE BLACK LEMUR (J uat. size).

the hind-limbs, pale rufous. The hands, which are blackish, have the same tendency
to become grizzled as the fore part of the muzzle."

In captivity this and the preceding species are described as being perfectly
tame and good-natured, without any tendency to the petulant and mischievous
habits of the smaller monkeys. In a wild state the habits of these allied species
are doubtless similai*.

Black Lemur (Lemur macaco).

With the black lemur, whicli is represented in the accompan^-ing figure, we
come to the first of a gi-oup of three very well-marked species, dilfering considerably'

TRUE LEMURS.

215

from those already noticed ; this difference being chiefly shown by the presence of
a more or less Mrell-marked rutf fringing the cheeks and chin, and frequently also
by a fringe of hairs on the margins of the ears. Moreover, all these lenmrs are
subject to great variation in colour, Avhich in one case appears to be merely
individual, while in another it is distinctive of the two sexes. So great, indeed, is
this variation, that the two species of which we shall treat have been described
under at least four distinct scientific names ; thereb}' showing liow great is the
need of caution in such matters.

The black lemur comes from the nortli-west coast of Madagascar; and the
male, upon the evidence of which tlie species was originally described, is of a
uniform black colour, with a well-developed ruff round the cheeks and neck, and a
long fringe to the ears. Verj' diflereut, however, is the female, which was at first
described under the name of the white-whiskered lemur (L. leucomystax). In tliis
sex the general colour of the fur is brown, with a patch on the lower part of the
back, and the rufi" round the face and the fringe on tlie ears are white.

A female of this species in the Gardens of the London Zoological Society twice
gave birth to a young one, and thus artbrded an opportunity of seeing the curious
manner in which the true lemurs carry their offspring. This is shown in the
woodcut on ]). 202. Tlie young one born on the 24th of March 1 884 proved to be a
female, and was of the same brown colour as its mother. On the 3rd of April in
the following year the second young one was born, which was a male, and at the
time of birth it was of the black hue of its fatiiei-. Each of these young ones was
carried lying nearly across the abdomen of its mother, with its tail passed round
her, and thus on to its neck, so as to afford a firm attachment : antl it is believed
that, at least in the wild state, the young are at a later period carried on their
mother's back.

A nearly allied lemur, of which the male was described by Dr. Sclater, may
be called the smooth-eared black lemur (Z. rufipes), and is distinguished by the
smaller size of the iniff round the thi'oat, and the absence of a fringe on the ears
of the male ; the difference in the heads of the two foi'ins being shown in the
figure on page 210. The female of this lemur was described by Dr. Gray, and
has reddish feet.

The Ruffed Lemur (Lemur varius).

The last, and at the same time the largest, of the true lemurs is the ruffed
lemur, which inhabits the north-east coast of Madaga.scar. As its name implies,
it is remarkable for the extraordinary individual variation in the colour of the
fur ; such variations being apparently independent of sex. Frequently the colour
is a mixture of black and white, disposed in patches on different parts of the body,
but occasionally white individuals are met with. Other individuals are, however,
of a nearly uniform reddish-brown colour ; this variety having been regarded as a
distinct species, umler the name of the red lemur (L. ruber).

A specimen of the red variety in the Menagerie of the London Zoological Society
had the upper surface of the body of a bright rafous brown, while the under-parts
were of a deep black. The reddish area included the sides of the face, ears, back,

2l6

LEMURS.

and flanks, and the outer surfaces of the limbs; while the black embraced the
forehead and face, the throat, chest, and abdomen, the inner surfaces of the Kmbs,
and the hands and feet, with the exception of a narrow stripe of wliite across their

THE KCFFED LEMUR (i nat. size).

upper surface. On the back of the neck there was a large white patch. The
length of the head and body of this animal was two feet, and that of the tail
somewhat more.

The Gextle Lemur.
Genus Hapalemxir.

The gentle lemur (Hajmlemur griseus), like all the members of the group
under consideration, is an inhabitant of Madagascar, but diffei-s so decidedly from
the true lemurs that it has been made the type of a distinct genus, of %Yh.ich
it is the only well-defined species.

It may be readily distinguished from the true lemurs by its rounded head and
extremely short muzzle, the eai'S being likewise very short. A peculiar feature
is the presence of a small bare patch on the front surface of the fore-arm, a little
above the palm of the hand, which is covered with small spines. The colour is a
dark iron-grey, with a tinge of yellowy becoming somewhat paler on the under-pai'ts
and the inner sides of the limbs. The individual hairs are black, with a reddish
band near their tips.

The species differs from the true lemurs in being purely nocturnal in its habits.
It is chiefly found in bamboo-jungles, and subsists mainly on the young tender

TRUE LEMURS.

:i7

shoots of these plants, as well as on their leaves. In such jungles its capture is
difficult, and hence living examples are rare in our menageries. One living in the
Zoolooical Society's Gardens in the j-ear 1870 was regarded by the late Dr. Gram-
as a new species, and described as the broad-nosed lemur {JH. simus). but it does

THE GENTLE LEMUR (J nat. size).

not appear to he more than a variety. According to a French traveller, the gentle,
or grey lemur is known to the natives of Madagascar as the Bokombouli.

The Weasel-Lemur.

Genus Lepidoleniur.

The slender, or weasel-lemur, is the last representative of the present group,
and belongs to a genus containing two species, which differ from all other lemur-
like animals in having, when adult, either no upper front (incisor) teeth at all, or
merely a single pair of minute rudimentary ones. This character will at once

2li

LEMURS.

suffice to distinguish these animals from the gentle lemur, which they resemble,
however, in being of purely nocturnal habits. A further distinction is afforded
by the greater length of the muzzle ; and also by the ears being bald and somewhat
larger. The tail is long, and covered with close-set short hair.

The weasel-lemur (Lepidolemur musteliniis) is cliiefly found in the north-
west of Madagascar, and is characterised b}'' having no u])per front teeth at all

THE FORKED MOUSE-LEMUR (J nat. size).

when quite full grown. Its head and body together measure about 10 inches
in length, while the length of tlie tail is 14 inches. This is one of the lemurs
which are subject to great individual variation of colour, in consequence of which
it has received several distinct scientific names. In one variety the general colour
of the upper parts is dark grey tinged with yellow, the back ha%-ing a darker
stripe, while the under-parts, as well as the throat, are whitish-'gre_y. The dark
stripe on the back may, however, be wanting ; and some specimens are redder above

MOUSE-LEMURS. 219

and yellower beneath; indeed, scarcely any two individuals are alike in these
respects.

The weasel -lemur, during its nocturnal rambles, is marvellously active,
and is capable of taking tremendous leaps among the trees in which it dwells ;
its slender build and long limbs being admirably adapted for such a mode
of progression. Like the gentle lemur, it subsists solely on leaves ; and it is much
sought after as an article of food by the natives of Madagascar, to wliom it is known
by the name of Fitili-ki. It is killed by being knocked on tlie head with a stick
while curled up dui-ing the day in its nest of leaves, to which it has been tracked
down at the end of its nocturnal excursions.

Tlie hoary-lieaded lemur (X. caniceps) is a closely allied species, chiefly dis-
tinguished by having a miuute rudimentary pair of front or incisor teeth in the
upper jaw, but further characterised by the hoary grey of the hair on the crown
of the head-

The Mouse-Lemurs.

Genus Chirogale.

With the tiny creatures known as tlie mouse-lemurs, we come to the first of
a group of two genera which differ from all the members of the lemur tribe in that
the bones of the upper part of the ankle arc enormously elongated, thus causing
the whole foot to be much longer than in the preceding groups.

The mouse-lemurs themselves are confined to Madagascar ; and include the
smallest of the lemurs, some of them lieing even inferior in size to a rat. They
have long tails, and rather large ears, wliicli are haiiy at tlieir base, and cannot be
folded upon themselves.

The most remarkable feature connected with the mouse-lemurs, and one for a
knowledge of which we are indebted to the observations of Grandidier, is that
they are in the habit of what is generally called hibernating, or remaining dormant
for a portion of the year. But as their quiescent season is during the hottest and
driest time, the term aestivation would be more appropriate. By no means all
the mouse-lemurs thus hibernate ; and we may fairly presume that the species in
which tliis habit occurs are those dwelling in the moi-e arid regions. To prepare for
this protracted period of dormant energies, during which they maintain the heat of
their bodies by the consumption of their own substance, the mouse-lemurs feed so
vigorously that when the hot season arrives they are in an extremely fat and sleek
condition. Curiously enough the great accumulation of fat wliich then takes place
is mainly restricted to the region of the base of the tail ; and when they retire at
the close of the rainy season, during which food is extremely abundant, their
tails are swollen to a prodigious size. The wasting process which goes on during
hibernation leaves them, however, with their tails shrunk to a very small diameter.
In order to make themselves comfortable during their long sleep, they follow the
example of our own dormice, and prepare snug little nests of twigs and other
substances ; some of their habitations being described as marvels of neat construction.
Their food is mainly of a vegetable nature ; although this chet is largely supple-
mented by insects, and even small birds are said not to come amiss. Having

220 LEMURS.

large round eyes, by wliicli thej' are enabled to see small objects in the darkest
nights, they are in the habit of stalking nocturnal moths and beetles when
settled on the boughs of trees, and then rushing upon and seizing them with a
final spring.
Forked Mouse- The largest, and at the same time one of the longest-known of

Lemur. ^]^g mouse-lemurs is the species (C furcifer) represented on p. 218,
which takes its name from the black streak running down the midcUe of the back,
and dividing on the top of the head so as to form a distinct fork-like mark
between the eyes. The colour of the i-emainder of the body is grey, "ndth a black
tip to the tail.

This species is found in the forests on both the east and west coasts of Mada-
gascar, though more abundant in the latter region. It is known to the natives as
the Walouvi : and is not one of those species that hibernate.
Murine Mouse- Tliis species (C. murinus) diflers from the preceding by the

Lemur. absence of the dark stripe down the back. The general colour is a
pale reddish-gi"ey, with a broad whitish streak up the middle of the face : the
cheeks and under-pai-ts being also light-coloured, but the slender tail more brown.
The mouse -lemur represented in the figure on the opposite page, which is often
described as the myoxine mouse-lemur (C. myoxinus), appears to be very closelj'
allied to this species.

coquerers This mouse-lemur (C. coquereli) is characterised by the soft and

Mouse Lemur, ^voolh' nature of the fur, of which the prevailing colour is gi-ej-ish-

brown, tinged with gold. It makes well-formed nests, composed of twigs, dead

leaves, and grass, and having a diameter of some 18 inches. In this nest it sleeps

during the day, to prowl forth at night in search of food.

Brown Mouse- Another mouse-lemur (C. viilii), which is one of the hibernating

Lemur. species, takes its name from M. Milius, a governor of Reunion, in the
first quarter of the present centurj-, by whom two of these creatures were sent to
Paris. They were described by Frederic Cuvier in the year 1821 as the maki nain,
or small lemur. The species is some 9 inches in length, exclusive of the long tail ;
and it is of a grej-ish-brown colour, with black whiskers, and white thi-oat and
under-parts : the fur being silkj-. The specimens sent to Paris throve for some
time, and became so tame that they were allowed to leave their cages. They
would, however, only play about if the apartment was kept perfectly dark and
stUl : and when this was done they could be heard frolicking in high glee. During
the day they rolled themselves uj) into a ball and slept.
Dwarf Mouse- The smallest of all is the dwarf mouse-lemur (C pusillus), not

Lemur. unfrequently referred to as the Madagascar rat, on account of its
ha\'ing been described bj- Bufibn under the name of le rat de JIadaga.scar. The
head and body of this diminutive representative do not exceed 4 inches in length,
while the tail measures 6 inches. The prevailing colour is a pale grey ; the
chin and under-parts being pale j-ellow, and the outer surface of the ears light
brown, while a white streak runs up the nose and between the eyes. The eyes
themselves ai-e suri'ounded b}- black rims, giving to the face the appearance of
wearing a pair of spectacles.

The dwarf mouse-lemur builds beautifully constructed nests of twigs, lined

MOUSE-LEMURS. 221

with liair, in the tops of the lofty trees where it delights to dwell. These nests
somewhat resemble those of a rook both in form and size, and are used not only
as diurnal resting-places but as cradles for the young. The species is remarkable for
the extreme beauty of its brilliant eyes.

Mr. G. A. Shaw writes that the dwarf lemurs " inhabit a belt of forest-land
stretching from the eastern forest into the heart of Betsileo, a few miles north of
Fianarantsoa, where they are tolerably abundant. They live on the tops of the
highest trees, choosing invariably the smallest branches, where they collect a

THE MURINE MOUSE-LESinR (i nat. size).

quantity of dried leaves, and make what looks from below like a bird's-nest. So
close is the resemblance, that it requires good eyes to distinguish the one from
the other. Their food consists of fruit and insects, and most probabh" honey. I
have frequently seen them catching the flies that have entered their cage for
the honey; and I have supplied them with moths and butterflies, which they
have devoured with avidity. They are extremely shy and wild. Although
I have had between thirty and forty caged at different times, I have never
succeeded in taming one. They are also very quarrelsome, and fight very fiercely,
uttering a most piercing, penetrating sound, somewhat resembling a very shi-ill
whistle."

222

LEMURS.

The Galagos, or African Lemurs.

Genus Galago.

The galagos are the only long-tailed lemurs found throughout the lengtli and
breadth of Africa. The name is said to be that by which one of the species is
known to the natives of Senegal. They resemble the mouse-lemurs in having the
bones of the upper half of the ankle greath' elongated, and thus have the same
lengthy foot. Although some are much bigger, there are others quite as small
as the smaller mouse-lemurs. There is, however, a readily recognised external

^^v&ft

THE GREAT GALAGO (J Hat. size).

character by which a galago can be at once distinguished from a mouse-lemur.
This consists in the large size of the ears, which are quite bare, and have the
unique peculiarity that they can be partially folded upon themselves at such times
as their owners please, so as to lie nearly flat upon the sides of the head. This
may be for the purpose of protecting these delicate organs when passing through
thick foliage, especialh' if wet.

This distinctive peculiarit}* of the ears is, of course, sufficient to enable us
at once to separate a galago from a mouse-lemur ; and, indeed, from every other
kind of lemur. Zoologists are, however, by no means satisfied with distinguishing
animals merely by external characters : and they have succeeded in finding a feature
in the teeth by which a galago differs markedly from a mouse-lemur, although,

GALAGOS. 223

unfortunately, this point of distinction can onlj- be seen in a dried skull. If,
however, we take the skull of a mouse-lemur we shall find that while the last three
upper teetli, or molars, have broad crowns and are alike, the tooth in advance of
these, which is the last premolar, has a smaller and simpler crown, of a triangular
shape. In a galago's skull, on the conti'ary, tliis last upper premolar, although
slightly smaller than the molars, has a similarly shaped crown, broad on the inner
side, and nearly quadrangular in shape.

The galagos are widely distributed over the " dark continent," one kind being
found as far south as Natal, while there are several on the western side and two
on the eastern. Like the mouse-lemurs, they are essentially nocturnal ; and are, of
course, confined to those regions where thick forest prevails. When not enjoying
their diurnal repose, they are lively and interesting. They subsist on a mixed diet,
including fruits, insects, and small birds and their eggs. Some of the .smaller
species will readil}' devour locusts, and the peculiar leaf-like mantides, or praj'ing
insects. When on the ground the galagos recall the lemurs of the indri group, in
that the}- generally sit in the ujjright position, and progi-ess by a series of leaps or
hops. They usually have two or three young at a birth ; and are stated to have
bred in captivity in Africa, although we are not aware whether they have done so
in Europe. Many of them, however, thrive well in our menageries; where some
have been represented by a consideral)le number of individuals. It is stated that
the galagos resemble the mouse-lemurs in building nests, which are situated in the
forked branches of trees ; but it is probable that this is only true of the smaller
species. They appear, however, to be peculiar in that several individuals will
inhabit the same nest, out of which they all rush when suddenly distui-bed. The
total number of teeth, both in the galagos and the mouse-lemurs, is the same as in
the true lemurs.

The Great Galago (Galago crassicuudata).

With the exception of a closely-allied kind from the West Coast, the great,
or thick-tailed galago, of Mozambique and the Lower Zambesi Valley, is the largest
of all the species. This animal of wliich a figure is given on p. 222, is in point
of size about equal to a cat of average dimensions ; and, indeed, the peculiar manner
in which it carries its thick bushy tail higli above its back is highly suggestive
of a pampered Persian cat. This bushy tail is about one-fourth longer than the
head and bod}'. The great galago belongs to a group of three or four .species,
in which the ears are unusually long, and the muzzle is considerably elongated,
while the feet are comparatively broad and short, and the fingers and toes have
broad disc-like expansions at their extremities. The colour of the fur is a uniform
dark brown.

Writing of this species. Sir J. Kirk observes that " it is confined to the maritime
region, so far as I know never penetrating beyond the band of wood generally
known as the mangrove forests. By the Portuguese it is named ' rat of the cocoa-
nut palm,' that being its favourite haunt by day, nestling among the fronds ; but
if it be disturbed, performing feats of agilit}', and darting from one palm to another.
It will spring with great rapidity, adhering to any object as if it were a lump of

2 24 LEMURS.

wet clay. It has one failing, otherwise its capture would be no easy task. Should
a pot of palm-wine be left on the tree, the creature drinks to excess, comes down,
and rushes about intoxicated. In captivity they are mild : during the day remaining
either rolled up in a ball, or perched half asleep, with ears stowed away like a
beetle's wing under its hard and ornamented ease. I had half a dozen squirrels \\Tith
one in the same cage ; these were good friends, the latter ci-eeping under the golgo's"
(Sir J. Kirk's way of spelling galago) " soft fur and falling asleep. On introducing
a few specimens of (elephant) shrew, the golgo seized one and bit oti' its tail, which,
however, it did not eat. The food it took was biscuit, rice, orange, banana, guava,
and a little cooked meat. Stupid during the day, it became active at night, or just
after darkness set in. The rapidit}' and leng-th of its leaps, wliich were absolutely
noiseless, must give great facilities to its capturing live prey. I never knew it
give a loud call, liut it would often make a low, chattering noise. It has been
observed at the Luabo mouth of the Zambesi, at Quillimane, and at Jlozambique.
When I had my live specimen at Zanzibar, the natives did not seem to recognise it ;
nevertheless, it may be abundant on the mainland."

On the West Coast of Africa, in Angola, the great galago is represented h\ the
closely allied Monteiro's galago ((?. monteiri), which is of slightly larger size than
the East Coast form ; the length of the head and body being 12, and that of the
tail 16 inches. Although these two galagos differ mainly or entirely bj' their
coloration, yet, according to Sir. J. Kirk, the eastern form is confined to the coast
region, and it is pi'obable that there is a wide area separating the habitats of the
two, which suggests the advisability of regarding them as distinct species. As a
rule, Monteiro's galago is of a uniform pale grey colour, with the sides of the nose
somewhat darker, and the throat and tail nearly or quite white. The fur is soft,
with the component hairs slate-coloured at their roots, and white at the tips.

Garnett's Galago (Galago ganietti).

Garnett's, or, as it is sometimes rather inappropriateh* called, the black galago,
is a species belonging to the same group as the preceding forms, from which it
differs by its inferior size. It is an inhabitant of Eastern Africa, and is of a dark
brown colour, tending to yellowiish on the under-parts, with black ears, and a white
streak on each side of the loins.

One of these animals, formeiiy in the London Zoological Society's menagerie,
when let loose one night in the apartments of the superintendent, exhibited to per-
fection the leaping habits and extreme agility characteristic of its tribe. It leaped,
after the manner of the kangaroo, clearing several feet at a single spring, and
hopping on to the table and other articles of furniture which were in the room.
Strange to saj^ it exhibited no signs of fear of the dogs and cats with which it was
confronted.

The pale - coloured galago (G. jxiUidu), of Western Equatorial Africa, is a
species connecting in some respects the three above-mentioned species with those of
the group now to be described. It was met with by Du Chaillu, who believed that
he had discovered a new species. The general colour is pale grey, and the tail
unusuallv long.

GAL AG OS.

Allen's Galago (Galago alleni).

225

With the West African species we cotae to the tirst representati\e of a group
distinguished from the preceding one by tiie more rounded head, shorter muzzle,
and larger eyes, as well by the longer and more slender form of the foot.

Allen's galago is found at Fern;iudo Po and the Gabun, and is characterised
by the tail being thick and bushy, and also by the extreme length and slenderness
of its fingers and toes. The prevailing colour of the fur is blackish-brown, with
the forehead, rump, and the root of the tail grey, a tinge of red is on the liml)s, the
tail is black, and a streak on the nose and all the under-parts are whitish.

If we examine the skull of this species it will be noticed that the last
molar tooth on each side of the uj)per jaw is nearly ecjual in .size to the tooth in
advance of it. This will be found an important point of distinction between
Allen's galago and all the remaining species, in which the last upper molar is much
smaller than the tooth in front of it.

The Senegal Galago (Galago senegalensis).

The longest-known of all the galagos is the Senegal galago. It was originally
described so far back as the year 1796, from specimens brought from Senegambia,
which may be regarded as its headquaiiers. Subsequent discoveries have, however,
shown that a g.dago exists on the east side of Africa to the south of the Sudan,
which, although described as a distinct species under the name of the Sennaar
galago (G. sennariensis), is so closely allied to the Senegal galago that it may
proljably be regardcnl as a mere local variety or race. Indeed, it is probable
that when we ari^ fully acc^uainted with the zoology of the vast stretch of country
lying to the south of the Sahara desert, it will be found that this galago extends
right across Africa.

In addition to the distinctive character of the upper molar teeth already
mentioned, the Senegal species has certain marked external features by which it
difTers from Allen's galago. Thus, in the tail the hairs near the root are pressed
down, only those nearer the end spreading out on all sides, so that the whole tail
assumes a somewhat club-like form. Then, again, the fingers and toes are consider-
ably thicker and shorter than in Allen's galago. In colour the typical Senegal
galago is grey, with the imder-parts and a streak on the nose white, and the tail,
hands, and feet blackish-brown. The Sennaar race appears to have a rather bluer
tinge to the fur, with a darker face, and black rings round the eyes ; while the
tail is described as being relatively longer. It is of comparatively small size,
and appears to be common in the forests of Senegal, and in those on the Blue
Nile in Kordofan, and the White Nile in Sennaar. Its chief food consists of
various kinds of insects : but it is .stated that it will also eat the gum of various
kinds of acacia, which we have already noticed as forming part of the diet of
the baboons of the Sudan. Its habits are said to be similar to those of the other
species.

In South Africa the Senegal galago is represented by a species so nearly allied
to it that some writers have thought that the two forms are only varieties. This

VOL. I.— 15

226

LEMURS.

southern form is the Maholi galago (G. maholi), which is a distinctlj^ inhind species
found as far south as Natal, and also met with in Nyasaland and the adjacent
districts. A galago from the neighbourhood of Titi some distance up the Zambesi,
has been identihed with the Sennaar variety of the Senegal galago, Init it wouM
appear more probable that it is one of these. The prevailing colour is brownish, or
yellowish-gi-ey, becoming darker on the back, and still more so on the tail ; while a
broad streak on the nose, the cheeks, and the throat are white, and the inner
surfaces of the limbs and the under-parts are whitish with a faint tinge of yellow.

THE SENEGAL GALAGO (} liat. size).

In tlie male specimen in the British Museum brought home by the late Sir Andrew
Smith — the original deseriber of this animal — the fur surrounding the eves is of
the same colour as that on the other parts of the head. In other examples in
the national collection there are, however, dark rings round the e3-es. This
variability shows that we must not regard the presence or absence of such rings as
indicating a specific distinction between the Senegal and Sennaar 'galagos.

Demidoff's Galago (Galago demidoffi.).

The smallest and the last of these lemurs that we shall mention is
Demidoffs galago, from the West Coast of Africa. This animal differs from the

LOR IS. 227

two species just considered by its more slender and cj-lindrical tail and smaller
ears. The length of the head and liody is 5 inches, and that of the tail 7i.
The general colour is brown, darker on the siile.s of the face ; the white streak
on the nose being narrow ; and the chin, throat, and under parts of a reddish-
grey colour. The so-called U. vuirivv.x, from Old ("alabar, is probably identical
with this species.

The Sujw Lemurs, ok Loris.
Genera Nycticehiis and Loris.

With the slow lemui-s of the warmer parts of Asia we come to the last group
of the lemur family ; this group likewise including the pottos of Africa, to be
described next. The luendjers of this group may be recognised either by the total
absence of the tail, or by its length not exceeding one-third that of the head and
body. The only lemur with which tliese animals could possibly be confounded
would, therefore, be the indi-i of Madagascar; but, irrespective of its larger size,
that animal is at once distinguished by the web uniting the bases of the toes, and
the full development of the index finger of the hand. Moreover, the slow lemurs
and the pottos may be further distinguished, not only from the indri, but likewise
from all other lenuirs, by the index tingi'r of the hand being invariably very small,
and even rudimentaiy and without any trace of a nail. Then, again, all these
lemurs are peculiar in having the thumb of the hand and the great toe of the foot
very widely separated from the other digits ; this divergence being carried to such
an extent in the case of the great toe, which is actually directed backwards instead
of forwards.

Apart, therefore, from their distribution, there is no difficulty in distinguishing
a slow lemur or a potto from all othej- lemurs. All the members of the present
group have, however, the same number of teeth as the time lemurs, but they
differ from the galagos and mouse-lemurs in that the bones of the upper part
of the ankle are of ordinary proportions, so that the foot is not abnormally
lengthened.

The slow lennirs are purely nocturnal, and are well known for the extreme
slowness and deliberation of their movements ; the latter characteristic having
given their distinctive name to the Asiatic representatives of the group. It was
probably their deliberate motions, nocturnal habits, and large glaring eyes, that
suggested to the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus the name of lemur for the grouj)
generally.

The slow lemurs are distingi;ished from the pottos by having a well -developed
but small index finger on the hand, which has the usual three joints, and is provided
with a distinct nail. They have no external tail, and are, as we have already
mentioned, strictly confined to the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia. There
are three species, all of which ai-e very closely allied, although the majority of
naturalists have considered it advisable to divide them into two genera, one of
which contains two, and the other one species.

228

LEMURS.

The Commox Loris (X}/cticebii,9 iardigradus).

The common loris, or slow lemur, may be taken as the typical representative
of the genus Xycticebus. The distinctive features of this animal, as the repre-
sentative of a genus, are that the eyes are not of very enormous size, and are
separated from one another by a considerable space; while the general build of
the animal — more especially as regards its limbs — is comparatively stout.

The name loris, bj- which all the slow lemurs are commonly designated, is derived
from the Dutch word Loeris, meaning a clown, and appears to have been applied to

THE COMMON LORIS (j Uat. sizi').

these animals by the Dutch colonists of the East Indian Islands. To the natives of
India the slow loris is known either by the name Sharmindi billi, " bashful cat," or
Lajjar banar, " bashful monkey." It is an animal about the size of a cat ; different
individuals or races varying considerably in size, so that while some specimens do not
measure more than 13 inches in total length, others may reach as much as 15 inches,
or even more. Its proportions are thick and clumsy ; the head being broad and
flat, with a slightly projecting and pointed muzzle. The large eyes are perfectly
circular, and their pupils can be completely closed by the gradual contraction of
the iris, whicli opens from above and below, so that when the pupil is half concealed

LORIS.

229

it takes the form of a transverse slit. The ears are short, rounded, and partly
buried in the fui- ; and are, thus, very different from those of tlie galagos. The
hind-limbs are only slightly longer than the others. With the exception of the
muzzle and the hands and feet, the whole of the body is covered witli a thick coat
of very close and somewhat long woolly fur.

There is a considerable amount of variation in the colour of different local
races of this species, although in all cases there is a dark stripe running down the
middle of the back, sometimes extending on to the head. In the more common and
larger variety, the colour of the fur is asliy-grey above, tending to become silvery
along the sides of the back, the under-parts being lighter, and the rump often
having a tinge of red. The stripe on the back is chestnut-coloured, and stops short
at the hinder part of the crown of the head. The eyes are, however, surrounded
by dark rims ; between wliich is the white streak extending upwards from the nose.
The ears, together with a small surrounding area, are brown.

In another, and generally smaller variety, the hue of the upper-parts has a
distinct tinge of red mingling with the grey : while the stripe on the back is wider,
and often of a full brown colour; but, instead of stopping short at the back of the
crown of the head, this band widens out into a large brown patch on the crown,
which embraces the ears. The eyes, however, although surroinided by brown
rings, are not connected with the patch on the head ])y a dark-coloui-ed area.
There is yet a third variety of this creature, found in Tenasseriui, in wliich the
general colour 'is pale rufescent, while the dark stripe on the back, in.stead of
expanding on the crown of the head, merely splits into a fork, of which each
prong joins the dai-k ring round the eyes.

The slow loris is found over a large area in the countries lying to the east-
ward of the Bay of Bengal. It occurs on the north-east frontier of India in the
provinces of Sylhet and Assam, whence it extends southwards into Burma,
Tenasserim, and the Malay Peninsula ; while it is also f(jund in Siani and Cochin
China, and the islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.

„ ^.^ Its food consists of leaves and younf^ shoots of trees, as well as

Habits. . ... „ . .

fruits, various kinds of insects, birds, and their eggs. It has been

observed to stand nearly erect upon its feet, and from this advantageous position

pounce upon an insect. It is generally silent, although sometimes uttering a low

crackling sound ; but when enraged, and especially if about to bite, it gives a kind

of fierce growl. Mr. Blanford, ijuoting from notes by Colonel Tickell, observes that

this animal is tolerably com n 1011 in the Tenasserim provinces and Arakaii; but, being

strictly nocturnal in its habits, is seldom seen. It inhabits the densest forests, and

never by choice leaves the trees. Its movements are .slow, but it climbs readily,

and grasps with great tenacity. If placed on the ground, it can proceed, if

frightened, in a wavering kind of trot, the limbs placed at right angles. It sleeps

rolled up in a ball, its head and hands buried between its thighs, and wakes up at

the dusk of evening to commence its nocturnal rambles. The female bears but one

young at a time. Many accounts have been published of the habits of the slow

loris in confinement. One of the best of the earlier of these is from the pen of Sir

William Jones, who had one of these animals as a pet in Calcutta. All observers

are agreed that, while these creatures are apt to be fierce when first captured.

2 3°

LEMURS.

they soon become docile. They are very susceptible to cold, aud wheu so atJected
are apt to be fractious and petulant.

There is an account of a tame loris in Loudon's Maijuzinc of Natural History.
After mentioning that the animal was especially fond of plantains, the writer observes
that it was also partial to small birds, which, " when put into his cage, he kills speedily ;
and, plucking the feathei-s off with the skill of a poulterer, soon lodges the carcase in
his stomach. He eats the bones as well as the flesh ; and though birds, and mice
perhaps, are his favourite food, he eats other meat very readily, especially when

THE SLENDER LORIS, IN" WAKING AND SLEEM.VG POSTCRE.

quite fresh ; if boiled, or otherwise cooked, he will not taste it. He prefers veal to
all other kinds of butcher's meat: eggs, also, he is fond of, and sugar is especially
grateful tt) his palate ; he likewise eats gum-arabic. As flesh is not always to be
had ([uite fresh (the only state in which it is acceptable to him), he has for some
time past been fed upon bread sopped in water, and sprinkled with sugar : this he
eats readily, and seems to relish much. . . . When food is pre.sentcd to him, if
hungry, he seizes it with both hands, and, letting go with his right, holds it with
his left all the time he is eating. Fre([Uently, when feeding, he grasps the bars in
the upper part of his cage witli his hind paws, and hangs invei-ted, appearing
very much intent upon the food he holds in his left liand. He is exceedingly fond
of oranges ; but. when they are at all hard, he seems \-ery much puzzled how to

LORIS. 231

extract the juice. I have, upon such an occasion, seen him lie all his length upon
his back, in the bottom of the cage, and, tirmly grasping the piece of orange in
Ijoth hands, squeeze the juice into his moutii. He generally sits upon his hind
part (the hair of which is much worn by long sitting), close to the bars of his cage,
gi-asping them fimily with liis hind paws ; he then rolls himself up like a ball, with
his head in his breast, his thighs closely placed over his belly, and his arms over
liis head, generally grasping the bars of tiie cage with his hands also. In this
position, and also without moving, he remains the whole daj'. Upon coming into
the Channel, the cold weather atlected him very nnich : he was seized with cramp,
and I at that time placeil him in a small box, wiiicli was tilled with very soft down.
This he felt so agreeable that, when cold, he never left it during tlie whole day,
unless disturbed, and slept in it rolled up in the sliape of a ball. He is extra-
ordinarily slow in his motions, ami. liis trivial name, tardigruduf, well marks his
habit in that particular . . . When he climbs lie tii-st laj-s hold of the branch with
one of his hands, and then with the other. When he has obtained a tirm hold with
lx)th hands, he moves one of his hind paws, ami, after tirmly grasping the branch
with it, he moves the other. He never quits his hold with his hind paws until he
has obtained a secure grasp with his hands. Wlien he walks, he moves his limbs in
the same methodical manner as when lie clindjs.

"His temper, in cold weather e.spi'ciall\-, is very (juick ; but, in general, he is
rather timid, and never otfei-s any injury unless incautiousl}'^ touched, teased, or
pnnoked : he then makes a shrill, plaintive cry, evidently expres.sive of nnich
annoyance, and bites very shai-ply." He was obtained from the island of Penang,
lying off the Malay Peninsula, and belonged to that variety in which the brown
stripe of the back expands into a large triangular patch on the crown of the head.

The Javan loris {X. javanicufi), said to be confined to the island from which it
deiives its name, is distinguished by having four browni bands running down the
head and face from the crown, one band going to each eye, and one to each ear ;
the interspaces being pale, and the space between the eyes white. As Mr. Blanford
remarks, this coloration is only one .step in advance on that obtaining in the
thii-d variety of the slow loris mentioned on p. 229, and it is therefore extremely
doubtful whether the Javan loris really has anj^ right to rank as a separate species.

The Slender Loris {Loris gracilis).

The slender loris, of which we give an illustration on p. 230, represent-
ing it asleep, and another on p. 232, is the sole species of the genus to which it
belongs. It is distinguished from the .slow loris by its lighter build of body and
longer and more slender limbs, as well as by the greater size of the eyes, which are
separated merely by a narrow space. The cai-s are also somewhat larger than in
the slow loris.

Tile slender loris is a mucli smallei- .mimal than the preceding species, the
length of the head and Ixxly being about .S inches. In colour it is a dark earthy
grej^ with a more or less marked ruddy tinge on the back and outer sides of the
limbs, and .showing a faint silvery wash : the under-parts being much paler.
Between the eyes there is the usual narrow white stripe, wliich spreads out on the

232

LEMURS.

forehead ; and the cheeks and region round the eyes are darker than the rest of
the body. Some young specimens are decidedly reddish.

This animal is confined to the forests of Southern India and Ceylon, and
appears onh' to be found in those which are situated at but a comparatively slight
elevation above the sea-level. Mr. Blanford states that its habits are very similar
to those of its cousin the slow loris, although its movements are not quite .so
deliberate. It partakes of the same kind of food as the latter : and sleeps rolled
upi like a ball, with its head between its thighs, and its hand grasping the bough
on which it is seated, as shown on our illustration on p. 230.

The present writer once had occasion to purchase a pair of these animals in
the bazaar at Madras, and was surprised to find the number of specimens which

THE SLt.NUtlc LOWS.

were exposed there for sale. On the voyage up to Calcutta these pretty little
creatures lived mainly on a thet of plantains and rice, supplemented with an
occasional cockroach ; but as they passed the whole day in slumber, they could
scarcely be reckoned as very lively pets.

Sir J. Emerson Tennent, who tells us that this animal has acquired the name
of the " Ceylon sloth " in Ceylon, observes that " the singularly lai-ge and intense
eyes of the loris have attracted the attention of the Singhalese, who capture the
creature for the purpose of extracting them as charms and love-potions, and this
they are said to effect by hokUng the little animal to the fire till the eyeballs burst.
Its Tamil name is Thavangu, or ' thin lx)died ' ; and hence a deformed child or
emaciated person has acquired in the Tamil districts the same epithet. The light-
coloured varietj' of the lori.s in Ceylon has a .spot on the forehead, somewhat
resembling the namam, or mark woi'n by the worshippers of Vishnu ; and from
this peculiarity it is distinguished as the Nama-thavangu."

POTTOS.

The Pottos, or African Slow Lemurs.
Genus Perodicticus.

In West Africa the place of the
slow lemurs of Asia is taken by two
species of lemur, which may be col-
lectivety known as pottos, although
in its proper application the native
name Potto appears to be restricted
to the first of the two kinds. The
pottos are distinguished by the index
finger of the hand being (piite i-udi-
mentary, consisting only of a stump
without distinct joints, and unprovided
with a nail. The typical potto is
further distinguished by possessing
a slioi-t tail, but since this appendage
is rudimentary in the second species
it does not afford any characters by
which the African slow lemurs can be
distinguished from their Asiatic rela-
tives. The habits of the pottos are
veiy similar to those of the Ions, but
their movements are still more deli-
berate and sluggish.

THE POTTO ASLEEP (J liat. siZe).

BosMAX's Potto {Perodicticus j)otto).

The true, or Bosnian's potto, represented in oiar first illustration in its sleeping
posture, and in our second awake, takes its name from having been discovered by
the Dutch navigator, Van Bosman, who met with it on the coast of Guinea, and
described it as long ago as the year 1705, under its native name of Potto.

It is an animal of somewhat robust build, chiefly characterised by having a
tail of about one-tliii-d the length of the head and body ; the whole body being
covered with a thick coat of soft and moderately long haii-. The small and
rounded ears stand up Avell above the fur of the head ; the large eyes are separated
from one another by a considerable interval ; and the muzzle is rather broad
and not verj^ long. The arms and legs are of nearly equal length. With the
exception of the nearly naked nose and cliin, which are flesh-coloured, the general
colour of the animal is a kind of chestnut tint, with a black or greyish tinge : the
throat and under-parts being j-ellowish-brown. The peculiar half-red, half-grey
tint of the fur on the back is produced by the individual hairs being slate-coloured
at their roots, reddish in the middle, and paler at tlie tips.

In addition to the loss of the index finger of the hand, the potto presents a
ciiiious peculiaiity connected with the joints of the backbone in the neck. The

234

LEMURS.

spiues, wliicli project from the upper surfaces of their joints, are so elongated that
they actually project beyond the general level of the skin of the back of the neck,
where thej' form a series of little humps. We are at present unacquainted with
the object of this peculiar structural arrangement.

Like the loris, the potto is nocturnal in its habits, sleeping during the whole
of the day, as shown in our first illustration, rolled up in a ball, with the head
between the fore-legs, and folded into the chest, and supporting itself, in captivity
by gra.spiug the bars of its cage with both hands and feet.

The potto is found over a considerable extent of the West Coast of Africa,
having been recorded from Guinea, Sierra Leone, and the Gabun. Unfortunatelj',
however, we have but few details as to its habits in a wild state, this being prob-

BOSMAN's POTTO. (Froiu Proc. ZoiA. 5of.— After Sclater.)

ably largely due to the creature having been seldom seen by Europeans. Several
specimens of the potto have been exhibited in the Gardens of the London Zpologiciil
Society ; the animal is, however, extremely susceptible to cold, and requires the
greatest care.

The Awaktibo (Perodicticws calabarensin).

Far more rare than the potto is the lemur represented in the illustration ou
the next page, whicli is known only from the regions around the Old Calabar River,
flowing into tiie Bight of Biafra, east of the Niger. Tlie awantilw is distinguished
from the potto, not only by its smaller size and more slender build, but also by the
tail being reduced to a mere rudiment, and by a still further reduction of the index
linger, which is represented merely by a little tubercle ou the edge of the hand.

A WANTIBO. 235

Moreover, the other tingers of the hand, as well as the toes of the foot, with the
exception of the tirst or great toe, have their first joints connected together by
folds of skin. The entire hands and feet are i-elatively smaller than in Bosnian's
potto. The colour of the awantibo is yellowi.sh-brown abo\e, but paler on the
under-parts, becoming whitish in places : and the whole length of the body is just
over 10 inches.

Tlois animal has only been known to Europeans since the year 1859. Very

H0m^&l^^,

^■/.

^'"•'''^Asl'''

THE AWANTIBO (J nat. size).

few specimens have been received in this country — none of them in a living con-
dition ; and we have practically no information regarding its habits. It has been
observed that in this animal and the potto the hands and feet are divided into two
distinct moieties by the separation of the thund) and great toe from the other
digits: this Ijeing most marked in the hand by the loss of the index finger. The
hands and feet may accordingly be compared to the feet of a parrot: and it is
suggested by the writer, who makes this comparison, that in both cases the structure
is one specially adapted for long-continued grasping without change of position.

236 LEMURS.

Extinct Lemuks.

We have already incidental!}- referred to the occurrence of several fossil
lemurs in the lower Tertiary strata of Europe : but it remains to be mentioned tliat
other species have been found in the corresponding rocks of North America. This
is a very curious and highh' important cii'cumstance, since it suggests that while the
New World monkeys and marmosets, which have very lemur-like molar teeth, maj-
have taken their origin directly from the extinct lemurs of that hemisphere, the Old
Woi'ld monkeys may have had an independent origin from the ancient lemurs of
Europe.

Curiously enough, although the remains of lenuirs have been known for very
many years from the lower Tertiary rocks, both of Hampshire and France, it is
only quite recentl}' that they have been recf>gnised as such, hav-ng been long
regarded as belonging to small hoofed mannnals. One of these groups of lenmrs,
represented by several species of different, though relatively small, dimensions,
occurring both in England and France, has been described under the name of
Microchoerus ; the tei-m meaning " small pig," and having been applied from the
supposed aflSnity of the creature to the hoofed mammals. These animals were
undoubtedly lemurs nearly allied to living forms, their skulls being very like those
of tlie galagos, although their upper premolar teeth more nearly resembled those
of the mouse-lemurs. Like all other fossil lenuirs, they are, however, distinguished
from living forms by the circumstance that the place and form of the loM'er tusk
is not taken b}- the first of the lower premolar teeth (see p. 203). This is a very
important circumstance, since it shows that tliese ancient lemurs were what zoologists
call less specialised than their living relations, and also removes any difficulty as
to the descent of monkeys (in which the lower tusk always I'emains) from lemurs.

Another and larger European Tertiary lemur, known as the Adapis, carries
the series one step still further back, since it has four premolar teeth on either side
of each jaw ; whereas, as we have seen, no living lemur has more than three of
these teeth. Here, then, so far as it goes, we have decisive evidence of the

approximation of the extinct lemurs to the inferior
onlers of IMamnials, among which four premolar teeth
are freijuently present : and we may thus hope in time
to discover further evidence of intermediate forms.

.Some of the extinct North American leuuirs,
with four premolars, do indeed exhibit certain tran-
THB LEKT UPPER CHEEK-TEETH OP AN sitloual cliaractcrs ; but it would be beyond the
EXTINCT EUROPEAN LEMURoiD pi-Qyincc of tlio prcseut work to cntcr uiion their

(Adapis). V •

discussion.
There have recenth' been discovered in the superficial deposits of Madagascar
the remains of a gigantic extinct lemur, described under the name of Megalada2}is.
The skull presents some resemblance to that of Adapis: l>ut the upper molar teeth
are triangular. Like many of the foregoing this lemur indicates a family by itself.
Not improbabl}^ it was living about two centuries ago.

>^^^$;^^j:,-^.

THE TARSIER (i uat. size).

CHAPTER VITT.

Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs, — conchcded.

The Tarsier and the Aye-Aye.

These two strange creature.s, althougli .sufficiently nearl}' related to the lemurs to
be included in the same gi-eat group, yet differ so markedly, not only from the
lemurs, but likewise from each other, as to make it necessary to refer them to two
di.stinct families — Tarsiidce and CInromijida'. This gives us, for the first time,
instances of families represented not only by a single genus, but by a single
species.

2 58 LEMURS.

'-5

The Tarsier (Tarxin-ofipectriini).

Takes the fii-st of its Latin names from tlie eloni;atiou of the Ixjnes of the upper
part of the ankle (t(irsu-s), after the manner we have noticed as occurring in
the mouse-lemurs and galagos, and it-s second from its spectre-like and ghostly
appearance. It is a native of various ishnids in the Malayan region, being found,
among othei-s, in Celebes, Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines, and some othei-s. It
has never, we believe, been exliibited alive in tliis country, and since accounts at
first hand from those who have seen animals in their native countries are always
valuable, we commence our notice of this animal bj- quoting from Dr. Guillemard,
who received a living .specimen while at Celebes, and, in liis ('»■;» j.se of the Marchfivi,
writes as follows : — " The most interesting addition to our menagerie was a tiny
lemuroid animal {T. .yyectrum), brought to us by a native, by whom it was said to
have been caught UDon the mainland. These little creatures, which are of arboreal
and nocturnal habits, are about the size of a small rat, and are covered with
remarkably thick fur, which is \ery soft. The tail is long, ami coAered with hair
at the root and tip, while the midiUe portion of it is nearly bare. The eyes are
enormous, and indeed seem, together with the equally large ear's, to constitute the
greater part of the face, for the jaw and nose are very small, ami the latter is set
on, like that of a pug dog, almost at a right angle. The hind-limb at once attracts
attention from the great length of the tai-sal [ankle] bones, and the hand is equally
noticeable for its length, the curious claws with which it is provided, and the
extraordinarj' disc-shaped palps on the palmar surface of the fingers, which
probably enables the animal to retain its hold in almost any po.sition. This weird-
looking creature we were unable to keep long in captivity, for we could not get it
to eat the cockroaches which were almost the onlj- food with which we could
.supply it. It remained still bj* day in its darkened cage, but at night, especially
if (hsturbed, it would spring verticallj- upwards in an odd mechanical manner, not
unlike the hopping of a flea. On the thii'<l day it found a gi-ave in a pickle-bottle."

If we add that the general colour of the fur is usuallj' some shade of brownish-
fawn, ^\-ith the face and forehead reddish, and a dark ring round the enormous
eyes, the alx)ve account gives a very good idea of the general appearance of the
tai-sier,^ the length of whose body is about 6 inches. This account does not,
however, show us any reasons why this animal should be separated fix>m the
tj'pical lemui-s as the representative of a separate family : and we must therefore
proceed to the consideration of this point.

Now, the elongation of the bones of the upper half of the ankle evidentlj'
allies the tai-sier to the galagos and mouse-lemui-s : and if the other characters of the
animal approximated to them there would be no reason why it should not be
included in the family. It happens, however, that there are verj' important differ-
ences connected with the teeth, and it is on these zoologists largely rely in assigning
the tarsier to a distinct family. In describing the teeth of the lemui-s it has
been shown that the middle pair of incisoi-s in the upper jaw are separated from
one another by an intervening space, and it maj* be added here that thej' are of
small size. If, however, we examine the skull of a tarsier, we shall find that these

1 In Pr. Guilleniard's figure, reproduced on p. 244, the ears .ire longer than in our heading.

TARSIER. 239

central upper incisors are, as in ourselv'es, of large size, and placed quite close to
one another. Then, again, we shall find that the upper tusk is much smaller than
in tlie typical lemurs. Moreover, if wc examine the lo\ycr jaw, we shall soc tliat
tlic tusk is formed by tiie canine tooth, instead of being the most anterior of the
premolars: the latter tooth being smaller than eitiicr of the other two premolars,
instead of taking the form and fiuiction of a tusk, as in tlie true leumrs. In
liaving but a single pair of lower incisoi"s, which an examination of its skull wcjuld
show to be the case, the tai-sier agi-ees with the indri lenuir : but in the presence
of three premolars on either side of each jaw it resembles the true leumrs. Its
whole series of teeth are thirty-four in number — four more than in the indri, and
two less than in the true lemurs, and may be expressed by the formula i'\. o\.

It is, therefore, clear that the tarsier differs very markedly from oi-dinary
lemui-s ; and, if our observations made under the head of fossil lemurs have been
undei-stood, it will be apparent that in this respect the tai-sier is what zoologists
term a more generalised form than the trae lenmrs, and that it closely resembles the
extinct types. Indeed the series of teeth in the extinct microchoere are expressed
by the .same formula as the one denoting those of, tlie tarsier. We maj^, therefore,
venture to conclude that this animal shows in its teeth signs of affinity with the
extinct European lemurs, which have been lost in the true lemurs and their allies.
In regard to the elongation of the bones of the upper half of the ankle, the tarsier
is, however, evidently a specialised, or liighly modified creature ; and it is probable
that the same structural peculiarity did not exist in the Eocene lemurs.

Another peculiarity of the tarsier is that the two bones of the lower leg, — the
tibia and fibula, — instead of being quite separate from one another, as in all other
lemurs, are united in their lower half. Then again, in place of only the toe next
the great toe being furnished with a sharp compressed claw, and all the other toes
having flat nails, the middle toe is also provided with a similar compressed and
pointed claw.

We might refer to certain features connected with the structure of the skull of
the tarsier, and also mention some peculiarities in the anatomy of its soft parts ;
but sufficient has been said to show what a veiy remarkable creature it is when
properly studied, and to indicate why it is referred to as a distinct family. It is,
indeed, generalised, or little modified in regard to its teeth, but highly specialised,
or nuich modified in respect of the bonj^ skeleton of its legs and feet.

Dr. Guillemard calls special attention to the peculiar leaps made by his captive
tarsier ; and this habit of leaping is highly characteristic of the species, — as we
have seen it to be of the galagos and mouse-lenmrs, in which the ankle-bones are
modified in the same manner, although to a less degree. The tarsier is described
as progi-essing in the woods hj a series of leaps from bough to bough, or along a
single bough ; and it doubtless makes use of similar leaps to pounce upon its living
prey. Its food consists chiefly of insects and small reptiles, and it does not appear
that it ever touches fruits. Tarsiers are rare in their native lands, and instead of
going in small parties are found singly or in pairs. They are looked upon with
great dread and horror by the native inhabitants of the Malayan Islands. Accord-
ing to the late Mr. Cumming, who once had a female and young tarsier alive, the

240 LEMURS.

animal is known to the natives of the above-mentioned islands bj- the name of the
Malmag. The same writer also informs us that only one young is produced at a
birth ; and that when the natives capture one of a pair, they are sure of secuiing
its fellow. When feeding, the tarsier sits up on its hind-quarters and holds its
fooil in its hands, somewhat after the fashion of a squirrel.

The Aye-Aye {Chiromys maduguscariensis).

The last of the lemur-like animals, and, at the same time, of the whole oi-der
of Primates, is the aj^e-aye of Madagascar, which has teeth so uttei-ly different
from all other members of the order that it was long considered to belong to the
Rodent oixler (rats, rabbits, etc.).

The most peculiar feature about the teeth uf the fully adult aye-aye is that the
front, or incisor teeth, are reduced to a single pair in each jaw, which are curved, and
have their extremities brought to a sharp chisel-like edge, admirabljr adapted for
gnawing and rasping hard substances. The structure of these teeth is in fact precisely
the same as in the front teeth of rats and beavers ; their sharp cutting-edge being
produced by the circumstance that while the body of the tooth is formed of the
comparatively soft ivory, the front surface is faced with a layer of hard flinty enamel.
And it will be obvious that the result of wear in a tooth of this type will be to produce
a chisel-like edge. It will further be apparent that such a tooth, if continually
employed in rasping away liard substances, would ])e very (juickly worn away
altogether, if it were of the same length as ordinary' teeth, and not provided with
some kind of renewal. This difficulty is obviated by the front teeth of the aye-aye
r'emaining open at their lower ends, ami inidergoing a continual process of growth ;
so that as their summits are worn away they are pushed further up from below.
In all these points their teeth are precisely similar to those of the Rodent Mammals.
A furtlier resemblance to Rodents is shown by the absence of tusks in the aye-aye ;
and also by the cheek-teeth being separated by a long gap from the incisors, as
well as by being reduced in number, and having their crowns with nearly flat
surfaces, instead of being surmounted with the sharp cusps found in those of the
ti'ue lemur. Indeed, the total number of teeth in the adult aye-aye is only
eighteen; these being expressed by the formula i\, c{}, ^:)J, ■ni|, or exactly the same
as in many Rodents.

If, then, the teeth of tlie adult aj^e-aye are so exactly like those of a Rodent,
the reader may well ask why it is not placed among the rats and beaver.S, instead
of among the lemurs. To this it may be replied that in the- young aye-aye the
milk- or baby-teeth are very much more like those of the true lemurs : while the
anatomy of the skeleton and the soft parts is essentiallj' that of a lemur, and not
that of a Rodent. The resemblance of the skull and teeth of the aye-aye to those
of a Rodent, is, indeed, an excellent instance of what zoologists term an adaptive
or parallel resemblance. When two animals belonging to totally different groups
have more or less nearly similar habits, it frequently results that they will closely
resemble one another in at least some part of their structure ; such particular
structure being the one best adapted for a particular mode of life. In all such
cases a supei-ficial examination of the animals in question will frequently lead to

A VE-A YE.

241

their being referred to one and the same group ; wliile further minute investiga-
tions will reveal the fact tliat their deep-seated internal stmcture — which alone
reveals their true affinities — is very different. Such was the ease with the aye-
aye, which was at hrst refeiTcd to the Rodents; its affinities to the lemurs not
having been discovered till a fuller examination.

The aye-aye agrees with the true lemurs in having the great toe of the foot
furnislied with a flattened nail, and capable of being opposed to the other toes ;
this feature being alone sufficient to prove that the creature has nothing to do with
the Rodents. With the exception of this great toe, however, all the toes and
fingers, which are very long and narrow, are furnished with narrow and sharply-
pointed claws. Although both the hands and the feet are large in proportion to

THE ATE-AVE (J Uat. size).

the size of the animal, yet the great peculiarity is concentrated in the hands, in
which the fingers are much longfer than are the toes of the feet. One tino-er — •
namely, that corresponding to our middle finger — is more remarkable than the
others, being of great length and extreme slenderness. It is probable that this
ghostly middle finger is employed in extracting from their burrows the larvae
which, as we shall shoi-tly leam, appear to form a poi-tion of the creature's natural
diet.

In size the aye-aye may be compared to a cat ; its total length being about
3 feet, of which the larger moiety is formed by the bushy tail. The comparison
witli a cat may be further extended to the short and rounded head and cat-like
face of the animal. The rounded ears are, however, relatively larger than those of
a cat, and have the peculiarity of being nearly naked The fur is long, and com-

VOL. I. — 16

242 LEMURS.

posed of a mixture of longer stiffish hairs, with an under-coat of more busliy and
shorter ones. The prevailing colour is dark bro^^'n, tending to black ; the throat
being yellowish-grey, and the under-parts showing a rufous tinge. Some of the
longer hairs on the back are whitish, thus producing a somewhat mottled appear-
ance in the fur.

The aye-aye was discovered by the French traveller Sonnerat — who likewise
first obtained the indn — as far back as the year 1780; and it was described in
the first year of the present century by Baron Cuvier, who regai-ded it as a kind
of squiri-el. Nothing more was heard of the creature from Sonnerat 's time till
1860, when specimens were sent to this country, and desci-ibed by Sir Richard
Owen. The following account of the habits of the aye-aye in its native land was
published in 1882 \>y Mr. L. Baron, a missionary in Madagascar. '• The aye-aye,"
writes Mr. Baron, " lives in the dense pai-ts of the great forest that inins along the
eastern border of the central plateau of the island, but only in that part of it which
separates the Sihanaka province from that of the Betsimisaraka, and which is
about twenty-five miles from the east coast, in latitude 17° 22" S., or thereabouts.
Possibly there are other parts of the country where the aye-aye is found ; but so
far as my knowledge extends (and I have made inquiries in different parts of the
island), this is the only region where the creature rinds its home . . . From what
I have gathered from the natives, it seems to be pi-etty common, its nocturnal
habits, and the superstitious awe with which it is regarded (and of which I shall
speak presently) accounting for its appai-ent rarity.

" The native name of the animal is Haihay (Hihi) ; but this is not derived
from the exclamations of surprise which the natives exhibited at the sight of an
unknown animal, but is simply onomatopoetic, the creature's call being haihay,
haihay. The animal, as is well known, is nocturnal in its habits, prowling about
in pairs — male and female. It has but one young one at birth. It builds a nest
about 2 feet in diameter, of twigs and dried leaves, in the dense foliage of the
upper branches of trees. In this it spends the day in sleep. The nest is entered
by a hole at the side. The teeth are used in scratching away the bark of trees in
search of insects, and the long claw in digging out the pi'ey when found. A
white insect called Andra itra (possibly the larva of some beetle), seems to form its
chief food. I was told that it frequently taps the bark with its fore-feet, and then
listens for the movement of its prey beneath, thus saving itself useless labour. It
does not flee at the sight of man, showing that for generations it has not been
molested by him : which is indeed true, as the following- will show. The natives
have a superstitious fear of the creature, believing that it possesses some super-
natural power by which it can destroy those who seek to capture it or to do it
harm. The consequence of this is that it is with the greatest difficulty one can
obtain a specimen. With most of the people no amount of money would be a suffi-
cient inducement to go in pui'suit of the creature, ' because,' say they, ' we value
our own lives more than money.' It is only a few of the more daring spirits
among them, who knowing the odiny, that is the secret by which they can disarm
it of its di-eaded power, have the courage to attempt its capture. Occasionally it is
brought to Tamatave for sale, where it realises a good sum. Now and then it is
accidentally caught in the traps which the natives set for lenuirs ; but the owner

AYE- A YE. 243

of the trap, unless one of those versed in the aye-aye mysteries, who know the
charm by which to counteract its evil power, smears fat over it, thus securino- its
forgiveness and goodwill, and sets it tree."

Aji other account was published in the follo\Aing }'ear hy the Rev. G. A. Shaw
also a resident in Madagascar, and since it differs somewhat from the preceding,
which it supplements in some other respects, it may be likeM'ise quoted. Mr. Shaw
starts by stating, in opposition to Mr. Baron, that the name of the creature is derived
from hay ! hay ! the Malagasy exclamation of surprise ; the animal being known
to the natives as the Haikay (pronounced Hayekaye). Be its origin what it may,
there is thus full testimony that the name by which we know the creature is sub-
stantially the same as that by which it is known in its native land.

" Being a nocturnal animal," Mr. Shaw continues, " it is very difficult to get any
reliable information concerning its habits in the wild state, and native reports are
altogether contradictory with respect to these matters. Even with reference to its
natural food no satisfactor\- explanation can be obtained from the people. Manj^
assert positively that it lives on honey ; but one I had in captivity would not eat
honey in any form, either strained or in the comb, or mixed with various things I
thought he miglit have a fancy for. Others say it lives on fruits and leaves ; others
that birds and eggs are its natural food. I fancy from what I sa^^' of my captive
that both these conjectures are nearer the truth ; for after a few daj-s, during which
it would eat nothing, and it was thought that the proper food had not been oflered
(but it was in reality pining or sulking), it took several fruits which I was able to
procure for it. It liked bananas ; luit it made sorry efforts at eating them, its teeth
being so placed that its mouth was clogged with them. The small fruits of various
native shrubs it also devoured, as also rice boiled in milk and .sweetened witli sugar ;
but meat, larvre, moths, Ijeetles, and eggs it would not touch. But I noticed that
when I came near its cage witli a light, it almost invariably started and went for a
little distance in chase of the shadows of tlie pieces of bananas attached to the wire-
work in front of its cage ; and I think that if I could have procured some small
birds it would have, if not devoured them, at any rate killed them for their blood,
as some lemurs are known to do. It drank water occasionally, but in such a way
as to make it highlj- probable that it does not drink from streams or pools in the
ordinary' w&y. It did not hold its food in its hands as the lemurs which I have
had in captivity have done, but merely used its hands to steady it on the bottom
of the cage. But whenever it had eaten, although it did not always clean its hands,
it invariably drew each of its long claws through its mouth, as though, in the
natural state, these had taken a chief part in procuring its food.

" In some accounts, given by different writers, the haikay is said to be easily
tamed, and to be inoffensive. ... In each of these qualities, I have found, both from
native accounts, and from the specimen I have kept, that exactly the reverse is the
case. It is very savage, and, when attacking, strikes with its hands with anything
but a slow movement. As might be imagined in a nocturnal animal, its move-
ments in the daytime are slow and uncertain : and it may be said to be inoffensive
then. When it bit at the wire-netting in the front of its cage, I noticed that each of
the pair of incisors in either jaw could separate .sufficiently to admit the thick wire
even down to the gum, the tips of the teeth then .standing a considerable distance

244

LEMURS.

apart, leading to the supposition tliat, by some arrangement of the sockets of the
teeth, they could be moved so far without breaking. The haikay brings forth one
at a birth, in which the long claw is fully developed."

It has been observed that captive aye-ayes are very partial to the juice of
the sugar-cane, which they obtain by ripping up the canes with their front teeth ;
and since sugar-cane grows wild in Madaga.scar, we may infer that its juice foiins
a part of the food of these animals in their wild state. It is, therefore, probable that
the diet of the aye-aye is a mixed one, consisting partly of grubs, partly of the
juices of plants, partly of frait ; but whether birds or their eggs also fonn a part
of the bill of fare must be left for future observers to determine. The favourite
haunts of these animals appear to be the bamboo-brakes, which form such a large
poi-tion of the forests in some regions of the island.

THE TARSIER ACCORDING TO uUiuxiiiKD. (From The Cruise of the ilarchesa.)

SKELETON OK BAT (A'^Cteris).

CHAP TEE IX.

Bats, — Order Chiroptera.

In some cases there is more or less difficulty, especially when we have to take
extinct types into consideration, in findino- well-marked characteristics by which
the various orders of ilaunnals can be distinguished from each otlier. With bats,
however, there is no such ilifficulty, since they are sharply distinguished from all
other Mammals by possessing the power of trae flight, for the purpose of which their
fore-limbs are speciallj- modified. , We say true flight advisedly, for the reason
that there is a kind of spurious flight possessed bj^ certain other Mammals, such as
flying squirrels and flying phalangers, which is quite different from the flight of
bats, and does not entail any special modification of the structure of the fore-limbs.
True flight, like that of birds and bats, is eflfected by means of alternate upward
and downward strokes of the wings, and can be carried on as long as the muscular
power of the flyer permits. Spurious flight, like that of the flying squirrels, is, on
the other hand, nothing more than a prolongation of an upward or downward leap,
by the aid of parachute-like expansions of the skin of the sides of the body, and

248 BATS.

cannot be extended in an npwanl direction beyond the limits of the impetus of the
original leap.

This power of true flight is, then, the essential characteristic of all bats : and
it is a very remarkable fact that among all the host of extinct animals with which
we are now acquainted, none have been discovered in any way connecting bats with
other Mammals. Indeed, remains of bats verj- closely resembling existing kinds
are met with in the upjier part of the Eocene period, which show that the order
is a very ancient one, and that we should have to go back still earlier before
creatures intermediate between bats and other Mammals were met with. In spite
of this, naturalists have, however, no hesitation in believing that bats have taken
origin fron^ Mammals of ordinary terrestrial habits. It is found, indeed, that in
their essential structure bats are .so closely allied to the Insectivores (of which
we treat next), such as shrews, moles, etc., that there can be little doubt of their
derivation from the ancestral forms of that order; and it is probable that the
power of true flight was developed gradually from spurious flight, like that of
flying squirrels. Moreover, it will be shown later on that there is a veiy curious
kind of Insectivore, endued with the power of spurious flight, which may give us
some inkling of the manner in which bats have been derived from the earlier
members of that order of Mammals. Bats are accordingly regarded by zoologists
as neither more nor less than Insectivores, specially modified and adapted for an
aerial life. Moreover, as thei'e appear to be indications that the Insectivores were
connected with some of the extinct lemui-s, it is now considered best to place them
and the bats immediately after the Primate-s. This must not, however, be taken
as any indication that these groups really occupj'' a high position in the zoological
scale : the fact realh' being that their organisation is of a low type, and far
inferior to that of the Carnivores which are placed later on.

The most obvious and important characteristic of bats being
their faculty of flight, and the apparatus for this being mainly
furnished lay the fore-limb, the order to which they belong has been appropriateh*
named Chiroptera, or han>l-winged. In the great majority of Mammals the hind-
limbs are as large as, or larger than, the front pair, but in bats the latter (as is
well shown in the figure of the skeleton at the head of this chapter) vastly
exceed the former in length. In a bat's wing the humenis of the upper
arm is only moderately elongated, but the single complete bone in the fore-
arm, corresponding to the human radius, has a far greater length, and this ex-
traordinary elongation is carried to a still greater extent in the bones' of the
hand, all of which, with the exception of those of the thumb, foi-m long slender
rods. The thumb is free, and terminates in a hooked claw, which can be used for
the purposes of climbing or suspension ; but the fingers, of which the third is the
longest, are connected together by the delicate membrane constituting the soft part
of the wing. This wing-membrane is continued along the arm and the sides of the
body, and thence to the hind-legs. There is, moreover, a similar membrane
connecting the two hind-limbs with the generally long tail ; this membrane being
usually supported by a peculiar spur of bone projecting from the foot. The toes
are, however, quite free. In consequence of the connection of the hind-limb with
the wing-membrane, the knee-joint is directed backwards instead of forwards in

GENERAL STRUCTURE. 249

the usual manner; and this peculiar arrangement renders a bats movement on
the ground an awkward kind of shuffle.

In order to atibrd space for the attachment of the powerful muscles necessary
to move the wings, the chest of bats, like that of birds, is remarkably large. But
as these animals are poor walkers, the hauncli -bones are relativelj' small and weak.
The great majority of bats feed solely on insects, and have their
cheek-teeth furnished with a number of sharp cusps, admirably
adapted for holding and piercing the tough integuments of beetles and many other
insects. A few bats, however, are blood-suckers, and these have tlie front teeth
special!}- modified for piercing the skin of the animals they select as their victims.
Others, and among them the largest i-epresentatives of the order, are fruit-eaters ;
and these accordingly have a quite different kind of cheek-teeth, in wliich the
crowns are nearly smooth, and without cusps.

The number of the different teeth in different bats is variable, and is of great
importance in distinguishing the diffei-ent genera ; but as .some of these teeth may
be exceedingly minute, their enumeration recpiires great care. No bat, it may be
observed, has more than two pairs of inci.sor teeth in the upper jaw : neither are
there ever more than three premolars on each side of the upper and lower jaws, so
that the number of teeth behind the tusks, or canines, never exceeds .six.

So thoroughly are bats adapted fcji- a life in the air, that most of thorn but
seldom resort to the ground, and even when they do so thej' generally eudea\our
to leave it as .soon as possible by ascending a tree, rock, or wall, whence they either
again take flight, or settle themselves into their favourite position of repose,
suspended head downwards by the feet. Not only do most bats feed and di-ink
while on the wing, but the females even carry their young tightly clinging to their
bodies.

In their active life bats being mostly crepuscular or nocturnal,
' while their eyes are relatively small, it is obvious that they must
be provided Avith some special means of avoiding contact with objects during
flight. This appears to be effected by the extreme development of a sense more or
less akin to our sense of touch, by which the neighbourhood of objects is per-
ceived without actual contact; and it was demonstrated as long ago as 1793, by
the cruel experiment of depriving bats of sight and then allowing them to fly
in a room across which silken threads were stretched in such a maniier as to leave
just sufficient .space for them to pass between with outstretched wings. The unfor-
tunate bats not onl\- succeeded in passing between these threads without contact,
and likewise avoided the walls and ceiling of tlie room. Init, when the threads were
placed still nearer together, they contracted their wings in order to be able to
pass without contact. In the same manner they flew between branches and
twigs of trees placed in their course, and suspended themselves when tired of
flight on the walls of the room, just as easily as when they enjoyed the use of
their eyes. In the great majority of bats it appears that this sense of touch is
situated in the wing-membranes, and in the delicate and frequently enormously
elongated ears, which are often provided with a kind of secondary inner ear, known
as the tragus. There ai-e, moreover, cei-tain bats provided with an additional organ
of perception, which takes the form of expansions of skin from the nose and

2 5°

BATS.

adjacent parts of tlie face, forming what is generally known as the " nose-leaf."

These folds of skin may lie either comparatively small and simple, or so large as to

form a kind of mask, communicating a most extraordinary physiognomy to the

bats in which they occur. The various membranes forming these nose-leaves are

always fringed with long and iine hairs, which evidently correspond to the

•' whi.skers " of the cat ; and we may accorchngh' regard these nose-leaves merely

as an excessive development of the cat's whiskers, accompanied by leaf - like

growths from the skin of the nose. It has been observed by Dr. Dobson — our

great authority on bats — that those species which are without nose-leaves are in

the habit of flying at dawn or twilight, while the leaf-nosed kinds are more

.strictly nocturnal, and are thus much less frequently shot when on the wing.

The fruit-eating bats, whose habits are very different from the other members of

the order, never have these nose-leaves, and their ears are small and unprovided

with a tragus; there being no necessity for the extreme delicacy of tactile

perception required in the other groups.

When on the wing, the ordinarv insectivorous bats utter a shoii,,
Cry. .

sharp squeak of such an extremely high pitch that to many persons

it is quite inaudible, although to others, whose ears are attuned to the reception of

such high-pitched tones, these cries are of piercing intensity.

The insect-eating species of bats inhabiting the temperate regions,

being dependent for their nourishment upon a full supply of insects,

must in winter either migrate to warmer regions, or hibernate. In our own

country all the species hibernate, and do not appear to migrate at all ; and it is

probable that this hibernating habit also holds good for the whole of the European

bats. It seems, however, that at least one Xorth American species — the VespertiUo

horealis — migrates to a certain extent during the summer, not visiting the moi'e

northerly portions of its habitat till August, when the long intense twilights,

which would be unsuitable to its habits, have ceased. In Canada, moreover. Dr.

Hart Merriam is of opinion that at least two species of bats regularly perform

extensive micrrations in order to avoid the intense cold of the northern winter.

This eloquent writer observes that " all North American bats, except when their

habits have been modified by proximitj' to man, may be classed as cave-dwelling or

ivee-dwclliinj, according to the places in which they spend the day. As a rule, the

cave-dwelling species li\e in large colonies, while the tree-dwelling live singly or in

small companies. Now, it is well known that the temperature in caves, even in

high latitudes, is little atfected by the external atmosphere, but remains' nearly

uniform throughout the year : while in holes in trees the temperature is about the

same as that of the surrounding air. Hence, animals inhabiting caves can pass the

winter much farther north than species living in hollow trees. The hoaiw bat

(Atalapha cinerea) is a tree-dwelling species, and its home is in the Canadian

fauna, from the Adirondack Mountains northward. Therefore, on purely theoretical

grounds, it should be expected to migrate." Now, specimens of this bat have been

not unfrequently observed in the autumn and winter from localities so far to the

southward of its usual habitat, that there would seem to be no longer any reasonable

doubt as to its being truly migratory. It has, indeed, been found so far away from

its ordinary summer haunts as the Bermudas, where Mr. J. M. Jones states that it

HABITS. 251

is observed occasionally at dusk during the autunni months hawking about
according to its nature in search of insects : but as it is never seen except at that
particular season, it is clear that it is not a resident, but merely blown across the
ocean by those violent north-west gales which also usually biing numbers of birds
from the American continent. The hoary bat is, however, not the only species in
which there is evidence of periodical migrations. Thus Dr. Merriam tells us that
the silver-haired bat (Vesperugo nodivagans), M'hich ranges as far north as
Hudson's Bay, is known to visit every spring and autumn a solitary lighthouse
situated on a solitary rock oti" the coast of Maine, fifteen miles from the nearest
island and thirty miles from the mainland. This rock being tuiinhabited per-
manently by bats, the occurrence of these stray individuals at the spring and fall
seems to afibrd perfectly conclusive evidence of the migratory habits of the
particular species to which they belong.

In regard to their geograpliical distribution, it may be observed
Distribution. , , * „ , , xi i 1 it " ■ ,

that liats are louml over ahiiost tlie whole world ; one .species at lea.st

even extending as far northwards as the Ai-ctic cii'cie. They are far more abundant

within the tropics and the warmer parts of the temperate zones than elsewhere ;

and it is to those regions alone that the larger species are restricted. Indeed, tlie

bats, according to Mr. \V;dlace, may be regai'ded as some of the most characteristic

of the Mammals of tlie tropical zone, occupying in this respect a position second

only to that held by tlie apes, monkej's, and lennirs, and becoming suddenly much

less plentiful, both as regards the number of individuals and of species, when we

pass into the temperate zone, and still more reduced in both respects when we reach

the colder parts of tliose regions.

In some instances particular family groups of bats are confined more or less

exclusively to particular regions of the earth's surface ; although others enjoy an

almost world-wide distribution. For instance, while the finiit-bats are entirely

confined to the warmer regions of the Old World, and the vampires and their

allies to America, some of the more common types of ordinary European bats, like

Vesperugo and Vespertilio, are almost cosmopolitan. It will be found that these

cosmopolitan forms belong to the more generalised types, while those restricted to

particular di.stricts are usually the more specialised form. It is somewhat curious

that, according to Dr. Dobson, bats are quite unknown in Iceland, St. Helena,

Kerguelen, and the Galapagos Islands.

The number of species of bats known to science is now enormous.
Numbers. ...

In a li.st published in 1878, Dr. Dob.son recognised no less than four

hundred distinct species, arranged in eighty genera, and six families. Since that

flate the number has, however, been so largely increased, that we shall probably be

not far wrong in setting it down as but little, if at all, short of four hundred and

fifty. With such a portentous list to deal with, it will be obvious that, in a work

like the present, all that can be attempted is to indicate some of the more generally

interesting and leading types, leaving the others for technical treatises. The old

English name Flittermouse, by which these animals were known to our ancestors, and

by which they are still designated in certain parts of the country, conveys a very

accurate notion of their zoological p)Osition, if we use the term mouse in the popular

signification, in wliich it embraces animals like the shrews, as well as the true mice.

252

BATS.

The Frvit-Bats.

Familji Pteropodid^.

The largest of all bats are the so-called flying foxes, or fi-uit-bats, of the
warmer regions of tlie Old World, which differ from the other members of tlie order
in their purely frugivorous habits, and in certain details of structure partly caused
by adaptation to their special mode of life. It is highly probable, as Professor T.
Bell observes, that some of these huge fruit-bats " with their predatory habits, tlieir
multitudinous numbers, their obscure and mysterious retreats, and the strange
combination of beast and bird whicli tliey were believed to possess, gave to Virgil
the idea, which he has so poetically worked out, of the harpies wliich fell upon the
hastily-spread tables of his hero and his companions, and polluted, whilst they
devoured, the feast from which they had driven the affrighted guests."

SKELETON OF FRUIT-BAT if^nnt. .sizc^

Since the fruit-bats differ so essentiall}' from all tlie other members of the
order, both in habits and structure, they are not only referred by naturalists to a
separate family, — the Pteropodidce, — but are likewise distinguished as a special
suborder, appropriately termed the Mer/achiropfera , or large bats.

As a group, the fi-uit-bats are characterised by their generally large size, and
by the peculiar nature of their teeth, as well as by certain features connected with
the wings, ears, and tail. As regards the teeth, they are characterised bj" tlie
mohirs having nearly, or quite smooth crow^ls, elongated from back to front, and
divided by a deep longitudinal groove : such a type of tooth being obviously as
admirably adapted for mashing up pulpy fniits, as the cusped teeth of ordinary
bats would be unsuited. The wings of fruit-bats may be at once distinguished
from those of all other kinds by having three (instead of one or rarely two) joints in

FRUIT-BATS.

253

the second or index finger, as shown in our lig-ure of the skeleton ; but the metacarpal
bones, or those between the wrist and the iingers. must not be confounded with the
proper bones of tlie latter. Moreover, the terminal joint of the second finger is
generally provided with a claw ; wliereas in otlier bats the thumb alone is thus
furnished. Then, again, a fruit-bat may always be distinguished by its ears, of
which the sides of the projecting portion, or conch, are united at the base so as to
form a complete ring: the ears, as wo have already incidentally mentioned, being
invariable' of small size, and unpro\'ided witli an inner tragus. The last distinctive
feature of the group that it will be necessary to mention here is that the tail, if
present at all, is always short, and is situated beneath the membrane between the
hind legs, with wliicli mendjrane it may have no connection. There are certain
other characteristics of the group whicli require a considerable amount of anatomical
knowledge for their due appreciation, and which we accordingh' pass over.

Manj^ considerations lead to the conclusion tliat the fruit-bats are a specialised
group, which have been derived by adaptation from ordinary insectivorous bats ;
and this view lias been remarkably confirmed bj- the comparatively recent discovery
of a peculiar species, which, while agreeing with the rest in the general structure
of its moliii- teeth, differs in that these teeth retain cusps representing those of the
insect-eating group.

the

The Common Fruit-Bats, ou Fox-Bats.
Genus Pteropus.

The best known of the group are the so-called fox-bats, or flying-foxes, taking
their name from their long fox-like faces, of which a group is represented in
the coloured plate, and a single example in the woodcut on the next page. These
bats, constituting the genus Pteropus of naturalists, are characterised by their large
size, the presence of thirty-four teeth (among which there are two pairs of incisors
and three premolars in each jaw), the total absence of a tail, the long and fox-like
muzzle, and the thick coat of woolly fur with which the neck is covered.

Fox-bats are found in India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago,
Seychelles, Madagascar, the Comoro Islands, the
south of Japan, and most of the islands of the
Pacific (the Sandwich and some other groups
excepted), as well as in Papua and Australia.
Curiously enough, they are quite unknown in
Africa, although conmion in the Comoro Islands,
two hundred miles distant. Probably the best
known of all the species is the Indian fox-bat
{Pteropus medius), characterised by its naked
and sharply -pointed ears. All who have resided
in India are familiar with the long strings of
fox-bats which may be seen, as the shades of
evening approach, wending their way from their sleeping-places to the scene of
their nocturnal depredations. Writing of these bats, the late Dr. Jerdon says that

HEAD OF Wallace's fox-bat.
(From Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc.)

'54

BATS.

''■ during the day tliej- roost on trees, generalh- in large colonies, many hundreds
often occupying a single tree, to which they invariably resort if not driven away.
Towards sunset thej" begin to get restless, move about along the branches, and
by ones and twos fly off for their nightlj' rounds. If water is at hand, a tank,
or a river, or the sea, they fly cautiousl}^ down and touch the water, but I could
not ascertain if they took a sip, or merely dipped part of their bodies in. They

THE KjVLOXG, or MALVT FOX-BAT (J uat. size.)

fly vast distances occasionally to such trees as happen to be in fruit." As the
iirst streaks of da-mi begin to appear in the east the bats set out on their home-
ward journey from the field of their depredations, and the scene which ensues on
their ari'ival at their roosting-place is graphicallj- described by Colonel Tickell : —
" From the arrival of the first comer, until the sun is high above the horizon, a
scene of incessant wrangling and contention is enacted among them, as each
endeavoure to secure a higher and better place, or to eject a neighbour from too
close vicinage. In these struggles the bats hook themselves along the branches,

FRUIT-BATS. 255

scrambling about haud-ovor-liand with some speed, biting eacli other severely,
striking out with the long claw of the thumb, shrieking and cackling without
intermission. Each new animal is compelled to fly several times round the tree,
being threatened from all points, and when he eventuallj- hooks on he has to go
through a series of combats, and be probably ejected two or three times before he
makes good his tenure."

Full accounts of this bat will also be found in Sir J. Emer.son Tennent's
Natural History of Ceylon, although it is probable that this writer was mistaken
in saj-ing that its diet included insects. He observes that a favourite resort of
these bats was some tall india-rubber trees near Kandy, in Cejdon, where they used
to assemble in such prodigious numbei-s that large boughs would not unfrequently
give way beneath the accumulated weight of the flock. It is also stated that the
branches on which they are accustomed to roost become almost denuded of leaves,
most of these being stripped oft" by the bats as they contend with one another for
the favourite roosting-places. When suspended in the usual position, these bats
move easih" from place to place, and from branch to brancii. by using each foot in
turn, and by climbing, when occasion requires, b\- tlie aid of the claws. When
feedinrr, Colonel Tickell states that the fox-bats liang bv one foot onlv, and take
the fruit they are about to eat in the other, seizing it by driving in their claws like
a fork, and not by a grasping action.

Fox-bats invariably fly singly in long files, and never in close flocks : their
flight being a slow, flapping, measured movement. In Calcutta the long strings of
these bats may be seen every evening stretching across the sky from west to east,
althougli the number of individuals varies considerablj^ at diffei-ent seasons of the
veai-. Writincr there on 2:3rd August 1869, Dr. John Anderson observes that " this
species has been flj'ing for the last few days from the noi'th to the south of the
city, in immense numbers, immediately after sunset. The sky from east to west
has been covered with them as far as the eye could reach, and all were flying with
an evident purpose, and making for some common feeding-ground. Over a trans-
verse area of two hundred and fifty yards as many as seventy bats passed overhead
in one minute, and as they were spread over an area of great breadth, and could
be detected in the skj' on both sides as far as the eye could reach, their numbers
were very great, but yet they continued to pass overhead for about half an hour.
This is not the first time I have observed this habit in this species ; indeed, it was
much more markedly seen in August 1864, while I was residing in the Botanical
Gardens, Calcutta. The sky, immediately after sunset, was covered with these bats,
travelling in a steady manner from west to east, and .spread over a vast expanse, all
evidently making for one common goal, and travelling, as it were, like birds of pass-
age with a steady purpose. I observed them, not only on one, but both sides of the
river. But in the Botanical Gardens I noticed that, whilst the great mass of bats
passed on, a few were attracted by trees then in fniit, and seemed to go no further.
This continued for a number of successive nights, but I did not observe the bats re-
turning." What occasioned these enormous assemblages has not yet been explained.

This species of fruit-bat has an expanse of wing of about 4 feet from tip to
tip : and it is found throughout the whole of India, Ceylon, and Burma. In the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bav of Bengal, it is, however, replaced by a

256 £ATS.

species (P. nicobaricas) of ueaiiy the same dimensions, but readily distinguished
by its rounded ears.

The largest of all fox-bats, and consequently of all bats, is, however, the 1 along
or Malay fox-bat (P. edidis), repi-esented in the figure on p. 254, which measures
upwards of 5 feet from tip to tip of the wings, and derives its name from its flesh
being eaten by the Malays, as, indeed, is that of its Indian cousin by some of the
natives of that countiy. Writing of the Malay species, Mr. Wallace states that
they are considered a great delicacy by the natives, and are much sought after.
" At about the beginning of the year they come [to Batchian] in large flocks to
eat fruit, and congregate during the day on some islands in the bay, hanging by
thousands on the trees, especially on the dead ones. They can then be easily
caught or knocked down with sticks, and are brought home in basketfuls. They
require to be carefully prepared, as the skin and fur have a rank and powerful
foxy odour; but they are generally cooked with abundance of spices and condi-
ments, and are really very good eating, — something like hare."

Of the Australian fruit-bat (P. poliocephalus) the late Professor Moseley
describes a roosting place which he visited in New South Wales in the following
words : — " In a dense piece of bush, consi-sting principally of young trees, the trees
were hung all over with these bats, looking like great black fruits. As we
approached, the bats showed signs of uneasiness, and after the first shot were
rather difiicult to approach, moving from before us, and pitching in a fresh tree
some distance ahead. The bats uttered a curious cackling sound when disturbed.
They were in enormous numbers, and although thousands had been shot not long
before by a large pai'ty got together for the purpose, their numbers were not per-
ceptibly reduced. They do gi-eat harm to the fruit orchards about Pan-amatta, and
the fruit-gi'owers there organise parties to shoot them."

The same observer also records that certain species of fruit-bats, which he met
with in the Friendly Islands and in New South Wales, are in the habit of devouring
flowers as well as fruits. The particular .species observed in the Friendly Islands
was doubtless the Polynesian fruit-bat (P. kerandrenii), which is found in most of
the islands in that region. " These bats," writes Professor Moseley, " appear on the
wing in the early afternoon in full sunlight, and at the time of our visit were
feeding on the bright red flowei's of one of the indigenous trees. Flowers form an
important proportion of the food of fruit-bats. In New South Wales, in Botany
Bay in May, numbers of fruit-bats were to be seen feeding on the flowers of the
gum trees. The bats most probably often act as fertilisers by carrying pollen
from tree to tree adherent to their fur. As dark comes on the fruit-bats become
more plentiful. It is probably only those specially driven by hunger that come
out before dark." These observations show that two of these bats are, at certain
seasons, in the habit of supplementing the ordinary fi-uit-diet by one of flowers ;
but it does not appear that a similar habit has been recorded in the ca.je of the
Indian or Malayan species. It has, however, been observed that the Indian fruit-
bat will greedily drink palm-juice from the pots hung on the trees for the purpose
of collecting it ; and individuals have been found lying at the foot of the trees in
a helples.sly intoxicated condition.

f^.tH

FRUIT-BATS

FRUIT- BATS.

257

The Tailed Fox-Bats.

Genus Xantharpyia.

Closely allied to the common fox-hats are the tailed fox-bats, which are
represented by a comparatively small number of species, ranging from India

COLLARED FOX-BAT AND YOCNG. (From the Proc. Zool. Soc.—Miei Sclater.)

Burma, and the Malayan Islands to the. Persian Gulf, Palestine, Africa, and
Madagascar. They are distinguished from all the membei'S of the genus Pieropxis
by the presence of a short tail, which is connected with the membrane between
the legs, and likewise by their inferior size and less brilliant coloration, as
weU as bj' the fur on the back of the neck being no longer than that on the body.
The collared tailed fox-bat (A'', collaris) is represented in the accompanying
illustration.

VOL. I. — 17

2S8 BATS.

Many of these fox-bats, instead of living in trees, inhabit caves or deserted
buildings ; one species being found in numbers in the chambers of the great pyramid
in Egypt, as well as in old buildings in Palestine ; while a second was observed by
Mr. Blanford inhabiting caves excavated in rock-salt in Kishni Island, in the
Persian Gulf. Dr. Dobson is of opinion that different individuals of a single species
of these bats may inhabit cither caves or trees ; and he further believes that those
dwelling in caves maj' bo distinguished fi'om those habitually frequenting trees by
their shorter fur. Like most other members of the family, these bats will travel
long distances in their daily journeys for food ; and it was at one time supposed
that in Nipal they flew between thirty and forty miles out and home. This
enormous distance has, however, been shown to be incorrect ; the length of the
daily journey really being about sixteen miles each way.

The Epauletted Fruit-Bats.
Genus E [lomophorus.

A striking contrast to the neat and sharp-muzzled heads of the fox-bats is
presented hy a small group of African species known as the epauletted fruit-bats,
so named from the tufts of hair surmounting the shoulders of the males. These
bats have fewer teeth than the fox-bats, the total number being only twenty-six
or twenty-eight. They are readily distinguished b}^ their remarkably large and
long heads, with a bluntly conical or truncated muzzle, the very large, flabby, and
expansible lips bordering the capacious mouth, rind also by the presence of a tuft
of white hair on the margins of the ears. Some of these bats are tailless, while
others have a short tail unconnected with the membrane between the legs. In
all the species but one, the males, which are larger than the females, are fur-
nished with peculiar pouches of skin on the sides of the neck, from the interior
of which project tufts of long yellowish hair, surmounting the shoulders, so as to
resemble epaulettes, and thus giving origin to the popular and scientific names of
the group.

These bats are confined to that portion of Africa lying to the south of the
Sahara Desert, which constitutes the greater portion of the Ethiopian region of
zoologists, and are unknown in Madagascar. They are most abundant in the
forest regions of the western side of the continent, especially the Gabuu district.
It is here that we meet with that most remarkable species discovered by Du
Chaillu, known as the hammer-headed ha.i{EpomophoritsmonstroHus),v,^h\Q\\ differs
from the rest in the absence of shoulder-tufts in the males. The head in that sex
has an enormous muzzle, furnished with a kind of shield-like expansion in front,
communicating a most repulsive and hideous expression to the whole face, which
reminds one of a very ugly caricature of the head of a mule. Sir John Kirk tells
us that the epauletted fruit-bats subsist largely on figs, and Dr. Dobson remarks
that their voluminous and capacious lips are admirably adapted to retain and
swallow without loss the juicy contents of these and other soft fruits during the
process of mastication.

FRUIT- BATS. 259

The Short-Nosed Fruit-Bats.
Genus Cynopterus.

The short-nosed fruit-bats comprise several species almost exclusively confined
to the Oriental region (that is to say, ranging from India to the Philipjiine Islands),
and readily distinguished from the fox-bats by their short and rounded muzzles,
marked by a shallow vertical groove, and their small size. The teeth are, moreover,
somewhat less numerous than in the latter, being usually thirtj'-two, but occasion-
ally, owing to the absence of one pair of lower incisors, only thirty. They have
generally a shoi*t tail, with the same relations to the membi-ane between the legs as
in the tailed fox-bats.

The common short-nosed fruit-bat {Cynopterus marginatus), ranging from
India to the Philippine Islands, is one of the best-known forms, and is remarkable
for its extreme voracitj^ It is very common throughout India, where it generally
inhabits trees,— especially the palmj'ra palm, — but is occasionally found in caverns
and crevices of rocks. Tliis bat is very destnictive to fruit, being especially fond
of plantains and mangoes. As an instance of its voracity, it may be mentioned
that an individual, of which the weight when killed some hours after the feast was
only one ounce, consumed two and a half ounces of plantains within a period of
three hours. It has been observed that the flight of this species is much lighter
than that of the fox-bats, although the general habits of the two groups are very
.similar.

The Tube-Nosed Fruit-Bats.

Genus Harpy ia.

Two curious bats, ditfei-ing from one another considerably in size, and found
from Celebes to New Guinea, North Australia, and New Ireland, are distinguished
fi-om the short-nosed fruit-bats by their still shorter and moi'e rounded muzzles,
l)ut more especially by the production of the
nostrils into a pair of long diverging tubes,
reaching rather beyond the extremity of the
muzzle. Such a structure, except to a less
degree in one group of insect-eating bats, is
quite unparalleled elsewhei'e in the whole
class of Mammals, and gives to the creatures
such an extraordinary appearance that it is
difficult to believe at first sight that it is

natural. So far as we are aware, no (From Dobson, Proc. Zooi. Soc IS77.)

suggestion has been yet made as to the

probable reason for this tubular prolongation of the nostrils, although it is, doubt-
less, of .some special advantage to these bats, of whose habits we have, indeed,
practically no information. The tube-nosed fruit-bats are further distinguished by
the small number of their teeth, of which the total is only twenty-four.

HEAD OF TUBE-NOSED FRCIT-BAT.

26o BATS.

The Cusped-Toothed Fruit-Bat.

Genus Pterahrpex.

Ill our briet' survey of the fruit-b;its we must not omit mention of a ratlier
large species recently discovered in tlie Solomon Islands, which is reniai-kable for
the peculiar stiiicture of its teeth. This bat, which is of a uniform dark -brown
colour, has the general external characters of the fox-bats, with which it also agrees
in the number of its teeth, but the muzzle is much shorter and thicker. The
peculiaritj' of the teeth is that the molars have a series of cusps, almost obliterating
the longitudinal grooving characteristic of those of all the fruit-bats. The presence
of these cusps clearly shows that the cusped-toothed fniit-bat is the descendant of
a connecting form between the insect-eating bats and the fox-bats : and it is upon
the evidence of this species that naturalists now regard all the fruit-bats as
derived from bats with fully cusped teeth like those of the insectivorous species.
The Solomon Islands form a group lying to the east of New Guinea, and extending
in a south-easterly direction from New Ireland : and it is just such remote spots
as these which appear to be the most favourable for the survival of ancient
connecting types of animals like the species under consideration.

The Loxg-Toxgued Fruit-Bats.
Genus Carponycterls, etc.

All the fruit-bats hitherto noticed are characterised by the tongue being of
moderate dimensions, and the well-developed molar teeth. We come now, how-
ever, to a small group comprising seven genera (each represented by only a single
species), all of which are distinguished bj' their long and slender tongues, terminat-
ing in recurved papillffi, and likewise by their exceedingly narrow molar teeth, whicli
scarcely project above the level of the gums. All of these bats have long and
sharply-pointed faces. With the exception of one West African species, the long-
tongued fruit-bats are confined to the Indian, Malayan, and Australian regions, extend-
ing from India itself to New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, and they are found
on the continent of Australia, Thej^ are of relatively small size as compared with
the fox-bats. The use of the long tongues of these bats is unknown, but since
they can be protruded some distance in advance of the muzzle, it may be tliat they
are employed to lick out the contents of soft fruits while still hanging on the
trees ; this being confirmed hj the small size of tlie molar teeth, which can be of
but little service for mastication.

The small long-tongued fruit-bat {Car pony eteris oninima) is the smallest of
all the fruit-bats, being considerably inferior in size to the European noctule
described in the next chapter. It has a verj^ extensive geogi-aphical distribution,
ranging from Northern India and Burma to Australia and New Ireland. It is
common in the warm valleys of Sikhim : and, according to I\[r. Blanford, generally
roosts in trees, although occasionally found in old buildings. It lives on fruit of
all kinds, of which it consumes, in proportion to its size, a large quantity. The

FRUIT-BATS.

261

cavern long-toiiguud fruit-bat {Eonyctcris spekua) is a rather larger species,
distiuguished by the absence of a chuv on tlie index linger. It inliabits caves
in Burma, Java, and Cambodia. The only other species we shall mention is
Woodford's long-tongued fruit-bat (Nesonycterin ivoodfordi), from the Solomon
Islands, which is remarkable for its brilliant coloration, the body and hairy
portions of the limbs being of a bright orange, while the wing-membranes are
dark brown. Nothing seems to be known of the habits of this bat.

HED NECKED FRUIT-BAT.

CHAP TEE X.

Bats, — continued.

The Insect-Eating Bats (Microchiroptera).

Having treated in the preceding chapter of the bats which feed entirelj' upon
fi'uit or flowers, we now come to the consideration of the much larger group of
those which subsist upon insects, among which we must include a few which have
acquired frugivorous habits, and likewise those which subsist by sucking the blood
of Mammals larger than themselves. As being generally of much smaller size than
those of the frugivorous group (Megachiroptera), the members of the insectivorous
group of bats are collectively known to zoologists as the Microchiroptera ; and it
remains to indicate the leading characteristics (apart from those of an anatomical
nature) by which this group niay be distinguished from the one treated in the
preceding chapter.

Apart from their generally inferior bodily size, the insectivorous bats are
broadly distinguished from the fruit-bats bj' the presence of a number of sharp
cusps on the crowns of their molar teeth ; these cusps in the upper molai-s taking
the form of the letter W. There is, moreover, no trace of the longitudinal groove
found in the molars of the fniit-bats ; the upper molai-s having their longer
diameter placed transversely, instead of longitudinally. Another distinctive
feature is to be found in the index finger of the fore-limb, which has never
more than two joints, and usually contains but one ; moreover, this finger never
terminates in a claw, as it so frequently does among the fi-uit-bats. Then,
again, the head of an insect-eating bat may be at once recognised bjj^ the two
margins of tlie conch of the ear arising from the head from separate points, instead
of forming a complete ring at the base, as in the fruit-bats. Moreover, the tail,
which is very generally present and of considerable length, is either contained in
the membrane joining the hind-liiidos, or is visible upon the upper surface of the
same. The insect-eating bats are further divisible into two minor sections, dis-
tinguished from one another by several easily recognised features. In the first
section one of the chief characteristics is that the tail is included within the mem-
brane between the hind legs. Another is that the inner pair of incisor teeth in the
upper jaw are never very large, and are always separated from one another in the
middle line by a considerable space. Yet another characteristic of these bats, with
the exception of three species (belonging to as many genera), is that the third, or
middle, finger has onlj' two bonj' joints : to which it may be added that when the
animals are at rest it will be found that the first joint of the same finger is
invariably extended in the same line as its supporting metacarpal bone.

LEAF-NOSED BATS. 263

The Horseshoe axd Leaf-Xosed Bats.

Family Rhinolophid^.

The bat represented in the accompanying illustration is one of the two British
representatives of a well-marked and rather numerous family distributed over the
greater part of the Old World. This family is technically known as the likino-
lophidce, and includes the horseshoe-bats {Rhinolopkus) and the leaf-nosed bats
(Hipposiderua), together with some less important genera. All of them ai-e

THE GBEATER HORSESHOE-BAT (J nat. size).

characterised by ha\ing a well-developed nose-leaf completely suiTOunding the
nostrils, which are situated in a depression of the snout. And they are also distin-
guished by their large ears, which have no trace of an inner ear, or tragus, and are
in most cases completely separate from one another at their origin at the head.

The horseshoe-bats {Rhinolopkus), of which our figure is an example, always
have 32 teeth, of whicii the incisors number 1, and the cheek-teeth 5. on
either side: and they are further distinguished by the shape of the nose-
leaf, which consists of two portions, the one immediately over the nose being
horseshoe-shaped, and the posterior one pointed. Moreover, the ears have a large
process of membrane in front, termed the antltnujius.

264 is ATS.

The greater horseshoe-bat has a very wide distribution, being found over a large
portion of Europe, the greater part of Africa, and Asia northwards of the Hinialaj'a
Mountains, and as far eastwards as Japan. In England, although nowhere common,
it is met with in the southern counties, and is occasionally found in the Midlands,
but is quite unknown further north, and has never been observed in Ireland. Like
the other species, it generally prefers to rest during the day in caves and old buildings,
and does not issue forth till late in the evening, when it continues its flight till dark.
As we have already mentioned, there seems little doubt that the nose-leaf of these
bats is specially intended to aid them in avoiding obstacles during flight, as most or
all of the species fly later than the bats which are unprovided with these appendages.
Mr. J. E. Harting states that this species (Rhinolophus ferrmn-cquinum) when
on the wing appears as large as the noctule, from which it may be distinguished
by the greater proportionate width of the Aving-membrane. In the caves of the
department of the Eure, in the north of France, great numbers of these bats
collect for their winter sleep ; upwards of one hundred and eighty having been
observed in one colony, and eighty in another. It is further noteworthy that
these colonies always consist exclusively of either males or females.

The second British representative is the lesser horseshoe-bat {R. hipposideru)^),

which ranges over a large part of Europe, extending
as far north as the Baltic. It has been recorded
from Ireland, and is also found at Gilgit, on the
north - west portion of India, though in Africa it
does not extend south of the Sahara. Mr. Blanford
states that during the day it liides in caves, ruined
buildings, outhouses, etc., often in large numbers. It
usually ajjpeai-s about dusk, and, according to Scully,
HEAD OF LE.iK-.\osED BAT (Hipposi- \)y whom it was obscrvcd in Gilgit, has a powerful
Proc Zool Soc 1877 ) long-sustained flight : but Blasius, who made his

observations on European examples, says its flight is
rather irregular and fluttering. It is generally' found rather higher in the air than
R. ferriim-equinum, and is more frequently found away from dense tree-gi'owth.

The largest of all the species is the great eastern hoi-seshoe-bat (R. liictus),
which is found in elevated districts from India to Borneo and the Philippine
Islands. It has a very large and jieculiar nose-leaf, the anterior part of which
spreads over the lips ; and the colour of the fur and wings is generally jet black.
According to Captain Huttou, these bats generally go in pairs, instead of in flocks,
although several pairs maj' not unfrequently be found in large caves. The same
observer states that this species commences its flight early in the evening, and flies
at a height of about twenty or thirty feet above the ground, its movements being
somewhat heavy and slow. There are many other species of horseshoe-bats, among
which there is one (R. 'inegaphylhui) peculiar to North-East Australia, a second {R.
capensis) confined to South Africa, extending as far north as Zanzibar, and a third
(R. cethiops) from West Africa. In the colder regions all the species of Rhinolophus
hibernate ; but the late Dr. Leith Adams mentions that in Malta the little horseshoe-
bat, which on the continent retires for the whole winter, may be observed at any
season, although of course most plentiful in summer, even in mid-winter occa-

LEAF-NOSED BATS. 265

sionally venturing forth at twilight when the warm southern winds are blowino-.
The hoi-seshoe-bats, with their near alHes the leaf-nosed bats, may be regarded
as the most highly organised of the entire insectivorous group, as is especially
indicated by the great development of their nasal ajJi^endages, and also by their
compact and delicately -formed bones.

The leaf-nosed bats (Hipjwsiderus) may be distinguished from the pn^ceding
group by the form of the nose-leaf, in which the upper and hinder portion does
not terminate in a point, and there is also no median process hiding the nostrils.
Moreover, the large leaf-like antitragus found in front of the eare of the horseshoe-
bats is reduced to a veiy small remnant ; and the teeth, owing to a reduction in
the number of tlie premolai-s, are fewer tliaii in the horseshoe-bats, the total
being either thirtj' or twenty-eight. Leaf-nosed bats are quite unknown in
Europe, but are widely spread over tlie warmer regions of Afi'ica, Asia, and
Australia. Some of these bats exceed in size the largest of the hoi-seshoe group ;
the largest of all being Commer.son's bat (H. commersoni), from Africa and
Madagascar, next to which is the great Himalayan leaf -nosed bat (H. armigcr),
extending from the Eastern Himalaya to China. Males of this species are just
over 4 inches in length, exelu.sive of the tail. Tlie following account of its habits
is taken from Dr. J. Scully, who writes : " Tliis bat usuallj- harbours during the
day in caves, or commonly in lofts, outhouses, and sheds that are little used ; in the
latter localities it suspends itself, by the claws of the feet, from the rafters. When
attaching itself in this way to the edge of a beam or rafter, the animal sways,
pendulum-like, a few times until the impetus given during flight is exhausted : and it
then hangs motionless with its wings folded close to the body. If slightly alarmed
by the opening of a door, or any unusual noise in the room it occupies, the liead is
thru.st out and turned carefully in various directions, as if for the purjjose of finding
out the cause of disturbance. On such occasions I have purposely dropped a heavy
book on the floor so as to alarm the bat thoroughly. The animal would at once fly
ofl", and either take several turns round the room or else leave it ; but it invariably
returned quickly and attached itself to the spot it had previously occupied. It
comes out for the capture of its prey about sunset, and its hunting-grounds are
gardens, orchards, cleared spaces in woods, or avenues of trees ; somewhere near
trees always. It is sometimes found flying on a level with the tops of the trees,
but more commonly nearer the ground ; a very characteristic movement it has is a
slow but steady sweejj round a leafy tree, or clump of trees, in search of insects
which frequent the lower bi-auches. While it was intently occupied in this circular
flight I have been nearly touched on the face by this bat, as I walked aci'oss the
grounds attached to my house in Nipal. And in passing so close to one it could
be distinctly heard crunching the hard-bodied insects it had caught between its
strong teeth. Sometimes these bats come out of their day retreat before the insects
they are in search of are to be found in plenty. On the 25th August, about 6 P.M.,
I noticed an example flying close to a tree. It circled twice round the tree while I
was watching it, keeping about three feet above the ground. Apparently finding
that none of the insects it wanted were about, it suspended itself to a small hori-
zontal branch of the tree, just three and a half feet above the ground, and so
remained for some time. It was pi'obably waiting for a more proj)itious Iiour.

266

BAl'S.

kiii///

Whether this was really the explanation of the pause in its flight or not, it seems
certain that this bat does not ordinarily remain very long on the vdng. I have
often observed that in the early part of the night it alternated its piii-suit of
insects with short periods of repose in an outhouse. On one occasion, I observed
a bat of this species return three times diu-ing the evening (from about 8 to 10 P.M.)
to a room I happened to be occup^nng : and, cuiiously enough, it always attached
itself to precisely the same part of the ceiling. That part of the room, however,
was the point furthest away from me, and my pi-esence may have influenced the
bat in its selection of the spot."

In addition to the tnie leaf -nosed bats, of which there are fully twentj^ species,
tliere are several more or less closely allied kinds which are referred by zoologists
to distinct genera. The only one of these we shall notice here is the flower-nosed
bat (Anthops ornatufi). discovered a few j-eai^s ago in the Solomon Islands, and

remarkable for the extraordinary develop-
ment of its nose-leaf This appendage as-
sumes the form of a large rosette, covering
the whole front of the face, reaching from
eye to eye, and extending do\vnwards neai'ly
to the upper lip. Above the eyes the upper
border of this rosette terminates in thi'ee
stalked balls, while the I'emainder consists of
overlapping furbelow-like expansions of skin;
the obliquely-placed nostrils appearing some-
what below its centre. It is difficult to
believe that such an extraordinaiy sti-ucture
is solely connected with the sense of touch,
and we should rather assume that in this
case the great development of the rosette is to
a considerable extent an oraamental feature.
Mr. O. Thomas remarks that the discovery
of such a form in the Solomon group is a most interesting and unexpected
fact, since oceanic islands are generally characterised by the large pi'oportion
and great specialty of their frugivorous as compared with their insectivorous bats,
a rule otherwise well exemplified in this ai-chipelago.

FACE OF THE KLOWEU-XOSED BAT (4 tilllCi Uat.

size).— After Thomas, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1888.

The False Vajipire Bats and theik Allies.

Family NrCTERIDJS.

Certain bats agreeing with the preceding group in the possession of a nose-
leaf, and found in the tropical and subtropical parts of Africa, India, and the
Malayan region, are (from the blood-sucking propensities of at lea.st one of the
species) commonh' known as vampires ; but since that term is exceedingly likely
to lead to confusion with the tnie American vampires, they are better de.siguated
false vampires. The five species of these bats, together with seven of another
genus, collectively constitute a distinct family.

FALSE VAMPIRES.

267

All the members of this family, which is known as the Nycteridti', are -dis-
tinguished from the horseshoe-bats and their allies by the presence of a large tragus
in the long ears, and also by the smaller develojmient or practical absence of the
nose-leaf. The false vampires (Megaderma) are easily recognised by their enormous
ears being united together for a longer or shorter distance by their inner margins,
and also by the divided tragus and tall nose-leaf. Their tail is so small as to be
practically invisible ; and they have no upper incisor teeth ; the total number of their
teeth being 28 or 26, of which the incisors number 2, the canines i, and the cheek-
teeth either § or 4 on each side. One of the best known species of the group is the
Indian false vampire {M. lyra), which is found thi-oughout India, from Kashmir to
Ceylon, and, although at present unrecorded from Burma, reappears in China.
Decisive evidence of its blood-sucking propen.sities was obtained by Blyth, who on
one occasion saw one of these bats Hy into his house with a smaller bat in its mouth,
which it dropped when pursued. The captured bat was weak from loss of blood,
and when put next morning into a cage with its captor was at once attacked by
the latter, being seizeil behind the ear and speedily
devoured. Canaries in Rangoon have also been
killed by bats, probably belonging to this species
— an inference which, if correct, proves the occur-
rence of this bat in Bunna. Blj^tli was also
infoi-med by a correspondent that his house was
frequented by numbers of these bats, and that in
the mornings the floor of the verandah was strewn
with the debris of slaughtered frogs, large grass-
hoppers, and crickets ; while on one occasion the
remains of a small fish wei"e discovered. Frogs
appeared, however, to be the favourite food of these
bats, which could sometimes be heard crunching
the bones and skulls of their victims. In corre-
spondence with their different habits, tlie jaws and

lips of this .species, as well as of the other false vampires, differ considcrablj' from
those of ordinarj^ insect-eating bats ; and we may hence assume that all the species
pai-take more or less extensively of an abnormal diet. The large Indian false vampire,
which, like the other species, has no tail visible externally, measures from 8 to 3i
inches in length, while its extended wings have a span of from 14 to 19 inches.

A second species, the Malay false vampire, extends from the Malayan region
and Tenasserim to China, while two others are found in Africa. One of the latter
{M. frons) is characterised by the great height of the nose-leaf, and also bj' the
length of the tragus of the ear. It is an inhabitant of the west coast. These
African species have one more upper premolar tooth than the oriental forms.

There does not appear to be any popular name for the bats forming the
second genus — Kyctcri.^ — of this family. They are readily distinguished from the
false vampires by the pi-actical absence of a distinct nose-leaf, which is ivpresented
onty by a slit running down the middle of the face from the nostrils to the line of
the ears, on the sides of which are small expansions of skin. Then, again, the ears,
although furnished with an undivided tragus, are merely joined by a very narrow

HE.\D OF IXDUN' FALSE VAMPIEE BAT.

268 BATS.

band at their bases, wliicli in some sjjecies is so slightly develoj)eil as to be almost
invisible. Moreover, these bats have well-developed tails, and also upper incisor
teeth, the total number being 32, of which 5 on each side are incisoiTi, \ canines,
and ^ cheek-teeth. So different, indeed, are the bats of the genus Xyderis from the
false vampires, that the reader might well wonder wliy tlie two are associated in a
single family. There are, however, important resemblances in the form and structure
of the head and skull, among which — as characters visible externally — maj^ be men-
tioned the pointed and cylindrical muzzle, and the projection of the lower jaw beyond
tlie upper ; these being sufficient to establish the near relationship of the tM'O groups.
With the exception of one species {X. javanica) from Java and the Malay
Peninsula, the bats of this genus are confined to Africa, where they are mostly
restricted to the regions south of the Sahara, although one of them ranges into
Egypt.

The Typical Bats.

Family VeSPERTILIONID^.

With the exception of the horseshoe-bats already described, the whole of the
bats found in the British Islands, and, indeed, in Europe generally, may be included
in a single family, which may conveniently be designated popularly as the typical
bats, and is scientifically known as the Vespertilionida;. All these bats agree with
the two preceding families in the relation of the tail to the membrane between the
legs ; but they are distinguished by tiie absence of a distinct nose-leaf, the nostrils
merely forming circular or crescent-shaped apei-tures at the end of the muzzle
without any complications from foldings of the skin. Their tails are long, and
produced to the edge of the membrane between the legs : ami their ears are always
furnished with a distinct tragus. Apart from certain details in the stnicture of
their skulls which need not be mentioned here, it may be observed that the incisor
teeth of the upper jaw are alwaj's of small size, those of opposite sides being
separated from one another by a considerable interval, while their number varies
from one to two pairs. The lower incisor teeth, on the other hand, are, with
one exception, three pairs. Moreover, there are generally either six or five cheek-
teeth on each side of both upper and lower jaws, the reduction in number in the
latter instance being due to the disappearance of one of the premolars.

In addition to being the common bats of Europe, the typical bats have an almost
world-wide distribution, and include more than one hundred and fifty di.stinct specie.s.
The absence of the uose-leaf, together with other features in their organisation,
indicates that they are less .specialised tj'pes than the two precetling families, to
which, however, they are in other respects intimately related. Accordingly,
Dr. Dobson considers that in the tj'pical bfits we have the descendants of the
ancestral forms Avhich gave rise both to the Nycti'vuhi; and the horseshoe and
leaf-nosed bats ; and we may thus regard all these three families as forming a
single distinct branch of the insectivorous bats ; the main stem of this branch being
formed by the Vespertilionidce, and the otlier two families forming side branches.
The number of these bats being so great, all that can be done here will be to
select a few of the better-known examples of some of the more important genera.

TYPICAL GROUP.

269

The Loxg-Eared Bat (Plecotus auritus).

The well-known lonj^-oareil bat. of which we {five an illustration in the
accouipauj'iny tij^ure, is a coimnon, thoujrh not very abundant British species, easily
recognised by the great length of its delicate ears. It is one of two representatives
of the genus Plecotus, forming the type of a special group characterised by the

■M,:r,,j.y. ,„i /:'/:Ml/.ii/l5X/hl-\B&.

THE I.(IXG-E.\KKD BAT (liat. MZl).

presence of grooves, or incipient nose-leaves, on the upper part of the muzzle
behind the nostrils ; and also by the ears being generally verj^ large, and united by
their inner margins.

The long-eared bat has 36 teeth, of which § on each side are incisors, and
f cheek-teeth : the premolars being, wliat is very rare in the familj-, § in number.
The ears are much more than twice the length of the head, and are united for a

Z70 BATS.

considerable distance ; their tragus being also large. The general colour, like that
of all British bats, is sombre, being brownish-grey above and paler on the under-
parts. This bat has a very wide geographical distribution, being found over the
greater part of Europe, in Northern Africa, and proljably also in most of tlie
temperate regions of Asia : so that its known range extends from Ireland in the
west to the Darjiling Hinialaj-a in the east.

In the great development of its ears, as well as in the presence of groovings on
the nose (which in other forms of the group develop into incipient nose-leaves),
the long-eared bat and its allies occupy the highest, or most specialised position
among the typical bats. This large size of the eai-s is in all probability connected
with the nocturnal habits of this species ; and it would appear that these organs to
a large extent serve the same purposes as the large nose-leaves of the horseshoe-
bats. That the long-eai"ed bat is mainly nocturnal in its habits is clearly stated
in the second edition of Bell's British Quadrujxds, where it is mentioned that
although this species may often be seen hawking after flies with the short-eared
pipistrelle in the evening, yet that it is late in coming forth from its diurnal
resting-place, and that its flight is continued throughout the night. The presence
of this bat may be i-ecognised by its cry, which, when once known, can always be
distinguished from that of all other species ; and the author of the work just
cited tells us how this cry may be heard- at all houi-s of even the darkest night,
whether the listener be in the open fields, in the neighbourhood of woods, or near
towns. The cry itself is described as being acute and shrill, although not loud ;
but practice only can enable observers to distinguish it from that of other bats.

In order to protect them from injury during the time that their owner is at
rest, the long and delicate ears of this bat are at such times generally carefully
folded away beneath the wings ; and since the upright tragus is then left standing
alone, the creature looks as if it had only short and slender eara. The ears both of
this bat and of its North American ally are i-elatively longer than in any other
animal ; and it is, indeed, probably solely due to the adventitious width communi-
cated to the body by the wings that the eai-s do not appear monstrous and out of
all proportion. The long-eared bat is a comparatively small animal, the length of
the head and body being just short of 2 inches ; while the ear measures about
li inches, and the spread of the expanded wings reaches 10 inches.

The favourite hiding-places of these bats in inhabited districts are church
towers, or within the roofs of open buildings or outhouses : and in such places they
may be found in the daytime during the summer months hanging in large clusters,
and in the winter carefully ensconced in such crannies and nooks as afibrd the
best protection. In a rock-cut tomb in tlie Libyan desert visited many j^ears ago
by the late Professor Leith Adams, the long-eared bats, which were at that time
regarded as distinct from the present species, were met with in swarms ; " so
plentiful were they," writes Professor Adams, " that during my descent into the
crypt I was covered with them, while hundi-eds fluttered about like bees around a
hive." In North America and Vancouver Island, the long-eared bat is represented
by an allied species, the American long-eared bat (P. macrotis), readily distinguished
by some peculiar gland-like swellings in the region of the nose. Its habits appear
to be very similar to those of the European species.

TYPICAL GROUP.

'■V

The Barbastelle (Synohos harhastelhis).

The barbastelle appears to be one of the rarest of all the British bats, ami,
like the long-eared bat, is one of two species severally representing a distinct
genus. This bat, which belongs to the same group of genera as the species last
mentioned, is readily distinguished from the latter externally by the compai'atively
small size of its ears ; while, if its skull be examined, it will be found to have
only thirty-four, in place of thirty -six, teeth ; this reduction being due to the
disappearance of one pair of premolars from the lower jaw. A further point of

THE BARBASTELLE (llat. Size).

difference is to be found in the circumstance that, whereas in the long-eared bat
the outer margin of the ear terminates suddenly near the corner of the mouth,
in the barbastelle it is produced forwards, so as to extend above the mouth to the
front of the eye.

The barbastelle is found over middle and southern Eui-ope, extending as far
north as England and Sweden, and it has also been obtained from North Africa and
Arabia, while it may extend, as Dr. Dobson suggests, into the temperate regions of
Asia lying to the north of the Himalaya.

When examined closely, the appearance of the head of the barbastelle is so
peculiar as to render its recognition always an easy matter. Thus, the muzzle is

272

BATS.

abruptly truncated and marked by a gi'oove leading up each side to tlie nostiils ;
the latter being situated in a depression void of Iiair on the upper surface of the
muzzle. The black hair on the somewhat swollen cheeks also adds to the peculiarity
of the physiognomy : while the ears ai'e relatively broad, and nearly equal in length
to tlie head. The long f\ir is darker than that of an\- other European bat, and on
the upper-parts is brownish-black, witli the points of the haii-s lighter ; while on
the uuder-paiis the light tips of the hairs are longer. The length of the head md
body is 2 inches, and that of the ears half an inch. One white example of this bat
has been recorded, and also another in which, while the head and neck were of the
normal tint, the body was white.

Contrary to the habits of the long-eared bat, the barbastelle is a solitary species,
both when in repose and during active life. " If," observe the authors of the second
edition of Bell's British Quadrupeds, "\xx a twilight sti-oll about midsummer, a
pei-son finds himself in close proximity with a bat of somewhat thick and clumsy
form, but of rather small size, whose flight is so desultor\- that it appears to be
flapping lazily about hither and thither, seemingly without purpose, and intruding
so closely that the flutter of its wings may be heard, and even the cool air thrown
by their movement felt upon the cheek, it may with almost certainty be regarded
as the barbastelle. Although there is no English bat which resembles the barbastelle
in its mode of flight, yet in choice of situation there are several. Where the
whiskered bat and pipistrelle are seen, the barbastelle may be seen also ; but, having
been once observed, it will pi-obably be useless to make search again at the same
place. Equally uncertain is its diurnal retreat ; most likely not the same place for
long together, as we have found it in places where it could not have rested the daj*
previously. A cre\nce in a wall or tree, the spaces between the raftei-s and tiles of
a cowshed, the timber over a sawpit, the thatch of a shed in a brickyard, or behind
a cottage window-shutter, are suitable places of repose for the barbastelle, in all of
which situations we have met with it, and always alone." The barbastelle appeai-s
earlier in the evening than the loug-eared bat, and probably retires as the night
advances.

As we have already mentioned, the genus Synotus resembles Plecotus in being
represented only by two si^ecies. Whereas, however, the second species of long-
eared bat is North American, the second kind of barbastelle is a Himalayan speciea
The Himalayan barbastelle (iS'. darjdingensis) is distinguished from its Eui-opean
congener by its larger ears, which lack the projecting lobe found on the outer
margin of those of the latter. This bat appears to be common in the Himalaj^a,
and has been captured in localities so far apart from one another as Gilgit and
Darjiling. It is generally found at altitudes varying from about five thousand to
eight thousand feet above the sea. In habits the Himalayan barbastelle appears
to be very similar to its European relative : showing itself, however, rather late in
the evening, and hibernating in the narrowest ci-evices and chinks of rocks into
which it can contrive to ci-awl. There are four other bats allied to the long-eared
bat and barbastelle, which are referred to three distinct genera. One of these is
Hemprich's eared-hat (Ofonycteris hempricJii) irom North Africa and the North-
West Himalaya, which is characterised by having only thirty teeth, owing to the
reduction in the number of the upper ineisoi-s and premolars to a single pair each.

TtTICAL GROUP. 273

Its eare are cousiderably loii^^vr than tlu' hcail. The second genus, XiniupU'dan,
comprises one species from Australia and a second from New Guinea, which, while
possessing the same number of teeth as Heniprich's bat, are distinguished by the
possession of a rudimentary nose-leaf. Finally, we have the Californian cave-bat
{AntrozoiLS pallidus), in which there are only twenty -eight teeth, owing to the
reduction of the number of the lower incisore to two pairs (a feature unique amono-
the typical bats), the genus being also distinguished from all the members of the
family hitherto mentioned by the ears being disconnected with one another.

The Pipistrelle, Noctule, and Serotine.
Genus Vesperugo.

The pipistrelle, noctule, and serotine, of which the tirst and second are hgured
among our illustrations, are the tliree best-known Ihitish representatives of the
large and widely- distributed genus VeKperiKji) ; the pipistrelle (F. pipistrdlua)
being the common English bat. With these bats we enter upon the consideration
of a group of genera, distinguished from that containing the long-eared bat
and its allies by several more or less imjioi-tant features. Amcmg these may
be mentioned the simple nature of the nostrils, which are without any trace
of groovings or foldings of the skin, while the ears are usually of comparatively
small size, and are always (piite separate from one another.

The bats included in the same genus ( Vesperufjo) as the pipistrelle are veiy
numerous, and vary to a certain extent in personal ajipearance, and also in the
number of their teeth, which is either thirty, thirty-four, or thirty-six. Dr. Dobson
says that they may be easily recognised by their relatively stout bodies, their broad
and flattened heads and blunt muzzles, as well as by their broad, short, and
triangular ears, in which the tragus is usually rather thick and inclined somewhat
inwardl\'. Moreover, their legs are unusually short, and the niendirane connecting
the legs with the tail almost always has a .small supplemental portion situated on
the outer side of the spur rising from the heel.

Certain species of the genus approximate, however, in some of their chai-acters
to bats of other groups ; one coming so close in general ajipearance to the long-eared
bats that, without careful examination, it might readily be mistaken for a member
of that group. " This genus of bats," observes Dr. Dobson, " probably contains the
greatest luunber of individuals among the Chiroptera. The connnon bats of all
countries, especially of those lying within the tropical and subtropical regions of
the northern hemisphere, generally belong to it. . . . The colour of the fur is
generally dark-brown or black, the extremities of the hairs being of a paler colour
on the upper surface, and ashy or whitish beneath." One species of this genus
{V. hnrealif!) has the most northern range of all bats, having been observed flying
within the limits of the Arctic circle.

The pipistrelle, which we take as the fir.st example of the genus, belongs to the
typical section of Vesperugn, in which the incisors number 5 and the premolar teeth
are ?, on either side of the jaw.s. It is a small .species, measuring 1'6.5 inches in
length of head of body, and with a span of wing of about 8?r inches. The fur is

VOL. I. — 18

274

BATS.

rather long and silky, of a yellowish-red colour near the roots of the ears, but
elsewhere reddish-brown above, and dusky beneath. This bat, the smallest of the
British species, is distributed all over Europe, the temperate parts of Asia, and
North Africa. It docs not enter India, but is found in the valley of Kashmir, and
also at our frontier .station at Gilgit.

This being the commonest of the British bats, and also one which frequenis
the neighbourhood of human habitations, we are naturally more fully acquainted
with its habits than with those of many other species ; and the following account
is mainly derived from the excellent description given in Bell's Briflfh Qiiadrupedst.

rr:',i;;i)?ii!ilfi„;in.Ti:..,:.,r„.,.i:,sV::!:"'-'

The pipistrelle appears earlier and retires later than any other Engli.sh bat, making
its first appearance as early as the middle of March, and not tinally hibernating
till winter has actually set in. Its flight is extremelj^ swift and rapid, and accom-
panied by the sudden turns and descents which have probabh' been observed by
all. The favourite resorts of this species in inhabited regions appear to be old
buildings and roofs, but it seems to avoid the roofs of stacks and ricks, which
might have been thought to have afforded safe cover. Probably, however, this
avoidance may be due to the rats and mice which are so frequently found in such
situations. Trees appear to be but seldom selected, either as a temporary hiding-
place, or for the hibernation. In uninhabited districts crannies and clefts in i-ocks
serve as shelter. The favourite food of the pipistrelle is said to be gnats : and tlie

TYPICAL GROUP. 275

abundance of these insects on some of tlie warmer days of M-inter is probabh- the
reason wliy one or more of the Ijats may be occasionally seen flying about at that
season. In captivity tliis l)at will readily eat meat : and it is said tliat it will at
times visit lardei-s for the sake of food of that nature.

In India the place of this bat is taken by a closely allied species, the Indian
pipistrelle (F. ahramus), which also ranges as far east as Northern Australia, and,
in summer at least, as far west as Central Europe. It may be at once distiucniished
from the common species by the outer margin of the ear being straight, instead of
concave, below the tip. As the pipistrelle is the commonest bat in England, so its
Oriental representative is probably the most abundant species in India, where it
ranges from the Himalaya to Ceylon. Its habits are described as being similar
to those of the ordinary species, the same partiality for human dwellings beino-
exhibited, and the flight being characterised by similar sharp doublings and turns.
Noctuie Among the representatives of Vcxpcriujo, our remarks will, in

the main, be restricted to tho.se found in the British Isles: and we
accordingly pa.ss to the consideration of a species nuich larger than the preceding,
and known as the great bat, or noctuie {V. noctida). This .species, of which we (dve
a figure on the next page, belongs to the same section of the genus as the pipistrelle,
and is perhaps the best known of the lai-ger British liats. Apart from its larger
size, it is distinguished from the pipistrelle by its broad and rounded ears, which are
set veiy far apart on the head. The colour of the upper-parts is yellowish-brown,
only very slightly paler below : but some examples have been described -with a
reddish tinge. The length of the head and body is 3 inches, and the spread of the
wings from 13 inches to more than 14. This bat has a wider distribution than the
pipisti-elle, being found not only all over Europe and the tempei-ate regions of Asia,
but likewise ranging into Africa north of the Sahara, and also occurring in Java
and Sumatra, and entering the confines of our Indian dominions in Nipal and
Sikhim, and not improbabh^ Kandahar.

The noctuie ditters from the pipistrelle in being a tree-haunting bat, and
likewise a gregarious species. In winter, however, its retreat may be either in
hollow trees, or under roofs and eaves of houses, in which situations numbers may
frequently be found together. It appears early in the evening, anrl its flight is
particularly strong and rapid, and takes place high in the air. Its favourite food
consists of cockchafei-s and femchafers, in pursuit of which it may be seen on
summer evenings hawking round large trees, especially oaks. An unpleasant
odour is characteristic of this h-Ai.

" The noctuie," writes Bell, " is essentially adapted for the capture and mas-
tication of coleopterous insects. The broad muzzle and strong jaws are found
(juite equal to the reduction of the stubborn elyti'a of beetles as large as the
cockchafer (of which, according to Kuhl, he will consume as many as thirteen,
one after the other), and the wings are in no way deficient in power when in
pui-suit of these insects. During the fine midsummer evenings, when the cock-
chafers have become abundant, and you hear them humming on every side, the
noctuie is in his glory. Then he flies high and straight, and you hear his shrill
but clear voice as he passes overhead, interrujjting himself to dart at some prey,
and then passing on. But an observer will not watch his movements long on

276

BATS.

such an occasion witliout noticing a manoeuvre wliich at fii-st looks like the falling
of a tumbler-jiigeon, but on closer observation proves to be simply a closing of the
A\dngs, and a conse(|uent drop of about a foot. Sometimes this is repeated every
few yards as long as he is in sight. It is occasioned by some large and intractable
insect having been captured, and the anterior joint of the wing, with its well-armed
thumb, is required to assist in retaining it until masticated. Sometimes, however,
food is not so easilj' obtained. With a cold east wind, oi-, indeed, a strong wind
from any quai-ter, a change of hunting-ground is required : and the noctule maj'
often be seen taking a humble and silent flight in some sheltered ami warm comer,

THE >'CK-IL"LE ^liat. oize).

fluttering about with half-closed wings, and appearing to be very little at home, or
indeed like himself, for we recall an instance where several were shot under the
belief that thej- were of some unknown species."

In Sikhim and Xipal the habits of the noctule appear to be much the same as
in Europe, but it does not hibernate. In Nipal it appears to be of rare occurrence,
as Dr. Scully states that he only procured one specimen, which was caught in the
following manner, during the month of July : " About eight o'clock in the evening,"
writes Dr. Scully, " I heard the verj' shrill scream of some small animal in \\\\
bedroom, and, on going into the room, I found this bat attached to the mosquito
net covering mj' bed. In its flight, it had apparently alighted on the net, and
there got its claws so firmly entangled that it could not escape."

TYPICAL GROUP. 277

In White's Nidural History vf Sclborne, it is stated tliat the noctule is not to
be seen on the wing before the end of April, nor later than July. Other observers
have, however, seen this bat in Hampshire and Sussex in August and September,
while one instance is on record of its appearance in Canibridgeshii-e as late as the
first week in November.
Hairy-armed Closely allied to the noctule is the British species known as the

^**- hairy-armed bat {V. leideri). Its popular name is derived from the

presence of a broad baud of tine short hairs on the under side of the wing-menibranc
running fi-om the fore-arm to the wrist. Since, however, this feature is also found
in the noctule, it is obviously not distinctive of the species to which it gives the
name, and we must therefore seek for another characteristic by which to distinguish
the two species. Such a characteristic is found in the inci.sor teeth. In the hairy-
armed bat the outer pair of these teeth in the upper jaw are ecjual in cross-section
at the base to the inner pair, but the height of their crowns is nuich less ; whereas
in the noctule the former is much wider at the ba.se than the latter, while it also
has the crown hollowed out to receive th(^ sunnnit of the lower tusk, or canine.
Then, again, the lower incisor teeth in the hairj'-armed bat form a regular semi-
circle, with scarcely any overlapping of one over another ; whereas in the noctule
they have broad crowns, are set obliquely in the jaw, and largely overlap one
another. Such charactei-s may seem trivial and unimportant, but they are amply
sufiicient to prove the specific distinctness of the hairy-armed bat, which is, more-
over, a considerably smaller animal than the noctule, the combined length of the
head and body being rather less than 2i inches. Needless to say, however, these
two bats are often confounded together, although careful attention to the points
mentioned will always serve to distinguish them. Moreover, careful observers will
readily discriminate between these bats, even when on the wing, from their difference
of habit and mode of flight. " Whilst the noctule," observe the authors of Bell's
British Qaadrupeds, " may throughout the whole of the summer be seen taking
its regular evening flight, night after night, near the same spot, the Leisler's bats,
on the contrary, will be seen once, perhaps for a few n^.inutes only, and then lost
sight of. It appears to afi'ect no particular altitude in its flight, any more than it
preserves a regular or prescribed beat. When the weather is fine, you may see this
bat passing on in a kind of zig-zag manner, a2)parently uncertain where to go ;
generally, although not always, at a considerable elevation, and in a few minutes it
is gone." Like the noctule, the haiiy-armed bat has a wide geographical distribu-
tion, ranging through Europe and the temperate regions of Asia, and having been
recoi-ded from one locality in the Himalaya.

„ ^. The serotine ( V. serotinus) is another large British bat belonging to

Serotine. ... . .

a group distinguished fi-om that containing the preceding species by the

premolars in the upper jaw being reduced to one on each side. This bat has ears of

moderate size, with broadly-rounded tips, and the tragus broadest just above the

base, and thence gradually diminishing in width to the rounded tip. The general

colour of the fur is chestnut-brown above, and yellowish-grey on the under-pai-ts ;

the hair being long and silky, and the wing-mendjranes dark brown, or nearly

black. There is, however, some degree of individual variation in coloui', specimens

being occasionally found with a greyish tinge to the fur.

2 78 BATS.

The serotine is of particular interest as having the widest distribution of any
known" bat, and being the only representative of the order Chiroptera which is
conniion to the eastern and western hemispheres. Seeing that bats are, from their
power of flight, able to traverse with ease long distances o\'er sea, it seems at first
sight veiy remarkable that the serotine is the only species which has succeeded in
crossing from the Old World to the New. It is, however, probable that most of
these animals are luiable to withstand the cold of the regions about Behring Strait,
where the passage between the two hemispheres is the shortest, and have hence
failed to spread themselves in the same manner as purely terrestrial Mammals like
the reindeer, elk, and glutton.

The range of the sei-otine extends from England to Siberia, and from Northern
Germany to Northern Africa, whence it is continued through Arabia and Asia
Minor to the valleys of the Himalaya. In Africa it is found as far south as
the Gabun district on the west coast, and it probably extends to the Camei-un
Mountains. In America, where it was at one time regarded as distinct from the
European species, it appeal's to be widely spread from Lake Winnipeg in the north
to the Isthmus of Darien, and is met with throughout all the West Indies. The
serotine from the Gabun constitutes a distinct variety, distinguished by the fur of
the under-parts being of a pale yellowish-white, and thus forming a marked
contrast with the dark brown fur of the back.

The serotine, which is a comparatively rare and local species in England, is
said to have veiy similar habits to the noctule, so far as regards the length of its
period of hibernation, and its consequent late appearance in the spring are
concerned. It is nearly always found alone, and has a characteristically slow
fluttering flight : while, as its name implies, it does not venture forth till late in
the eveninjj, and. In suitable weather, continues on the wine; till dawn. The
southern counties appear to be the only part of England in which this bat is
found : but in France, and otiier continental countries, it is widely distributed, and
far from uncommon. Observers in the country last named state that it may
generally be found flj'ing around the tallest trees in forests : and that it frequents
the timber j'ards in Paris, among the woodstacks of which it conceals itself during
the day. In North America, wliere it is known as the dusky, or Carolina, bat, the
habits of the serotine appear to be very nearly the same as in Europe. Thus, in
writing of these bats. Dr. A. K Fisher observes that " they are the last to make
their appearance in the evening. In fact, when it gets so dark that objects are
blended in one uncertain mass, and the bat-hunter finds that he is unable to shoot
with any precision, the Carolina bats make their appearance as mere dark shadows,
flitting here and there while busily engaged in catching insects. We have to make
a snap-shot as they dodge in and out from the dark tree-tops ; and we are left in
doubt as to the result until in the gloom we may perchance see our little black-
aud-tan, seemingh^ as interested in the result as we are, pointing to the dead
animal. This species is particularly fond of fields well surrounded by trees."
Parti-coloured The last of the bats of the genus Vesperugo, reckoned as British,

^*- is the parti-coloured bat {V. dif^color), which, while belonging to

the same group as the serotine, diffei-s in that the widest part of the short
tragus is above, instead of below the middle. Apart from this, the parti-coloured

TYPICAL GROUP. 279

bat is, however, readily distinguished by the comparative richness of its coloration,
which has a somewhat mai-bled appearance, owing to the light tips of the hairs.
Above, the colour of the fur is reddish-brown, with the tips of the liairs white ;
while all the under-pai-ts are of a dirt}'^ white tint. Up to the year 1874 only one
individual — captured at Plymoutii — of this bat had been obtained in Britain, and
we are not aware that any instance of occurrence has been recorded since. It has
accordingly been suggested that the Plymouth example maj^ have been imjjorted
in the rigging of some ship. On the Continent the parti-coloured bat is widely
spread, but it is cliiefly found in mountain districts ; its range extending from Italy
and France to Southern Sweden and the Ural Mountains. In Asia it has been
observed in Western Siberia and Eastern Turkestan,
suverhaired The last member of the genus to which we alhide is a North

^^*- American species, known as the silver-haii-ed liat ( T. noctivagans),

which is the sole representative of a group characterised by having three premolar
teeth on each side of the lower jaw, and also by the hairiness of the membrane
between the legs. In the upper jaw there are two premolai-s on each side. The fur
above is dark brown, becoming silverj^-white at the tips in the region of the back ;
and there is a very characteristic white spot at the base of the brown ears.

The silver-haired bat has the most northern range of any American .species,
extending to Hudson's Bay, and southwards to California. In tlie Adirondack
Mountains, near New York, Dr. Hart Merriam .states that it is by far the commonest
of all the bats. " Like many bats," writes Dr. Merriam, '■ it has a decided liking
for waterways, coursing up and down streams and rivers, and circling around
lakes and pond.s. In some places its habit of keeping directly over the water is
very marked. At Lyon's Falls it is tsxceedingly abundant, particularlj' just below
the falls. I have stood, gun in hand, on a point on the east bank of the river, and
have seen hundreds passing and repa.s.sing, Hying over the water, while during the
entire evening not more than two or three strayed so far that if shot they would
fall on land. Several that were wounded and fell into the water, at a distance of
twelve or fifteen feet from the bank, .swam ashore. They swam powerfully and
swiftly, for the current is here (juite strong, and would otherwise have carried them
.some distance down stream. Next to water-courses, the borders of hard-wood
groves are the favourite haunts of the silver-haired bats. By .standing close under
the edge of the trees one sees many that at a little distance would pass unobserved.
While searching for their insect-prey they may be seen to dart in and out among
the branches, and to penetrate, in various directions, the thick mass of foliage over-
liea<:l. They often pass within a few inches of one's face, ;ind yet it is rare tliat a
sound is heard from tlieir delicate wings. In the early dark the silver-haii'ed bat
emerges from its hiding-place ; after a few turns about the immediate neighbour-
hood, it generally takes a pretty direct course for water. I have seen it start from
the summit of a high, densely wooded hill, circle around for a few minutes, and
then, keeping far above the tree-tops, sail leisurely towards a distant river till lost
from sight in the valley below. And, standing on the banks of the large stream
that winds along tlie foot of, the hill, I have seen the bats flying over at a height
several hundred feet, all moving in the same direction — toward a more distant
river. Whether it remains abroad all night, or limits itself to comparatively brief

28o

BATS.

cxcursioii.s in uvuiiiiij;' and early morning, can only be conjectured. I am inclined
to favour the latter view, for the reason that the greater number always disappear
before the darkness becomes sufficiently intense to hide them from sight."

We may conclude this somewhat long account of the genus Vesper ugo (which
is, however, short in comparison with the extent of the genus) by mentioning that
there are three species which differ from all the rest in having only a single pair of
incisors in the upper jaw. These species are V. schltefenii, of Africa; V. dorinen.
of Southern India : and V. parvulus, of Central America.

nE.^D OF Ho.vuv B.\T. — After Dobson.

The Hoary Bat and Red Bat.

Genus Atalapha.

Omitting all mention of two genera of bats (Chalinolohas and Nydicejas)
unknown in Europe, our next representatives of the family Vexperfilion idiv wiW be
two species of a genus known as Atahijihtt, which is confined to the New World.
All these bats have only a single pair of upper incisor teeth : the number of
iucisors in both jaws being i, and the cheek-teeth either § or ^, so that the total

imuiber of teeth is 32 or 30. They ai'e also
characterised by the membrane between the
legs being more or less hairy ; and by the ex-
pansion and inward cur\-ature of the extremity
of the tragus of the ear.

The largest of the more typical species of
this genus is the well-known hoary bat {A.
tincrea), ranging from Nova Scotia to Chili,
and charactensed by its ashy-grey colour. Dr.
Hart Merriam, writing of the habits of this
fine bat in the Adirondack Mountains near New York, observes that it " can be
recognised, even in the dusk of evening, b}^ its great size, its long and pointed wings,
and the swiftness and irregularity of its flight. It does not start out so early as
our other bats, and is consequently much more difficult to shoot. The borders of
woods, water-courses, and roadways through the forest, are among its favourite
resorts ; and its nightly range is vastly greater than that of any of its associates.
While the other species are extremely local, moving to and fro over a veiy
restricted area, this traverses a comparatively large extent of territorj^ in its
evening excursions, which fact is probably attributable to its superior powers of
flight." Of the migratory habits of this bat, which is rare in the Adirondack
region, we have already written.

Far conunoner in the Adirondacks is the red or New York bat (A. novebora-
censis), which is of smaller size, and conspicuous for its bright golden fur, tipped
more or less markedly with silver. This species, which is second only in beauty
to the hoary bat, is widely distributer! in North America, and i-epresented by
several varieties in South America. According to the writer last quoted, it
generally makes its appearance earlier than the other species, and may even be
occasionally seen abroad on cloudy afternoons long before the shades of evening

TYPICAL GROUP. 281

have begun to fall. Dr. Coue.s states that " in most portions of the United States
the red bat is one of the most abundant, characteristic, and familiar species, being
rivalled in these resjiects by the little brown bat {Ves2)ertilio tfuhulatus) alone. It
would be safe to say that in any given instance of a bat entering our rooms of an
evening, the chances are a hundred to one of its being one of these two species.
The perfect noiselessuess and swiftness of its flight, the extraordinary agility with
which it evades obstacles — even the most dexterous strokes designed for its
capture — and the unwonted shape, associated in popular superstition with the
demons of the shades, con.spire to produce repulsive feelings that need little fancy
to render weird and uncanny."

As is the case with many of its North American allies, this bat generally
hibernates in large colonies, which select for their retirement a cave or hollow tree.
The following account of a \isit to a cave, in tlie year 1816, probably refers to this
species, and gives a good idea of tlie vast nmnbers of individuals composing one of
these colonies. The describer. Professor J. Green, as quoted in 1842 by Dr. J. D.
Godman, writes that " I this day (November 1st) visited an extensive cavern about
twelve miles south of Albany, New York. I did not measure its extent into the
mountain, but it was at least .'JOO or 400 feet. There was nothing remarkable in
this cave except the vast multitudes of bats which had selected this unfreijuented
place to pass the winter. They did not appear to be much disturbed by the light
of the torches can-ied by our party, but upon being touched with sticks, they
instanth' recovei'ed animation and activity, and flew into the dark passages of the
cavern. As the cave was, for the most pai-t, not more than six or seven feet in height,
they could very easily be removed from the places to which they were suspended,
and some of the party who were behind me disturbed some hundreds of them at
once, when they swept by nie in swarms to moi-e remote, darker, and safer places
of retreat. In flying through the caves they made little or no noise ; sometimes
upon being disturbed in oni' place they flew but a few yards antl then instantly
settled in another. These bats, in hibernating, suspend themselves by the hinder
claws from the roof or upper part of the ca\e : in no instance did I observe one
along the sides. They were not promiscuouslj' scattered, but were collected into
gi-oups or clusters of some hundreds, all in close contact. On holding a candle
within a few inches of one of these groups, they were not in the least troubled
by it ; their eyes continued closed, and I could perceive no signs of respiration."

As an instance of the weight of the young which female bats have sometimes
to carry with them, we may r'efer to an account by Mr. W. H. Hudson, who states
that in La Plata he once captured a female bat, which, although mentioned by an-
other name, appears to have belonged to a variety of this species. This bat had
attached to her breast two young, which were so lai-ge that it seemed incredible
how she could fly when thus burdened, much less with sufficient speed to catch her
insect food. Mr. Hudson states that these young ones were fastened on each side
of the body of the parent; and when forcibly separated from their hold were
incapable of flight, and fluttered feebly to the ground. The weight of the young
in this -instance was not, indeed, so relatively great as in the case of the opossum,
where seven or eight young may sometimes be seen clinging to the tail and Ijack of
the-female : but then it nnist be remembered that the opossum has only to climb.

282 BATS.

when it cau use both its claws, teeth, and prehensile tail to aid its movements.
The bat, on the other hand, had to seek its living in the empty air, pureuing its
prej' with the swiftness of a swallow, " and it seemed wonderful to me," writes
Mr. Hudson, " that she should have been able to carry about that great burden
with her on one pair of wings, and withal to be active enough to supply hei-self
and her yomig with food In the end I released her, and saw her fly away
among the trees, after which I put back the two J'oung bats in the place I
had taken them from, among the thick-clustering foliage of a small acacia tree.
When set free they began to work their way upwards through the leaves and
slender twigs in the most adroit manner, catching a twig with their teeth, then
embracing a whole cluster of leaves with their wings, just as a person would take
up a quantity of loose clothes and hold them tighth^ by pressing them against the
chest. The body would then emerge above the cla.sped leaves, and a liigher twig
would be caught by the teeth, and so on successively, until they had got as high as
they wished, when they proceeded to hook themselves to a twig and assume the
inverted position side by side : after which, one drew in its head and Avent to sleep,
while the other began licking the end of its wing, where my finger and thumb had
pressed the delicate membrane. Later in the daj' I attempted to feed them with
some small insects, but they rejected my friendly attentions in the most unmis-
takable manner, snapping viciously at me every time I approached them. In the
evening I stationed myself close to the tree, and presently had the satisfaction of
seeing the mother return, flying straight to the spot where I had taken her, and in
a few minutes she was awaj- again and over the trees with her twins."

As the nari-ator well remarks, this incident is noteworthy not only as a touching
instance of parental aftection, but likewise for the circumstance that the young
bats, which up to the time of their capture had existed in a kind of parasitical
condition, when thrown upon the world were quite capable of taking care of them-
selves. In other Mammals born in a helpless state, the power of accommodating
themselves to new conditions, and the instinct of self-preservation, are acquired
graduall}', whereas in these j-oung bats they were assumed in a moment.

The TrBE-X(xsED Bats.

Genus Hurpyiocephulns.

The production of the nostrils into a pair of tubes has already been noticed as
distinctive of a genus of fruit-bats (p. 259), and it is, to say the least, remarkable to
find the same feature reappearing in a less marked degree in a gi'oup of insectivor-
ous bats belonging to the Ve^pcrtilionidcv. These tube-nosed bats, constituting the
genus Harpyiocephalus, are restricted to Tibet, India, Cejdon, and the Malay
Archipelago, and Japan, where thej^ always inhabit hilly districts. They are
sufliciently distinguished at a glance from all the other insect-eating bats by their
divergent tube-like no.strils, of which the apertures are circular. It may, however,
he added that their teeth are 34 in number, of which there are on each side |
incisoi-s, a single canine, and 5 cheek-teeth. Moreover, the upper surface of the
membrane between the liind legs is characterised by its thick covering of hair.

TYPICAL GROUP. 283

The greater number of the eight species of these bats occur in Tibet and the
Himalaj'a, some of them also extending into the liighhands of India and Ceylon ;
there is also one from Java and some of the other Malayan Islands, and another
from Japan. The white-bellied tube-nosed bat (H. leucogaster) of the Himalaya is
remarkable for its brilliant coloration, the fur being golden-orange on the head,
the base of the hairs greyish, and on the back
pale rufous -brown with grey at the base. The
fur on the membrane is bright fen-uginous, the
upper surface of the inter-femoral membraue and
toes being well covered. Beneath, the fur is white
throughout on the chin and throat, the rest of the
lower j)arts having bicoloured fur — grey at the
base with white tips.

Writing of its habits in the North - West
Himalaya, Captain Hutton saj-s that it occurs
at an elevation of about 5500 feet, but iloes not ue.w of tube-nosed bat.— Aiier Liobsou.
appear to be common in the hills, the Dehra-Doon

being probably its true locality there. An example which flew into a }-oom at
Jeripani (below Masuri), at night, kept low down in its flight, instead of soaring
towards the ceiling, passing under the tables and chairs, as if afraid to emerge
into the broad glare of the lamps. This is likewise the mode of flight when
searching for insects in the open flelds, \vhere it skims closely and somewhat
leisurely over the surface of the crops and grass.

Daubenton's Bat, Naitehek's Bat, etc.
Genus Vespertilio.

Daubenton's bat ( Vespertilio daubentoni), represented in the illustration
on p. 284, is a well-known although local British species, which we select as our
tirst example of the genus Vespertilio, second only in point of the number of its
species to Vesperugo, and the type of the famil}^ Vespcrtil ion idee. The bats of this
genus have 38 teeth, of which there are f incisors and g cheek-teeth on each side of
the jaws. As Dr. Dobson observes, they are easily recognised hy the circumstance that
the upper incisor teeth are so implanted in the jaw as to diverge from one another :
and also bj^ the large number of the cheek-teeth, which exceeds that obtaining in
any insectivorous bats 3'et noticed, and is only equalled in four other genera, of
which three are mentioned later on. Moreover, the second cheek-tooth in the
upper jaw, belonging to the premolar series, is invariably characterised by its
minute size. Then, again, the ear has a characteristic elongated oval form, and its
tragus is very narrow.

The genus appears to be of unusually wide geographical distribution, and
is found throughout the tempei-ate and tropical regions of both hemispheres.
" Most of the species," writes Dr. Dobson, " appear to be dwellers in woods, some
either habitually or occasionally live in caves or under the roofs of houses. The
position of attachment of the wings to the hinder extremities, and the size of the

284

BATS.

foot, appear to be connected with the nature of their dwelliug-places, the inhabit-
ants of caves having hirger feet more or less free from the membranes, while those
living in woods have much smaller feet inclosed in the wing-membrane to the base
of the toes." The bats of this genus being of a more delicate organisation than
the species of Vesperiigo are less capable of withstanding the effects of cold, and
have therefore a less northerly range than the latter. Aiid in the countries
where the bats of these two genera hibernate, those belonging to the present
genus are later in awakening from their winter slumber than are the species of
Vesperago.

Daubenton's bat belongs to a group of the genus characterised by the large size

D.\UBEMij.N's B.iT (nat. size).

of the feet, and also by the wing-membrane rising, as a rule, from the shin-bone or
the ankle, as well as bj^ the mi<ldle of the free margin of the membrane between
the legs forming a veiy acute angle. Moreover, the tail has one or two joints
projecting beyond the edge of the membrane last mentioned, and the spur arising
from the ankle to support the same is of very great length. The wing-mendarane
extends below the ankle to the metatarsus ; and the ears are characterised by
their oval form, and are rather shorter than the head. The length of the head and
body is 2 inches, and the span of the wings 9 inches. The fur is brownish-black
at the base, and usually reddisli-brown on the upper-parts and ashy -grey below ;
although there is considerable individual variation in this respect.

TYPICAL GROUP. 285

Tliis bat is cliieliy characterised, so far as liabits are concerned, by its partiality
fur the neiglibonrliood of water, ;ind from this peculiarity it is fre(|uently over-
looked, even in disti'icts wliere it is abundant. So close, indeed, does it fly to
the sm-face over which it skims, writes Profe.ssor Bell, that it is " difficult to dis-
tinguish between the creature itself and its reflection. The flight, ijuiverino- and
slow, is performed by very slight but rapid strokes of the wings. It may, indeed,
be said to vibrate rather than fly over the surface of the watei-. It could not well
fly in anj' other manner so near the surface without often striking it, and tliis it
seldom, or perhaps never, does, althougli it often pauses to dip its nose into the
water, whether to drink or to pick up some food wo Jiave been unable to ascertain.
The Daubenton's bat is, we suspect, rather an abundant species in the middle parts
of England : at least it is plentiful in some parts of Warwickshire. We have some-
times seen tliese bats so thick on tlie Avon, near to Stratford, that at ceiiain .spots
there could not have been fewer than one io every square yard, and this abundances
has extended over a very considerable space. It resorts indiscriminately to build-
ings or trees during the day, though we think the preference is given to the
former." The last observation is in harmony with the opinion of Dr. Dobson
already quoted, in which it is stated that the species with large feet choose build-
ings for resting-places in preference to trees.

This bat is found in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and appears to extend
over the great part of Europe, having been recorded from Finland to Sicily. It
also extends into Asia, where it probably ranges over most of the temperate i-egions
to the northward of the Himalaya, while on the eastward of the Bay of Bengal it
extends southwards into the Tenasserim provinces. It is sometimes termed the
water-bat.

The rough-legged bat (T''. fhtxycvprnc) is another species belonging to the
same grou}) of the genus, which has been recorded from the southern counties
of England. In it the wing-membrane extends only to the ankle : and the .species
is rearlily distinguished from the rest by the form of the tragus of the ear, which
approaches that of the serotine, and also by the thinness of the hair on the face.
It is widely distributed on the Continent, but has only of late years been recognised
as British.

The reddish-grey, or Xatterer's bat {V. vaffcreri), is also a British species of
veiy local occurrence, and belongs to the second or typical group of the geinis
Vespertilio. This group is characterised by the smaller size of the foot, by the
wing-membrane generally extending down the leg as far as the base of the toes,
and also by the obtuse angle in the middle of the free hinder margin of the
membrane between the legs. Moreover, the tail is either wholly contained within
the margin of that nunnbrane, or has only its extreme tip projecting beyond ;
while the spur arising fi'om the ankle to support this membrane is shoi-ter, reach-
ing only to half, instead of three-quarters of the distance between the ankle and
tail. The colour of its fur is lighter than that of anj- other British species. This
bat is characterised by the relatively small size of its head ; and its fur is of a
reddish-grey colour above, and whitish beneath. Owing to the smallness of the head,
the total length of the head and body is somewhat less than in Daubenton's Ijat,
but the span of the expanded wings is 2 inches more, and thus reaches 11 inches.

286 BATS.

In haljits it is a .sociable species, being found in largo nunibei-s in its
favourite places of repose, which are generally buildings, esjiccially church-towers.
Thus, in the year 1848, an enormous colony was discovered in the roof and tower of
the church of the A'illagc of Arrow, near Mcester. Its range extends from Ireland
to the Ural Mountains, and from the south of Sweden to the Alps.

Another closely-allied Bi-itish species is Bechstein's bat ( V. bechstfini), whicli is
limited to Europe, and is of rather larger size than the last : the length of the head
and body being 2 inches instead of llio inch. It is distinguished by the hinder
margin of the membrane between the legs being naked instead of fringed, and
also by the shorter tail, of which the length is less than half that of the head and
body. The colour is reddish-grej^ above, and greyish-white below. It is very
rare in England, but has been taken in the New Forest.

We must not leave this group of the genus Vespertilio without referring to an
African species remarkable for its gorgeous coloration. This is Welwitsch's bat
{V. wehvitschi), from Angola, on the West Coast. In this bat (which is closelj-
allied to the last species), while the head and body are reddish above and straw-
coloured beneath, the naked wing-membranes are variegated with orange and
black, the dark portions being of a triangular shape, and occupj-ing the spaces
between the second and third, and third and fourth fingere, and also the space
included between the fourth finger, and a line drawn between the wri.st and the
ankle ; the remaining portions being orange. Then, again, the membrane between
the legs is margined behind by a black band, and dotted over with small
black sfjots; similar dots also occurring upon the orange -coloured portions of
the wings between the arms and legs. Hodgson's bat {V. formosus) of India
and China, which is moi-e nearly related to the under-mentioned whiskered bat,
has an almost identical coloration, the onlj' difference being that the membrane
between the legs is wholly orange, and the black spots are wanting from the
wings.

While on the subject of brilliantlj'-coloured bats, we may mention two othei'
species belonging to difi'erent genei-a. One of these is the Indian painted bat
(Cerivoida 2)icta), belonging to a genus (Cerivoida) closely allied to Vespertilio, but
distinguished by having the upper incisor teeth parallel instead of divergent. In
this bat the fur on the upper-parts is of a deep orange or ferniginous red, and that
beneath paler. The wing-membranes are black, with orange spots and lines of
orange along the fingers and on the margins, while the membrane between the legs
is wholly orange. So brilliant indeed is the sjiecies, that it is said to have the
apjjearance of a gorgeous butterfly rather than a bat.

Our second example of contrasting coloration is tlie white-winged liat
{Xiieiicejiis alhofiisciiv), from the River Gambia, on tlie West Coast of Africa. The
genus Nycticejus, which has been incidentalh- mentioned on p. 280, is closely
related to Vesperugo. In colour the body of the white-winged bat is dark amber-
brown both above and below ; and the naked skin of all the portions exposed when
the creature is at rest is likewise of a nearly similar hue. On the other hand,
those poi'tions of the wing-membranes lying external to a line drawn from the
elbow to the knee are pure white on both sides, thus contrasting very markedlj'
with the dark tint of the body and limbs. All tlie other known membei's of

TYriCAI. GROUP. 287

the genus have tlie body and wings more or loss uniformly coloured ; but, as

observed by Mr. (). Tboinas, tlu^ descrilx^r of this singular species, many of the

smaller Imts of the (ianil)ia, Ijelonging to several distinct genera, have dark bodies

with white wings. That there is some good reason for this peculiar style of

coloration among the Gambian bats is evident, although no explanation ha.s

hitherto been offered. With regard to the coloration of Hodgson's bat, it has been

shown by the late ilr. >S winhoe that in the I.sland of Formosa this species is in the

habit of hanging suspended on the finiit of the longan tree {Xephelium). " Now

this tree," writes Mr. Swinhoe, "is an evergreen, and all the j-ear through some

poi-tion of its foliage is undergoing decay, the particular leaves being, in such a

stage, partially orange and black. This bat can, therefore, at all seasons suspend

itself from its branches, and elude its enemies by its resemblance to the leaf of the

tree. It was in August when a specimen was brought to me. It had at that

season found the fruit ripe and reddish-yellow, and had tried to escape observation

in the semblance of iis own tints to those of the fi-uit." A similar explanation

will doubtless hold good with regard to the Indian painted bat, which feeds on

plantains, which, when ripe, are of a bright yellow or orange colour, speckled with

black, and thus almost exactly similar to the bat.

With the whiskered bat (1'. ■myMocinufi) wi^ i-esume, and at the same time

conclude, our survey of the British representatives of the genus. This bat, while

agreeing in the relative size of the feet, and other leading characters, with Natterer's,

belongs to a subgroup distinguished by the ti-agus being straight and more or less

blunted at the tip, instead of being acutely jiointed and inclining outwards. This

bat is of small size, the length of the head and body being only li inches, and the

spread of the outstretched wings 8A inches. I'he fur on the upper part of the body

is dark chestnut, temliug to black, and dusky beneath. It takes its name from the

fringe of long fine hair on the upper lip. It is a solitaiy species, although on some

occasions a considei-able immber may be seen together on account of the abundance

of food in particular localities. In its mode of flight and general habits it is

very similar to the pipistrelle ; hiding during the day in situations as various as

are those favoured by difl'erent iudi\iduals of that species. Its range includes the

greater part of Europe, while in Asia it has been found in Syria, the Himalaj'a,

and North Chiua. It may be mentioned that no less than twelve species of the

genus Ve.^pertilio are peculiar to the New World, and tliat the whole of them are

characterised by the small size of their feet.

This bat ( Mi it iopterus schreibcrsl), which rantres from Germany

Sohrelbers- Bat. ^ / . ^, . , • , , " . ,, . "^

to Japan and Austraua, and is the sole representative of its genus,

diflei'S from all the preceding forms by the great elevation of the crown of the

head above the face. The same feature is found in the South American and West

Indian tall-crowned bats (Natalus), of which a head is shown in the figure. Both

these bats are distinguished by the presence of a gap in the middle line between

the fu-st pair of iiacisor teeth, and by a second gap between the second incisor and

the tusk. The American tall-crowned bats, while agreeing with Vespertilio in the

number of their teeth, are further distinguished by the .small size of the tragus of the

ear. On the other hand, Schreibers' bat has but thirty-six teeth, owing to the

absence of the first pair of premolars.

»

288

BATS.

Sucker-Footed
Eats.

Our notice of the Typical Bats may conclude with t,feuera.
each repie-ente'l only liy a sinj^le species, •which are peculiar in
ha\iag; sucking organs on the thumbs or hind feet. One of these species is
the tricolor bat {Tln/ropfrra tricolor) of Brazil, and the other the golden bat
{Myxopoda aurita) of Madagascar. Both have thirty-eight teeth, as in the genus
Vespertilio. In the former the suckers are in the form of round discs on the
lower surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the feet ; while in the latter the

sucker on the thumb is horseshoe-like, and those
on the feet are smaller. Both these bats are
further remarkable for possessing three joints in
the third or middle finger of the win<r, in which
respect they resemble the second family of the
Free-Tailed Bats.

Bj' the aid of their suctorial discs these bats
are enabled to climb smooth polished surfaces, after
the manner of cuttle-fishes ; but a good and satis-
factory account of their habits is still a desidci-atum.
The occuiTcnce of the two forms of .sucker-footed
bats in such widely remote regions as Madagascar
and Brazil is one out of many instances indicating an intimate connection between
the faunas of South Africa and South America.

HEAD OF TALl.-Lltii\\.\tD BAT (3 times
nat. size). (From Dobson, /'roc
Zool. Soc, 1880.)

The Free-TaUed The bats remaining for notice are arranged in two families, and

Insectivorous ditt'er so markedly from those described that they may be regarded as
^^*^' forming a separate bi'anch derived from the same stock as that from
which the T_\i5ical Bats have originated. From the circumstance that in many
of these bats a greater or smaller portion of the tail is completely- detached from
the membrane between the hind legs, the whole group may be conveniently referred
to as the Free-Tailed Bats ; and to them we devote a special chapter.

SKELETON OF BAT ( Vespertilio), IN cbeepikg posture.

CHAPTER XL

Bats, — concluded.

The Free-Tailed Ixsectivokous Bats.

The chief ilistinctive features of this group are that, as a rule, the tail (when
present) either penetrates the membrane between the legs, so that its extreinitv
appears on the upper surface, or it is pi'odueed considerably beyond the hinder
margin ; secondly, that the innermost (frequently the only) pair of upper incisor
teeth are generally of large size, and placed very close together; and, thirdly,
that except in two genera, each represented bj' a single species, the first joint of
the third or middle finger of the wing is, when at rest, folded back upon the
upper surface of its supporting metacarpal, instead of being extended forwards in
the same line, as in the species we have hitherto described. Not a single repre-
sentative of this large assemblage of bats is found in the British Isles, and,
indeed, only one species occurs within the limits of the European area. They are
mainly characteristic of ti-opical and subtropical regions ; but whereas the fii-st of
the two families into which they are divided ranges o\er both hemispheres, the
second is strictly confined to the central and southern portions of the Western.
The number of genera — to say nothing of species — included in the two families
is very large, and as many of them are distinguished from one another by
comparatively trivial characteristics, we shall notice oidy a few typical forms, of
special interest either from pecuKarities of structure or of habits.

The Smooth-Nosed Feee-Tailed Bats.
Family EilBALLONuniD.-E.

The first family of the group occupies a position precisely similar to that held
hx the Typical Bats (Vespertilionidw) in the other branch of the insect-eaters
treated in the preceding section. In addition to the peculiar mode of folding the
tliird finger of the wing, and the characters of the tail already alluded to, they
are distinguished by the circumstance that there are but two bony joints in this
third finger, as also by tlie absence of any distinct nose-leaf. As a rule, they
have a small tragus in the ear, and only a single pair of upper incisor teeth, which
incline towards one another. Moreover, the extremity of the snout is obliquely
truncated from above downwards, so as to cause the nostrils to project more
or less in front of the tip of the lower jaw. The family is widely distributed
over the wai-mer regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and
includes one of the two species which are the only representatives of the entire

VOL. L — 19

290 I>ATS.

order (as, indeed, they are of the whole class of Mammals) found in New Zealand :
but the range on either side is mainly restricted to the belt lying within thirty
degrees of the Equator.

The Sheath-Tailed Bats.

Genus Emballonura.

The mountain sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura nwnticola) is a fairly well-
known representative of a group of this family in which the tail is slender, and has
its free extremity perforating the memljrane between the hind legs, while tlie legs
are relatively long, and the upper incisor teeth comparatively small and weak.
Tlie special characteristic of the genus is that there are two pairs of upper incisor
teeth ; the total number of teetli being 34, of which § on each side belong to the
incisor, and ^ to the cheek series. The production of the muzzle is more or less
strongly marked, the top of the head is flat, and the ears are not united, and have
a tragus of somewhat oblong form, and expanded above.

The mountain .sheath-tailed bat is of a chocolate-brown colour, and measures
about 1| inches in length, exclusive of the tail. It is found in Java, Sumatra,
Borneo, and the Philippines : the other four species of the genus inhabiting various
islands in the I'egion extending from Madagascar to the Navigator group. The
genus is, therefore, exclusively an insular one, and. in tliis respect, quite peculiar.
Tlie Polynesian sheath-tailed bat (E. semicaudnin) m fouml in the Mergui
Archipelago lying otf Tenasserim.

The Pouch-Winged Bats.

Genus Saccopto'yx.

Omitting two small genera, we come to the remarkable pouch-winged bats
(Saccopteryx) of Central and South America, which do not generally exceed 2
inches in length, and have fewer teetli than the foregoing ; the number of incisors
being ^, and the cheek-teeth 4 on each side. They derive their name from the
pi-esence of a peculiar glandular pouch on the under side of each wing, at or near
the elbow-joint. These pouches, which are well developed in the males but
rudimentary in the females, secrete a red-coloured strongly-smelling substance,
which appears to act as a sexual attraction. In one species from British Guiana
{S. leptura), these pouches are unusually large, and from each of them projects a
prominent white frill of skin, which seems capable of Ijeing protruded and with-
drawn at the will of the animal : the use of this is unknown. In Demerara these
bats may be seen flying about quite close to the houses at dusk. Moseley relates
that he caught an example of another species {S. canina) in Bahia, resting fast
asleep on the bare bark of a large tree ; the dense forest growth overhead making
such an exposed situation quite dark enough for a resting-place throughout the
day. Nearly all the six species ha\'e the fur of a unifonii dark brown colour,
although one has a reddish tinge.

FREE-TAILED GROUP. 291

The To-mb-Bats.

Genus Tii]>\(ozo%is.

These derive both their popuhir ami scientitic titles from one of the species
being found in vast numbers in the ancient Egyptian tombs, where they were
discovered during the first French Expedition to that countrj:-. The tomb-bats
differ from the other members of the group in liaving ovXy two pairs of incisor
teeth in the lower jaw, and also by the circumstance that tlie upper pair of these
teeth are shed in the adult state. Instead of the glandular jiouches on the wings,
characteristic of the preceding genus, most of these bats have pouches of a similar
nature on the under-surface of the chin ; these being chiefly, and in some cases
exclusively, developed in the male sex. Many individual.s, especially those taken
during the hibernating season, have large deposits of fat around the root of the
tail and the base of the thighs. This is probably
for supporting life during the hibernating season,
which, from the more northerly range of this
species, would appear to be longer than among the
other representatives of the genus.

The tomb-bats are found in Africa, India,
Burma, the ^Malayan region, and Australia, but are
unknown in Polynesia. Most of them are dwellers
in caves, fissures in rocks, and old buildings; but
one Indian species has been observed on the stem ,, ,

^ HEAD OF TO.Mii-i)AT.— Alter Dobsoii.

of a palm tree. Perhaps the best known species is

the naked - bellied tomb -bat (Tapkozous niidiventris), readily recognised by its.
tawny fur and the naked under-parts. It is a large species, measuring 3| inches
in length, exclusive of the tail, the span of the wing being about 20 inches.
This species is widely distributed over Africa, and is the one found in the
Egyptian tombs, while it also extends into Syria and Palestine. According to
Canon Tristram, the caves near the Sea of Galilee are inhabited by clouds of these
bats.

Writing of the Sumatran species (T. affinis), Mr. E. C. Buxton, as quoted
by Dr Dobson, states that at Telok Betong, in Sumatra, " there was an old, hollow
cocoa-nut stump in the garden, and about twenty of these bats lived in it. At
night, or rather early in the morning, they used to hang at the top of the verandah
in company with several other kinds : and I found that they were all fruit-eaters,
as there was a great deal of fruit-refuse under them." Although, as Dr. Dobson
remarks, this by no means proves the tomb-bat to be at times a fruit-eater, as, for
all we know, the fruit-refuse might have been deposited by its companions, yet
that this is probably the case is indicated by the partially frugivorous habits of
some of its American allies. The tail of the tomb-bats perforates the membrane
between the legs near its centre, and thus has the tip freely projecting. At the
will of the animal it can, however, be withdrawn almost completely within the
membrane, which thus forms a kind of sheath.

292 BATS.

The White Bats.

Genus Bididwrus.

As white is a colour but rarelj' met with among the Cliiroptera, we cannot
pass over the white bats, wliich are represented only by two species from Central
and South America. These bats are allied to the toinb-bats, but have three pairs of
lower incisor teeth, and they are also distinguished from other bats by the presence
of a peculiar pouch on the under side of the membrane between the legs. The
typical wliite bat {Bididurus cdhus) has the fur on the body dark at the base,
but the greater portion of each hair, up to the tip, is of a yellowish or creamy-
white, while the whole of tlie wing-membranes are pure white. The tirst known
specimen was found in Brazil reposing between the fronds of a cocoanut palm. If
this be the normal habitat of the species, its coloration may perhaps be a protective
one, adapted to resemble the silvery hue of the under-surface of the palm leaves.
Here it may be mentioned that albino varieties of dark-coloured bats are occasion-
ally met with ; the most recently described example that has come under our notice
being a white specimen of a species of Vesperugo {V. capensis), obtained in 1890
near Cape Towni.

The Hare-Lipped Bats.

Genus Noctilio.

If the white bats are notewoi-thj^ on account of their colour, the two species of
hare-lipped bats, which are likewise Central ami South American forms, are deserv-
ing of mention on account of the cui'ious superficial resemblances of their muzzles
to those of the Rodents, while at least the ordinaiy species {Nodilio leporinus),
which has been known since the time of Linnaeus, is not less remarkable from the
peculiar nature of its diet. These bats derive their ortlinary name from their
curiously folded upper lip, which is bent upwards in the midiUe line in the form of
an inverted V, terminated above bjJ^ the nostrils. The feet and claws are remarkable
for their large size. They have 28 teeth, of which there are '\ iucisoi-s, and 4 cheek-
teeth on each side. The tii-st, or innermost pair of upper incisor teeth, are of great
size, and placed close together so as to conceal the small outer pair ; and as the
large ones bite against the single smaller pair of lower incisors, the resemblance to
the mouth of a small Rodent, such as a mouse, is very striking.

These bats appear to be almost omnivorous in their diet. That they would
freely eat cockroaches was pro^"ed long ago bj' Mr. R H. Gosse. when in Jamaica ;
and it was at the same time shown that they would chew, although not swallow,
the flesh of small birds. In 1859, a Mr. Fraser, -sTOting from Ecuador, stated that
they had a very peculiar and otfensive iishy smell, and that he had observed them
" skimming the bank of the river, every now and then making a dash along, and
actually striking the water, catching the minute shrimps as they pass up stream."
It was not, however, till 1880, that it was definitely known that they actually
caught and fed upon small fish. Professor M'Carthy, who made special investiga-
tions to determine the tnith of their alleged fish-eating habits, writes to Mr. J. E.

FREE-TAILED GROUP.

293

Harting, that in December 1888 he visited a cave in an island near Menos. " This
cave is in a soft shale formation, and the top of the opening is about seven feet from
the water at full tide. The bats were then in an active state, and the majority
appeared to be flying homewards. There were few fish near the surface of the
water, and comparatively little local fishing appeared to be going on. An
occasional ' swish ' now and again far out proved that the bats were trvino- to
secure their prey. Five homeward-bound specimens were secured in the cave,
about twelve yards from the mouth. The stomach of one specimen opened within
half an hour contained much fish in a finely-divided and partially digested state.
On the morning of the 31st I visited tlie cave from which the specimens were
procured at 3 A.M., and found that the bats had apparently forgotten tlie previous
disturbance. They came flying in in dozens, and two specimens were secured.
Both contained considerable quantities of fish. I have opened several other
specimens of these bats, and in the majority of cases fish-scales wei-e found ; but
the stomachs of two were perfectly empty. Tiiis might be attributed to the
absence of the desired fish in the locality."

The Long-Tailed Bat.

Genus lihinopoma.

The la.st, and at the same time not the least, noteworthy member of the present
subfamily, is the long-tailed bat {Rldnopoma microphyllum), whicli is found from

LONG-TAILED BAT (nat. size).

294

BATS.

North-East Africa, through India, to Burma. It has 28 teeth, of which \ on each
side belong to tlie incisor, and i to tlie cheek series. Its most distinctive feature is,
however, its very long and slender free tail, which projects far beyond the margin
of the very short membrane between tlie legs, and thereby distinguishes it at a
glance from all other bats. It is further quite peculiar in that the second or index
finger of the wing has two joints. Another feature, of less import, although that
which has given the scientific name to the genus, is the presence of a fleshy
prominence on the muzzle, just over the nose ; this prominence having been
incorrectly regarded as a rudimentary nose-leaf. In specimens taken in India
during the cold sea.son, there is an enormous accumulation of fat around the tail
and thighs, which is sometimes so large as to exceed the weight of the i-est of the
body : the accumulation being similar to that ah'eady noticed as occurring in the
naked-bellied tomb-bat and doubtless serving the same purpose. According to Mr.
Blanford, " this species is common in North- Western India, and hides during the
day in caves, clefts in rocks, old ruins, and similar places. In Cutch it takes up its
abode in wells. Jei-don relates that in Madras, in 1848, many were captured in a
house for three successive nights, having probabl}' been blown by strong westerly
winds from the rocky hills to the westward. The species is not of common
occurrence in Madras. According to Blyth, this species formerly abounded in the
Taj at Agra (it may still be fouml there), and Cantor found numbers inhabiting the
subterranean Hindu place of worship within the fort at Allahabad."

The Mastiff-Bats.

Genus Molossus.

With the mastifl'-bats, which take their name from a supposed resemblance of
their broad wide-mouthed muzzles to the head of a mastifl", we come to the fir.st
representatives of the second subfamily of this division, the members of which are

characterised by the thickness of their tails, which (with
a single exception) are prolonged for a considerable
distance beyond the hinder margin of the membrane
between the hind legs. The legs are short and stronsr, and
the feet of great relative width ; while the thumbs of the
wings have curious callosities at their bases; and the
upper incisor teeth are of large size, and limited to a single
pair. As in all these bats, the feet are completelj- free
from the wing - membranes, which can be comfortably
folded up and stored away between the fore-arms and the
legs, and the membi-ane between the legs can be retracted
to a greater or less extent by being moved backwards
and forwards along the tail. In the strength of their limbs, in the development
of the corn-like callosities at the bases of their thumbs, as well as in their large
and flat feet, and the freedom of their feet fi'om the wing-membranes, the mastifl'-
bats and their allies are more adapted for crawling on the ground than anj^ other
membei-s of this group of animals. And the result of observations on livinjr

HEAD OF MASTIFF-BAT. (From
Dobson, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1878.)

FREE-TAILED GROUP.

295

specimens has been to continu these inductions, made upon the evidence ot"
structural peculiarities.

The mastiti-bats are an American group, found in the tropical and subtropical
regions of both divisions of the Western Hemisphere. With the exception of two
species, in which the number of the lower incisor teeth is reduced to a single pair,
thej' have either 26 or 28 teeth, of which \ on either side are incisors, while the
cheek-teeth number either \ or j. The upper incisors are placed close together in
the middle line ; and tlie large ears, which have a small tragus (occasionally absent)
ai'e united by their inner margins. In connnon with two nearly allied genera of
bats, they have very capacious lips, which in most of the species are thrown into a
number of wrinkles or puckers ; and they are further chai'actensed by their long
and slender wings. Tin' great lengtli and narrowness of the wings indicates, as Dr.
Dobson observes, rapid Higlit : and since tiiey also possess the power of varying the
length of tlie membrane between the legs by a " reefing " process, they must have
great dexterity in sud<lenly changing their direction, as when they ai'e compelled to
double in pursuing swift! j' Hying insects ; and, again, their expan.sive and capacious
lips aid the teeth in seizing and retaining the round and solidly armoured bodies
of tlie larger beetles ; so tliat it would seem that they are better adapted than -Awy
other members of the order for captui'ing insects of very swift flight.

Of the red mastitf-bat {Molossus 7'ufus) an account is given by Mr. P. H. Gosse,
from which it appears that this bat inhabits tlie I'oofs of houses and the hollow trunks
of palm trees, where colonies of large size may sometimes be found. It is more
active when on the ground than any other species ; and, indeed, on such occasions
its motions are so rapid that some dexterity is required to en.sure its capture. In
the act of ninning it rests on its wrists, with the fore-part of the bodj^ considerably
raised. In the hollow stem of a palm tree, examined by another observer, it was
found that wliile in cme place the males of this species were collected together to
a number approaching two hundred, in another spot the assemblage consisted
almo.st entirely of females, with only a solitary male among them here and there.
This distinction of the resting-places of the two sexes has also been noticed in
certain other liats.

In describing the habits of another species, the chestnut mastifF-bat {M.
glaucinus), Mr. Gosse writes that " soon after sunset we hear the scrambling of
little claws along the plaster (in the loft above) gradually tending towards the
point where the hole under the eaves is situated ... I judge that they crawl along
one after another in a straight line to the outlet, in parties. The family assured
me that after the mastift-bats had emerged a few hours, they invariably returned
into the hole again ; and they several times directed my attention to them when
returning. They return between eight and nine o'clock, and issue forth again
before the morning twilight. When handled, its impatience of confinement is
manifested by a continuous screeching, not very loud, but exceedingly harsh and
shrill. The ears are commonly so pendent as completely to cover the eyes ; but
they are occasionally retracted so as to expose the eyes, especially if the face be
touched."

In certain parts of the Amazon Valley tlie mastifF-bats, together with some
species belonging to the under-mentioned nose-leafed family, are so numerous as to

296 BATS.

become a serious inconvenience to travellers. Thus when at Caripi, a station
situated about twenty miles from Para, Bates narrates how for the first few nights
of his stay he slept in a room with the roof open to the tiles and rafters, which had
not been used for many months previously ; and on the second night of his visit
was awakened about midnight by the sudden rashing of swarms of bats flying
around him. So numei-ous were they, that the air was alive with them ; the lamp
had been extinguished by the rush of their wings, but when relighted revealed the
whole room blackened by their multitudes. The traveller proceeded to clear
them out by laying about vigorously with a stick, and for a time succeeded in
making the unwelcome intruders retire to the tiles and rafters. No sooner,
however, was quiet restored than the bats reappeared in full force, and once more
extinguished his light. On the third night sevei-al of the bats got into his
hammock, and crawled over him : these were seized and dashed against the wall.
In the morning he was unpleasanth^ reminded of the nocturnal visitation by
finding that he had a wound on the hip, evidently caused bj' the bite of a bat.
Being thereby roused to desperation, he set to Avork in real earnest to mitigate
the nuisance. A large number were shot as they clung to the raftei-s, while the
negroes ascended the roof from outside by means of laddei's, and succeeded in
routine: out hundreds of them from beneath the eaves, among which were several
broods of young ones. Although there were altogether four siiecies of bats present
on this occasion, one of which belonged to the genus Plajlloatoma, another to
Glossopkagn, and two to the present genus, by far the greater majority pertained
to the large-eared mastift-bat {M. jwrotis), characterised by the great size of its
ears, and having a span of wing of 2 feet. It was these bats which crawled over
Mr. Bates while in his hammock : but it was the Phyllostoma (of wliich more
anon) that appears to have inflicted the wound.

The Naked Bat.
Genus Chiromeles.

One of the ugliest and strangest of all the Chiroptera is the naked or collared bat
{Chiromeles torquatus). of the Malayan region, which is a large species, measui-ing
5^ inches in length, exclusive of the tail. The total number of its teeth is 26, of
which \ are incisors, and 4 are cheek-teeth on each side. With the exception of a
collar of thinly-spread hairs, nearly surrountHng the neck, the thick and puckered
skin is almost completely naked. The great toe is longer than all the others, to
which it can be opposed : the ears are not joined together, the lips are smooth, and
the tail is very long and thick, with more than half its length freelj- projecting
beyond the hinder border of the membrane between the legs.

The most curious feature about this repulsive-looking animal (in which, by the
the way, the muzzle is long and pig-like) is, however, the presence of a deep pouch
on the under side of the body below the arm-piis. These pouches, which occur in
both sexes, are for the purpose of containing the young during the period of
suckling ; and are absolutely necessary-, since in their absence the young would be
quite unable to cling to the naked body of the parent. Since these pouches are

FREE-TAILED GROUP. 297

present in the males as well as the females, Dr. Dobson suggests that in cases whei-e

there are twins the male parent may relieve

his mate of the task of carrying one of the

offspring ; instances of a similar division of

labour beincr believed to occur among the

fruit-bats.

This bat, which is figured in the illus-
tration on p. 24G, occurs in the larger islands,
such as Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, of the
Malayan region, where it dwells in the
heart of the densest forests. During the
daj' its place of repose may be either a
hollow tree, or a cleft in the rocks, or
even a hole in the ground. Its flight,
which is heavy and slow, commences as head ok female of the naked b,vt.— After Dobson.
soon as the sun reaches the horizon, and

takes place in the openings and glades of the forests, or even high up in the
air in the open plains.

The Wrixkled-Lipped Bats.
Genus Xyctinomus.

By far the most abundant in species of the bats of this group, as well as the
most widely spread, are tlie wrinkled-lipped bats of the warmer regions. While
closely allied to the mastifF-bats, they are distinguished by the upper incisor teeth
being separated from one another in the midille line, and also bj^ the much greater
development of the vertical wrinkles on tlie capacious lips. The ears are generally
more or less extensively united together at their bases, and the number of teeth varies
from thirty-two to twenty-eight. One member of the genus, Ceston's bat
{Nyctinomus ceMoni), is the solitary representative of the whole family found in
Europe, where it extends as far northwards as Switzerland. This species measures
nearly 3i inches in length, exclusive of the tail, but most of the othei-s are smaller.
Ceston's bat has the peculiar power of being able to sink its eye within the socket,
and then to protrude it again. It has, perhaps, the widest range of all tlie species,
occurring not only in the south of Europe, but also in Egypt, Nubia, Amoy, and China.
The late Mr. Swinhoe, writing of this species, observes : " I have often on a cloudless
evening, at Amoy, seen these bats fl^nng along, high in the air, being easily distin-
guished by the nai-rowness of their wings. When watched, the creature has a habit
of exposing its tail, and of sinking its eye into the socket and thrasting it out again.
The membrane extendino; from the tail to the legs is wrinkled, and covers the tail
like a glove, so as to slip up and Aovm as the creature wishes to expand or contract
its interfemoral wing, or, in nautical language, to shake out or take in reefs." The
tail cannot, however, be completely withdrawn into tlie membrane, in the manner
of the tomb-bats.

Two species are found in India, two in Australia and New Guinea, and

298 BATS.

foui- in America, but tlie majority are restricted to Africa south of the Sahai-a
and Madagascai'. The Indian species are generally found during the day in caverns
and old buildings, countless myriads inhabiting the limestone caves of Phagat, 30
miles from iloulmein, in Burma. And it is probable that the habits of most of the
other species are very similar.

Writing from Jamaica of the habits of the Brazilian wrinkled-lipped species
{N. hrasiliensis), Mr. W. Osburn observes : "Vast numbei-s of these little bats inhabit
the shingled roof of my house. ... I have often observed them during the da\%
exactly as GoMsmith's line expresses : ' lazy bats in drowsy clusters cling ' ;
for, what seems sui-prising, notwithstanding the heat of the situation, shingles
exposed to the sun (and it was disagreeablj^ hot and confined where I stood, twelve
or fifteen feet below), the bats clung in complete clustei-s. I counted fourteen little
heads in a mass about the size of a turnip. But they are not all asleep : now and
then a wing is .sti-etched out with drowsy enjoyment : and the luxurj- King James
thought too great for subjects, and which ought to be reserved for kings, is largely
indulged in by these bats. Fii-st one and then another wakes up, and withdrawing
one leg, and leaving himself suspended by the other alone, adroitly uses the foot at
liberty as a comb, with a rapid eflfective movement dressing the fur of the under-
parts and head — an action far from ungraceful. The foot is then cleaned quickly
with the teeth or tong-ue, and restored to its first use. Then the other leg does duty.
Perhaps the hairs with which the foot is set may aid to this end. I often have
seen them do this in confinement, and probabl}^ the numerous bat-flies with which
they are infested may be the cause of extra dressing."

The New Zealaxd Bat.
Genus ^lysfacoj^s.

That New Zealand, witli its far more favourable climate for these animals than
the British Isles, shouli.l possess only two species of bats is a very remarkable
fact. One of these (CJialinolohus tuherculatus), belonging to a genus closely allied
to Vesperugo (p. 273), is common to New Zealand and Australia : while the second
is peculiar to the colony, and represents a distinct and aberrant group of the family
under consideration.

The New Zealand bat (Mystncops tuherculatiis) diffei-s from the other membei-s of
the family EmhaHonurida' in that the third or middle finger of the wing is pro-
•\aded ^\•ith three distinct bony joints : of which the first, when at rest, is folded
back beneath, instead of above, its supporting metacarpal bone. Moreover, while
the greater part of the wing-membranes is very thin, the portion along the sides
of the body and the lower moieties of the limbs is much thickened ; beneath this
thickened portion the i-emaining parts of tlie wings lie folded away as if in a
case : and in this condition this species is better adapted for a crawling or
climbing life than any other member of the oi'der. There are other peculiarities
adapted to aid in climbing, connected witli the thumb, feet, and legs. The length
of the head and body is 2-\ inches ; and the general colour of the upper-parts is
brown, though beneath they are paler. Even the fur of this bat can, imder the

VAMPIRES.

299

microscope, be at once distinguished from that of all other species ; the individual
hairs being very thick, and with only faint traces of the projecting scales
characteristic of other bats. The tail is extremelj^ short. From its structural
peculiarities Dr. Dobson is led to believe that this curious bat hunts for its insect
food, not only in the air, but also on the branches and leaves of trees, among: which
it would certainl}' be able to creep with ease.

The Vampire-Bats.
Family Phvllostohatid^-e.

The extensive group wliicli it is convenient to allude to collectively under
the name of vampires, is exclusively conhneil to Central and South America
and the West Indian Islands. While related to the preceding family, with which
they agree in the characteristics mentioned on p. 289, they differ in certain other
points of impoi-tance. And they appear to have a relationship to the smooth-
nosed free-tailed bats (Emballonuridcc) similar to that presented by the leaf-nosed
bats (Rhinolophidce) to the tj-pical bats {Vespertilionidie).

They are characterised by the presence of three bony joints in tlie third
or middle finger of the wing, accompanied either by a well-develoiDed nose-leaf,
or by folds of skin and warts on the chin. Such of them as have a nose-leaf
(and these are by far the great majority) may be always distinguished from the
leaf-nosed and horseshoe-bats, not only by the number of joints in the third
finger, and b\- the charactei-s mentioned on p. 289, but likewise by the presence of
a distinct tragus to the moderate-sized ears. Jloreover, if we examine the dried
skulls of any members of the two families, we shall find that while in the leaf-nosed
bats and their allies the premaxillary bones, in which the one pair of small upper
incisor teeth are implanted, are small, separate, and loosely attached to the skull,
in the vampires these bones are large, firinl}* united both to one another and the
skull, and generally carrj' two pairs of large incisor teeth.

The number of genera and species of vampires is so great that onlj' the more
remarkable tyjies can be even mentioned in this work. With the exception of a
few species having well-developed tails and a large membrane between the hind
legs, which are of strictly insectivorous habits, the vampires are remarkable for the
varied nature of their food : some subsisting on a mixed diet of insects and fruits,
others being wholly frugivorous, and a few exclusively blood-suckers. Others
again, although there has been, and still is, considerable doubt on the matter, appear
to vary their ordinary diet by resorting to blood-sucking when occasion occurs.
All ai-e of purely aerial habits, and present none of the adaptations for crawling
which characterise the mastiff-bats and their allies. They appear to be limited to
the forest-clad disti-icts of the regions thej^ inhabit ; and, according to Dr. Dobson,
do not probabh^ extend much farther south than the thirtieth parallel of latitude.
That they are a highly specialised family is apparent both from their structure
and the peculiar habits of man}^ of their representatives. In South America the
name vampire is applied indifferently to several members of the family — a circum-
stance which has been the fruitful source of confusion among European writers.

300

BATS.

The Chix-Leafed Bats.
Genera Chilonycteris and Mormops.

the other members of this familv

Two genera, the one containing six and the other two species, differ from

in the absence of a nose-leaf, the function of
which is performed by folds or lappets of skin
depending from the chin. These bats may
consequently be called chin-leafed bats. They
are of small size, the largest only measuring
2i inches in length, exclusive of the tail. The
two .species belonging to the genus Jlormops
are distinguisheil from those included in the

genus Chilonycteris by the great elevation of

the crown of the head above the line of the

face, as shown in our illustration. While most

of the species are dull-coloured, Blainville's

chin -leafed bat (Mormops hlainvillei) is

remarkable for the briglit orange hue of its fur : and it is also remarkable for its

extremely fragile structure, the head being so delicately formed that light can

actually be seen through the roof of the open mouth.

HE.iD OF blainville's CHIN-LEAFED BAT.

(From Dobson's Catalogue of Bats in
British Museum.)

The Harmless Vampires.

Genus Vampirus.

We take as our first example of those having a nose-leaf, the well-known great
vampire (Vaminnis sjxctrum). It belongs to a group of the famil}' in which the
tail, when present, perfoi-ates the membrane between the legs. The nose-leaf, as
in most members of the family, is .spear-shaped, whence the name of spear-nosed
bats, frequently applied to all the Aampires. The great vampire, according to
Bates, is abundant in many parts of the Valley of the Amazon, such as the
neighbourhood of Ega : and it is the largest of all the South American species,
measuring 28 inches in expanse of wing. " Nothing in animal physiognomy can
be more hideous tiian the countenance of this creature when viewed from the
front, — the large leathery ears standing out from the sides and top of the head,
the erect spear-shaped appendage on the tip of the nose, the grin, and the glistening
black eye, — aU combining to make up a figure that reminds one of some mocking
imp of fable. No wonder that some imaginative people have inferred diabolical
instincts on the part of so ugly an animal. The vampire is, however, the most
harmless of all bats, and its inoffensive character is well known to residents on the
Amazon. I found two distinct species of it, one having the fur of a blackish colour
(V. a ur it us), the other of a ruddy hue (V. Sjyectrum), and ascei-tained that both fed
chiefly on fruits. The church at Ega was the headquarters of both kinds. I used
to see them, as I sat at my door during the short evening twilights, trooping forth
by scores from a large open window at the back of the altar, twittering cheerfully
as they sped oft' to the borders of the forest. They sometimes enter houses. The

VAMPIRES. 301

first time I saw one in mj^ chamber, wheeling heavUy round and round, I mistook
it for a pigeon, thinking that a tame one had escaped from the premises of one of
my neighbours. I opened the stomachs of several of these bats, and found them
to contain a mass of pulp and seeds of fruits, mingled with a few remains of
insects. The natives saj- they devour ripe eajus and guavas on trees in the
gardens ; but on comparing the seeds taken from their stomachs with those of all
cultivated trees of Ega, I found they were unlike any of them. It is therefore

THE GKEAT VA5IPIRE-BAT (J- uat. size).

probable that they generallj' resort to the forest to feed, coming to the village in
the morning to sleep, because they find it more secure from animals of prey than
their natural abodes in the woods."

It will be observed that Mr. Bates speaks of the great vampire as the vmnipire,
but, according to Dr. Dobson, this title is more properly applicable to the blood-
sucking vampires noticed below. While the great vampire is entirely without a
tail, the lesser vampire (F. awritus) has a small rudiment of that appendage. The
latter species serves to connect the former with an allied genus of bats known as
Lophosioma, in which the nose-leaf is narrower in front, and the chin has a central
naked space marked by small warts. It also shows resemblances to the javelin-bats,
mentioned on the next page, in the presence of a glandular opening near the top of
the breast-bone.

302 BATS.

The Javelix-Bats.
Genus Phyllostoma.

Omitting mention of several allied genera, we come next to the javelin-bats, of
which there are three species. These are distinguished from the harmless vampires
by the much shorter and broader muzzle, and also by the presence of two (instead
of three) premolar teeth on each side of the lower jaw.

The common javelin-bat (Phyllostoma hasta.tum) measures just under 4 inches
in the length of head and body, and is next in point of size to the great vampire.
Its general colour is usually dark-grej-ish, or reddish-brown above, and paler
beneath, but sometimes the upper parts are of a brilliant chestnut -brown. ■ The
other two species are much smaller, measuring only 3 inches, or a fraction more, in
length of head and body. All are found in Brazil, and they generally rest in the
trunks of hoUow trees, or beneath the leaves of palms. They have been accredited

THE JAN^ELIN V.VUPIRE.

with blood-sucking propensities, and although Dr. Dobson seems disincHned to
accept this view, yet the testimony of several observei-s inclines us to believe that
the indictment is true. We have already alluded to 3Ir. Bates' account of his being
wounded during the night by a bat which he refers to the present genus : and in
the same passage he observes that " the fact of their sucking the blood of persons
sleeping, from wounds which they make in the toes, is now well established; but it
is only a few persons who are subject to this blood-letting. According to the
natives, the Phyllostoma is the only kind which attacks man." The latter part of
the statement makes this testimony the less convincing, since there is no doubt but
tliat the blood - sucking vampires mentioned below are the species which most
generally and habitually attack mammals. That the bat caught by Mr. Bates was
a javelin-bat, or an allied form, is evident from his allusion to the large size of the
nose-leaf : and thus the only way in which his statement could be disproved would
be by assuming that, while a true blood-sucking vampire was the real cul^jrit, the
javelin-bat was the one caught and charged with the attack.

Mr. Wallace's testimony, as given in his Travels on the Amazons, is very similar
to that of Mr. Bates ; the javelin-bats being here also the ones charged with blood-
sucking. In a later work {Tropical Nature), Mr. Wallace indeed speaks of the

VAMPIRES. 303

bats charged with this crime as having their tongues armed at the tip \\-ith horny
papilla; — wliicli would seem to point to the under-mentioned long-tongueil vampires,
whose food is insects and fruit. He alludes, however, in both places to the blood-
sucking bats as javelin-bats ; and although there is evidently some confusion in
regard to tlie tongue question, it is difficult to believe that two independent observers
should have been so deceived as to charge members of one group of bats M'ith an
attack committed by those of another.

The Long-Tongued Vampires.

Genus Glossophaga, etc.

A group of several genera of rather small or medium-sized bats are at once
distinguished from the otinr members of the present family by their long and
narrow nnizzles, and their slender, elongated tongues, which can be protruded for a
consideraljle distance beyond the moutli. At their extremities these tongues are
armed on the upper surface with a number of long, thread-like papillaj; and it
was long considered tliat these papillaj
were employed for abrading the skin of
animals previous to the process of blood-
sucking. It now appeal's, however, that
their use is either to extract the soft pulp
from the interior of hard-rinded fruits, or
to lick out insects from the tubes of
flowers. That some of the species feed on

t-. .,:* U„„ 1,^ „ J. ■ 11 r i. 1 HEAD OF LONG-TONGUED VAMPIRE (C'A«TO«?/Cto-i>').

fruits has been ascertained by direct obser- -j,,^.^^,^^ dqi^ou ) -j j

vation ; but the discovery of the remains

of insects in the stomachs of others proves that the diet of all is not of the same
kind. One of the species \\hich is known to feed on insects is the Soricine long-
tongued vampire {Glossophaga soricina), and since this species has a well-developed
membrane between the hind legs, while in some of those subsisting entirely on
fruit the same membrane is very short. Dr. Dobson considers that we may predicate
the nature of the food of any given species bj' the size of this membrane. The
species with the longest tail-membrane will be the best flyers, and consequently
those best suited for the capture of insects.

Writing of Sezekorn's long-tongued vampire (Phyllonycteris sezekorni), of
which some individuals were taken from a large colony in a cave in Jamaica, Mr.
Osburn describes their mode of feeding on the fi-uit of the so-called clammy cherry :
" The tongue was rapidly protruded and drawTi in again, and the juice and softer
pulp cleared away with great rapidity. I noticed he was very particular in
clearing out the bit of loose skin of berry, and licked my fingers clean of the juice
spilt on them, carefully cleaning out any that had collected under the nail. I then
got another berry. The bat was hanging against the edge of the box, its under-
surface against the side ; and as I held the berry a little distance oft" to see the
action of the tongue, it had, whilst feeding, to bend the neck so as to raise the
head a little ; this seemed to fatigue it. It therefore raised itself on one wrist,

3°4

BATS.

anil turned i-ound so that its back was against the box's side ; but as it <lid
not change the position of the feet, of course the legs crossed, the right foot now-
being on the left side, and vice versa. In this odd position it appeared perfectly at
ease, and went on licking at a fresh berry with great relish. As the pulp and
juice became exhausted I expected the bat would di-op it, and was prepared with
another berry : but, to my surprise, he brought up the wi'ists to the muzzle, took
the berrj^ between them, gave it two or three energetic bites, and then held the
berry oft! So I now understood what the unusually long thumbs were for : for
they applied themselves dexterously to the berry, held it firmly, and then, as it
appeared to me, bj^ a reverse action of the two wrists the berry was turned round,
a fresh hold taken by the teeth, and the same licking process renewed till the seed
in the centre was cleaned of the pulp, all but the little bit which served for the last
tooth-hold. It was then dropped, and the eager little muzzle raised for more."

The Short-Nosed Vampires.

Genus Artibeiis, etc.

The short-nosed vampires comprise a group of nine genera, all the membei-s of
which are mainly of friigivorous habits. These bats may be easily recognised at
sight by their very short and generally wide muzzles, furnished with a shoi-t nose-
leaf, of which the front portion is hoi-seshoe-shaped, and the hinder part spear-like.
The membrane between the hind legs has its hinder margin excavated to form a
hollow curve : and there is no trace of a tail. Two of the best known species are
Artibeus jilanirostris and A. })e7'splUafv.<:, the former of which was regarded by

Charles Waterton as the veritable blood-sucking vampire.
The latter is abundant in the caves of Jamaica, and feeds
on bread-nut, mangoes, and other fruit : it measures 3i
inches in length, and, with its allies, may be considered
in South America to take the place of the fmit-bats of
the Old World. These bats &y early in the evening, and
are in the habit of reposing during the daj- in places
exposed to a considerable amount of light, having been
HEAD OF cEXTCRios BAT. obscrvcd bcneatli the eaves of a house in Demerara with
om o son.) ^-^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^,^^ setting sun shining full on them. In

other places they have been found roosting in lai-ge clustei-s beneath the fronds of
the cocoanut palm. Of another Jamaica species {Stenodemia achradophiluvi) Mr.
P. H. Gosse remarks that it " feeds on the frait of the nasebeny. About a quarter
of an hour after the sun has set, and while the skj- is still glowing with effulgent
clouds, these bats begin to fly round the tree. . . . On picking up a fruit you find
that it has been just bitten and nibbled in a rugged manner. Fragments of nasebeny
of considerable size, partly eaten by a bat, are frequently found at the distance of half
a mile from the nearest naseberry tree." The centurion bat {Centurio senex), of
which the head is represented in the accompanpng illustration, diffei-s from all the
members of this group by the absence of a tlistinct nose-leaf. Owing to the remark-
able foldings of the skin, the face of this bat presents a most grotesque appearance.

VAMPIRES. 305

The Blood-Suckixg V-OIpires.
Genera Desmodus and Diphylla.

The two species of blood-sucking vampires, each the solitary representative of
a distinct genus, with which we close our account not only of the vampires, but
also of bats generally, present the following distinctive charactei-s : —

Firsth', they may be recognised hy tlieir very short and conical muzzles,
surmounted by a small though distinct nose-leaf ; as well as by the shortness of
the membrane between the hind legs, and by the total absence of a tail. Secondly,
they are characterised by the fewness and peculiar structure of their teeth;
of which the total number is only twenty in one species, and twenty-four in the
other. In the former there are no molar teeth, although a .small rudimentary
(jne is present on each side of the jaws of the latter. In the upper jaw there is
a single pair of verj- broad-crowned incisors, which till up the whole of the space
between the tusks or canines, and have keen and sharp-cutting edges like chisels.
The premolar teeth, of which there are two pairs in the upper and three in the
lower jaw, have likewise trenchant cutting-edges working against one another,
and being quite unlike those of any other bat. When we add to these character-
istics the shai-p tusks with which each jaw is provided, it will be evident that
the teeth of the blood-sucking vampires must be specially adapted for some
particular purpose — that purpose being blood-letting.

It is not by anj' means only in their teeth that these bats are adapted
for their mode of sustenance, the structural modification also extending to their
internal organs. Thus, whereas in other bats the stomach has the usual .sub-
globular form common to Manunals in general, in the blood-sucking vampires it
becomes an elongated organ of a tube-like form : blood naturally requiring little or
no process of digestion before being absorbed into the tissues of the animal by
which it has been swallowed.

The common blood-sucking vampire {Desriiodus rufus) is a comparatively small-
sized bat, measuring only about 3 inches in length, and of a reddish-brown colour
above, and usually some shade of yellowish-brown beneath. It has no true molar
teeth, and likewise no spur on the ankle for the support of the membrane between
the legs. The geogi-aphical range of this species is large, extending from Central
America to Southern Brazil on the east of the continent, and to Chili on the we.st.

The smaller blood-sucking vampire {Diphylla ecaudata) serves to connect the
common species with the other members of the family, having a small rudimentary
upper molar tooth on each side of both jaws, and also a tiny spur on the ankle. It
is further distinguished by the middle portion of the membrane between the hind-
legs being quite undeveloped, as well as by certain features connected with the
lower inci-sor teeth, which are peculiar in having distinct notches on the summits
of their cro^vns. The colour of this bat is very similar to that of the common
species ; but the size of the animal is slightly less. This smaller vampire, which
appears to be confined to Brazil, is stated to be far from common : and we have
not met with any account of its having been caught in the act of blood-sucking,
although there can be no doubt that this is its constant habit.

3o6 BATS.

During tlie daj-time these bats repose in caves or hollow trees, whence they
issue forth for their nightly blood-sucking. It appears that when tliey have
selected a victim for attack, the}' either settle down on or hover over the part
to be operated on ; anil then proceed to shave away a thin portion of skin by a
razor-Hke action of the sharp upper incisor teeth, by which the blood is caused to
ooze from a number of the small capillary vessels, and is then sucked up by the
mouth and swallowed. From their structure, it is probable that blood constitutes
their whole diet.

The fact that certain bats in South America were veritable blood-suckere
has been long known : our tii-st information dating from a period soon after the
conquest of that country. Great uncertaintj' prevailed, however, for a lengthened
period as to which particular species of the large family of vampires were the
real culprits : and the question was not finally decided till, during the voj'age of
the " Beagle," Mr. Darwin had the good fortune to see a desmodus caught in the
ver'}' act. His account has been quoted over and over again, almost ad nauseam,
and we shall refrain from repeating it here : merely mentioning that the bat in
question — which was the common blood -sucking vampire — was caught bj' one
of the great naturalist's servants actual!}' sucking the blood from the withers
of one of the camp liorses. Thus was set at rest for ever the long vexed question
as to which was the true blood-sucking vampire. It may be observed, however,
that whereas it is now certain that the present group is the only one of which the
members subsist entirely on a diet of blood, yet it is possible that, as already
mentioned, some of the javelin-bats or their allies may, on occasions, vary their
ordinary food with it.

Fossil Bats.

From the exigencies of space our account of the bats has been somewhat brief ;
but it may serve to show what an extensive assemblage of animals it reaUy
includes, and how different fi'om one another in habits, as well as in details
of structure, are many of its members, though all bats agree very closelj' in their
general plan. This conformity to a common stiiictural standard is as fully
characteristic of the few fossil bats with which we are at present acquainted, as
it is of their modem allies : the whole of them belonging to li\nng families, and a
large proportion to existing genera. At the comparatively early period when the
Upper Eocene strata of the Paris basin were deposited, leaf-nosed bats, as well
as tj-pical bats nearly aUied to the living noctule, had already come into existence,
and have left their remains buried in the rocks alongside those of strange extinct
hoofed mammals, such as the Pala?otheres and Anoplotheres. And it is, there-
fore, manifest that if we ever succeed in discovering the ancestral forms from
which bats liave been derived, it will be in rocks of far greater age than those of
the Paris basin, which belong to the lower portion of the Tertiary period of
geological history. It is, indeed, within the bounds of probability that bats have
existed as such from a period as remote as the one during which the English chalk
■was deposited on the floor of an ancient ocean.

CHAPTER XII.

The Insectivores, — Order Insectivora.

The absence of any vernacular name for tliat group of Mammals, of which the
shrews, moles, and hedgehogs are the best known representatives, compels us to
adopt an anglicised form of the Latin term by which the group is known;
and we accordingly use the term Insectivores in this sense. This term, it is almost
supei-fluous to add, refers to the insect-eating habits of most of the members of
this order, and it is a good one, since, with tlie exception of the bats, there is no
other group of Mammals which prey so exclusively on insects, or other small
creatures.

Most of the Insectivores are comparatively small-sized animals ; and, with the
exception of the family of tree-shrews, and some of the aquatic forms, all are of
more or less purely nocturnal habits. In the absence of any very strongly-marked
characteristics, like the wings of the bats, the group is by no means easy of strict
definition, — more especiallj^ when we have to avoid entering into the consideration
of abstnise anatomical details.

Characteristics. -^^ addition to their generally small size and nocturnal habits, the

Insectivores may immediately be recognised by the following struc-
tural features. All their toes are furnished with claws, and are in most cases five
in number on each foot ; while in no instance is either the thumb or the great toe
capable of being opposed to the other digits. They walk either on the whole, or
the greater portion, of the soles of their feet; and never on their toes only, in the
manner of a cat or dog. Their upper molar teeth carry a number of small and
sharp cusps, which are arranged either in a V-shaped or a W-shaped pattern ; and
their incisor teeth, of which there are not less than two pairs in the lower jaw,
never assume the chisel-like form found in all the Rodents (rats, porcupines,
liares, etc.) ; but the first or innermost pair is very frerjuently larger than either
of the others, tlierebj^ distinguishing them from the Carnivores. In no instance
is one pair of the cheek-teeth in each jaw ever modified so as to act with
the scissor - like action characteristic of so many of the Carnivores. Then
again the tusks, or canine teeth, are genei-ally not markedly distinct from the
other teeth,! so that it is frequently a matter of some difficulty — especially in the
lower jaw — to decide which teeth are incisors, which tusks, and which premolars.
This may be readily verified by comparing the skull of a hedgehog with that of
a dog, in which the tusks cannot possibly be confused either with the incisors in
front, or with the premolars behind.

If, again, we examine the skeleton of an Insectivore, it will be found that
there are (with the single exception of one peculiar African .species) always a pair

' Tliis is not .so iu the common tenrec, which has large tusks.

3o8

INSECTIVORES.

of complete collar-bones, or clavicles, connecting the blade-bones (scapula) with
the breast-bone, by which the order is at once distinguishable from the Camivora.
Externally, the Insectivores are verj^ generally characterised bj' their very long
and narrow snouts, in which the muzzle is produced considerably in advance of the
end of the lower jaw ; while their bodies are covered either with fur, or, more
rarely, with a protecting armour of si^ines. On opening the skull it will be found
that the upper surfaces of the lobes of the brain are smooth ; and thereby very
different from those of a Carnivore.

There are other distinctive characters of the order, for the proper appreciation
of which a knowledge of anatomy is requisite. If, however, the whole of the
points mentioned above x-eceive due consideration, there will be but httle fear of
confusing an Insectivore with any other Mammal, except it be a Marsupial. The
Marsupials, however, as will be shown in the sequel, are broadly distinguished by

SKELETON OF HEDGEHOG.

man}' important characteristics ; while, were it not for the opossums, thcj' would
be restricted to the Australian region, in which Insectivores are unknown. More-
over, with the exception of the Virginian species, the opossums are confined to
South America, where Insectivores ai-e absent : and there is accoi-dingly not much
risk of a living Marsupial being mistaken for an Insectivore, or vice versa. In
all respects, as is well shown bj- their small and smooth brains, the Insectivores
occupy a very low position in the Mammalian series ; and, next to the Marsupials
and Monotremes of Australia, they maj' be regarded as more nearly allied to the
original primitive ilammalian stock than any other members of the class now
existing. Their nearest relatives are the bats, which, as already mentioned, may
be regarded merely as Insectivores specially modified for a life in the air. It
must not, however, be supposed that anj^ living Insectivore can be regarded as the
ancestral form of the bats : such ancestors having totally disappeared ages and
ages ago. In other directions indicated by extinct types, it is probable that
the Insectivores are allied to the lemurs on the one hand : while, on the other, they
may have been derived from the Marsupials.

The Insectivores are widely scattered over the globe, although
absent from the two large regions mentioned above. Some of the
most curious foniis are found in Madagascar, Africa, and the West Indian Islands.

Distribution.

COBEGOS.

309

The tendencj' being for low forms to disappear wlien brought into competition
witli higher t\^es of animal life, it is interesting to observe that the Insectivores
have either survived in islands, like Madagascar or Cuba, where the higher forms
of Mammals are few or wanting, or, in the continental areas have acquired habits
which serve to protect them from the attacks of foes. For instance, in addition to
being stricth' nocturnal, which is of itself a gi-eat protection, most of the Insectivores
live in the depths of forests, or concealed among the stems and roots of coppices
and shi-ubs, or in the deserted holes of other animals ; while the moles have taken
to a completely subterranean life, and the hedgehogs have acquired a special pro-
tection in their coat of thick-set spines. Othei-s, again, like the water-shrews
and the desmans, have resoi-ted to the water, and hide themselves during their
periods of i-epose in holes in the banks of rivers and lakes ; while the diurnal
tree-shrews seek the protection atlbrded by a life among the boughs of forest
trees, after the manner of squin-els. Finally, the flying cobegos are peculiar in
possessing the power of taking flying leaps from tree to tree, and are thus secure
during their hours of movement from most enemies except man.

The Cobegos or Kaguans.
Family Galeopithecid^.

Few Mammals have been a greater j^uzzle to zoologists, as regards their proper
.sj'stematic position, than the cobegos, colugos, kubongs, or kaguans, of the
Malaj'au region. These animals, of which there are two species, are known to
the natives of the regions thej- inhabit by the names above mentioned, but thej-
are connnonly spoken of by Europeans either as flying lemurs or flying bats.
They constitute the genus Galeopithecus of zoologists, which is the tj^pe of a
distinct family ; and as recent researches have shown that they come nearer to the
Insectivores than to anj' other group, they are now generally' regarded as con-
stituting a special division of that order.

The most characteristic external feature of these curious animals is the para-
chute formed by folds of skin running along the sides of the neck and body, and
connected with the long and slender limbs, of which the fingers and toes are webbed
as far as the roots of their strong and curved claws. This parachute-like membrane
is continued between the hind-legs to include the whole of the long tail, in which
respect these animals differ from the flying squirrels to be mentioned hereafter.
One of their most peculiar features is to be found in the structure of their lower
front, or incisor teeth, which are quite unlike those of any other Mammal, or indeed
of any animal. In both jaws these incisor teeth are expanded lateralh', and
compressed from front to back, with a number of cusps on their summits, and those
of the lower jaw have very wide, flattened crowns, penetrated bj- a number of
parallel vertical slits, so that they resemble small combs mounted upon narrow
stems. Then, again, the outermost of the two pairs of upper incisor teeth, as well
as the upper tusk, or canine (which is nearly similar to the incisors), are inserted
in the jaws by two distinct roots. This is a unique feature among living Mammals,
although the moles and hedgehogs have two roots to their upper tusks.

3IO

INSECTIVORES.

Habits.

The common cobego is found in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, the
Malay Peninsula, Tenasserim, and Siam, and is known as Galeopithecus
volans. It is about the size of a cat ; and its habits have been well described by
Mr. Wallace, who met with it in Sumatra. He observes that the cobego " is
sluggish in its motions, at least by day, going up a tree by shoi-t runs of a few
feet, and then stopping a moment as if the action was difficult. It rests during the
day clinging to the trunks of trees, where its olive or brown fur, mottled with
irregular whitish spots and blotches, resembles closely the colour of mottled bark,

THE COBEGO (J nat. size).

and no doubt helps to protect it. Once, in a bright twilight, I saw one of these
animals run up a trunk in a rather open place, and then glide obliquely through
tlie air to another tree, on which it alighted near its base, and immediately began
to ascend. I paced the distance from the one tree to the other, and found it to be
seventy yards ; and the amount of descent I estimated at not more than thirty-five
or forty feet, or less than one in five. This I think proves that the animal must
have some power of guiding itself through the air, otherwise in so long a distance
it would have little chance of alighting upon the trunk. The galeopithecus feeds
chiefly on leaves, and possesses a very voluminous stomach and long convoluted
intestines. The hair is very small ; and tlie animal po.ssesses such a remarkable

COBEGOS. 3n

tenacity of life that it is exceedingly difficult to kill it by any ordinaiy means.
The tail is prehensile, and is probably made use of as an additional support while
feeding. The animal is said to have only a single young one at a time : and my
own observation confirms this statement, for I once shot a female, with a very
small, blind, and naked little creature clinging closely to its breast, which was
quite bare and much wrinkled, reminding me of the young of the Marsupials, to
which it seemed to form a transition. On the back, and extending over the liuibs
and membrane, the fur of these animals is short but exquisitely soft, resembling in
its texture that of the chinchilla."

A very similar account is given of this species in Java by a much earlier
writer, Hor.sfield, who states that, in addition to leaves, it feeds on the fruits of
several trees when in an unripe condition, among these being young cocoanuts.
In Java it is said to be " confined to particular districts, where it is met with
chiefly on isolated hills, covered with a fertile soil, and abounding with young
luxuriant trees, the branches of which afibrd it a safe concealment during the
day. As the evening approaches, it leaves its retreat, and is seen in considerable
numbers making oblique leaps from one tree to another ; it also discovers itself by
a croaking, hai-sh, disagreeable noise."

Phiiippme Of the .slightly smaller Pliilippine cobego (G. jihilipjnnrit.sis),

cohego. restricted to the islands from which it takes its name, we have a
short account by Professor Moseley in his Naturalist on the Challenger. This
observer relates how, when on Basilan Island — one of the Philippines — he was
conducted by a native guide to a particular spot, for the purpose of shooting
.specimens of this animal. Here "some few trees were standing isolated, not
having been as yet felled on the clearing. On one of these, after much search, a
kaguan was seen hanging to the shady side of a tall trunk. It was an object very
easily seen, much more so than I expected. It moved up the tree with a shambling,
jerky gait, hitching itself up apparently b}^ a series of short springs. It did not
seem disposed to take a flying leap, so I shot it. It was a female with a young
one clinging to the breast. It was in a tree at least forty yards distant from any
other, and nnist have flown tliat length to reach it. I understood from my guide
that numbers of these animals were caught when trees were cut down in clearing.
They are especially abundant at the Island of Bojol, north of Mindanao; their
skins were sold at Zebu, wliieh lies near, at five dollars a dozen."

In their leaf-eating habits the cobegos stand apart from all other In.sectivores,
in this respect occuppng the same relationship to the typical members of the order
as is presented by the fruit-bats to the tj'pical bats. Instead of possessing the power
of true flight, characteristic of the bats, the cobego merely enjoys spunous flight, or the
power of continuing the extension of an ordinary leap by the aid of its paiachute.

It would require but comparati^•eIy little further modification to alter a
cobego into a creature much resembling a bat, and endowed with the power of
true flight : and we thus gain a good idea of the way in which the bats may have
probably been derived from the Insectivore.s. It must not, however, be thereby
supposed that the cobego is in any sense the missing link between these orders ;
its leaf-eating habits, as well as the peculiar structure of its inci-sor teeth, being
alone amply sufficient to di.sprove its claim to that position : — the insect-eating

312 INSECTIVORES.

bats, wliich appear to be the ancestral groups of the order to which they belong,
having in all probabilitj' been directh' derived from insect-eating Insectivores.
The cobego should, indeed, be regarded rather as the sole representative of a side
branch, which, while to some extent simulating the bats, never gave rise to any
descendants showing the special moditications for tnie flight.

The Tree-Shrews, or Tupaias.
Family TuPAllD^.

With the tree-shrews, or tupaias, we come to the first family of the time
Insectivores, or those which are incapable of flight, and have their front or incisor
teeth of a normal form.

The tree-shrews, which are entireh* confined to the Oriental region, take their
name from their strictly arboreal habits ; and are small, long-tailed animals, so
closely resembling the smaller squirrels in external appearance as to be frequently
mistaken for them. Indeed, it appeare that the native term Tupai, from which
tiiese animals derive their second title, is applied indifferently by the Malays both
to them an(l to squirrels : the affix Tana serving to denote the members of the
present group. That they have reallj' nothing to do with the squirrels is shown
by an examination of their teetli, when it will be found that, instead of the
single pair of chisel-like incisor teeth, they have two pairs of small incisors in
the upper jaw, and three pairs in the lower.

The tree-shrews belong to a group of Insectivores characterised

Clifl.T'fl.f'tfinistiPS

' by their upper molar teeth, having broad crowns carrying a number

of cusps, arranged in the form of the letter W. They are peculiar in that the

socket of the ej'e, or orbit, is surrounded by a bony i"ing, whereas in other members

of the order it is open behind. They are further distinguished from the other true

Insectivores not only by their completely arboreal, but likewise by their diurnal.

habits, as thej' feed entirely by daj-. They resemble squirrels in the general

form of the bodj' and limbs, and in possessing a more or less bushy tail.

They have 38 teeth, of which § are incisors, \ canines, and ^ cheek-teeth, on

either side of each jaw. Their feet, like those of squirrels, are naked beneath,

with moderately curved and shai-p claws. The muzzle is sharply pointed, the ears

are small and rounded, and the long hair of the bushy tail is confined to its upper

surface and sides, the under-surface having much shorter hair.

iVltogether, there are about thirteen species of the genus
Distribution. ^ .",.,, .,,..,. , ^ • , i •

1 upaia, which have a wide custnbution over the Onental region.

They are found in India, Burma, the Malaj' Peninsula, the Xicobar Islands,
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines. Thej" are very much alike in general
appearance, the species differing mainly in respect of size and colour, as well as
in the length of the fur. Many are restricted to particular islands ; the Bornean
tree-shrew, the Nicobar tree-shrew, and the recently discovered Philippine tree-
shrew, being unknown out of the islands from which the}' take their names.
Others, again, have even a still more restricted distribution ; two species having
hitherto been obtained onlv in the forests of Mount Dulit in North Borneo.

TREE-SHRE WS.

313

The largest member of the group is the Bornean tree-shrew (Tivpaia iana).
They may be found in clumps of trees as well as in forests ; and, in addition to
their resemblance to squirrels in appearance, they simulate those animals very
closely in their movements, as they may not unfrequently be seen sitting upon
their hind-quarters and hoMing their fooil in their fore-paws. Their food consists
of insects and fruit ; and although insects are usually sought on trees, tree-shrews
may sometimes be seen hunting for food on the ground.

The Madras tree-shrew {T. ellioti), which is found in the forests of the greater
pai't of Peninsular India to the southward of the plains of the Indus and Ganges,
is a well-known species, of which the head and body measure from 7 to 8 inches
in length, while the tail (including the hair) is about an inch longer. From the
fact of several of this species having been met with by Prof. Ball lying dead
in the jungle, it would seem that a fate similar to that which overtakes at

THE cu.MMON TKEE-SHUEW (^ nat. sizej.

certain times of the year our common Engli.sh shrew also befalls the tupaias.
The Malay tree-shrew (T. ferruginea) is a rather smaller species, with a nuich
wider distribution, extending from Assam and the Eastern Himalaya (where it is
found at elevations of from three thousand to six thousand feet) to Burma and the
Malayan Islands.

Of the Malayan species. General M'Master writes, that it " is a
harmless little animal, in the dry season living in trees, and in the
monsoon entering our houses, and in impudent familiarity taking the place held
in India by the common palm-squirrel; it is, however, probably from its rat-like
head and thievish expression, very unpopular. I cannot," he adds, " endorse
Jerdon's statement as to their exti-aordinary agility, for they did not appear to' me
to be nearly as active as squirrels ; at least I remember one of my terriers on two

314

INSECTIVORES.

occasions catching one — a feat which I have never seen any doLf do with a squirrel.
Cats, of course, often pounce upon them." Another observer, the Rev. Mr. Mason,
remarks that " one that made his home in a mango tree, near my house at Tonglioo,
made liimself nearly as familiar as tlie cat. Sometimes I had to drive him oti' the
bed, and he was very fond of putting liis nose into the teacups immediately after
breakfast, and acquired quite a taste both for tea and coffee. He lost his life at
last by incontinently walking into a rat-trap." The familiarity of this tree-
shrew, and the ease with which it can be tamed, are mentioned by all who
have wi-itten of its habits; and Dr. Cantor mentions that after feeding they
are in the habit of dressing their fur and paws, after the manner of a cat, and
that they are pai-tial to water both as a bath and to drink. In disposition

they are described as being pugna-
cious in the extreme, fighting
fiercely with one another when
confined together in a cage, and in
their wild state driving away all
intruders of their own kind from
tlieir particular preserves. Their
usual call is a shoi-t, peculiar,
tieiiiulous, whistling sound, but
when loused to anger it is changed
to shrill protracted cries.

The resemblance of the tree-
shrews to the squirrels comes
under the head of what is now
termed " mimicry, ' and may have
been originally due to the extreme
agility of the latter animals insur-
ing them from pursuit by other
creatures, as being a useless task.
Hence it would clearly be an
advantage for a slower animal to
be mistaken for a squirrel. Tliere
is, however, a remarkable little
squirrel (Sciurus tupaioides) found in Sumatra and Borneo, which appears, for
some reason or other, to simulate the tree-shrews, and thus to alibrd an instance
of a kind of reversed mimicry. " Not only does this Rodent," remarks Blyth,
"resemble T. ferrugiaed in size, and the texture and colouring of its fur, but
the muzzle is similarly elongated, and there is even the pale shoulder-streak usual
in the genus Tupaia."

Pen taUed Tree- In addition to the ordinary genera, the only other living

Shrew. member of the family is the pen-tailed tree-shrew (PtUocercus lowi),
wliich differs so remarkably in the stracture of its tail as to form the solitairy
representative of a distinct genus. This little animal is between 5 and 6 inches
in length, exclusive of the tail, which is of great length, and characterised by its
upper two-thirds being naked, and the lower third ornamented with a double

PEN-TAILED TREE-SHBEW (J iiat. size). (Froiii Gray.)

JUMPING SHREWS. 315

fringe of long hairs, arranged like the barbs of a feather. The general colour of
tlie fur is blackish-bi-own above, with the cheeks and lower-parts yellowish, and a
dark streak running backwards from the muzzle to encircle the eye ; while the
tail is black, with most of the long hairs of the " pen " white. The fii-st specimen
kno-SATi was captured by Mr. Low in the house of Sir James Brooke, at Sarawak ;
and the species was considered to be confined to that island. Of late it has,
however, been discovered in some of the small islands in the neighbourhood of
Borneo.

FossU Tree- As is the case with jnany of the Mammals of the Oriental region,

Shrews. t]jg ti'ee-shrews wei-e i-epresented in Europe during the middle of
the Tertiary period by certain extinct genera. One of these (Lanthanotheruirri)
appears to have been very nearly related to tlie living tree-shrews, while the other
{Gale fix or I'arasore.c) presents characters that connect it both with the tree-shrews
and the jumping shrews.

The Jcmpixg Shrews.
Family Macroscelwid^.

As the tree-shrews simulate the squirrels in the Rodent order, so the jumping
shrews approximate in form to the gerboas and gerbils. But while the resem-
blance in the former instance is a case of true mimicry, in the other it appeai-s
to be merely due to adaptation for a similar mode of life.

The jumping shrews, or, as they are sometimes called, in allusion to their pro-
longed snouts, elephant-shrews, are the African representatives of the tree-shrews,
with which they agree in man}' points of their structure, although not in habits.
They are exclusively confined to Africa ; and while agreeing with the members of
the preceding family in the relativelj' large size of their brains, as well as in certain
other features of their internal anatomy, they are distinguished by structural
diflferences entitling them to be regarded avS the representatives of a separate
family. Among these differences we may i-efer to the circumstance that the
socket of the eye is not surrounded by a bony ring, but is open behind. Then,
again, the metatarsus, or that portion of the foot immediately below the ankle-
joint, instead of being of the normal proportions, is greatly elongated, so as to make
the whole foot nearly as long as the lower leg. Further, instead of pursuing an
arboreal and diurnal life, like the tree-shrews, the jumping shrews restrict them-
selves to the ground, upon which they progi-ess by leaps, and are mainly or entirely
nocturnal.

The tvpical lumping shrews, constituting the genus Macroscelides,
Typical Forms. » i j 1 o ' .

of which a species (M. typicus) is represented in the illustration on

the following page, are characterised by the number of their teeth and toes. With

one exception, these animals have 42 teeth, of which ^ are incisors, \ canines, and

^ cheek-teeth on either side of the jaws. Invariably they possess five toes on the

fore-feet ; while, with the single exception above mentioned, where there are but

four, the same number obtains in the hind-foot. Their ears are large, and the tail

naked and rat-like.

3i6

INSECTIVORES.

Numei'ous species of this genus are found over a large part of
tlie African continent, their range extending fi-om the Cape to Algiers;
and most of them being very much alike, both as regards size, form, and colour.
The species figured here is the Cape jumping shrew, a tawny-brown animal of
about 5 inches in length, exclusive of the tail ; the length of the latter being
about 3 inches. They are very common in South Africa, where they dwell
among grass and bushes, coming forth at dusk from their hiding-places to scour
the plains in search of their insect food. The Algerian jumping shrew (J/, rozeti)
is a very similar animal, known to the French colonists of the districts it inhabits
as the rat a trompe, which is said to vary the insect diet of the Cape species \\itli

/^^

CAPE JUMPING SHREW (i nat. size).

an admixture of vegetable food. Like the tree-shrews, this species can be readily
tamed, and soon becomes familiar, not to say impudent.
Rock Jumping Of larger size than any of the other species of the genus, is the

Shrew. voc^ jumping shrew (J/, tetradadylus), of the Mozambique coast of
East Africa, which derives its name from dwelling in rocky districts, where it
conceals itself in the crannies and clefts of rocks. The most important characteristic
of this species is, however, the presence of only four toes to the hind-feet, the small
inner toes found in the other species having disappeared. It is likewise peculiar in
having but forty teeth, owing to the loss of the last molar on either side of the
lower jaw.

Long-nosed More remarkable than any of the above are the long-nosed

Jumping siirew. j^jjj^piiig gl^i-g-^yg Qf which there are four species from Zanzibar and
the adjacent regions of the East Coast of Africa. These collectively constitute the
genus B.hi/i)choci/on. distinguished from the preceding group by having only
thirty-six teeth, and but four toes on both fore- and hind-feet. Further, the hind-

HEDGEHOGS.

317

limbs are relatively shorter than in the typical jumping shrews, while the muzzle
is so much produced as to form a vei-itable trunk. The reduction in the number of
the teeth is due to the disappear-
ance of two out of the three pairs -^^S^Bi
of incisoi-s in the upper jaws ; and
in verj' aged individuals even the
single remaining pair maj- be shed,
thus leaving the creature without
any upper front teeth. The length
of the head and body of the best-
kno^^^l species is about 8 inches ;
and that of its long, scaly, rat-like
tail somewhat less. Its general
colour is rusty-brown, becoming
blacker on the top of the head and
along the back : while the flanks
have some briglit reddish spots
just below the hinder part of the
back.

From the i-educ-
tion in the number of
their teeth and toes, as well as
from the prolongation of the
muzzle, we mav regard the long-

nosed jumping shrews as very specialised creatures. Unfortunately, we know
little or nothing of their habits ; but from their relatively shorter hind-legs it may
be assumed that they are less habitual leapei-s than the topical members of
the family. Like many of the more aberrant Insectivores, the long-nosed jumping
shrews appear to be very rare animals.

Habits.

KOCK JUMPING SHBEW (i nat. size). (From a Plate by Peters.)

The Hedgehogs and Gymnuras.

Family EmNACElDAi.

The hedgehogs and their near allies the gynmuras constitute a well-marked
family, distinguished by several important chai-actei-s from the preceding groups?.
The more important of these characteristics are, however, of such a nature as to
be but briefly referred to in this place. It maj^ be observed, however, that the
brain (as may be readily seen from the dimensions of its chamber in the dried
.skull) is relatively smaller, and the union of the anterior elements of the pelvis in
the middle line on the inferior aspect of the body shorter than in the preceding
families. Further, if the cavity for the eye in the dried skull be examined, it will
be found that there is not even a trace of any bony process to mark off" its
hinder limit from the larger hollow containing the muscles that work the lower
jaw. With the exception of one species, all the members of the family have five-
toed feet, provided with simple claws not adapted for digging ; this feature being

3i8 INSECTIVORES.

in accordance with their purely terrestiial and non-fossorial habits. And the
broad first and second molar teeth of the upper jaw are characterised by having
five distinct cusps, of which the central one is very small, and connected with
the two inner ones by a pair of oblique ridges.

The Hedgehogs.

Genus Erinaceus.

The European hedgehog, or urchiu, which is far the largest of the British
Insectivores, is the best known representative of a somewhat extensive genus
distributed over the greater portion of Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia,
although unknown in Madagascar, the Malayan Peninsula and Islands, Bumia,
Siam, Southern China, and Siam.

The essential characteristics of the hedgehogs, as distinct from the gj'mnuras,

are to be found in the dense coat of short spines covering the back and sides of

the bod}-, and also the shortness of the tail. The hedgehogs have 36 teeth, of

which, on each side, % are incisors, \ canines, and ^ cheek-teeth. An examination

of the skull will show that the fir.st pair of front or incisor teeth in the upper jaw

have remarkably long crowns, which are widely separated from one another in

the middle line ; while the two remaining incisor teeth on each side of the same

jaw are much smaller. It will farther be observed that the middle region of

the palate of the skull contains some open spaces not occupied b3- bone. The

common hedgehog {Erinaceiis europceus) is characterised by the short and almost

imperceptible neck, the pig-like snout, from which it derives its popular name,

and also by the shortness of its limbs. Exclusive of the short naked tail,

which measures about \h inches, an average-sized hedgehog is about 10 inches

in lengtli. The great peculiarity of all the hedgehogs is the power they passess

of rolling themselves up into a ball-like form, presenting a chpravx-de-frise

of spikes, impenetrable to the great majority of other animals. This rolling-up

process is etFected by the aid of an extraordinary development of a layer of

mu.scles found beneath the skin of most Mannnals, and known as the punlculus

carnosus. When rolled up, the head and feet are tucked inwards, so that only the

spines are exposed : and it requires a boM dog or fox to attack a hedgehog

when in this condition. Under the microscope the spine is seen to be marked

by a number of parallel longitudinal grooves ; the ridges between them being

ornamented, in some of the foreign species, with rows of tubercles. Hedgehogs

date from a remote antiquity : and it is doubtless solely due to this protective

annour of spines that animals of .such low organisation and of such comparatively

large size have been enabled to survive without resorting to the protection afforded

by a subterranean or aquatic mode of life.

The food of the European hedgehosc is very varied, including:
Habits. . .'. ., .

insects, worms, slugs, snails, lizards, snakes, birds' eggs, rats, mice, and

other small animals : while roots and fruit are also consumed to a certain extent.

The partiality of hedgehogs for insects is often taken advantage of in ridding

houses of beetles and cockroaches ; although the hedgehog itself not unfrequently

HEDGEHOGS.

319

comes to an untimely end by a too close approach to the kitchen stove for the sake
of warmth. A hedgehog kills a snake hy inflicting a series of bites, and quickly
assuming the defensive when threatened with attack. That eggs are laro-ely con-
sumed by these animals is proved by the readiness with which they are caught
in traps thus baited. On account of such depredations, as well as from their
destructiveness to young birds, they are much persecuted hy gamekeepers. There
is, moreover, at least one instance on record of a hedgehog having attacked a young
leveret, which it would doubtless have despatched had it not been interrupted.
Hedgehogs venture forth from their hiding - places in hedges, coppices, or

^m'-^^rZ:^

THE COMMON HEDGEHOG (J nat. size).

shrubberies during summer, as soon as tlie dews of evening commence, and may
be detected de\ouring worms or other prey on moonlight nights. A worm is
eaten slowly by being seized by one extremity, and turned from side to side of
the mouth, while it is being chewed by the sharp cheek-teeth ; much the same
process taking place in the case of a snake.

Although properly nocturnal in their habits, they may occasionally be met
with searching for food during the day; and it has been suggested that on
such occasions they are driven to depart from their ordinary habits by the necessity
of procuring a sufficient supply of food for their young, which are usually
produced during the months of July and August, and are said not to exceed
four in a litter, although it was formerh' considered that the uuniber might be as

320

IXSECTIVORES.

many as eight. Occasional!}' a second litter is pi-oduced during the autumn : and
it is believed that the period of gestation is not longer than a month. The new-
born young are almost naked, and their imperfect spines are soft, flexible, and
white, although rapidly hardening in the course of a few days. The}' are at first
totally blind, and quite incapable of rolling themselves up. The nest in which the
young are born is carefully constructed, and is said to be always protected from
rain by an efficient roof. In winter the European hedgehog hibernates completely,
laying up no store of food, but retiring to a nest of moss and leaves, where, rolled
up in a ball, it lies toi-pid till awakened by the returning warmth of spring. As

HEDGEHOG AND YOfXC.

Distribution.

a rule, hedgehogs are comparatively silent creatures, but on occasions they give
vent to a sound said to be something between a grunt and a low piping squeak.

The range of the hedgehog in Britain includes the whole of
England and portions of Ireland, but does not extend beyond the
middle of Scotland : its presence in the Shetland Islands being probably due
to human introduction. Eastwards it extends to Eastern China and Amui-land,
and it also embraces the region from the sixty-third parallel of latitude in
the Scandinavian Peninsula, to Southern Italy, Asia Minor, and Syria. Not
only is the Eui-opean hedgehog found in the lowlands of the regions over wliich
it extends, but in the Alps it ascends to an elevation of six thousand feet, and in
the Caucasus to upwards of eight thousand feet above the sea-level.

Altogether thei-e are nearly twenty known species of hedgehogs, and among
these the European form is in some respects quite peculiar. Its fur mingled
with the spines is very coarse and harsh, and the upper tusk, or canine tooth
{the fourth tooth from the extremity of the muzzle), is inserted by a single root,

GYMNURAS. 321

while in all the others the fur is softer and finer, and the upper canine tooth
has two roots, and closely resembles the cheek-teeth.

Hetlgehogs are represented by five distinct species in India, all characterised
by having minute tubercles on the ridges of their spines. It is remarkable that
while one of these hedgehogs {E. vucropus) is found in Madras, no repre-
sentative of the genus is recorded fi-om the Central Provinces and Beno-al, the
other species not occurring till we reach the Noi-th-West Provinces, the Punjab, etc.
But little is known of the habits of these Indian species, and nothing as to their
breeding ; although it is probable that in both these respects they conform closely
to their European cousin. The long- eared Afghan hedgehog (E. megalofis),
common in the neighbourhood of Kandahar and Quetta, hibernates, but the
species from the Punjab and Southern India are active at all seasons of the
year, thus showing how absolutely dependent is the habit of hibernation upon
climate. The collared hedgehog {E. collaris), found in the plains of North- Western
India, inhabits " sandy country, hiding in holes beneath thorny bushes or in tufts
of grass during the day, feeding chiefiy on insects, especially a species of Blujjs, and
also on lizards and snails. It makes a granting noise when irritated, and when
touched suddenly jerks up its back so as to throw its spines forward, making at
the same time a sound like a pufi' from a pair of bellows." Mr. Blanfoid just
quoted, also states that the Afghan hedgehog feeds on the slugs and snails so
connnon in the fields round Kandahar, as well as worms, insects, and lizards. It
hides during the day in holes ; and hibernates from tlu; end of October or beginning
of November till February.

If we know but little of the habits of the Asiatic hedrrehoo-s, this
African Species. ,,,,.,. ... f^ ;-. >

lack 01 information is still more marked with respect to those of

Africa, where some species are found in the Cape district, and others in the regions

to the north of the Sahara (£". algiriis), and in Egypt, as well as on the West Coast.

One of these {E. alhiventris) is peculiar in having lost the inner toe of the hind

foot ; although its claw has been found on one foot of an adult female from Lagos,

as well as on both feet of young specimens from the same locality.

,. ^ „ Fossil hedgehogs are met with in the Tertiary rocks of Europe

Extmct Species. j. , , , , • . ,

as tar back as the early portion of the Miocene period. Some of the

extinct hedgehogs belonged to the existing genus Erinaceus ; and one of them

{E. ctiningensis), from the middle Tertiary fresh-water limestones of Baden,

appeai-s to be allied to the Algerian hedgehog, being totally different in the

structure of its teeth from the common European species. Others are, however,

distinguished by having a complete bony roof to the palate, and these form a

distinct genus, which may be allied in this respect to the gymnuras.

The Gymxuras.
Genus Gymnura.

The gymnuras, which are not unlike large rough-haired shrews, take the jDlace
of the hedgehogs in Burma and the Malayan region. Although closely allied to
the hedgehogs in the structure of their teeth and other details of their anatomy,

VOL. I. — 21

322 INSECTIVORES.

these Insectivores are so unlike them in external appearance that it is difficult to
believe in their close affinity. It must be remembered, however, that the spines of
the hedgehogs totally alter the appearance of the creature from what it would be,
if unprovided with these appendages ; and if we were to compare a gymnura with
a young hedgehog, in which the spines were still I'udimentary, the difFereuce in
appearance would not be so very marked.

The gymnuras are distinguished from the hedgehogs by the total

harac ens ics. g^^^ggj^^g ^j spines ; and also by the long naked tail, from which they

derive their name. Further points of distinction are atibrded by the complete

bony roof to the palate, and also by the larger uund^er of teeth in the gymnuras,

which is upwards of forty-four.
The large and typical number of
teeth characteristic of these
animals is, indeed, but very
rarelv met with among existing
Maumials, although it was com-
mon amongst extinct forms. In
this respect, therefore, the
gymnura beti-aj's the antiquity
of the group to which it belong.s.
~EAF^s'^~^^I ^^ Raffles's gymnura {Gymmira

rafflesi) — so named after Sir
Stamford Raffles — is an animal somewhat resembling a large rat with a long
pointed nose ; the length of the head and body varjdng from 12 to 14 inches, and
that of the long rat-like tail from 8i to 9i inches. The head and body are
genei'aUy parti-coloured, with considerable individual variation in tlie distribution
of the black and white. Usually, however, the greater pai-t of the head and neck
is white ; but there is a black patch in front of and another above each of the eyes,
and there are frequently some long black hairs on the crown of the head. The
terminal third of the tail is generally white. Occasionally specimens are found in
Burma of a uniform white colour throujrhout : these, however, must not be regarded
as albinos. The hair is of two kinds — a close, soft under-fur and long coarse bristles.

„. ^ .^ ^. Raffles's gymnui-a is found in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo,

Distnbution. . , ,, , ^ . . ,

in the Malay Penmsula, and m Burma. It is either a rare animal, or

on account of its retiring and strictly nocturnal mode of life is but seldom met

with. Of its habits we are still ignorant. It is, however, said to make its home

beneath the roots of trees ; and, from the contents of the stomachs of specimens

that have been examined, we learn that its food consists of different kinds of

insects; cockroaches, white ants, and larvae being apparently its favourites. It

is distinguished by a peculiarly disagreeable smell of a somewhat onionj' or

garlic-like nature.

Still more rare is the lesser gpunui-a {G. suilla), a small rusty-brown coloured

animal, paler beneath, measuring just short of 5 inches in length, with a tail not

exceeding an inch. It occurs in Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo,

and Java, ascending in Borneo to a considerable elevation above the sea-level on

Mount Kina Balu in the northern part of the island.

SHREWS. 2,23

Extinct Gym- Extinct Insectivores, more or less closely allied to the gjnimuras,

nuras. liave left their remains in the Tertiary deposits of France belonging
to the upper portion of the Eocene and the lower part of the Miocene period.
These extinct forms, although belonging to distinct genera from those now existing,
serve to show the antiquity of this group of animals : and, in common vr\t\\ many
othei-s, fui-ther indicate how the earlj- Tertiarj- fauna of Europe has its nearest
representatives in the remote islands of the Malayan Ai-chipelago.

The Shrews.
Family SORICW^E.

The elegant little creatures kno\vn as slirews, or shrew-mice as they are often
termed from their mouse-like form, constitute the fourth family of the true
Insectivores. So like, indeed, are these animals to mice and rats, that hi popular
estimation they are often confounded witli tliem ; although thej' are readily
distinguishable by their long and pointed snouts, their rounded ears, closely pressed
to the sides of the head, and the charactei's of their teeth.

Though there would be little likelihood of mistaking a shrew for a hedgehog,
it is necessary to point out in some detail the characters on which naturalists
refer these groups to separate families ; since, as we have seen, the spines of the
hedgehogs do not form a characteristic of more tlian generic importance.

Perhaps the most ready means of determining whether or no an Insectivore
belongs to the shrew family is afforded by the characters of the first pair of front
or incisor teeth. In all shi'ews these teeth are different from the others ; those
of the upper jaw (as shown in the figure) being long and generally sickle-shaped,
with a more or less distinct cusp at the base of their
hinder border : while in the lower jaw they are long ^-___^^

and project horizontally forwards, sometimes curving ~~~\

upwards at the tips. Moreover, with the single excep-
tion of one peculiar African species, which has a vxxda-
mental seventh tooth, the lower jaw of every shi-ew has
only six teeth on each side.

™, , P , rf ■ , , ■<■ .■ -1 SIDE VIEW OF THE RIGHT ANTERIOR

I he above features are sufncient to distinguish tppeb teeth of the swi.m-

a shrew from anj^ other Insectivore ; but a few additional ming shrew fro.m uxalaska
characteristics may also be mentioned. Thus the first

and second upper molar teeth of all the shrews differ Much enlarged. The first upper

„ ,, p.iiii 1 lii incisor (the tooth on the right of

from those of the hedgehogs and gj-mnuras by the ^j^^ g^,,.^) i^ 1^53 sickle -shaped
absence of the fifth or central cusp on the crown, than usual.— After Dobson.
Then, again, the skull of a hedgehog or gymnui-a, as

shown in the figure of the skeleton of the former given on p. 308, has a complete
bonj^ bar — the zygomatic arch — running below the socket for the eye to connect
the upper jaw with the hinder part of the skull. In a shrew, on the other hand,
this bony arch, as showTi in the accompanying figure, is invariably incomplete
beneath the eye, owing to the absence of the cheek-bone.^ A further char-
acteristic feature of the shrews is the extreme length and narrowness of their skulls.

' In one Indian hedgehog the zygomatic arch is incomplete.

.^I^«^^lfe^

324 INSECTIVORES.

With the exception of a few species which have taken to an aquatic life, the
shrews are terrestrial and nocturnal in their habits. They are all covered with
fur, generally remarkable for its softness : the head is long, with a sharply pointed
snout projecting far in advance of the tip of the lower jaw ; their eyes are extremeh^
small and bead-like ; and the external ears, if present at all, are rounded, and not
unlike the human ear in general contour.
Distribution The shrews have a more extensive distribution than any other

and Habits, family of Insectivoi-es, and likewise comprise a far larger number of
species. They are to be met with throughout the whole of the temjaerate and
tropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Xorth America, as well as on many of
the adjacent islands : one species extending as far north as Unala-ska Island in the
Aleutian group. " From their obscure and retiring habits," writes Bell, " the
shrews are tUtficult of observation ; their long and pointed snout, their extensible
form, and shoii. and velvety coat enable them to pass through the closest herbage,
or beneath the cai-pets of dry leaves in the coppice and wootUaud, in which situa-
tions, as well as in the open fields, whether cultivated or in pasture, thej' seek their

SKELETON OF WATEK-SHREW.

food. But they are not confined in their habitat to such situations, as with their
congeners, the water shrews, they are often met with in mai-shy and fen districts."
On the other hand, one of the Indian shrews constantly frequents dwelHng-houses.
The number of genera (to say nothing of species) of shrews is .so considerable,
that it is onh' possible to notice here some of the more interesting and important.
The genera may be arranged under two groups, accorcUng as to whether the teeth
are stained of a reddish-brown colour or are of the ordinary white hue.

The Typical Shrews.

Genus Sorex.

In addition to their red teeth, the tj'pical shrews, as represented by the common
European shrew {Sorex vulgaris), figured on the right side of tlie following
illustration, are characterised bj' the number of their teeth being thirtj'-two, and
by the large size of their eare and the length of the tail : the latter being covered
■with hairs of nearly, or quite, uulfoi-m length. Witli the exception of two peculiar
species, all these shrews are terrestrial : and thej' inhabit Europe, Asia north of the
Himalaya, and North America. And it maj' be remarked here that the red-

SHRE WS.

325

toothed shrews ai-e quite unknown in Africa south of the Sahara, and they are

only represented in India and the rest of the Oriental region \>y a single small

genus {Soricidus).

The common shrew, found abundantly in the British Islands,

measures just short of 3 inches in length, exclusive of the tail, and is
usualh' of a reddish mouse-colour above, paler beneath, with the tail somewhat
quadrangular and rather shorter than the bodj'. There is, however, considerable
individual variation in colour, specimens being sometimes found banded with white.
Like the mole, the conmion shrew has a wide geographical range,

extending from England, through Europe and Asia to North America.
The facility with which this species conceals itself has been already mentioned. Its

Habits.

THE SriDEK MUSK-SUKEW AND COMMON SHEEW (Uut. size).

food is chiefly insects and worms, supplemented by snails and slugs. In disposition
it is so pugnacious that two are rarely seen together except when engaged
in combat ; and if two or more are confined together, it is not long before the
stronger kills the less robust. The strong scent with which the shrew is provided
probably acts as a preventive against the attacks of some of its foes, but it is now
a.scertained that this is not sufficiently repulsive to deter owls from killing and
devouring shrews. It was long considered that the numbers of dead shrews to be
found in most gardens during the autumn were due to the attacks of cats, which
are known to kill, although they will not eat these animals. Dr. Dobson considers,
however, that the real cause of death is rather to be attributed to insufficiency of
their proper food at that season of the year ; and this interpretation is supported
1 )}' the consideration that it would be otherwise difficult to account for the mortality
Ijeing confined to one period of the year. ShrcAvs hibernate in Europe throughout
the winter, and during the spring and summer produce their litters of blind and

326 INSECTIVORES.

toothless young ; the number in each litter being usually five, six, or seven, but

occasionally more.

In Ireland the place of the common shrew is taken by the lesser

shrew {8. jyygnueus), which, although also found in England, is there

much more rare. It may be distinguished by its inferior size, and also bj'' the

circumstance that the third tooth from the extremitj^ of the upper jaw (the third

incisor) is not longer than tlie fourtL Like its larger cousin, this species has an

extensive range in Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya, but does not extend

across Behring Strait into America.

In marked contrast to the wide range of these species is the
Alpine Shrew

restricted distribution of the Alpine slu'ew (S. alpinus), a species of

rather larger size than the common shrew, and distinguished bv the uniform

coloration of the upper and imder surfaces of t)ie body. Tliis shrew is only found

in the mountains of Central Europe.

Nortn American A variation in size comparable to that existing among the

Shrews. European members of the genus is likewise found in its North

American representatives, among which Bendire's shrew (S. bendirei) is the largest,

and Cooper's shrew (S. cooperi) the smallest form. Of the latter Dr. Hart Merriam

writes that " although underground life does not appear to be as attractive to it as

to its relatives the moles, yet it avoids too much exposure, and commonh' moves, by

night and by daj', under cover of the fallen leaves, twigs, and other debris that

always cover the ground in our northern forests. The naturalist well knows that,

however cautiously he may walk, the stir of his footsteps puts to flight many forms

of life that will reappear as soon as quiet is restored : therefore, in his excui-sions

tlxrough the woods, he waits and watches, frequently stopping to listen and observe.

While thus occupied, it sometimes happens that a slight nistling reaches his ear.

There is no wind, but the eye rests upon a fallen leaf that seems to move. Presently

another stire, and perhaps a third turns completely over. Then something evanescent,

like the shadow of an enibiyonic mouse, appeai-s and vanishes before the eye can

catch its perfect image. Anon the restless phantom flits across an open space,

leaving no trace beliind. But a charge of fine shot dropped with quick aim upon

the next leaf that moves will usually solve the mystery. The author of the pei"-

plesing commotion is found to be a curious shai"p-nosed creature, no bigger than one's

little finger, and weighing hardly more than half a drachm. Its ceaseless acti\nty,

and the rapidity with which it darts from place to place, are truly astonishing, and

rarely permit the observer a correct impression of its form. Whenever a tree or a

large limb falls to the ground these shrews soon find it, examining everj' part with

great care, and if a knot-hole or crex'ice is detected, leading to a cavity within, they

are pretty sure to enter, carrj- in materials for a nest, and take formal possession. . .

Not only are these agile and restless little shrews voracious and almost insatiable,

consuming incredible quantities of raw meat and insects with great eagerness, but

they are veritable cannibals withal, and will even slay and devour their OAvn kind."

The marsh-shrew (S. j^'lustrit!) from the Eocky Mountains, together with the

swimming shrew (S. hydrodromxis) from one of the Aleutian Islands, difler from the

other members of tlie genus in having their feet provided with fringes of long hair

to aid them in their aquatic life.

SIfREWS. 327

The Short-Tailed or Earless Shrews.
Genus Blarina.

With the exception of the water-shrews, the only other members of the red-
toothed section of the family to which we shall allude ai'e the so-called short-tailed
and earless shrews, of North and Central America. These shrews are readily
distinguished by their short tails and the truncation of the upper part of their ears ;
some of them having the same number of teeth as the typical shrews, while in
others the number is reduced to thirt3^ The variation in the size of the different
species of this genus is nearly as marked as in the preceding one.

The common short-tailed shrew {Blarina brevicauda) occurs in the Adirondack
Mountains, near New York, and is remarkable for remaininsr active durino- the
whole of the rigorous winters of these regions, having been observed running
about on the snow when the thermometer indicated 20" below zero. This peculiar
habit is correlated with equally mai'ked peculiarities in the diet of this species,
which frequents both the dense pine forests of the uncultivated districts, and the
cleared tracts of the inhabited regions. This shrew, writes Dr. Merriam, "seeks
its food both by day and night ; and, although the greater part of its life is doubt-
less spent under ground, or at least under logs and leaves, and amongst the roots of
trees and stumps, it occasionally makes excursions upon the surface, and I have met
and secured many specimens in broad dajdight. It subsists upon beech-nuts, insects,
earthworms, slugs, sow-bugs, and mice, and can in no way be considered other than
as a friend to the farmer."

The Water-Shrew.

Genus Grossopus.

The water-shrew {Crossopus fodiens) is the sole representative of a genus
agi-eeing with some of tlie short-tailed shrews in possessing thirty teeth, but distin-
guished by the small ears not being truncated, by the long tail, and also by the
fringes of long hair on the under surface of the latter and on the feet. This shrew,
as its name implies, is of thoroughh^ aquatic habits ; the fringes of stiff hair on
the tail and limbs being designed to aftbrd aid in swimming. In length it measures
about 3j inches, exclusive of the long tail. Owing to the circumstances, that while
in most cases the under-parts of the body are white, while in others they partake
more or less completely of the black hue of the back, it was formerly considered
that there were two distinct species of water-shrews, although subsequent obsei'va-
tions have shown that such variations are merely individual.

The water-shrew, although unknown in Ireland, is commonly,
Habits. . . ^

but locally, distributed over England and the south of Scotland. It

likewise occurs over a large area of continental Europe, from whence it extends

eastw-ards into Asia as far as the Atlas range. In the water these graceful little

creatures are as much at home as water-voles or beavers ; and in clear streams they

may not unfrequently be observed during the day diving or running along the

328

INSECTIVORES.

bottom, and turning over the pebbles with their sharp noses in search of fresh-
water shrimps, which appear to constitute their favourite food. lu addition to
these crustaceans, the water-shrew devours many kinds of aquatic insects or their
larvaj, while it is also probable that it likewise preys on the spawn or fry of minnows
and other small fish. Tliere are, moreover, several instances on record where water-
shrews have been found feeding on the flesh of larger animals, which they have
found dead. The swimming of the water-shrew, writes Prof. T. Bell, seems to be
" principally effected by the alternate action of the hinder feet, which produces an
unequal or wriggling motion ; it makes its way, however, with great velocity, and
as it swims rather superficially, with the belly flattened, the sides, as it were, spread
out, and the tail extended backwards as a rudder, it forms a very beautiful and

THE WATER-SHREW (uat. size.)

pleasing object, moving on the calm surface of a quiet brook, or diving, in an instant,
after its food, its black velvety coat becoming beautifully silvered with the in-
numerable bubbles of air that cover it when submerged ; and on rising again the
fur is observed to be perfectly dry, repelling the water as completely as the feathers
of a water-fowl. When submerged, the ear is nearly closed by means of three little
valves." The bun-ows of the water-shrew are consti-ucted in the banks of the
pond or stream in which it dwells ; and, if disturbed from the protection thus
afibrded, the creature plunges forthwith into the water to seek safety in what
must be regarded as its native element. The female gives birth to the young in
the burrow, the usual number produced at a litter varying from five to seven or
eight.

In addition to its darker coloration, and the structural differences already
mentioned, the water-shrew may be distinguished at a glance from the common
shrew by its stouter and somewhat depressed muzzle. The red stain on the teeth

SHREirS.

329

is, moreover, much less decided than in the latter ; and indeed, when the teeth have,
been much -worn by long use, tends more or less completely to disappear.

The Musk-Shrews.

Genus Crocidara.

With the musk-shrews, which include by far the largest representatives of the
entire family, we come to the first members of the group characterised by their white
teeth. Ko representatives of the musk-shrews occur in Britain, although the spider
musk-shrew {Crocidv/m arauen), represented on the left side of the illustration on
p. 325, and the common musk-shrew (t'. siuajeolens), shown in the accompanying

THE COMMON MUSK-SHREW (nat. size).

figure, occur on the continent of Europe. These shrews, which are of terrestrial
habits, have either thirty or twenty-eight teeth, well-developed ears, and a long
tail, anil are covered witli a coat of mingled long and short hairs. The eyes ai'e
very small, and placed nearer to the ears than to the tip of the nose. Each side of
the body is furnished with a gland (sometimes absent in the female), secreting the
musky product from which these shi'ews derive their popular name.

More than eighty species of musk-shrews have been described ; the range of
the genus embracing Southern and Central Europe, Africa, and Asia. The species
with the widest range is the spider musk-shrew, above-mentioned, which is found
from North Africa and Central and Southern Europe to Central Asia, extending as
far north as Xorth-Eastern Siberia, and as far south as Ladak. It belongs to the
typical group of the genus, charactei-ised by having only three small conical teeth
behind the large first upper incisor ; and it is a comparatively small species, of about

33°

INSECTIVORES.

3 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. This shrew frequents cultivated
grounds in Europe, not unfrequently entering houses ; and preys on insects, worms,
and the young of the smaller Mammals and Birds. The young are bom in summer,
and vary from five to as many as ten in number.

The common musk-shrew (C. suaveolens), of which a figure is given on p. 329, is
the second representative of the genus Crocidura in Europe. It belongs to a group
characterised by the presence of four small conical teeth, of which the hindmost is
very minute, behind the first upper incisor tooth.i This group, which is numerously
represented in Imlia, includes the largest of all shrews, and those most strongly
scented with the characteristic musky odour. The best kuo\\'n, and at the same
time the largest, of these Indian species are the browTi musk-skrew (C. murina), and
the grey musk-shrew, C. cmr\dea), the latter of which is commonly termed bj' Anglo-
Indians the musk-rat. Both these species have nine teetli on each side of the upper
jaw, and their length may be as much as 6 inches exclusive of the tail. Whereas
the hair of the former is of a brownish tinge on the bodj' and feet, in tlie latter it
is more of a slaty hue ; while the feet are flesh-coloured or yellowish- white. In
other respects these two shrews are very closely allied, but whereas the brown
musk-shrew is found as a rule in woods (although it will occasionally enter
buildings), the grey musk-shrew generally, if not invariably, haunts human habita-
tions. It has accordingly been suggested that the latter is merely a peculiar
varietur of the former. The grey musk-shrew is nocturnal, and is a common visitor
to Indian houses. During the day it lies concealed in holes and drains, is.suing
forth at night to hunt over the floors of rooms for cockroaches and other insects ;
while thus engaged it utters from time to time a short, sharp squeak. In respect
of its insect-eating habits, this musk-shrew is a benefactor to mankind ; but these
benefits are accompanied by the drawback that various articles may be so impreg-
nated with the musky secretion of the animal as to become utterly useless. There
has, however, been much exaggeration as to the penetrating power of this scent, the
well-known but absurd story that wine or beer becomes impregnated with a musky
flavour from the circumstance of one of these slu-ews ha\'ing run over the outside
of the bottle containing sucli liquor, being a case in point. In addition to its
favourite cockroaches and other insects, the grey musk-shrew will also readily
devour meat, and accounts are on record of an attack made by one of these animals
on a frog, and by another on a snake.

Other Indian musk-shrews belonging to the same gi-oup of the genus, such as
Blyth's musk-shrew (C. fuliginosa) have but eight teeth on each side of the upper
jaw, or the same number as in the European spider musk-shi'ew (C. aranea).

The Burrowing Shrews.

Genus Anurosorex.

The burrowing shrews are small mole-like creatui'es, inhabiting Tibet, Western
China, and Assam, where they are apparently very rare. They are characterised
by their large heads, minute eyes, the absence of ear-conchs, a very short tail, and

1 lu the figure of the jaw of a true shrew [Sorex) on p. 323 there are five of these small teeth.

\

WEB-FOOTED SHREWS.

SHREIVS.

ZZ^

thick velvety fur. The total number of teeth is twenty-six, of which there are
seven on each side of the upper jaw. There are only two species, of which the one
from Assam measures about 3 inclies in length, exclusive of the stumpy- tail, and is
of dark slaty colour, with a tinge of brown.

The interest attaching to these slirews arises from the circumstance that their
stnicture is in<licative of burrowing habits like the mole, although nothing is
known on this point from actual observation.

The Swimming-Shrews.
Genus Chimarrogale.

Although the name swimming-shrews would be equally applicable to the
water-shrews (Crossojyu.s), and the latter name to the members of the present genu.s,
yet it is convenient to take the two terms with the signitication here given. The
swimming shi'ews, of which one species (Chimarrogale himalayica) is found in the
Himalaya and Mount Kina Balu in Borneo, and the other (C. plafycephaluft) in
Japan, closely resemble the water-slirews in genei-al appearance, but are distin-
guished by the teeth being entirely white, and likewise by being twenty-eight,
instead of thirty in number. These shrews have a small external ear-conch ; broad
scalj^ feet, witli a fringe of coarse white hairs on their margins, and on the sides of
each toe : and the long tail is also fringetl with similar hairs. The indivichial toes
are, however, not connected together by webs.

The Himala3-an swiunning-shrew has a slatj^-grej' fur above, with the tips of
the hairs blackisli-brown. A female measured a little over 4\ inches in length,
exclusive of the tail, the length of the latter being 3 inches ; but it is probable that
other individuals are eonsiderabl}^ larger. This shrew inliabits the soutli-western
portions of the Himalayan range, at elevations from three thousand to five thousand
feet above the sea-level ; and it is also found in the hills of North Burma. It
inhabits the banks of streams, and, doubtless, .swims quite as well as the European
water-shrew. Dr. Anderson has observed it plunging into the water, and running
over the stones on the bed of a stream. Like its European cousin, it is said to
feed on aquatic insects and their larvfe, as well as on tadpoles, and the smaller
fish and their fry. The assumption of aquatic habits by members of both the red-
toothed and white-toothed sections of the shrews is an interesting example of how
animals belonging to different groups may acquire almost exactly similar external
characters, as being essential to their particular mode of life.

The Web-Footed Shrew.

Genus Nectogale.

A still further modification for the purposes of an aquatic life is exhibited by the
web-footed water-shrew {Xectogale elrgans) of Tibet, of which a gi'oup is shown in
our coloured Plate. In these shrews not only are the feet and tail fringed with hairs,
bvit the external conchs of the ears are wanting, and the toes are completely joined

33''

INSECTIVORES.

by webs, while the soles of the feet are furnished with large disc-like pads. The
web-footed shrew has a tail of 4 inches in length, while the length of the head and
body is but just over 3i inches. The fur, which is extremely dense and soft and
evidently adapted to withstand the icy cold of the Tibetan rivers, is of a rich dark
brown colour above, with the longer hairs of a glistening white, while the chin and
throat are whitish, and the belly light brown.

It does not ajDpear that this shrew has ever been seen by Eurofieans disporting
in the waters of its native streams. From its structure we may, however, con-
fidently infer that it is more thoroughly aquatic than any other member of the
familj^ ; and it has been suggested by Milne-Edwards, its original describer, that
the disc-like pads on the soles of the feet act as suckei-s, and thus enable the
animal to cling to tlie surfaces of smooth pebbles or rocks dui-ing its sojourn
beneath the water.

The Desmans and Moles.
Family Talpid.-E.

The European desmans and the more widely-spread moles are the best knoAvn
representatives of two sections of a family which, while allied in man}' respects to
the shrews, possess chai-acters of sufficient importance to justify its separation

SKELETON OF MOLE.

therefrom. In the first place, the skuU in aU members of the family Talpiclce i.s
disting-uished from that of the Soricida by having a distinct zygomatic arch
connecting the upper jaw with the region of the ear ; this difference being distinctlj-
shown by a comparison of the figure of the skeleton of the mole given herewith
with that of the skeleton of the water-shrew on p. 324. Then, again, on the under-
surface of the hinder port of the skull, whereas the so-called bulla of the intenaal
ear is represented in the shrews merely by an open ring, in the desmans and moles
it has a complete bladder-like form. Further, the firet incisor tooth of both jaws
in the members of the present family is of a nonnal type, and never assumes the
peculiar form which has been shown to be chai-aeteristic of all the shrews.

Most of the members of the present family are of fossorial habits, although a
few are more or less completely aquatic, and others cursorial. All have long shrew-
like skulls, and small eyes and ears ; while in most cases the fore-limbs are placed

DESMANS.

333

very far forward on the body, and are more or less specially modified for the
purpose of digging iu the ground. The family, although by no means so
numerous in species as the shrews, is a comparatively large one, containino- at least
eight distinct generic modifications. It is entirely confined to the Northern Hemi-
sphere, where it is widely distributed over the temperate regions of Europe, Asia,
and North America.

The Desmans.

Genus Myogale.

The strange-looking desmans, of which there are two species, are
animals belonging to a section of the family characterised by the fore-1

atjuatic
iiul) not

^:-<^

HDSSIAN DESMANS (J Uu.1 S12uj.

being specially modified for the purpose of digging, and thus forming a connecting
link between the shrews and the moles. This absence of special modification is
exhibited by the bones of the skeleton of the fore-limb, in which the collar-bone
(clavicle), and the arm-bone (humerus) still retain a distinctly elongate form, while
there is no additional bone in the fore-foot.

The desmans are provided with the typical number of forty-four teeth, and are
further characterised by their completely webbed feet, their long trunk-like snout,
which projects far in advance of the upper lip, and the elongated and scaly tail. The
Russian desman {Myoijale tnoschata) is considerably the larger
of the two, its total length being about 16 inches, of which some 6i
are occupied by the tail. The fur is dense and thick, like that of an otter, with the
outer portion formed of long stift' hairs, and the under-coat .soft and woolly. Above,
it is of a full reddish-brown, and beneath of an ashy -grey, with a silvery lustre

Russian Desman.

334 INSECTIVORES.

when viewed in certain lights. The first incisor tootli in each jaw is very large

and powerful, the upper one being somewhat chisel-shaped. The tail is laterally

flattened. This species inhabits the banks of .streams and lakes over

H3.bits

a large portion of South-Easteru Russia, dwelling in holes after the
manner of tlie water-vole, and being as much at home in the water as an otter.
Indeed, the greater part of the ci'eature's time appears to be spent in that element ;
the burrow, which terminates in a large chamber above the level of the water,
being chiefly used as a resting and breeding-place. Its chief food consists
of aquatic insects and their larvje, although it probably also devours small fish.
Insects and larvae are sought after \s\ means of the proboscis-like snout, which is
used to probe under stones and in chinks and hollows. A shai-p hissing sound is
given forth when the animal is irritated or disturbed. The specific name of the
desman is derived from the musk}' odour produced by the secretion of a large gland
situated beneath the rest of the tail ; this taint rendering its flesh quite uneatable.
Owing to its beautiful fur, which is not unlike that of the otter or beaver, the
Russian desman is largely hunted bj- the peasants of tlie regions where it is found ;
early autumn being the season when the fur is in the finest condition.

Although now confined to the steppes of South-Eastem Russia, it is remark-
able that the Russian desman once extended as far westwards as the British Isles,
its fossilised remains having been obtained from the so-called forest bed of the
Norfolk coast, which was deposited during the epoch immediately preceding the
Glacial period. Remains of extinct .species of the genus have also been obtained
from the Tertiary deposits of the continent as far back as the lower portion of the
Miocene period
Pyrenean Des- Far smaller than the Russian species is the Pyrenean desman

™^- (J/, pyrenaica), found on both the French and Spanish flanks of the
mountain I'ange from which it deiives its name. In total length this animal does
not much exceed 10 inches, of which about half is fonned by the tail. It is,
however, also distinguished fi'om its larger relative by the greater proportionate
length of its proboscis, and likewise by the tail being perfectl}' cylindrical. In
mode of life the two species seem to be veiy similar, althougt it has been stated
that the smaller one has a more marked preference for a diet of fish.

The Mole-Shrew.s.

Genera Urotrichus and Urojjsilus.

A very brief notice must suSice for the curious mole-shrews, which closely
connect the moles with the shrews. The true mole-shrews, of which there are two
species, constitute the genus Urotrichus, and are respectively found in Japan and
North America. They have 36 teeth, of which ^ are incisors, and either | or f
cheek-teeth on each side ; and they az-e further cliaracterised by their broad and
unwebbed fore-feet and fossorial habits. They are mole-like in appearance and of
small size. The Tibetan mole-shrew ( Uropsilus soricipes) is the sole representative
of a distinct genus diSei'ing from the last by hav-ing only thirty-four teeth, a
narrow fore-foot, and a naked and scaly tail. In habit it is cursorial ; and while

WEB-FOOTED MOLES. 335

in external appearance it resembles a shrew its skull and teeth are like those of a
mole. Its genei^al colour is slatj'-gi-e}".

The Web-Footed Moles.

Genus Hcalops.

With tlie web-footed moles of North America we come to the first representa-
tives of the second section of the family, characterised by having the collar-bone
(clavicle) and arm-bone (humeinas) .so shortened and widened as to have lost all
resemblance to the ordinary form ; and also by the presence of an additional sickle-
shaped bone on the inner side of tiie fore-foot, next to the thumb, both these
features being intimately connected with the purely fossorial habits of all the
membere of this section of the family.

All the moles, whether they belong to the New WorM or the
structure. , ...

Old World groujj, are characterised b\' their peculiar form, which, as

we shall mention later on, is so admirably adapted for their mode of life. All have
the fore-paws naked and of enormous width and strength ; while in all tliere are
no external ear-conchs, and the small and useless eyes are deeply buried beneath
the fur, and are often further protected by an investing membrane. Then, again,
these animals are characterised by the exti-eme thickness and densitj' of their short
velvet-like fur, to which no fragments of the soil through which the burrows are
driven ever adheres. Like the New World moles, the web-footed moles are dis-
tinguished from their cousins of the Old World by the circumstance that the first
incisor tooth in the upper jaw is of much larger size than the second. The special
characteristics of the web-footed moles are that they have only 3C teeth, of which \
are incisors, \ canines, and % cheek-teeth ; and that the hind-feet are webbed, and
the tail is short and neai-ly naked

The common web-footed mole {Scalops aquaticus) doubtless
received its specific name on account of its webbed hind-feet, which
led to the very natural inference that it was a swimming animal. But according
to Dr. Hart Merriam, this is a complete misnomer, for not only is this mole
"not known voluntarily to swim, but in the selection of its haunts it shows
no preference for the vicinity of water, but manifests rather a contrary tendency.
Its home is under ground, and its entire life is spent beneath the surface. Its food
consists almost wholly of earth-worms, grubs, ants, and other insects that live in
the earth and under logs and stones. It is almost univei-sally regarded as an enemy
to the farmer, and is commonly destroyed whenever opportunity aflbrds ; for, not-
withstanding the fact that it subsists upon insects that injure the crops, it is never-
theless true that, in the procurement of these, it disfigures the garden paths and
beds by the ridges and little mounds of earth that mark the course of its subter-
ranean galleries, and loosens and injures many choice plants in its probing for
grubs amongst their roots." The nest of this mole, " is commonly half a foot or
more below the surface, and from it several passages lead away in the direction
of its favourite foraging-grounds. These primary passages graduallj- approach the
surface, and finally become continuous witli, or open into, an ever-increasing

336 INSECTIVORES.

multitude of tortuous galleries, which wind about in every direction, and sometimes
come so near the siu-face as barely to escape opening upon it, while at other times
they are several inches deep. Along the most superficial of these horizontal
burrows the earth is actually thi-own up in the form of long ridges, by wliich the
animal's progi-ess can be traced. The distance that they can thus travel in a given
time is almost incredible. Audubon and Bachman state that thej* have been
known, in a single night after a rain, to execute a gallery several yards in length :
and I have myself traced a fresh one nearly one hundi-ed yards. The only method
by which we can arrive at a just appreciation of the magnitude of this labour is h\
comparison ; and computation shows that, in oixler to perfoi-m equivalent work, a
man would have to excavate in a single niglit a timnel thirty-seven miles long, and
of sufficient size to easily admit of the passage of his body."

The Hairy-Tailed Moles.

Genus Scapanus.

The hairj^-tailed moles, of which there are two species inhabiting the United
States, form a connecting link between the web-footed and the star-nosed moles,
having the general external appearance of the former, but the same number (forty-
four) of teeth as in tlie lattei'. The habits of the common hairy-tailed mole
(S. americamis) appear veiy similar to those of the web -footed moles; both
inhabiting dry meadow-land in preference to the swampy ground affected by the
star-nosed mole. The mounds of the hairy -tailed moles do not, however, contain
the central and surface opening of those of the web-footed moles ; neither do the
fonner animals indulge in the midday excui"sions so characteristic of the former.

The Star-Nosed Mole.

Genus Condylura.

The last of the three genera of North American moles is represented only
by a single species, the star-nosed mole {Condylura cristata), so called on account
of the peculiar ring of riband-like appendages surix)unding the end of the muzzle,
in the middle of wliich are situated the nostrils. In addition to this featm-e, this
mole is characterised by the tail being nearly as long as the body, and also by the
circumstance that the bones of the tenninal joints of the fingere are not cleft at
their extremities, as they are in the Old World moles. Like the latter, the star-
nosed mole possesses the tj'pical number of forty-four teetL In length this species
measures alx)ut 5 inches, exclusive of the tail.

The food of this mole consists entirely of earth-worms and insects,

Ha.bits

and its habits are very similar to those of the web-footed mole, although

it does not apparenth- make such extensive excavations, and the hillocks thrown up

from the runs are of larger size. In gardens and arable land these moles tunnel

near the surface, throwing up a ridge of loose earth along the line of their tunnels,

but in pasture land they work at a lower level In both these respects they

MOLES. 337

resemble the common European mole, witli wliich they also agree in that, during
the late autumn, when the surface of the ground becomes frozen, they follow the
woiTus do^^^lwards until a plane is reached where the frost has not penetrated. By
following the ridge of loose earth which marks the progress of one of these moles
in a garden, and quickly sinking a spade in the creature's path, a few inches in
advance of the moving earth, it is frequently possible to turn a specimen out upon
the surface. So quickly, however, do these animals pass through the soft soil of a
garden, that the spade, although aimed several inches in front of the moving earth,
will not unfrequently cut them in two.

Although the precise function of the peculiar disc of tentacles round the muzzle
is not yet definitely ascertained, it appears highh' probable that it acts as a sensitive
organ of touch to aid its owner in discovering the whereabouts of the worms and
insects encountered during its subterranean wanderings. In the newly-born young
these tentacles are so small as to be scarcely perceptible. A nest examined by Dr.
Merriam contained three young ones.

The True Moles.

Genus Tal]m.

The Olil World moles may be at once distinguished from all their North
American cousins by having the first upper incisor tooth scarcely larger than the
second. With the exception of a single species from Eastern Tibet, the whole of
the Old World moles are included in the genus Talpa, of Avhich the typical
representative is the common European mole {T. europcva). The members of this
genus, nine in number, are distributed over temperate Europe and Asia, two of the
Asiatic species being found to the south of the
Himalaya. As a rule, there is the tj-pieal number
of forty-four teeth, but a few of the species have
not quite so many, owing to the loss either of the
lower canine tooth or of the first upper premolar ;
while in one species the first premolar is wanting
in both jaws. All are characterised by the width

» . , . » . ITl-EH AND LOWER SURFACE OF RIGHT

of the fore-foot. ^ ^ kobe-foot of mole.

As we entered at considerable length into
the structure and habits of some of the American moles, our remarks on those
of the Old World may be comparatively brief, as there is a great similarity
between the two. It is remarkable that, as the European hedgehog difiers from
all the other species of its genus, so the European mole is distinguished from all its
congenei's by the absence of a membrane covering the eyes. Nearly or all the
moles are normally black in colour, with a more or less pronounced greyish lustre
when viewed in certain lights; but pied, buff, or white varieties are not very
uncommon. The naked feet are flesh-coloured. The different species of moles show
considerable variation as regards the relative length of the tail. Thus, whereas in
the European mole the length of the head and body is about 5 inches and that of
the tail 1 inch, in the Himalayan short-tailed mole {T. micrura) the naked tail is

VOL. I. 2 2

33S

INSECTIVORES.

Distribution.

less than a quarter of an inch in length, and is completely concealed among the
fur of the body.

The European mole is remarkable for its wide geographical dis-
tribution, ranging from England in the west, through Asia north of
the Himalaya to Japan, and extending northwai'ds as far as the Altai Mountains.
Like its cousin, the common shrew, it is, however, unknown in Ireland The "■ mns "
of the European mole are very similar to those of the American moles already
referred to, but the centi-al chamber, or dwelling-place, is of a more complex
structure. As this dwelling-place will be found described in detail in almost all
works treating of the mole, it will suffice to mention here that it is usually placed near
a hillock, or between two trees, and is composed of a centi-al chamber with passages

THE COMMON MOLE (5 Hat. SIZe).

conducting to two circular galleries placed one above another. The higher of these
two galleries has a smaller diameter than the lower one. From the larger lower
gallery there are given off several diverging rans, one of wliich is larger than either
of the others, and is known as the main i-un, being the one which alone leads to the
burrows driven in various directions for the purpose of procuring food. These
burrows, or runs, except when so close to the surface as to allow of the earth being
raised directly upwards in the form of a ridge showing their course, are marked at
intervals by the well-known " mole-hills," which are mounds of loose earth pushed
up from below, and not containing any internal chamber or passages.

Since the voracitj' of the mole is proverbial, and its food consists exclusively of
earth-worms, insects, and their larvae, its visits ought to be welcomed alike by the
farmer and the gardener. As a matter of fact, however, the mole has an awkward
habit of driving its tunnels below the drilled rows of young farm and garden crops.

MOLES. 339

by whicli not ouly ai-e the roots of the plants distui'bed, but the whole row may be
dried up. ^Ioreo\er, it appeai-s pretty certain that field-voles will take advantage
of runs driven iu such localities as con\enient points from which to make inroads
on the sprouting seeds or the roots of the young plants. Then, again, in addition
to the unsightliness of a host of mole-hills in a garden, such elevations are incon-
venient in a field of standing grass, as they impede the process of mowing. From
these and other circumstances, fanners and gardeners genei-ally unite in a war of
extermination against the mole, although there can be no doubt but that in man}-
respects its visits are a distinct advantage to its destroyers.

It is well known that male moles ai-e more numerous than females, and this
seems to be explained by a writer in the Field newspaper, who states that a family
" of moles appeai-s to consist of five members, in the proportion of four males to one
female — tliis as a rule, though with many exceptions. In the course of my experience
I have never caught more than five in succession in the same nin ; and this, there-
fore, appeai-s to be the limit." It is well known that moles have the habit of
feeding at regular hours during the day, and that they may be found at work
at eight, twelve, and four o'clock. In regard to mole-catching, it is mentioned
that, " when setting a trap in light crumbling soil, as in a flower-bed, care .should
be ta,ken to remove only sufticieut earth to allow of the trap being put in, and
the hole leading each way should be carefullj^ cleared, so as to allow the mole
a free passage, or he will infallibly dive underneath your trap. A piece of slate
put at the lx)ttom of the run is a good preventive of this kind of thing." Like their
North American relatives, moles swim well, and wiU take to the water readily.

According to Mr. Blanford, the short-tailed mole, which is abundant near the
Himalayan station of Darjiling, at ele\'ations of from about five thou.sand to eight
thousand feet above the sea-level, " inhabits the deep bed of black vegetable mould
found wherever the original forest has not been destroj'ed. This mould contains
earth-worms and larvae of insects, the chief food of moles, iu abundance. Jerdon
noticed that the runs of T. micrura often proceeded from the base of one great oak
to that of another. Such runs are not marked by mole-hills, as in the case of the
European species."

Fossil moles are found throughout the Tertiary strata of Europe
from the Upper Eocene deposits of Central France. As far down as
the succeeding Lower Miocene beds these extinct species seem to belong to the
existing genus Taljja, but the L'pper Eocene species, on account of the arm-bone
(humerus) being rather less expanded, has been regarded as representing a distinct
genus, Protalpa. The occurrence of these Tertiary moles is interesting, as they
show how extremely ancient must be the insectivorous tj^pe of Mammals, since even
at those earlj^ epochs the remarkable peculiarities di.stinctive of the skeletons of
the existing members of the group had already attained their nearly complete
development.
YeUowTaUed Our notice of the Mole family may conclude by a reference to the

Mole. yellow-tailed mole (Scaptonyx fitscicaudatus) of Eastern Tibet. This
mole, which has only two pairs of lower incisor teeth, and consequently but forty-
two teeth altogether, differs from the time moles in the considerably lesser width of
the fore-feet, and thus approaches the mole-shrews noticed on p. 334.

340 INSECTIVORES.

The Teneecs.

Family CenteTIDM.

Witli the curious-looking animal represented in the figure on the next page,
we reach the first member of a group of Insectivores, comprising four families,
which (litter from all those yet noticed in the characters of their upper molar teeth.
In all the preceding families the upper molar teeth have broad crowns, with their
cusps arranged somewhat in the form of the letter W. On the other hand, in
all those remaining for consideration, the crowns of these teeth are narrow, and
carry on their crowns only thi'ee cusjjs, arranged in the form of
the letter V. These cusps, or tubercles, thus form a triangle, with
the apex directed inwardly ; and this tj'pe of molar tooth, of which
an example is represented in the accompanying illustration, is
consequently known as the tritubercular. It may seem that such
cRowNscRFACE OF r^ point of dlstinctlou is of comparatively slight importance. Such,

AN UPPER MOLAR , . , ^, ■ " ±^ i J- 1

oFTHETRiTUBER- howcver, IS Dy no means the case, smce the researches or palseon-
coLAR TYPE. tologists have shown that nearly all the earlier Mammals had these

tritubercular molar teeth, from which we infer that JIammals still
retaining them in their primitive form belong to an extremelj- ancient stock.

From this and other structui-al peculiarities it may be taken as certain that
the Insectivores of the present and three following families belong to a much lower
type of organisation than those already mentioned. And this is bome out in a
remarkable manner by their geographical disti-ibution. Africa, and more especially
Madagascar, are charactei'ised by the number of Mammals belonging to ancient and
primitive types still living there, as is well exemplified by the host of lemurs
found in Madagascar. Now of the Insectivores with tritubercular molar teeth,
tlie present and largest family is restricted to Madagascar and a few of the
neighbouring islands ; a second is found both in Madagascar and Africa ; the third
is solely African : while tlie fourth is confined to the West Indies — a region also
peculiar for the ancient tyj)es of its few Mammals. The whole of the tenrecs,
which as already mentioned are confined to Madagascar and a few small islands in
the vicinity, are characterised by their long skulls, which are not constricted
between the eyes, and have no zygomatic arch below the socket for the eye to
connect the upper jaw with the region of tlie ear, while tlie so-called tjmipanic
bulla is in the form of a simple ring.

The CoiiMON Texrec.

Genus Centetes.

This animal, which is the one represented in the illustration on p. 341, is
readily recognised by its comparatively large size, and the total absence of a tail.
It is the sole representative of its genus, and, from the feature last mentioned, is
technically known by the name of Centetes ecaudatus. Adult males attain a length
of upwards of IG inches, and are thus the largest of all Insectivores. The body is

TENRECS.

541

covered with a mixture of flexible spines, bristles, and hairs : but whereas in the
young the former are arranged in longitudinal lines down the back, in the fully
adult state they ai-e restricted to a kind of collar round the upjDer side of the neck.
Both spines, bristles, and hair are yellowish or whitish towards the tips, and
brown near the middle, so that the general colour of the head and body is a kind
of yellowish-brown. When fully adult, the tenrec has 40 teeth, of which on each
side § are incisors, \ canines, and ^ cheek-teeth. The tusks, or canines, of the
males are very long and shai-p, and would be capable of inflicting a severe wound.
The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the dentition relates, however, to
the upper cheek-teeth, and has only quite recently been discovered by Mr. O.
Thomas. Thus in a middle-aged tenrec it will be found that there are six cheek-

-i r.^.^^-^'V^

THE TENKEC (J uat. size).

teeth behind the canine on each side of both jaws ; thi-ee of these belonging to
the premolars, or those preceded by milk-teeth, and three to the molar series,
which have no such predecessors. Very late in life, however, a small fourth molar
appeai-s in the upper jaw behind the other tlu-ee. Considering that no other
Mammals witli teeth divided into distinct series, have four upper molars as a
noi-mal condition, except Marsupials, and one peculiar kind of dog, this is a verj-
remarkable circumstance. Taken, indeed, in conjunction with the fact that both
the tenrec and the carnivorous Marsupials have tritubercular molar teeth, while
the skulls of both have certain very remarkable resemblances, this feature in the
dentition renders it prettj^ certain that of all living Mammals the tenrec is the
one which is most nearly related to the Marsupials of Australia and America.
Further collateral evidence of this relationship is, perhaps, aflbrded by the circum-
stance that the tenrec produces a large number of young at a birth ; although in
this respect it even exceeds the Marsupials, an instance being recorded when as

342

INSECTIVORES.

many as twenty-one young were brought forth at a siingle birth, fifteen or sixteen
being the common number.

Owing to its strictly nocturnal habits, our acquaintance with the

H&bits o t '1

mode of life of the tenrec is by no means so intimate as could be
wished. It appears, however, that these animals are chiefly found in the mountains
of Madagascar, where thej' inhabit low covert formed by fems and bushes. Earth-
worms form a large proportion of their diet, which is, however, estensivelj' sup-
plemented bj^ insects ; and it would seem that the worms and insects are rooted
out from their holes and hiding-places by the aid of the flexible snout with which
the tenrec is furnished. During the cooler season of the j'ear the tenrecs hibernate
for a long period, burrowing deep holes in the ground about May or June, from
which tliey do not emerge till the following December. Whether this is to avoid a
season of drought, when their natural food is difficult to procure, we are unaware.
Like other animals, which enjoy a periodical rest, the tenrecs at the commencement
of their hibernation are in a fat condition, and are then much sought after by the
natives of Madagascar as an article of food : the whei-eabouts of their burrows being
u.sually revealed bv the heap of dirt or debris covering the entrance.

The Streaked Tenrec.
Genus Hemicentetes.

The streaked tenrec {Hemicentetes semispinosus), together with a second neai'ly
allied species {H. n igriceps), represent a genus distinguished from the preceding
by having three, instead of two, upper incisor teeth, and probably only three upper
molars ; as well as by certain peculiarities in the structure of the skull, and the
smaller size of the canine teeth, which are scarcely larger than the incisoi-s, and
cannot properly be termed tusks.

The streaked tenrec is an animal of about the size of the common mole, and
derives its name fi-om the streaks of black and j-ellow with which the body is
ornamented. In this and the allied species the longitudinal rows of spines on the
back, which disapjjear in the adult of the common tenrec, are retained throughout
life.

The Hedgehog- Tlie little animals known as hedgehog-tenrecs, are so like small

Tenrecs. liedgehogs in general appearance that they might be readily taken
for members of the same famil}^ Like hedgehogs, they have the whole of the
upper surface and sides of the body covered with short, particoloured bristles;
and they are also furnished with a short tail. Of more importance as a generic
character, is the circumstance that there are only two incisor teeth on each side
of both the upper and lower jaw. Although it is probable that these animals can
to a cei-tain extent roll themselves up into a ball, yet from the feeble development
of the layer of muscle beneath the skin. Dr. Dobson is of opinion that this cannot
be done so completely as in the case with the hedgehogs. Since it cannot be
considered that the hedgehog-tenrecs are in any way nearly related to the hedge-
hogs, it is somewhat remarkable that both should have developed such exactly
similar spines, which are used for defensive purposes in the same manner. The

SOLENODONS. 343

common hedgeTiog-tenrec (Ericulus setosiis) is about two-thirds the size of the
European hedgehog, and has thirty -six teeth. Telfair's hedgehog -tenrec (E.
telfairi) is considerably smaller, with only thirty-four teeth, owing to the absence
of the first pair of premolars in the upper jaw.

The Long-TaUed Two small mouse-like animals from Madagascar, each having

Tenrecs. forty teeth, aYe distinguished from all the preceding members of the
family by the absence oi spines mingled with the fur, and also by the great length
of the tail. In one of the species {Microgale longicaudatci) the length of the tail is
double that of the head and body — a proportion only equalled among the pangolins.
Of the 40 teeth, § are incisors, }- canines, and g cheek-teeth on either side.

The Rice- The last members of the Centetidce are the two small mole-like

Tenrecs. animals known as rice-tenrecs, distinguished by the extreme shortness
of their tails, and likewise by their burrowing haljits. The four-toed rice tenrec
(Oryzorictes tetradactyla) is peculiar in having but four toes on the fore-feet, of
which the three innermost ones are armed with powerful claws for digging. The
second species (0. hovu) has five front toes, but both agree in having long, trunk-
like snouts. These animals are a great pest to the agriculturists of Madagascar,
owing to the damage they inflict on the rice crops by burrowing in tlu; earth
beneath the young plants in search of worms and insects.

The Solenodon.s.
Family SoLEXODOXTID.-E.

Strange as it may seem that the nearest relatives of the tenrecs of Madagascar
should be found in a region so far removed frcjm that island as the West Indies, yet
it appears that the two solenodons really occupy this position ; although in the
form of the incisor, canine, and premolar teutli they approximate, very closely to
the desmans (p. 333).

They have a total of forty teeth, corresponding serially with those of the long-
tailed tenrecs: and they are distinguished from the Ccntetida by the circumstance
that the skull is somewhat narrowed between the eyes, and also by the mannnaj
being entirely confined to the region of the groin, instead of extending on to the
breast, as in all other members of the order. The snout is long, cylindrical, and
trunk-like, with the no.strils situated on each side of its extremity ; the tail naked,
cylindrical, and of considerable length : and the toes, especially those of the foi-e-
feet, are armed with powerful curved claw.s. The fur covering the bod}^ is long
and coarse. The Haytian solenodon (Solevodon jxiradoxus) is restricted to the
island of Hayti, and was the first known of the two species. It may be compared
in size to a small rabbit, the head and body measuring about 12 inches, and the
tail about 8. The head and upper-parts are brown, becoming blackish behind
and on the thighs ; while the sides of the head and under-parts ai-e lighter in
colour.

The Cuban solenodon (S. ciibcmus), is distinguished by the whole of the head,
neck, and chest being tawny, or yellowish, while the remainder of the upper part
and sides of the body is dark blackish-brown. The nature of the fur is also some-

344

INSECTIVORES.

what ditferent from that of B. jxiradoxus. It is found in the mountains of the
southern and western portions of the island from wliich it takes its name, and it
issues forth from its diurnal resting-place during the late afternoon and early
evening, to spend the night iu search of food. From the readiness with which,
when in captivity, it will tear in pieces meat that is ofl'ered to it, it may be inferred
that in the wild state its food is not restricted to insects.

V *.,.»/ f r* </ ,*

THE CUBAN SOLEXODON (} nat. size).

The POTAliIOGALE.

Family POTAUOGALID^.

The curious aquatic Insectivore from West Africa, discovered by Du Chaillu.
and named Ijy him Potamogale, differs so much from all other members of the order
that, like the solenodons, it forms the representative of a distinct family. P. velox
may be recognised by its otter -like form, and long laterally compressed tail,
passing almost imperceptibly into the body. In size it is rather large for an
Insectivore, the length of the head and body being 11 inches, and that of the
tail nearly the same. It has a total of forty teeth, which have the same serial
arrangement as in the long-tailed tenrecs, and are placed very near together. The
head is characterised by the great width of the broad muzzle, which is provided
with a number of large bristles, and has its nostrils closed bj' valves. The body is
long and cjdindrical, and the limbs are short, with the toes not connected together
by webs. The bodj- is covered with a coarse outer coat of long hairs and an inner
one of a finer and softer nature : the colour of the upper-parts being dark brown,
while the under-pai-ts are whitish. In certain lights, however, the dark portion
of the pelage is shot with a purplish metallic tint. The skeleton of the potamogale

GOLDEN MOLES.

345

vN *^

/

difFei-s from that of all other Insectivores, except, probably, that of the under-
mentioned geogale, by the total absence of collar-bones.

Habits. "^^^ compressed tail becoming cylindrical at its base to join the

body, together with the presence of valves to close the nostrils, would
alone suffice to indicate the aquatic habits of this curious creature. In addition,
we have, however, the direct

testimony of Du Chaillu, who ===£|!8^*>i=-

observes that the potamogale "is = -^~— " ^^"^ ^= _

found along the water-courses of
limpid and clear streams, where
fish ai-e abundant. It hides under
I'ocks along these streams, lj"ing
in wait for tish. It swims through
the water with a rapidity whicli
astonished me : before the fi.sli
has time to move it is caught
On account of the rapidity of its
movements I have given it tlie
sjiecitic name of vdox. The
animal retuni.s to land with its
prey almost as rapidly as it

started from its place of concealment. The great motive-power of the animal in
the water seems to be in its tail."

Probably more or less closely allied to the potamogale is a small
mouse-like Insectivore from Madagascar, de.scribed under the name of
Geogale. Thi.s creature has thirty-four teeth, which resemble in fonn those of the
potamogale, but our information is at present insufficient to render us certain as to
its fuU affinities.

THE POTASIOGAUE (J nat. size).— After Allman.

Geogale.

The Golden Mole.s.
Family Chrysocelouibm.

The golden or Cape moles, constituting the genus Chrysochloris, are so different
from all other Insectivores of this group that thej^ are referred to a distinct family.
They are entirely confined to South Africa, where they are represented by about
seven species, and are commonh' termed moles by the colonists.

The skull of the golden mole differs from that of the tenrec in possessing a
distinct zygomatic arch below the socket for the eye, and also in that its tjTupanic
bulla is bladder-like. In appearance these animals have some resemblance to the
moles, but they have shorter and thicker bodies, with a deeper head and blunter
snout. The whole fonn is, however, admirably adapted for tunnelling through
the ground : since the eyes are totally covered beneath the hairy skin, and the
minute ears are deeply buried in the fur. While the hind-feet retain a normal
foi-m, the fore-feet have been specially modified for the purpose of digging, having
only four toes, of which the two central ones are furnished with enormous triangular
claws of gi-eat power. The more typical species have altogether forty teeth, but

346 INSECTIVORES.

in others the number is reduced to tliirty-eight, owing to the loss of the first pair
of premolai-s in each jaw. The molar teeth have very taU crowns. The golden
moles derive both their popular and scientific names from the brilliant metallic
lustre of the fur, which shows various tints of green, violet, or golden bronze ;
the brilliancy of these metallic hues being much intensified when the skin is
immersed in spirit.

The mns are made so near the .surface of the ground that the
earth is raised above the tunnel, which can accordingly be followed
with ease in all directions. When one of the moles is seen to be at work, owintr to
the movements of the soil, it can readily be thrown up on to the surface by the aid
of a stick or spade. The food of the golden moles consists mainly of eaith-woi-ms.
The nearest relatives of the golden moles appear to be the tenrecs, while the
ordinarv moles are closelv allied to the shrews ; and it is thus interesting to find
two widely dificrent gi-oups of animals modified for a similar kind of subterranean
life. This modification lias, however, by no means followed tlie same lines in the
two groups, for not onlj- do the skeletons of the golden and true moles difier con-
siderably from one another, but there is a still more marked diflerence in the foi-m
and structure of the fore-foot. Thus, whereas the fore-foot of the true mole has
assumed the well-known hand-like form, with an additional sickle-like bone near
the thumb, that of the golden mole, as we have just seen, is of a totally different
type, the power of digging being mainly due to the enormous homy claws of its
two middle fingers.

»t

5^^-^5:i^

LIOX AND LIONESS.

SKELETON OF TIGER.

CHAPTER XIII.

The Carnivores, — Order Carnivora.

The Cat-Tribe.

Family Felid^-e.

UxDER tlie common title of Carnivores, or Flesh-eaters, zoologists ineluile all the
members of that extensive assemblage of placental ^ Mammals, comprising cats,
civets, hyaenas, dogs, bears, weasels, etc., together with their aquatic allies the seals
and walruse.s. The name refers to their most distinctive habit, that of subsisting
on the flesh of other animals ; but it must by no means be assumed that all
Carnivores are entirely or even chiefly flesh-eaters, the bears being notable
exceptions. Neither must it be assumed, on the other hand, that the Carnivores
are the sole flesh-eating Mammals : since, as we have seen, manj^ of the Lemurs
and Insectivores will eat the flesh of other Vertebrates, while one group of Mar-
supials is almost exclusively carnivorous. With the exception of the members of
the last-named group, which are otherwise broadly distinguished, there is, however,
no assemblage of Mammals which is so generalh' carnivorous as the present one,
and accordinglj!' the name by which it is designated is the most appropriate that
could have been selected.

' The term " placental " refers to the circumstance that the emhryos of the higher Mammals are connected during
intra-uterine life with the body of the female parent by means of an organ called the placenta, through which the
blood of the parent communicates with that of the offspring. The Marsupials have no such connection.

350 CARNIVORES.

There has been a considei-able amount of — more or less unprofitable — discussion
as to whether the Carnivores, or Apes and Monkej's, are entitled to occupy the
liichest place amon<r Mammals. Puttinjr man on one side, there can, however, be
but little doubt that, for their particular mode of life, the higher Carnivores, both
as regards their bodily stnicture and their brain power are fully as highlj-
organised as the Apes ; and to say that the one group is higher or lower than the
other is thus practically an impossibility. A more just view is to compare the
Carnivores and the Primates with two trees of different kinds, each of which has
attained practically the same height, and bears fruit and flowei-s of an equally
perfect development.

Had we to deal only with the existing fonns of the animal kingdom, and if
the seals and walruses were excluded (as is done by some zoologists) fr'om the
Carnivores, tliere would be no great difficulty in giving a short and concise defini-
tion which would at once distinguish the order fi-om all the others. The seals and
walruses difier, however, so markedly in the charactei-s of their teeth, as well as in
many other structural points, from the more typical Carnivores, while a number
of extinct forms appear to connect the latter on the one hand with the Insectivores,
and on the other with the Mareupials, that any such concise definition is impossible.

Among the characteristics common to all Carnivores, whether teri'estrial or
aquatic, the following are some of the most important. In all cases the toes are
provided with claws, which are very generally shai-p and curved, with no resem-
blance to nails. Then, again, the number of complete toes is never less than four
to each foot, aud is frequently- five. And in no case is the first toe capable of being
opposed to the other digits ; so that a Carnivore can in no sense be said to have a
hand in the popular acceptation of that term.

The teeth, in confonnitj- with the flesh-eating habits of the great majority of
the members of the order, are generall}' large and well developed ; and are always
divisible into incisors, tusks or canines, and cheek-teeth. As a general rule, the
incisor teeth are three in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaws,
and in no case do they exceed this number : ^ while the third or outermost of these
three incisors is always larger than either of the othei's, more especially in the
upper jaw. The tusks are large, and adapted for seizing and retaining the prey of
these animals. The diflerent families of the order show a considerable divereity
in the form and structure of the cheek-teeth ; but, as a general rule, the more
anterior of these teeth have sharp and more or less compressed cro\\"ns, while verj-
frequently, as will be explained later on, one pair of teeth in each jaw is specially
modified to bite with a scissor-like action against an opposing pair in the opposite
jaw. Moreover, in such Carnivores as have the crowns of the molar teeth
flattened and expanded, these cro\vns are not divided into distinct portions by
infoldings of the enamel, as we shall find to be so frequently the case with those
of the Rodents.

The most distinctive feature of the skull of the Carnivores is to be found ia
the mode of articulation of the lower jaw ; the condyle, or projecting process by
which the latter hinges on to the skull proper, taking the form of a half-cylinder,
elongated in the transverse direction. This half-cylinder is received into a similarly

1 The Marsupial Carnivores never have less than four pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 351

shaped hollow — the glenoid cavity — iu the skull, bounded by overhanging edges.
In consequence of this arrangement, the motion of the lower jaw of a Carnivore is
strictly limited to an up-and-down direction ; thus allowing onlj- of a bitinc or
snapping action, and not permitting that rotator}^ or backwards-and-forwards
movement found in so many other Mannnals. The interlocking of the lower jaw
with the skull is most marked in the badgei-s.

A less impoi-tant feature of the carnivorous skull is to be found in the circum-
stance that iu the great majorit}' of instances tlie orbit, or the cavity for the ej'e, is
not bounded posteriorly by a bar of bone so as to form a complete ring, but com-
municates freely with the greatlj' elongated hollow on the side of the skull which
contains the powerful muscles for M-orking the jaws. Occasionally-, however, as in
some cats and the ichneumons, the eye-socket is completely surrounded by a bony
ring ; and a process at tlie back of the upper part of the cavity for the eye always
marks the posterior limit of that cavity. More constant is the presence of a
strong zj-gomatic arch bounding the inferior border of the .socket of the eye, and
connecting the ujiper jaw with the region of the ear.

An import;ant feature distinguishing the skeleton of a Carnivore from that of
an Insectivore (with the exception of the potamogale) is that the collar-bones or
clavicles are frequently absent, and when present are never complete ; that is to
say, that instead of each collar-bone forming a bar to connect the shoulder-blade
with the breast-bone, as in ourselves, when it exists at all it merely forms a little
splint of bone embedded in the muscles of the chest between these two point.s.

Two other features in regard to the skeleton must not be overlooked, since
they are ^f some help in distinguishing between Carnivores and Insectivore-s. In
man}^ of the latter, as sliown in the figure of the skeleton on p. 332, the two bones
of the fore-arm (radius and ulna), and of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are
respectively united together, whereas in aU the former they are completely
separate. In the fore-limb this separation of the two bones is essential in order to
permit of the free use of the paw. A characteristic of the wrist-joint of all
Carnivores is that two of the bones of the upper row, respectively known as
the scaphoid and the lunar, are completely welded together : and it maj^ be added
that the central bone, which we have seen exists in all the lower Primates, is
invariably absent. Another feature distinguishing the Carnivores from the
Insectivores is to be found in the well-marked convolutions on tlie upper surface
of the lobes of the brain, which is indicative of a far higher degree of mental
power.

With the exception of Australia and Xew Zealand, Carnivores are distributed
over all the continents and larger islands of the globe, ranging from the icy ocean
of the Ai-ctic circle to the tropical plains of Africa and India; but while some
of the families, like the cats and dogs, have a distribution almost coextensive
with that of the order, others, like the civets and hyeenas, are much more
restricted in their range. Exclusive of the larger Man-like Apes, the Carnivores
include the largest of the so-called Unguiculate Mammals, that is, those in which
the toes are furnished with daws or nails, iu contradistinction to hoofs. As is
usually the case, the largest representatives of the order are to be found in the
aquatic section, where we have the walrus and elephant-seal. Among the terres-

352

CARNIVORES.

trial Carnivores the largest species are to be found in the warmer parts of the
globe, although the bears form, to a certain extent, an exception to this rule. The
more typical and purely carnivorous terrestrial members of the order, which, as a
general rule, subsist on the flesh of animals killed by themselves, are characterised
by the elegance and neatness of their build, and their bodily strength and activity,
as well as by the fierceness of their disposition.

The terrestrial, or, as they are often called, in allusion to their free toes, the
Fissipede Cai-nivores, are, as a rale, adapted for a life on land, although some fonns,
like the otters, pass a large portion of their time in the water. In no instance,
however, are their fore-limbs modified so as to assume the fomi of flippers, neither
do their hind-limbs ever present the peculiar structure characteristic of those of
the seals, being, on tlie contrary, invariabty suited for walking with ease on the
ground. Of more importance, however, is the .stracture of the teeth of the land

Carnivores. In the
first place, the pre-
sence of three
pairs of incisor
teeth in both the
upper and the lower
jaw is an extremely
constant feature.
Then, again, in-
stead of the uni-
formity pervading
the whole series of
cheek-teeth, which
we shall find to be
characteristic of
the seals and their
allies, the cheek-
teeth of the teiTes-
trial Carnivores of

the present epoch are distinguished by having one of their number on each
side of both the upper and the lower jaw modified in a special manner so as
to bite against one another in a more or less markedly scissor-like fashion. The
tooth in the upper jaw thus specially modified is the last of those wliich have
milk, or deciduous predecessors, and is thus the fourth of the premolar series in
those species where four of those teeth are developed. This is shown in the
accompanying figure of the skull of the fox, where the fourth upper tooth (pi7i.4)
behind the tusk is the one specially modified. In the lower jaw, however,
in those forms which have the full number of teeth, it is the fifth tooth (//J.l)
behind the tusk which bites against the specially modified tooth in the upper jaw,
as shown in the same figure. This modified lower tooth, which has no deciduous
milk predecessor, is thus the first of the molar series. To these two pairs of modified
teeth is applied the name oi flesh-ieeth, as being those specially adapted for cutting
the flesh of the \dctims of the terrestrial Carnivores. The upper flesh-tooth, as

SIDE VIEW OK THE SKULL OP THE COMMON FOX.

To show the nature of the teeth of a Carnivore. The upper flesh-tooth is lettered
pmA, and the lower flesh-tooth m.\. (From Proc. Zool. Soc. — After Huxley.)

CAT TRIBE.

353

OUTER (a) and oral (b) ASPECTS OF THK KIGHT
UPrEK FLESH-TOOTH OF THE STRrPED HYiXA.

exemplified in that of the striped hysena represented in the accompanj^ing woodcut,
consists of an outer blade, and of a strong tubercle on the inner side. The blade, as
in the figured specimen, may consist of three
lobes, or as in the dogs and civets, of only
two such lobes, which bite on the outer
side of the lower flesh-tooth, in a manner
well known to all who have ever examined
the skull of a tiger, lion, dog, etc. The lower
flesh-tooth, of which an example is repre-
sented in the next figure, likewise has a
larffe cuttinsr-blade on the outer side of its
front portion, wliich is invariably divided
into two distinct lobes, of which the second
is generally the tiiller. In the more general-
ised Carnivores, such as the dogs, the second lobe of the blade of this tooth has a
small cusp (c) on its inner side ; wliile posteriorly the tooth is extended in the
form of a long heel (rf). The lower flesh-tooth of the more specialised forms, such
as the hyfenas and ctits, consists, however, only of the two-lobed blades, with or
without a minute inner ^ i

cusp and a small hind
ledge representing the
heeL

Under the general
title of cats it is fonml
convenient to include all
the li\-ing representatives
of the extensive family of
the Felklcc, the whole of
which, with the single
exception of the hunting-
leopard, are classed in the
genus Fells. In this .sen.se

lions, tigers, leopards, jaguars, pumas, Ij-nxes, and the smaller species more nearly
allied to the domestic cat, are all designated Cats.

The members of the Cat family may be regarded as the ideal representatives
of the Carnivores, being those most completely adapted in all parts of their stnicture
for the pui-suit and destruction of living prey. Their long, lithe bodies exhibit in
its fullest perfection the combination of strength and agility distinctive of Carni-
vores in general ; while their strength is so great that the larger species are enabled
to kill and drag away animals of far greater bulk than their own.

The essential characteristics of the living cats are to be found in the extreme
shortness of their muzzles ; in the reduction of the number of their teeth far below
that in the more generalised Carnivores, such as the dogs ; in the powerful develop-
ment of their tusks and flesh-teeth ; and in their strongly curved and retractile
claws, as well as in the free and supple movements of their fore-paws. Omitting
mention of certain features distinctive of the skulls of the cats and their nearest

VOL. I. 23

OUTER (a) and rS->-ER (b) ASPECTS OP THE BIGHT LOWER FLESH-TOOTH OF

AN EXTINCT DOG-TJKE CABNIVOBE.

a, b, first and second lobes of the blades ; c inner cusp of do. ; d, heel.

—After Kittl.

354 CARNIVORES.

allies, as requiring a considerable amount of special knowledge of osteology, we
may particularise somewhat more fuUy the leading characteristics of the cats
of the present day. And we say those of the present day advisedly, since the
researches of palajontologists have now brought to light the remains of a large
number of Carnivores, many of which, although they must undoubtedly be called
cats, differ from the existing species bj' the gi-eater number of their teeth, as well
as by many other structural peculiarities, so as to render it difficult to draw any
well-marked distinction between cats and civets.

We may fii-st of all notice that, as a general inile, the}' have 30 teeth, of which
§ are incisors, \ canines, \ premolai-s, and \ molare. Occasionally, however, there
may be onlj^ 2 premolars on each side of the uj)per jaw, thus i-educing the total
number of teeth to 28. Thus a cat has at most only three or four cheek-teeth on
each side of the upper jaw, of which the last but one is the flesh-tooth : while in
the lower jaw there are but tlu-ee of these teeth, of wliich the last is the flesh-tootli.
The upper flesh-tooth is of the same general tj^e as that of the hytena's tooth
shown in the woodcut on p. 353 : its blade consisting of tlu-ee distinct cutting-lobes,
and usually ha\-ing a distinct tubercle on the inner .side, although this tubercle is
always smaller than in the hyaenas, and may be wanting. The lower flesh-tooth is
also of the .same general type as that of the hya?nas (of which an example will be
found figured under the head of that group), and consists only of the two-lol>ed
blade, without any ti-ace of the inner cusp or hinder heel, which form such import-
ant elements in the corresponding teeth of the dogs and civets. The flesh-teeth of
the cats have, indeed, lost the whole of those elements which are adapted for
masticating or bruising food, and are reduced simplj- to the condition of cuttei-s.
Moreover, the single molar remaining in the upper jaw is of such small size that it
can be of but Uttle, if any, use as a masticating agent ; and we accordingly find
that the dentition of the cats is adapted solely for seizing their prey, and sulj-
sequently devouring it by cutting oft" the flesh from the bones by the scissor-like
action of the flesh-teeth. Any pei-son who has watched a domestic cat eating a
piece of meat, or who has observed a captive lion or tiger shearing off huge
morsels from its allotted meal, will fully underatand the mode of action of these
teetL In aU cats the tusks, or canines, are very long and strong, and frequentl}^
have their hinder border forming a sharp cutting edge, bj' which their rending
power is of course much increased. An important feature distinguishing the lower
incisor teeth of the cats from those of all other Caraivores is to be found in tlie
circumstance that the whole series of six are placed in the same straight transvei-se
line, whereas in other Camivoi'es the second pair of these teeth is thrust up above
the level of those on either side.

The fore-feet of all the cats are proNaded with five toes each, whereas the hind-
feet have but four toes. The claws in wliich these toes tei-minate are invaiiably
curved and sharp, and, with the single exception of the hunting-leopard, can be
completely retracted within sheaths for their protection when not in use. The
mechanism of the retraction of the claws is due to the peculiar shape of the terminal
joints of the toes, and the mode by wliich thej' are articulated to the second joints.
Thus the terminal joint of each toe has the broad sickle-like foiTa of the homy claw
which it supports, and it is articulated to the end of the second or preceding joint

CAT TRIBE. 355

only by the lower portion of its vertically expanded base. From the end of the
second joint there runs a ligament to be inserted on the upper side of the base of
the tei-minal joint, the ordinary action of which is to draw back the whole claw
upon the upper surface of the second joint, when it becomes nearly concealed within
its projecting sheath. To the under-side of the base of the tei-minal joint there is,
however, inserted the end of a long tendon coming from one of the so-called flexor
muscles of the fore-leg. When the animal springs upon its prey the paw, in the
act of striking, is sharply bent upon the wrist by the action of these flexor muscles,
the result of which is to pull downwards tlie terminal joints of the toes, and thus
to fully expose the claws. In order to keep their claws in good condition, most
cats — from tlie tiger downwards to the domestic cat — are in the habit of drawing
them down the bark of ti-ees, whereby they are rendered sharp and clean.

All the species of cats walk solelj' upon their toes, and are hence termed
digitigrade ; the hinder part of the foot being entirely raised from the gi'ound to
foi-m a continuation of the leg. This mode of progression indicates a higher
specialisation than the so-called plantigrade mode of walking, in which, as exem-
plified by the bears, the whole of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground.
Formerly the distinction between digitigrade and plantigrade Carnivoi-es was
regarded as an important one in classiHcation, but it is now known that nearly
allied groups vary greatlj^ in this i-espect, and that the character is a purely adaptive
one. It has been already mentioned that the fore-feet of the cats are furnished with
five toes. The innermost toe, corresponding to the human thumb, is, however,
placed at a much liigher level than the other four toes, and is consequently of no
use in walking. The missing toe in the hind-foot corresponds to the human great
toe. The .stealthy walk characteristic of all the cats is due to the soft cushions, or
pads, on the uuder-surface of the feet ; each toe having a separate pad, behind which
is a large pad occupying the middle of the sole of the foot. The fore-foot is thus
furnished with six, and the hind-foot with five foot-pads. There is, however, on
the fore-limb an additional pad on the outer side of the palmar aspect of the meta-
carpus. The impression, or spoor, of a cat's foot always shows the form and
number of the pads, and it sliould be particularly noticed that in such impressions
there is no mark of the claws, which in walking are completely retracted. This
aSbrds a ready means of distinguishing between the track of a cat and a dog.

In order to enable them to lick oft" the meat from the bones, and perhaps also
to aid in cleaning their beautiful fur, the tongues of all the cats are furnished with
a number of flat processes, or papillae, which are inclined backwai'ds, and enable
the tongue to act as a most effective x-asp. In this respect cats again differ very
markedly from dogs, in which the tongue is quite smooth : and it is probable that
this difference may be accounted for by the fact that the teeth of the dogs are
adapted for cracking and breaking bones, which are then swallowed ; while those
of the cats are not suited for this pui-pose, and the bones of their prey are conse-
quently licked clean and left.

The fur of most members of the cat tribe is usually short, and of even length
over the entire body : but the male lion is an exception in this respect, owing to
the development of the large masses of long hair on the neck and shoulders. Such
species as dwell in cold climates, like the ounce, have, however, much longer fur ;

3s6 CARNIVORES.

and it is noteworthy that when a species, like the tiger, inhabits both hot and cold
regions, the length of the fur varies according to the climate.

Very characteristic of all the cats are the long bristle-like hairs, commonly
known as " whiskers," but technically designated " vibrissfe," fringing the muzzle.
These hairs are provided with special nerves, and act as delicate organs of jaercep-
tion to aid the animals in finding their way, and detecting objects during their
noctunial wanderings. In correlation with these nocturnal habits the eyes of the
cats are large and full, and their " pupils " can be altered largeh- in size by the
contraction or expansion of the iris, according to the amount of light they have
to receive. In most of these animals the ears are short and rounded at the tips,
but in the lynxes, and some allied species, they are elongated by the addition of
pencils of long hairs to their tips. The tail in the majority of cats is long, cylin-
drical, and capable of peculiar snake-like moments ; these movements being brought
into play when the animals are excited or in pursuit of their prey. In some of the
smaller typical cats, and in all the lynxes, the tail is, however, relatively shoi-t ;
while in the lion it is furnished with a large brush of hairs at the tip.

The usual coloration of the members of the cat tribe takes the foiin of dark
spots or stripes on a lighter ground : the ground-colour generally varying from
shades of grey through tawny to yellowish or orange. The spots maj' be either
simple, or in the form of rings or rosettes enclosing an area of darker tint than the
general ground-colour of the fur. From these ringed spots there is a gradual
transition, as is well displaj-ed in the marbled tiger-cat, to stripes, which are gener-
ally more or less vertical, and assume the most regular development in the tiger.
In a few species, however, such as the lion and the puma, the entire coloration is
ta\vny ; but even then traces of spots may often be detected in certain lights, while
the young are invariably spotted. From this it may be inferred that the uniform
tawny coloration of such species is an acquired character — probabl}' originally
adapted to the desert-haunting habits of the species in which it occurs — and that
all the cats were primitively either spotted or striped. A black colour among
the wild members of the family is of comparatively rare occurrence, but it is met
with among the leopards, and in certain other species.

In point of size, the members of the cat tribe present a greater degi-ee of
variation than is found in anj^ other family of Carnivores ; the larger species, like
the tiger and lion, being only equalled in bulk bj- some of the bears, while the
smallest member of the family — the rusty-spotted cat of India — is inferior in
dimensions to the common domestic cat.

The total number of living species of the genus Felis may probably be reckoned
at or about forty-one : and these have a distribution in space nearly coextensive
with that of the entire order of Carnivores. They do not, however, extend so far
northwards as do the bears and the dog family ; and thej^ are totally unknown
in the Island of Madagascar. The greater number of species — more especially those
of large size — are found chiefly in the tropical and subtropical regions of the globe ;
but the ev-idence of geology proves that the geograjDhical range of some of these
species was much more extensive at an earlier period than is the case at the present
time. In respect of diet, the cats are purely carnivorous, and although when pressed
by hunger some of them are known to eat the flesh of any dead animals they may

LION. 357

come across, as a normal rule thej' kill their own prey. This is ahvaj-s effected by
cautious stalking, followed by a sudilen final rush : and, although it is said that two
or more lions will occasionallj- combine to drive game in a given direction, when it
can be seized by another member of the party, the cats almost invariably pui-sue
their prey alone. The general antipathy of the cat tribe to water is proverbial, but
in the swampj- sandarbans of Lower Bengal, the tiger has often been observed
swimming from one marshy island to another ; and the fishing cat of India largely
subsists on fresh-water fish captured by itself.

The Liox (Felis led).

Till well on in the present centurj* the title of " King of Beasts " was almost
universall}- bestowed upon the lion b}- writers on natural historj^, on account of its
generally majestic appearance, and the assumed nobility and fierceness of its
character. Of late years, liowever, there has been a strong tendcncj^ on the part of
those who have had the best opportunities of observing the animal in its native
haunts, to depose the lion from the proud position it had so long occupied. The
reasons for this change of view appear to be that when roaming abroad by daylight
the lion, as Mr. F. C. Selous, tlie well-known African hunter, informs us, does not
cany his head so high up as he ought to do in order to be entitled to the epithet
majestic : while his disposition, instead of being noble and fearless, is considered by
Livingstone and other writei-s to be more correctly described as cowardly and mean.
Although it is impossible to doubt the accuracy of such observations as to its tnie
character, yet the magnificent proportions of the animal, coupled with the splendid
mane decorating the head and chest of the males, render the lion bj' far the most
striking in appearance of tiie whole of the Cat tribe, and, indeed, of all the
Carnivores.

In common with the other large cats of the Old World, the lion has the pupil
of the eye circular ; but it is at once distinguished from all the other members of
the familj' by the long hair growing on the head, neck, and shoulders of the males
to form the flowing mane. This mane varies considerably in size and colour in
difterent individuals, but, contrarj' to what has often been stated, is present in
Indian as well as in African lions. Frequently, although by no means invariablj^
the long hair of the mane is continued as a fringe down the middle line of the
belly. Another distinctive characteristic of the male lion is the bnish of long
hair at the tip of the tail. In the middle of this brush of hair, at the very
extremity of the tail, is a small homy appendage surrounded by a tuft. Much
writing has been devoted as to the use of this so-called " thorn " in the lion's tail ;
one old story being that it was emploj'ed to rouse the animal to fury when the
tail was lashed against the flanks.

The hair on the remainder of the body of the male lion, and on the whole of
both the head and body in the female, is short and close. In the adults of both
sexes the colour of the body-hair is the well-known yellowish-brown, or tawny,
but the tint varies in intensity in different individuals. The long hair of the male's
mane may vary from ta-\\ny to a blackish-brown. Young lion-cubs are marked
with transverse dark stripes running dowTi the sides of the bodj-, and likewise by

358 CARNIVORES.

a single stiipe of similar tint along the middle of the back. In certain lights more
or less faintly marked spots may be observed in many lions nearly or quite up to
the period of maturity ; these markings, as a rule, being more consi^icuous in females
than in males. The mane of the male does not make its appearance till the animal
is about three years of age, and continues to grow until the age of about six yeai-s.
Although the full length of the period of a lion's life does not appear known, it
has been ascertained that they will live to tliirty, and it is said even till forty j'ears.

THE CAPE .MAXED UuN.

Owing to the circumstance that the measurements of lions are frequently taken
from skins, exaggerated notions of the length attained bv large males have obtained
currency. Mx*. Blanford states that a male — presumabh' an Indian specimen —
measured 8 feet 10 inches from the tip of the muzzle to the tip of the tail : 2 feet
11 inches of this being occupied by the tail alone. Mr. Selous, writing of South
African lions, observes that " the following are the lengths of the pegged-out skins
of six full-grown males shot by mj-self. and carefully measured with a tape-line : —
viz., 10 feet 3 inches, 10 feet 6 inches, 10 feet 9 inches, 10 feet 10 inches, 9 feet 7
inches, and 11 feet 1 inch. These are the lengths of the skins after being pegged
out and stretched out to a certain extent. However, after having flayed it, I

LIOX. 359

carefully measured the naked carcase of the largest lion. From the top of the
front teeth to the end of the tail it measured 9 feet 7 inches, laying the tape along
the curves of the body, and as all the gristle and meat of the nose had been cut
away with the skin, and at least an inch must have been lost with the tuft at the
end of the tail, I think it would have measured all but 10 feet before it was
skinned, even without making any allowance for the mane." Although Cornwallis
Harris gave 10 feet 6 inches as the length of a large lion, ilr. Selous' estimate may
be provisionally taken as representing the full size of the African tv-pe. Females
are generally about 1 foot shorter than males. There is a dearth of information as
to the height of a full-gi-owu lion at the shoulder : but ^Ir. Blanford tells us that
one measuring 8 feet 9i inches in length, had a height of 3 feet 6 inches. A fine
menagerie lion recently measured had a total length of 10 feet, of which the tail
occupied 3 feet 2 inches.

Still more imperfect is the infomiation i-elatiug to the weight of lions. Mr.
Selous states that an African lion in poor condition shot in 1877 weighed 376 lbs.;
but a fine, well-nourished example killed later on weighed 500 lbs. This weight
is, however, exceeded by a male shot in the Orange Free State in 1865, which
on good evidence is reported to have weighed over 583 lbs. The menagerie
specimen, of which the dimensions are given above, weighed 434 lbs. Sir Samuel
Baker is of opinion that a lion would weigh more than a tiger of the same
approximate dimensions ; but against this may be set the opinion of Mr. Blanford,
who considei-s that a tiger, although stanfling lower than a lion, is heavier in the
tody and more powei-ful.

Before entei-ing upon the consideration of the geographical distribution and
habits of the lion, it may be well to point out how the skull of a lion may be
readih' distinguisherl from that of a tiger. In a lion's skull the so-called nasal
bones, or those forming the roof of the cavity of the nose, have their superior
termination on tlie forehead situated in the same transvei-se line as the tei-minations
of the upper jawbones or maxillai. In the skull of a tiger,
on the other hand, the upper extremities of the nasal bones
extend considerably higher up on the forehead than do those
of the upper jawbones. The skull of a lion maj- also be dis-
tinguished from that of a tiger by the much smaller size of ' ^ "~ ''
the tubercle on the inner side of the .upper flesh-tooth. Thus,
whereas in the tiger this tubercle is but little smaller than in
the cori-esponding tooth of the hj'sena, figured on p. 353, in the
lion it more nearly approaches the condition obtaining in the
tooth of an extinct cat, represented in the accompanying figure, the left ipper flesh-
although it extends nearer to the front edge of the tooth. (,„) of'' an extinct
The skull of an adult male lion may measure as much as 13 sabre-toothed tiger.
inches in extreme length, with a breadth across the widest The projection on the
part of the cheek-bones of 9^ inches. ^'"i^ °f ""^ '°'™'' P^."^ "^

^ ~ . . the figure is the inner

The present i-ange of the lion includes the whole con- tubercle of the flesh-tooth,
tinent of Africa, from the Cape Colony to Abyssinia and

Algeria, although in many of the more civilised districts the animal is now greatly
reduced in numbers, or even completely extenninated. In Asia it is found through

36o CARNIVORES.

Mesopotamia and South Persia to tlie uortli - western districts of India, being,
however, now on the verge of extinction in the latter countrj*. Formerly, even
within historic times, the lion had a much more extensive geographical range,
extending westwards into Syria and Arabia, and i-anging over a considerable
portion of South-Eastem Europe, such as Roumania and Greece. This, however,
by no means limits the original extent of its range, for bones and teeth found in
the caverns and superficial deposits of Western Europe prove that lions, whicli
appear specifically undistinguishable from the existing fonn, once roamed over
German}'', France, Italy, Spain, and the British Isles. The ancient prehistoric
lions of Western Europe were in all probability extenninated by the cold of the
glacial period ; but the destruction of those infesting Eastern Europe and paiis of
Western Asia duiing the historic epoch was probablj' effected, at least to a con-
siderable extent, by human agency.

In South Africa Uous are now scarce in the districts to the southward of the
Orange River, but are locally abundant in the regions farther north, such as
Mashonaland. Although it is quite probable that its range may once have
embraceil the countries of Afghanistan and Baluchistan, the lion is now quite
unknown in Asia to the northward of India. Writing some years ago of the
habitats of the Hon in Western Asia, Canon Tristram observes that " the Ai-abs
say it is found in Arabia ; but of this we have at least no evidence. Occasionally
it crosses the Euphrates, and a few j'eare ago a lion's carcase was brought into
Damascus. Between the Lower Tigris and Euphrates they still abound. Mr.
Layard .saw them frequently, and during his excavations in the neighbourhood of
Babylon, found fresh traces of their footsteps almo.st AsAy among the i-uins. It
extends also far liigher up, to the jungle of the Khabour, or Chebar, on the upper
Tigris, above Mosul and Nineveh (the ancient Chebar), where Layard mentions an
Arab being attacked by one, and escaping with the loss of his mare."

The late Sir O. B. St. John, as quoted by Mi-. Blanford, observes that " lions,
which are very numerous in the reedj' swamps bordering the Tigris and Euphrates,
are found also in the plains of Susiana, the modem Khuzistan, and extend into
the mountain country south of Shiraz as far east as longitude 53°. I have no
accurate information of their northern limits, but Captain Piei-son, who spent many
years iu the countrj- between Tehran and Baghdad, tells me that he never heard of
lions in the oak forest west of Karmanshah. It is the acorns of this same oak
forest which feed the wild pigs whose presence tempts the lion into the mountains
of Fai-s. . . . The little Valley of Dashtiarjan, thirty-five miles west of Shiraz, is
notorious for the number of lions found in its vicinity. Part of the valky is
occupied by a fresh-water lake, on the edges of which are extensive beds of reeds :
the surrounding hills, which rise some four thousand feet above the valley, itself
six thousand five hundred feet above the sea, are covered with oak forest, or with
pretty thick brushwood of hawthorn, wild pear, and other bushes, and contain very
extensive vineyards. Dashtiarjan is thus a perfect paradise for swine, and they
increase and multiply accordingly, so that the lions haVe plenty to eat, varying the
monotony of constant pork with an occasional ibex, or with a calf from the herds
Avhich graze in the valley. Ev^ery j^ear some four or five lions are killed in
Dashtiarjan or the neighbourhood, and a few cubs brought into Shiraz for .sale."

LION. 361

With regard to the lion in India, Mr. Blanford states that " there are probably
a few still living in the wild tract known as the Gir, in Kattywar, and a few more
on the wildest parts of Rajputana, especially southern Jodhpur, in Oodeypur, and
around Mount Abu. About twenty years ago lions were common near Mount
Abu, several were shot near Gwalior, Goona, and Kota, and a few still existed near
Lalotpur, between Saugor and Jhansi. One is said to have been killed near Goona
in 1873. In 1864 one was killed near Sheorajpur, twenty-five miles west of
Allahabad ; and when the railway was being made from Allahabad to Jabalpur
in 1866, a fine lion, with a good mane, was shot by two of the engineers, near
the eightieth milestone from Allahabad. About 1830, lions were common about
Ahmedabad. Several years previously, in the earh' part of the century, lions were
found in Hurriana to the northward, and in Khandesh to the south, in many
places in Rajputana (one was shot in 1810, within forty miles of Kot Deji, in
Sind), and eastward as far as Rewah and Palamow. It is probable that this
animal was formerly generally distributed in North-Westem and Central India."
A few years will probably witness the extinction of the lion throughout the
peninsula. It is noteworthy that the lion, unlike the tiger, has never been known
in the Malayan region, or, indeed, anywhere to the eastward of tlie Bay of Bengal.

For a long period it was considered that the Indian lion dirt'ered from its
African relative by the total absence of the mane in tlie male, which was hence
regarded as indicating a distinct species. Moreover, owing to the differences in
the length and colour of the manes of African lions from difierent districts, it was
likewise held that there were two or more species in Africa. It, however, has been
definitel}' settled that such variations are not constant, and that there is but a
single sjDecies. Although it may be that some adult specimens of the Indian lion
ai-e maneless, yet well-maned examples have been killed, while those which were
stated to prove the existence of a maneless race are now known to have been
immature individuals.

With regard to the variations of the African lion, Mr. Selous says that the
Dutch hunters maintain the existence of from three to four distinct species, which
they assert themselves to be capable of recognising. " For my part," adds Mr.
Selous, '■ and judging from my owti very limited experience of lions, I cannot see
that there is any reason for supposing that more than one species exists, and as
out of fifty male lion skins scarcely two will be found exactly alike in the colour
and length of the mane, I think it would be as i-easonable to suppose that there are
twenty species as three. The fact is that between the animal with hardly a
vestige of a mane, and the far handsomer but much less common beast, with
a long flowing black mane, every possible intermediate variety may be found."
It is then stated how the narrator on one occasion shot two old male lions, which
he found lying together under the same bush, both of which agreed as near as
possible in size, but while the one was full-maned, with a very dark-coloured fur,
the other was very yellow and had but little mane. Shoi-tly after, Mr. Selous,
with a brother sportsman, again met with a dark, full-maned lion in company with
a nearly maneless light-coloured one. Of still more importance is the account by
the same hunter of his killing a lioness with three unborn cubs, of which two were
males and one a female. " Of the two male cubs," says Mr. Selous, '■ the one, owing

362 CARNIVORES.

to the dark colour of the tips of the hair, was almost black, while the other was
reddish-yellow. The skin of the female cub was also of a light colour. Now I
firinly believe that the two male cubs would have grown up, the one into a dark-
skinned, black-maned lion, the other into a yellow lion, with but little mane ; and
further than this, I believe that the two paii-s of males I have mentioned above
were cubs of the same litters, and have been hunting in couples since their
cubhood." These observations, wliich have been supplemented by others made on
captive specimens, may be considered to definitely settle the question as to the
specific unity of all African lions.

In spite, however, of the impossibility of specifically distingiiishing between
lions of different coloration, or between those inhabiting diflerent regions of the
countiy, it seems quite probable that the lions of one district may differ to a
certain extent in some respects from those of another. Thus it seems prettj^ well
ascertained that the lions from the Cape and Algeria have, collectively, larger and
finer manes than those from other districts. Moreover, Gordon Gumming states
that the manes and coats of lions inhabiting open, treeless districts, like the great
Kalahari desert of South Africa, are fuller and handsomer than in those inhabiting
forest districts. It has hence been considered that the manes of forest-dwelling
lions are reduced in thickness by being torn by thorns and bushes. This theory
is, however, considered untenable by Mr. Selous, who states that the lions of the
open plateaux of Jilatabeleland and Mashonaland, where .scarcely a thom-bush is to
be seen, exhibit every degree of variation in regard to the length and colour of
their manes, and that a similar variation holds good for the Tati countr}^ wliich is
tliickly covered WTith thorn-jungle. The vai'iation in the length of the mane seems,
therefore, at present not accounted for.

Before leaving this subject, it may be mentioned that, according to the

experiences of the hunter from whom we have already so largely quoted, that

wild lions — at least in the districts over which he shot — never have such long and

heavy manes or such good coats as the majority of those met with in European

menageries. Moreover, while all the wild lions with good manes, which came

under the notice of Mr. Selous, had a small tuft of hair on the elbow and another

in the armpit, none were seen with the fringe of long hair along the middle of the

under-surface of the body, which is so universally present in maned menagerie

lions. " I do not say," observes Mr. Selous, " that cases do not occur of wild lions

becoming equallj- hairy : but they must be veiy rare, otherwise I shoidii have met

with some amongst the large number of skins I have seen. The coat of the wild

lion is very short and close, whilst that of lions kept in this country becomes very

much longer, and usualh" of a redder colour than the pale yellow or silvery-grey

hue of the wild animal. I could pick out the skin of a menagerie lion from

amongst a hundred wild ones. Climate and regular feeding must, I think, have

a good deal to do with the luxuriant gro-wth of mane invariably to be obseiwed in

lions in confinement." As our pictures and figures of lions are almost invariably

taken fi-om such captive specimens, it is obvious that an exaggerated idea of the

size and beauty of the mane is commonly current.

„ ^. Tlw? literatu-re relating to the habits of lions is so extensive that

Habits. . , -

the great ditficulty an author has to contend with is in determining

LION.

363

what to select and what to reject. Moreover, it will be found that in comparing
the accounts given l)y different observers there is considerable diversity between
them in regard to certain points. This difference, as observed b}- the Hon. \V. H.
Drummond, is doubtless due, to a certain extent, to differences in the habits of lions
fi-om different districts ; but to this must be added the " personal equation " of the
various observers.

With regard to the habits of lions, it is probable from the uniformly tawny
colour of these animals that the}' were primitively inliabitants of more or less
completely desert or sandy regions, although they are now by no means restricted
to such localities. In Africa, as Gordon Gumming relates, lions were formerly

THE LION .\T A POOL.

abundant in the sandy wastes of the great Kalahari Desert : while they are now,
according to Mr. Selous, equalh' plentiful in the high open country of Mashonaland,
among the rough broken hills through which the tributaries of the Zambesi make
their way to the main i-iver, in the dense thorn-jungles lying to the west of the
Gwai River, or in the marslies of the Linyanti River. Then again, whereas the
Indian lion was formerly abundant in the sandy plains of Rajputana, the favourite
haunts of the animal in Mesopotamia are, as we have seen, in the swampy lowlands
of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys.

Like most of the larger cats, lions are essentially nocturnal in their habits, and
they are thus frequently only met with by chance in districts where, from the
abundance of their tracks and from their nocturnal roarings, they are known to be
plentiful. During the daytime they are accustomed to lie asleep in thick beds of
reeds, where such are to be found, or, in drier ilistricts, among thickets and bushes.

364 CARNIVORES.

" The most likely places in the bush coiuitiy in which to find lions," observes Mr.
Drummond, " as far as my experience goes, are the rekabee thorns, the dense
evei'greens which line the rivers, and, during summer, the reeds on the margins of
lagoons or streams, while in the open flats any patch of reeds or tall grass suffices
to conceal them. The best chances for killing them are obtained in the first-
mentioned spots, as you often come across them asleep when you are stealing about
after game." From these and similar haunts, the lion issues forth at sundown to
commence his nightly prowls ; dark and stormy nights, according to Gordon
Gumming, being those on which he is most active, while he is more cautious during
bright moonlight nights, especially as regards his visits to the drinking-places.

Unlike most of his congeners, the lion is not a climber, and this general
inability to ascend trees has saved the lives of many sportsmen and travellers,
although not unfrequently at the cost of a long and thii-sty waiting.

Mr. Blanford, who has had the opportunity of observing both lions and tigers
in their native haunts, is of opinion that the former are bolder than the lattei-,
while they are certainly far more noisj^ When relating the results of his experi-
ences during the Abj-ssinian Expedition, he observes that " the first peculiarity
that struck me in the African lions was their noisiness. I have constantly been
for months together in countries in India abounding in tigers without hearing their
cry. Indeed, it is bj" no means a common sound in any Indian forest. Leopards,
I should say, are much more frequently heard than tigers. Tlie crj' of the two
animals, common]}' known as roaring, though it is utterly different from the hareh
growl of auger to which tlie tenn might most appropriately be applied, is very
similar, and consists of several deep notes uttered rather quickly one after the
other, and repeated at longer and shorter intervals."

Very different impressions appear to be produced on different persons by the
lion's roar, some listeners appearing to regard it as a i-ather commonplace and by no
means awe-inspiring sound, while otliers, and we believe the majoritj', speak of it
in far different terms. Such differences of impression must, it is obvious, be lai-gely
due to personal disposition.

Perhaps the lowest estimation of the lion's roar is that of Livingstone. He
writes that " it is calculated to inspire fear when heard in a pitchj' dark night
amidst the tremendous peals of an African thunderstorm, and the vivid flashes of
lightning wliich leave on the eye the impression of stone-blindness, while the rain
pouring down extinguishes the fire, and there is neither the pi'otection of a tree nor
a chance that vour g\ni will go off'. But wlien anvone is snug in a house or a
waggon, the roar of the lion inspires no awe. A European cannot distinguish
between tlie note of a lion and that of an ostrich. In general tlie voice of the
former seems to come deeper from the chest ; but to tliis day I can only pronounce
with certainty from which of the two it proceeds, by knowing that the ostrich
roai-s by daj' and tlie lion bj- night. The natives assert that they can detect a
difference at the beginning of the sound."

A recent writer in Land atul Water, who is fully impressed witli the gi-andeur
of the lion's roar, is bj' no means di.sposed to admit the justness of its comparison to
the voice of the ostrich. He observes that when a lion is " roaring loudh* in concert
with othei"s at a short distance off", the sound is grand and awe-inspiring in the

LION. 36s

extreme ; in fact, I have never heard anything of a similar nature that can compare
with it, for it is no exaggeration to say that the ground actually trembles with the
volume of sound. I say this unhesitatingl}'-, for all that many peojjle would have
us believe to the contrary, maintaining that there is nothing in it, and endeavouring
to compare it to the ' booming ' of the cock ostrich. At a great distance, and there-
fore, when heard indistinctly, the low, sullen roaring of a single lion has certainly
much resemblance to the sound emitted by the ostrich during the pairing-season ;
but persuade either the lion or the ostrich to come nearer, and one might then as
well try to compare the rumbling of cart wheels over a wooden bridge with the
incessant roll of thunder among mountains. But a lion makes other sounds far
more disconcerting — because usually only heard at close quarters — than that to
which it gives vent when, in company with others, it has killed a head of game, or
is retiring to its lair, full fed. There is the constant low gnnvling of the lion
crouching in cover, uncertain whether to fight or to fly, as, with flattened eai-s and
nervously twitching tail, he studies the situation, lioping by his attitude to warn
oft' the disturber of his solitude. There is the angry snarl of the lion disturbed at
his meals, when his appetite is not yet satisfied, and when one has come upon him
so suddenly as to give him no time to clear off; and, worse than all, the short,
coughing grunts which often accompany a charge, and which startle the intnider
in his domains as he bounds away. All these sounds are by no means musical, and,
whether heard by day or by night, are well calculated to try the nerves." Similar
testimony as to the impressiveness of the lion's roar is given by Gordon Gumming,
who describes it as consisting at certain times of five or six repetitions of a low,
deep moaning, ending ott' with a faint and scarcely audible sigh, while at others it
takes the form of loud, deep-toned, solemn roars, quickly repeated, and increasing
in intensity till the third or fourth, after which it gradually dies away in a succes-
sion of low muftled growlings, like the roll of distant thunder. Then, again, the
veteran hunter, Sir Samuel Baker, gives his impressions in the following words :
• — " There is nothing so beautiful or enjoyable to my ears as the roar of a lion on a
still night, when everything is calm, and no sound disturbs the solitude except the
awe-inspiring notes, like the rumble of distant thunder, as tliey die away into the
deepest bass. The first few notes somewhat resemble the bellow of a bull ; tliese
are repeated in slow succession four or five times, after which the voice is sunk into
a lower key, and a number of quick short roars are at length followed by rapid
coughing notes, so deep and powerful that they seem to vibrate through the earth."

This vibrating and reverberating sound alluded to in the last sentence is
intensified by the habit lions often have of putting their mouths close to the ground
while roaring ; Livingstone mentioning an instance where a lion stood for hours
roaring near his camp, and making the sound reverberate in this manner.

The intensity and grandeur of the sound must, however, be largely inci'eased
when, as is not unfrequently the case, a party of lions are heard roaring in concert ;
and the din reaches its height when two or three troops of lions approach a
watering-place at the same time. On such occasions, says Gordon Gumming, " every
member of each troop sounds a bold roar of defiance at the oppo.site parties ; and
when one roars, all roar together, and each seems to vie with his comrades in the
intensity and power of his voice."

366 CARNIVORES.

As a rule, lions commence to roar with the falling shades of evening, and
continue with longer or shorter intervals thi'oughout the night ; but Gordon
Gumming states that in secluded and undisturbed districts he has frequenth' heard
the roaring sustained as late as 9 or 10 o'clock in the morning on bright and sunny
days. During cloudy and rainy weather they will however roar, although in a
lower tone, throughout the day.

Although in some districts lious are commonh* met either alone, or in pairs of
males and females, this does not seem to be generally the case in the interior of
South Africa, where, according to Mr. Selous, it is more usual to meet with four or
five lions consorting together, while parties of from ten to twelve are by no means
rare. Such a party of twelve would, in the experience of the same observer,
probably comprise about two adult males, three or four full-grown lionesses, and
half a dozen large cubs, which, except for their somewhat slighter build, might
easily be mistaken for mature females. On one occasion Mr. Selous mentions that
he came across a party consisting of a lion, tliree full-grown lionesses, and three
small cubs : and he adds that if each of these females had possessed a pair of large
cubs, such an assemblage would have been right!}- termed a party of ten lions. It
was probably such a part}', although comprising more adult males, that Lord
Eandolph Churchill encountered during his recent journey in Mashonaland, when
in company \\ith his hunter Lee. " We were riding along," writes his lordship in
his Letters from Mashonaland, " through a small open glade covered with high
grass, Lee a few yards ahead of me, when I suddenly saw him turn round, crj' out
something to me, and point with his finger ahead. I looked, and saw lolloping
along through and over the grass, about forty yai-ds ofl", a yellow animal about as
big as a small bullock. It flashed across me that it was a lion — the last thing in
the world that I was thinking of. I was going to dismount and take aim, foi' I
was not frightened at the idea of firing at a retreating lion, but Lee called out in
succession five or six times, ' Look, look 1 ' at the same time pointing with his finger
in different directions in front. I saw, to my astonishment, and rather to it\\
dismay, that the glade appeared to be alive with lions. There they were, trooping
and trotting along ahead of us like a lot of enormous dogs — great j-ellow objects,
offering such a sight as I had never dreamed of. Lee turned to me and said,
' What will you do ?' I Baid, ' I suppose we must go after them,' thinking all the
time that I was making a very foolish answer. This I am the more convinced of
now, for Lee told me afterwards that many ol<l hunters in South Africa will turn
away from such a troop of lions as we had before us. We trotted on after them a
short distance to where the gi-ass was more open, the lions trotting along ahead of us
in the most composed and leisurely fashion, very different from the galloping ofl" of a
surprised and startled antelope." Lord Eandolph Churchill himself counted no less
than se\^en lions, while his hunter believed that there were several more in the party.

When a male lion has selected a female partner the union very generally
lasts for the greater portion or the entire lives of the pair. From the evidence
of .specimens kept in capti\'ity it is known that from two to six cubs may be
produced at a birth, at least in the captive condition. It is stated, however, that
in India wild lionesses do not produce more than two or three cubs at a birth ;
and Mr. Selous is of opinion that three is the usual number in South Africa, where

LION.

367

many cubs appear to die wliile still very j'ouug. Lions breed freely in captivity,
but not so readily in some menageries as in others. Thus, whereas iu the London
Zoological Gardens the number of cubs bred and reared is comparatively small, in
those at Dublin it is very large ; and many of the lions exhibited in various
menageries have been reared at the latter establishment. It is a curious fact that
lion cubs are bom with their eyes fully open.

THE 5IAXELES3 LIOX FROM SEXEGAL (^ nat sizej.

When caught young, lions are easily tamed, and the whole disposition of the
animal in captivity is much more gentle tlian is that of the tiger.

That adult lions will combine to attack large animals that they would hnd it
difficult or impossible to ovei'come unaided, is now well ascertained. The best
kno-WTi instance is one observed by Major Vardon and Mr. Oswell in South Africa,
when three full-grown males united their efforts in endeavouring to pull down an
old buffalo. When first observed the four animals were engaged in a terrific
combat, the final issue of which mijrht have been doubtful, had it not been termin-
ated by the sudden death of the buffalo from the effects of a bullet-wound it had
previously received from the rifle of one of the witnesses. No sooner, however, did

368 CARNIVORES.

their prey succumb, than the three Hons commenced to quari-el among themselves ;
one, reared to half its height, resting its paws upon the middle of the carcase, while
the other two respectiv^ely placed themselves at the head and tail, and growled
forth defiance at the one in the middle. What might have been the result of the
dispute can only be imagined, as two of the lions were shot, while the thii-d,
thinking discretion the better part of valour, prudently retired.

Another instance of a somewhat similar encounter is related by Sir Samuel
Baker, who states that a Bavarian hunter in his employ, named Johann Sclunidt,
was on one occasion wandering along the bank of the Eoyan River in Abyssinia,
Avhen his attention was attracted by the sounds of a scuffle taking place at a
water-hole. " The dust was flying high in the air, and as he approached the spot,
within the yellow surface of the river's bed, he saw a cloud of sand, in the centre
of which was the large body and long neck of a bull giraffe struggling against the
attack of two lions. One of these was fastened upon its throat, wliile the other was
mounted upon its hind-quarters, where it was holding on with teeth and claws. . . .
The girafle had no chance, and after a sharp struggle, before the well-concealed
spectator, it was pulled down, and both lions commenced to growl over their con-
tested prey."

Although in both the foregoing instances the lions, after securing their prey,
commenced to quarrel among themselves, it does not appear that such quarrels
always occur in similar circumstances, since Gordon Gumming relates how that ho
once saw no less than six lions feeding peaceably upon the carcase of a rhinoceros.

From tliis part of our subject we are naturallj' led on to the consideration of
the ordinary food of lions, and the manner in which they attack the larger animals
upon which they prey. It has been already mentioned that in the oak forests of
Persia the staple food of the lions is formed by the wild pigs which frequent these
woods. In India Mr. Blanford states that hons usually feed on deer, antelope, ^\^ld
pigs, cattle, horses, donkeys, and camels ; and that formerly a large number of the
latter were destroyed by them. In Africa lions appear to prey largely upon
antelopes, zebras, quaggas, buftaloes, and giraffes. Mr. Drummoud states that on
the many occasions on which he has seen lions hunting by daylight, he cannot
recall one when they were not in pursuit of buflkloes, and he has known herds of
those animals which he had been hunting dui-ing the day scattered and dispersed
by lions at night. On the other hand, Mr. Drummond would not commit himself
to the statement that buftalo-meat forms the staple food of the South African lion.
" Were a zebra, a fat rhinoceros, and a fat buffalo to be killed and left out, it is
probable that they would be eaten in the oi'der I have named. Soft succulent fat
is what the lion probably considers most toothsome, and zebras supply this in a
higher degree than any other animal, save the rhinoceros and the hippopotamus,
neither of which he is able to kill ; but on the other hand, the zebra . . . confines
himself to the open, as far as possible, never approaches within springing distance
of a thicket, and rareh', unless when going to water, gives the lion a chance.
Buffaloes, on the other hand, are nearly always in and close to cover, presenting con-
tinual opportunities for a successful stalk : and though the danger in attacking them
is much greater, as is proved \>y the no means rare instances of lions being maimed,
and even killed in such contests, yet for the above reason they form their chief food."

LION. 369

It must not, liowever, be supposed that lions by anj- means restrict themselves
to the llesli of animals -which have fallen to their own attacks. The writer last
quoted mentions their partiality for the flesh of rhinoceroses, which they are unable
to kiU themselves, and states that as many as eight or ten have been seen tearing
at once at the flesh of one of those animals that had been shot by a hunter of his
own. This is confirmed by the statement of Gordon Gumming already mentioned.

In addition to eating the flesh of animals recently killed, lions will also prey
upon carcases in an advanced state of decomposition. This fact was stated long
ago by Gordon Gumming, and is fully supported by the observations of Mr. Selous.
The latter writer states that when elephants have been shot, " lions will prey upon
the stinking carcases as they lie festering in the rays of a tropical sun, and at last
become a seething mass of maggots, returning night after night to the feast, until
no more meat is left. This occurs in parts of the country abounding in game,
where it would give a party of lions but little trouble or exertion to catch a zebra,
bufialo, or antelope, and procure themselves a meal of fresh meat. In the same
waj', no matter how plentiful game may be, lions wiU almost invariably feast upon
anj' dead animal left by the hunter, from a buffalo to a steinbuck, that they maj-
happen to come across."

Near villages, when lions grow too old to be able to take game for themselves,
Livingstone states that they will take to killing goats; while women or children
who happen to come in their way at night also become victims. On the other hand,
when far away from human habitations, such decrepit lions are stated by the
same writer to catch mice and other small Rodents, and will even at times eat grass,
although this may be taken medicinally.

That such lions, which have become too feeble to prey upon game, would
naturally develop into " man-eaters," if they were permitted to live, appears highly
probable. Mr. Selous believes, however, that the absence of man-eating lions in
those parts of Africa with which he is acquainted is due " to the superior boldness
of the African natives over those of India, for even amongst the least martial
tribes of South Africa, if two or three people are killed by a lion, the population of
the surrounding countrj' is roused, ami, a party being formed, the lion is usually
surrounded and stabbed to death with assegais; whilst, amongst such warlike
tribes as the Matabele, if a lion only kills an ox, or even a goat, its fate is u.sually
sealed, or, even if not killed, it gets such a scare that it is glad to quit the district.
Such a thing as a man-eater, or even an habitual cattle-slayer, would never be
tolerated for an instant."

According, however, to Mr. Drummond, ■\\'hose shooting experiences were
confined to Eastern South Africa, in the districts of Zululand, Tongaland, and
Swaziland, man-eating lions are to be met with in some regions. And this writer
relates how he became an accessory to the death of two such man-eaters, one of
which had well-nigh depopulated a district, having killed between thirty and forty
individuals ; while the second, although dwelling in an uninhabited country full
of game, had become notorious for its attacks upon the camps of the hunters.
The former, indeed, appeared to be an animal in the full enjoyment of bodily
strength, as it is said to have habitually leaped over the high fences which
sun'ound the Zulu villages.

370 CARNIVORES.

With regard to the method in which lions kill and carry off the larger animals
upon which they prey, it may be observed, in the first place, that there is some
doubt whether death is etf'ected by dislocating the neck of the victim, as is always
done by tigers. Mr. Blanford states that in a cow killed by a lion in Abys.sinia
the vei-tebrae of the neck were not dislocated : and that he also saw a lioness hold
a camel for several minutes without attempting to break its neck. Mr. Selous is of
opinion that lions have not one universal way of killing their prey, but they vary
it according to circumstances. Thus he relates how he has seen a horee, a j^oung
elephant, and two antelopes killed by a bite in the throat ; while he has also known
instances of horses and zebras being killed by a bite on the back of the neck
behind the head. Buffaloes, he believes, are sometimes kiUed by a dislocation of
the neck, which is effected by " the lion springing on to their shoulders, and then
.seizing their noses with one paw, giving the neck a sudden wrench."

It was formerly a prevalent notion that lions were in the habit of carrjang off
the carcases of large animals, like oxen and buffaloes, b}^ throwing them over their
back and walking bochly away with them. All recent observers are, however,
agreed that this is by no means a correct statement, and that their invariable
practice is to transport such carcases by dragging them along the ground Mr.
Selous states tliat in this manner lions carry off not only the bodies of the
larger animals, like buffaloes, but also those of the smaller antelopes ; and he adds
that a South African lion would, in his opinion, be quite incapable of lifting a
buffalo from the ground, much less of leaping over a fence with it, as the lion of
North Africa has been alleged to do. In referring to an instance of this nature
when a Xorth African lion was reported to have leaped over the thorn fence which
formed a protection to a camp, and, after seizing a full-grown ox, lx)unded back
with its victim. Sir Samuel Baker wi-ites as follows : — " In the confusion of a night
attack the scare is stupendous, and no pei-son would be able to declare that he
actually saw the lion jump the fence \\'ith the bullock in its grip. It might appear
to do this, but the ox would struggle violently, and in this stiniggle it would most
probably burst through the fence, and subsequently be dragged away by the lion.
... It is quite a mistake to suppose that a lion can carry a full-gi-own ox ; it will
partially lift the fore-quarter, and drag the carcase along the ground."

It is stated that the usual pace of a lion when undisturbed is a walk, but even
then, from the length of his stride, he gets over the ground quicker than appeai-s to
be the case. When going more rapitU}-, Mr. Selous .says that he has never seen a
lion bound, but that thej^ come along at a clumsy gallop, somewhat after the
manner of a dog, getting over the ground very quickly.

In regard to the ferocitj' or otherwise of the lion s disposition, verj^ conflicting
statements will be found in the writings of different observers. Thus, whereas
Livingstone states that nothing would lead him to attribute to the lion either the
ferocious or noble character ascribed to it by othei-s. Sir Samuel Baker is disposed
to take a rather opposite view, obser^'ing that, although he does not consider the
lion to be either so formidable or so ferocious as the tiger, yet there is no reason
for despising an animal which has been respected from the most remote antiquity.

All writers appear, however, to be agreed that, as a general rule (although
there are exceptions), a lion will not go out of his way to make an unprovoked

LION. 371

attack upon human beings, and that, in jjoint of fact, he will rather shun a conflict
when possible. " There is nearly always," writes Mr. Di-ummond, " some explana-
tion of its behaviour when it acts otherwise : either the hunter has approached so
near before being discovered that the animal is afraid to turn tail, and, urged by
its very fears, makes a charge ; or it may be half-famished, and having got hold of
some prey, either of your killing or its own, will not quit it without a contest : or,
if a lioness with cubs, will tight in defence of their supposed danger." Sir Samuel
Baker's testimony is of a very similar character, when he mentions that the expert
swordsmen of Central Africa have no dread of the lion when undisturbed by
sportsmen, although they hold him in the highest respect when he becomes the
object of chase. Again, in another passage, the same writer mentions that among
the Hamran Arabs of the Sudan the lions, although numerous, are never regarded
as dangerou.s.

That lions, especially when hungry, will, however, on occasion attack human
beings, — on foot or when mounted, — there is abundant evidence. Livingstone
relates the well-known instance of a hunter engaged in stalking a rhinoceros, when,
on looking back, he was horrified to find that he himself was being stalked by a
lion. Mr. Drummond also records an instance where a lion, driven by hunger,
attacked him personally ; and he believes that there are some lions which will
always make unprovoked attacks. This view he supports by an account of an
attack made upon three natives in Eastern Africa. The three natives in question
were passing along the edge of a certain lagoon, " when, without further warning
than a slight rustle, a lion sprang upon the foremost, crushing him to the ground.
His terrified comrades, throwing away the cliance of shooting the brute while it
was still upon its first victim and its eyes probably closed, i-ushed to the nearest
trees for safety, but, once there, feeling ashamed of their cowardlj- desertion of an
old companion, they descended, and walking forward together were just on the
point of firing, when, with a roar that almost deprived them of the power to run,
the lion charged, caught the hindmost, and after shaking him for a second or two
gave chase to the other, who, however, had profited by the time to remove himself,
by a bai'e foot or so, out of reach of the spring the enraged animal gave as it saw
that one had so far escaped. It then returned to its last victim, not yet dead, took
him up in its mouth, dropped him, tossed him from paw to paw as a cat does a
mouse, and at last, as if wearied hy so nuicli unaccustomed gentleness, it allowed
its savage nature to gain the mastery, and with one crunch of its powerful jaw put
him out of his pain." The sole survivor of this tragedy, after having been besieged
for hours in a tree, during which he had a hairbreadth escape when descending to
reach his gun, finally had the satisfaction of putting a bullet through the ribs of
the lion.

With regard to the dangers of lion-hunting in Africa, which is mostly con-
ducted on foot, those who have had the most experience, and are therefore the
best entitled to speak with authority, are in accord as to their reality. Gordon
Gumming says that lion-hunting, under any circumstances, must of necessity be a
dangerous pursuit ; but that it may be followed to a certain extent with comparative
immunity from harm by those who have the necessary nerve and coolness, coupled
with sufficient knowledge of the habits of the animals. Mr. Selous, writing in 1881,

372 CARNIVORES.

when sixteen lions had fallen to his rifle, considers the lion a far more dangerous
animal to encounter than any other creature in South Africa. It is true, indeed, that
a much greater number of casualties occur from buffalo-shooting than in lion-hunting,
but then, as Mr. Selous is careful to observe, for eveiy lion that has of late years
been " bagged " in the interior of South Africa, at least fifty buffaloes have been laid
low. As a general rule, according to the same authority, the danger is reduced to a
minimum when hiinting with dogs, as the lion's attention is generally concentrated
on his canine foes ; but even then it sometimes happens that lie will dash straight
through them to attack the hunter. A mounted hunter, except when the movements
of his horse are impeded by thick forest or by yielding sand, can generally escape
when pui-sued, as, in the opinion of Mr. Selous, the pace of the average lion is not
sufficient to enable him to overtake the average hoi-se. " If, however, on foot," adds
Mr. Selous, " and without dogs, though there is little danger in attacking lions in
the fii-st instance, yet to follow up a wounded one is very ticklish work, especially
in long grass or tluck cover, for there is probably no animal of its size in the world
that can conceal itseK behind so slight a screen, or rush upon its pursuer with such
lightning-like rapidity."

Still more impressive are the words of ilr. Diiimniond, who says that "it
should always be recollected, before meddling \\ith lions, that if you do come to
close quarters with them, death is the probable result. There are cases within my
own knowledge," continues this writer, " where, single-handed and armed only with
a spear, a native has succeeded in killing one that has sprung upon him, without
receiving in return anj-thing but trifling injuries ; but these are only exceptions
that pi-ove the rule that when they strike they kill. ... It is a grand sight to see
one charge a native regiment sent out after it, as they sometimes are, springing
over the heads of the fii-st line right into the centre, flying about, knocking men
down with everj' blow, until, a complete sieve of assegai wounds, it dies fighting."

Sir Samuel Baker follows suit in contrasting the dangers of the solitary hunter
on foot engaged in lion-shooting in Africa, with tiger-shooting in India, either fi-om
elephants, or with a number of guns posted in secure positions.

Writing of his experiences in Somaliland, Mr. J. D. Inverarit}' observes that the
lion tries to avoid man until wounded, and it is only in exceptional cases of there
being young ones to guard, or from astonishment at seeing the hunter so close to
them, that they charge when being tracked. They charge with the same coughing
roar that a tiger does, and come at great speed close to the ground, not bounding
in the air as they are represented in pictures. Their ears are pi'essed close to the
head, giving them the comical appearance of being without ear.s. " So large an
animal coming at full speed against you of course knocks you off j^our legs. The
claws and teetli entering the fle.5h do not hurt so much as j-ou would think. The
only really painful part of the business is the squeeze given by the jaws on the
bone. I felt none of the dreamy stupor Livingstone describes, but, on the contrar}-,
felt as usual. I adopted the course of lying quite still, wlxich, I believe, is the best
thing one can do, as you are quite helpless with a lieaA-y animal on you, and they
are inclined to make grabs at everything that moves, and the fewer bites you can
get oft' with the better." Stoi-ies of lion-hunting are legion, and if collected would
form at least one goodly volume : we shall, however, refrain from quoting any, and

3c:

LlJ

o

TIGER.

'> T "»

close our notice of what is, in our own opinion, the grandest of all Carnivores, with
the following extract from Mr. Diiininiond's interesting V)ook, upon wliicli we have
already drawn so lai-gely. " Perhaps the most beautiful sight that I ever saw in
connection with lions," writes Mr. Drummond, " was on a morning when I had gone
out to hunt with one bearer at dawn. I had got far from camp, and, most care-
lessly, my gun was still unloaded, while I was examining some butlalo spoors, when,
on looking up, I saw my gun-bearer, who had my cartridges, running away at full
speed. Knowing that he must have seen something to frighten him so, I did not
shout, but went to where he had been standing a few yards ahead, and there, sure
enough, not twenty yards off, were a pair of lions. They were both full grown,
and the male had an immense mane, and formed altogether as handsome a pair as I
ever saw. The lioness was rolling on her Vjack, playfully striking at her lord and
master with her fore-paws just like a kitten, while he stood gravely and majestically
looking on."

THE TIGER AND THE TIGRESS.

The Tiger (Fdis tigris).

Whether the lion or the tiger is the more powerful animal, is a question which
has given rise to much discussion, but, as we have already mentioned, the opinion
of one most competent to decide is in favour of the superiority in this respect of
the latter. The absence of the mane, which forms such a striking feature in the
male lion, renders, however, the appearance of the tiger decidedly less imposing,
and hence the second position in the series is commonly assigned to this " cat."

In spite of the difference in coloration, the lion and the tiger are verjr closely
allied animals, both agreeing in having a circular apertui-e for the pupil of the
eye, and also in regard to the chai'acters of the so-called hyoid bones which suppoit
the tongue.

374 CARNIVORES.

Next to the absence of the maue iu the male, and likewise of anj- tuft at the
extremity of the tail, the most important external ilifference between the lion and
the tiger is that of colour. The general ground-colour of the fur of the tiger is a
rufous-fawn on the upper part and sides of the body, but the tint maj- vary in
different individuals from pale rufous to brownish-j-ellow, the under-parts of the
body being white. This rufous ground-colour is striped transversely with black
throughout the head, bodj% and limbs, while the tail is ringed with black. The
ears are black, with the exception of a large white spot. These stinking colours,
which are fully developed at birfJi, are brightest in young and vigorous animals,
grailually fading in intensity with advancing age ; and it is stated that tigers
inhabiting forest districts are the reddest in ground-colour As rare exceptions,
both white and black tigers are occasionally met with. Thus a white tiger, in
which the fur was of a creamy tint, \diX\ the usual stripes fainth^ visible in
certain parts, was exhibited at the old menagene at Exeter Change about the
year 1820. A second example of a white tiger was recenth' obtained at Puna,
India, by Major D. Robinson, of the Lancashire Fusiliers, and it appears
to have been a male in the prime of life; while Colonel H. H. Godwin-Austen
states that he has known of a third specimen. A perfectly black tiger, according
to Mr. C. T. Buckland, was found dead many j-eare ago near Chittagong, on the
north-east frontier of India.

With the exception of a ruff of longish hair round the neck and throat of old
males, which represents the mane of the male lion, the hair on the head and body of
the Indian tiger is generally short and thick, but it is considerabh' more elongated
and shaggy in Siberian examples. There is, moreover, a certain amount of variation
in the length of the hair of the Indian tiger according to the season of the j^ear.

The tail of the tiger, in both sexes, tapei-s regularly from root to tip ; its total
length being about half that of the combined length of the head and bodj-.

When describing the lion, it has been mentioned how the skull of that animal
can be distingiiished at a glance from that of a tiger. And it may be added that
a tiger's skull, according to Mr. Blanford, is, on the avei'age, even wider and more
massive than that of the lion. Moreover, in correlation with the more curved
profile of the head of a tiger, as compareil with that of a lion, the skull has its
outline more convex, while the inferior border of the lower jaw is also straighter.

The tiger stands lower on the limbs than the lion, and is thus proportionately
longer in the body. In regard to the size attained hy tigers there has been even
more exaggeration than in the case of the lion ; this being in great part due to the
measurements having been taken either from skins after the}' had been removed
from the animal and pegged out on the ground to dry, or from tigers which had
been carried for several hours thrown aci-oss the backs of elephants, and thus
considerably stretched beyond their noi-mal length. Mr. Blanford states that
full-grown male tigers measure from 5^ to 6i feet from the tip of the nose to
the root of the tail ; the length of the tail being about 8 feet. In one example,
whose total length was 9 feet 6 inches, the length of the head and bodj' was 6
feet 4 inches, and that of the tail 3 feet 2 inches. Female tigei's are generally
about a foot shorter in the length of the head and body than males. The height
of a tiger at the shoulder varies from about 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches.

TIGER. 375

The above dimensions are taken in a straight line, but the usual manner of
measuring a tiger adopted by sportsmen is to follow the curves of the body, when
the dimensions will, of coui-se, be somewhat greater : and it appears that all the
largest tigers on record have been measured in this manner. Full-grown tigers
thus measured vary from 9 to 10 feet in length ; and tigresses from 8 to
9 feet. Unusually fine specimens will, however, reach, or even slightly exceed, a
length of 12 feet: 12 feet 2 inches being apparently the maximum dimensions
ascertained with any apjiroach to accuracy. It is, however, by no means invariably
the case that tigresses reach the minimum length mentioned above, Mr. Blanford
stating that he killed one apparently adult example that was only 7i feet long,
•while a second measured but 7 feet 8 inches.

There is still need of additional information as to the maximum weight
attained by tigei-s. Sandei-son gave the weight of a fine male tiger killed by
himself as 3.50 lbs. ; while specimens weighed by the late Sir W. Elliot weighed 362
and 380 lbs. Forsyth concluded, however, that some unusually large tigers, which
fell to his own ritie, nmst have weighed from 450 to 500 lbs. These extreme
weights have, of late j^ears, been confirmed by Mr. W. T. Hornadaj-, who records a
tiger measuring 9 feet Hi inches in length, of which the weight was upwards of 495
lbs. The Maharaja of Kuch-Behar has killed tigers which are .stated to have varied
from 481 to 540 lbs. ; and one shot by Mr. F. Shilliugford, of which the length was
9 feet 10 inches, weighed a little over 520 lbs. The weight of a tiger depends, of
coui-se, largely upon the condition of the animal at the time of its death ; and if a
specimen under 10 feet in length will turn the scale at over 500 lbs., it ma}' be
taken as certain that those of 11 or 12 feet in equally good condition must reach
considerably heavier weights.

Although mainly, if not entirely, confined to Asia, the tiger has an extensive
geogi-aphical distribution on that continent and its islands. To the westward its
range appeai-s to be limited by the mountains of Ararat and the Caucasus, whence
it extends along the southern shores of the Caspian — the ancient Hyrcania — into
Northern Persia, the Herat district, and thence into Turkestan. Thence it ranges
over a large portion of Central Asia, embracing Southern Siberia, to a line some
distance north of Irkutsk, and the whole of Mongolia as far eastwards as Amur-
land and the Island of Saghalien. And its fossil remains have been obtained,
in company with those of the mammoth, from the Xew Siberian Islands lying
some distance within the Arctic Circle. From Mongolia the range of the tiger
extends southwards through China to Burma, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula ;
and it also embraces the Islands of Sumatra and Java, but not, it is said, Borneo.
Across the Assam district, at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, the
tiger ranges into India, where it is found from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya ;
although quite unknown in the Island of Ceylon. The whole of the elevated
plateau of Tibet forms, however, an island in its distributional area into which
the tiger does not intrude. And, as we learn from Mr. Blanford, it is
equally unknown in Afghanistan and Baluchistan, as well as in that portion
of Persia lying to the southward of the Elburz Mountains. From this extensive
distribution it is evident that the popular idea of regarding the tiger as a
tropical animal is quite erroneous. And it is even doubtful — in spite of the

376

CARXirORES.

world-wide reputation of the Bengal tiger — whether those inhabiting the
wanner regions are its most magnificent examples. In spite of this, the tiger
is so intimately associated with and characteristic of India, that it will always —
and rightly — be regarded as the special emblem of that country. Mr. Blanford
believes that the absence of the tiger from Ceylon may be taken as an indication
that the animal is a comparatively recent immigrant into Southern India, since
most of the other Indian Mammals are found on both sides of the Straits
of Palk.

Although in some of the more thickly populated districts of India, especially

'mMm

THE BEXG.iL TIGER (^ Uat. size).

those well supplied with railroads, such as parts of Bengal, the Central Provinces,
and Bombay, tigers have greatly decreased in numbers, or have well-nigh or
completely disappeared, in the wilder and more sparseh' inhabited districts they
are often still abundant. Indeed, wherever lai-ge tracts of forest and grass jungle
remain in India, there tigers are to be found in more or less abundance.

In the fever-stricken swamps and islands forming the so-called sandarbans of
Lower Bengal, tigers are especially common ; as they also are in the forests of
Burma and Assam. Formerly, Sir Samuel Baker tells us, they were to be met
with in the grassy islands of the Bramaputra, but the navigation of that river
by steamers has led to a large reduction in their numbers. In the fore.sts
flanking the easterly Himalaya, and known as the Terai, tigers still abound ; and

TIGER. 377

they will at times ascend in the mountains to heights of six thousand or seven
thousand feet above .the sea-level, althou(;h they are iinknown in the interior of
the Himalaya. In some parts of India it was necessary to take active measures
against them, in order to prevent the annihilation of the population. Thus a
recent writer states that in Manipur '' tigers used to be so numerous that the
inhabitants were formed into groups for the purpose of marking them down and
destroying them. This organisation still exists. The groups are called Jcai-7'oop,
and it is the duty of the chief of the hii-roop of the district to report to the raja
whenever a tiger appears within his jurisdiction ; the order is then given to
destroy him ; this is done by surrounding the patch of jungle in which he has
hidden, after killing a cow or deer, with strong nets. Outside these, tall bamboo
palisading is erected, and information is sent to the raja, who, if the place is within
easy distance, proceeds there with all his court, ladies included. The spectators are
ranged on seats at intervals at the top of the palisading, and the tiger is driven by
firebrands from his i-etreat, and either shot or speared. The MaTiipuris are very
keen at this sport, and I have seen them, despite a prohibition to the contrary,
descend into the area (perhaps a space of three hundred yai'ds, or e\en more, in
circumference) and, protected only by the net held i:p T)y a foi'ked stick in the left
hand, boldly attack the tiger with a spear. Generally, the real sport is sho^vn
with the spear, ahd the coup de grdcp given by a rifle shot. Anyhow, the
men engaged display great courage and coolness, and the whole attair is not
a vulgar piece of butchery but a game of skill, till a well-directed shot ends
it." Towards the western end of the Himalaya, where forests become mucli
thinner antl the whole country is much drier, tigers gradually become less
common: and in the Western Punjab and Sind tliey are either very rare or quite
luiknown.

In parts of Java and Sumatra tigers ab.solutely swarm : and a firm of
Dutch merchants at Padang, Sumatra, writing in the autumn of 1891, stated
that the arrivals of coffee from the interior were much below the usual
average, on account of the number of tigers infesting the route ; upwards of
fifty men ha\'ing been killed bj^ them while engaged in bringing the coffee
down country.

Writing of the distribution of these animals in Persia, the late Sir O. B. St.
John states that tigers, twenty yeai-s ago, were very numerous in the Caspian
provinces of Persia, and in the Caucasus as far as the mouth of the Araxes. The
dense vegetation, which although of a temperate character, yet attained a tropical
luxuriance, affording them shelter as perfect as that of the jungles of the Terai, or
the swamps of the sandarbans of Bengal.

Although when the animal is seen within the narrow limits of the cage of a
menagerie, or stuffed in the case of a museum, the brilliant coloration of the tiger
may appear conspicuous in the extreme, yet there is little doubt that in the native
haunts of the animal it is essentially of a protective nature. Sir J. Fayrer, in his
work, The Royal Tiger of Bengal, observes, that brilliant as is the general colour
of the tiger, " it is remarkable how well it harmonises with the grass bush among
which he prowls, and for which, indeed, until his charge, and the short deep growls
or barkings which accompany it, reveal his presence, he may be mistaken."

378 CARNIVORES.

Indeed, the vertical stripes of ta\vny orange and black on the skin of the tiger
harmonise so exactly with the broad blades of yellow grass, separated by e(iually
broad lines of blackest shade, that it is often difficult indeed to distinguish the
animal from his surroundings when seen in his native jungle during an Indian
siunmer. And, in this connection, it is notewoi-thy that the tigers of Northern
Asia, where dry grass-jungles like those of India are unknown, are stated to have
the ground colour of their skins of a much less brilliant hue.

The literature relating to the habits and mode of life of the tiger is even more
extensive than is the case with the lion : while that devoted to ticrer-shootino- is
simply appalling in quantity-. While the terms noble and majestic are those whicli
Avere formerly, and are often stiU applied to the lion, the epithets cunning and ci-uel
are moi-e generally assigned to the tiger ; while the word " tigerish " has become an
integral portion of our language to denote ferocious crueltj*. It maj- be doubted,
liowever, whether these epithets ai-e really more exclusively applicable to the one
than to the other animal, when the different conditions under which thej- live are
taken into account. It' is true, indeed, that the amount of damage done by tigers
is vasth' greater than that which can be charged to lions: but then it must be
remembered that, whereas the former frequently inhabit more or less densely-
populated districts, the latter ai-e often found in i-egions where there ai-e but few
human inhabitants, and but small numbei-s of cattle. Then again, the more
warlike nature of many of the African races, as compared with those of India, is
fatal to the existence of man-eating lions, whereas man-eating tigei-s in India are
frequently regarded with supei-stitious reverence, and no attempts are made at their
destruction.

Although there is a great difference in the habits of in<lividual tigers,
according to whether they live on wild game killed in the jungles, or on domestic
cattle, or are man-eaters, yet the whole of them have certain charactere in common.
Thus, as a rule, the Indian tiger is a solitarj' and unsociable animal, although at
certain seasons of the year the pairs of males and females associate more or less
closely together. In all cases the male consorts ■with but a single female : but it has
not j'et been definitely ascertained Avhether this union is permanent. Occasionally,
however, as many as four, five, or even six, full-grown tigei-s have been seen in
company : and it appears that these are always family parties, the cubs having
remained with their parents till grown up. Like the lion, the tiger is essentially
nocturnal, Ipng concealed in the long grass or forests till evening, and then
issuing forth for its nightlj' prowls. Their wanderings during the cold and wet
seasons at least are considerable, and it is considered by Sir J. FajTer that at such
periods of the year they have no fixed abodes. During the hot season, however,
when the whole country is burnt up ^\-itli the heat, and the smaller streams, pools,
and tanks are drj'', the range of the Indian tiger ' becomes much more restricted.
At such times it takes up one definite " beat." haunting the banks of tlie rivei^s, and
patches of long grass which are kept fresh and green by growing near M'ater, or
in swampy ground. And it is remarkable, as Sir Samuel Baker obser\'es, that
when a tiger with a restricted beat is killed, in the course of a few months another

1 As almost the whole of our knowledge of the habits of tigers is derived from India, our remarks apply in
great measure only to those of that country.

TIGER. 379

will occupy its place, frequenting the same lairs, and drinking at the same pools.
Grass-jungles and swamps are, however, by no means the sole haunts of the
tiger, which will frequent any kind of country that will atibrd the necessary
shelter and a plentiful supplj' of water. In addition to forests, tigers select as
their lurking-places, clefts and caves in rocks, the shelter aflbrded by a high bank,
or the grass-grown ruins of the numerous deserted cities to be found in many
pai'ts of the plains of Intlia. And it is curious to observe that in many cases
one particular rock, or one patch of grass, is always inhabited by a tiger, while
another, apparently equally suitable, has no such tenant. Moreover, in the plains
of India, wherever tigers are met with, thei-e will wild peafowl invariably be
found.

Tigers are extremely impatient of the tierce heat of the drj- season, and
always try to shelter themselves as much as possible from the burning rays of
the sun. This impatience of extreme heat, taken in conjunction with their
occurrence in comparatively cool climates, like those of Northern China,
Manchuria, and parts of Siberia, where the winters are severe, is in favour of the
view of Mr. Blanford, already mentioned, that these animals are comparatively
recent immigrants into a large poi-tion of India. To aid in mitigating the heat of
the dry season, tigers are in the habit of wallowing in the shallow water of swamps
and the margins of rivers, and then rolling in the dry sand after their mud-bath.
Such, at any rate, are their habits in th(! plains of Bengal, Assam, etc. ; but it has
been stated that on the Nilgiri Hills, in Southern India, tigers are never known to
wallow in this manner. Not only does the tiger indulge in such wallowings during
the hot season, but he is also an excellent swinnner, and will take readily to the
water. In the Bramaputra, M-here reedy and grassy islands and sandbanks,
locally known as ckiivs, intercept the course of the river, tigers, as Sir Samuel
Baker tells us, swim for miles during the night fi-om island to island in search of
prey, and if unsuccessful return at dawn to the mainland. They likewise display
very similar habits in the Bengal sandarbans, where they not unfrequently cross
small arms of the sea. Sometimes they are compelled to take involuntarily to the
water, as in the case of the great inundations in the valleys of the larger Indian
rivers, or when tidal waves overflow the low-lying lands bordering the Bay of
Bengal. On such occasions the unfortunate animals are often put to sore straits to
find a refuge from the waste of waters, and Sir Samuel Baker relates an instance
of a tiger, during an inundation on the Bramaputra, having climbed up during
the night on the high rudder of a vessel, much to the astonishment and alarm of
the native steersman, when he beheld his visitor in the morning. From this position
the tiger made his way to the deck of the steamer towing the barge, where he was
eventuallj" killed in the paddle-box.

In spite of its predilection for water, the tiger can, however, at a pinch endure
thirst for a considerable period, even in the hottest weather. As an instance of this
we may refer to an account given by Mr. G. P. Sanderson, where two tigere were
surrounded by nets in a small patch of jungle. " The weather," writes the narrator,
" was hot ; the circle in which they were enclosed was onlj- seventy yards in
diameter, and the heat of the fires kept up day and night all round was considerable.
Still they existed without a drop of water for ten days, suffering from wounds half

38o CARNIVORES.

the time. A tiger can go much longer than this without food without serious
inconvenience.' Like lions, tigers are bad climbers, ascending ti'ees but rarelj^ and,
according to Mr. Blanford, being quite incapable of ascending a vertical stem, no
matter what may be its dimensions. But, when aided by a sloping stem, or
by a fork at some distance from the ground into which they can spiing and
thence obtain a fresh start, tigers will occasionaDy attack sportsmen who
are waiting for them in trees. It is also stated that, when caught by inunda-
tions, tigers will endeavour to escape by climbing. Stems of trees, especially
certain particular favourites, are in tiger-haunted districts marked by the vertical
scorings in the bark made by the claw.-? of tigers ; these markings not uufrequently
extending to a height of at least ten feet.

The idea that tigers are in the general habit of springing appears to be a
popular delusion; and, according to Mr. Blanford, it is but rarely that thej- move
their hind-legs from the ground, except when they have occasion to clear a fence
or other obstacle. When so inclined, they are undoubtedly able to spring to a
considerable heiffht : and an instance is on record of a tiger ha\iug, at a sincjle
spring, pulled a native from a tree, at a distance of eighteen feet from the ground.
Mr. Sanderson gives fifteen feet as the maximum horizontal distance that a tiger
can spring. " The tiger's usual attack," writes Sir J. Faj-rer, '" is a rush, accom-
panied by a series of short deep growls or roars, in which he evidently thinks he
Avill do much by intimidation : when he charges home he rises on the hind-feet,
seizes with the teeth and claws, and endeavours and often succeeds in pulling down
the object seized." The mention of the tiger's attack reminds us that, according to
Sir Samuel Baker, it is but comparatively rai-e that one of these animals, M'hen
suddenly and unexpectedh' disturbed, will fly at a human being. "■ The truth is
that the tiger seldom attacks to actually kill, unless it is driven, or wounded in a
hunt. It will frequently charge with a short roar if suddenly disturbed, but it
does not intend to charge home, and a shout from a native "nnll be sufficient to turn
it aside ; it will then dash forward antl disappear, jjrobably as glad to lose sight of
the man as he is at his escape from danger."

In manj^ of the foregoing traits of character the tiger resembles more
or less closely the lion : but whereas the latter is an extremely noisy animal,
tlie former roars much less frequently. Mr. Blanford, ^^■ho has especially
called attention to this difference in the habits of the two animals, observes
that, where lions " are common, scarcely an evening passes without their being
repeatedly heard. I have often been in places where tigers were equally
abundant, but it is the exception for their roaring to attract attention. Their
usual call is very similar to that of the lion — a prolonged, moaning, thrilling sound,
repeated twice or thrice, becoming louder and quicker, and ending with three or
four repetitions of the last portion of it. Besides this there is a peculiar loud 'woof '
produced when the animal is disturbed or surprised, a growl that it uttei-s when
provoked, and the well-known guttural sound of rage repeated two or three times
when it charges. When hit by a bullet a tiger generally roai-s, but tigresses, at all
events, very often do not : I have on three occasions, at least, known a tigress receive
a mortal wound and pass on without making a sound. "

With regard to the breeding of tigers, it appears that the number of cubs

TIGER. 381

produced at a birth usually varies from t\\o to five, although it is said that there
are occasional instances where the litter includes as many as six. As the result of
his lone experience, Mr. Sanderson gives two as the usual number, three being
much rarer, and only two instances of four in a litter having come under his
personal observation. Mr. Blanford states, however, that he has on more than one
occasion seen four cubs. When there are but two, it appears that while one is a
male the other is a female ; and this general equality in the sexes of a litter renders
it difficult, as Mr. Sanderson remarks, to account for the large preponderance of
adult tigresses over tigers. Tigresses appear to breed at all times of the j^ear;
j-oung cubs having been taken by Mr. Sander.sou in the months of March, May, and
October. Tiger-cubs, which require a period of about three j'ears to attain
maturity', remain witli tlie tigers for tlie greater part of that time ; and, as already
mentioned, when several adult tigers are found together, the party is a family one.
Mr. Sandei-son is of opinion that the tigress does not breed oftener than once in
two years : while from tlie circumstance that the cubs do not attain maturity till
that period, Forsyth considered that once in three years was the minimum. In
captivity tigers breed much less freely than lions, and the cubs are far more
difficult to real'. Althougli when eauglit young tigers can be easily tamed, they
are more intractable tlian lions when taken at a later age.

The food of individual tigers varies greatly, according as they frequent un-
inhabited or populous districts. The typical jungle tiger lives chiefly upon tlie
various species of deer, wild pigs, and antelopes ; but it will kill domestic cattle,
and will also eat porcupines, monkeys, peafowl, and other small animals. Although
full-grown buffalo and gaur are usually a match for it, young or feeble individuals
not unfrequently fall victims to its attack ; and instances are recorded of young
elephants being killed and eaten. Ailult bull gaur are, however, occasionally
killed by tigers ; tlie latter, according to the report of native herdsmen, inducing
the bulls to charge time after time, when tliey are wounded as they pass by
a blow on the flanks from the tiger's paw. (Jld wiU boars will, it is .said, not
unfrequently succeed in wounding and beating ott' a tiger: and tin- herds of
buffaloes defend themseh'es Ijy forming in a lialf-eircle, witli the bulls facing the
foe. Moreover, even when a calf, or a weak or sickly adult individual lias been
carried off, the old buffaloes are reported to combine and follow the tiger and
rescue the victim from his clutches. Mucli more rarely tigers Mill kill and eat the
Indian bear : and Mr. Sanderson relates an instance of a tiger having habitually
taken to killing and eating those animals. That the male tiger will sometimes
devour his own offspring is well authenticated ; and Mr. Sanderson was informed,
on what he considers good authority, of an instance where three tigers devoured
another individual of their own species.

The "kill" of the tiger is frequently kept until, in the hot climate of India, it
assumes a putrid condition ; and, in addition to carrion of this nature, there is good
evidence that tigers will eat the decomposing flesh of animals other than those
killed by themselves. The tigers dwelling near villages are, unless they are
man-eaters, in the haliit of living more or less entirely on the small native cattle,
which are generally, and especially in the dry season, in miserable condition. In
Central Asia, where, according to Eversmann, the tiger is abundant in the reed-

382 CARNIVORES.

thickets on the east bank of the Sea of Aral and the Sir Darya, as well as in
the Kirghiz steppes, its chief food is derived from the wild s^vine which inliabit
those thickets, and also from the herds of wild asses and saiga antelope frequenting
the more open country. In these districts the tiger is much dreaded by the
nomadic inhabitants ; and it is said to attain dimensions considerably greater than
those which it reaches in warmer regions.

Much misapprehension has prevailed as to the mode in which tigers kill their
prey ; the ordinary notion that they spring upon their victims fi'om a distance, and
after killing them either by a blow fi-om the paw, or bj'' tearing at the throat
with their claws, and afterwards sucking the blood, being now proved to be
incorrect. Mr. Sanderson, who has paid particular attention to these points, and
whose explanation, although at variance with that of some other experienced
sportsmen, is now pretty generally accepted, writes as follows on the .subject : —
" I have never witnessed a tiger actually seize its pi'ey, but it has been described to
me by men who iiave seen the occurrence scores of times within a few yards'
distance while ten<ling cattle. The general method is for the tiger to slink up
under cover of bushes or long grass, ahead of the cattle in the direction they are
feeding, and to make a ru.sh at the first cow or bullock that comes within five or
six yards. The tiger does not spring upon his prey in the manner usually
represented. Clutching the bullock's fore-quarters with his paws, one being
generally over the .shoulder, he seizes the thi-oat in his jaws from underneath, and
turns it upwards and over, sometimes springing to the far side in doing so, to throw
the bullock over, and give the wrench which dislocates its neck. This is frequently
done .so quickly that the tiger, if timid, is in retreat again almost before the herds-
man can turn round. Bold animals often kill .several head, unsophisticated cattle
occasionally standing and staring at the tiger in stupid astonishment; but
herds that are accustomed to these raids only enter the jungle with extreme
unwillingness." Occasionally the tiger seizes its prey by the nape of the neck ;
the blow of his paw will, however, stun even a large animal : and it is quite
possible that cattle may be killed in this manner. Tigers will on rare occasions
kill buffalo and gaur, and similar prey, by hamstringing them, probably bj' a
blow with the claw.s. Such hamstrung animals are occasionally met with, but
the exact method in which it is accomplished remains unknown. The notion that
the tiger sucks the blood of his victim is a myth. The late afternoon is the time
at which cattle are usually seized by tigers when grazing in the jungles, although
they maj' be struck down at any time of the day. If killed during the daj'time
the carcase of the victim is usually left where it lies till evening. At nightfall, or
perhaps earlier, the tiger returns to the " kill," and either commences to devour
it at once, if the spot is sufficiently secluded, or proceeds to remove it to one
more convenient. The feast is commenced on the hind-quartei-s as a general
rule ; and, after he has satisfied his appetite, the tiger may either retire to a
convenient resting-place in the neighbourhood, from which it can rush out to
drive away jackals and other intruders from the "kill," or may completely conceal
it under bushes and leaves, and seek a more distant lair in the neighbourhood of
water. When it ha.s recovered from the eff'ects of its gorge, the tiger returns for
a second meal ; and it appears that in about three days the carcase is reduced to

TIGER. 383

little more than a skeleton. During the intervals between his meals, the tiger is
sluggisli and stupid, being with difficulty roused from his slumbers, and when so
awakened he is dull and indisposed to show tight.

Although it has been much exaggerated, the strength displayed by a tiger in
canying off his prey is enormous. The weight of the ordinary Indian cattle, accord-
ing to Sir Samuel Baker's estimate, may be set tlown roughly at from 3.50 to 400 lbs.
And although it is quite an error to suppose that a tiger can take a carcase of
that weight and carry it in his mouth without letting any portion of it drag on the
ground, at least at intervals, yet it is quite certain that he can carry it. Thus, Mr.
Sanderson relates liow a powerful tiger Jiad taken up and carried the carcase of a
bullock through a dense thicket for about three hundred yards ; while a smaller
tigress carried one in open jungle for a shorter tlistance. As a general rule, however,
the bodies ai-e dragged along the ground ; although this, when the nature of the
surface in Indian jungles is taken into account, is a sufficiently formidable task.

Forsyth considered it probable that a cattle-killing tiger destroyed a victim
about every fifth day ; three days being employed in feasting on the carcase and
resting in the intervals, while during the other two food was not specially sought.
This, when we remember the number of these animals in certain parts of India,
will give some idea of the losses they occasion. Acconling to a return issued by
Government, it appears that in the Madras Presidency, during the quarter ending
31st December 1891, the number of animals killed by tigers and leopards included
G.5G bullocks, 752 cows, 23G calves, 13.5 buffaloes, 10.5 sheep, and 10.3 goats. In
the returns for all India for one year, iluring which 1835 cattle were killed,
the total I0.SS was set ilown at a little short of 00,000 head, of which 20,000
were a.ssigned to tigers, and an equal number to leopards. Altiiough the man-
eating tiger is much more dreaded, the cattle -lifting tiger is regarded with
supreme indifference by the herdsmen of the districts it infests. " It is no
uncommon feat," observes a well-known popular writer, " for a party of jungle
herdsmen armed only with their iron-bound lathis, or quarter-staves, to boldlj' show
fight to the roj'al robber, and by sheer pluck ami gallant daring lieat him off from
some member of their herd that he may have attacked. Too frequently, to be sure,
some one or more of the number may pay dearly for their temerity, but it is an
apt illustration of the fact that men get inured to a commonly-incurred danger."
Mr. Blanford mentions that he once came across two children, of which the elder
was not more than eight or nine years of age, who had actually' been placed in the
jungle as a guard over the dead body of a bullock, to protect it from the return \isit
of the tiger by which it had been slain.

It has been considered that man-eating tigers, which generally belong to the
female sex, were invariablj' animals unable to procure other food, from the effects
of age. Although this is true in a very large number of instances, it appears tliat
tigers may take to man-eating from a variety of other causes. Thus either wounds,
excessive fat, or the fact of a tigress having had to bring up a family of cubs where
food is scarce, may be the original cause of the adoption of this mode of life.
According to Mr. Sanderson, all man-eaters were invariably at first cattle-stealers,
which gradually became accustomed to the sight and presence of man, and thus
lost their instinctive fear of the human race. When once a tiger has taken to

384

CARNIVORES.

man-eating, and has discovered ho-w easilj'' its victims are killed, it appears that it
ever afterwards hunts the same kind of prey, although only some individuals
confine themselves to this kind of food. Those tigers which are entirely or mainly
man-eaters inflict fearful havoc on the unfortunate natives among whom thej' have
taken up their quarters : an average native of India, as Sir Samuel Baker remarks,
forming by no means a hearty meal for a tiger.

All who have had to do with them are unanimous as to the extreme wariness
and caution of man-eaters, which from this cause are the most difficult to kill of
all tigers. The slightest iiistle or whisper on the part of the pursuer is, according
to Mr. Sanderson, sufficient to put the man-eater on its guard : and it is marvellous

THE STRUGGLE IN TUE STRE.\.M.

with what sagacity these animals distinguish between an armed sportsman and a
helpless unarmed native. " The man-eater," says Sir Samuel Baker, " will seize an
unsuspecting native by the neck, and will then drag the bodj- to some retreat in
which it can devour its prey in undisturbed security. Having consumed the hind-
quarters, thighs, and moi-e fleshy portions it will probably leave the bodv, and will
never return again to the carcase, but will seek a fresh victim, perhaps at some
miles distance, in the neighboui-liood of another village."

TIGER.

385

Formerly, before European sportsmen armed with rifles had access to most
parts of the country by means of railways, whole districts in India were either
depopulated or deserted owing to the ravages of man-eaters; and the sites of
hamlets abandoned from this cause are still visible in the jungles. Not unfrequently,
however, the cunning and caution of the man-eater baffles, at least for a time, all
the eftbrts of the European sportsman to encompass its destruction ; while there
are districts where one of these pests may continue its depredations for a long
period without coming under the notice of Europeans. The destruction of human
life by tigers, most of whicli are probably habitual man-eaters, is, indeed, still
deplorably large, especially in the more thinlj^-populated districts. According to
the Government returns, it appears that within a period of six 3-ears no less
than 4218 natives fell victims to tigers, while in the Central Provinces alone 285
were killed duiing the years 1868 and ISU'J. In regard to the ravages connnitted
by in<lividual man-eaters, a gentleman, writing from Naj-adunka to Sir J. Faj-rer,
states that "one tiger in 1867, 1868, 1869, killed respectively twenty-seven, thirty-
four, and forty -seven people. I have known it attack a party, and kill four or
five at a time. Once it killed a father, mother, and three children ; and the week
before it was shot it killed seven peojile. It wandered over a tract of twenty
miles, never remaining in the same spot two consecutive days, and was at last
killed by a bullet from a spring-gun when returning to feed on the body of one of
its victims." It will be observed that the concluding sentence of this account does
not bear out Sir Samuel Baker's statement that the man-eater never revisits its
" kill." The account of the depredations of another man-eater, which infested the
neighbourhood of the station of Naini-Tal in the Eastern Himalaya, states that
the animal " prowled about within a circle, say of twenty miles, and that it killed
on an average about eighty men per annum."

In order to rid themselves of the.se pests, the natives of India and other
countries have had recour.se to all kinds of traps and other devices. Among the.se,
pitfalls used to be a favourite methoil. According to Mr. Wallace, in Sumatra
the.se pits are made in the form of an iron-furnace, widtr at the bottom than at the
top, and from about fifteen to twenty feet in tlepth ; a sharpened stake being fixed
at the bottom. The top of the pit is then covered over with branches and leaves,
and so perfect is the concealment, that Mr. Wallace states that he has more
than once hail a narrow escape from falling into these pits. Indeed, one
unfortunate traveller was killed by a fall on to the sharpened stake, after
which that portion of the contrivance was foi-bidden. Large mouse-traj) cages
for catching tigers alive were formerly sometimes useil in certain parts of India ;
but Mr. Blanford states that these were moi'e succe.ssful in catching leopards than
tiger.s. Poisoning the " kill " of a tiger is also a method that has been more or less
successful ; while bows with poisoned arrows and spring-guns set in the tiger's
path have also been called into i-equisition. In certain parts of the Mysore district
Mr. Sanderson states that the villagers are in the habit of surrounding tigers with
nets, and then spearing or shooting them ; this, except watching, being the only
means by which they can be killed in covert which is too dense to admit of driving.
In Orissa, on the upper part of the Eastern Coast of India, and perhaps elsewhere,
the natives, according to Mr. Blanford, construct a gigantic figure-4 trap loaded

VOL. I. — 25

386 CARNIVORES.

■with a platform of heavy stones, that falls upon and crushes the tiger, after the
manner of the brick or tile trap used by gardeners in this country to kill field-
mice. In some of the older works relating to the tiger thex-e will be found cir-
cumstantial accounts of a method of capturing the animal Idj- smearing leaves with
bird-lime, which adheres to its face and paws, and thus renders it completely blind
and helpless ; but Sir J. Fayrer states that he is unaware of any authenticated
instance where this method has been put in practice.

No account of the tiger would be complete without some reference to the
modes of hunting or shooting adopted b}' Europeans and many of the native chiefs
and shikaris, but as all these are fully described in works more especiallj^ devoted
to sport, such reference will be of the briefest. One plan, especially favoured by
the native shikari, who is less impatient of a solitary night watch than most
Europeans, is to build a platform or inachan in a tree near the "kill," from which
the tiger may be shot on his return visit, a variation of tliis plan being to
construct the machan in any likely spot, and to tie up a goat, cow, or buffalo as a
bait. The uncertain light prevailing at the time of the tiger's visit renders
shooting from these machans far from certain. Throughout a large portion of
Beng-al, the North-West Provinces, Central Imlia, and the Terai-land at the foot of
the Himala}"a, where tigers are generally found in swamps and grass-jungle, — the
grass in the latter being often from eight to ten feet in height, — the common, and
indeed often the only practicable plan, is to beat the jungles with lines of
elephants ; the spoi'tsmen either shooting from their howdalis, or from machans
placed in trees in positions commanding the ways along which the tiger is
likely to bolt. In other districts, and more especially in parts of Bombay and
Madras, tiger-shooting is often undertaken on foot. And, as Sir J. Fayrer observes,
it is in this dangerous sport that fatal and serious accidents are likely to happen,
for no accuracy of aim or steadiness of nerve can always guard against or prevent
the i-ush of even a mortally wounded tiger, that in its very death-throes may
inflict a dangerous or fatal injury.

Stories of hair-breadth escapes from tigers, both when shooting on foot and
from the howdah, might be collected almost by the hundred, but would be foreign
to our purpose. We may, however, mention that in many parts of India the
tiger is regarded by the natives with a superstitious awe, \\'hich prevents them
from killing it, even when they have the power. As miglit be expected, this
awe is more developed among the superetitious Hindus than among the Moham-
medans. In all cases, however, it appears that the natives have no objection to
the slaughter of the tiger bj' Europeans. Frequently the tiger is regarded as
tenanted by a spirit rendering it immortal ; and in many districts the animal is
never mentioned by its proper name, sher or harfh, but invariablj' by some
euphemism. Closely connected with this superstition is the avidity with which
the claws, whiskers, front teeth, and the imperfect collar-bones of the tiger ai-e
collected and preserved as charms by the natives of many districts ; although,
by others they are held as deadly poisons, and are destroyed as soon as possible.
For these reasons a tiger-skin with the whiskers preserved is a rarity.

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LEOPARD.

387

f^^t^m

THE LKul'AKD (1^ U:U. sizc-j.

The Leopard {Felis pardus).

The tliircl in point of size of the OW World cats is the leopard, or panther,
a species closely allied to the lion and tiger, from whom it is at once dis-
tinguished by its coloration and inferior dimensions. In many works, written
more from the sporting than the pux-ely zoological point of view, it will be found
that two species of large spotted cats are recognised as inhabiting Africa and
India, to the smaller of which the name leopard is restricted, while the larger is
known as the panther. Although there is an enormous amount of difference
between the smallest and the largest of such spotted cats in jjoint of size, yet, in
the opinion of those who have paid most attention to the subject, the transition
from the one to the other is so gradual and complete that, in a large series of
specimens, it is quite impossible to say where leopards end and panthers begin.
Hence it is concluded that there is but a single species, for which the name
leopard should be adopted. The spotted coat of the leopard being its most
distinctive feature, the animal (in common with the hunting-leopard) is known to
the natives of India as the chita, meaning spotted ; the leopard, on account of its
larger size being often distinguished as the chita-bagh, or spotted tiger. By
Europeans the name chita (or cheetah) has been very generally restricted to the
hunting-leopard ; but, as the above remarks show, there is no justification for this

388 CARNIVORES.

use, and it is accordingly preferable to call each of the two animals \>\ its English
title. The ground-colour of the fur of the leopard is subject to considerable
individual variation, but it is generally of a yellowish-fawn, with a more or less
marked rufous tinge, becoming gradually lighter on the flanks, and thus passing
into pure white on the under-parts. The spots, which are very variable in size
and number, take the form of rosettes, and consist, on the upper -parts, of an
irregular black ring (nearly always inconi2:)lete), enclosing a briglit central area,
which may be of the same tint as the general ground-colour, but is not unfrequently
darker. On tiie head, lower portions of the limbs, and flanks (where they are
brownish), the spots have no light centres, and are smaller. The tail, of which the
length may vary from rather more than one-half to about three-quai-tere that of
the head and body, is likewise spotted throughout the greater part of its length ;
but at and near the tip the spots become larger and fewer, and tend to form more
or less nearly complete rings. Leopard cubs do not have the coloure so well
defined or so brilliant as in the adult animal. The hair on the head and body is
generally short and close, but tends to become longer when the animal inhabits
colder regions than usual, and tiiat on the tail and under-parts is always longer
than the rest. From this normal coloration an almost complete transition can be
observed to black leopards, which were at one time regarded as belonging to a
distinct species. Perfectly black leopards have been only found hitlierto in Asia,
and appear to be more common in the hills of Southern India, and the llalaj^
Peninsula and islands, than elsewhere. The .skin of such black specimens, when
viewed in certain lights, invariably exhibits a kind of '■ watered-silk " apjiearance,
due to the presence of the spots, in which the hair has a still deeper tinge of black
than elsewhere. That such black leopards are nothing more than Aarieties is
proved by instances where a female of the ordinarj- colour has given birth to a
litter, among which was a black cub. One such instance is recorded by
Mr. G. P. Sanderson as having taken place at the Zoological Gardens at Amsterdam,
where a female gave birth to one spotted and one black cub.

Although no perfectly black leopards have ever been founil in Africa, yet
there occui-s in the southern portion of that country a rare variety which exliibits
a more or less strongly marked tendency towards blackness. One such specimen
was described in 1885 by Dr. Giinther, wliich was obtained in hilly land covered
with scrub-jungle, near Grahamstown. Tlie ground-colour of this animal was a
rich tawny, with an orange tinge : but the spots, instead of being of the usual
ro.sette-like form, were nearly all small and .solid, like thase on the head of an
orchnary leopard ; while from the top of the head to near the root of the tail the
spots become almost confluent, producing the appearance of a broad streak of black
running down the back. A second skin, figured by the same writer in the following
year, had the black area endDracing nearly the whole of the back and flanks,
without showing any trace of the spots, while, in those portions of the skin where
the latter remained, they were of the same form as in the first specimen. Two
other specimens are known; the whole four having been obtained from the
Albany district. It will thus be apparent that these dark-coloured African leopards
difler from the black leopards of Asia, in that while in the latter the rosette-
like spots are always retained, and are always visible, in the former the rosettes

LEOPARD.

389

are lost (as, indeed, is to a considerable extent often the case with ordinary' African
leopards), and all trace of spots disappears from the blacker portions of the skin.
It is, however, iiotewoi-thy that in both countries these leopards are found in hilly
regions, more or less tlaickly covered with jungle, from which it would seem that
such districts are in some way connected with tlie abnormal development of
dark colour. Far rarer than black leopards, are white ones, and but very few have

BLACK LEOPARD (^ nat. size).

been met with. In addition to these black and white varieties of the leopard,
there are minor variations noticeable in the skins of specimens from ditierent
places. In the first place, as Mr. Blanford observes, African leopards always
have smaller and more solid spots than the Indian animal, so that the sknis of
the two can be distinguished at a glance. Then there is a race of Persian leopards,
also found in Baluchistan and Sind, in which the fur is longer, and the tail
thicker than ordinary ; while the coloration is intermediate between that of the
ordinary leopard and the ounce. Further, according to the author just men-
tioned, the leopards from Peninsular India have less richly-coloured skins than

390 CARNIVORES.

those inhabiting the damp forests of the Himalaya, Bengal, Assam, and Bunna ;
and the spots on them ai-e as a rule much smaller. Two leopards, the
one from China and the other from Persia, described by M. A. Milne-Edwards,
were remarkable for the circumstance that the markings on the flanks were more
like rings than rosettes, while the tail in each case was shorter than the body
alone.

The differences in the size of individual leopards is so great that while in the
smallest examples the total length of the head, bod}', and tail does not exceed
5 feet, in the largest it reaches to as much as 8 feet. In a large male, of which
the total length was 7 feet 1 1 inches, the head and body measured 4 feet 9 inches,
and the tail 3 feet 2 inches.

The leopard is one of the three larger cats which are common to India and
Africa : the other two being the lion and the hunting-leopard. The distribution
of the leopard is, however, more extensive than that of the lion, embracing nearly
the whole of Asia, from Persia to Japan, Ijut not extending as far north as Siberia ;
while the animal is unknown on the high plateau of Tibet, where almost all the
Mammals belong to peculiar species not found elsewhere.

Leopards occur over almost the whole of India, although absent from
parts of Sind and the Punjab : and they are abundant in Ceylon, Bumia,
and the islands of the Malayan region. Westward they extend into Persia,
Palestine, Arabia, and Syria, and thence into Africa, where they range from
Somaliland and Algeria to the Cape Colony. This is, however, not all, since the
evidence of fossil bones found in the caverns and supei-ficial deposits of Western
Europe proves that the leopard (or, at all events, a large cat of which the bones
and teeth are indistinguishable from those of a leopard) fomierly ranged as far
west as Great Britain, France, and Spain. Its distribution is and was considerably
more extensive than that of the lion, which, as we have seen, never extended
eastwards of the Bay of Bengal : and it is larger than that of any other member
of the Cat family except the l\-nx.

Next to the tiger in India, and to the lion in Africa, the leopard is the most
formidable Carnivore (exclusive in India of bears) to be found in either countrj\
In its habits it differs essentially from both the lion and the tiger in that it is
thoroughly- at home in trees, running up a straight-stemmed and smooth-barked
trunk with the speed and agility of a monkey. Moreover, the leopard is a much
more active animal than the tiger, frequently taking tremendous leaps and springs,
Mr. Sanderson is of opinion that the Indian leopard, although its powers of offence
are far inferior to those of the tiger, is in some re.spects a more dangerous animal,
as it is roused with less provocation, and is more courageous in attacking those who
disturb its repose. The favourite resort.s of the Indian leopard are rocky hills
covered with scrub, among whieh it seeks secure hiding in caves and under over-
hanging masses of i-ock. From strongholds such as these, writes Mr. Sanderson,
the leopards in Southern and Central India " watch the surrounding country
towards sunset, and descend ^^•ith astonishing celeritj- and stealth, under co\er of
the rocks, to cut off any straggling animal among the herds or flocks on their
return to the village at nightfall. From their habit of lurking in the vicinity of
the habitations of man, to prey upon cattle, ponies, donkeys, sheep, goats, and

LEOPARD.

391

dogs, leopards ^ are frequently brought into collision -u-ith Indian villagers : and a
leopard being mobbed in a garden, or field of sugar-cane or standing corn, from
which he will charge sevei-al times, and bite and claw half a dozen before he is
despatched or makes his escape, is no unconnnon occurrence in India. At night
leopards frequently find their way into goat-folds or calf -pens, climbing over walls
or the roofs of native huts in their burglai-ious inroads, and carrying ofl:' their prey
with great boldness and agilitj'. They appear to have a peculiar ^jchoAo Hi for
dogs ; and I have known many villages in parts of ilj'sore where leopards were
numerous, in which not a dog was to be found, or perchance but one or two,
which would be pointed out by their owners as very lucky ones, they having

LEOPARD 0.\ THE PKOWL.

escaped sometimes from the very clutches of their unceasing foe, whilst their
companions had successively fallen victims to his stealthy attacks."

This partiality of the leopard for dogs seems to be characteristic of the animal
fi'om one eml of India to the other, and there are many instances on i-ecord where
leopards in the hill-stations have swooped down in broad daylight and carried off
pet dogs from before the very eyes of their European masters or mistresses. It is
but rarel}- that leopards take to man-eating, but instances do occur, one of which
came under the notice of the present writer some j'ears ago, when a leopard carried
off a considerable number of persons from a village in Kashmir. In Africa the
general habits of the leopard appear to be very much the same as in India, Sir
Samuel Baker relating how, on one occasion, a dog was carried off from the very
middle of his camp by one of these marauders.

In addition to dogs, which can, of course, be obtained only in the neighbour-

1 In this extract we omit Mr. Sanderson's use of the word panther whenever he refers to the leopard.

392 CARNIVORES.

liooJ of villages, leopards prey largelj^ upon the langurs and other monkeys which
haunt the rockj' hills. Indeed, few animals come amiss in the way of food ;
about the largest wliicli he is capable of killing being the sambar deer, or an
Indian bullock.

In killing its prey, the leopard, writes Sir Samuel Baker, seizes bj^ the throat,
and clings with tenacious claws to the animal's neck, until it succeeds eitlier in
In-eaking the spine or in strangling the victim, should the bone resist its strenotli.
When the animal is dead, the leopard never attacks the hind-quarters tiret, accoid-
ing to the custom of the tiger, but it tears the belly open and drags out all the
viscera, making its first meal upon the heart, lungs, liver, and in.side generallj-. It
then retreats to some neigiibouring liiiling-place, and, if undisturbed, it will return
to its pi'ey a little after sundown on the following day. Mr. H. Hunter remarks
that in Africa the leopard nearly always puts the remains of his '* kill " up a
tree, probably for the pui-pose of protecting it from the attacks of hyaenas. On
one occasion the skeleton of a lesser kudu antelope was found in the fork of
a branch, which it was believed had been placed there by a leopard, and Mi.
Hunter on several occasions saw one of these animals descending from a tree.

It has }-et to be mentioned that the leopard does not display that marked
partiality for the neighbourliood of water so characteristic of the tiger, many of its
liaunts in the hills being in districts which are absolutelj- dry. On occasion,
however, it will take to the water as readily, and swim as well as a tiger.
Althougli usually found singly or in paii-s, leopards, in Africa at least, may some-
times be found in parties compri.sing several full-grown individuals; jirobabl}-,
however, these are all members of a single family. The leopard is a still more
silent animal tlian the tiger, seldom giving vent to anj^ sound, except when dis-
tvirljed or cliarging an enemy, wiien it utters a sliort roar. According to Captain
Baldwin, who is supported by Mr. Blauford, its real crj', which is but seldom
heard, is quite different from the roar of a tiger, and takes the fomi of a harsh
noise, something between a grunt and a cough, which is repeated three or
four times. In India the female leopard gives birth to its young in the spring,
during the months of February- and March, two, three, or four cubs composing a
litter. Young leopards are said to be more difficult to tame than either lions or
tigers, and the adult when in captivity always display's an uncertain and morose
disposition.

With regard to leopard-hunting. Sir Samuel Baker observes that " it is far
more difficult to circumvent a leopard than a tiger. The latter seldom or never
looks upwards to the trees, tlierefore it does not perceive the hidden danger when
the hunter is watching from his elevated post : but the leopard approaches its ' kill '
in the most wary and cautious manner, crouching occasionally, and examining
every yard of the ground before it, at the same time scanning the overhanging
boughs, which it so frequently seeks as a place of refuge. Upon many occasions,
when the disappointed watcher imagines that the leopard has forsaken its ' kill,'
anil tliat his patience will not be unrewarded, the animal maj- be closelj' scanning
him from the dense bush, under cover of which it was noiselessly approaching. In
such a case the leopard would retreat as .silentlj- as it had advanced, and the watcher
would return home from a fruitless vigil, under the impression that the animal had

SNOW-LEOPARD.

393

never been witliin a niilo of his position. . . . Tliere is very little sport affonJeil l)^-
this stealthy animal, and it is almost useless to organise a special hunt, as it is
impossible to form any correct opinion respecting its localitj^ after it lias killed an
animal. It may either be asleep in some distant ravine, or among the giant
branches of some old tree, or beneath the rocks of some adjacent hill, or retired
■within a cave, Ijut it has no special character or custom that would guiile the
hunter in arranging a beat according to the usual rules in the case of tigers."

Leopards are, however, much less suspicious of traps than are tigers, and still
more so than lions, and, accordingh', a large number are thus caught. In India
they are frequently taken alive in the cage-traji, to which we have already referred
under the head of the tiger ; such ti'aps being generally baited with a dog, goat, or
calf, which attracts the leopai'd by its cries. In Africa a trap like a large fox-trap
is, liowever, generally employed ; and so bold iu some parts are leopards that Mr.
Hunter states that once during dinner-time he caught one in a trap which was
set within fifteen vards' distance of the table at which lie was sittint;".

'hM

THE SNOW-LEOPARD {^ Dat. size).

The Sxow-Leopaed, or Ouxce {Fdis uncia).

The snow-leopard, or ounce, has been known to .science for more than a century,
but its habitat was long a mystery. This splendid animal is nearly allied to the
leopard, from which it differs in the more arched form of the .skull, as well as in
coloration and its much longer fur. The long fur is tliick, and almost of a woolly
nature ; the ground-colour of the upper-parts being a pale whitish-grey, occasionally
with a faint yellow tinge, passing into pure white beneath. The black spots are
much larger than those of the leopard, and over the greater part of the skin form

394

CARNIVORES.

irregular rosettes, -with the central area of each generally' rather darker thaia the
ground-colour of the fur. As in the leopard, the spots on the head, the lower
portions of the limbs, and the extremity of the tail have no hght-coloured centres.
A black streak extends from near the middle of the back to the root of the tail.
The tail itself is remarkable for the length of its fur, scarcely diminishing in
diameter from root to tip. The length of a specimen noticed by Mr. Blanford
was 7 feet 4 inches, of which 3 feet were occupied by the tail.

The snow-leopard inhabits the elevated regions of Central Asia. In Ladak it does
not descend below the level of some nine thousand feet above the sea-level in winter,
while in summer it ranges to a height of eighteen thousand feet and upwards ; in
the Gilgit district of the North-West Himalaya it is reported, however, by Dr.
Scully to descend as low as six thousand feet in winter. The long and thick fur is
speciallj- adapted to protect the animal against the severe winter cold of the regions
it inhabits. The beauty of the fur of a snow-leopard killed during the winter is
unrivalled.

The northern range of the snow-leopard extends to the Altai ^Mountains and
some distance beyond, while to the north-east it embraces Amurland and the
Island of Saghalien. The animal is probably found all over Tibet, but how far to
the westward of Gilgit it extends is at present unknown. It has, indeed, been
reported from Persia and Armenia : but it has now been ascertained that, so far as
the latter country at least is concerned, this is owing to the long-haired varietj' of
the leopard refen-ed to above having been mistaken for the ounce.

Our knowledge of the habits of the snow -leopard is at jiresent but limited,
since comparatively few Europeans have seen the animal in its wild state. From
living in a practically treeless country, it is probable that it is unable to
climb. It preys chiefly upon wild sheep, and goats, and mamiots, and other
Rodents : it wages war upon domestic sheep and goats when grazing upon the
higher grounds ; and it will likewise, it is said, occa.sionally attack ponies. It is
reported never to molest man. The writer once saw a snow-leopard in Ladak
at a considerable distance. Only one living example of this animal has hitherto
been brought to England. This was a young one, believed to have come from
Bhutan, which was purchased by the Zoological Society in 1891, but did not long
survive its arrival.

The Jaguar {Felis onca).

The jaguar is the largest representative of the Cat family inhabiting the New
World, being somewhat superior in size to the leopard, and having a relatively
larger head. It agrees with the two preceding species in the ornamentation of the
fur taking the form of large rosette-like dark spots, enclosing lighter centres ; and
likewise in the circular form of the pupil of the eye. The spots are, however, con-
siderably larger than in the leopard ; the ring of each being usually formed of a
number of small spots, while the light centre of each I'osette contains one or more
spots. Moreover, the rosettes are ai-ranged in from seven to eight longitudinal
I'ows on each side of the bod}'. The ground-colour of the fur is usually of a rich
tan, the same tint obtaining in the middle of the rosettes. There is, however, a

>

>

CD

JO

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JAGUAR. 395

considerable amount of in(li\i(lual variation in the general colour, and also in the
arrangement of the spots. Examples from the more southern portions of the
animal's range are stated to tend to a more yellow hue, sometimes becoming almost
■white : while in the region of the Orinoco there is, according to Humboldt, a darker
variety, in which the dark brown fur is marked with scarcely distinguishable black
spots, and some indi\-iduals are completely black. A variety from Mexico is
characterised by the distance at which the small spots which ordinaril}' constitute
the rings are placed from one another, so that complete rings or rosettes of spots
only occasionally occur.

The skull may be distinguished at a glance from that of any of the other large
cats by the presence of a well-marked tubercle near the middle of the inner side of
tlie socket of the eye or orbit. The total average lengtli of the jaguar may be set
down at about 6 feet 2 inches, of wliich the tail occupies 2 feet 1 inch, e(|ual to about a
third the length of the head and Ixxly. A large example measured by the naturalist
Azara had, however, a total lengtli of 6 feet 9 inches, of wliicli the tail occupied
2 feet 2 inches: while a .still larger specimen is said to liave inea.sured upwards of
5 feet from the tip of th nose to the root of the tail. The range of the jaguar
embraces the whole of the countrj- Ij'ing between the noi-th of Mexico and Texas
and the northern parts of Patagonia ; its southern limit coinciding approximately
with tlie fortieth parallel of soutli latitude.

The jaguar is one of the most expert climbei-s among the larger cats ; and it is
stated by Humboldt, on the authority of the natives, that in certain districts of
South America, where the forests are subject to inundation, and the trees stand so
thickly tliat the passage from one to another is perfectly eas}% the jaguar will
sometimes take to an arboreal life, preying upon the troops of monkej's that
inhabit the forest.s. All writers are agreed as to its ferocious nature and likewise
as to its noisiness, Humboldt speaking very feelingly as to the loudness and fre-
quency of its cries ; but there is no record of its having attacke<.l human beings
without provocation.

Darwin states tliat in the forest districts of South America its favourite
haunts are the wooded banks of rivei-s and the reed-clad margins of lakes. And it
appears that in general tlie neighbourhood of water is as essential to its well-being
as it is to that of the tiger. But in the pampas of Argentina the jaguar inliabits
a district wliere M-ater is scarce, ami where trees are practically unknown : and it
is. evidently capable of modifying its habits to a considerable extent in accoi-dance
with its surroundings. Writing of its occurrence in the pampas, ]Mr. W. H.
Hudson, in his charming work, The Naturalist in La Plata, observes that prob-
ably only an extreme abundance of Mammalian prej^ which has not existed in
recent times, could have tempted an animal of the habits of the jaguar to
colonise this cold, treeless, and comparatively waterless desert.

In the well-watered districts it is stated that the jaguar will sometimes prey
to a considerable extent upon fish ; and Humboldt relates that it is partial to the
eggs of the turtles which are so abundant on the Oi-inoco, and even to the turtles
themselves, the flesh of which it scoops out with its paw from the shell. According
to Darwin, in similar districts its common prey is the capybara, and when
this animal is abundant, it seldom attacks any other. The mode of killing its

396 CARNIVORES.

prey is invariable. Leaping to the back of the victim, the jaguar, by a rapid
movement of the fore-paws, twists its head round and breaks its neck. When
the islands they usually inhabit are flooded, as is frequently tlie case, jaguar.s
resort to the mainland to assuage their hunger, and are never so terrible as at such
periods. There is a stoiy that one of these gaunt famished creatures finding the
door of the church of St. Fe open, went into the building. Two priests entering one
after tlie other were killed ; and a third, forewarned by the sounds of crunching
and growling, escaped by a miracle. No one daring to go into the church to destroy
the monster, a portion of the roof was taken off, and a deadlj' bullet aimed at him
through the breach. At such times jaguars also prey largely upon cattle and horses.
If driven from a carcase they will seldom return to it, preferring to hunt down
another animal. When on the Amazon, Bates records how he once surprised a
jaguar which had just made a meal off an alligator, the onlj'- parts of the reptile
which were left unconsumed being the head, fore-quarters, and the solid bony
armour.

Referring to the habit of scoring the bark of trees with its claws, possessed by
the jaguar in common with other cats, Darwin observes that, " one day when
huntino- on the Urucjuav, I was shown cei-tain trees to which these animals con-
stantljr repair, for the purpose, it is said, of sharpening their claws. I saw three
well-known trees. In front the bark was worn smooth, as if by the breast of the
animal, ami on each side there were deeji scratches, or rather grooves, extending in
an oblique line, nearly a }-ard in length. The scars were of diflferent ages. A
common method of ascertaining \\hether a jaguar is in the neighl^ourhooil, is by
examining the.se trees. I imagine that this habit of the jaguar is exactly similar to
that which may any day be seen in the common cat, as with outstretched leg and
extended claws it scrapes the legs of a chaii\ Some such habit must also be
common to the puma, for on the bare hard soil of Patagonia I have frequently seen
scars so deep that no other animal could have made them. The object of this
jjractice is, I believe, to tear off the ragged points of their claws, and not as the
Guachos think, to sharpen them."

Like the other large cats, the jaguar takes to the water readily, and swims
well. Its cry. whicli cannot be correctly described as a roar, is loud, deep,
and hoar.se, and has been coiiipai'ed to a series of repetitions of the syllables, pii,
Jill, pu. From two to four cubs are produced at a birth, which takes place about
the end of the yeai-. It is generally regarded as being of an utterly untamable
disposition, even when captured young. Lady Florence Dixie succeeded, however,
in rendering one of these animals perfectly docile, and even afiectionate.

A peculiar animosity to the jaguar is displayed in the pampas by its near
relative the puma, Mr. Hudson observing that, " it is well known that where the
two species inhabit the same district thej* are at enmity, the puma being the
persistent persecutor of the jaguar, following and harassing it as a tyrant-bird
harasses an eagle or hawk, moving about it with such rapidity as to confuse it,
and, when an opportunity occurs, springing upon its back, and inflicting terrible
wounds with teeth and claws. Jaguars with scarred backs are frequently killed,
and others, not long escaped from their tormentors, have been easily overcome by
the hunters." Tliis is the more remarkable since the puma is an animal of far

FUMA. 397

inferior size ami power to its adversary, althougli what it lacks in jiower it makes
up in agility.

The Guachos of South America are in the habit of capturing the jaguar with
the lasso ; and Mr. Hudson relates a curious instance of how one of these fierce
animals was absolutely paralysed with fear, induced by a party of hunters who
intended to capture it in this manner. These hunters had started the jaguar in an
outlying district of the pampas, and it had taken i-efuge in a dense clumjj of dry
reeds. " Though they could see it," writes Mr. Hudson, " it was impossible to throw
the lasso ovtr its head, and after vainly trving to dislodge it, they at length set fire
to the reeds. Still it refused to stir, but lay with head erect, fiercely glaring at
them thi'ough the flames. Finally it disappeared from sight in the lilack smoke ;
and when the fire had burnt itself out. it was found dead and charred in the same
spot." Similarly, Livingstone relates ho\\- one of the harnessed antelopes of South
Africa will lie close among burning reeds until its horns and hair are singed : both
these instances being examples of the jiaralj'sing efiects of fear, analogous to that
which causes a wolf when caught in a pit to lie perfectl}' still, even under the
infliction of severe blows, as if simulating death.

Finally, it m&y be mentioned that, with the usual propensity for applying Old
World names to New World animals and places, the jaguar is commonly known to
the European inhabitants of South America as the tiger.

The Puma {Fells concolor).

As the jaguar in America usurps the name of the tiger, so its compatriot
the jjuma is generally known there either as the lion, or the panther, or, as corrupted,
painter. The animal is also known, more especially in works of natural hi-^tory,
as the couguar or cougar, which was abbreviated by the French naturalist Buftbn
from the Brazilian cufjuacu-ara or ciujuacuarasua. Puma appears to be the
native Peruvian name, and is the one usually adopted by English-speaking
zoologists. Next to the jaguar, the puma is the largest of the American cats ; and
it is the only large unspotted representative of the genus in the Western
Hemisphere. From its extensive geographical range, the puma, as Mr. F. W. True
well remarks, may be regarded as the most characteristic mammal of America. In
form, it is distinguished by the great relative length of the body, and the lithe
build. The general colour of its fur is a unifomi tawny, passing into whitish on
the under-parts of the body ; but the)-e is a darker streak running along the middle
of the back, and the extremity of the tail is dusky brown. The outer surfaces of
the eai-s are black, with a whitish area near the middle ; while the Avhite upper lip
is characterised by the presence of a conspicuous black spot in the middle line. In
marked contrast to the black nostrils of the other large cats, those of the puma are
flesh-coloured. Such is the general coloration, but it has been observed that, at
least in North America, there is a seasonal variation in the colour of the fur, which
assumes in summer a redder, and in winter a greyer tint. There is, moreover,
considerable individual variation in tliis respect ; but it does not appear that there
is any constant difference dependent upon locality. Thus individuals of a yellowish-
grey and yellowish-bi-own colour are not uncommon, while much more rarely others

398

CARNIVORES.

of a brown, tind nearly, if not cjuite, black hue are sometimes met with. Others,
again, may be nearly white ; and it is stated that albino pumas have been found
in the Alleghany- Mountains and New Mexico, but Mr. True, who has done so much
to advance our knowledge of the species, states that this is not authenticated.
Somewhat curiously, it does not appear that the pelage of the puma varies in the

■', 'y;,,iTy>^^'^/''^/-y,%<///^yy^:^'f/i^^^^^ I'ii I: I ''I. /''/'//'/ '■'

THE PUMA (iV uat. size).

length of the fur according to the tempei-ature of the regions it inhabits, the
animal being in this respect unlike the tiger.

The colour of young puma cubs is very different from that of the adult, the fur
on the body and limbs being marked with large blackish-brown spots, while the
tail is ringed with the same colour. These spots and rings remain more or les.s
distinct till the cubs are about six months old, when they disappear to a greater
or smaller extent, although they can generally be traced till the animal is mature,
and may in some .instances, especially when the fur is viewed in certain lights,
continue through life. The presence of these spots in puma cubs is important, as

FUMA. 399

showing that the uniform coloration of the adult is an acquired feature, and
that the ancestors of the species were doubtless spotted at all ages.

In regard to the dimensions of the puma, it is stated by Mr. True tliat a male
preserved in the museum at Washington has a total length (measured along the
curves of the borly) of 6 feet 7i inches, of which 2 feet 2i inches are occupied by
the tail. A large male killed in Arizona measured 7 feet in total length, of which
3 feet was occupied by the tail ; while a smaller male from the same locality had a
total length of only 6 feet, of which the tail took up 1 foot 11 inches. The largest
individual of which the measurements can be regarded as authenticated was one
killed in Texas in the year 1846, of which the total length was 8 feet 2 inches, the
length of the tail being 3 feet 1 inch. It is stated that a stuffed specimen
measures 9 feet 1 inch in total length, while Mr. W. A. Perry considers that the
length may in some instances be as nuicli as 11 feet, which appears, however,
somewhat improbalile.

The geographical range of the puma in latitude is probably greater than tliat
of any other Mammal, extending from New England and British Columbia in tlie
north, to the extreme end of Patagonia in the south ; while Mr. W. H. Hudson is of
opinion that it has also occurred in Tierra del Fuego. According to Mr. True, in
North America it does not even appear to have been met with in the states of New
Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jei-sey, or Delaware, on the Atlantic coast, nor in
Michigan or Indiana in the north. Another recent writer states that it is still
abundant in Northern California, Oregon, Washington, Britisli Columbia, and
Alaska, and that it is most numerously represented in northern Wasliington,
where it attains its largest size, and where the abundance of deer, grouse, and
rabbits, and also of fish in the rivers, afford it an inexhaustible supply of food, in
Ohio the puma was exterminated previously to the year 1838, while it appeal's to
have become more recently extinct in the states of Illinois and Indiana. Like
many of the other will I animals of the United States, the puma is rapidly retreating
before the advance of civilisation and cultivation, and it is probable, as Mr. True
remarks, that in several of the more thicklj'-populated states not even stragglers
now remain. In South America it appears to be abundant both in the forest
districts of the great rivers, and likewise on the desei-t pampas ; and in the latter
area it largely exceeds the jaguar in numbers.

As might have been predicted from its immense geographical range, the puma
is remarkable for its power of adapting itself to different climatic conditions and
external surroundings. For instance, in the Adirondack Mountains, near New
York, where it is now nearly exterminated, the puma has to withstand a severe
winter cold, during which it has to track its prey in the snow ; and this is also still
more markedly the case in the regions near the northern limits of its range. On
the other hand, the animal is equally at home in the hot and fetid swamps and
cane-brakes bordering the rivers of the southern United States, while in South
America it is to be found alike on the treeless grassy pampas of Argentina and in
the forests of the Amazon. Then, again, in the Rocky Mountains, it is stated, on the
authority of Mr. W. T. Hornaday, that the puma will ascend to the high elevations
inhabited by the bighorn sheep, and its tracks have been observed on the summit
of Mount Persephone in California, at a height of three thousand feet abo\-e the

400

CARNIVORES.

sea-level, and in the Chilian Cordillera at an elevation of not less than ten thousand
feet. In the Peruvian highlands the puma is also found in the highest forests, and
even occasionally ascends to the limits of perpetual snow, while in the dense
mountain-forests of Central America it is commonly found as liigh up as eight
or nine thousand feet.

As a rule, throughout the widely different i-egions included in its range, the
puma selects for its lair localities affording a certain amount of concealment and
protection, usually preferring thickets and copses to dense forests. In Mexico it
has been observed that these animals ai-e always met with in the most solitary
spots, especially such as have a cover of thick bushes, or where there are rocks with
caves. In the pampas of Argentina the puma probabl}^ has to make the best of
the cover afforded by the tussocks of tall grass, or by the banks of the river-coui-ses.

In respect of the daring, or otherwise, of the puma, there is a considerable
amount of discrepancy' in the accounts of different writers. It is, however, probable
that this divei-sity of view is mainly owing to the general refusal of the creature to
attack human beings having been regarded as indicative of its general character,
althougli diversity of habit in the southern and northern portion of its range is
probably also in some degree a factor in the case. Writing of the animal's habits
in South America, Mr. Hudson observes that, although the puma is iindoubtedly
possessed of marvellous courage and daring, yet the account given long ago by the
naturalist A^ara, that it will never attack or threaten to hurt either man or
child, even when found asleep, is not only true, but actually undei-stated. As
a matter of fact, not only will the puma refrain from attacking man, but
it will not even defend itself against him. It is from this circumstance that, in
South America at any rate, the puma has earned its reputation for arrant cowardice.
That it is in other respects a bold animal in South America Mr. Huilson unhesitat-
inglj'' asserts, and he backs this opinion by stating that the puma in\ariably prefers
large to small game, in desert regions killing peccaries, tapii-s, deer, huanacos, rhea.s,
etc. The number of huanacos killed by pumas in Argentina is attested by the
number of their skeletons found on the pampas witli dislocated necks, while, except
in recrions where prev is scarce, the number of slaujrhtered deer, with oulv the
flesh of the breast eaten, shows the puma's fastidious habits. Those, obser\-es
Mr. Hudson, who have ever hunted the huanaco on the sterile plains and
mountains know how wary and keen-scented it is, and consequently what powei-s
of endurance and skill its pursuit must entail on the part of the pui-suer.

In the parts of South America where cattle and horses are largely bred the
puma is a terrible scourge. Indeed, so partial is it to horse-flesh, that in some parts
of Patagonia it is almost impossible to breed horses owing to the destniction
of their colt.s. An instance is related of a jjuma springing on a colt among a drove
in charge, of a driver, and killing it so suddenly by dislocation of the neck that
tlie unfortunate animal was actually dead before it fell to the ground. It further
appears that in districts where pumas abound the semi-wild hoi-ses of South
America can scarcelv maintain their existence, owing to the slautrhter of their colts :
and this leads Mr, Hudson to suggest that the indigenous hoi-ses, which inhabited
South America tluring the Pleistocene epoch, may have been totally exterminated
by pumas. The puma does not, however, confine its ravages on horses to the

PUMA. 401

colts, but will also attack and kill full-^rown adults. The same is true for cattle,
among which calves more generally, and cows rarelj', fall victims to the puma's
rapacity. Horned cattle are, however, less preferred than sheep, which, next to
horse-flesh, form its favourite food in pastoral districts. Indeed, so partial are
pumas to mutton, that one has been known to make use of a calf-pen as a place
of concealment from which to raid on a sheep-fold, passing through the former
without oifering to molest its tenants.

The acme of daring on the part of the South American puma is, however,
reached in the attacks which it makes upon the jaguar, to which allusion has been
made when treating of the latter animal : and it appears that in North America the
puma exhibits an equally marked hostility to the grizzly bear. In these respects
the puma is undoubtedly entitled to be regarded as one of the boldest and fiercest
of Carnivores in proportion to its size.

In regard to its gentleness towartls tiic human race, it appears tluit so well
known is this trait to the Gauchos of the pampas as to have led them to apply to
it the title of aniigo del cristiano ; and it is notorious that in places where
pumas abound it is perfectly safe for a child to wander alone, and even sleep,
on the pampas. A traveller on foot on the pampas, who was compelled by
sti-ess of circumstances to make his nightly resting-place beneath the shelter of a
rock, related to Mr. Hudson how that on one occasion four pumas, the two parents
and their young, appeared as he was resting during the early part of a mofjnlight
night. " Not feeling the least alarm at their presence, he did not stir ; and after a
while they began to gambol close to him, concealing themselves from each other
among the rocks, just as kittens do, and fretjuently while pursuing one another
leaping over him. He continued watching them till past midnight, when they had
left him." The same traveller also related to Mr. Hudson how he had once, and
once only, killed a puma, adding that nothing woukl induce him to kill another.
On the occasion refen-ed to a puma was found, which sat perfectly still with its
back against a stone, not even moving when lassoed. " My informant," writes Mr.
Hudson, " then dismounted, and drawing his knife, advanced to kill it ; still the
puma made no attempt to free itself from the lasso, but it seemed to know, he said,
what was coming, for it began to tremble, the tears ran from its eyes, and it whined
in the most, pitiful manner. He killed it as it sat there unresisting before him ; but,
after accomplishing the deed, felt that he liad connnitted a murder." If this were
an isolated case, it would not be of nmch importance, but scores of instances attest
that this strange and inexplicable behaviour is characteiistic of the South American
puma, and that it almost invariably resigns itself to death in this unresisting
manner. Very different is, however, the behaviour of the puma when attacked
by a hunter accompanied by dogs. At such times, the animal is roused to the
fiercest paroxysms of rage ; and with hair erect and eyes flashing like balls of lurid
fii'e, it rushes spitting and snarling on the dogs, utterly regardless of the presence
of the hunter. So thoroughly indeed is the hunter ignoi-ed on such occasions,
that he may actually belabour the puma on the head with a cudgel without drawing
its attack upon himself ; the animal receiving such blows without I'etaliation, and
calmly waiting its opportunity of making a rush upon the dogs. Dogs seem,
indeed, invariably to excite the puma to uncontrollable bursts of passion ; and an

VOL. I. — 26

402 ■ CARXIl'OHES.

instance is on record -where one of these animals, when taken out of its cage ami led
by a chain, walked peaceably in front of a crowd of spectators, until, on catcliing
sight of a dog, it suddenly broke away from control, and dashed violently among
the people, who scattered in all directions.

One of the few instances known to Mr. Hudson, where a puma in South
America has defended itself against a himian being, was related to him by a Gaucho.
This individual, after an unsuccessful encounter with a jaguar, was riding on the
pampas when " a puma started up from the long gra.ss in his path, but made no
attempt to run awaj- ; it merely sat up, he said, and looked at him in a provokingly
fearless manner. To slay this animal with his knife, and so revenge himself for
the defeat he had just sutfered, was his tii-st thought. He alighted and secured his
horse by tying its fore-feet together, then, drawing his long heavy knife, inished at
the puma. Still it did not stir. Raising his wt-apon he struck with a force which
would have split the animal's skull open if the blow had fallen where it was
intended to fall, but with a quick movement the piima avoided it, and at the same
time lifted a foot and with lightning rapidity dealt the aggressor a blow on the
face, its unsheathed claws literally dragging down the flesh from his cheek, lea\-ing
the bone bare. After inflicting this teri'ible punishment, and eyeing its fallen foe
for a few seconds, it trotted quietly away." Eventually the wounded man recovered
from his injuries.

As a culmination to its generally hamile.ss character whei-e man is concerned,
there are stories current to the eftect that the puma in South America will actually
jruai-d human beincrs when threatened with attack bv other animals. Such an
instance is related by Mr. Hudson, where a ])uma having placed itself by the side
of a belated traveller on the pampas, attacked and drove oft" a jaguar, and this
more than once. The narrator believes this anecdote to be strictly trae, and
remarks that the fact of a puma never making an unprovoked attack on man, and
but rarely resisting him when attacked, is not really le.ss wonderful than that it
should follow him and come near him when alone in the wilderness, and even
occasional!}' defend him from the jaguar, the common enemy of both.

Turning to North America, we find veiy similar accounts to those related
above as to the serious injuries inflicted by pumas in the less settled districts on
live stock. Thus in Mexico they are reported to kill large numbers of colts and
calves, and on this account are poisoned by the herdsmen with stryclmine.
In California it is stated to be impossible to breed hoi-ses in one district, on account
of the ravages of these pests ; and the destiiiction inflicted by them on calves and
pigs is also considerable.

With regard to the behaviour of the puma towards man, and its coui'age (or
the revei-se) in North America, the accounts to hand are not so circumstantial and
definite as might be desired. All authorities are, however, agi'eed that it does not
ordinarily attack human beings, and that when surprised it generally endeavours
to make good its escape. Nevertheless, there are several instances on record where
pumas have made such attacks, even in open daylight ; among these we select two
quoted by Mr. Perry. One case occurred in the spring 1886, when some children
from Olympia, Washington, were returning homo from school. The eldest, a boy
of twelve, noticed something that he thought was a large vellow dog, trotting on

PUMA. 403

the road bchinil them. Tliey paid no attention to it, as large mongrel dogs of this
colour abound everywhere in the vicinity of the Indian camps, but played leisurelj^
along, as is the custom of children the world over. The youngest boy, a chubby
little chap of six summers, who was behind his brothers, suddenly canu; rolling
along in front of his brothers, and a moment later the gi-eat cat sprang over the
heads of the two astonished boys, seized the little fellow in its mouth, and with a
sprinc vanished from sight in the bushes. Mr. Perry proceeds to relate how the
eldest brother, with nothing but an empty bottle, proceeded into the wood and
heroically rescued the child, by beating the puma about the head until the bottle
was smashed to atoms, and then attempting to gouge out the creature's eyes with
the broken edges of the neck. The second instance occurred to a Swedish sailor
named Joseph Jorgen.son, in British Columbia. " The man had just commenced to
clear a spot in the forest for the purpose of building a house, and was wielding his
spade vigorously when suddenly his arm was seized as in a vice. He wheeled
instantly, and found that his arm was in the jaws of a couguar. He was a young and
powerful man, ... so, without any preliminaries, he dealt his assailant such a kick
in the stomach as to break its hold on his arm, and to lay it prostrate at his feet.
The couguar instantly resented this rude treatment. Crouching it sprang at its
foe's throat, but he warded its head from his throat with his left arm, while with
his right he dealt it a blow in the ribs that again prostrated it at his side. Quick
as a flash it returm'<l to the attack and seized him by the left hand, driving its
fangs through tlie flesh and fearfully lacerating it. It was a fight for life, and
Joe, with his brawny flsts and hea\y boots, beat and kicked the animal with such
force that it released its grij) on his hand and retired a short distance. Then it
crouched and sprang at him again, landing on his breast and knocking him heavily
against a tree; but again he cufl'ed and kicked it, until it again retreated and
crouched for another spring. Fortunately Joe looking down saw the spade he had
been using lying at his feet. Stooping (juickly he gra.sped it just in time to ward
oft" the couguar's spring by giving it a thrust with the spade. The brute fell at
his feet, but instantly rose and seized him by the tliigh. Maddened with pain, Joe
made a gladiatorial thrust at the couguar's head. The sharp blade of the spado
went crashing through its skull, and it fell dead at his feet."

To thesp instances of unprovoked attacks it may be added that the Noi-th
American puma when attacked by man does not appear ever to exhibit that
passive non-resistance which is its most remarkable trait in South America.
At the time when pumas wei-e abundant in the Adirondack Mountains, they
were hunted in the snow during the depth of winter, when the hunter, in his snow-
shoes, made side circuits until he hit oft' a trail. Generally such a track led to the
carcase of a deer recently killed and partially eaten. And here it may be remarked
that in regard to their prey the Adirondack pumas difter from those of Argentina,
in that, at least in winter, they will return again and again to a " kill,"
until the carcase is nearly or completely devoured. This may, however, be due to
the circumstance that while in the hot summer of the Argentine theftesh of a slain
animal would soon become tainted, it would remain fresh for a long period among
the snows of the Adirondacks.

When such a " kill " is found the hunter looses his dogs, who soon succeed

404 CAR.XIVORES.

in finding the puma, which generally takes to a tree, but will occasionally
stand at bay on the ground. " When attacked," writes Dr. Hart Merriam, who
derives much of his information from a Mr. Sheppard, " they never spring after the
dogs, but merely act on the defensive. When a dog makes bold to come too near,
he receives such an energetic ' cufl" from the puma's' paw, that he rarely solicits
another. Though possessed of great strength and power, and naturally quick in
his movements, the puma is a positive coward. For all that, when seriously
wounded, without being entirelj^ crippled, all his latent ferocity is aroused, and he
rushes fiercely at his assailants. But even at such times, when in an attitude of
supreme anger and rage, and while lashing the snow impetuously with his long
tail, anything thnist into his open mouth serves to divert his wrath from the
enemy to his weapon. Thus on two occasions, once with an axe and once with the
muzzle of his gun, has Mr. Sheppard saved himself and his dogs from mutilation, if
not from a horrible death." From this it would appear that the Adirondack puma
has not that intense antipathy to dogs which causes its Argentine cousin to rush
on them with such fei'ocity. Whether the charge of arrant cowardice brought
against the northern puma bj- Dr. Merriam is not partialh' due to some remnant
of the passiveness exhibited by the southern form when attacked by man, is a
question which may admit of argument.

We have already mentioned that in the wilder parts of South America, where
domesticated animals are not obtainable, a large proportion of the food of the puma
is formed by guanacos and deer, while in the northera part of its range deer are
the only large animals preyed upon. It must not, however, be considered that the
flesh of such animals forms in all cases tiie chief portion of the puma's diet. Thus,
in the dense forests of the Amazon and Orinoco, where several Carnivores tend to
assume more or less completely arboreal habits, it is related that pumas have been
seen to chase monkeys from bough to bough, and from tree to tree : and it would
thus seem that the flesh of the latter constitutes a considerable proportion of the
food of the puma in those regions. Strange as it may at firet sight appear, the
pumas of the Adirondacks were wont to prey largely upon the porcupines which
are found in abundance in that wilderness, and individuals were frequently killed
with their mouths and lips, and sometimes other portions of their bodies, ab-solutely
bristling with the quills of poi-cupines. Whether, however, these animals were
selected as an article of food from choice, or whether the pumas were driven to
devour them from inability to capture other prey, is uncertain. Be this as it may,
porcupines are creatures which, from their sluggi.sh habits and contempt of ordinary
foes, may be easilj^ captured, and would be sure to come in the way of the puma
during its nocturnal wanderings. Mr. Perry states that the North American puma
will eat almost anything, from deer down to rats, mice, fish, and e^'en snails. In
the pampas of South America the puma, in addition to the larger animals already
mentioned, is stated to prey upon large Rodents like the aguti and the paca, and
likewise upon the coati, while it is also said to kill and eat the noisome skunk.
The rhea, or South American ostrich, is also at times hunted bj' the puma on the
pampas, while in New Mexico and Arizona, .according to Messi's Coues and Yarrow,
so severely are the wild turkeys persecuted by it that many hundreds are killed

1 111 quotiug I'roiu Dr. Merriam we have ventured to substitute the name [juma for panther.

PUMA. 405

annually, and several of their old breeding-places have become completely
deserted. When extremely hai'il pressed by liunger, the puma is saiil not even to
disdain a meal of carrion.

Like most of the larger felines, the puma seeks its prey mainly by night and
during the morning and evening twilights, but it hunts occasionally by day.
Deer are stalked after the usual stealthy manner of the cat tribe, and when
approached within striking di.stance are rushed upon m a series of successive leaps,
unless, indeed, the puma can spring upon them from an elevation, when a single
leap will suffice. If not caught within a few leaps, the deer connnonly escapes, as
its foe then gives up the chase. The leaping powers of the puma are prodigious,
and it is said that when pui-sued by dogs it has been known to spring upwards and
reach a bough at a height of twenty feet from the gi-ound, while hoi-izontal leaps
of the same distance are by no means uncommon, and an instance is on recoi'd
where the length of a leap on snow was close upon forty feet. Authorities are now
generally agi'eed that the puma kills the larger animals by springing upon their
shouldere and dislocating the neck. In the northern portions of its range during
the winter the puma will on occasions pureue deer for long distances when thej'
are incapable of rapid flight owing to the depth of snow on the ground.

The number of young pi-oduced at a birth varies from one to four or five ;
but apparently two is the ordinary number, more especially when in captivity.
In the Adirondacks, according to Dr. Mernam, the J'oung are born towards the
clo.se of winter or the beginning of .spring, the lair being usually situated in a
shallow cave on the face of a .steep cUff or ledge of i-ock. And it would appear
that in the same district the female does not give birth to offspring more frecjuently
than every other year. In the .southern portions of the United States, whei'e caves
and rocks are wanting, Audubon states that the lair is made in a dense thicket or
cane-brake, and constructed of twigs, leaves, and moss, with an overarching roof of
evergreen canes, which forms an efficient protection against rain at all seasons of
the year. The young when first bom are from 10 to 12 inches in length ; they
open their eyes at the ninth or tenth day. Tlie age which the puma attains is
not yet ascertained, but one kept at Frankfort for sixteen years died from an
accident while in full health and vigour.

Although the works of the older writers abound with references to the piercing
cries and .startling screams of the puma, it would seem that in general the animal is
silent. Darwin states that in South America the only occasion on which it utters
any sound is during the breeding-season, and even then but rarely, while, when
wounded, it always remains silent. From accounts given him by the hunters of
the Adirondacks, Dr. Merriam came to the conclusion that the screams of the puma
were a total myth, the cries which liave been attributed to it being uttered by other
animals. Against this, it may be observed that Jlessrs Kennerby and Schott, when
.surveying in Mexico in 1858, state that on more than one occasion they heard loud
cries which they attributed (on what evidence does not appear) to the puma.
Moreover, Dr. J. A. Allen in Colorado, and Mr. D. G. Eliot in Florida, speak of
having heard the puma's cry, although the latter writer, at any rate, did not see
the animal. More important is the observation recorded by Mr. Schott to the effect
that a puma killed on the Rio Bravo, between Fort Duncan and Laredo, " during

4o6 CARMVORES.

his striigglo witli tlii' liuntei-s and dogs raised a terrible cry, twice or thrice, to
expi'ess his rage, and perhaps also to give his familj- the notice of danger."
It would seem, therefore, that, although generally a silent creature, the puma
may on I'ai-e occasions — and more especially when wounded — give vent to a cry or
scream, which is described as being of the most weird and unearthly natm-e.

When captured young, pumas thrive ^\■ell in captivitj-, and are gentle and
affectionate in disposition towards human beings, although they but rareh^ overcome
their innate antipjithy to dogs. If, liowever, not taken till adult, they appear in all
cases to pine and languish. Mr. Hudson writes that " the puma is, with the excep-
tion of some monkeys, the most playful animal in existence. The young of all the
Fclidce spend a large portion of their time in characteristic gambols. The adults,
liowever, acquire a grave and dignitied demeanour, only the female playing on
occasions with her offspring, but this she alwaj's does with a certain formality of
manner, as if the relaxation were indulged in not spontaneously but for the sake of
the young, and as being a necessary part of their education. . . . The puma at
heart is always a kitten, taking unmeasured delight in its frolics : and when, as
often happens, one lives alone in the desert, it will amuse itself by the hour fighting
mock battles, or playing at hide-and-seek ^vith imaginaiy companions, and lying
in wait and putting all its wonderful strategy in practice to capture a passing
Ijutterfly. Azara kept a young male for four montlis, which spent its whole time
playing A^ith the slaves. This animal, he says, would not refuse any food offered
to it : but when not hungry it would bury the meat in the sand, and when inclined
to eat it would dig it up, and, taking it to tlie water-trough, wash it clean. I have
only known one puma kept as a pet, and this animal, in seven or eight yeare, had
never shown a trace of ill-temper. When approached, he would lie down, purrin,
loudly, and twist himself about a person's legs, begging to be caressed. A string or
handkerchief di-awn about was sufficient to keep him in a happy state of excitement
for an hour, and when one pei-son was tired of plajnng with him he was ready
for a game with the next comer."

A tame puma, of which the skeleton is now preserved in the 3Iuseum of the
Roj'al College of Surgeons, was kept as a pet by Edmund Kean, the actor. It would
follow its master loose, like a dog, and was often brought into his drawing-room
when visitoi-s were present. Jardine, writing of this animal, states that it was
extremely gentle and playful, and showed no symptoms of ferocitj' to the strangers
who came to see it. Its motions were all free and graceful, and it exhibited the
greatest agility in leaping and swinging about the joists of a large unoccupied room
in the old college of Edinburgh.

Fossil remains of the puma have been found in the superficial deposits of
several districts in the United States which probably- belong to the Plei.stocene
period. It may also be mentioned that fossil bones of the jaguar occur in the
celebrated caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil, in company with those of a numljer
of gigantic extinct Mammals. Both these cats are, therefore, comparatively old
.species.

(r

CLOUDED LEOTARD.

407

THE CLOUDED LEOI-Alil) ( ,'„ lUlt. size).

The Clouded Leopard (FcUa nebulosa)}

Witli tlie clondeJ loopanl, or, as it is often less appropriately calleil, the clouded
tiger, we revert to the cats of the Old World. This haiidsomelj'-coloured animal,
which may be regarded as the last of the verj' large cats, is a long-hodied and short-
legged species, usually pro\uded with a very long tail, and of thoroughly arboreal
habits. The head is of a more elongated form than in any of the species yet
noticed ; while the pupil of the eye is oval, with its longer diameter vertical. The
ground-colour of the fur varies from greyish to yellowish-brown, passing into whitish
beneath ; the markings on the body taking the form of narrow veitical stripes and
blotches of black, which form large irregularly arranged patches. On the sides of
the face there are always two distinct black stripes, arising respectively fi-om
behind the eye, and from above the angle of the mouth ; of which the former
extends behind the ears to join the black markings of the back. The upper-parts

1 Also known .-vs I'\ vKM'rocdis anil /•''. t/iurdi.

4o8 CARNIVORES.

of the head and the limbs are ornamented with spots ; while the tail has a number
of dusky rings, which are not infrequently incomplete. The skull may be recognised
by its low and elongated form ; as well as b}' the great relative length of the upjier
tusks, or canine teeth, which are proportionately longer than in any other living
species of cat.

In size the clouded leopard maj' be compared to a small individual of a true
leopard. One male measured 5 feet 7^ inches in total length, of which 2 feet 6
inches were taken up by the tail ; while another reached 6J feet, of which 3 feet
were occupied bj- the taU. The length of the tail in these specimens is thus atout
equal to four-fifths of that of the head and body, but there is a variety from the
Island of Formosa iu which the tail is much shorter.

The clouded leopard is confined to the south-eastern pai-ts of Asia, ranging
from the Eastern Himalaya, in tlie districts of Bhutan and Sikhim, to Assam, and
thence to Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of Borneo, Sumatra, and
Java. The short-tailed variety, found only in the Island of Formosa, probablj-
indicates that the distribution of the series on the mainland of A.sia was formerly
more extensive than at present.

To the Malays the clouded leopai'd is known as the Rimau-dahan, or Arimau-
dahan, meaning the tiger of the trees: the word dakan signifj-ing the forked
branch of a tree. According to Mr. Blanford, the whole of our limited knowledge
of the habits of this species is derived from the reports of native hunters, and is
not, therefore, in all respects trustworthy. That it passes almost the whole of its
time in trees, on the branches of which it sleeps, is, however, thoroughly
ascei-tained ; and it appears that its food consists chiefly of birds and small
mammals.

The Marbled Cat (Felis marmorata).

The marbled cat from the Eastern Himalaya, Assam, Burma, and the Malayan
region, is a much smaller species, agreeing in the general character of its markings
with the clouded leopard. In size this beautiful little species is somewhat larger
than a domestic cat of average dimensions; the length of the head and bodj-,
according to Mr. Blanford, varj'ing from 18| to 23 inches, and that of the tail
from 14 to 15| inches. The fur is characterised by its thickness and .softness; and
in Himalayan specimens, at least, has an under fur of a woolly natme.

From the resemblance of its coloration to that of the clouded leopard (in which
the marbled fur harmonises with the crnarled and knotted boughs on which the
animal reposes), it may be inferred that the marbled cat is likewise an arboreal
species. It is figured on the opposite page.

The Tibet cat (Fells scrijyfa), from Eastern Tibet, is another small-sized species
allied in coloration to the clouded leopard.

The Golden Cat (Fdis temmincki).

The golden or bay cat is a weU-mai'ked Indian species, of somewhat inferior
dimensions to the clouded leopard, and readily distinguished by its deep femiginous
or chestnut colour, which passes into bay along tlie line of the back : the under-

SMALLER CATS.

409

parts ami chin, as well as the lower surface of the tail heing whitish or v.hite.
There arc some dark spots on the chest, whih" the face has some characteristic l)nt
variahle markings.

The golden cat is found in the South-Easteru Himalaya, from whence it

THE MARBt,ED CAT (I liat. Sizf).

extends northwards into Tibet ; while in the opposite direction its range embraces
Burma, and a considerable part of the Malayan region, although its exact limits
are unknown. Nothing is known as to the habits of this cat, but from its colora-
tion it would appear probable that it frequents sandy or rocky districts.

The Fishing-Cat {Fdis viverrina).

The fishing-cat of India, which is somewhat larger than the ordinary domestic
cat, derives its name from its peculiar habit of living to a great extent upon fish,
which it captures for itself. This species is a short-limbed, spotted cat,
with a circular pupil to the eye, the tail about equal in length to one-third the
length of the head, and the short and coarse fur lacking the beautiful shining gloss
characteristic of most of the other members of the family. The head is somewhat
elongated, and the ears are short and rounded. The general ground-colour of the

4IO

CARNIVORES.

fur is UHualh' wniif kiuU of ^rey. with a more or le.s^s brownish tinge; the back
being darker and browner, and the under-parts, as usual, whitish. The spots,
which may be either dark brown, or of a full black colour, have no light centres,
and are always much longer than broad, although they are subject to considerable
individual variations in shape and size ; they cover the whole of the body. The
head is marked by a number of longitudinal stripes, starting from the forehead and
running to the nape of the neck ; these becoming broken up on the shoulders, but
reappearing along the back as a line of spots. The grej-ish-wliite cheeks are generally
crossed by two dark streaks ; and the limbs are usually barred and spotted, more
e.specially on their outer sides, although occasionally uniformly coloured. The tail
has its upper surface marked with more or less distinctly' defined dark rings.

THE FisHiXG-CAT (J uat. sizt).— Alter Wolf.

Altogether, the coloration of the fishing-cat I'eminds us of some vai-ieties of the
domestic " tabby."

A fair-sized male of the fishing-cat will have a total length of about 411 inches,
of which the tail (the hair at its tip being included in the measurement) will take
up about Hi inches. The height of such an animal at the shoulders will be about
15 inches.

The skull of the fishing-cat may be distinguished from that of any of the species
yet mentioned by the circumstance that in fully adult individuals the socket of the
eye is completely surrounded by bone in almost all cases. In this respect the skull
resembles that of a monkey and differs from those of most other Carnivores,
although a similar feature is displayed in the skulls of some of the other small
Indian cats, and also in those of the ichneumons, noticed later on. We have
occasionally seen the skull of an adult dome.stic cat. in which the bony ring behind
the socket of the eye is almost complete.

The geographical range of the fishing-cat extenils fnjm India to .Southern

SMALLER CATS. 41,

China : but its cliKtriLution in the countries it inlialiits appears to -be sonicwliat
local. Thus, instead of occurring all over India, this cat, according- to Mi-. Blanford,
is luikuowu in the peninsula, excei)t on part of the Malabar coast. It occurs,
however, in Ceylon, and is found along the flanks of the Himalaya as far westward
as tlie independent state of Nipal. Thence it extends into Burma, the Malay
Peninsula, and the south of China ; but, somewhat curiously, it appears to be
absent from tlie great Malayan Islands, such as Sumatra and Borneo. Tiio species
is, however, said to reappear in the Island of Formosa ; whicli, if confirmed,
will show that its distribution will accord very closely witli tliat of the clouded
leopard.

Tills cat is found in the neiglibourhood of tliickets bordering lakes, swamps,
and rivers, and is stated to be far from unconnuon in the neighbourhood of
Calcutta. It does not appear that it has been observed by any European in the
act of catching the fish which form such a considerable portion of its diet, and an
account of the mode in which the capture is effected would be of much interest.
In addition to fisli it lias been stated on good authority that this cat is also a
consumer of tlie large niollusks found so abundantly in the swamps of India, and
one specimen is known to have eaten a snake. Probably, however, almost any
kind of I'ooil is equally acceptable to the fishing-cat, which doubtless catches all
the smaller animals that come witliin reach of its clutches. All writers wlio have
seen it in the wild state bear testimony to tlie fierce and savage disposition of this
species : and it is on record tliat it has lieeii known to destroy not only slieep,
calves, and dogs, but also to carry ofi" native infants which have been left unguarded.
In reference to thiwe destructive habits, a correspondent, quoted by Mr. R. A.
Sterndale, observes that the fishing-cat generally " takes up its quarters in low
swampy jungle, where it often carries off" calves, for which the leopard undeserxedly
gets credit. Lately, a couple of months ago, a pair of them at night broke into a
matted house, and went ofi" with a brace of ewes, which had half a dozen lamlis
between them. ... I have caught this species in traps, and when let loose in an
indigo-vat, with a miscellaneous pack of dogs, they have invariably fought hard.
. . . Some years ago one got into my fowl-house at night, and just as I opened tlu;
door to enter it made a fierce jump at me from a perch on the opposite side." The
most remarkable instance of the ferocity of this cat is, however, related by
B\ji\\. In this case a newly-caught male of the fishing-cat was put into a
cage separated by a thin partition from one containing a tame female leopard,
which, although young, was about double the size of the fishing-cat. The latter
succeeded eventually, not only in breaking tlirough the partition between the
two cages, but in actually killing the leopard, altliough it made no attempt to eat
its flesh.

The Leopard-Cat {Felis bengaleiisis).

The pretty little cat from South-Eastern Asia commonly known as the leopard-
cat, is subject to sucli an extraordinary amount of individual variation in colour and
mai'kings tliat it has received no less than fifteen separate scientific names, such
variations having been regarded as indicating distinct species.

In size it lias been compared by Mr. Blanford to a rather small iloinestic

412

CARNIVORES.

cat, with relatively longer legs. The pupil of tlio eye is circular in ordinary light,
and the length of the tail usually varies from about one-third to rather less than
one-half that of the head and bod}\ Usually the head and bodj' measure together
from 24 to 2G inches, while the tail has a length of from 11 to 12 inches, or rather
more. Although this species comes under the denomination of spotted cats, with the
spots much longer than broad and without light centres, yet the amount of variation
is so great that it is almost impossible to give a description that will hold good for
all the varieties. The ground-colour of the upper-parts is, however, very generally
some shade of pale tawny, varying from rufous to gi-eyish : while the spots, which
have a more or less marked tendenc}- to form longitudinal lines, may be either
wholly black, or partly black and jiartly brown. The spots extend over the under-

THE LEor.iRD-CAT (J nat. size).

parts and lindjs and the upper part of the tail; although the tip of the tail is
barred. Four distinct longitudinal stripes on the forehead give a characteristic
physiognomy to the head, these stripes being generally continued in a more or less
distinct manner along the back.

This cat is exclusively a forest-dwelling species, and is found in many parts of
India, such as the outer Himalaya, as far westward as Simla, the greater part of
Lower Bengal, the Western Ghats on the Bombay side of the peninsula, and the
Wynaad and Travancore districts in Madi-as. According, however, to Mr. Blanford,
it is probably unknown in Ceylon. Eastward of the Himalaya its range includes
Assam, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, the southern part of China, and the islands of
Borneo, Sumatra, and Java, as well as the Philipjjines.

It would be tedious to indicate the different varieties of this cat, but it may be
observed that, according to the writer last mentioned, while one set of varieties are
characterised by the tendency to a grey tinge in the ground-colour, others display

SMALLER CATS. 413

an equally marked inclination towards a rufous liue. Blyth states that some
of the grey varieties are hybrids with the domestic cat.

Although invariably found in forest districts, the leopard-cat is not confined to
the hiUs, as it occurs in the sandarbans of Bengal at the level of the sea. Its prey
consists of small mammals and birds, and it is said to breed in the spring, when it
produces from three to four kittens at a birth ; the lair being generally in a cave
or under an overhanging clift! In spite of its small size, the leopard-cat is a
ferocious and spiteful animal, in captivity generally keeping curled up during
the daytime in a dark corner of its cage, instead of pacing up and down in
the usual restless feline manner. Blyth, who was unusually successful in taming
wild creatures, confesses to ha\ing utterly failed in all his efforts to conciliate
the leopard-cat, and his experience is confirmed by most others who ha^•e
had to do with the animal. Mr. Blanford states, however, that a specimen in the
London Zoological Gardens appeared thoroughly tame, and wouM answer readily
to the call of its keeper. The depredations of this cat appear to be conducted with
great boldness. General M'Master stating that he saw one carry off a fowl nearly
as large as itself, shaking it savagely meanwhile, and making a successful retreat,
in spite of the abuse, uproar, and missiles which the theft caused.

The Seknal {Felits nerval).

With the serval we come to a well-known African cat of much larger dimensions
than either of the three preceding species. It is a spotted cat, easily recognised by
the great length of its legs and the comparative shortness of its tail, which is con-
siderably less than half tlie length of the head and body. The ground-colour of
the fur is generally of a light tawny, becoming whitish beneath. The black spots
are generally small and widely separated,- but in the middle line of the back tend
to run together in streak.s. The cheeks and forehead lack the dark stripes found
in so many of the smaller spotted cats, but there are two very characteristic
horizontal black bands on the upper part of the inner surface of each fore-leg, by
which a skin of this species may be recognised at a glance. The tail is ringed
throughout with black, and has a tip of the same colour. In well-grown adult
examples the total length may reach 4 feet 8 inches, of which 16 inches are occupied
by the tail. This cat is found from one end of Africa to the other, but appears to
be more common in the south than in the north. Its " leggy " build and poor colora-
tion render the serval a by no means handsome representative of the family.

Owing to the general lack of attention paid to them by the majority of
sportsmen and travellers, we have far less information as to the habits and mode
of life of the smaller cats of Africa and Soutli America than we possess with regard
to those of India, where a host of careful observers have made us tolerably well
acquainted with most of the Mammals in their wild state.

In East Africa, as we are infomied by Mr. H. C. V. Hunter, the serval inhabits
the gi-assy plains at tlie foot of Mount Kilima-njaro, where it is not uncommon.
It also ran<i-es to an elevation of fi\ e thousand feet or more on the flanks of the
mountain. At that elevation a black specimen was obtained by Mr. Hunter, and,
since the natives have a separate name for this black variety, it must be compara-

414

CARNIVORES.

tivuly coiumou. In a black skin from South Africa in the British Museum the
spots are distinctly visible when the skin is viewed in certain lights.

Omitting mention of certain little-known species of cats from Western Africa,
such as the golden-haired cat (Felis rutila) of Sierra Leone and the Gambia, the

t^^*^^(

THE SERVAL (J nat. size).

grey African cat {F. neglect a.) from the Gambia, and the servaline cat (F. servalina)
from Sierra Leone, we proceed to the consideration of two small Asiatic species.

The Rusty-Spotted Cat (Felis rubiginosa).

It is somewhat remarkable that as India is inhabited by the two largest living
representatives of the Cat family, so it also includes the smallest member of the
group. The species which has the honour of occupying the latter position is the
pretty little animal known as the i"ustj--spotted cat This is of somewhat .smaller
dimensions than an average domestic cat. Its general ground-colour is i-uddy-grej',
passing into white below, while the body and limbs, but not the tail, are spotted.

SMALLER CATS. 415

In some examples, however, the red tinge is gi-eatly deveh^ped at tlie expense of the
grey. Tlie individual hairs vary in colour in diflerent portions of their length.
The dark spots on the back and side are longer than broad, with a more or less
marked tendency to arrange themselves in longitudinal lines, and the species
derives both its popular and its scientific name from their general rusty-red hue.
In the reddish \ariety, wlrich is characteristic of Ceylon, the spots are, however,
brownish-black. As in so many of the smaller Indian cats, the forehead is marked
bj^ longitudinal dark stripes, four in number, and there is also a stripe on each side
of tlie face behind the eye. The species is quite peculiar among the sj^otted cats
in having the tail without either spots or rings, its upper surface being of the
same tint as the back, while the under-part is paler. In length the rusty-spotted
cat varies from IG to 18 inches from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, the
length of the tail being constantly 9 J inches.

The skull agrees with that of the tisliing-cat in having the sockets of the eyes
completely surrounded bj- bone, but it is peculiar in that there are never more than
two premolar teeth in the upjjei- jaw, that is to say, there is only one of these teeth
in ad\'ance of the flesh-tooth.

This cat inhabits Ceylon and S(jutliern India, raiely extending as far noi-th-
wards as tlie Central Provinces, and being quite unknown on the Malabar cotist. Its
fo.ssil remains have been oljtainiMl from a cavern in Madras, thus proving that it
was an inhabitant of India at a time wlien the fauna of that part of the country
had a much closer affinity to the fauna of Africji than exists at the present day.
The late Dr. Jerdon, in liis Mammals of India, observes that " this very pretty
little cat frequents grass on the dry beds of tanks, brusliwood, and occasionally
drains in the open country and near villages, and is said not to be a denizen of the
jungles. I had a kitten brought to me very young in 1846, anel it became (piite
tame, and \vas the admiration of all who saw it. Its activity was quite marvellous,
and it was very playful and elegant in its motions. When it was about eight
months ohl, I introduced it into a room where there was a small fawn of the
gazelle, and the little creature flew at it the moment it saw it, seized it by the nape,
and was with difficult}' taken oft! I lost it shortl}^ after this. It would occasionally
find its way to the raftei-s of bungalows and hunt for squirrels. Sir W. Elliot
notices that he has seen several undoubted hybrids between this and the domestic
cat, and I have al.so observed the same."

In commenting upon this account, Mr. Blanford observes that the alleged
absence of the species from jungles is probably incori'ect, for it has been found
inhabiting forests in Ceylon. A pair of kittens of this species were at one time in
the possession of ^Ir. R. A. Sterndale, and proved (piite as tame, active, and graceful
as the one mentioned above. After the death of one of the pair from snake-bite,
the kitten of a domestic cat was obtained as a playfellow for the sur\'ivor, when
the dittereuce in the agility of the two creatures was very marketUy exhibited.

The Fl.vt-He.vded C xt {Felis planiceps).

The flat-headed cat is the second unifoiTnlj'-coloured species, in adilition to the
lion, among the Old World cats. It is about the size of a domestic cat, but with a

4i6 CARNIVORES.

relatively longer bodj', shorter legs, and shorter tail ; the length of the latter being
not more than from one-quarter to one-third that of the head and body. The fur
is long and soft ; and on the iipper-parts it is of a dark rich reddish-brown colour,
having a curious speckled silveiy appearance, due to some of the hairs having white
tips. In many specimens, at least, a pair of yellow lines diverge from above the
nose on to the forehead between the ej-es. The under-parts are whitish, more or
less splashed with brown. The length of the head and body varies from 21 to 24
inches, while that of the tail is not more than from 6 to 8 inches.

The skull of this cat resembles that of the preceding species in having the
sockets of the eyes surrounded by bone ; but differs in having three premolar
teeth in the upper jaw, the first of which is relatively larger than in any other
living cat. The flat-headed cat has been obtained from the Malay Peninsula and
the islands of Sumatra and Borneo; but nothing appears to have been liitherto
ascertained as to its habits in the wild .state.

Another uniformly -coloured cat, with fur of a bright chestnut tint, has been
described from Borneo, under the name of the Bornean bay cat {F. badia). The
tail is relatively longer than in the flat-headed cat.

The Ocelot (Fells pardalis).

If not e(jual in beauty of coloration to its much larger cousin the jaguar, the
smaller South American cat known as the ocelot occupies at least the next place in
this respect ; and exhibits individual variations fully as marked as those occurring
in the Asiatic leopard-cat. The ocelot is essentially a South American species,
ranging northwards, however, into Mexico, and just impinging on the extreme
south-western borders of tlie United States. Southwards it extends to Paraguay ;
but, according to Mi'. \V. H. Hudson, it is unkno'\\Ti on the pampas of Argentina,
from which it may be inferred that its alleged occurrence in Patagonia is, at least,
open to doubt. Like the leopard-cat, the ocelot, on account of its numerous
variations in colour, has i-eceived a number of distinct scientific names. Prof.
Mivart, describes the more general type in the following words : — " The ground-
colour of the ocelot may be tawny-yellow or reddish-gi-ej'. It is alwaj^s marked
with black spots, which are aggregated in chain-like streaks and blotches, generally
forming elongated spots, each with a black border, enclosing an area wliich is
rather darker than is the general ground-colour. Tlie head an<l limbs bear small
spots, and there are two black stripes over each cheek, and one or two black trans-
verse black bands within each fore-leg. The tail tends to be ringed, and the
ventral parts of the trunk and limbs are whitish."

There is, however, a well-marked variety of a grey colour, in which the flanks
may be whitish : while there is a second form characterised by its less brilliant
coloration, the wider interval between the blotches, and the lighter colour of the
areas enclosed by the black lines. Still more strikingly difterent is the third form,
characterised by the fulness and intensity of its coloration, the ground-colour
being bright fulvous, and the black markings exceedingh' numerous and deep,
while the white parts stand out in strong contrast to the rest. The pupil of the
eye, when contracted, forms an exceedingly narrow vertical slit. Xot only does

SMALLER CATS.

417

the ocelot vary in coloration, but it also displays considerable individual difference
in point of size. Thus the total length of the animal may vary from 4 feet to
3 feet 1 inch, and that of the tail from 15 to 11 inches.

The ocelot appears to be an exclusively forest animal, and is said to be an
expert climber, capturing most of its prej^, which consists of small mammals and
birds, in the trees. In disposition it is described as fierce and savage in the wild
state. Jardine gives an account of a young specimen in captivitj-, which was

THE OCELOT (J nat. size).

excessively playful, and fond of climbing, especially on the visitors, and was fairly
tractable, although its docility depended to some extent upon the nature of its
food.

The Margay {Felia tigrma).

The margay is another American forest -dwelling species, which likewise
exhibits considerable vai-iation in colour and size ; its range extending from Mexico
to Paraguay.

The ordinary variety, according to Professor Mivart, " has rather harsh fur, of
a dull grizzled colour, varied with black spots and rings. The tail is marked with
small black spots, often confluent, but not forming rings. There are three
transverse black stripes on the cheek. The liead and body measure together a
little over 24 inches, and the tail is about 11 inches long." There are, however,
two well-marked varieties, one of which is known as the chati, while the other,
represented in our figure on the next page, has been called F. rnacrura ; both of
these being characterised by the softness of their fur, their bright fulvous colour,

VOL. I. — 27

4i8

CARiYIJ-ORES.

and the circumstance that their (spots, wliich vary much in size, do not ran together
so as to form the chain-like pattern of the typical form. In some cases the black
patches enclose central areas of a paler tint. In these varieties the length of the
head and body may be but little short of 27 inches ; while the length of the tail
varies from 14 to 19 inches.

Another spotted cat, exclusively confined to South America, is GeofFi-oy's cat
{F. guigna). It has generally been regarded as confined to the forest regions of
Chili and Peru, but, according to Mr. W. H. Hudson, is also found on the Ai-gentine

THE MABGAT (^ nat size).

pampas, where it is known as the wood-cat. Like the jaguar, it is, as Mr. Hudson
remarks, probably there as an intruder from wooded districts to the northward of
the pampas.

The Jaguaroxdi {Fells jaguarondi).

The jaguarondi, inhabiting Brazil, Guiana, Paraguay, and Xoi-th-East Mexico,
but not extending to the northward of the Eio Gi-ande, difl'ers from all the American
species yet noticed, with the exception of the puma, by its uniform coloration. In
form it is charactei-ised by its long body, short limbs, and the great length of the
tail, which is nearly as long as the head and body. Its general colour is blackish
or brownish-grey, but as in so many variable species there is a tendencj' to
the special development either of an unusually grejash or an unusually rufous
tinge. The total length of the cat is about 4 feet 7 inches, of which 2 feet 1 inch
are occupied by the tail. The pupil of the eye is stated to be round : and the
species is especially characterised bj'^ the peculiar manner in which the nose is, so
to speak, pinched in from side to side.

SMALLER CATS.

419

The Eyra (Felis eyra).

Strangest in form of all the cats is the South American eyra, which, from its
long body, short legs, low withers, high rump, and extremely long tail, miglit
almost be mistaken for a member of the weasel family, were it not for its relatively
shorter face. In size it is almost equal to a rather small domestic cat, but with
proportionately shorter legs. The fur is soft and of a uniform coloration, varying
in tint from reddish-j-ellow to a brilliant chestnut, with the excejjtion of a distinct
whitish spot on each side of the upjjer lip. The pupil is round, and the skull still
more elongated and depressed than in the jaguarondi, to which it is evidently closely
allied, although the nose is not so much pinched in at the sides as in that species.

THE EYRA (J nat. size).

The range of the eyra is practically coextensive with that of the jaguarondi.
And both sjjeeies are described as being equally bloodthirsty in disposition, plaj^ing
sad havoc with the fowls of the inhabitants of the districts which they frequent.
The eyra, as might have been expected from its weasel-like shape, is, however, the
more lithe and active of the two.

The Colocollo {Fells colocollo).

Almost the last of the true American cats that will be noticed here is the
imperfectly known and rare colocollo, easily distinguished from all the other
members of the family by its remarkable coloration. The colocollo is, perhaps,
rather larger than an average domestic cat ; and is of a greyish-white ground
colour, oi'namentf 1 with dashes of black on the back and sides, and further dis-
tinguished by a black streak running from the eye to the jaw. The tail is
described as being imperfectly ringed with dark bands, while the lower limbs are

42a

CARNIVORES.

dark grey. It lias been recorded from Guiana and Chili, but doubtless also
inhabits the intervening States.

The Caffre, or Egyptian Cat t^Fdis caffra)?-

With the eattre, or, as it is frequently termed, the Egyptian cat, we come to a
species of more than ordinary interest, since, by many authorities, it is regai-ded as
the parent stock from which the domestic cat of Europe has sprung.

The caftre cat is about the size of a large domestic cat, and is generally of a
yellowish colour (becoming more or less grey in some specimens), darker on the
back, and paler on the under-parts. The body is marked with faint pale stripes,
which assume, however, on the limbs the form of distinct dark horizontal bands ;
and the tail, which is relatively long, is also more or less distinctly ringed towards
its tip, which is completely black. The sides of the face are marked by two
horizontal streaks. Very generally the soles of the hind-feet in this cat are black,
although in the paler coloured varieties this part is not darker than the back.

The catire cat has a wide distribution, being found throughout Africa, from
the Cape to Algiers and Egypt, and also extending into South- Western Asia in
SjTia and Arabia. In past times it also ranged into South-Easteni Europe ; its
fossilised remains havinsx been obtained from the cav^ems of the rock of Gibraltar,
in company with those of several extinct species of mstrnmals. At the period when
the caffre cat lived in Gibraltar, Spain was doubtless connected by land with
Africa. These cats, as is well-known, were held sacred by the ancient Egyptians,
and enormous numbers of their bodies were embalmed and preserved in tombs and
pits ; the largest repositories being found in the cities of Bubastis and Beni-Hassan.
The cats found in the tombs of the two localities mentioned are regarded bj" Pro-
fessor Virchow, who has devoted much study and attention to this subject, merely
as tamed individuals of the wilrl cattre cat, and having no sort of relationship) with
the domestic cat ; the origin of which, it is considered, is to be sought in Europe or
Asia. On the other hand. Dr. A. Nehring,'- of Berlin, whose opinion is entitled to
much weight, considei"s that the black sole of the liind-foot, common to the catfre
cat and the domestic cat of Europe, is indicative of the descent of the latter from
the former, although it is quite probable that there may be also a strain of Asiatic
blood in our cats. And much the same opinion Ls entertained by Professor Mivart.
In this connection it is important to notice that in South Africa it has been
ascertained that the domestic cat will breed freely with the catfre cat. On the
other hand, as we have already had occasion to mention, there are several species of
Asiatic cats, such as the leopard-cat and the ru.sty-spotted cat, together witli others
referred to below, which will cross et|ually readily with the domestic cat of India.
It is, however, quite possible that this may not affect the origin of the European
cat, since Dr. Nehring is of opinion that the domestic cat of the Chinese has an
exclusively Asiatic descent, and is thus quite distinct from that of Eui'ope ; while
Mr. Blanford suggests an Indian origin for the domestic cats of that country.

1 Also known a.s F. caligafa ami F. manicvJata.

= This imter considers that there are two species of Egyptian cat, viz., i^ caffra (or maniculata), and
F. calirjata.

SMALLER CATS.

421

Darwin considered that the origin of the domestic cat could not be determined
with certainty; and concluded by remarking that whether domestic cats have
descended from several distinct species, or have only been modified by occasional
crosses, their fertility, so far as is known, is unimpaired.

That the ancient Egyptians had succeeded in taming thoroughly the cats of
which the mummified bodies are found in such numbers at Bubastis and Beni-
Hassan, is perfectly well ascertained. This is indeed demonstrated by a painting
in the British Museum, representing a fowling scene. Commenting upon this
picture, Mr. P. H. Gosse observes that it apjiears to have been the custom for the
fowler to enter upon .such expeditions accompanied bj^ some of the female members

THE CAFFRE CAT (\ nat. size).

of his family. " Embarking on board a boat, with a few decoy-birds and a trained
cat, they proceeded to such parts of the river as were fringed with dense masses of
the tall papjTUS-reed. Waterfowl of various species swarmed in these rushy
covers : and, by the number of nests with eggs and young usually represented, we
are doubtless to infer that the possession of this sort of stock was no less desired
than that of the birds themselves. The cat, strange as it appears, was certainly
taught to seize upon the birds ; in the picture before us she has just caught one in
her mouth, while she holds another with her two fore-paws, and a third between
her hind-paws. It is probable also that the repugnance of this animal to wet her
feet having been overcome by training, she was accustomed to fetch such birds as
fell into the water." In a footnote Mr. Gosse adds that it is " interesting to find
the cat domesticated at so early a period. In the ochreous tints of the brindled fur,
the two dark spots near the extremity of the tail, and a trace of the curved line
upon the cheek, we think we recognise the F. onanicvJnfn [ = F. cafra], to which
modem naturalists have referred our domestic cat : though the Egyptian figure

42 2 CARNIVORES.

disagrees with Rtippel's in its more robust form and stouter legs." Professor
Mivart speaks of the cat represented in the same painting as a " tabby cat," and
would appear to regard it as belonging to a domesticated species or variety. The
evidence of the mummified cats, which are indistinguishable from the wild cafFre
cat, points, however, strongly to the correctness of Professor Virchow's conclusion
that the ordinary tamed cat of the ancient Egyptian.s belonged to that species.
Still, however, it is quite probable that certain variations from the original type
may in some instances have been produced bj- breeding in a domesticated state.

The "Wild Cat {Felis catus).

The wild cat is tlie only native x-epresentative of the famil}- found within the
British Islands, where it is almost daily becoming scarcer.

In general colour this species is not unhke many of our domestic " tabbies,"
from which it is distinguished, not only by its superior size and strength, but also
by its stouter head, and the much shorter and thicker tail, which, instead of
tapering, pi-eserves a nearly uniform thickness to the tip. The ground-colour of
the body is j-ellow-gi-ey ; the markings taking the fonn of a dark streak along the
middle of the back, from which descend more or less nearly vertical stripes of the
same hue, these stripes becoming nearly horizontal on the limbs, while the tail is
ornamented with similar dark rings, and terminates in a black tip. The "whiskers"
are more voluminous than in domestic cats ; and in the male sex the soles of all
the feet are black. The length of the tail is leather le.ss tlian one-half that of the
head and bod}-. The male is considerably larger than tlie female, but shows a
great amount of individual variation in its dimensions. According to the authors of
Bell's British Quadrujieds the total average length of the males is about 2 feet
9 inches, of which 11 inches is taken up by the tail; but an unusualh- lai-ge
specimen killed near Cawdor Castle had a length of 3 feet 9 inches from the nose
to the tip of the tail

Tlie wild cat was formerly distributed over the forest-clad districts of the
larger part of Great Britain, but, as we shall show later on, was never known in
Ireland. It is widely distributed, in suitable localities over the Continent, occurring
in France i-arely, German}^ commonlj-, Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, Southern
Russia, Spain, Dalmatia, Greece, and paits of Turkej' : but it is unknowTi in Italy,
Norway, Sweden, and Northern Russia. The specimens from the more northern
parts of its range are said to be larger, with longer and thicker fur, than those
from its southern habitats. Ea.stwards it has been recorded from the shores of the
Caspian : and a large cat -with a short tail killed by the late Sir O. B. St. John
in Persia was referred by its captor to this species. The skin was, however,
unfortimatelj' lost, so that the determination cannot be regarded as absolutely
certain.

The wild cat has been an inliabitant of Great Britain since the age of the
mammoth ; its fossil i-emains having been obtained (both there and on the
Continent) in caverns containing the bones and teeth of the mammoth and other
extinct Mammals of the Pleistocene age. It has, however, now completely disappeared
from the gi-eater part of England, only remaining in the mountainous districts of

>

SMALLER CATS. 423

the north, its extermination from many of its former haunts being probably due
not so much to the destiniction of the forests, as to the increasing use of fire-arms.
In parts of North Wales it appears to still linger on, a specimen having been
captured recently in tliat district, but there is considerable doubt as to whether
it continues to breed in the principality. In Scotland, although its distribution is
now greatly restricted, the wild cat is not very unconunon in the more secluded
localities.

Domestic cats that have escaped and taken to the woods are frequently
mistaken for the wild cat : and it is owing to such errors in identitication that,
according to Dr. E. Hamilton, the supposed occurrence of the species in Ireland
has been asserted.

Wild cats are expert climbers ; and their favourite places of resort are the most
inaccessible mountainous woods, where they retreat not only to hollow trees, or
deep thickets, but to concealed fissures of rocks, in which they seek their safety
and repose, and bring forth and rear tlieir young. The female usually produces
from four to five kittens in a litter; and instances are on record where these have
been brought forth in the de.serted or captured nests of some of tlie lai'ger birds.

The fierceness and savage disposition of the wild cat, or " cat-a-mount," as it
was often called by the older writers, is pioverbial, and displays itself even in the
kittens, which will hiss and spit vigorously at all intruilers on their lair. Several
instances ai-e related where wild cats liave e\'en attacked human beings. The
de.struetion which they inflict on grouse, ptarmigan, rab1)its, hares, fawns, and
lambs, renders them detested alike hy gamekeepers and shepherds, and has thus
largely contributed to their reduced numbei-s in those parts of Britain where the
species still survives. From the shortness and bushiness of its tail, there is good
reason to believe that the wild cat is not the parent stock of our domestic cats.
Still, however, there are undoubted instances where crossing has taken place
between the two, such interbreeding having been fretjuently authenticated. On
this point Jardine observes that " in the north of Scotland tliere has been occasional
crossing with our native species, and the result of these cros&es has been kept in
our houses. I have seen many cats closely resembling the wild cat, and one or two
that could scarcely be distinguished from it." Commenting on this statement,
Blj^th remarks that " such cats are never seen in the southern parts of England ;
still, as compared witli any Indian tame cat, the affinity of tlie ordinary British cat
to F. catuH\% manifest, and is due, I suspect, to frequent intermixture at a time
when the tame cat was first introduced into Bi-itain, and continued rare, while the
wild species was far more abundant than at present."

Pallas's Cat {Fdis vianvl).

Apparently nearly allied to the European wild cat is a handsomely-coloured
species from the Siberian steppes, the Mongolian deserts, and the higlilands of Tibet,
known as the manul cat, or Pallas's cat. It is about the size of the ordinary
domestic cat, with very long, thick, and soft fur, and a thick bushy tail, of about
half the length of the head and body. The head is i-emarkably broad, and the ej^es
are directed more forward than in any other species.

424 CARXIVORES.

The general colour of tliis cat varies from a silvery -grey to a yellowish-bufT,
becoming darker on the back, the chest being dark brown, while the under-
parts are lighter. The loins are marked by a few widely-separated transveree
stripes, while the club-like tail has six or seven dark rings. Occasionally also the
limbs may be slightly banded, while the front of the head is spotted, and the cheeks
are marked by the usual pair of transverse streaks. The peculiar silvery " wash "
on the fur is due to the circumstance that the ends of the longer haii-s on the back
are white, with short black tips.

In the steppes of Asia this cat takes the place of the wild cat of Europe. In
the time of Pallas, its desci-iber, its range extended from the southern flanks of the
Urals through the Kirghiz. Turki, and Mongolian steppe.s to South Siberia, and from
the foot of tlie Altai to Lake Baikal. Now, however, Pallas's cat appears to be
unknown in the Orenburg steppes. Its food is said to consist largely of the small
Rodents, commonly known as picas, or tailless hares {Lafjomys). It is this cat which
was regardeil b}- Pallas as being the ancestral stock from which the domesticated
Angora or Pei-sian breed took origin, although the evidence in favour of tliis view
is insufficient.

The Indian" Desert-Cat {Felis ornata).

As implied by its name, the Indian de.sert-eat, like the species last mentioned, is
an inhabitant of open regions, and in this respect differs widely fi-om its spotted
compatriot, tlie leopard-cat. Tiie desert-cat is another of the numerous species
agreeing approximately in size with average domestic cats, but it differs from the
three preceding species in that the ornamentation of the fur takes the foi-m of spots,
wliich may have a tendencv to arrange themselves in longitudinal lines along the
body. Moreover, the tail, instead of being short and bushy, as in the two preceding
species, is comparatively thin, tapering, and about equal in length to the head and
bod}\ The general ground-colour of the desert-cat is pale sandy, or " isabelline " : the
spots on the body are small and rounded, wliile those on the neck and head are
still smaller, elongated, and tend to form lines. The outer surfaces of the limbs
have dark bars, and the upper surface of the base of the tail is similarly barred,
while near tlie end the tail is ringed, and its tip is black. The soles of the feet are
also black below. This little cat is confined to the desert and sandy regions of
Western India, being especially common in the deserts to the east of the Indus, in
Sind, Western Eajputana, and Hurriana, where, according to Mr. Blanford, it
subsists largely on the gerbils which abound in such regions. The spotted sandy
fur of this cat probably harmonises well in colour with the desert sands dotted here
and there with darker pebbles.

In the deserts of Eastern Turkestan, in the neighbourhood of Yai-kand and
Kashgar, this cat is replaced by the nearly-allied Shaw's cat (F. shcnciana), dis-
tinguished by its rather larger size and shorter tail.

Nearly related to the desert-cat is the far less common waved cat {F. torquata)
from Northern India. Kashmir, Nipal, etc. This species is distinguished by its
more uniform coloration of a.shy-grey, becoming more or less rufous in some
specimens, and passing into buff on the lower parts. The head and back are

DOMESTIC CATS.

4^5

marked b}' indistinct longitudinal dark bands, and there are also numerous rows
of incomplete vertical stripes, passing into spots on the sides of the body. The
under-parts are plain-coloured, but the tail and feet are marked as in the desert-
cat, the under surface of the latter being, however, brown instead of black.

The desert and waved cats have a particular interest in relation to the origin
of the domestic cats of India, since it appears that the fonner interbreeds with
domestic cats, many of which, in the i-egions inhabited by the desert-cat, are spotted
in a nearly similar manner. In regard to the waved cat, Mr. Blanford remarks
that " nothing especial is known of the habits, and it is far from improbable that
specimens of the present form are merely descendants of tame cats that have run
wild. The converse is, however, ecpially probable, that this is the aboi'iginal race
from wliich Indian domestic cats, and possiljjy those from other countries, are
derived : and the circumstance that skins from pirts of Lnlia so distant from each
other as Nipal, Rajputana, an<l Kashmir, are precisely similar, is in favour of the
latter view."

Domestic Cats.

In the course of our survey of tlie last few species it has been ineiilentally
mentioned how that the domestic cats of various countries interbreed with, and
more or less closely resemble in coloration, some of the species of wild cats inhabit-
ing the same districts. It has also been mentioned that the ancient Egyptians
were in the habit of taming and training the wild caffre cat of their own covnitiy,
which has been regarded by many authorities as the ancestral stock from which
were dei-ived the domesticated cats of Europe.

Without committing ourselves definitely to any one view, we confess that we
are inclined to follow those who consider the caffre cat as the original parent stock
of the domesticated breeds of Europe, but that, as suggested by Mr. Blyth, thei-e
has probablj' been, at least in many districts, a large amount of subsequent crossing
of the original domestic breed with the wild cat. We are further disposed to believe
that the domesticated cats of India may have had a totally independent origin from
tho.se of Eui'ope, and we would also incline to the view that either the desert-cat or
the waved cat (if the latter be a truly wild species) may have been the original
parent stock from which they were derived. The common occurrence of spotted
domestic cats in India — such being comparatively rare in Europe — is, indeed, highly
suggestive of an origin from one or more of the numerous spotted wild species now
inhabiting that country, while the general prevalence of " tabbies " in Europe is in
favour of their origin from the caffre cat, with more or less intercrossing with the
wild cat. It is, of course, possible that the prevalence of spotted domestic cats in
India may be solely due to the effects of crossing with their wild compatriots, but
the former is certainly the most natural view. Without going into the question of
the origin of the domestic cats of other regions, we think, then, that, on the whole,
the evidence shows that all those of Europe and Asia have not been derived from one
single parent stock.

Having said thus much as to the probable origin of domestic cats, we pass on
to consider briefly some of the most impoi-tant and well-marked of their breeds.
Before doing so we may, however, quote with advantage a passage from the

426

CARNIVORES.

vrritings of Professor Mivart, pointing out the services which the cat confers on the
human race. " The domestic cat, ' observes this writer, " is an animal so common
and familiar that its utility is sometimes apt to be lost sight of. To realise its
usefulness we must imagine ourselves in a land where no such animal is knowTi,
but where the annoying creatures upon which it prej-s shall have multiplied with
that rapidity natural to them. The familiar tale of Whittington may serve to
illusti-ate what would be the effect of its introduction into such a land. It has
been calculated that a single cat may devour twenty mice in one day ; but this, of

THE DOMESTIC CAT (J nat. size).

course, is by no means the limit of its powers of destruction. Its effect in putting
to flight the creatures it pursues is, again, far in excess of its destructive energy.
Were every cat in England sinmltaneously destroyed, the loss through the entailed
increase of vermin would be enormous."

On account of these invaluable qualities the domestic cat has been introduced
into almost ever}' country in the world. There is, however, still some degi-ee of
uncertainty as to the period when domesticated cats were first known in Europe,
although they were undoubtedly in existence there previously to the Christian era.
The mammal used by the ancient Greeks for the pui-poses for which we emploj- the
cat, and called by them ailuros, was long considered to be the same as the modern

DOMESTIC CATS. 427

cat. The late Professor Rolleston, of Oxford, brought forward, however, a con-
siderable amount of evidence to show that the ailuros of the Greeks was really a
marten, ami this view receives some support from the fact that no remains of cats
have been discovered among the ashes of Pompeii and Herculaneum. That cats
continued to be comparatively scarce and valuable animals during the middle ages,
is proved by the laws made in several countries for their special protection, and the
fines imposed on those who injured or killed them.

Comino- now to the consideration of the various kinds of domestic cats, it may
be observed, in the tii-st place, that the difierent breeds of these animals are dis-
tinguished from one another mainly or entirely by such characters as colour, length
of hair, or, more rarely, length of tail : and that they do not present the marked
sti-uctural differences distinguishing the various breeds of dogs. This general
similarity may be partly accounted for b\- the circumstance that all cats are
required for nmch the same purpose, so that there has been no special inducement
for breedei-s to modify the structure of the creature. A more important factor in
the case is, however, in our opinion, the greater specialisation of a cat as compared
with a dog, as is particularly shown in the shortness of the face, the diminution in
the nundx'r of the teeth, and the peculiar structure of the cheek-teeth, it being
sufficiently obvious that a short-faced and few-toothed animal is not capable of
those nioditications in the length and proi)ortions of the skull, which can be so
readily induced in creatures with longer muzzles and a greater number of teeth.
That cats are, however, capable of perpetuating for a longer or shorter period
stiTictural modifications, is proved by a race of these animals with six toes on each
foot, in which the peculiarity was inhei-ited to the tenth generation.

As regards coloration, European cats are commonly either "tabby," black,
white, sandy, tortoiseshell, dun, grey, or the so-called " blue " ; the two latter colours
being more rare than the others. All these different varieties will generally breed
more or less nearly true if prevented from crossing, but it frequently happens that
litters will contain difierent- coloured kitten.s. Formerly the ordinary European
cats were short and smooth-haired animals, but of late yeai-s there has been a large
amount of crossing -with the Persian breed, which has resulted in the production of
a number of long-haired cat.s. The true-bred " tabby " cat was, perhaps, the most
common English variety, its well-marked vertical stripes being not improbably due
to an original crossing with the wild cat. Its proper gi-ound-colour is grey, marked
with a black stripe down the back, and having subconcentric bands of the same colour
on the sides and limbs. The rare grey cats may be regarded as tabbies which have
lost all their stripes, with the exception of two transverse bare on the fore-legs.
Black cats may probaljly be considered analogous to black leopards, since, even
when purely bred, young kittens of this colour almost iuvariablj- show the stripes
of the " tabbj^" Usually black cats have some white hairs, more especially on the
throat, and, it is almost needless to remark, by an ever-increasing mixture of white,
a perfect transition may exist from black to white cats, the same holding good with
regard to the other breeds. In pure-bred black cats the eyes are of a clear yellow.
In white cats, on the other hand, the eyes may be either of the ordinary greenish-
yellow tinge, or of a pure blue, while in some cases one ej-e may be blue and the
other yellow, this feature being especially admired in white Persian cats. As is

428

CARNIVORES

now well known, white cats with blue eyes are usually deaf, this deafness being
probably attributable to the lack of dark pigment characterising the e\-es also
extending to the ears; such dark pigment being, in some mysterious manner,
connected with the sense of hearing.

The pure -bred tortoiseshell cat — a race which, by the way, .seems now
much more rare in England than formerlj^ — should be of an orange-fawn colour,
irregularly blotched with black, without any admixture of white. Such cats are
almost invariably females, altliough, according to Professor Mivart, there is at least
one good instance of a pure " tortoiseshell torn." The male of this breed is the
sandy cat, and the writer above mentioned comments upon the extreme ]jeculiai-ity
in this difference of the coloration in the two sexes of this breed, the males and

THE A>-GORA CAT (f nat. size).

females of all wild cats, with the single exception of the South American jaguarondi
(in which the female is the brighter of the two), being coloured alike. Occasionally,
however, female sandy cats are to be met with, while sandy-and-wliite and tortoise-
shell-and-white cats may be of either sex. The so-called " blue " or Caithu.sian cat
is characterised by its long and silky hair being of a uniform greyish-blue colour,
while the soles of the feet and the lips are black.

Turning to Asiatic cats, it has already been mentioned that many of those of
India have more or less distinctly .spotted coats like their wild compatriots, such
coloration being almost unknown in Europe. The most celebrated of all the Asiatic
breeds is the Persian, or Angora cat, its second title being derived from a town in
Asia Minor. These eats are characterised by their large size, their long silky hair,
— most developed on the throat and under-parts. — and the thick bushy tail. The
colour is generally uniform, varying from piu-e white to a yellowish or greyish

DOMESTIC CATS. 429

tint, while the lips and soles of the feet are not uncommonly flesh-coloured. The
occurrence of individuals with one blue and one yellow eye in this breed has been
already mentioned, while allusion has likewise been made to the opinion that the
Persian cat is descended from Pallas's cat of the Asiatic steppes. It was said some
years ago that the breed of these cats in Angora had been greatly reduced in
numbers, owing to their skins having been in large demand as furs.

In Siam there is a breed of cats reserved for royalty, characterised by their
uniform, and often dark, fawn colour, their blue eyes, and the presence of two or
more perfectly bald spots on the forehead. Siam, together with Burma, also
possesses a breed known as the Malay cat, in which the tail is but of half the
usual length, and is often, through deformity in its bones, tightly curled up into
a knot. These short-tailed Asiatic cats lead to the mention of the tailless cats of
the Isle of Man, in which the tail is either reduced to a mere stump, or almost
wautinf. Owing, however, probablj' to the introduction of ordinary cats from the
mainland, cats in the Isle of Man are now to be met with having tails of all
lengths up to 10 inches. Tailless cats, according to Professor Mivart, also exist
in the Crimea, while they have been recorded by Kwrnpfer from Japan.

The other domestic breeds to which we shall refer include the Mombas cat
from the eastern coast of Africa, said to be distinguished by its stift' and wiry hair,
and the Paraguay cat of South America, which is much smaller than oidinary cats,
with a long body, covered with close-lj'ing short and scanty hair. Tlu' description
of the latter is suggestive of some affinity with the eyra of the same regions.

Like many of the smaller wild species, the domestic cat has the pu]iil of the
eye reduced to a narrow vertical slit when at its smallest dimensions. It also agrees
with its wild cousins in the extremely small development of the sense of smell,
depending chiefly upon sight and the exquisite sense of perception residing in the
so-called "whiskers." The effects of domestication have, however, considerably
increased the reproductive powers of the cat, the tame races having young three or
four times during the year, and proilucing from live or six to eight or nine kittens
at a birth.

With reo-ard to its intelligence, Dr. Romanes observes that " the cat is \m-
questionably a highly intelligent animal, though, when contrasted with its great
domestic rival the dog, its intelligence, from being cast in quite a diff'erent mould,
is very frequently underrated. Comparatively unsocial in temperament, wander-
ingly predacious in habits, and lacking in the aftectionate docility of the canine
nature, this animal has never in any considerable degree been subject to the
psychological transforming influences whereby a prolonged and intimate associa-
tion with man has so profoundly modified the psychology of the dog. Never-
theless, the cat is not only by nature an animal remarkable for intelligence, but,
in spite of its naturally imposed disadvantage of temperament, has not altogether
escaped those privileges of nurture, which unnumbered centuries of domestication
could scarcely fail to supply. Thus, as contrasted with most of the wild species
of the genus when tamed from their youngest days, the domestic cat is con-
spicuously of less uncertain temper towards its masters — the uncertainty of temper
displayed by nearly all the wild members of the feline tribe when tamed being, of
course, an expression of the interference of individual with hereditary experience.

430 CARNIVORES.

And, as contrasted with all the wild species of the genus when tamed, the domestic
cat is conspicuous in alone manifesting any exalted development of affection
towards the human kind ; for in manj- individual cases such affection, under
favouring circumstances, reaches a level fully comparable to that which it attains
in the dog."

The writer then proceeds to observe that the most obvious trait in the
" emotional " character of the cat is its strongh'-rooted attachment to places as
distinguished from persons, and it is considered that this is pi-obably inherited from
an instinctive attachment to their lairs, characteristic of its wild ancestors. The
second feature in this aspect of the cat's nature is its partiality for torturing its
helpless prey — a trait which Dr. Romanes asci'ibes to the delight of torturing for
torture's sake.

As regards their higher faculties, the same author observes that " it is to be
noted as a general feature of interest that all cats, however domesticated they may
be, when circumstances require it, and often even quite spontaneously, throw off
with the utmo.st ease the whole mental clothing of their artificial experience, and
return in naked simplicity to the natural habits of their ancestors. This readiness
of cats to become feral is a strong expression of the shallow jisychological influence
which prolonged domestication has here exerted, in comparison with that which it
has produced in the case of the dog. A pet terrier lost in the haunts of his ancestors
is almost as pitiable an object as a babe in the wood ; a pet cat under similar
circumstances soon finds itself quite at home. The reason of tliis difference is, of
course, that the psychologj^ of the cat, never having lent itself to the practical
uses of and intelligent dependency on niEfa, has never, as in the case of the dog,
been under the cumulative influence of human agency in becoming further and
further bent awaj- from its original and naturally imposed position of self-reliance,
so that, when a severance takes place between a cat and its human protectors, the
animal, inheriting unimpaired the transmitted intelligence of wild progenitors,
knows very well how to take care of itself."

The terrible pests that domestic cats which indulge either in nocturnal poaching
expeditions, or which have taken to a completely wild life in the woods, become, is
known to all who have anything to do with rabbit-warrens or game-preserves. In
the Island of St. Helena, Darwin tells us that a few cats which had been originally
turned loose, in order to destroy the rats and mice, increased in numbers so as to
become a perfect plague. And the same observer mentions that in some parts of
South America the domestic cats which had run wild had become modified into
larger creatures of exceeding fierceness, inhabiting rocky liills.

The Pampas Cat {Felis }xijeros).

With the pampas cat, also known as the straw-cat or the grass-cat, we come
to the last of the South American cats, and also the only one absolutely confined to
the barren regions of Argentina and Patagonia, ranging to the extreme southern
limits of the latter country. From dwelling in such desert regions, the pampas
cat may, as Professor Mivart remarks, well be regarded as the New World repre-
sentative of Pallas's cat of the steppes of Central Asia.

JUNGLE-CAT.

431

This species is described as being of about the same size as the European wild
cat, but of stouter build, with a smaller head and a still shorter tail. The fur is
long and of a yellowish-grey groinid-colour, marked with brownish or straw-coloured
bands, running obliquely from the back across the flanks, the tail and legs being
barred Avith similar bands. From the eyes two dark patches are continued down-
wards to meet on the throat. As usual, the under-pait of the bodj^ is whitish. The
total length of the animal is given as 3 feet 1 inch, of which 12 inches are occupied
by the tail. The skull is remarkable for its extreme shortness, and likewise for
the presence of only two premolar teeth in the upper jaw.

THE PAMP,\s CAT (J nat. size).

This cat may be regarded as one of the most distinctive animals of the pampas.
Mr. W. H. Hudson speaks of it as not unlike F. catus in its robust form and dark
colour, but a larger, more powerful animal, inexpressibly savage in dLsjiosition.

The Ju\gle-Cat {Felis chau«).

The common Indian jungle-cat is an important member of the family, since it
serves to connect the more typical cats so closelj' with the lynxes as to render it
impossible to refer the latter (as has been often proposed) to a distinct genus.

The jungle-cat is somewhat superior in size to the ordinary domestic cat, from
which it difiers in having a circular pupil to the eye, therebj^ agreeing with the
IjTixes. It also approximates to the latter in having a few long hairs on the tips
of the ears, although these are not sufficiently numerous to form distinct tufts.
The tail is, moreover, less elongated than in many of the true cats, A-arying from
one-third to two-tifths the length of the head and body. In the presence of three

432

CARNIVORES.

premolar teeth in the upper jaw, as well as in tlie form of the lower flesh-tooth, the
jungle-cat agrees, however, with the more typical representatives of the family, as
distinct from the lynxes.

The colour of the fur of the body varies from sandy or yellowish-grey to
greyish-brown, the back being darker, with a tendency to reddish in some in-
dividuals or to a dusky tint in others, wliile the under-parts are whitish, with a
yello^v or red tinge. The individual hairs, which \ary in length according to the
locality whence the animals come, are not of uniform colour throughout their

THE JCNGLE-CAT (J nat. size).

length, the upper ends being genei'ally gre3ash- white, with black tips. . Usually
fully- ailult animals are uniformh'- coloured, but the limbs may be marked with
dusky transverse bars, while, more rareh', rows of indistinct spots or wavy lines
may be detected. The inner side of the upper part of the fore-limb usually has the
two broad transverse bai-s common to so many cats. The cheeks and breast may
be either banded or pale, while the tail is ringed, and its tip, like those of the ears,
black. The soles of the feet are of a dusky -brown colour. The total length of the
animal varies fi'om 33 to 39 inches, the length of the tail (with the hair) in the
smaller form beinof 11 inches.

Although the jungle-cat may be regarded as a characteristic animal of India,
where it is found from Cape Gomorin to elevations of about eight thousand feet in

VOL. I. — 28

- ' ■-' ^ • ^. >- ^ 'ai^&A ? -m^- 5 **f *

.^Qa-^^v-,

CARACALS HUNTING.

CARACAL. 435

the Himalaya, and also occurs in Ceylon and Burma, yet it has a wide range to the
westward, being couunon in Persia, and thence extending- through Syria to North
Africa. Occasionally black specimens of this cat are met with in India.

The jungle-cat, although, fi-om its nocturnal habits, rarely seen, is described by
the late Dr. Jerdon as frequenting" alike jungles and the open countrj^ and is very
partial to long grass and reeds, sugar-cane fields, corn-tields, etc. It does much
damage to game of all kinds, — hares, partridges, etc., — and once I shot a pea-fowl
at the edge of a sugar-cane field, when one of these cats sprang out, seized the
pea-fowl, and, after a short struggle (for the bird was not dead), carried it off before
my astonished eyes, and, in spite of my running up, made good his escape with his
booty." It is said to be very destructive at times to poultry. The present writer
once came suddenly upon the jungle-cat in the outer Himalaya on the edge of a
recently-cut field of maize, which, after staring in astonishment for a few seconds,
quietly made its way into co\er.

In disposition tlie jungle-cat is de.scribed as being very savage; and, even
when caught young, is generally untamable. It is said to breed twice a year (like
the European wild cat), and to produce three or four kittens at a birth, which,
when captured, are very difficult to rear. The late Sir O. B. St. John, as ([uoted
by Mr. Blanfortl, when writing of his Persian experiences, states that among the
mountains of the South he found three kittens of this species so young as to be
unable to di'ink milk. "I reared them," continues this observer, "with some
difficulty, till about three months old, b}' which time they became very tame and
playful, climbing up on to my knees when at breakfast, and behaving very much
like ordinary domestic kittens. Unfortunately one was killed by a greyhound, and
another by a scorpion, within a few days, on which the survivor became morose,
and refused to be comforted, even by the society of a kitten of his own age, which
I procured as a companion to him. When I left Persia, in 1867, he was a year old,
and very large and powerful. Two English bull-terriers I had, who made short
work of the largest domestic cat, could do nothing with my wild cat. In their
almost daily battles the dogs always got tine worst of it."

The Caracal {Fd'is caracal).

The foxy-coloured cat known as the caracal is a species of larger size
than the jungle-cat, though smaller than the true lynx, and agrees with the
latter in its long limbs, pencilled ears, and the characters of its teeth ; but in
its longer tail, absence of a ruff round the throat, and less close and thick fur,
it resembles the jungle -cat. The transition from the typical cats to the lynxes is,
therefore, complete.

The caracal, in addition to its relatively long limbs, is characterised by its
slender build, by the length of the tail being equal to one-third of that of the hind
leg and body, and by the long tufts of black hair surmounting the long ears. From
the latter feature the animal is known to the Persians by the name of Siyah-gush ;
siyah signifying black, and gush ears. The skull is characterised by the elevation
of the crown, and the shortness of the face ; while there are but two premolar teeth
in the upper jaw, and the flesh-tooth of the lower jaw is distinguished by the

436 CARNIVORES.

presence of the rudiment of the heel, which is found fully developed in that of the
hysenas.

In colour the caracal varies from a uniform rufous fawn-colour to a brownish-
rufous ; the under-parts being either a paler rufous or white, and frequently marked
with obscure rufous spots. The limbs and tail are coloured like the body, although
in some individuals the tip of the tail may be black. The outer sides of the ears
are either partially or completely black, while their interiors are white. The
length of the head and body varies from 26 to 30 inches, and that of the tail from
9 to 10 inches; the height at the shoulder being from 16 to 18 inches.

This species is sometimes known as the Persian, and at others as the red lynx,
but the latter name is properly applied to a North American varietj- of the true
lynx. Although a rare animal everywhere, the caracal is spread over the greater
part of India, with the exception of Bengal, the Malabar coast, and the Eastern
Himalaya. It is unknown to the eastward of the Baj- of Bengal, but towards the
south-west it is found in Mesopotamia, and perhaps the Persian highlands. It is
also found in Arabia ; and over a large portion of Africa it is the sole repre-
sentatives of the lynxes.

We have little or no information as to the habits of the caracal in Africa, and
only a .scant reconl of its mode of life in Imlia. Mr. Blanford considers, however,
that it probably dwells among grass and bushes, rather than in forests. Its prey
is stated to consist largely of gazelles, the smaller species of deer, hares, pea-fowl,
florican, cranes, and other birds : and so active is the creature, that it is asserted to
have the power of springing up and capturing birds on the wing at a height of five
or six feet above the ground. The caracal is easily tamed, and in some parts of
India is trained to capture several of the animals mentioned above as forming its
natural prey. Blyth records that it is a favourite amusement among the
natives to let loo.se a couple of tame caracals among a flock of pigeons feeding on
the ground, when each of them will strike down as many as ten birds before the
flock can escape. It is believed that the expression " lynx-eyed " owes its origin
to this .species.

The Lyxx {Felis lynx).

Few animals have given rise to more discussion among zoologists, in regard to
the nundjer of species into which they .should be divided, than the true lynxes;
some authorities regarding those found in North America as representing three
species quite distinct from the tjqDical Old World lynx, while others are disposed to
consider the whole four as mere varieties of a single species. It was likewise at
one time considered that there were two Old World lynxes occurring to the north
of the Alps : one being the common lynx of Europe, and the other the Tibetan
lynx. It has now, however, been shown that these two vai-ieties pass impercejitibly
into each other ; but to the south of the Alps, the so-called pardine lynx is regarded
as probably a distinct species. Without committing ourselves definitely to any one
view, we shall treat of the whole of these various forms of lynxes, with the
exception of the pardine lynx, under a single heading.

The true lynxes are mainly a northern group, being unknown in Africa.

LYNXES.

437

India, and South America. They are verj* characteristic of North America, where,
to the northwards of the Rio Grande, they are, with the exception of the puma, the
sole representatives of the Cat family. Their range in the Xew World extends
further to the southwards than in the Old World, as it there reaches to Southern
California and the Rio Grande.

The whole of the true lynxes, whether we regard them as species or varieties,
agree with the cai-acal in the form of the skull, the number and structure of the
teeth, the black tufts to the ears, and the relatively long legs. They iliti'er.

THE NORTHERN LYNX (J nat. sizc).

however, by their stouter build, by the rutf of long hair fringing the throat, and the

shorter tail, which is less than one-foui-th the length of the head and body. They

are further characterised by the softness and thickness of their beautiful fur,

which is frecjuently marked with spots, and is highly valued by furriers.

Commencing with the true northern lynx of the Old World, we
Northern Lynx. . , , , , „ . „ . „ " , ,

hud that the colour of its fur ^-arles from a pale sandy -grey, or

isabelline tint, to a rufous-fawn washed with grey; some European skins being

ferruginous red. The under-parts of the body are white. Although there is a great

amount of local variation with regard to the presence of spots on the winter coat, it

appears from the researches of Mr. Blanford that in the summer dress the fur of the

438 CARNIVORES.

body is always marked with small black spots. In some instances, perhaps in young
animals onlj', these spots continue during tlie winter. This, however, appears to
occur only among the lynxes of Europe; tho.se of Asia having the winter dress
without spots, except on the flanks and limbs, while they may be also wanting
there. The hairs of the fur vary in colour in different parts of their length, and
are tipped with black. The ears are gi'ey on the outsides, with black margins, tips,
and tufts. Occasionally the under-parts of the bodj' are spotted. The length of a
full-grown lynx, according to Mr. Blanford, is 33 inches exclusive of the tail,
which measures only 7f inches; but Professor Mivart says that the length of the
head and bodj' may be upwards of 40 inches.

The lynx now inhabits the northern districts of Sweden, Norwa3% and Russia ;
but appears to have been exterminated from the forest districts of Central Europe,
where it was formerly common. A lynx was, however, killed in the Haute Loire,
France, in the year 1822, and a second in Wiirtteniberg in 1846. Eastward the IjTix
extends through the greater part of Asia, north of the Himalaya, ranging through
Tibet into Ladak, and occurring in the upper Indus valley as far westwards as Gilgit.

In Europe the h'nx is a forest-dwelling animal, being an expert climber, and
often found in trees. The lynx of Tibet, distinguished by Blj-th as the isabelline
Ij'nx {F. isabeUina), is, however, an inhabitant of a barren country, and dwells in
ojDen ground among roekj^ districts. It is of a paler colour than the European
variety, with shorter hair on the soles of its feet. This difference of coloration is,
however, as pointed out by Mr. Blanford, doubtless due to the difference of its
surroundings ; this being confirmed in a remarkable manner bj' the Ij'nx found in
the Gilgit district, where a certain amount of forest occurs, which is intermediate in
coloration between the European and Tiljetan varieties. Tlie Turkestan lynx
resembles the one from Gilgit.

In Europe the lynx used to be found at low elevations, in Gilgit it occurs at
elevations of about five thousand feet, while in Tibet it is not found below some
fourteen to fifteen thousand feet in summer. The food of the h'nx varies according
to its habitat. In Europe it preys ujion birds and upon mannnals varying in size
from mice to goats and sheep, and perhaps occasionally larger species. In dis-
position it is extremely savage, and will often kill more animals than it can devour ;
Dr. Scully mentioning that in Gilgit a pair of lynxes killed six .sheep in a single
night. From two to three cubs are produced at a birth ; the lair being usually
formed among rocks. The voung are born blind.

When taken young, the lynx can be easily tamed. The wi-iter saw a full-
grown tame Tibetan lynx in the possession of the late Mr. W. H. Johnson, then
governor of Ladak, in Leh, during the year 1874, and another in Calcutta in 1878,
belonging to Dr. J. Anderson. Both specimens were very playful, although the
former would occasionally be somewhat too free with its claws. It displayed
marvellous agility in capturing the half-wild pigeons which abound in LeL

In Ladak, where the lynx is a rare animal, but seldom seen by Europeans, its
chief food appears to consist of the blue hares which occur in swarms in many of
the higher vallej'S. General Kinloch writes that in the summer of 1866, when
shooting at a high elevation near Hanle, in Spiti, " I suddenly came upon a female
l^-nx with two .cubs. I shot the mother, and as the cubs concealed themselves

LVMVES.

439

among some rocks, I bHi-ricaLled them in, ami went on witli mj- huntino-. On
arriving in camp, I sent back men to try and catch the cubs; in this they
succeeded, and brought them back to me. They were about the size of half-grown
cats, and more spiteful, vicious little devils cannot be imagined ; thej- were, however,
verj^ handsome, with inunense heads and paws. For two or three days' thej'
refused all food, but at the end of that time thej' fed quite ravenously from the

'^V-.v'^Hv^;-

THE EOBOPEAN LYNX (^ nat. size).

hand. They soon became very tame and playful, although always ready to set
tlieir backs up if at all teased, or if a dog came near them."
Canada Lynx Coming to the American species or varieties of lynxes, the first

and largest is the Canada lynx {F. canadensis). Pi-ofessor Mivart
describes this as very like the European form, the specimens that came under his
notice being smaller, ami not exceeding 30 inches in length from the muzzle to
the root of the tail, v^•ith a tail 5 inches long; but Mr. C. J. Nattrass says that the
Canada lynx may exceed 3 feet in length. The same writer observes that in some

440 CARNIVORES.

climates the colour of this lynx is almost white, although usually of a dark grey-
tinged with chestnut, with the limbs darker than the bodj-. The back and the
upper part of the legs are mottled with darker blotches, and the tips of the hairs
are white.

The Canada lynx extends from Canada at least as far south as the Adirondack
Mountains, near New York ; and is the loxip ceriner of the French Canadians. In
the Adirondacks, where it is nowliere common, it preys, according to Dr. Hart
Merriam, " upon the northern hare, and such other small mammals as it can catch,
and upon the rufted grouse and spruce partridge. It has also been known to
devour pigs, lambs, and young fa-\A'ns : but the accounts of its attacking full-grown
deer are not to be credited. Its haunts are in the deep forests and bush districts,
remote from the paths of man ; and consequently it rarely intrudes upon the
barn-yard. Its ordinary- gait when in a hurry is a long gallop, like that of the
hare, and it is said to swim well. The female conunonly has two j'oung at a
birth, her lair being usually located in a cavern or lioUow tree."

Mr. Nattrass states that this lynx wlien leaping over the ground, as it does in
a series of .successive bounds, witli back arched, the tail so short as to be almo.st
indiscernible, presents altogether a quaint, weiixl appearance, which has been
described by many hunters and backwoodsmen as laughable and peculiar in the
extreme. The same writer also relates an instance where a Ijnx, when hard
pressed by dogs, took to the water and swam right across Lake Leman, of which
the width is almost a mile. He likewise states that the lynx will feast upon the
forsaken prey of the puma, which may account for the legends of its killing the
larger kinds of deer; smaller deer fall, however, frequent victims to the lynx.
Mr. Nattrass records a cross-breed between tlie IjTix and the domestic cat.

" The lynx," he .saj's, " is seldom hunted systematically, as are the deer, elk,
bear, and other game animals, unle.ss it be by professional hunters or trappers,
who value him for his pelt. With them the usual method is to hunt him with
dogs trained to follow the trail by scent. In other cases his track is followed
thi'ough the snow, by the eye, by a party of hunters, who, when starting out,
must be prepared to make a long, hanl tramp of many hours, or possibly
several days. I have known a party. \\ho wanted a lynx badly, to follow the trail
of one all day, returning home as darkness set in. They returned to the hunt next
morning, took up the trail where they left it the night before, and followed it all
day, and again the next day. till they finally trailed the beast to its lair, treed,
and shot it."

The next form of the American hmxes is known indifferenth' as
the baj- lyii's., red cat, or American wild cat, and is the chat cervier of
the French Canadians, and the F. rufa of those zoologists who I'egard it entitled to
rank as a distinct species. In the tj^ical form the fur is shorter and less abundant
than that of the Canada Ktix, and is of uniform reddish colour, while the tail appears
to be more bushy. Its size is also somewhat infei'ior to that of the last-named
kind. There is, however, a handsomer spotted variety of the bay hmx occurring
in Texas and Southern California, Avhich was formerly regarded as a distinct
species (F. m'(Cidaia) ; and a .second from Washington and Oregon, distinguished
by vertical dark streaks on the body, this variety having been named (F. fasciata).

LYNXES.

441

Both these are, however, now generally regarded as mere geographical races of
the bay Ij^nx.

In the Adirondacks tlie haj- lynx is ver\- rare, probably on account of the
climate being too severe for it, as it is far more common to the southward. " It
frequents rocky hills and ledges," writes Dr. ^lerriam, " and does not sliow that
antipathy to civilisation so marked in its congener the [Canadian] lynx. In fact,
it is often quite common in thickly-settled portions of the State, and sometimes
proves of much annoyance to the farmer by carrying off lambs, little pigs, and
poultry, — ducks, geese, turkej's, and cliickens proving equally- acceptable. Away
from the farmyard it feeds upon rabbits, squirrels, mice, grouse, and what small

THE PABDINE LYNX (i uat. size).

birds it is fortunate enough to capture. It generally makes its nest in a hollow
tree or log, and lines it well with moss. From two to four young constitute a
litter, the most frequent number being three." Dr. Merriam mentions the extremely
.spiteful di.Kposition of the bay lynx, and adds. " I have eaten the flesh of the wild
cat, and can pronounce it excellent. It is white, very tender, and suggests veal
more than any other meat with which I am familiar."

The last of the American lynxes which the tran.satlantic naturalists now regard
as a distinct .species, is the plateau lynx (F. Ixrileyi). This form takes its name
from inhabiting the high plateau of Colorado, Utah, and Arizona : and is said to
differ from the bay lynx in being uniformly paler above, and also by its shorter
tail and .softer fur. The back is suffused with a buff tint, and the blackish
marblings found on the face and forehead of the bay lynx are wanting, while the
black at the tip of the tail occupies a smaller area than in the latter. There is

442 CARNIVORES.

also some difference with regard to the coloration of the ear ; and the hind toes
lack the white colour which thej- possess in the bay lynx.

The Pardixe Lyxx {Felis pardina).

The pardine or Southern European h^nx is, perhaps, the handsomest repre-
sentative of the entire gi'oup, its fur being distinctly spotted at all seasons of the
year. The colour of the body Ls rufous above, and white beneath ; the rounded
black spots occurring on the body, tail, and limbs. From the examination of the
skin alone, Professor Mivart saj-s that he was disposed to regard this animal merely
as a southern spotted variety of the common IjTix, analogous to the spotted and
banded southern varieties of the American bay lynx. An examination of the
skull showed, however, such differences from that of the northern hmx as to lead
to the conclusion that the pardine lynx was in all probability a distinct species.

This lynx is found in Europe in Spain, Sicilj-, SarrUnia, Greece, and Turkey.
Its habits are probably very similar to those of the northern species.

Fossil remains of the pardinii Ijiix have been found in the caves of Gibraltar
in company with those of the serval : and it thus becomes a curious subject for
consideration why the fomier is now restricted to Europe, and the latter to
Africa. Remains refen-ed to the common lynx have been discovered in the
caves of England and the Continent.

The Huxtixg-Leopaed {Cynoelurus jiihatus).

The hunting-leopard (unless, as some writers tliink, there be two species) is
the last representative of the Cat family, and differs so markedly in certain respects
from all the othei-s that it is now generally admitted to rank as a distinct genus.
As already mentioned, it is generally known to Europeans as the chita (or
cheetah); but since this name is at least equally applicable to the ti-ue leopard,
its use is better avoided.

The points on which zoologists chiefly rely in making the hunting-leopard the
representative of a separate genus are twofold. Firstly, and most important,
the claws can only be partially ^\-ithdrawn into their protecting sheaths, so that
they always remain pai-tly exposed. Secondly, the upper flesh-tooth consists
simply of a trenchant blade, without the distinct lobe found on its inner side in the
true cats and hya?nas.^ While, therefore, the hunting-leopai'd is a moi'e generalised
animal than the true cats in regai-d to its feet, the characters of its upper flesh-tooth
indicate greater speciahsation, this inner lobe occurring in all the more primitive
tj'pes of Carnivores.

The hunting-leopard is distinguished by the slenderness of its bodj-, and the
great relative length of its limbs, which are longer than in any of the true cats, not
even excepting the l\nixes. In length of body it may be compared ■w'ith the tme
leopard, although it stands much higher on the legs. The pupil of the eye is
round, the eai-s are small and rounded, and the fur is rather coarse, and more or
less lengthened on the neck and the under-parts of the bodj^ The tail is relatively

1 This lobe is shown in the figure of the upper flesh-tooth of a hysena on p. 353.

HUXTIXG-LEOPARD.

443

long, being equal to more than half the length of the head and bod^'. The skull
is characteriseil by the extreme elevation of the crown, as well as by tlie sliortness
of its facial portion ; in both of which respects it resembles tliat of the snow-
leopard. The first of the three upper premolar teeth is unusually small.

In colour the fur of the hunting-leopard varies from tawny to a bright rufous
fawn tint, becoming paler on the uuder-parts. On this ground-colour black spots
are distributed over almost the whole of the animal, with the exception of the

THE HUNTING LEOPAED (J nal. sizp).

buff-coloured cliin and throat : these spots being round, without any liglit-coloured
centres, and not arranged either in rosettes or in lines. The head is marked by
one black stripe running from the front corner of the eye to the upper lip, and
som.etimes by another from the hinder pai-t of the eye to the ear. The ears are
black on the outer surface, but tawny on the margins and at the base. On the
tail the spots are confined to the upper surface, but towards the tip they tend to
form incomplete rings. Such is the coloration of the adult of this animal. In
the young cubs, however, the fur is very long — especially on the back— and of a
uniform grey tint, without any trace of spots ; but it is stated, that if a cub ni

444 CARNIVORES.

this state be clipped, the under-fur will exhihit distinct spotting. According to
measurements given by Jerdon, an adult hunting-leopard has a total length of
about 7 feet, of whicli 2i feet are occupied by the tail: the height at the shoulder
vai'ies from 2i to 2 J feet.

This animal is one of tbe few members of the family common to all Africa
and India : its range extending from Africa through Syria, Mesopotamia, and
Persia. It is not found in Bengal, nor on the Malabar coast, nor to the north-
ward of the Gange.s. It is also said to be unknown in Ceylon : ami, like all
the cats common to Africa and India, with the exception of the leopard, does not
occur to the ea.st of the Bay of Bengal. Some years ago Mr. Sclater described a
hunting-leopard from South Africa which difteretl from the ordinary form by its
stouter build, thicker tail, and more dense and woolly fur, the longest liairs occur-
ring on the neck, ears, and tail. The spots were also much paler, and the lines
between the eyes and the mouth absent. This "woolly liunting-leopard " was
regarded by its describer as a distinct species (C. laniiis), but several later writers
have been indispo.sed to admit it to this rank.

We have but little information as to the distribution of the hunting-leopard in
Africa. The Hon. W. H. Dnimmond states, on the authority of the natives, that
in South-East Africa it is very rare, although found more commonly than elsewhei'e
in the i-ocky gorges of the Bombo Mountains, where it lies concealed in the dense
jungle, from which it occasionally A'entures forth on to the open plains. Its chief
prey consists of various species of antelopes. It is regarded as perfectly harmless,
and indeed cowardly, towards man. Both Mr. Drummond and his native hunters
appear to have often mistaken hunting - leopards for immature lionesses when
seen at a little distance on the sandy plains. To the natives of South-East Africa
the animal is known as the N'Gulule.

In India our information with regard to hunting-leopards is much fuller,
owing to their being kept by many of the native princes for the purposes of sport,
which entails the necessity of careful observation of tiieir haunts and habits on
the part of those entrusted with their training ; and this more particularly as only
full-grown examples are captured, the belief among the natives of India being that
when captured as cubs they are of no use for sporting purposes.

According to Mi-. Blanford, the principal haunt of the Indian hunting-leopard
" is in low, isolated, rocky hills, near the plains on which live antelopes, its principal
prey. It also kills gazelles, nilgai, and, doubtless, occasionally deer and other
animals. Instances also occur of slieep and goats being carried oti" by it, but it
rarely molests domestic animals, and has not been known to attack men. Its mode
of capturing its prey is to stalk up to within a moderate distance of between one
to two hundred yards, taking advantage of inequalities of the ground, bushes, or
other cover, and then to make a rush. Its speed for a short distance is remarkable —
far exceeding that of any other beast of prey, even of a greyhound or kangaroo-
hound, for no dog can at first overtake an Indian antelope or a gazelle, either of
wliicli is quickly run down by C. jubatus, if the start does not exceed about two
hundred yards. General jM'Master saw a very fine hunting-leopard catch a black-
buck that had about that start within four hundred j-ards. It is probable that for
a short distance the hunting-leopard is the swiftest of all mammals."

HUNTING-LEOPARD. 445

It appears from the accounts of the natives who capture hunting-leopards that
these animals hunt either in pairs or in family parties. After they have gorged
themselves they repose in their lair for a couple of days or so, and then proceed
to a particular tree, where they meet other members of their kind, whence they
probably watch the movements of their expected prey. Such trees are recocniised
by the marks made on the bark by their claws, and the hunters are in the habit of
capturing the leopards b}^ sui-rounding the tree with a number of raw-hide nooses.

From time immemorial tame liunting-leopards have been kept by the native
potentates of India, as part of the royal state, for the purpose of hunting the Indian
black-buck (antelope) or other game. " In this sport," writes Sir Samuel Baker,
'■ all persons, excepting the keepers of the animals, are simply spectators, and no
interference is penuitted. Eacli chita occupies a peculiar cage, which forms the
body of a cart, drawn by two bullocks. When game is expected, the chita is
taken from the cage, and occupies the outside seat upon the top, together witli
the keeper. The animal is bhndeil by a hood similar to that worn by a falcon, and
it .sits upriglit like a dog, with tlie ma.ster's arm around it, waiting to be released
from the hood, which it fully understands is the signal that game is sighted."

On the particular occasion de.scribed, tliere were plenty of black-buck, and
" we were not long," continues Sir Samuel Baker, " in finding a herd, in which were
several good old buck, as black as niglit. Nothing could be more favourable than
the character of the ground for the natural habits of the chita. The surface was
quite flat and tirm, being a succession of glades, more or less open, surrounded by
scattered bush. A chita was now taken from its cage, and it at once leaped to the
top, and sat witli its master, who had released it from the hood. After an advance
of about two hundred yards, the wheels making no noise upon the level surface,
we e-spied the herd of about twentj' antelopes, and the cart at once halted until
tliey had slowly moved from view. Again the cart moved forward for seventy or
eighty paces, and two bucks were seen trotting away to tiie left, as if tliey had
caught a glimpse of the approaching cai't. In an instant the chita was loosed. For
a moment it hesitated, and then bounded forward, although the two bucks had
disappeared. We now observed that the chita not only slackened its pace, but it
crept cautiously forward, as though looking for the lost game. We followed (juietly
upon horseback, and in a few seconds we saw the two bucks about a hundred and
twenty yards distant, standing with their attention fixed upon us. At the same
instant the chita dashed forward with an extraordinary rush. The two bucks, at
the sight of their dreaded enemy, bounded away at their usual speed, with the chita
following, until all the animals were lost to view in the scattered bushes. We
galloped forward in tlie direction they had taken, and in less than three hundred
yards arrived at the spot where the chita had pinned the buck. This was lying
upon its back without a struggle, while the Arm jaws of its pursuer gripped it by
the throat. The chita did not attempt to shake or tear the prej', but simply
retained its hold, tlius strangling the victim, whicli had ceased all resistance.

" The keeper now arrange<l the hood upon the chita's head, thus masking the
eyes, which were gleaming with wild excitement, but it in no way relaxed its grip.
Taking a strong cord, the keeper now passed it several times around the neck of
the buck, while it was still held iu the jaws of the chita, and, drawing the coi'd

446 CARNIVORES.

tight, he carefully cut the throat close to the jaws of the tenacious animal. As the
blood spurted from the wound it was caught in a large but shallow wooden bowl
or ladle, furnished with a handle. When this was nearly full, the mask was taken
off the chita, and, upon seeing the spoon full of blood it relaxed its grasp, and
immediately began to lap the blood from the well-known ladle. When the meal
was finished, the mask or hood was replaced, and the chita was once more confined
within its cage, as it would not run again during that day.'

Another account, written many years ago by the late Mr. G. T. Vigne, may be
quoted, as somewhat amplifying the preceding one in certain points. The hunting-
leopard, as soon as slipped from the cart, " walks towards the antelope with his tail
sti'aightened and slightly raised, the hackle on his shoulders erect, his head depressed,
and his eyes intently fixed upon the poor animal, who does not yet perceive him.
As the antelope moves he does the same, first trotting, then cantering after him ;
and when the prey starts off, the chita makes a rush, to which the speed of a
racehorse is for the moment much iufeiior. The chitas that bound or spring
upon their prey are not much esteemed, as the}- are too cunning; the good ones
fairly run it down. When we consider that no English greyhound ever yet, I
believe, fairly ran down a doe antelope, whicli is faster than the buck, some idea
may be formed of tlie stride and velocity of an animal who usualh' closes with her
immediately, but, fortunately, cannot draw a second breath, and, consequently,
unless he strike the antelope down at once, is obliged instantly to stop and give up
the chase. He then walks about for three or four minutes in a towering passion,
after which he again submits to be helped on the cart. He always singles out the
biggest buck from the herd, and holds him by the throat until he is disabled,
keeping one paw over the horns to prevent injury to himself. The doe he seizes
in the same manner, but is careless of the position in which he holds her."

Many tame hunting -leopards become perfectly gentle and docile, rubbing
themselves against the knees of visitors, and purring all the time like so many large
cats. It should be observed that the tamed indiNiduals of this species merely use
their own natui'al instinct, and develop) no new mental powers as the result of
training.

Extinct Cats.

In tiie course of this chapter i-eference has been made to the occurrence of
existing species of the Cat family in cavern and other superficial deposits. There
are, however, in addition to these, a large number of fossil cats, differing more
or less markedly from all existing species, and many of which belong to extinct
genera ; and no account of the family would be complete without some reference,
brief though it must necessarily be, to these extinct types. Some of these as shown
\>y the greater number of their teeth, and other characters, belong to what
naturalists call more generalised types, and may have been the ancestral forms
from which the living cats have originated ; while others are more specialised than
even any of the species living.

Referring first to what may be called time extinct cats, or those belonging to
the genus Felis, we may mention that from strata belonging to the Pliocene or
upper portion of the Tertiary period in the Siwalik Hills of India, there have been

EXTLXCT CATS.

447

obtained skulls of the great crested cat (i^. cristata) which must have been fully as
large as the tiger, but appears to show signs of affinity with the jaguar. Equally
large cats {F. atrox and F. augusta) have left their remains in the strata of the
same geological period in the United States. Numerovis extinct cats of this genus
also occur in the Pliocene deposits of France and other countries on the Continent
of Europe, but these are of smaller dimensions, as also are those found in beds
belonging to the upper half of the preceding IVIiocene period, below which true
cats are unknown. The Siwalik Hills have also yielded the remains of a cat which
is believed to indicate the existence of a species of hunting-leopard at the period
when their rocks were in process of formation.

Passing on not only to extinct .species but likewise to extinct genera, we may
notice first those remarkable creatures known as sabre-toothed cats {Muelaerodus).
These cats, some of which wei-e equal in size to the
lion and tiger, are all characterised by the enormous
development of the tusks, or canine teeth of the
upper jaw, whicli formed long sabre-like weapons
projecting far below the lower jaw, as shown in our
greatly reduced figure of the skull of one of the
South American species. The great length of the
upper tusks must have completely prevented them
fi-om biting in the ordinary manner, as, when the
mouth was opened to its widest extent, these teeth
would still have reached to the lower jaw. Hence
the only mode in which they could have been used
would appear to have been as striking oV tearing
weapons when the mouth was closed. In some species
the cutting power of these teeth was increased by
their sharp edges being finely notched like a saw.

These sabre-toothed cats seem to have abounded
in the Plei.stocene and Pliocene epochs of the earth's history, their remains having
been obtained from the cavern and other .superficial deposits of England, the
Continent, Persia, India, and North and South America. They are also known
from strata of much older age, having been found in I' ranee in rocks belonging
to the upper part of the Eocene period.

In the Miocene strata of the United States, and also in the Miocene and Upper
Eocene rocks of Europe, there are found more generalised cats, many of which differ
from existing forms in having three or four (instead of two) premolar teeth in the
lower jaw; while some of them also have an extra molar tooth behind the lower
flesh-tooth. In the presence of these additional teeth, they approach the other
families of Carnivores ; and this approximation is also shown by the structure of some
of their teeth. Thus in many of them the upper flesh-tooth, instead of having three
distinct lobes in the blade as in existing cats, has but two such lobes, as in a dog.
In another form the claws, although still retractile, had not the bony sheaths of the
modern cats. The animals to which these early cats seem to make the nearest approach
are the civets, thus suggesting that the Cat family may have been derived from
primitive Carnivores, more or less closely allied to the modern civets and their allies.

SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULL OF THE
SOUTH AMERICAN S.VBRE-TOOTHED

CAT. (Greatly reduced.)

CHAPTER XIV.

Carnivores, — continued.

Civets, Aard-Wolf, axd Hy^exas.

The Carnivores described in the present chapter are those which exhibit the nearest
affinity to the cats ; and the}' are arranged in three distinct families. The first
of these famihes includes the civets and their allies, and is represented by a large
number of species ; the second contains onlj- a single species, the African aard-
wolf ; while the third is formed by the hj-senas, of which there are three species
now living. The whole assemblage is strictly confined to the Old WorM — both at
the present day, and mainly also in earlier epochs of the earth's history : ' and all
of the species are inhabitants of the warmer regions of that hemisphere, none
of them ranofincr into the strictlv northern countries.

These animals agree with the cats (and thereby differ from all other
Carnivores) in certain characters connected ^vith the skull, and also in regard to
the anatomy of their soft parts. The most obvious feature in connection with
the skull is to be found on the under-surface in the region of the internal portion
of the ear. Here the so-called bulla, lying immediately behind the cavity for the
articulation of the lower jaw, is alwaj-s inflated into a bladder-like form; the in-
ternal cavity of this bladder-like chamber being, except in the hya?nas, divided into
two compartments by a vertical partition of bone.

The Civet Tribe.
Family VlVEERID^^.

Under the general title of civets ma}' be included not only the animals to
which that term is pi'operly applicable, but likewise a number of more or less
closely-allied Carnivores, such as genets, ichneumons or mungooses, palm-civets,
linsangs, etc. This assemblage includes a much more diversified group than that
represented by the Cat family, and is, therefore, much less easy of definition ;
the difficulty being considerablj" increased by one verj' aberrant species from
Madagascar which connects the more t^^pical members of the family ^■erv closelj'
with the cats.

The whole of these animals have, however, more elongated faces than the cats,
and their bodies are also longer, and their legs shorter than in the members of that
familv, not even excepting the peculiar eyra. They have a larger number of

1 An extinct Carnivore receiitlv described from Nortli America has been referred to tbe hyjenas.

V

'>r'-U^M''^ ^<^^^

S.

LINb^Nub.

FOSSA.

449

cheek-teeth than any of the existing cats, the premolar teetli being never less
than three — and vei-y frequently four — on each side of both the upper and
lower jaws. Bloreover, with the single exception of the above-mentioned
species from Madagascar (wliich is at once distinguished from all the cats by
the presence of four premolar teeth), the civets always have two molar teeth
in the lower jaw — that is to say, there is a tooth behind the lower flesh-tooth.
Further, in nearly all cases there are also two molar teeth in the upper jaw and
behind the flesh-tooth ; these molar teeth (as shown in the accompanying figure of
the upper jaw of the Indian
civet) being generally of large
size, and thus very different from
the single small upper molar of
the cats. With the above-
mentioned exception, the upper
flesh-tooth has but two lobes to
the blade ; while the lower flesh-
tooth has a large tubei-cular heel
behind the cutting blade. As a
general rule, their feet have four
toes ; but in some cases the first
toe (thumb) may be wanting in
the fore-feet, in others the corresponding toe may be absent in the hind-feet, while
in others, again, both fore and hind-feet may be four-toed. Then, again, while in
some forms the claws can be withdra^\•n into sheaths as completely as in the cats,
in others they are but partially retractile ; this difference depending, as pointed
out by Mr. Blanford, to a great extent as to whether the animals walk on their
toes (digitigrade), or on the soles of their feet (plantigrade).

None of the civets attain large dimen.sions : and they are chiefly characteristic
of Africa, Madagascar, and South-Easteru Asia, only two species entering the
southern parts of Europe.

THK I.KKT HALF UK UIK L I'l'EB JAW OF THE INDIAN LIVET.

To sliow the form and number of the teeth. The fourth tooth
from tlie left ,suie of the figure is the tusk, or canine ; and tlie
third tooth from tlie right side the flesh-tooth, or last premolar ;
the two teeth behind the latter being the molars. (From the
Pakvontologia Indim.)

The Fossa.
Genus Cryptoproda.

The fossa of Madagascar, which is the largest Carnivore found in that island,
is the species already alluded to as connecting the more typical members of the
present family with the cats. This peculiar animal differs, indeed, so remarkably
from all the other representatives of the civet tribe, that it has been considered by
some that it ought to be referred to a separate family ; but in most features it
agrees so essentially with the civets that this view is now generally discarded by
zoologists.

The fossa {Cryptoproda ferox) is a nearly uniformly-coloured animal, with
short and thick pale brown fur ; and it attains a total length of about 5 feet from the
snout to the tip of the tail, the length of the tail being more than three-quarters
that of the head and body. The curved claM's are sharp and retractile ; and the

VOL. I. — 29

45°

CARNIVORES.

feet, each of which is furnished with live claws, are verj^ simih^r to those of a cat,
except that the whole sole of the hind pair is naked, and applied to the ground in
walking. The fossa has a total of tlurty-six teeth, of which the hinder ones, both in
form and number, closely resemble those of the cats. Thus the liesh-tooth in each
jaw is cat-like, while there is but a single small molar tooth behind the flesh-tooth
in the upper jaw, and none in the lower jaw, the number of molars being therefore
\. Unlike the cats the fossa has four premolar teeth on each siile of both jaws,
and thereby resembles the typical civets, although tlie first of these teeth is

THE FOSSA (J nat. size).

generally shed at an early age. It is a purely nocturnal creature, of a fierce dis-
position, but scarcely anything is yet known of its habits. It was exliibited in
the London Zoological Gardens for the first time in 1891.

The True Civets.

Genus Viverra.

The true civets, or tj-pical representati\-es of the family, are at once distin-
guished from the fossa bj- the number and form of their cheek-teeth; the
total number of the teeth is forty, of \\liich on each side of both the upper and
lower jaws three are incisors, one a canine, four premolars, and three molars. The
flesh-teeth, of which the characters have been already briefly mentioned, are
like those of the dogs, and thus different from those of the cats ; the upper
flesh-tooth having but two lobes to the blade (see figure on p. 449), while the
lower flesh-tooth has a large heel behind its cuttinrj blade (as seen in the ficmre of
the skull of a fox given on p. 352).

CIVETS.

451

The civets are further characterised by their long and flattened bodies ; narrow
and elongated heads ; short limbs; small and I'ounded feet, each furnished with five
toes, of which the claws are partially retractile : and the hairy soles of the feet
(exclusive of the pads). With the exception of one species, the back has a crest of
long hairs, which can be erected at will ; the neck is marked by a black gorget ;
and the tail, which is of considerable length, is variegated by alternate dark and
light rings. The whole of the fur is long and rough-looking, and thus presents a
marked contrast to the sleek pelage of most of the cats. The civets all walk on the
very tips of their toes. In addition to the above, all these animals are characterised
by the great development of certain glands situated in the abdomen which secrete
the well-known perfume which gives the name to the group. There are altogether

THE CIVET (J uat size).

six species of true civets, of which five are Asiatic while one is African ; one of the
Asiatic species being smaller than all the others, from which it also differs by the
absence of the crest of erectile hairs on the back. From this and other structural
differences, this small civet is frequency referred to a distinct genus. Like the
majoritj' of the famih', the true civets are nocturnal, and to a great extent solitary
animals ; and apparently some of them cannot climb. They are commonly known
as civet-cats.

The African civet ( Viverra civetta), which is one of the larger
members of the genus, inhabits the ti-opical portions of Africa ; and is
of a brownish-grey ground colour, marked with interrupted dark streaks, or blotches,
over the whole body. The tail is dark-coloured, with the rings very indistinct in
the terminal portion. Little is recorded of its habits in the wild state ; but these
are probably similar to those of the next species. This civet, together with other
species belonging to the same genus, and likewise some of other genera, is kept in

452

CARNIVORES.

Inrtia.n Civet.

cages for the purpose of obtaining its secretion, which is, however, now much less
used in Europe than formerly.

This civet (T'". zihetha), of which the upper teeth are figured on
p. 449, is an animal of nearly the same size as its African cousin, its
total length being 50 inches, of which 18 are occupied by the tail. It is dis-
tinguished by having the erectile crest on the back, of a deep black colour ; thus
forming a distinct black stripe running from the shoulders to the first ring on the
tail, which is bordered on either side by a pale band. There are several dark bands
on the chest, shouldei-s, and thighs ; but the sides of the lx)dy are either plain-
coloured or with very indistinct markings ; the general colour of the fur being a

0^J

THE IXDIAN CIVET (J nat. size).

dark grey, frequently witli a more or less decided yellowish or brownish tinge.
The tail is marked with six black rings, which are much wider than the interven-
ing white ones : its tip being black. The Indian civet inhabits the eastern side of
India, from Bengal to Sikhim, ascending in the last-named district to a considerable
elevation in the Himalaya, and it is also found in Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam,
and Southern China. Mr. Blanford .states that this civet is generalh' a solitary
animal ; and that " it hides in woods, bushes, or thick grass during the daj',
wandering into open countrj- and often coming about houses at niglit. Not
unfrequently it is found in holes, but whether these are dug b\- it is doubtful. It
is said to be very destructive, killing any birds or small mammals it can capture,
and often attacking fowls, ducks, etc., but also feeding on snakes, frogs, insects,
eggs, and on fruits and some roots." Civets take readily to water. The female
produces during May or June three or four young at a birth, which are probably

CIVETS. 453

l)om with theii' eyes open. Hounds and other dogs, when they come across the
trail of a civet, are said to leave that of any other animal tliey may be pursuing.

The Malabar civet (F. civettlna), which replaces tlie preceding on the Malabar
■coast, is a closely allied species, distinguished by the large transverse markings on
the sides of the body.

The fourtli, or Burmese civet {V. megaspila), may be recognised
liy the black line of the back being continued down the upper surface
of the tail, in which the dark rings are continuous below, and at first not wider
than the light interspaces. The sides of the body are marked with rather large
and usually distinct spots, which may teml to coalesce into bands ; and the
terminal portion of the tail is black for a greater or lesser extent. This species
seems to attain larger dimensions than the Indian civet, Mr. Blanford giving the
total length of one example as 54^ inches, of which the tail occupied 17i inches.
It inhabits Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Cochin China, and the Island of Sumatra.

The last of the hve more typical species is the Javan civet ( V.
tangalungn), which is closely allied to the last, but distinguished by
its smaller size, and the incompleteness of the dark rings on the under-side of the
tail. This species has been recorded fi-om Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the
Philippines. According to Mi-. Wallace it also occurs in the i.slnnds of the
Molucca group, M-hore, liowever, it may vciy jiroljalily have been introduced by
the Malays, who are in the habit of carrying civets about in cages to the various
islands, where they are bought for their .secretion. Dr. (Juillcmard relates, on the
authority of a Dutch informant, that in Java a so-called " wild cat," which is very
probably this .species, has the curious lialjit of eating ripe cofi'ee-berries, for the
.sake of their fle.shy external covering.

The last of the true civets is the rasse {V. mahteccvKiK), the
smallest nuanber of the group, and distinguished, as already mentioned,
from the others by the absence of erectile hairs along the middle of the back. As
shown in our figure on the next page, it is a more slightly built and sharp-nosed animal
than the others, with more curved and slender claws. The ground-colour of the fur
is some shade of brownish-grey or yellowish-brown ; upon which there are usually
longitudinal dark lines down the back, and also rows of spots along the sides of the
body. The dark rings on the tail vary from seven to nine in number. In size the
rasse varies from 36 to 40 inches in total length ; from 15 to 17 inches of this being
taken up by the tail. This small civet is found over the greater part of India, although
not occurring in Sind and the Punjab, and some of the adjacent poi-tions of Rajpu-
tana. It is also found in Ceylon, and extends ea.stward from India through A.ssam
to Burma and the Malay Peninsula, and thence to Southern China, Java, and some
■other islands. It has been introduced into Soeotra, Madagascar, and the Comoro
Lslands. The rasse is said to differ from the other true civets in being a good
■climber and arboreal in its habits. It is, however, found in bush-covered districts
rather than in thick forest ; dwelling either in holes in the ground or among rocks.
In confinement it is easily tamed, and feeds on such small animals as it can catch.

The comparatively large number of true civets inhabiting India and Malaysia,
as contrasted with the single representative of the genus found in Africa, suggests
that in the later periods of the earth's history the Oriental region was the original

454

CARNIVORES.

home of the group. This is eonfinned \>\ what we know of their past history, for
the remains of an extinct species have been found in a cavern in Madras, and
those of two others in the Pliocene rocks of the SiwaHk Hills in the noiih of India ;
one of the species from the latter district being far larger than any existing civet.

At a still earlier period — in the Lower Miocene and Upper Eocene — civets were,
inhabitants of Western Europe, their remains having been discovered both in
England and on the Continent. We have thus another instance of the deriva-
tion of the modern mammalian fauna of the East from the old European fauna,
to which we have alreadj' had occasion to allude. The old civets of Europe differ
somewhat in the characters of their teeth from the living species, but appear in

THE BASSE (f nat. size).

l^^cfe^^^

other respects to have been nearly allied. Very few of the existing genera of
mammals date so far back as the upper portion of the Eocene period, and civets
may be regarded as one of the oldest groups in the class.

Omitting mention of an animal from Madagascar closely allied to the rasse,
and known scientifically as the Fossa — which must not be confounded with the
fossa mentioned above — our next representatives of the family are

The Gexet.s.

Genus Genctta.

Among the little animals known as genets i.s one of the two members
of the civet family found in Europe. Although nearly related to the true"

GENETS.

455

civets, the genets may be distinguished by the greater proportionate length
and slenderness of their bodies, and their shorter legs, as well as by their
longer and more tapering tails, and their shorter and blunter claws. Then, again,
the hind-foot of a genet will be found to difler from that of a true civet by having
a narrow naked surface extending for a long distance in tlie under-surface behind
the pads. Another point of ditt'erence is to be found in the absence in the genets
of a pouch for containing the secretion ; a character in which they agree with the
fossa described on p. 449. All these animals have short and soft fur, of which the
ground-colour is brownish-yellow or greyish. Down tlic middle of the back runs

THE GKNET (J Lat. size).

a black line, wliile the sides of the body are marked with black or brown spots ;
and there are also characteristic dark and light markings on the head and face.
Tlie black rings on the tail, which are variable in nundaer, are generally narrower
than the intervening white spaces.

As the true civets are mainly Oriental in their distribution, having only one
species beyond tlie limits of that region, so the genets are chiefly African. The
common genet {Genctta vulgaris), which occurs in the northern part of Africa, is,
indeed, the only species found beyond tliat continent, its range extending into
Spain, the south of France, and South-Eastern Asia. In 1890 a single specimen
was recorded from the department of Eure, in the north of France. It is definitely
known from Asia in Syria, but may also occur in South-East Persia. Of the four

456 CARNIVORES.

exclusively African species, the blotched genet (G. tigrina) ranges from the Cape
to Abyssinia, the feline genet (G. felina) is South African, -while the remaining
species {G. senegalensis and G. pardina) are from the west coast. Genets are
easily tamed ; and in the south of Europe the common species is often kept in
houses for the purpose of killing rats and mice.

The Linsangs.
Genera Linsang and Poiana.

The most beautifully coloured of the civet-like animals are the linsangs, of
which there are three nearly allied Oriental species, and a fourth from Africa, All
the linsangs — the name would seem to be of Malayan derivation — are characterised
by their very long and slender bodies, the shortness of their limbs, the elongation
of the head and neck, and the extreme length of the tail, which may exceed that
of the head and body together. The claws can be completely withdrawn within
their sheatlis ; tlie whole of the soles of the feet are general!}- hairy ; and there is
no scent-pouch. The fur is characterised by its shortness and softness, and is very
thick, so that tlie skin is almost like velvet pile. The ground-colour of the fur is
some shade of fulvous, marked with bold black spots or patches : the long tail
being ringed with lilack. On account of their striking and handsome coloration,
the name of tiger-civets has been suggested for these animals. An examination
of the skull will show that instead of the forty teeth found in the true civets
and genets, they have only thirty-eight : this diminution being due to the loss of
the second upper molar, so that there is but one tooth behind the flesh-tooth of the
upper jaw instead of the two shown in the figure on p. 'i4y.

They are all carnivorous, but it is suggested that some of them may also
feed on insects. The Asiatic linsangs are characterised by the large size of
their spots, which frequently form squarish patches, tending to form transverse
bands. These species constitute the genus Linsang} The one African linsang, on
the other hand, has smaller spots, which have no tendencj^ to nin into bands over
the greater part of the body. It has also a naked line running up the sole of the
hind-foot, as in the genets. From these slight ditlerences this animal has been
made the type of a separate genus — Poiana.

The earliest known of these animals was the Javan linsang (Linsang
gracilis), from Ja\'a, Borneo, and perhaps Sumatra, shown as the upper figure of
our coloured Plate. It is the smallest of the linsangs, with a coloration similar to
that of the next species, but with a tlifferent kind of skull.

The Burmese linsang {L. maculosus), which is the largest, and perhaps the
handsomest, of the group, appears to be a rare animal, and is at present known
onl}^ by two specimens, one obtained from near Moulmein, and the other in South
Tenasserim. It is represented in the lower figure of the Plate. The tail is
slightly shorter than the head and body ; the length of the two latter being about
19 inches, and that of the former (including the hair at the tip) just under 17

' The name Prionodon is generally used in this sense, but it cla-shes w-ith a nearly similar name applied to an
armadillo.

PALM-CIVETS.

457

inches. The body has a greyish ground-colour, marked with about six very
broad and somewliat irreguhir brownish-black transverse bands extending across
the back, and separated \>y very narrow intervals. On the flanks and neck the
markings form broken longitudinal lines and spots, one very distinct line always
extending from beliind the ear to the shoulder. The outer surfaces of the
fore-limbs and of the thighs are spotted ; and the tail has seven complete
dark rings, separated by narrower light interspaces; its tip, as in the genets,
being lighter.

The spotted linsang (L. jiardicolor), which is found from the South-Eastern
Himalaya to Yunan, is a someW'hat smaller animal ; the length of the head and
body being only 15 inches. It is readily distinguished by its coloration ; the back
being marked with longitudinal rows of large oblong spots, instead of tlie transverse
bands of the la.st species.

A tame specimen of this beautiful animal was once kept by Mr. Brian Hodgson
in Nipal. He describes it as very docile, fond of notice, and never gi\ing vent to
any kind of sound. It was free from tlie strong odour eliaracteristic of the true
civets, and was fed upon raw meat. Mr. Hodgson states that in its wild con-
dition this species is ei|ually at home on trees and on the ground ; and that it
dwells and breeds in the hollows of decayed trees. It is not gregarious at all, and
preys chiefly upon small birds, upon which it is wont to pounce from the cover of
the grass. The times of breeding are .said to be Feljruary and August, and tlio
litter to consist of two young, there being two litters each year.

The African linsang {Fviana 2)06)1818), of which some of the distinctive
characters have been already mentioned, is found only on the West Coast, in Sierra
Leone and Fernando Po, and is, therefoi-e, widely separated from its Oriental
relatives. The tail is somewhat longer than the head and body, measuring
upwards of 40i inches ; whereas the total length of the head and body is but 38
inches. The spots, as already mentioned, are smaller than in the Oriental linsangs,
and, with the exception of some stripes on the back of the head, and a line extend-
ing from the neighbourhood of the ear to the shoulder, do not run together into
lines or patches. The tail is peculiar in that the light rings separating the large
dark bands are divided in the middle by very narrow dark rings.

The Palm-Civets.

Genus Paradoxurus.

The palm-civets, tree-cats, or toddy-cats, as they are indifferently called, form
an Asiatic group, wdth a single outlying West African species, of civet-like animals,
differing in several important respects from all the preceding types, which are more
or less closely allied. The number of the teeth is the same as in the true civets ;
but the individual teeth are usually much smaller in proportion to the size of the
skull; and the flesh-teeth are by no means of such a markedly cutting type.
There are also important distinctions in the structure of the skull. In most cases
the tail is uniformly-coloured, or only ringed at its base. Moreover, all these
animals are largely of arboreal habits.

45S

CARNIVORES.

The typical palm-civets, constituting the genus Puradojcurus, are exclusively
Asiatic, ranging from India and Burma through the Malayan region to the south
of China, and also occurring in the Philippines, Celebes, and Formosa. They may
be either uniformly-coloured or striped, and, with one exception, have no rings on
the tail, which is very long, but not prehensile. In size most of them may be
compared to a large cat with relatively short legs. Their ears are small and
rounded, the pupil of the eye is vertical, and the claws are completely retractile.
The most distinctive external feature is to be found, however, in the soles of the
feet, which, in both the fore and hind-limbs are almost com]iletel3- naked ; the bald

THE COMMOS PALM-CIVET (5 uat. Size).

area being continued backwards from the foot-pads without the intervention of any
hairy space.

The palm-civets are purely noctuinal and thoroughly arboreal in their habits ;
their food, in accordance with the structui'e of their teeth, consisting in part of
animal and in part of vegetable substances. The name Panido.vurus — often
anglicised into Paradoxure — was given to these animals on account of a caged
specimen in Paris having its tail coiled up in a peculiar manner. It was believed
that this was the normal condition, and that tlie tail could be used as a prohon.sile
organ. It appears, however, that although the palm-civets have naturally some
power of coiling and uncoiling their tails, yet that the pemianently coiled condition,
as shown in the Paris and some other caged specimens, is a kind of disease due to
the effects of captivity. Altogether there appear to be upwards of eleven well-

PALM-CIVETS. 459

distinguished species of true palm-civets, five of whicli are found in India and
Burma. In nine of these species the tail is considerably more than half the
length of the head and body ; and in eight of these it is uniformly-coloured. The
Celebes palm-civet (P. musschenbroeki), forming the ninth in this series, is, how-
ever, distinguished by having its tail lianded with indistinct rings of darker and
lighter brown. The imperfectly -known woolly palm-civet (P. laniger) was
described upon the evidence of a single skin, said to have been obtained from
Tibet, and diflers from all the rest in the woolly nature of its fur, and also by the
length of the tail not exceeding that of the head and body. It is not certain that
it really belongs to the same genus as the other species. The eleventh species is
known only by a .skull remarkable for the large size of its teeth.

The best known of all the species is the common Indian palm-civet (P. nigerY,
found throughout the greater part of India and Ceylon, and figured on p. 458. In
this species the tail is nearly or quite as long as the head and body; and the
general colour of the coarse and somewliat ragged fur a blaekisli or brownish-grey,
witliout any stripes across the back in fully adult individuals. The length of the
head and body of a male measured by Mr. Blanford was 22i inches, and that of
tlie tail If).! inches: tlie corresponding dimensions of .a female being in one instance
20 and 11}, inches, while in a second botli were about 18 inches.

Wi-iting of this species, the late Dr. Jerdon observes that " it lives much on trees,
especialh- on tlie palmyra and cocoanut jjahns, ami is often found to ha\e taken up
its residence in the thick thatched roofs of nati\-e houses. I found a large colony
of them established in the raftei-s of my own house at Tellicherry. It is also
occasionally found in dry drains, outhouses, and other places of shelter. It is quite
nocturnal, issuing forth at dark, and living by preference on animal food, rats,
lizards, small birds, poultiy, and eggs ; but it also freely partakes of vegetable food,
fruit, and iu.sects. In confinement it will also eat plantains, boiled rice, bread-and-
milk, etc. Colonel .Sykes mentions that it is very fond of cockroaches. Now and
then it will commit depredations on some poultrj^-yard, and I have often known
it taken, in traps baited with a pigeon or a chicken. In the south of India it
is very often tamed, and becomes quite domestic, and even affectionate in its
manners. One I saw at Trichinopoli went alx)ut quite at large, and late every
night used to work itself under the pillow of its owner, roll itself up into a ball,
Avith its tail coiled round its bodv, and sleep till a late hour in the day. It hunted
for rats, shrews, and lizards. Their activity in climbing is very great, and they
used to ascend and descend my house at one of the corners in a most surprising
manner." This palm-civet is common in Lower Bengal, and in the gardens of the
suburban residences of Calcutta may occasionally be seen in the late afternoon or
evening crawling among the leaves of a palm previous to starting on its nocturnal
wanderings. That it will sometimes take up its quarters in the veiy heart of the
town of Calcutta is proved by an incident which happened to the present writer
when on the staff of the Geological Survey of India. At that time (1874) the
office of the Survey was situated in a street leading down to the Hughli, in the old
part of the city. On arriving at the office he found his papers on the writing-
table marked every morning with the footprints of some mammal. He thereupon

1 Also known as P. musanga.

460

CARNIVORES.

procured a packing-case, which he converted into a 4-trap, and set, projierly baited,
one night in liis room. Next morning he found that the box had fallen, with a
tenant inside. The tube of a sulphuretted-hydrogen bottle was then inserted
through a hole bored in the side of the box, and the latter, after an interval, lifted,
when the dead body of a palm-civet was disclosed.

The name of toddy-cats is applied to these animals from the partiality thej', in
common with the fox-bats, display in Southern India and Cejdon for the palm-
juice, or toddy, collected by the natives in vessels suspended on the trees. Like
the other members of the gi'oup, the Indian palm-civet, when irritated, gives forth
a most unpleasant odour.

The Malay palm-civet (P. kerriiaphroditus), which is represented in the
accompanjnng illustration, occurs throughout the countries to the eastward of the

THE MALAY PALM-CIVf;! 1 ! Hat. SizcJ.

Bay of Bengal, as far as Siam. and is distinguished from its Indian congener by the
presence of a pale-coloured band running across the forehead, and also by the
general presence of stripes across the back in the adult condition. In both the
preceding species the " whiskers " are black, but in the golden palm-civet (P.
aureus) of Ceylon, and also the brown palm-civet {F. jerdoni) of Southern India,
they are respectively rufous and dark bro-\vn ; the body-colour of those two species
being nearly the same as that of their whiskers. On the other hand, the
Himalayan palm-civet (P. grayi), which occurs throughout Sikhim and Assam, is
readily distinguished by its white whiskei's ; while it is further characterised by
the great backward production of the bony palate of the skull. The golden palm-
civet is said to be less carnivorous than the other .species.

The Chinese palm-civet (P. larvatus), of which we give a figure on the
next page, is closely allied to the Himalayan palm-civet, but differs by the
browner tinge of its greyish fur, and by the markings on the head being
very distinct, and black and white in colour. It has also a broad white band

PALM-CIVETS.

461

running down the head and nose. It is rather smaller than the Himalayan palm-
civet, although its exact dimensions are still unknown. In Southern China this
palm-civet is found in Hangchow, and the provinces of Kwangtung and Fokien ;
and it likewise inhabits the Island of Formosa.

THE CHINESE i..^

.. size).

The SiLiLL-TooTHED Palm-Civets.

Genus Arctogale.

The two species of small-toothed palm-civets are distinguished (as their name
implies), among other characters, from the members of the preceding genus by their
relatively smaller cheek-teeth, and have hence been referred to a distinct genus,
under the name of Arctogale. Extei"nally these civets may be readily distinguished
from the typical palm-civets by the soles of their feet being still more extensively
naked, and likewise by the greater degree of divergence of the first toe of both
pairs of feet from the other digits. The white-eared small-toothed palm-civet
(A. leucotis) is an inhabitant of Assam, Burma, Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, and Java : while the second species {A. trivirgata) is restricted to the
island last mentioned. The former is a short- furred animal, of a fulvous or dusky-
grey colour, sometimes nearly brown on the back, and always paler below, wdth
a tail about as long as the head and body. It is readily distinguished by the
presence of three dark bands, which may be either continuous, or broken up into
spots, running down the back of the otherwise unifomily-coloured body. In a
male specimen the total length of the head and body was 26| inches, and that of the

462 CARNIVORES.

tail 27 inches. When taken young it is said to be readily tamed. The small size
of the cheek-teeth — especially the nearly triangular form of the upper flesh-tooth
— suggests that it feeds largelj^ upon vegetable substances. The second species is
closely allied, having three similar dark stripes down the back.

The Hemigales.

Genus Hemigale.

Another type of palm-civet is represented by the so-called Hemigale, for wliich
there does not appear to be any recognised English title. Of this genus there ai-e
two species, the one, Hardwicke's hemigale {H. hardwickei), found both in the
Malaj- Peninsula and Borneo, and the other, or Hose's hemigale {H. hosei), confined
to Mount Dulit in the northern part of the latter island, where it has only recently
been discovered. The hemigales are distinguished from the other palm-civets by
having a much smaller portion of the soles of the feet naked, and likewise by their
coloration, which is diflerent from that of any other representatives of the family,
although approached to some extent by the linsangs. This characteristic coloration
takes the form, in the tj'pical Hardwicke's hemigale, of a variable number of broad
transverse dark bands crossing tlie back, of which tlie ground-colour is a pale
brownish-grey ; the number of these bands being very generally either five or six.
There are also some dark longitudinal stripes on the nape of the neck ; while the
upper half of the tail is banded with dark ring.s. A j)eeuliarity of these animals is
that the direction of the liair on the back of the neck is reversed. Their habits
are probably very similar to those of the other jialm-civets.

The Afkicax Palm-Civet.
Genus Xanclinia.

The last member of this group is the African palm-civet {JVan(Unia binotata),
which although nearly allied to the Oiiental forms is distinguished by certain
structural peculiarities in the skull, and also by having a shorter nmzzle than any
other member of the family to which it belongs. The fur is of a gi'ej'ish-brown colour,
with the back and sides marked with large dark spots, and a pale spot on either side
of the shoulders from which it takes its second scientific name. The tail, which is
about two-thii'ds the length of the head and bodj', is indistinctly ringed with dark
bands ; the animal thus being the fourth representative of the palm-civets in which
the tail is thus ornamented. In size this animal is rather smaller than the average
of the typical palm-civets.

The African palm-civet is found on the ^Yest Coast, in the district of Fernando
Po ; and it will be thus apparent that it presents precisely the same relation to the
Oriental palm-civets in respect to geographical distribution as is presented by the
African linsang to its Eastern cousins. AYe are not acquainted with any account
of the habits of this animal, but the nature of the teeth suggests that it lives largely
on flesh.

BINTURONG.

463

The Binturong.

Genus Arctictis.

The renuirkablo animal, represented in the accompanyincf illustration, and
known as the binturong, or bear-cat, although nearly allied to the palm-civets,
is yet so ditierent from the members of that group in certain respects as to be
entitled to notice under a special heading. It is tiie sole representative of its
genus, and has a rather wide distribution in the Oriental region, ranging from

THE BINTUHONG ( I nat. SIZ').

Assam through Arakan.Tenasserim, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Java.
The binturong (Arctictis hinturong) is distinguished from all the other members
of the civet family by the long tufts of hair surmounting the ears, and also by the
prehensile nature of the long and somewhat bushy tail. As regards size, the length
of the head and body varies from 28 to .33 inches, and that of the tail from 26 to
27 inches. The tail is thus nearly as long as the head and body, and it is char-
acterised by its great thickness at the root, from which it tapers gradually ; it is
covered with bristly straggling hairs, which e.xceed in length those of tlie Ixidy.
The whole of the fur is, however, long and coarse, — more especially on the liack, —
and is of a uniform black tint, more or less washed with grey on the head and
fore-limbs, and occasionally all over the bod3^

464

CARNIVORES.

The cheek-teeth of the bmturong, although of the same general tj-pe, are even
proportionately smaller than in the small-toothed palm-civets, with which they
agi'ee in number. The last molar tooth in the upper, and the tii-st premolar in the
lower jaw may, however, be wanting in some indi\T[duals. These peculiarities in
the teeth, coupled with the other structural characteristics of the animal, lead to
the conclusion that the binturong is a highlj- modified and specialised member of
the palm-civet group, of which the nearest relatives are the small-toothed palm-
civets. Writing of the habits of the bintui'ong, Mr. Blanford observes that it " is
omnivorous, hving on small mammals, birds, fishes, earth-wonns, insects, and fruits ;
it is also nocturnal and arboreal, its power of ehmbing about trees being much
aided by its prehensile tail It is rather slow in its movements. Its ability to
suspend itself by its tail has been questioned, but Blyth has shown that the young,
at all events, can support itself by tlie extremity of the tail alone. Blyth also
remai-ks that it is the only known placental mammal with a truly prehensile tail
in the Old World. This species inhabits wild forests, and, owing to its nocturnal
and retiring habits, is seldom seen ; it is said, however, to have a loud howl. It is
naturally fierce, but when taken young is easily tamed, and becomes very gentle
and playful. Of its breeding, nothing appears to be known." It has been stated
that in the young state the binturong is spotted.

The Cvxogale.
Genus Cynogale.
As the palm-civets and the binturong represent the arboreal type of the family

I

THE CTXOGALE (J nat. size).

MUNGOOSES. 465

under consideration, so the cynogale (for -which there is no English name) presents
us with a form adapted specially for a partially aquatic jnode of life.

This animal {C'ynogule bennetti) is another inhabitant of the eastern part of the
Oriental region, where the civet tribe attains its greatest and most peculiar develop-
ment, being found in the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Borneo and Sumatra.
In appearance the cynogale somewhat resembles a small otter, the muzzle being
very broad and furnished with thick bristles, while the body is shorter and stouter
than in other members of the family, and the tail unusually short, its total length
being only some 6 inches, while that of the head and body is upwards of 24 inches.
The toes of the feet are webbed at their bases, ami are fuitlier remarkable for their
shortness. The teeth are the same in number as those of the palm-civets, but the
premolars have unusually tall crowns, apparent!}- adapted for holding and biting
the fish, upon which it largely subsists.

According to ^Ir. Wallace, this animal is exceedingly rare in Borneo. Not
only does it swim well and readily, but it is also said to be a ready climber. In
addition to tish, crabs, etc., which form a considerable proportion of its diet, it
is also reported to eat the flesh of such land animals as it can catch, and
likewise various fruits.

The Muxgooses.
Genus Uerpestes, etc.

Of late years the time-honoured name ichneumon, applied to the Egj'ptian
representative of the gi'oup of civet-like animals, into the consideration of which
we now enter, has been very generally rejected by zoological writers in favour of
the term mungoose, the native Indian name for the Oriental species.

Using, then, the latter term, the mungooses form a well-defined group of small
civet-like animals, with very long and generally uiiifonnly-coloured bodies and
tails, which difter in sevei-al important characteristics from the members of the
family hitherto noticed. A large nundjer of the mungooses are included in the
typical genus Hcrpcdes, of which the i-ange includes not only the African, but
also the Indian and Malayan regions ; and of which one species is found in Spain.
The other mungooses come from Africa, which may thus be regarded as the head-
quarters of the group.

The mungooses differ from the members of the civet family yet described by
several important modifications in the structure of the skull, into the consideration
of which it would be impossible to enter in the present work. It may be observed,
however, that the socket of the eye (orbit) is very frequently surrounded by
a complete bony ring, while in all the forms hitherto noticed it is widely open
behind; and that the teeth are always relatively tall, with shai-p cusps adapted
for a thoroughly carnivorous diet. Mungooses may be distinguished at a glance
by their long straight claws, which are incapable of retraction, and are, therefore,
always protruded, like those of a dog ; and no mungoose ever has scent-glands
•comparable to those so generally present among the true civets and palm-civets.

So important are these differences that zoologists now divide the civet tribe

VOL. I. — 30

466 CARNIVORES.

into three primary groups, or subfamilies ; the first of these being represented solelj-
by the fossa of Madagascar, the second including the true civets, genets, palm-
civets, etc., and the third the mungooses and their allies.

The true mungooses, or those constituting the genus Herpestes, are so ^\•ell
known as to be familiar to many of our readers. They have long, weasel-like
bodies, and a more or less elongated tail, which is generally thick at the root, and
niaj' be covered with long hair ; its general colour being like that of the body, but
the tip often darker. The longer hairs of almost all the mungooses are marked
with alternate dai'ker and lighter rings, which communicate a peculiar and
characteristic speckled appearance to the fur. The head has a pointed muzzle,
Avith a ratlier short nose, in which there is a median groove on the completely
naked under-surface. The ears are small and rounded. The limbs are likewise
of extreme shortness, the feet being provided with five toes, of which the first,
both in front and behind, is extreme!}- small. These toes are generally detached,
but may be slightly connected by a small web at their bases. The under-surfaces of
the fore-feet are generally naked ; while in most cases only the front part of the soles
of the hind-feet are free from haii-. It may be added that most mungooses have the
same number of teeth as the true civets, that is forty ; but, owing to the loss of a
premolar on each side of the lower and upper jaws, in some species the number
may be reduced to thirty-six.

As already mentioned, the true mungooses have a wide distribution, ranging
over the greater part of Africa, extending across the Sti^aits of Gibraltar into
Spain, and eastwards through the south of Asia as far as the islands of the
Malayan region. The numljer of species belonging to the typical genus is com-
paratively large, Africa claiming eight ^ (among which is the one ranging into
Spain), anil the same number being recognised by Mr. Blanford from India, Ceylon,
and Burma. In respect of size the mungooses exhibit a considerable degree of
vai-iation, for, whereas the head and body of the smallest species may be compared
to those of a weasel, the larger forms rival a dome.stic cat in dimensions. Sum-
marising the habits of the mungooses, Mr. Blanford describes them as terrestrial
Carnivores, seeking their prej^ on the gi-ound, and very rarely climbing trees.
They are active, bold, and predacious, and live on small mammals, birds and
reptiles, insects and eggs, and occasionally eat fniit. They are deadly enemies to
snakes, as described under H. viungo. They live in holes in the ground, hollow
trees, and similar places. When angiy or excited, they erect their long hairs,
and especially those of their tails.

The typical representative of the genus is the Egj'ptian mungoose or
ichneumon (H. ichneumon), inhabiting Africa, north of the Sahara Desert,
Palestine, Asia Minor, and the southern portions of Spain. It was one of the
sacred animals of the ancient Egj-jjtians, and is often depicted on their frescoes.
It is reported to feed largely upon the eggs of crocodiles, although this habit has
not been recoixled of any of the Indian species. It was, and we believe still is,
tlomesticated in Egypt ; and has the same antipathy to snakes alluded to under the
head of the common Indian species. The Egyptian mungoose is a large species ;
the length of the head and body being about 20 inches, and that of the tail some

1 Tliere is al.'io a species kiioivn ouly by tlie skull, which is believed to be African.

EGYPTIAN MUNGOOSES.

MUNGOOSES.

469

15 or IG inches. It is characterised bj' tlie tip of the tail being black, antl tlie
grizzled grey-brown colour of the fur, in which the individual hairs are ringed
with reddisli-brown and creamy-yellow. South of the Sahara this species is replaced
1)3^ the sliglitly larger but closely allied catlre niungoose (//. cafer), in which the
hains are ringed with black and white. In South Africa, as far north as Zanzibar,
we have also a much smaller species, the .slender muiigoose (H. gracilis), agreeing
with the two preceding forms in tlie black tip to tlie tail, while in Kordofan tlie
nearly equal-sized red-tailid mungoose {H. saiujuineu.v) is distinguished by its
general fawn-coloured fur, and the red ti]) to the tail.

Three other South and We.st African nuingooscs of large size are characterised
by the tip of the tail being of the same tint as the body-colom-. The largest and
mo.st distinct of the African species is, however, the white- tailed mungoose

Tilt INULVN MCKGOOSE (jj nat. size).

(H. albicauda). in which the lengih of the head and body vai'ies from 22 to as
much as 26 inches. This species is di.stingui.shed from all the above by the under-
surface of the ankle being hairj^ instead of nearly or quite naked, and also by its
bushy tail. The general colour is blackish-grey, the longer hairs being ringed with
l)lack and white, and having the tips black. According to Mr. Thomas, the white-
tailed mungoose presents a remarkable individual variation in the colour of the
fur of the tail. The hairs are of considerable length, " in some cases with white
bases and long shining black tips, so that the whole tail appears to be black ; in
others with a long white tip beyond the black, so that then the tail appears to be
white ; in the latter case the hairs at the extreme tip of the tail being generally
wholly white." This species ranges from the eastern part of Abyssinia to Natal,
and reappears on the West Coast in the Guinea district.

Of the Oriental mungooses we select for especial notice the common Indian

470 CARNIVORES.

mungoose {H. onungo), which belongs to a group of several species characterised
by their uniform coloration, there being no stripe on the neck and no black tip to
the tail. It is a comparatively large species, with rather long hair, of which the
general colour is grey or rufous ; the length of the head and body varying from
15 to 18 inches, and that of the tail from 14 to 15 inches. This species is found
throughout peninsular India, from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin, and also occurs
in Ceylon, although unknown in the countries to the ea.stward of the Bay of
Bengal. The common Indian mungoose, writes Mr. Blanford, " is found in hedge-
rows, tliickets, groves of trees, cultivated fields, banks of streams, and broken
bushy ground, but not commonly in dense forests. It is often found about houses.
It lives and breeds in holes dug by itself. Verj- little appears to be known of its
breeding habits. It is often seen in pairs. The young are three or four in number,
and are produced in the spring. The food of this animal is varied. It lives
principally upon rats and mice, snakes and lizards, such birds as it can capture,
eggs and insects ; but it eats fruit at times. The stomach of one killed near
Seeunderabad contained, according to M'Master, a (juail, a small wasp's nest, a
lizard, a number of insects, and part of a custai'd-apple." In disposition this animal,
for its size, is decidedly fierce and bloodthirsty. Jerdon says that " not unfre-
quently it gets access to tame jugeons, rabbits, or poultry, and commits great
havoc, sucking the blood only of sevei'al. I have often seen it," he adds, " make
a dash into a verandah where some cages of mynas, parrakeets, etc., were daily
placed, and endeavour to tear the birds from their cages."

In spite of its natural fierceness, the mungoose is easily tamed, and forms a
gentle and affectionate pet. Tamed umiigooses are largely carried about in India
by snake-charmers and other wandering showmen. The following excellent account
of a tame mungoose of this species (which ultimately died from grief at the absence
of its master) is given by Mr. R. A. Sterndale : — " I got it," writes the narrator,
" whilst on active service during the Indian Mutinj-, when it was a wee thing,
smaller than a rat. It travelled with me on horseback in an empty holster, or in
a pocket, or up my sleeve : and afterwards, when my duties took me out into
camp, ' Pips ' was my constant companion. He knew perfectly well when I was
going to shoot a bird for him. He would stand up on his liind-legs when he saw
me present the gun, and run for the bird when it fell. He had, however, no notion
of retrieving, but would scamper off with his prey to devour it at leisure. He was
a most fearless little fellow, and once attacked a big greyhound, who beat a retreat.
In a rage his body would swell to nearly twice its size, from the erection of the
hair ; yet I had him under such perfect subjection that I had only to hold up my
finger to him when he was about to attack anj-thing, and he would desist. I heard
a great noise one day outside my room, and found ' Pips ' attacking a fine male
specimen I had of the great bustard (Eupodotis eiJicardsi), which he had ju.st
seized by the throat. I rescued the bird, but it died of its injuries. Through the
carelessness of my servants, he was lost one day in a hea\y brushwood jungle some
miles from my camp, and I quite gave xip all hope of recovering my pet. Next
day, however, in tracking some antelope, we happened to cross the route taken by
my servants, when we heard a familiar little yelp, and down from a tree we were
under rushed ' Pips.' He went to England with rae after that, and was the delight

MCXGOOSES. 471

of all the sailors on board ship, for his accomplishments were varied. . . . From
watching him, I observed many little habits belonging to these animals. He was
excessively clean, and, after eating, would pick his teeth with his claws in a mo.st
absurd manner. I do not know whether a mungoose in a wild state M-ill eat carrion,
but he would not touch anything tainted, and, though very fond of freshlj'-cooked
game, would turn up his nose at ' liigh ' partridge or grouse. He was very fond
of eggs, and, holding them in his fore-paws, would crack a little hole at the small
end, through which he would suck the contents. He was a very good ratter, and
also killed many snakes against which I pitted him. His way seemed to be to
tease the snake into darting at liim, when, Avith inconceivable rapidity, he would
pounce on the reptile's head. He seemed to know instinctively which were the
poisonous ones, and acted with corresponding caution. I tried him once with some
sea-snakes, which are poisonous, but he could get no fight out of them, and crunched
their heads off, one after the other."

Much has been wi-itten as to the combats of both the Egyptian and the Indian
mungoose with venomous snakes, and also as to the alleged immunity of these
animals from snake-poison. On the.se points Mr. Blanford writes as follows : — " The
prevalent belief throughout oriental countries is, that the mungoose, when bitten,
seeks for an antidote, a herb or root known in India as onangusivail. It is scarcely
necessary to say that the storj- is destitute of foundation. There is, however,
another view, supported by .some evidence, that the mungoose is less susceptible to
snake-poi.son than other animals. The mungoose is not always willing to attack,
though at other times he is ready enougli to fight. I have not seen many combats,
but, so far as I can judge from the few I ha\'e witnessed, Jerdon and Sterndale
are correct in their view that the mungoose usuallj'^ escapes being bitten b\- his
wonderful activity. He appears to wait till the snake makes a dart at him, and
then suddenly pounces upon the rejjtile's head, and crunches it to pieces. I have
seen a mungoose eat up the head and poison glands of a large cobra, so the poison
must be harmless to the mucous membrane of the former animal. When excited,
the mungoose erects its long stift" hair, and it must be very difficult for a snake to
drive its fangs through this and through the thick skin which all kinds of Herpestes
possess. In all probability a mungoose is very rarely scratched by the fangs, and,
if he is, very little poison can be injected. It has been repeatedly proved by
experiments that a mungoose can be killed, like any other animal, if fjrojjerly
bitten by a venomous snake, though even in this case the effects appear to be
produced after a longer period than with other mammals of the same size."

In addition to being a benefactor to the human race as a destroyer of poisonous
snakes, the Indian mungoose (like its Eg\-ptian cousin) is equally valuable as an
exterminator of rats : ships having more than once been cleared of those pests in a
comparatively short period b}- the inti'oduction of a mungoose. Eather more than
twenty years ago (1871) the sugar-planting industry in Jamaica was threatened
with annihilation from the damage inflicted on the canes by a particular species of
rat, which absolutely swarmed in the island. After ferrets, toads, and ants had
been tried with more or less ill -success to stay the plague, Mr. W. B. Espeut
bethought himself of introducing tlie Indian mungoose. Accordingly, in the spring
of 1872, nine of the.se animals wei'e imported and let loose in the island. " Within

472 CARXIVORES.

a few months," writes Mr. Espeut, " young ones were seen about, and in less than
six months there was evidence, clear and certain, that the rats were much less
destructive than they had ever been known. Fewer rats were caught and fewer
canes were destroyed, month after moutli. Within two years the expenditure in
killing rats ceased almost entirely, and in another year I enjoyed jrelief and
immunity ; and ever since the losses from rats have been a mere trifle. Within a
very short time (three years) neighbouring estates found a similar benefit, and some
of my brother sugar-planters, who had laughed at me for supposing the mungoose
would do any good, began to buj- all they could procure from the natives, who,
setting traps on my lands, stole all the mungooses they could obtain, and sold them.
By this means, and naturally, the mungoose has now [1882] become general all
over the island, and the beneficial results of this useful animal may safely be taken
as exceeding £150,000 a jear." The mungoose has been subsequently introduced,
with equally satisfactory results, into Cuba, Porto Rico, Grenada, Barbadoes, and
Santa Cruz.

The small Indian mungoose {H. aurojyunctatus) is a member of the same
group as the preceding species, but is of smaller dimensions, with closer and shorter
fur, in which the incUvidual hairs of the back do not have more than five coloured
I'ings. This is a northern form, not found in India to the southward of Calcutta,
and ranging into the Himalaya as far north as the vallej' of Ka-shmir, while to the
westward its range includes Baluchistan and portions of Afghanistan and Persia,
and eastwards it extends through Assam into Upper Burma. In Kashmir it may
frequently be seen in the Mohammedan burying -places, where it inhabits old
graves. Omitting mention of other unifoi-mly-coloured Indian species, we ma}"
briefly refer to three other species inhabiting our eastern dominions. One of these
is the ruddy mungoose (H. sniithi), widely disti-ibuted in India, and distinguished
by the black tip to its tail, and the absence of a stripe on the throat. The second
is the stripe-necked mungoose (H. viticuHis), which is the largest of all the Asiatic
species, and is readily distinguished by having both a black tip to the tail and a
black stripe down each side of the neck. It inhabits Western India, from Bombay
to Cape Comorin, and is also found in Cej'lon.

The last of these three species is the crab -eating mungoose (H. urva),
remarkable on account of its peculiar habits. In size this species (of which we give
a figure) is rather smaller than the preceding one, and is characterised by its thick
and heavy build, the uniformly-coloured tiiil, and the presence of a narrow white
stripe running along each side of the neck, from the angle of the moiith to the
shoulder. The crab -eating mungoose is found at low elevations in the South-
Eastern Himalaya, as well as in Assam, Arakan, Pegu, Tena&scrim, and the south
of China. It is stated to be of partially aquatic habits, and derives its name from
the crabs which, together with frogs, are asserted to form its chief food. Further
information as to the habits of this species is, however, still required.

The remaining representatives of the true mungooses comprise the large Javan
mungoose (H. javanicus) and the short-tailed mungoose (H. hmchyurus) from the
Malay Peninsula and some of the islands of the same region, and the barred
mungoose (ff. semitorquatus) from the Island of Borneo. It has already been
mentioned that a few of the tnie mungooses have but three premolar teeth on

MUNGOOSES.

473

either side of each jaw ; such species being found only iu Africa. It may be added
that in these species there is alwaj-s a distinct gap between the tusk or canine
tooth and the premolar corresponding with the second in those species having four
of these teeth. There occur, however, in Africa two small mungooses with only
three premolar teeth, of which the most anterior is placed close up to the tusk, so
that there is no gap in the series. These species are also distinguished from their
African relatives by their proportionately shorter tails, of which the length is less
than that of the body alone. Hence these two animals have been referred to a
distinct genus — Hdorjale. Of the two species, the one named H. parvula is an
inhabitant of Xatal, and is of a greyish-brown colour ; while the other — H. xmdulata

THE CRAB-EATING MUSGOOSE (J nat. size).

. _- ^^^Ti=^i

\\"s-*Si"^V^^

— hails from East Africa, in the Mozambique district, and has the hair of a grizzled
rufous tint. Beth have naked soles to the hind-feet.

The Foue-Toed Mungooses.

Genera Cynictis and Bdeocjnle.

In describing the t}'pical mungooses it was mentioned that the first toes in
both fore and hind-feet are of extremely small size. It might have been added that
this small size of the first toe is more marked in the hind than in the fore-feet, and
that in both limbs these digits appear to be of no functional use. We have now
to mention three African mungooses in which this small first toe disappears either
in the hind-limb alone or in butli liind and fore-limbs. The whole of these species

474

CARNIVORES.

have four premolar teeth on either side of eacli jaw, and are further characterised
by the hairiness of the soles of the hind-feet.

The thick-tailed mungoose (Vyaictia penicillaia) is the onlj- representative of
its genus which is characterised by having four toes on the hind-foot and tive on
the fore-foot. Tliis animal inhabits the Cape Colonj', and is of medium size. It
may be readily distinguished from all its allies by its bushj- white-tipped tail, and
the peculiar gi-eyish -yellow colour of its fur, which is liable to some degree of
individual variation. The other two species (Bdeofjale crassicauda and B. puisa)
are from East Africa, — Mozambique and Zanzibar, — and are di.stinguished bv having
but four toes on both fore and hind-feet. Both species ai'e closely allied, diti'ering
mainly in the colour of the hairs of the tail.

-^x-5r_tv^-

THE TincK-TAiLED MUSGOOSE (J nat. size).

The Smooth-Xosed Muxgoose.s.

Genera Rhinogale and Crossarchus.

The remaining members of the mungoose group, all of which are African,
differ from the whole of the preceding in that there is no median vertical groo\'e
between the nose and the upper lip. They are referred to three distinct genera,
of which the two here mentioned have five toes on each foot.

Meller's mungoose {Rhiiwc/nle meUeri) is an East African species, which is of
intere.st not only on account of its being the sole representative of the genus to
which it belongs, but also from onh' a single specimen (described as long ago as 1864)

MUNGOOSES.

475

having hitherto been obtained of it. It is of about the same form and size as the
Eg3'ptian mungoose, with the full number of premolar teeth, and with the soles of
the hind-feet completel}' covered with hair as far as the roots of the toes. The
tail is about equal in length to the body, and the general colour is a uniform pale
brown, becomin"' lighter on the head, the individual hairs having but one or two
rings of different colours.

The four remaining mungooses to be mentioned under this heading collectively
constitute the genus Crossarckus, which is distinguished from the preceding by
having only three premolar teeth on either side of each ja^v■, and likewise by the
under-surface of the hind -feet being completely naked. A further distinction
between the two is to be found in the circumstance that, while in Mellcr's mungoose

THE CUSI5IANSE (^ uat. size).

the palate of the skull is concave, in the members of the present genus it is com-
pletelj- flat. All are of burrowing habits.

Of the four species, the cusiman.se (C. oh>:curus), ranging in West Africa from
the Camerun Mountains to Sierra Leone, and the Gand>ian nmu'^oose(C. gamhianu.'^)
of the Gambia have uniformly-coloured and grizzled fur. The former, which is
figured above, is of a cluU brown colour, with yellow ti[is to the hairs, while the
latter is grey, with the hairs ringed. On the other hand, the East African species,
namely, the zebra mungoose (C. zebra) ami the banded mungoose (C. fasciatiis), have
the back banded with transverse stripes, which are narrow in the former and broad
in the latter, as shown in the illusti-ation on the next page. The zebra mungoose,
which is confined to Abyssinia, is further distinguished by the rufous colour of
the under-parts ; while in the banded mungoose, of which the range extends from

476

CARNIVORES.

the eastern portion of the Cape Colony to Mozambique, the colour of the under-
surfaee of tlie bodv is grizzleil g^rev.

^^- w >^\^v

':^:-^-'^V-Ai.'-

■N

THE BANDED MCNGOOSE (J nat. size).

The Meerkat.
Genus Siiricata.

The meerkat of the Cape Colonists, or suricate as it is frequently called by
zoologists (Saricata tetradactyla), while agreeing with the two genera last
mentioned in the absence of a groove below the nose, differs from both in having
but four toes on each foot. It is further characterised by having three premolar
teeth on each side of the upper jaw, and four on the lower jaw, so that the total
number of teeth is thirty-six. Tlie soles of the hind-feet are naked.

The meerkat is a small animal of slender form, with a tail of about half the
length of the head and body. The fur is long and soft, of a light grizzled grey
colour, with black transverse .stripes across the hinder part of the back, the under-
parts rufous, the head nearly white (except a black mark round the ej^es), the ears
black, and the tail yellowish, with a black tip. The longer hairs are broadly
ringed with black and white, the white predominating. The transverse light
and dark bands on the loins are formed, according to Mr. 0. Thomas, by the regular
arrangement of the hairs, by which tlie wliite and black rings come opposite to
each other on adjacent hairs. The same writer observes that meerkats may be
distinguished at a glance from all other mungooses by their elongated nose and
claws, as well as by their peculiar coloration, no other species having ears differing
in colour from the rest of the heail.

Meerkats appear to be confined to the Cape Colony, extending at least as far

MUXGOOSES.

All

north as Algoa Bay. In regard to their habits, we maj' quote from Mi-s. A. Martin,
who, in her work entitled Horae Life on an Ostrich Fana,&i&iQ& that these animals
form most admirable and amusing little pets, nearly every homestead on the Karru
having one or more of these creatures. In their wild state the meerkats live in
colonies or warrens, burrowing deep holes in the sandy soil, and " feeding chiefly
on succulent bulbs, which they scratch up with the long, curved, black claws on
their fore -feet. They are devoted sun -worshippers, and in the early morning,
before it is daylight, they emerge from their burrows, and wait in rows till their
divinity appears, when they bask joyfulh* in his beams. They are very numerous
on the Karru, and, as you ride or drive along througli the veldt, you often come

jf?}^ ^, _^

THE MEEBKAT (| nat. size).

upon little colonies of them sitting up sunning themselves, and looking, in their
quaint and pretty favourite attitude, like tiny dogs begging. As you approach,
they look at you fearlessly and impudently-, allowing you to come quite close ; then,
when their confiding manner has tempted yovL to get down in the wild hope of
catching one of them, suddenly all pop so swiftlj- into their little holes that they
seem to have disappeared by magic."

Although in the Cape it appears that the name meerkat is also often applied
to the thick-tailed mungoose (Cy nidi ft), it is the trae meerkat alone which makes
such a channing pet. "The quaint, old-fashioned little fellow," continues Mrs.
Martin, "is as neatly made as a small bird: his coat, of the softest fur, with
markings not unlike those of a tabliy cat, is always well kept and spotles.sly clean ;
his tiny feet, ears, and nose are all most daintily and delicately finished off: and
the broad circle of black bordering his large dark eye serves, like the antimony of

478 CARXIVORES.

an Egy|)tian beauty, to enhance the size and brilliancj- of the orbs. A curious kina
of seam, starting from the middle of his chin and running underneath him along
the whole length of his body, gives him somewliat the appearance of a stuffed
animal which has not been verj' carefully sewn up. His bright, pretty little face
is capable of assuming the greatest variety of expressions, that which it most
frequently wears when in repose being a contented, self-satisfied smirk : impudence
and independence displaj'ing themselves at every line of his plump little figure.
. . . He is absolutely without fear, and with consummate coolness and audacity
will walk up to the largest and most forbidding-looking dog, although a perfect
stranger to him, and, carefully investigating the stranger on all sides witli great
curiosity, express disgust and defiance in a succession of little short sharp barks."

Meerkats seem to have, indeed, a remarkable afiection for dogs, and, when
tamed, will follow these animals for long distances, trotting contentedly along in
their wake in the same manner as a dog follows liis master. Like most of the
civ'et tribe, when tamed, the meerkat is an inveterate thief.

The Madagascar Muxgooses.
Genera Galidictis, Eupleres, etc.

It will be convenient to allude, under tlie name of munofooses, to certain very
curious members of the civet tribe which inliabit the Island of Madagascar. These
are arranged under four distinct genera, of which the first three are nearly allied
to one anotlier, and are also related to the African mungooses, while the fourth is
very different from both, and is indeed an altogether aberrant modification of the
family. Most of these creatures have no i-ecognised English titles, so that we are
compelled to mention them under their scientific names.

The munguste (GaUdictia striata) is one of two nearly-allied species charac-
terised by having the ground-colour of the fur of a light tint, marked by longitudinal
dark stripes on the bod}'^ ; this peculiar coloi-ation being alone quite sufficient to dis-
tinguish these animals from all their allies. The munguste measures about 12i
inches in length, exclusive of the tail ; the latter being rather shorter than the
head and body. The tail is bushy in both species, and the claws are longer than
in the true mungooses. In the munguste the snout is rather short, but it is more
elongated in the other species {G. rittata).

The galidia {Galidia elegans), which is the only representative of its genus,
differs from the munguste in having tlie fur of the body uniformly coloured ; but
tiie tail is ringed with black bands, the individual hairs being of one colour
throughout their length. The hemigalidia (HemigaUdia olivacea) differs from it
by the tail being of the same uniform coloration as the head and body, and also in
its more pointed muzzle, and the smaller curvature of the claws.

The most remarkable of these four types of Madagascar Carnivores is, however,
the Eupleres goudoti ; its most peculiar characteristic being the very small size of
the teeth and the weakness of the jaws. The teeth, of which the number is the
same as in the civets (forty) are, indeed, much more like those of an lusectivore than
of a Carnivore, most of them being separated from one another by .spaces: the tusks,

AARD-WOLF. 479

or canines, are not longer than the front teeth, and the flesh-tooth is scarcelj' dis-
tinguishable from the adjacent teetL The length of the head and iDody of the eupleres
is about 19i inches, the tail being about one-third of this length. The body is covered
with a imiformh--coloured woolly fur, of which the general tint is olive, finely speckled
with yellow : this speckled appearance being due to the individual hairs being
banded with ditit:'rentl}--coloured rings. The ears are large, the short tail is bush}',
the feet, which are furnished with five toes, are remarkable for their extreme
slendemess, ami the claws are long and like those of the mungooses. In tlie young
euplei-es the fur of tlie shouldei's has black transverse stripes. It does not appear
that anything is known of tlie habits of this rare, and doubtless nocturnal, creature,
but the weakness of its teeth and jaws suggests that its food consists rather of
insects than of flesL

ExTixcT Civet-like Animals.

It has been mentioned, under the heading of the true civets, that remains of
species belonging to tliat group are found low down in the Tertiarj- series of Europe.
It may be added here that remains of mungocses, which have been referred to the
typical genus Hcrpestes, are also fouml in these same upper Eocene and lower
]Hiocene rocks of France. There also occur tlie bones and teeth of other animals
more nearly allied to the linsangs ; while othei-s, again, appear to connect the civets
with the weasels — a connection which wouM have been wholly unsuspected if
.science had only existing animals to deal with. In a later geological epoch —
namely, the lower part of the Pliocene — there occui-s another interesting type
known as the ictithere, which serves so completely to connect the civets with
the hyffinas as to prove conclusivelj- the close alliance of these two families of
Carnivores. Before, however, proceeding to the hyaenas, we uiust tii-st take into
consideration

The Aard-Wolf.

Family Frotelewje.

Genus Proteles.

The remarkable creature known to the Dutch boers of South Africa as the
aard-wolf is one of those animals which have long been a puzzle to zoologists.
It is evidently allied in many respects to the hj'aenas, but in others it is so
diflei-ent that it becomes a matter of exceeding difficult}^ to decide if it should
be included in the same family. The majority of English zoologists appear,
however, to be inclined to regard the aard-wolf (Proteles cristatus) as the solitary
representative of a distinct family.

In size it has been compared to a large and " leggy " fox ; while, in external
appearance, the aard-wolf (which is known to the Kaffirs as the isidawane) some-
what resembles a rather small and thin-bodied striped hya?na, but it has longer
eai-s and a more pointed muzzle. The fur, which is inclined to be shaggj' and
of a woolly nature, is of a yellowish or reddish-brown colour, marked with
alxjut half a dozen transverse black stripes on the sides of the body ; and there

48o

CARNIVORES.

may also be some dark bars on the limbs. The long tail is thicklj' haired. The
long hair on the back forms a kind of crest (giving origin to the second scientific
name of the aard-wolf), which can be erected at the will of the animal. The claws,
like those of the hytenas, are not capable of retraction, and are rather long, with
blunted extremitie.s. Whereas, however, the hyaenas have but four toes on both
the front and hind-feet, the aard-wolf has five toes on the front, and four on the
hind-feet. But the most peculiar feature is to be found in the almost rudimental
condition of the teeth, which may be either thirty or thirty-two in number, their
small size being most apparent in those of the cheek series, which are widelj'

THE AAI'.D-WULF ! liat. MZtf

separated from one another, and are quite unlike the strongly-developed teeth
of the hj'cenas. The skull, while agreeing in many respects with that of the
hj^ajnas, has also certain points of resemblance with that of the mungooses. The
aard-wolf may. in short, be regarded as an animal which, in all probability,
originated from the same ancestral civet-like creatures from which the hysenas were
derived, but which has undergone a kind of retrogi-ade development to suit the
neeils of a particular mode of life. It was long thought to be confined to South
Africa, but it has been subsequently found to range on the West Coast as far north
as Angola, and quite recently a single skin has been obtained from Somaliland, so
that it probably extends right across the Continent.

HYENAS.

481

According to the accounts of all travellers through the Cape districts, it
appears to be a comparatively rare animal, although this apparent rarity is
doubtless in some degree due to its pureh' nocturnal habits. As its name implies,
it lives in burrows, which are made by itself ; and, according to the account of the
traveller De Lalande, several individuals may inhabit one and the same burrow,
which has generally at least two or three exits. Like all burrowing animals, it is
■of a timid and cowardly disposition, and, when driven from its burrow, makes off
at a rapid pace. The aborted condition of the teeth would alone suffice to indicate
that it subsisted on a diet different from that of ordinary Carnivores ; and that
such is really the case has been proved by observations made upon both wild
and captive specimens. In the wild state it appears that its chief food consists
partly of carrion, and partly of the so-called white ants, or termites, which are dug
out of their hills with its strong claws.

The Hy^exas.

Family Hy.^xid^e.

In our notice of the lion, it was mentioned that there was considerable
diversity of opinion as to his character and bearing; but no such uncertainty
exists with regard to tlie li\-cena, which, by conmion consent, is skulking, cowardly,

SKELETON OF SPOTTED HViafA.

treacherous, and cruel ; and, so far as we are aware, no one has ever had a good
word to say for him.

Like all the animals desci'iljed in the present chapter, hyfenas are confined to
the warmer parts of tlie Old World ; but unlike the civets, they are unknown at
the present day in Europe and in the countries lying to the eastward of the Bay
of Bengal; although, in past epochs, they were spread over the greater part oi

VOL. I. — 31

482

CARNIVORES.

Europe, and ranged as far east as China. At no period, however, was the group
represented in the Western Hemisphere.

The existing species of hj-a;nas are thi"ee in number, all of them being now
generally included in the single genus Hyana ; this genus forming the sole repre-
sentative of a distinct family. With the exception of the aard-wolf, the nearest
relatives of the hya;nas are the civets ; but at the present day the tM'O families
are markedly distinct, although, as mentioned on p. 479, extinct forms blend the
two so closely together that it is almost impossible to saj- where civets end and
hysenas begin. Hyjenas are massivelj'-built animals, with relatively long legs, —
especially the front pair, — deep bodies, short and broad heads, and rather short
tails ; their whole appearance being ungainly in the extreme. Their fur is coarse

and shaggy, and marked,
more or less distincth-,
either with irregular
vertical stripes or large
V)lackish spots. Their feet
have but four toes, on both
the front and hind -limbs,
and are furnished with
stout claws, which are
permanently protruded,
like those of dogs.

Such are some of their
chief external character-
istics: but, in order to
undei-stand their full
differences from the civet
tribe, it is neces.sary to
sav something with regard
to their teeth. Existing
hya'uas ha^"e a total of
34 teeth, of which ^ are
incisors. \ canines, ^ pre-
molars, and } molars on either side of the jaws. Thus there is but one tooth,
which is of small size, behind the flesh-tooth in the upper jaw, while in the lower
jaw, as shown in the accompanying figure, the flesh-tooth forms the last of the
series. Here, therefore, we have an important difference from the civets, — with the
single exception of the fossa (p. 449), which is othei-wise well distinguished, — most
of these having two molar teeth behind the upper flesh-tooth, and the whole of them
having one molar behind the lower flesh -tooth. This, however, is not all, for,
whereas the civet family (always excepting the fossa) have only two lobes to the
blade of the upper flesh-tooth (see Fig. on p. 449), in the hyajnas the same tooth (of
which a figure is given on p. 353) has a three-lobed blade like that of the cats. Then,
again, the lower flesh-tooth, as shown on the left side of the accompanving figure,
is also quite, unlike that of a civet, and closelj' resembles that of a cat, the only
well-marked diftex-ence being the presence of a larger or smaller heel at the hinder

UPPER AND OUTEK VIEWS OF THE HIXDEK P.iRT OK THE RIGHT HALF OF
THE LOWER JAW OF AX ESTI>XT HTJENA.

The tooth ou the left siile of the figure is the flesh-tooth.
Palccontologica Indica.)

(From the

m^.ENAS. 485

end, although in two of the living species it has also an additional cnsp on the inner
side of the cutting blade. This curious resemblance of the flesh-teeth of the hysenas
to those of the cats, it may be remarked in passing, is an instance of what
evolutionists now call puraUelisni in development; that is to say, the resemblance
has been acquired independently in the two families, since it is certain that cats are
not descended from hysenas, while it is even more obvious that hyfenas are not the
descendants of cats.

This resemblance of the teeth of the hyjenas to those of the cats is, however,
confined to the flesh-teeth. Thus, in place of having but two pi-emolar teeth in
each jaw in front of the flesh-tooth, the hya?nas have three of these teeth in both
the upper and the lower jaw between the flesh-tooth and the canine tooth. More-
over, these premolar teeth, in place of being much compressed from side to side like
those of the cats, have nearly conical and very tall crowns, as is well shown in the
figure on p. 4cS2. These strong conical premolar teeth, which are strengthened by
small fore-and-aft tubercles at the base, forui crushing instruments of immense
power ; and it is <lue to these teeth, aided by the flesh-teeth and the tusks, that a
hya?na is able to crunch in its jaws the shin-bone of an ox almost as readily as a dog
can break that of a fowl. Indeed, no camivoi'ous animal has jaws and teeth which
can be compared for strength and bone-crushing power with those of hytenas.

The Striped Hy^xa {Hycena striata).

The stnped hyaena, wliich is the only representative of the genus found in
India, is one of the two smaller and less powerful species, the length of the head
and body measuring 3i feet, and that of the tail 1 foot 6 inches. The species is
characterised by its large and pointed ears, by the presence of a crest or mane of
long hairs running along the middle of the neck and back, and by the long hair
clothing the tail ; as well as by the relatively small size of the hind, as compared
with the fore-feet. In colour the striped hysena is dirty grey, with narrow trans-
verse tawny or blackish stripes on the bodj- and legs.

If the skull be examined, it will be found that the lower flesh-tooth diflers
from that of the jaw represented in the figure on p. 482, by the gi'eater size of the
heel at its hinder base, while on the inner side of the blade of the same tooth there
is a small conical cusp which does not occur in the figured jaw. ]\Ioreover, in the
upper jaw, the molar tooth occuiTing behind, or rather to the inner side of, the
flesh-tooth, has a somewhat large crown, elongated in the transverse direction.
In these respects the striped hyana is less widely removed from the civets than is
its cousin the spotted hyaena, and if is also somewhat less powerful in its jaws
and teeth.

The striped hyrena is found throughout India, being especially common in the
North-West and the Central Provinces ; but it is unknown in Ceylon. From India
its range extends westwards through Baluchistan into Persia and Me.sopotamia, as
far as the Caucasus. It is also common in Palestine, Syria, and Arabia ; and the
present writer on one occasion saw from the deck of a P. and O. steamer one of
these animals walking on the Sj-rian side of the Suez Canal. From Syria it
extends into Xorthern Africa, where it is occasionally met with in Abj'ssinia, but

486 CARNIVORES.

is more common in Egj-jjt, and also to the westward in the regions lying to the
north of the Sahara desert. Quite recently Dr. Emin Pasha, writing from Tabora,
in East Africa, stated that a striped hya?na, similar to and perhaps identical with
the Egyptian form, but smaller and lighter in colour, occurred in that part of
Africa. .During and before the age of the mammoth, the striped hyajna wandered
over a considerable part of Europe, its remains having been discovered in a cave
in the South of France ; while teeth have also been obtained in England. It
was, however, far less common in Europe than the spotted species.

Both in India and Syria the .striped hj'ffina frequents open hill}' or sandy
districts ; although in the former country it is occasionally met with in forests, and,
accoi'ding to Canon Tristram, in tiic latter it may be found both in the deserts and
in the woods. Like the other species it is nocturnal, although a stray individual
(as the one above referred to) may be occasionallj- seen in the daytime, more
especially in the early morning or late in the evening; but the striped hytena
differs from the spotted species in being a comparativelj' solitary animal, it being
rare to meet with more than two together.

In Syria and Palestine the favourite haunts of the sti-iped hyaena are the
rock-cut tombs so common in these countries ; but in India it is more commonly
found in holes and caves in rocks. Dr. Jerdon, writing of tliis species, says, that
" I have more than once turned one out of a sugar-cane field when looking for
jackals, and it very commonly lurks among ruins : but in general its den is in a
hole dug by itself on the side of a hill or ravine, or a cave in a rock. The call of
the hyaena is a very disagreeable, unearthh^ ciy, and dogs are often tempted out by
it when near, and fall a victim to the stealthy marauder. On one occasion a small
dog belonging to an officer was taken off by a hj'fena very early in the morning.
The den of this beast was known to be not far off in some sandstone cliffs, and
some sepoys of the detachment went after it, entered the cave, killed the hyaena,
and recovered the dog alive, with but little damage done to it. A hyiEna, though
it does not appear to move very fast, gets over rough ground in a wonderful
manner, and it takes a good long run to overtake it on horseback, unless in most
favourable ground. A stray hyasna is now and then met with by a party of
sportsmen, followed and speared : but sometimes not till after a inin of three or
four miles, if the ground is broken by ravines. It is a cowardly animal, and shows
but little fight when brought to bay. The young are very tamable, and show
great signs of attachment to their owner, in spite of all that has been written about
the untamable ferocity of the hyajna." According to Mr. Blanford, the striped
hypena is a more silent animal than its spotted cousin ; and the cries of the
two species, though in some r&spects similar, are very difterent.

The striped hyaena's food is mainly can-ion or carcases killed by other animals ;
and in inhabited districts the animal is much dreaded on account of its grave-
robbing propensities. Portions of such carcases as it finds are eaten on the spot,
while other parts are dragged off" to its den, the situation of which is generally
indicated by the fragments of bones around the entrance. These hypenas will also
feast on skeletons that have been picked down to the bone by jackals and vultures ;
the bone-cracking power of the hj-asna's jaws rendering such relics acceptable,
if not favourite, food.

HY.^NAS.

487

The striped hj-fena will not unfrequently cany off sheep and goats as well as
dogs. Mr. Blanford states that he has never known instances of larger prey
being taken : and he supports this statement by mentioning that the live
animals, tied up so frequently as baits for tigers and leopards, are never
molested by hyanas, which are undoubtedly in the constant habit of banqueting
on carcases of animals killed by those cats. Canon Tristram relates, however,

THE BROWN- HY.ENA {jij uaL size).

that in Palestine a donkey belonging to one of his servants was killed by
a hyaina while the owner was .sleeping alongside.

The striped hyaina — probably on account of its " body-snatching " propensities
— is cordially detested by the natives of all the countries it inhabits. When a
hysena is killed, the body is treated in many parts of India with eveiy mark of
indignity, and finally burnt. On one occasion in the Punjab the present writer
came across a party of natives cruelly ill-treating a nearly full-grown hj^fena,
which had been rendered helpless by its jaws being muzzled and its feet broken.

488 CARNIVORES.

Needless to sa}', the sutferings of the poor brute were soon terminated by a.
bullet. Altliough, owing to their nocturnal habits, hyaenas are seldom seen, j-et
in some parts, of India, from the multitude of their tracks, they must be very common.
These tracks, as Mr. Blauford observes, are like those of a dog, from which they
may, however, be distinguished by the small size of the prints of the hind as
compared with those of the fore-feet.

The Brown Hy^na {Hycena brunnea).

The brown hyffina is far less well known than either of the other li\'ing
species. Although in most respects more nearlj- allied to the striped hyaena, it
exhibits some points of affinity with the spotted specie.?. It is characteiised by
the long mantle of coarse hair, depending from the neck and back, and reaching
below the belly, as is well shown in our illustration on p. 487. The ears are long
and pointed, and the tail is short ami bushy. The general colour of the long liair
is unifonn dark brown, with lighter brown or wliitish jjatches on the legs; while
the head is dark greyish-brown, and the forehead black, sprinkled with whitish
or reddisli-brown. The long hair of the back is whitish-grey at the root, and
blackish-brown above. The legs are striped. In size tliis species is about the
same as the striped hj'sena.

The brown hj-iena is a South African species, ranging on the East Coast as
far as Kilima-njaro, wliile on the west side it may extend as far noi'th as
Mossamedes. It does not ever appear to be found at any great distance from the
coast. It is doubtless this .species, referred to by Mr. H. H. Johnston as the striped
hyaena, which is common on the flanks of Kilima-njaro, up which it ascends to a
consideraljle elevation ; the spotted hyaena being confined to the plains. In its pre-
ference for rocky spots in that ilistrict it, therefore, resembles the striped hy^na.

The Spotted Hy.exa {Hyana crocuta).

The African spotted hyajna is Iw far the largest and most powerful of
the three living species, dift'ering from the others not onl3- in several structural
features, but also by its habit of associating in packs, and of giving utterance more
frequently to its unearthly cry.

Externall}' the spotted lij'wna is distinguished bj' its rounded and moderate-
sized ears, by the absence of a crest of long hairs along the neck and back, and the
sliorter and less hairj' tail. i\Ioreover, the hind feet are relatively larger in
proportion to the fore-feet, and the front and hind-legs are more neai'lj' equal in
length: the hind -limbs being less bent than in the other speciea The ground-
colour of the fur of the body is yellowish, and upon it are dark brown spots ;
the front of the face and the lower portions of the limbs being also dark.

In addition to certain structural features of the soft parts, into the considera-
tion of which it would be out of place to enter here, the spotted hyaena is
distinguished by the characters of its teeth. As these have been ali-eady
partially described (p. 485), it will suffice to mention that the upper molar-tooth,
situated on the inner side of the exceedingly elongated flesh-tooth, has a very

BY.fA^AS.

489

small and nearly round crown, and that it is inserted only by a single root, whereas
the corresponding tooth of the striped species has two distinct roots. Then, again,
the lower tlesh-tooth resembles that of the jaw figured on p. 482, in the small size
of its postei'ior heel, and also in the absence of a cusp on the inner side of the
blade.

Owing to the disproportion in the length of the liiud and fore-legs being much
less than in the striped hyaena, the gait of the spotted lij-fena is far less ungainly
and awk\\'ard-looking.

The spotted hyajna occurs throughout Africa south of the Sahara, i-anging on

THE sroTTED HYiENA {^ nat. size).

the eastern side of the continent into Abyssinia and Nubia. At one time it
was very abundant in the Cape Colony, and Sir Samuel Baker bears testimony
as to its numbers on the Upper Nile in the neighbourhood of Kassala, while
Mr. H. H. Johnston attests its common occurrence on the plains around
Kilima-njaro. Formerly, however, the geographical range of this hyaana was
far more extensive than it is at present, as is proved by the vast quantities
of its remains found in the caves of various parts of Europe, from Gibraltar in
the south to Yoi-kshire in the nortli. It was formerly consi<lered, indeed, that
the so-called '■ cave-hyajna " indicated a distinct species from the living one ; but
zoologists are now generally in accord in regarding the two as specifically

490 CARNIVORES.

identical, although the fossil European hyaenas were generally of larger dimensions
than the existing African form. Moreover, a single lower flesh-tooth obtained
from a cavern in Madras points to the conclusion that the range of this species at
one time also embraced the southern part of India.

When the spotted hysena was an inhabitant of the vales of Yorkshire and
of the Mendip Hills the climate of Britain must have been very diflerent from
what it is now, it being impossible to believe that an animal now restricted to
Africa could have withstood the rigours of our present winters. That the
British spotted hyfenas of the cave period were not mere summer stragglers from
the south is amply shown by the quantities of their remains which are found
in some of the cave.s. Such caverns were veritable hyaena dens, where the animals
must have lived from year's end to year's end, and from generation to generation.

The spotted hysena is a far fiercer and more aggressive animal than his Indian
relative. During the Abyssinian campaign, Mr. Blanford states ,that these animals
constantly came amongst the tents at night, and would at times attack the mules,
ponies, cattle, and goats tethered near the camp. In that part of the country the
hyaenas are stated to be as common in the highlands as in the lowlands : although,
as already mentioned, this does not appear to be the case in the Kilima-njaro
district, where Mr. Johnston observes that not only do they steal sheep and
calves from the herds, but they even carry off children, and often attack wounded
and weakly men. " I once," continues Mr. Johnston, " sent a sick man back to the
coast a short distance by himself, and he M'as severely bitten at night by the
hyaenas. He succeeded, however, in beating them off, and recovered from his
wounds."

Sir Samuel Baker describes the midnight visit of a hyfena to his tent, when
on the Upper Nile, in the following words : — " I was asleep in my tent, when I was
suddenly awakened by a slight pull at my sleeve, which was the signal always
given by my wife if anything was wrong. . . . She now whispered tliat a hj^aena
had been within the tent, but that it had just bolted out, as the.se animals are so
wary that they detect the slightest movement or noise. As a rule, I never shoot at
hj-aenas, but, as I feared it might eat our saddles, I lay in bed with the rifle to my
shoulder, pointed towards the tent door through which the moon was shining
brightly. In a few minutes a gi-ej^-looking object stood like an apparition at the
entrance, peering into the tent to see if all were right before it entered. I touched
the trigger, and tlie hyaena fell dead."

The Hon. W. H. Drummond, referring to the spotted hyaenas of South-East
Africa, notices the damage these animals do to cattle, more especially cows;
and then mentions certain instances where they have attacked human beings.
" Cowardly when there is the faintest suspicion of danger, daring when there is none,
stealthy and cunning to the last degree, and provided with great powers of scent
and hearing, added to immen.se strength, there is no animal so universally hated, or
that causes more trouble and annoyance to both hunters and the peaceful natives."
Common as they are in South-East Africa, spotted hyaenas are, however, but
very seldom seen, as they are quite as nocturnal as their striped cousin, retiring
to their holes at the earliest dawn, " Regular beaten paths," he continues, " lead
to these burrows, along which thej- invariably go, both when coming out and

HYyENAS. 491

returning ; indeed, unless they scent food, they always make use of paths in their
nocturnal rambles, whether made by themselves or by men or game. In a
primitive state there is no doubt that they are chiefly dependent upon the lion
for their daily food, and it is equally certain that they must be able to go
without eating for immense periods. The old hunters declare that their numbei's
liave much increased within their memory in the districts in which there is
most hunting, and as so much game goes away and dies unseen of its wounds,
which the hyajnas are easily able to find by the blood-track which they leave, to
say nothing of the amount of meat that is jjurposely left for want of a use for it,
there is every reason to think that they must find man a better purveyor than the
lion, and increase accordingly."

EXTIXCT Hv.EXAS.

The occurrence of fo.ssil remains of tliu spotted and striped hyrenas in the
cavern and other superficial deposits of Europe has been already mentioned. In
the antecedent Pliocene period there were, however, a number of hyajnas belonging
to species now extinct ; some of these being neai'ly allied to the existing forms,
while others differed markedly in the number and characters of their teeth. These
extinct hyaenas are found over the greater part of Europe — from France to Italy,
Greece, and Hungary — and also in Per.sia, India, and China. Colvin's hyrena from
North India, of which a portion of the lower jaw is figured on p. 482, and the robust
hyaena of Italy were nearly allied to the spotted species, while the Pikermi hyaena
of Greece differed from all living species in having four premolar teeth in the lower
jaw. The Siwalik hyaena of Northern India and the Grecian hyaena were allied to
the striped species, but both have an additional molar behind the lower flesh-tooth,
while the former has four lower premolars. Again, tlie long-jawed hyrena from
Northern India and a nearl}- allied species from Greece difler from exi.sting forms
in their long jaws and the compressed form of the premolar teeth, of which there
were four in the lower jaw. These two species make a marked approach to the
civets, but this is still more evident in a smaller extinct hyffina from Europe,
referred to a distinct genus under the name of Palhyania. In this there were
four premolar and two molar teeth in each jaw, so that the total numljer of teeth
was forty, or the same as in the true civets, and this extinct species was so nearly
allied to the extinct civet mentioned on p. 479 as the ictithere. that the two families
may be regarded as passing one into the other.

CHAPTEE XV.

Carnivoees, — continued.

The Dog Tribe.

Family Caxid^E.

Under the general title of Dogs may be inchided all the animals commonlj^
known as wolves, jackals, foxes, and wild dogs, together with the various breeds of
domestic dogs. These collectively constitute the family Canidcv, and form a group
in some respects intermediate between the Carnivores treated in the two preceding
chapters, and those described in the three succeeding ones. The Dog family must
always have an especial interest, since it includes the animals which have become
more thoroughly the friends anil companions of man than any other creatures. The
origin of the domestic dogs is, however, shrouded in the mist of anti(|uity, and it
is still an open question whether the various breeds are descended from a single
wild stock, or whether they are the product of several species.

The Dog family, as thus constituted, forms, at the present da}', a compact and
well-defined group, the wild members of which cannot be confused with those
of any other. The whole of them are characterised by their long and pointed
muzzles, their moderately long tails, and their perfectly digitigiade feet, furnished
with blunt, nearly straight, and non-retractile claws. Then, again, all the dogs
have but four toes on the hind -feet, while, with the exception of the African
hunting-dog, the number of toes on the fore-feet is five, of wliich the first, or
innermost, is shorter than either of the others, and does not touch the ground.
The limbs, although varying in relative length, are never so short in proportion to
the body as is the case in so many of the Civet familj^ The ears are pointed and
erect, but vary greatly in length in the different groups. Such are some of the
chief external characteristics of the dogs, but, in order to understand their distinc-
tion from other families of Carnivores, it is essential to pay attention to the skull
and teeth. In all dogs the skull, as shown in the figure on p. 352, is chai'acterised
bj' its elongated muzzle and the large number of teeth with which it is furnished ;
in both of which respects it is M'idelj' different from the skull of the cats. On the
under-surface of the hinder part of the skull the tympanic bulla is inflated and
bladder-like, although it is not divided into two chambers bj' a complete septum.
This part of the skull serves, therefore, to distinguish the dogs from the
Carnivores yet mentioned, with the exception of the hyasnas. From the hycenas,
as well as from the cats, the dogs are readily distinguished by the number
and structui'e of their teeth. With but few exceptions, the total number of
their teeth is 42, or two more than the true civets ; the series consisting of

DOG TRIBE.

493

\ premolars, and | molars. If this formula be compared

the number of

^ mcisors, } canines,

with the one given on p. 449, it will be seen that the excess in
the teeth of a dog over those of a civet is owing to the presence of an additional
pair of molars in the lower jaw. This will not, however, serve to distinguish
between all the dogs and the civets, since the Indian wild dogs have but two pairs
of lower molars. In all cases there are four premolar teeth on each side of both
jaws. The cheek-teeth of the dogs are constmcted on the same general plan as
those of the civets, the upper flesh-tooth having but two lobes to the blade, while
the lower flesh-tooth has a large heel posteriorly to the cutting-blade ; this heel
being, however, relatively smaller than in the civets. In both dogs and civets, the
molars of the upper jaw have the same general triangular form. A good idea of
the characters of the
cheek-teeth of the dogs
will Ije gathered from the
accompanying figure,
while the skull repre-
sented on p. 3.52 shows
the lateral aspect of the
whole dental series.

There are other char-
acters connected with the
skull, together with many
points in the stnicture of
the soft parts, which afford
additional means of dis-
tinguishing the dogs from
other Carnivores, but the
above are sufiicient to
define the group, so far
as living forms are con-
cerned.

In their general uni-
formity of structure and
outward appearance, the

dogs differ widely from the civets, and more nearly resemble the cats
considerable amount of difference in external appearance between a fox and a
wolf, but intermediate forms connect them so closely that they are generally
considered as members of a single genus. On the other hand, three membere of
the family differ so remarkably from all the rest, and also from one another, that
they are regarded as the representatives of as many genera. Some diversity
of opinion exists as to the advisability of also referring the Asiatic wild dogs to a
distinct genus, but they are here classed in the tj^pical genus Canis. We thus
have the whole of the existing members of the family ranged under four genera,
of which the last three are severally represented by a single species.

With the marked exception of the Cape hunting-dog, all the members of the
family are characterised by their more or less uniform and sombre coloration

THE BIGHT UPPER AND LOWER CHEEK-TEETH OF THE COMMON FOX (a, a')
AND OF AZARa's fox (B, B').

The letters ;j.»n.l Xop.mA indicate the premolar, and in.\ to )n.3 the molar
teeth ; f.mA in the upper and in.\ in the lower jaw, being the flesh-tooth.
In JH.l of the lower jaw J indicates the hinder lohe of the cutting-blade, and
a its inner cusp. (From Proc. Zool. Soc— After Huxley.)

There is a

m

494

CARNIVORES.

which respect they are markedly different from both the civets and the coatis.
The general coloration of the dogs varies from grey to a yellowish or reddish-
brown ; the upper-part of the head and back, as well as some portions of the limbs,
being generally darker than the flanks, while the under-parts are paler. The outer
surfaces of the ears may be distinctively coloured, and there is often a dark mark
between the eye and the nose, and another near the tail ; but, as a rule, stripes or
patches diflering in hue from the ground-colour of the fur are absent, or ill-defined.
In spite, however, of this general uniformity of coloration, many of the species are
subject to an extraordinary amount of either individual or seasonal variation, both
in respect of colour, and also as regards the length of their fur. In consequence of
such variations much uncertainty has prevailed as to the number of species.
Professor Mivart gives the probable number as thirty-five, but he reckons a
few forms which other writers do not consider entitled to rank as more than

varieties, while some
of the forms which
he considers to be
varieties are regarded
as species by others.
The total number may,
therefore, be roughly
estimated at a little
below forty.

As regards the
seasonal and in-
dividual variation in
the coloration of dogs,
it may be observed
that the hue of the
fur is generally
lighter in winter
than in summer ; this
maximum in the Arctic fox, of which the usual winter
Then again, among those species or races inhabiting
high latitudes or mountains, the fur is considerably longer in winter than in
summer. Moreover, as with the cats, some species show more or less marked
tendencies to the development of black individual.?. Again, and especially among
the foxes, the colour of different individuals or races of a single species may
vary from a greyish, through a yellowLsh, to a reddish tinge : while, if the general
colour remains the same, there mav be darker or lighter shades. Added to these
variations in the coloration and length of the fur, there may also be a large
amount of individual difference in point of size in the same species.

A peculiar character of man}!- dogs, and one in which they differ markedly
from the cats, is their habit of associating in large packs for the purpose of
hunting their prey. In general, such prey is pursued chiefly or entirely by the
aid of smell, which attains an exti'aordinary development in some members of
the group. This keen perception of scent is not, however, accompanied by any

SKELETO:; OF WOLF.

difference attaining its
pelage is pure white.

DOG TRIBE. 495

deficiencies in tlie senses of sight and hearing, both of wliich are also highly
developed. It is jjrobably due to this habit of associating in packs that many of
the dogs are, to a gi-eater or smaller extent, diurnal ; but the majority are also in
part nocturnal. From the nature of their claws, no dogs are fitted for climbing
trees ; and none are especially adapted for an aquatic life, although several of the
domestic breeds are excellent swimmers. The cry of the \arious species of wild
dogs varies greatly, but may generally be termed a howl rather than a bark,
although some utter a kind of yelping bark. Apparently, all the species can be
tamed to a certain degree, although the extent to which this taming can be carried
out varies in diftei-ent species, and even in ditferent individuals of the same species.
All wild dogs are in the habit of living in burrows, in the clefts of rocks, in
caverns, or hollow trees. Some species, like the fox, excavate burrows for
themselves, while othei-s take advantage of the deserted holes of other animals ;
and whereas some dogs dig solitary burrows, others excavate them close together,
so as to form a colony, or warren. The number of young in a litter is said to vary
from three to as many as a dozen ; and it is believed that in all cases the cubs or
" pups " are born blind. Several of the wild species, like the jackal and tlie wolf,
wiU freely interbreed : and the liybrid offspring between either of these species and
domestic dotrs are known to be fertile.

As regards their geographical distribution, the dogs are more widelj' spread
than any family of Carnivores yet noticed ; and in this respect they are only
approached by the weasel family. This wide distribution is the more remarkable
when the uniformity in the organisation and external appearance of the members
of the group are taken into consideration. The great majority are to be found
in the northern hemisphere, in whicii one is common to both Europe and North
America. A single species, the dingo, is now found wild in Australia, but no wild
dogs occur in either Ceylon or Madagascar.

In disposition and the nature of their food many of the dogs show marked
differences. Thus, whereas the European wolf, which iiunts in packs, and is
exceedingly fierce, will attack both human beings and cattle, the solitary South
American maned wolf is a timid and comparatively harmless animal, except to the
small creatui-es upon which it preys. Again, whereas the majority of species are
more or less purely carnivorous, and kill their own prey, the jackal lives largelj'
upon carrion : while other species will devour lizards, mice, and even snails, and
insects. Others, again, will eat marine mollusks and crustaceans, while the Arctic
fox subsists largely upon fish, as does the domestic Eskimo dog.

As already mentioned, with the exception of three species, forming the types
of as manj?^ genera, the whole of the existing members of the Dog family are
included in the genus Canis. In all these forms there are five toes in the hind
feet ; and, with the exception of the Asiatic wdld dogs, there are three molar teeth
on each side of the lower jaw.

The Wolf (Canis lupus).

If we exclude some of the breeds of domestic dogs, the wolf is the largest
living member of the family; and its reputation for fierceness is too well

496

CARNIVORES.

known to need more than passing mention. It belongs to a group which includes
the other wolves, the jackals, and the domestic dogs ; all the wild species of which
are characterised by their powerful teeth, the moderate brush formed by the tail
(in which the hair is longer than that of the body), and by the pu2>il of the eye
being round. Moreover, in the skull of all these animals the bony projection
forming the hinder boi'der of the socket of the eye is regularly curved downwards
and has a convex upper surface ; whereas in a fox the same j^rocess is hollow above,
and has a more or less marked tendency to curve upwards behind.

THE WOLF (J uat. size).

With the exception of the Antarctic wolf of the Falkland Islands, true wolves
are restricted to the northern hemisphere, being unknown both in Africa and South
America. The European wolf measures about 3i feet in length, exclusive of the
tail, and is characterised by having a woollj- under-fur of a slaty -brown colour.
The prevailing hue of the fur is tj-pically of a nifous or yellowish-grey above,
which may be more or less mingled with black ; while the under-parts are whitisL
The tail, which is considerably less than half the length of the head and body, may
be tipped with black. From this ordinary type of coloration there ma}- be varia-

Jl'OLVES. 497

tions, owing to the development of a more or less marked grey or red tinge ; while
in some cases the fur may be much paler than usual, and in others nearly or quite
black. In Europe the light-coloured varieties appear to be characteristic of northern,
and the dark of southern regions, black or blackish wolves being not uncommon
in Spain. As in Europe there is a black race of the ordinary wolf, so black
specimens of the woolly variety occur in Tibet ; these animals having shaggy fur
of a uniform black colour, except the muzzle, feet, and patch on the chest, which
are white. More uncertainty has prevailed as to whether the Japanese wolf
(C. hodophylax) is distinct from the European form ; the Indian wolf is regarded,
however, by Mr. Blanford (although not by Professor Mivart) as entitled to rank
as a separate species.

The North American wolf has frequently been regarded as specifically distinct
from the European one, under the name of C. occidentalis. Dr. C. H. Merriam
has, however, long regarded the two forms as specifically identical, and the same
view is taken by Prof. Mivart. The latter writer observes that although the fur
of most American wolves is less red than is generally the case with European
specimens, especially on the legs and the hinder-part of the head, yet North
European examples have a nearly similar coloration. Tiien, again, the American
skins generally have more black on the back than most European ones ; but this
tendency to blackness is still more marked in Spanish wolves. As in Europe, there
is in America trreat individual and racial variation in the colour of the wolf. Thus,
according to Mi-. S. F. Baird, there is a pure white wolf on the Upper Missouri, a
dusky blackish wolf on the Lower ilissouri, a black wolf in Florida and the
Southern United States, and a red wolf in Texas. There is, moreover, considerable
difierence in respect of size and shape ; the southern wolves being smaller, more
slender, and more " leggy " than those from the extreme north ; while they
have also shorter and closer fur. The southern limit of the wolf in America is
the State of Guanajuato, in Mexico. Including, then, the whole of the varieties
mentioned above, with the exception of the Indian wolf, under a single specific title,
the range of the common wolf will be very extensive ; and will embrace the whole
of Europe, the greater part of Asia to the northward of the Himalaya, and as far
east as Japan, and nearly the whole of North America.

In Europe tlio wolf has disappeared from Britain and Central and Northern
Germany, but still lives in the wilder or more mountainous districts of the rest of
the Continent, being especially abundant in many parts of Russia — both European
and Asiatic. Wolves were formerly abundant in the British Islands ; in Yorkshire
they were common in the reign of Richard II. ; while in the time of Cromwell parts
of Ireland were much infested by them. Mr. Harting states that the wolf became
extinct in England during the reign of Henry VII. ; that it survived in Scotland
until 17-i3; and that the last was killed in Ireland, according to Richard.son, in
1770, or, according to Sir J. E. Tennent, subsequently to 1766.

In America, owing to the rapid spread of cultivation, wolves are disappearing,
or becoming scarce in all but the wilder districts. Prof. Mivart, from data supplied
him by American naturalists, states that at the present day the wolf is found east
of the Mississippi and south of Canada only in the still nearly unsettled parts of
the country, as the northern portion of New England and New York, portions of

VOL. I. — 32

498 CARNIVORES.

the Alleghanies, Southern Florida, and possibly in the sparse!}' -settled parts of the
interior States south of the Ohio. It is only abundant in the remote districts of
Maine. West of the Mississippi its numbers are very small in comparison with its
former abundance, while over vast areas it has been wholly extirpated.

Wolves inhabit both ojjen countrj^ and forests : and although generally found
in pairs, or solitary, they at times, and more especially in winter, associate in
large numbers. They wander abroad both in the daytime and at night.
Although usually cowardly, the wolf becomes bolder and more daring, stealing its
prey by night, when driven b}^ hunger, or when hunting togethei'. Stories of
the attacks of wolves, when in packs, iipon travellers in Russia are so numerous, and
have been so frequently quoted that it will be unnecessary to rej^eat anjr of them
here; but it may be mentioned that in the year 1875 no less than 161 persons fell
victims to these animals in Russia. Writing of the wolf of the Adirondack region,
Dr. Merriani observes that during the deep snows a small pack of wolves will
sometimes kill hundreds of deer, taking here and there a bite, but leaving the
greater number untouched. In the earlier days of American farming, a couple
of these marauders have been known to kill fifteen or sixteen slieep in a single
night, simply tearing open their throats without otherwise damaging the carcases.
When the bison existed in countless thousands on the prairies of North America,
wolves were in the habit of prowling around the herds for the pui-pose of
preying on sick or wounded individuals and such calves as strayed from the pro-
tection of their elders. Frequenth', it is stated, wolves might be seen wandering
in the midst of a herd of l)ull bison without attracting the least attention. In
general almost any kind of prey is acceptable to the wolf, which does not by any
means disdain a meal of carrion. The larger mammals, such as cattle, horses,
and the bigger kinds of deer, are generally only attacked when several M'olves are
associated together ; but it is stated that in Canada a single wolf will kill the
largest male reindeer. Birds always form an acceptable portion of the wolf's
diet. When hard pressed by hunger, wolves will eat almost anything they
come across, down to mice and frogs, and, it is said, even buds of trees and
lichens.

The lair of the wolf is formed either in a rocky cavern, within the hollow of a
fallen trunk, beneath the roots of an overthrown tree, or more rarely in holes in
the ground ; such burrows being sometimes dug by the animal itself. A dense
thicket will also not unfrequently serve as a hiding-place. In these lairs the cubs
are born, the number in a litter generally varying from six to ten. The cubs,
which are born in the spring, usually remain with their parents till the end of
November or December, but may sometimes continue with them for a much longer
period. The ordinary cry of the wolf is a loud and prolonged howl. The amount
of noise, writes Dr. Merriani, that a single wolf is capable of producing is simply
astonishing ; and many amusing episodes of camp lore owe their origin to this fact.
More than one lone traveller has hastily taken to a tree, and remained in the in-
hospitable shelter of its branches for an entire night, believing himself surrounded
by a pack of at least fifty fierce and hungry wolves, when in reality there was but
one, and (as its tracks afterwards proved) that was on the further side of a lake, a
couple of miles away. By association with domestic dogs, wolves will soon learn to

IVOZ VES.

499

bark. They will breed freely with the larger kinds of domesticated dogs ; aud it is
stated that some of the Indians in the north of America improve the breed of the
sleighing dogs by crossing with the wolf.

The endurance of the wolf's gallop has become proverbial. ■ When pursued
by wolves," writes Mr. Lett, " deer make for the nearest water, in which they
have a chance to escape, being able to swim much faster than their enemies. Should
the river or lake be narrow, the deer generally swim either up or down, seldom
straight across ; frequently landing, after a detour, on the same side in which they
entered the water. By this means the wolves are puzzled and put off the scent.
If there are thick weeds or bush along the sliore, the deer frequently sinks his body
under water, so that no pait will appear above the surface but his head, and by
this means is enabled to evade the cunning of his pursuei-s." The wolf di.splays
remarkable caution in avoiding all kinds of traps set for his destruction; and
when he is caught will fretjuently feign death in the hope of being able to
escape.

Fossil remains of the wolf occur in the caverns and sujjerticial deposits of
England and the Continent; tiie earliest horizon from which they have been
obtained in this country being the so-called forest-bed of the Eastern Coast, which
antedates the glacial period.

The Indi.\x Wolf (Canis pallipes).

As already mentioned, there has been much discussion as to whether the
Indian wolf is distinct from the common species. According to Mr. Blanford, it
is distinguished from the common wolf by its smaller size and slighter build, as
well as by its shorter fur, which has little or no woolly under-fur. The length is
about 3 feet, exclusive of the tail : and the general colour of the fur is a greyish
fulvous, usually with a brownish tinge, and sometimes with more or less black on
the back. Occasionally, however, a more or less strongly marked rufous tint may
be observed. Mr. Blanford states that all the skins that have come under his notice
are browner than is usually the case with tliu common wolf, and are of an earthy-
grey colour.

The Indian wolf is confined to India south of the Himalaj'a. It is rare in
Lower Bengal, and unknown on the Malabar coast ; and it appears to be replaced
by the common species to the west of the Indus, although a few examples are
occasionally .seen in the Trans-Indus districts. The young are bom in holes or
caves among rocks during the months of October, November, and December, the
number in a litter varjang from three to eight.

Its habits are very similar to those of the common species; but, although
somewhat gregarious, these wolves do not associate in large packs, sis or eight
being the largest number that liave been seen together. Moreover, it appears to
be a rather silent animal, rarely, if ever, howling like the common wolf, but,
according to Jerdon, sometimes barking like a pariah dog. Its food includes
such mannnals and liirds as it can kill, but sheep, goats, and antelopes appear
to be the chief favourites. On occasion these wolves will attack adult human
beings, for which pui-pose two or more will combine together; and in certain

500

CARNIVORES.

districts a large number of children are annually carried .off by them from the
villages. In the South Mahratta country, Sir W. Elliot writes that he has seen
a small pack " steal round a herd of antelope, and conceal themselves on different
sides till an opportunity occurs of seizing one of them unawares, as they approach,
whilst grazing, to one or other of their hidden assailants. On one occasion three
wolves were seen to chase a herd of gazelles across a ravine in which two others
were lying in wait. They succeeded in seizing a female gazelle, which was taken
from them. They have frequently been seen to coui'se and run down hares and
foxes, and it is a common belief of the peasants that in the open plains, where
there is no cover or concealment, they scrape a hole in the earth, in which one of
the pack lies down and remains hidden, while the others drive the herd of
antelopes over liim. Their chief prey is, however, sheep."

The Coyote (Canin latrans).

Whatever doubt there may be as to the riglit of the Indian wolf to specific
distinction, there can be none in the case of the coj-ote, or prairie-wolf, of North

THE LOYOTE {\ nat. size).

America. This animal is considerably smaller than the common wolf, from which
it is also distinguished by its thicker and longer fui- and more bushy tad. On

WOLVES. SOI

account of this greater length of the fur, the coyote appears to be a thicker built
and shorter-legged animal than it really is. The colour varies considerably at
different seasons of the year, being of a bright fulvous brown in sumnier, and grej'
or grej^dsh in winter; this ground-colour at l3oth seasons being overlaid with a
shading of Ijlack, which tends to form stripes along the back and across the
shoulders and loins. The under-parts are of a dirty white tint ; while the
upper portion of the muzzle, and the outsides of the ears and legs, are generally
tawny. The coyote ranges from the south of Costa Rica, in Central America, to
the lower portions of Hudson's Baj'. It is still abundant in Texas and Northern
Mexico, but is rare in Guatemala ; and it has been suggested that it is but a com-
paratively recent immigrant into Central Amei-ica.

The coyote is more generally in the habit of burrowing in the ground than
the common wolf; it is also far less savage and destructive, and becomes more
docile and gentle in captivity. Like the common wolf, it will on occasions hunt
in packs ; and it is at least as noisy an animal, although the tone of its howl is
quite different. As regards food, it appears to be almost omnivorous ; and, when
an animal diet is unattainable, it will feed upon juniper-beii-ies, or the prickly
pear. Rabbits, rats, young birds, etc., form, however, its staple diet; and it
does not appear that it ever attacks the larger mammals, altliough, when
wounded and brought to bay, it will defend itself fiercely. In speed it is far
inferior to the wolf, ami it can be readily overtaken by a good horse. The cubs
are born in ilay and June ; the number in a litter usually being five or six,
but occasionally ten.

The Antarctic Wolf {Canis antarcticus).

Seeing that no true wolf is found in continental South America, it is strange
to meet with a small species, apparently nearly allied to the coyote, inhabiting the
Falkland Islands. The antarctic wolf is rather smaller than the larger individuals
of the coyote, and has shorter fur and a less bushy tail. The general colour is
yellowish mingled with black, the indi\idual hairs being yellow at the base,
with black tips ; tlie fur of the under-parts is whitish. White is also the colour
of the fur on the lips, chin, and throat, as well as on the inner margins of the ears.
The most characteristic coloration is, however, that of the tail, in which the first
two-fifths are of the .same hue as the body, the next two-fifths black, and the
remainder white.

The antarctic wolf was discovered by Pernety during his voyage in the j'ears
1763 and 1764, and was again observed bj- Commodore Byron of H.M.S. Dolphin,
who circumnavigated the world in 1767. . Darwin, who saw them during the
voyage of the Beagle, writes that " these wolves are well known, from Byron's
account of their tameness and curiosity, Avhich the sailors, who ran into the water
to avoid them, mistook for fierceness. To this day their manners remain the same.
They have been observed to enter a tent, and actually pull some meat from
beneath the head of a sleeping seaman. The Guachos also have frequently in the
evening killed them, by holding out a piece of meat in one hand, and in the other
a knife ready to stick them. As far as I am aware, there is no other in.stauce in

502 CARNIVORES.

any part of the world of so small a mass of broken land, distant from a continent,
possessing so large an aboriginal quadruped peculiar to itself. Their numbei"s
have rapidly decreased ; they are already banished from that half of the island
which lies to the eastward of the neck of land between St. Salvador Bay and
Berkeley Sound." These wolves do not associate in packs, are largely diurnal, and
are usually silent, except during the breeding season. They burrow in the ground,
and prey on geese and penguins, but are now nearly exterminated.

The Kaberu (Canis siynensis).

The kaberu, or Abyssinian wolf, is a little-known species, taking its Latin name
fi-om the district of Simen, or Seinyen, in Abyssinia, where the fii-st specimen
brought to Europe was obtained. Although of about the same size as the coj'ote,
it has no claim to be regarded as a true wolf; and may rather be looked
upon as an abnormal kind of jackal, in which the size of the body, and notably that
of the jaws, has increased, without any corresponding enlargement of the teeth,
which are far smaller than in the true woh^es. The kaberu, which inhabits
mountainous districts, has an extremely long and narrow snout, larger ears than
the true wolves, and a thick bushy tail like that of a jackal. Its general colour
is a light reddish brown with a tinge of yellow : the mouth, chest, under-parts, and
the front of the lower portions of the legs being whitish. The gi-eater part of the
upper surface of the tail is mottled with black, and its end is of that colour.

The Jackal (Ginia aureus).

With the common jackal we come to the iirst of a group of species of smaller
size than the true wolves, with which they are to some extent connected by the
one last described. Their bushy tails are relatively shorter than in the wolves,
being generalh- equal to about one-third the length of the head and bodj- ;
and their skulls may be distinguished bj* the smaller size of the flesh-teeth as
compared witli the molar teeth behind them. As in the case of the wolves, there
is some difference of opinion as to the specific identity of the jackals of different
countries. The Asiatic jackal is subject to considerable individual variation in
point of size : the length of the head and bodj' varj-ing from 2 to 2i feet. Its
general colour varies from a pale isabelline to a pale mfous, with a larger or
smaller admixture of black on the upper-parts. The under-parts are paler, and
the muzzle, ears, and the outer sides of the limbs more rufous than the rest. The
reddish brown hairs of the tail have long black tips, thus fomiing a distinct black
tip to the tail itself. The African variety is of rather larger size, with relativeh^
longer ears ; and the sides of the body are greyer, and the outer surfaces of the
limbs less rufous. Occasionally rufous, black, and white varieties of the jackal
ha\'e been met with ; the latter being true albinos.

The jackal ranges from the south-eastern countries of Europe to India and
Ceylon; thence it extends through Assam to Northern Pegu and the neighbourhood
of Mandalay, although it is much less common east of the Bay of Bengal than in
India. In Northern Africa it inhabits Egypt and Abyssinia, and the districts to

JACKALS.

5°3

the north of the Sahara. In the Himalaya it ascends to from three to four
thousand feet above the sea-level. Throughout India it may be found indifferently
in hilly or plain country, in forest or open districts, or in large cities.

Although jackals are frequently in the habit of going singly or in pairs, tliey
often associate in packs, which may be of considerable size; these assemblages
being more frequent at night than during the daj'time. In India the jackal is
considered by ilr. Blanford to be a more decidedly nocturnal animal than the wolf,
but its wanderings are bj' no means confined to the night ; and, during the
winter, jackals may be seen abroad at all hours of the day. In extremely

^^i^§^

THE JACKAL (J nat. size).

hot weather they appear to suffer much, and may be found either lying in the
water, where thej^ spend mo.st of the day, or sneaking awa}' therefrom, instead
of being, as u.sual, hidden away in their holes. Their food comprises not only
carrion and the flesh of such animals as they are able to kill, but also fruit, maize,
and sugar-cane. In the towns and villages of India the jackals act as efficient
scavengers. Occasionally they take to killing poultry and lambs or kids ; and
Jerdon states that weakly goats and sheep often become their prey, while wounded
antelopes are tracked down and killed. Among vegetable foods, the chief favourite
seems to be the so-called ber-fruit ; but Prof. Ball reports that in certain districts
jackals do enormous damage to the sugar plantations, biting ten or a dozen canes

S04

CARNIVORES.

for one they eat. Like the civet iu Java, jackals in the Wynaad district of Madi-as
feed on the i-ipe fnait of the coifee plant.

Somewhat curiously, the jackal of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor agrees
with the Indian rather than with the African variety ; the general colour being a
pale dirty yellow, more or less tinged with rufous, with a variable amount of
black on the back. In the Morea, where these animals are very common, they
are asserted to be in the habit of disinterring dead bodies from the gravej'ards.

The cry of a pack of jackals, when heard for the first time, strikes the ear
with a peculiarly blood-curdling chill, and gives the impression that it is uttered
by a much larger number of individuals than is really the case. Mr. Blanford
describes the cry as consisting of two parts : first, " a long wailing howl, three or
four times repeated, each note a little higher than the preceding, and then a
succession of usually three quick yelps, also repeated two or three times. The
common Anglo-Indian version of ' Dead Hindoo, where, where, where,' gives some
idea of the call." In the so-called variegated jackal of the Abyssinian Highlands,
which is sometimes regarded as specifically distinct from the ordinary North
African form, the second half of the cry is omitted.

In addition to the ordinary cry there is, however, as the same writer remarks,
another very peculiar call, " only uttered by the jackal, it is believed, when a tiger
or a leopard is in the neighbourhood, and certainly uttered upon such occasions.
The cry is unmistakable ; I have several times heard it; but the jackal that makes
it carries us at once into the region of fable and folk-lore. The same story that
has existed on the shores of the Mediterranean for two thousand years at least,
that a jackal acts as scout for the lions, or ' lions' provider,' and is repaid \)y a
share of the prey, is commonly believed with regard to the tiger in IncUa ; and it
is this peculiar jackal, known as Pheal, Phiou, or Phnew, in Northern India, the
name being taken from the ciy, and as Bhalu, or Kol-bhalu in Southern and
Western India, that is said to invariably precede the tiger, and to make the call
just noticed. Several observers have, however, remarked tliat the jackal which
makes the cry follows the tiger and does not precede him ; and Blyth has observed
that a pariah dog, on sniffing a collection of caged tigers in Calcutta, set up a most
extraordinaiy howl, probably similar to that of the Pheal."

Occasionally the skull of the jackal has a peculiar bony process growing from
the upper part of the occiput, which is said to be covered during life by a horny
sheath, concealed among the hair, forming the so-called "jackal's hom." The
female jackal generally gives birth to her young in a hole in the ground, although
they have been found in an old drain ; the number of cubs in a litter being
usually from three to five. The pariah dogs of India breed freely with the jackal.
Fossil remains of the jackal occur in the Siwalik Hills of Northern India.
The Black-Backed The black-backed jackal (CVnn'.s mesomelas), is a very distinct
Jackal. African species. The adults of both sexes are characterised by their
briglit coloration, the sides of the body being red, the limbs and the upper part
of the tail reddi.sh yellow ; while the back of the bodj' and the end of the tail are
black. In some cases the line of division between the black of the back and the
red of the sides is more distinct than in others, and the size of the black area is
also subject to variation, although invariably widest over the shoulders. The

JACKALS.

o"o

individual hairs of the body are ringed with black and white or red and wliite,
.so as to produce a speckled appearance in the fur. The under-parts of the body
and the inner sides of the limbs are neai'ly wliite, the ears and j)art of the face
being yellowish bro\vn. This striking coloration occurs, however, only in tlie
adult condition, the fur of the j'oung being a uniform dusky brown. The dark
band on the neck so often found in the common jackal is absent. The ears are
very long.

The black -backed jackal was obtained by Mr. Blanford in Abyssinia, but not

BLACK-BACKED JACKAL (i liat. size).

at such high elevations as the common species. The northerly limit of this jackal
is Middle Xubia, from whence its range extends alon^ the East Coast of Africa to
the Cape, although there are many places in this tract of country where it is
apparently absent. In South Africa it extends across the continent, and up the
western side as far as Mossamedes, but it is unknown in the Congo district. This
jackal occurs both in the open country and in bush jungle. In the sandy regions
on the shores of the Red Sea it is to be found frequently in the small thickets
covering the banks of the ravines, which swarm with hares and pangolins, upon
which the jackal feeds. At night it visits the villages of the natives, and in
Somaliland it is stated to bite off the fat tails of the sheep. In the Sudan it lives
■chiefly upon the smaller antelopes, mice, jerboas, and other Rodents. In South

5o6

CARNIVORES.

Africa the fur of the bhick -backed jackal is much esteemed bj' the natives, and is
used for making their cloaks or caresses.
Side-striped The second species of South African jackal is tlie side-striped

JackaL jackal {Canis adustiis), so named from the oblique light-coloured
stripe running along the flanks. This stripe is, however, very variable in its
distinctness and degree of development, as may be seen by contrasting our two
figures of tliia animal ; and, in consequence of this difi'erence, the species has been
described under two specific names — the so-called C. lateralis being now proved to
be identical with the earlier C. adustus, founded upon a specimen in which the

;^^H5«5«^, \>/^

. THE SIDE-STRIPED JACK.M. (J nat. size).

sti-ipe was but little apparent. The side-striped jackal differs from all the other
species in the dark brown colour of the hair on the back of the ears ; the ears
themselves being relatively rather shorter than in the preceding species, although
longer than in the common jackal. The snout is characterised by its length and
slendemess. The general colour of the fur is yellowish brown, becoming paler on
the under-parts. In examples which exhibit the feature from which the species
takes its name, a light-coloured line runs on each side of the bodj' from behind
the .shoulder-blade to a point near the root of tlie tail, a black line bordering the
lower margin of this stripe. The gi-eater portion of the tail is black, but its
extremity is white.

This species has a wide distribution in Central and Southern Africa, having

JACKALS.

507

been met with by Du Chaillu in the Gabun district, and by Mr. Johnston in the
plains around Kilima-njaro on the east coast. Du Chailhi states that on the west
coast tliese animals hunt in packs, surrounding and chasing such kinds of game as
they are able to kill. He gives the native name of the animal on the west coast as
Mboj-o, but according to Dr. Pechuel-Loesche — who mentions that it is chiefly
nocturnal, and .seldom seen between the hours of nine and four in the day — it is
known in the Loango district as the Mbulu. It preys upon the smaller mammals
and sick indixiiluals of the larger species, and will also eat the fruit of the oil-palm.

V.VBIETV OP- THE SIDE-STIIIPED J.VCKAL (J imt. .size).

In inhabited districts on the west coast the side-striped jackal frequently
enters the native villages, where it interbreeds with the domestic dogs. Its cr}',
which may be heard night and morning at all seasons of the year, is fully as long-
drawn and appalling as that of the common jackal. Pechuel-Loesche tells us that
these animals can be tamed with facility, and that, when in the Loango district
he had several young specimens, one of which attained maturity. They were
extremely playful, and would run after and catch almost any animals they saw,
including beetles, grasshoppers, birds, and small mammals. They would readily
eat almost anything that was offered them, such as bread, beans, rice, tish, flesh,
bananas, and oil-palm nuts. Although gentle and friendly as a rule, to some
individuals they took a marked dislike, growling and showing their teeth when-

508 CARNIVORES.

ever they approached. One of these tame jackals would answer to its name,
" Mbulu," and was remarkable for the cleanliness of its habits, being particularly-
averse to getting its feet wetted by rain, seeking during showers the shelter of the
huts. As a rule, it never sat down on its haunches after the manner of a dog,
but would lie at full length, with its nose resting between its fore-paws, and would
generally select a sunny spot, where it lay blinking in tlie sunlight.

The Dixgo {Canis dingo).

Were it not for the fact that Australia has so few native Mammals, which do
not belong to the Marsupial group, the dingo would unhesitatingly have been
regarded as an aboriginal inhabitant of the country where it is found ; in wliich
■case it would rank as what we may call a natural species. The iinproljabilitj- of
Australia possessing a native placental mammal of such large size as the dingo is,
however, so great as to induce the belief that the animal was introduced by man,
and hence that it originated from some of the dogs of Asia. This supposed
introduction must, however, have taken place at so early a date that there has been
considerable hesitation among some zoologists in admitting any such origin ; and
certainly the recent arguments in favour of its being an indigenous species have
very great weight. Be, however, its origin wdiat it may, there can be no doubt
that the dingo is the only true dog now found in a wild state.

The dingo is an animal of smaller size than a wolf, with moderately tall legs,
a long and somewhat bushy tail, a broad and sliort muzzle, and well-developed ears.
In regard to colour. Prof. Mivart remarks that " the dingo varies in its coloration
from red to black. There is a greyish under-fur, but, save in the black variety,
the long hairs are generally yellow or whitish. The top of the head and dorsal
region generally are of a darker reddish yellow, often intermixed with l^lack. The
under-parts are paler and may be whitish. The end of the tail is very often white,
as are frequently the feet, and sometimes the muzzle, though this is also sometimes
black. The animal may be of a uniformly light reddish or yellowish brown, save
that it is paler beneath, on the outside of the fore-legs, below the elbow, as well as
■on the inner side of the limbs and on the cheeks."

The dingo is found in wooded districts throughout Australia, and in many
■such situations is extremely numerous ; although the Government reward for its
■destruction has in other parts led to a considerable diminution in its numbers.
It is a terrible foe to sheep, killing and mangling a far greater number than it
•eats ; and it is equally destructive to poultry. On accoiint of these depredations,
the colonists wage a war of extermination against it, large numbers being poisoned
with strychnine.

In mode of life and habits Brehm compares the dingo to tlie
fox ratlier tlian tlie wolf. It is shv and retirintr, rareh' .seen durincj
the daytime, and pursuing its work of devastation during the night. It is but
seldom found in large numbers together, parties of from five to six individuals
— generally consisting of a mother and her cubs — being the most common.
Occasionally, however, troops of from eighty to one hundred individuals have
been seen. Each family is stated to have a strictly defined area, beyond which

DINGO.

S09'

its members do not venture, and into which those of other families do not intrude.
Tlie young are generally born in the hollow trunk of a tree, and vary from sis to
eight in a litter. Naturally, dingoes never bark ; although, like wolves, they easily
learn to do so from association with other dogs. When caught they are generally
in the habit of shamming death.

The dingo breeds freely with the various European dogs introduced by the
colonists. In regard to their domestication by the Australian natives, Dr.
Lumholtz states that on the Herbert river there are rarely more than one or two

THE DKGO ^i u;it. size

dingoes in each tribe, and as a rule thej' are of pure blood. The natives find them
as puppies in the hollow trunks of trees, and rear them with greater care than they
bestow on their children. The dingo is an important member of the family : it-
sleeps in the huts, and gets plenty to eat, not only of meat, but also of finiit. " Its
master never strikes, but merely threatens it. He caresses it like a child, eats the
fleas off it, and then kisses it on the snout. Though the dingo is treated so well it
often i-uns away, especially in the pairing season, and at such times it never returns.
Thus it never becomes perfectly domesticated, but still is very useful to the natives,
for it has a keen scent, and traces everj- kind of game; it never barks, and
hunts less wildly than our dogs, but very rapidly, frequently capturing the game-
on the run. Sometimes it refuses to go any further, and its owner has then to

5IO CARXIVORES.

carry it on his shoulders, a luxury of which it is very fond. The dingo will follow
nobody else but its owner."

In writing on the origin of the dingo, Prof. M'Coy observes that its fossil
remains are found, in cei'tain of the superficial and cavern deposits of Australia,
in association Avith those of a number of extinct species moi-e or less closely allied
to the Mar.supials still inhabiting the country. The introduction of the dingo — if
introduced it really was — is thus carried back to the Pleistocene tUvision of the
Tertiary period ; but we believe we are right in sajnng that in some at least of the
deposits in wliich its remains occur there is also evidence of the contemporary
presence of man. If, indeed, in all the deposits in which dingo bones occur there
were also indications of human presence, the introduction of the animal hy human
■agency would present no difficulty ; but it does not appear that such is the case.

Domestic Dogs (Canis familiaris).

Although many diflerent views have been and still are entertained as to the
mutual relationship and origin of the various breeds of domestic dogs, authorities
are agreed tliat primitively the whole of them wei-e derived either from wolves
or jackals, or from both together. Whether, however, the origin has been a single
one, that is to say, Avhether all domestic dogs were derived from one particular
species of wolf or from a single species of jackal, or whether they are a product
of the crossing of two or more distinct races, independently derived from as manv
wild stocks, is still an open question, and one indeed which is likely to remain
undecided. Our own opinion inclines, however, towards the view of the multiple
origin of the domestic dog ; but even if its origin be .single there can be little
doubt that such an original domesticated breed lias subsequently received extensive
crossing with wild species other than the one from which it originally sprang.

That domestic dogs trace their origin to Avolves or jackals, or botli together,
and not to foxes, iS evident from the structure of their skulls; ami that the
domesticated races are not descended from the wild dogs of A.sia, is evident from
the latter having one molar tooth less in the lower jaw than is tlie case with the
other members of the genus. Additional testimony that the foxes have nothing
to do with the origin of the domestic dogs is afforded by Mr. Bartlett, who writes
that he has never met with a well-authenticated instance of a hybrid between a
fox and a dog, notwithstanding numerous specimens of supposed hybrids of tliis
sort, which from time to time have been brought to liis notice. Since this was
written there has, however, been some evidence published in Land a nd Water, to
tlie effect that these animals may occasionally cross.

The different breeds of domestic dogs present variations far greater, both as
i-egards size and form, than those between any wild members of the canine family.
Great as these differences undoubtedly are, they are to some extent paralleled
among the various breeds of domestic pigeons and fowls, the former of which are
definitely known to have originated from a single wild stock. But, since dogs of
very different breeds freely cross with one another, and the resulting progeny is
perfectly fertile, there can be no difficulty in regarding all the domesticated races
as now constituting a single species. The fact that at the earliest historical

AX ESKIMO AXD HIS DOGS.

DOMESTIC DOGS. 513

period in wliicli we have evidence of the existence of domesticated dogs, there were
several (Hstinct breeds, liiore or less closely resembling some of those still extant,
has been urged as an important argument in favour of the multiple origin of
the group : but too mucli weight must not be attached to this. The main
ar'gunient in favour of the view of the multiple origin of the dog is that the
ditierent early and original breeds of the domestic dogs of different countries
approximate in appearance to the- wild species of the same regions. For instance,
the Eskimo dogs are exceedingly like wolves, and Mr. Bartlett states confidently
that we are justilied in regarding them as nothing more than reclaimed wolves.
Indeed, the E.skimo are said to be in the constant habit of crossing their dogs
with wolves, in onler to maintain their size and stamina. Then again some of
the more northerly tribes of the Indians of North America have wolf-like dogs,
their howls being so like those of wolves that even their owners can scarcely
distinguish between the two. On the other hand, the domestic dogs of the Hare
Indians closely resendjle the coyote, which is the most common species in the
districts inhabited by those tribes. These dogs ai-e stated, indeed, by Sir J.
Richardson to present precisely the same relation to the coyote as is. borne by
the Eskimo dog to the common wolf. Then again the black wolf-dog of Florida
is almost indistinguishable from the black variety of the wolf characterising
that country. Further, many of the sheep-dogs and wolf-dogs of Europe resemble
the wolves inhabiting the same districts; and Blyth was .struck with the marked
resemblance of some of the pariah dogs of India to the wolf of the same country.
Moreover, in South-Eastern Europe and Southern Asia many of the domestic
dogs so closely resemble jackals, that it is sometimes difficult to distinguisii
between them. Still more important is the circumstance that some of the
domestic dogs of South Africa present a striking resemblance in form and colour
to the black-backed jackal of the same regions, although they have lost the distinct
black back characto-istic of the latter. Ec|ually noteworthy is the resemblance
observed between certain South American domestic dogs and the wild Azara's
dog of the same regions. From this evidence Darwin was inclined to believe that
domestic dogs were descended from the common wolf and the coj'ote, from the
various local varieties of the former, from the Indian wolf, from Azara's dog and
another South American species, from at least two species of jackals, and perhaps
fi-om one or more extinct species. " Although it is possible or even probable
that domesticated dogs, introduced into any country and bred there for many
generations, might acquire some of the characters proper to the aljoriginal
Caniche of the country, we can hardly thus account for introduced dogs having
given rise to two breeds in the same country, resembling two of its aboriginal
species."

Mr. Bartlett, who is likewise a believer in the multiple origin of domestic dogs,
observes that " the fashion of hunting led, in all probability, to the sejjaration of
domestic dogs into two well-known breeds, viz., tho.9e that hunt by sight, as dis-
tinguished from those that hunt by scent ; for there can be no doubt that at a very
early period dogs were used in the chase of wild animals. . . . The usefulness of
dogs being established at a very early period would naturally lead to great care
being bestowed upon them, and doubtless to the breeding of them in a domestic

VOL, I. — -,t

514 CARNIVORES.

state. This would lead to the production of the many breeds and varieties that
have been developed, and these varieties may have been perpetuated by the mixing
and crossino- of breeds originally obtained from distinct wild animals."

With the extraordinary diversity existing among the ditlereut breeds of dogs,
it is impossible to give any general characters by which they can be collectively
distinouislied from the wild species, with the exception of the habit of barking,
which is common to most, although not all, of the former, and is unknown, naturally-,
in the latter. This characteristic will, however, distinguish other domesticated
breeds from the Eskimo dog. and also from the dingo. Very generally domestic
dogs have the habit of carrying the tail curled over the back, and thus markedly
difterent from the manner in which the straight " brush " of a wolf or a jackal is
borne. Then, again, the acquisition \>\ some domestic breeds of ilrooping eare is a
decided difference from aU their wUd relatives. And an equally well-marked
characteristic of many domestic breeds is the distribution of more or less brilliant
colours in patches, in whicli respect they are widely ditlei-ent from their wild ancestoi-s.

" Domestic dogs," observes Mr. Bartlett, '" exhibit many of the habits of wolves
and jackals, such as the scratching up of earth with the front-feet, and the pushing
back of it with the hind-feet, in order to cover up the droppings. Again, when
about to rest, the turning round two or three times with the object of forming a
hole in which to repose may be noticed in pet dogs about to lie down upon the
Iiearth-rug, which is a habit evidently acquii-ed b}' inheritance fi-om thjeir wild
ancestors."

That the dog was one of the eai-liest animals domesticated by man rests upon
abundant evidence. Summing up the evidence on this point, Darwin observes that
during the Roman classical perioil hounds, house-dogs, lap-dogs, and other breeds
were already well established, although it is in most cases impossible with any
certainty to recognise the greater number from their portraits. A fresco repre-
senting two greyliound puppies is. however, quite distinctive : and it appears
that the ancient Romans were accustomed to class their ditierent breeds into
house-dogs, sheep-dogs, and sporting dogs, the latter being again subdivided into
lighting dogs, hounds hunting by scent, and hounds hunting by sight (greyhounds).
An Assyrian monument with an assigned date of about B.C. 640 shows the figure
of a large mastiff; and Eg^-ptian monuments, ranging from about B.C. 3400 to
2100, exhibit numerous figures of dogs, most of which approach the greyhound
type. On one monument of the later of these two dates there is a dog resembling
a hound, with drooping ears, but with a longer back and more pointed muzzle
than those of modern hounds. There is also a shoi-t and crooked-legged dog with a
long body, which Darwin compares to a turnspit, although thinking it improbable
that this ancient race was the parent of the modern breed. The oldest dog
i-epresented on the Egj-ptian monuments is, however, one of the most peculiar,
resembling a greyhound in general form, but with long pointed ears, and a short
curled tail, a somewhat similar race of dogs still existing in Northern Africa, The
ancient Egj^tians had also a dog like the Indian pariah. " We thus see," observes
Darwin, " that at a period between four and five thousand yeai"s ago, various breeds,
viz., pariah dogs, greyhounds, conniion hounds, mastifts, house-dogs, lap-dogs, and
tui-nspits existed, more or less closely resembling our present breeds. But there is

DOMESTIC DOGS. 515

not sufficient evidence that any of these ancient dogs belonged to tiie same
identical subvarieties with our modern dogs." The record of the antiquity of
domesticated dogs does not, however, stop with the Egyptian monuments, for
there is evidence that several breeds existed during prehistoric periods, that is to
say, during the iron, bronze, and polished-stone epochs. Thus, in Denmark, there
was one race in the stone epoch, succeeded by a larger one in the bi'onze age, and
by a still larger breed in the newer iron age. Again, during the polished-stone
period in Switzerland, the inhabitants of that country had a medium-sized dog
which appears to have possessed characters common to hounds and setters, or
spaniels: its skull being markedly distinct from those of both the wolf and the
jackal. In the bronze period this lake-dog was succeeded by a larger kind,
probably very similar to the one we have already noticed as occurring in Denmark
during the same period. Remains of the lake-dog, together with those of two
other breeds, have been recognised from caverns on the Continent ; and Wiildrich
comes to the conclusion that the lake-dog was not derived from either the woll' or
the jackal Vmt fiom .some extinct species. If, then, we regai'd the lake-dog as in
any way related to our modern breeds, and also admit its descent from an earlier
extinct form, it will bu apparent how hopeless is the task of attempting to solve
the problem of the actual parentage of the dogs of the present day.

The number of varieties of domestic dogs was estimated by Fitzinger in 187(3
at no less than one hundred and eighty-five, which were groujjed in seven main
divisions. Mr. Harting considers, however, that the main groups may be reduced
to six, characterised to a certain extent by the form and size of their ears. These
groups are — (1) wolf-like dogs, (2) gi-eyhounds, (3) spaniels, (4) hounds, (5) mastiffs,
and (6) terriers. By intercrossing between various members of these different
groups he considers that all the existing breeds may have been produced. In the
case of the more important breeds this grouping will be followed so far as practic-
able, although it is frequently difficult to decide under which heading to place
many of the breeds produced by crossing members of different groups.

The most wolf-like of all the domestic breeds is the Eskimo doa:,
Eskiino Dog. . ^. .

figured on p. 511. With their small upright ears, nearly straight

bushy tails, moderately sharp muzzles, and rough coats, as well as in their general

build, so closely indeed do these dogs resemble wolves that a pack of them

has at lea.st on one occa.sion been actuall3' mistaken for such. These affinities

are further indicated bj- tliis dog's inability to bark ; and, as already mentioned,

it may be considered as merely a domesticated wolf. The Eskimo dog is found

throughout the greater part of the Arctic regions, and is absolutely essential to

the existence of the inhabitants of those dreary countries, as without its aid

they would be unable to make their migrations, or to transport the produce

of their sealing and fishing expeditions to their homes. Although differing

somewhat in colour, the Eskimo doos of Arctic America, Siberia, and Kamschatka,

all resemble one another very closely, and the description of those of one district

is equally applicable to those of another.

Many accounts of the habits and appearance of these animals have appeared,

but since many of these have been quoted we shall confine ourselves to certain

extracts from one of the most recent observers, Dr. Guillemard, who states that on

5i6 CARNIVORES.

one occasion he had an opportunity of seeing more than two hundred collected
together. " Most of them are wliite, with black heads, or entirely of a brown
black; and their general aspect, owing to the sharp muzzle and prick ears, is
decidedly wolf-like. The only food they are provided with by their masters is
salmon of the hump-backed kind : but during the summer they pick up game,
eggs, and birds in their wanderings about the country. They are usually
unspanned in teams of eight or ten, but where the sledges are heavy or the roads
bad, double that number, or even more are occasionally used. When the snow is
hard and even, they will draw a weight of 8G0 lbs. a distance of five-an<l-thirty or
forty miles with ease in a day's work ; and with an unloaded sledge, with a single
occupant, a pace of eight versts an hour can be kept up for a considerable time.
On the road they are gi\'en one-third of a tish twice during the day, and a fish and
a half at night, which they wash down with a few gulps of snow. . . . Each has a
name, which he answers to when he is driven in the sledge, just in the same
way as a Cape ox in a waggon team, for no whips are used. If chastisement be
necessary, the driver throws his stick at the delinquent, or pounds the unfortunate
creature with any stone that comes handy. There are many ways of tethering
these animals, all having in view the one object of keeping them apart, as, excepting
upon the road, they seize every opportunity of figliting. One method is by making
a large tripod of poles, and tying a dog at the bottom of each ; and iu many
villages, owing to the large number of dogs which have to be kept, these tripods
form a characteristic feature."

In another passage Dr. Guillemai'd comments upon the liardships to wliich
these animals have to submit. "No comfortable home is provided for him to
enable him to withstand tlie rigours of the Arctic climate, and the poor beast,
except when actually at M'ork, has, iu most cases, to ' find himself.' Long experi-
ence, and the instinct transmitted to him by his ancestors have, however, given
him all the resources of an old campaigner. Stumbling at night about the
uncertain paths of the settlements, the traveller is not unfrequently precipitated
into the huge rabbit-buiTOWS which the animal consti'ucts to avoid the cuttinsr
winds. His coat, nearly as thick as that of a bear, is composed of fur rather than
hair. . . . Wonderfully well-trained, cunning, and enduring, he is at the same time
often obstinate and unmanageable to a degree, and is apparently indifferent to the
kicks and blows so liberally showered upon him by his master. Excepting in
settlements where neighbouring stretches of tundra render the use of sledges
possible in summer, he has a long holiday during that season. During this time
he wanders over the country at will, sometimes returning at night to his burrow,
at others being absent for days together. A good hunter and fisherman, he
supports himself upon the game and salmon he catches, and it is but rarely that
he deserts his master for good. But the inhabitants have to pay a good price for
his services. Owing to his rapacity it is impossible to keep sheep, goats, or any of
the smaller domestic animals, and Kamschatka is one of the few countries in the
woi'ld in which fowls are unknown."

Hare Indian As already mentioned, the Hare Indian dog presents the same

Dog-. relationship to the coyote as is borne by the Eskimo dog to the

common wolf. This breed is found only in the region of the Great Bear Lake and

DOMESTIC DOGS.

517

the Mackenzie River, and is used for lumtiiig purposes by the Hare and some other
Indian tribes. Richardson states that the " Hare Indian dog has a mild counten-
ance, with at times an expression of demureness. It has a small head, slender
muzzle, erect thickish eare, somewhat oblitjue ej'es, rather slender legs, and a broad,
hairy tail, which it usually carries curled over its right hip. It is covered with long
hair, particularly about the shoulders; and at the roots of the hair, both on the body
and tail, there is thick wool. The hair on the top of the head is long, and on the
posterior part of the cheeks it is not oxAy long, but, being directed backwards, it gives
the animal, when the fur is in prime order, the appearance of having a ruff round

■;^^:^s^\j^=^

POMEKANIAS DOG (^ nat. Size).

the neck. Its face, muzzle, belly, and legs, are of a pure white colour, and there
is a white central line passing over the crown of the head and the occiput. The
anterior surface of the ear is white, the posterior yellowish grey or fawn-colour.
The end of the nose, the eyelashes, the " roof of the mouth, and part of the gums
are black. There is a dark patch over the eye. On the back and sides there are
larger patches of dark blackish grej^ or lead colour, mixed with fawn-colour and
white, not definite in fonn, but ranning into each other. The tail is bushy, white
beneath and at the tip. The feet are covered with hairs, which almost conceal the
claws." This dog, although of a playful and affectionate disposition, is not very
docile, and is impatient of all kinds of restraint. Its general voice is very like

3iS CARNIVORES

that of the coyote, but wlien it for the tii-st time sees any uew and startling object
it attempts a kind of bark.

Under the title of Pomeranian dog are included a large and a
' small variety, of which the latter is represented in the figure on the
preceding page. The Pomeranian may be i-egarded as the nearest ally of the
Eskimo dog, and is a middle-sized or small animal, of strong build, with a sharply-
pointed muzzle, upright and pointed ears, and a tliick bushy tail generally carried
curled over the back. The fur is long and coarse, and varies in colour from black
through grey, yellowish, and foxy-red to pure white : the darker varieties usualh'
have a lighter patch on the forehead, and also white marks on the feet. The larger
Pomeranian was formerly used as a wolf-dog, and should properly be of a pale
fawn-colour, without any aihnixture of white, and with black ' points. '

The smaller Pomeranian is a better-known animal, although it has the
disadvantage of being somewhat uncei-tain in temper. The spitz, as this variety
is often called, is employed as a sheep-dog in its native country, and is then
most esteemed when entirely black. There is, however, on the Continent on
almost complete transition from the pure black to the white spitz, which was
the one most commonly met with in England, till the black breed came into
fashion. A well-bred white spitz ought to have a black tip to the nose : and
in all ca.ses the ears should be perfectly upi-ight, without any tendency to fall
over at the tips. The heavily-furred curl}' tail is generally carried on the left
side of the body. The fur on the throat forms a thick frill or ruff, and there is
a considerable amount of long hair on the fore-legs. The face has only very
short hair.

Closely re.sembling the spitz in appearance is the Chinese sheep-dog, the

general colour of which is reddish, with a mixture of dark brown hairs in the

fur of the back, which gives it a somewhat speckled look.

The sheep-dog and its allv the Scotch collie depart more from
Sheep-Dog. . "

the wolf-like tj'pe than the species hitherto noticed, in having the

tips of the ears pendent. According to " Stonehenge," the old English sheep-dog
has a sharp muzzle, medium-sized head, with small and piercing eyes: a well-
shaped body, formed after the model of a strong low greyhound, but clothed in
long and somewhat thick and woolly hair, which is particularly strong about the
neck and bosom. The tail is naturall}^ strong and bushy. In almost all sheep-
dogs there is a double dew-claw on each hind-leg, and very often without any bony
attachment. The legs and feet are strong and well-formed, and stand road-work
well, and the untiring nature of the dog is very remarkable. The colour varies
greatly, but most are grey, or black, or bi-own, with more or less white. Many of
the sheep-dogs used in England have, however, been crossed with other breeds, and
thus depart more or less widely from the original tj'pe.

The sheep-dog of France and Gennanj' is very similar in general appearance to
the English breed, showing the same indifference to caresses and the same attention
to its particular business. Sheep-dogs commence their training during their fii-st
year, and learn their work with wonderful rapidity. On the Continent they are
emploj'ed not only in tending sheep, but likewise goats and cattle : but in England
the variety known as the drover's dog is more generally used for cattle herding.

DOMESTIC DOGS.

519

A handsoincr aniinal tlian the English sheep-dog is the Scotch
° '' collie, which lias the same mental characters, but differs somewhat in
external form and coloration. This dog has the same shai-p muzzle as its Englisli
cousin, hut a rather broader lieail, with a slight fall to the tips of the small ears.
The Ituild of the body is rather light and elegant ; and tiie hair with which it is
clothed is long and woolly, an<l stands out evenly on all side.s so as to form an
efficient protection from tlie extremes of climate to which the animal is exposed
in its nati\(; hill.s. The ruff on tlie neck is more developed than in the sheep-
dog, and imlced than in any otlier breed. The tail is very busliy, and is carried
witli the ti]) elevated, so as to keep its long haii-s free from the ground. in

BOUGH-COATED COLLIES.

the pure-bred animal there is a thick under-fur beneath the long hairs, and tlie
hind-legs should be quite free from any fringe of hair, although the fore-legs may have
a little fringe. The colour may be either black-and-tan, or either of these tints
alone, with a larger or smaller admixture of white ; but the black-and-tan appears
to be the most admired. The black is seldom very intense in tone, and the
tan has no tinge of the mahogany-red of the setter. The collie has been in-
troduced into England as a pet dog, and is often crossed with the black-and-tan
setter, so as to produce a breed which differs considerably from the original form
— notably in the silky hair, without under-fur, and the long fringes on both fore
and hind-legs. In some parts of the Scotti.sh Highlands, and likewise in the north
of Entrland. there is a .smaller and more slender variety known as the smooth collie.
Thi.s breed is characterised bv the smooth coat of short and stiff hairs, which

520 CARNIVORES.

are generally of a mottled-gi-ey colour, more or less mixed witli white, but maj-

be black-and-tan, or even tan-and-white.

All the breeds of sheep-dogs displaj^ their affinity to the wolf in their

elongated and narrow skulls, ^vith very long muzzles, and the profile of the face only

displaying a slight degree of concavity. The premolar' teeth are separated from

one another by distinct intervals ; and there is no tendency for the lower incisor

teeth to project bej^ond the line of those of the upper jaw.

The drover's dog varies considerably in different districts of
Drov6r's Dosr*

England, and is generally a cross between the sheep-dog and some

other breed. The size of these dogs is likewise very variable : and both this and

the general form appear to be modified by breedere according to the special needs

of the districts for which the animals are re(juired. Drovers' dogs genei-ally have

their tails cut short. Their esjjecial duty is to conduct flocks and herds from

one locality to another, and they are i-emarkably adept in separating the members

of the hci-d umler their own charge from those of any other herd wliich they maj'

meet during their journey.

A brief allusion mav be made here to those nondescript dogs

Pariah Dogs. , . ' . « _, P

found in troops in the towns and \-illages of Eastern Europe, Asia,
and Africa, and commonly designated pariah dogs. These animals vary greatlj'
in different districts, but many present a very wolfish appearance, and it is
probable that they often interbreed with the wolves and jackals of their respective
countries, while in India they may perhaps also cross with wild dogs. Originally,
however, these pariah tlogs were undoubtedly domesticated breeds, wliich, from
neglect, have reverted to a greater or lesser extent towards a wild state. The
pariah dogs of Eg3'pt appear to belong to a single race, and are of about the size
of a sheep-dog, but of a stouter build, with a broader head ; the tail being long
and generally bushy, and carried close to the grouml. The general colour of their
coarse rough hair is reddish brown, tending in some individuals more decidedly
to grey, and in others to yellow. Occasionally black or tawnj- individuals may
be observed. Their ears, are short, pointed, ami u.sually erect. They live a
perfectly independent life, generally frequenting the rubbish-mounds with which
the old Egyptian towns and \illages are surrounded, and passing the greater part
of the day in sleep, while toward.s evening they wake up and pi-epare themselves
for their nocturnal peregrination.s. Each dog possesses its own particular lair,
which is chosen with especial care : and frequently one dog will have two such
lairs, one of which is pccupied in the morning, and the other in the afternoon.
When, as is often the case, the mounds in the neighbourhood of Cairo, run nearly
north and south, so that both sides are equally exposed in winter to the cold
north wind, the dogs are careful to excavate a hole facing the south, in which
they may gain protection from the cutting blasts. In the morning the dogs will
be found lying in these lairs, M-hich have an easterly aspect, so that they may
receive the full benefit of the sun's rays ; towards ten or eleven o'clock, however,
these quarters become too hot to be pleasant, and they then shift to the west side
of the mound, or to some other shady spot where they may continue their .sleep.
When the sun reaches their lairs on the western side of the mounds the dogs
once more return to their morning haunts, where they remain till sunset.

DOMESTIC DOGS.

521

Pariah dogs in (3ther countries are very similar in manners to tiie above, but
in Constantinople and most Indian cities they liabitually frequent the streets, and
are as habitually ill-used by the passers-by. In Siam and some other Buddhist
countries they are, however, specially protected by the lamas, or priests, and are
allowed to use the temples as places of refuge: but the food supply of these
dogs is of the scantiest, and their appearance is consequentlj' miserable in the
extreme.
Engiisii Grey- With this breed we come to the first member of the second main

Hound. group of dogs, all of wliich are characterised by their long and
narrow muzzles, their .slight build, elongated limbs, and small eai-s, falling at the

\si<-*^ ^VJ;.N<^- ZJ^lt^

-^S^'-^--fxL~ s:--

EKGLISH GKEYHOUND (A uat. size).

tips ; but they differ greatly in the length of the hair. They are further characterised
by their habit of hunting either entirely or partially by sight, instead of hy scent.

The long slender skull of the greyhound points to close affinity with the
wolf, and this group of dogs is, tlierefore, placed here. The English greyhound,
which is of gi-eat antiquity, has indeed been i-egarded by some as the ancestral
stock of all our domestic breeds of dogs, but this is more than doubtful. It
maj- be so readily distinguished at a glance from all other dogs by its general
slender form, smooth hair, and rat like tail, coupled with its comparatively large

J,, CARNIVORES.

size, that no detailed description is necessary. The animal is, indeed, thoroughly
adapted for extreme speed, the long slender limbs, with their wire-like muscles,
giving the utmost possible length of stride, while the smooth coat, sharply-pointed
head, elongated neck, and thin tail are calculated to offer the least possible
resistance to the air. The long muzzle and neck are, moreover, necessary to enable
the greyhound to seize a small animal like a hare when ninuing at speed. We
mav further notice the gi-eat depth of the chest, calculated to aflbrd ample room
for the lungs, and the small size of the abdomen. The extremely attenuated
muzzle is of itself sufficient indication that the gi-eyhound cannot hunt .solely by
scent, as it is too small to contain space for the large extent of surface in the
cavity of the nose necessary in dogs that hunt in this manner.

At one period the greyhound became too weak in the jaws to kill its prey, but
this defect was remedied by crossing with the bull-dog, the bull-dog blood being
gradually eliminated until the proper combination of strength ^vith speed was
attained. The head of the present breed should be bi-oad and flat between the eai-s,
without that archine: characteristic of other bi-eeds of dogs. The eves should be
of the same colour as the coat : and the eai-s always now fall at the tip.s, although
there was an old-fashioned breed in which they were erect. The length of the
neck should be approximately equal to that of the head : although it is not very
easy to say in a living animal where the neck ends and the chest begins. Much
importance is attached by breeders to the formation of the fore-quarters of the
greyhound, the best strains having the shoulder-blades of great length, obliquely
placed, and well clothed with muscle, and likewi.se the upper ann (humerus) of
considerable relative length. Of not less importance is the conformation of the
hind-limbs, in which the upper and lower leg should be of great relative length,
so that the whole limb should be much bent at the junction of these two segments.
Then, again, the hind-limbs must be set rather wide apart at their lower
extremities, to allow of their being brought forward with the utmost celeritv in
running : while in the haunches the attention of the breeder is especialh" directed
to the development of sufficient width. That the foot-pads should be hard and
horny, to withstand the wear and tear of racing over hard and rough ground, is
self-evident, but there is some difference of opinion as to the precise form of foot
which is most desirable. The tail should be entirely devoid of anj' fringe of long
hairs, and, while thick at the root, should at first taper somewhat rapidly-, and
afterwards more gradually. It should hang close to the hind-quartei-s for the
greater part of its length, terminating in an upwardly -inclined curve, which
generally forms about three-fourths of a circle. Colour is regarded as of but minor
importance in determining the " points " of a greyhound. A uniform coloration,
such as sandy or slaty grej", is, however, generally preferred to a mixtui-e.
itauau Grey This is kept purely as a pet, and may be regarded as a miniature

Hound. Qf t^jjg English greyhound. Its proportions are most elegant, and its
speed considerable : but so delicately is it made that it is incapable of pulling down
even a rabbit. The muzzle and tail are relatively somewhat .shorter than in tlie
English greyhound : while the eyes are proportionately larger and softer. There
are several colours, among which a golden fawn is the most valued : next to this
comes a dove-coloured fawn, after which come cream-colour and the so-called

DOMESTIC DOGS.

523

blue-fawn. Tliere are also black, red, yellow, wliite, and parti-ccloured varieties,
several of which depend for their value ujxjn the colour of the muzzle. In the
uniforndy-coloured varieties there should not Ix^ a single spot of white.

IM

ITiLIAN GKEVUULNUS (J Hat. size).

Deerhound.

The Scotch deerhound, or rough greyhound, is larger and heavier
tlian the English greyhound, frequently standing as much as 28 inches
at the shoulder, while its weight may exceed 80 lbs., whereas that of the
English greyhound is seldom above 65 lbs. Tlie body is clothed with a
rough and rather shaggy coat of hair, the texture of which varies in different
breeds, being .sometimes as stiff as in the wire-liaired terriers, while in other cases
it is of a more silky and woolly nature. The legs should be devoid of a fi-inge of
hair; while the tail should likewise be comparatively smooth. The favourite
coloui-s in the Scotch deerhound are dark slaty grey, fawn, grizzled, or brindled.
White should be absent, although a small .spot on the forehead is not objected to.
When the fawn-coloured variety has the ears tipped with brown it is considered
perfect. The Scotch deerhound used to be emjiloyed both for deer-stalking and for
coursing ; and this different use has given rise to various strains of the breed.

The ancient wolf-dogs of Ireland formerly enjoyed a reputation

"^ ' for great power and strength and their prowess against wolves. The

original breed, or rather breeds, appear, however, to have completely died out, and

we are thus acquainted with these animals mainly by tradition and history,

although attempts have been made to reproduce them. It appears that there

524

CARNIVORES.

were formerly in Ireland two races of wolf-dogs, one of which was a greyhound
and the other a mastiff, somewhat resembling the gi-eat Dane : and it is shown
from an old tigure that there was also a cross breed between the gi-eyhound and
the mastitf-like dog, in which, however, the characteristics of the latter pre-
dominated. Skulls of these dogs have been discovered in various parts of Ireland,
which indicate animals of great size and power. Some of these, belonging to tlie
mastitf-like breed, are considerably larger than the skull of a German boarhound,
which stood 32^ inches at the shoulder.

other Grey- In Eastern Europe and Western Asia there are several well-

hounds, marked breeds of long-haired greyhounds or deerhounds differing
more or less markedly from one another, of which the Grecian, Persian, and

■^?e'«^'\-^-- NJX"

fEBSiAN GREVHOUSD (J nal. size).

Russian are the best known. The Grecian greyhound, which is used for coursing
hares and can run either by scent or by sight, diffei-s from the English greyhound
by its completely pendent eai-s, the moderately long and silky hair clothing the
body and the thickly-haired setter-like tail. The Albanian greyhound is a some-
what heavily-built animal, with finer hair on the body and longer and coarser hair
on the tail. Tlie Persians have long been celebrated for the excellence of their
greyhounds, which, although less fleet than the English breed, are used in relays for

DOMESTIC DOGS. 525

coursing gazelles, in which they are aided by falcons. They are likewise employed
in hunting the wild ass. The Persian greyhound differs from the Grecian in
having the ears fringed with long hair, in its more hairy nose, and also in the
greater development of the fringe of hair on the tail. The hair on the body is,
however, intermediate in length between that of the Grecian and English breeds.
The colour may be either uniform, or, as in our illustration, a mi.Kture of dark and
light. The Ru.ssian greyhound is powerfully-built, and of rather larger size than
his English cousin, being covered with a coarse woolly coat, and liaving fringed
ears and fore-legs, and a verj- thickl}--haired tail. It is comparatively slow in pace,
and hunts the wolves against which it is employed both by sight and scent.

Here may be mentioned the hairless dogs of Central Africa,
which closely resemble greyhounds in general appearance. These
dogs have long slender bodies, moderately elongated and thin necks, narrow and
pointed muzzles, tall foreheads, long tails and limbs, and no dew-claws on the hind-
feet. Their ears are pendent at the tips : and, like the body, are (juite devoid of
hair. Indeed, it is only in the neighbourhood of the tail, around the mouth, and on
the limbs, that there is any hair at all. They are employed in Africa for hunting
antelopes, and possess great .speed : but their hairless skin renders them unsuited to
live in any but the warmest climates. Other breeds of hairless dogs occur in China,
Central and South America, Manilla, and the Antilles and Bahamas.

The lurcher is a cross eithei- between tlie rough Scotcli greyhound

Iiiirc he f s

and the collie, or between the English greyliound and tlie siieep-dog, or

any pair of these four. Some lurchers are very hand.some animals, while others are
equally ugly. With these variations it is difficult to give any precise description
of the breed, which may, however, be roughly designated as a dog with the
general shape of a greyhound, combined with tiie stouter build, larger ears, and
rougher coat of the sheep-dog.

With the tield-spaniel, of which there are several varieties, we
reach the third division of domestic dogs, all of which are cliar-
acterised by their large pendent ears, comparativeh^ \\'iile heads, with moderate
muzzles, relatively short and stout limbs, thick and frequentl}- long hair, and
thickly-haired tails. Their skulls are distinguished from those of all the dogs yet
mentioned by their width and comparative shortness, this being especially notice-
able in the palate and lower jaw. The profile of the skull is also more markedly
concave, the brain case rising suddenly at the eyes, and thus indicating great
mental power. True spaniels, as their name denotes, are probably of Spanish
origin, and are divided into field and water-spaniels, in addition to which there
are the smaller breeds kept only as pets. Field-spaniels form some of the best
shooting dogs, and generally give notice of the proximity of game by their voice.
They are now divided into the Clumber, Sussex, Norfolk, and Cocker breeds.

The Clumber spaniel is distinguished by its silence when hunting : and is a
heavily-built animal, of comparatively large size, and soon tiring when at work.
The head is massive, with a deep furrow along the top, large flesh or liver-coloured
nostrils, large and generally hazel eyes, ami long ears shaped like a vine-leaf,
without a very long fringe of liair. In Ijuild the Clumber is long an'l low : the
length of the head and body being properly two and a half times the lieight. The

526

CARNIVORES.

hair of the body should be silky and of moderate length, with a slight wave, but
no curl ; its ground-colour being always white, with yellow or orange spots, the
lemon-yellow tint being preferred. The Susses spaniel, which has the ordinary
lobe-shaped ear and gives tongue when hunting, has a less heavy head than the

Clumber, and a
wavy coat of a
golden-liver colour,
without any ad-
mixture of white.
The Norfolk

spaniel is subject
to considerable
variation, and is
either liver-and-
white, or black-
and-white in its
colour. It (lifters
from the two pre-
ceding races by
the le.sser pro-
portionate length
of the bodj-, and
the longer fringe
of hair on the
ears, which frequently nearly touch the ground. Cockers are small spaniels, and
are now divided into Welsh and modern Cockei-s : the former being liver, or liver-
and-white, while the latter are larger and generally completely black. The head
is relatively long, the eyes are less full than in the other breeds ; and the coat is
soft, silky, and waved, with a considerable amount of fringe on the throat and
limbs.

The King Charles and Blenheim spaniels are much smaller animals, probably
derived from the Cocker. The King Charles is black-and-tan in colour, with a
larger or smaller admixture of white, and is characterised by the great length of
the ears. In both the muzzle is extremely short, with an upturned nose, while the
head is nearlv globular, and the ears should touch the ground. The coat should be
long, silky, and wavy, but devoid of curl ; while the eai-s, limbs, and feet should be
abundantly fringed.
Irish Water- The water-spaniels, of which the best-marked breed is the Irish,

Spaniel. .^j.g relatively large dogs, with broad splay feet, and a woolly, thickly-
matted, and often curlj- coat, which is more or less oily. The southern Irish water-
spaniel is characterised by the bare face and thiuh'-haired tail, the presence of a
chstinct " top-knot " on the crown of the head, the long curls round the legs, and
the thickh'-curling coat of the body and ears ; the colour being of a uniform puce
liver tint. The northern variety of the Irish water-spaniel has shorter ears, with
but little fringe, while the curls of the body hair are shorter and closer; the
colour being either liver or liver-and-white.

CLUMBER SP.VJTIEL.

DOMESTIC DOGS.

5^1

Setters.

The various breeds known as setters are large spaniels which have
acquired the habit of pointing at tlieir game. They derive their name
from havino- been oriirinallv tauyht to crouch down when markino; ofame, in order
to admit of the net with which the quarry was taken being readily drawn o\"er
them. With the use of guns this habit became, however, of no advantage, and
setters were taught to assume the attitude of pointers. At the present day there
are five chief breeds of setters, three of which are commonly seen in England.

The Enirlish setter, which is regarded as the result of a cross between tlie field-
spaniel and the pointer, should have a silky coat, with a slight wave, but no curl

IRISH SETTER (J iiat. size).

in the hair. The fore and hind-legs should be thinly fringed witli liair, wliile in
the tail the fringe of long hair .should fall regularly like the teetli of a comb,
without any signs of bushiness. In the middle of the tail the length of the fringe
should be from 6 to 7 inches in length, while at the point it should not exceed
half an inch. An abundance of hair between the toes is another "point" of
the setter. There is great variation in colour, which is valued according to the
following scale, viz. black-and-white ticked with large splashes, known as the
" blue Belton " : orange-and-white freckled, known as " orange Belton " : orange or
lemon-and-white without ticks: liver-and-white ticked: black-and-white with
slight tan markings: black-and-white: liver-and-white without ticks; pure white;
black : liver: red or yellow. The Irish setter is generally of a red colour without

528 CARNIVORES.

any trace of black, and little or no white ; but there i.s one strain characterised by
its red and white coloration. It is a rather more " leggy " ainmal than its English
cousin, with a narrower and rather longer head, more produced nose (of which
the colour is generally deep mahogany), and more tapering ears, which, when
extended, should reach nearly to the nose.

The Gordon, or black -and-tan setter, is now characterised by its mixture of jet-
black and mahogany-tan colours, although the original breed was black, tan, and
white. It is a heavier animal than either the English or Irish breeds, this
heaviness being specially shown in the head, which makes some approach to that
of the bloodhound. The nose is relatively Avide, and rarely shows the concave
profile of the English setter ; the tail is rather short : while the coat, although in
some strains silky, may be much coarser than in the other breeds. The Welsh
setter, which shows a great amount of variation in colour, is distinguished from the
preceding by its curly coat. Finally, the Russian setter, accoi-ding to " Stone-
lieuge," " is almo.st entirely conceale<l by a long woolly coat, which is matted together
in the most extraordinary manner, and which would lead to the supposition that
he woulil be unable to stand heat as well as our earlj^ settei-s; but, on the contrary,
he bears it almost like a pointer."

This name is applied to large dogs employed for retrieving game
on land, in contradistinction to the water-spaniels which are used for
the same purpose in water. These dogs have more or less Newfoundland blood in
them, and trace their othev parentage to the water-spaniel or setter. The curly-
coated retriever, which may be either black or tan, is the product of a crass
between the smaller black Newfoundland and the water-spaniel. It is characterised
by the short hair of the face, and the tail devoid of any fringe, although covered
to within a few inches of its extremit}^ with short cri.sp curls. The hair on the
body is closely and crisply curled. The wavy-coated retriever vobx be either a
pure-bred small black Newfoundland, or a cross between it and the setter.

The Newfoundland dog, of which there are three distinct breeds,
Newfoundland. .

IS regarded as nothing more than a large spaniel, and its general fonn

and the facility with which it may be crossed with spaniels and setters seem to

fully bear out this view. The especial characteristic of the Newfoundland is its

well-known fearlessness of water, and the readiness with which it Mill risk its own

life to rescue human beings from drowning. The true Newfoundland, as represented

in our illustration, is the largest breed, and should stand from 25 to 30 or 31

inches in height at the shoulder. The coat should be shaggy and somewhat oily,

and the tail long and bushy and slightly curled on one side ; the colour black,

with or without some admixture of white; the .specimens with the least wliite

being the most admired. Sometimes the black has a rusty tinge. The head in the

best-bred animals is large and broad, and nearly flat on the top, with a well-marked

ridge at the eyes : while the expression of the countenance conveys a look of

grandeur and intelligence without fierceness. The muzzle is relatively wide, and

clothed with short hair : while the skin on the forehead should show some slight

wrinkles. Both the ears and eyes are relatively small : the former being covered

with short hairs, which become slightly longer at the edges : while the latter should

be brown in colour and mild in expression. The neck has no distinct frill : while

DOMESTIC DOGS.

529

the fore-legs should be fringed above, but nearly smooth below. The feet, although
necessarily large, should be compact so as not to spread out under the weight of
the body. The Landseer Newfoundland, said to be vniknown in the island from
which these dogs take their name, diiiers from the preceding in its looser build,
less noble appearance, more woolly coat, and by the ground-colour being white,
upon which are black sjjots. The smaller black Newfoundland, also known as the
St. John's Newfoundland, or Labrador dog, is inferior iu size to the Newfoundland,
standing not more than 22 or 28 inches in height, and having a relatively smaller

St. Bernards.

NEWFOUNDLAND DOG (j^, nat. size;.

and less massive head. Its coat is ujoderatelj- short and wavy, without anj-
under-fur, and should be entirely black, although there may be a white spot on the
forehead or a white toe. The fore-legs are fringed with long hair down to
the feet.

Tlie magnificent dogs, taking their name from the monastery of
Mount St. Bernard, and formerly unknown beyond the Alps and
adjacent regions, are remarkable for their high intelligence, and are used in the
Alps for rescuing travellers lost in the snow. In size they attain dimensions only
equalled by those of the great Dane, and are larger than anj^ wild member of the
family. A very large St. Bernard, known as "Young Plinlimmon," measures
upwards of G8i inches from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail ; while others
are known which measured respectively 64, 63, and GO inches. These dogs are
VOL. I.— 34

53°

CARNIVORES.

divided into rough and smooth St. Bernards, according to the length of the hair ;
our illustration representing a specimen of tlie rough-haired breed. The rough
St. Bernard has the coat of the body long and wavy, with the tail veiy bushj-, and
the fringe on the fore-legs comparativ^ely small. There is great variety in colour ;
one strain being a rich orange-tawny mixed with brown, others are red-and-wliite,
others, again, brindled or fawn, or those coloui-s more or less mixed with white,
while some may be almost white. The head is large, with a higher elevation at
the eyes than in the Newfoundland, and the muzzle rather long and squared, with

KOLGH al. BEHNARD (j^j Uat. size).

slightly pendulous lips. The eai-s are relatively small, and their hair should be
rather rougher than that of the body. The eyes are full but deeply set. The feet
are very large, apparently for the purpose of supporting the animal in the snows
of its native home, and may be furnished with double dew-claws. The smooth St.
Bernard differs mainly from the rough breed by its nearly smooth coat : the tail being
comparativelj' thin, and the legs and eare entirely free fi-om any fringes of hair.

The bloodhound is our first representative of the fourth division
of domestic dogs, which includes the pointer, and all those usually
denominated hounds. All are characterised by their large drooping ears; and
most of them by their smooth coats, and the absence of any fnnge of hair on

Bloodhound.

DOMESTIC DOGS.

531

the ears and legs ; while the tail is mostly but thinly fringed. The profile of
the face is but slightly concave, and the muzzle relatively long and deep, with a
more or less marked overlapping of the upper lip. With the exception of the
pointer, they hunt by " foot-scent."

The most sti-iking and characteristic feature of the bloodhound is its magni-
ficent head, which is considerably larger and heavier in the male than in the
female. While generally extremely massive, the head is remarkable for its
narrowness between the ears, where it rises into a dome-like prominence, termin-
ating in a marked protuberance in the occipital region. The skin of the forehead,
like that round the ej'es, is thrown into a series of transverse puckers, as is well
shown in the recumbent figure of our illustration. The long and tapering jaws are

BLOODHOOSDS (j'j nat. size).

of great depth but relatively narrow, and abruptly truncated in front ; while the
upper lips are pendulous. The large and thin ears should hang close to the
cheeks ; and the small and deeply-sunk hazel eyes are characterised by the
exposure of a considerable part of the membrane of the socket, which is generally
red, and is technically known as the Imw. The throat is heavy, and passes down-
wards into a more or less well-marked dew-lap. In the English breed the tail is
slightly fringed with hair, although in our figured example it is quite smooth ; it
should be carried in a curve, but not raised above a right angle with the line of
the back. The short coat should be coarse and hard on the back and sides, but
soft and silky on the head and ears. The most esteemed coloration is black-and-
tan, but tlie animal may be all tan ; tlie presence of white being a blemish. Our
illustration is taken from a foreign strain of the bloodhound, which is lower on its
legs than the English breed.

532 CARNIVORES.

English hounds are descended from two extinct breeds, respect-
ag oun . j^,g2y ]jj^o-mi as the southern hound and the northern hound. Both
of these were large heavily-built animals, with thick throats, distinct dew-laps, and
large pendent ears resembling those of the bloodhound. Thej^ were slow in pace,
and dwelt upon the scent more than their modem descendants. The time English
staghound was a considerabh" larger animal than the foxhound, with a relativelj-
broader and shorter head, and a more thickly-fringed tail, and was also distinguished
by several points in the confomiation of the limbs. The large foxhounds now used

Foxhound.

STAGHOCXDS AFTER A CHASE (^ Uat. size).

for stag-hunting in England stand about 25 inches high in the males, and from 23
to 23J inches in the females.

The modern foxhound, derived from either the old southern or
northern hound, with perhaps some cross of a different breed, is
remarkable for the combination of speed and endurance which it possesses, and is
thus an excellent instance of the results which can be attained by breeding with a
particular end in view. The appearance of the foxhound is much modified by the
artificial rounding of the ears — a process in which a large portion of the extremity
of the lobe is cut away in order to prevent its becoming entangled in bushes. The
coat should be short and hard, but at the same time glossj' : the tail having a

DOMESTIC DOGS.

533

distinct fringe of hair on its under surface. Tlie favourite, or true hound colour,
is black, white, and tan ; but there are also several " pies " in which the respective
colours are blended with white ; while whole colours, or black-and-tan only, are
not unknown. The endurance and speed of the modern foxhound is fully attested
in numerous works on sport, and will not, therefore, be further mentioned here.
'■ Stonehenge "' observes that a peculiar " faculty in which the hound ditt'ers from
his congeners is a mental one, leading him always, when he loses scent of his
quarry, to cast forward rather than backward, and to do this with a " dash "

FOXHOUNDS IN FULL CRY (J nat. size).

altogether unlike the slow and careful quest of the bloodhound. This, of course,
may be overdone, and in that case the hound constantly overruns the scent ; but
without it in these days few foxes would be killed, for unless they are hard pressed
the scent soon fails and is altogether lost." For ordinary country the male fox-
hound, such as shown on p. 576, should average 24 inches, and the female 22 i
inches in height ; but in hilly districts smaller hounds are preferred.

This is a breed of hound trained to hunt hares instead of foxes,

^^^^^' and intermediate in point of size between the foxliound and beagle.

Pure-bred harriers, probably descended from the old Southern hound, are to be met

with in Wales, but many of those used in England are crossed with the foxhound.

534

CARNIVORES.

Otterbound.

■while in some cases a small breed of foxhounds is employed in hare-hunting.
Owino- to the aVjsence of the practice of " cropping," harriers may be distinguished
from foxhounds by their larger and pointed ears : and they generally have longer
and narrower heads, with a deeper hollow under the somewhat fuller eye. The
height generally varies from 1(3 to a little below 20 inches. The colours and
general points are the same as those of foxhounds. A rough breed of Welsh
harriers is practically indistinguishable from the otterhound. Harriei-s work more
slowlv than foxhounds, dwelling more on the scent and tending to cast backwards
rather than forwards when they come to a check.

This breed so closely resembles a lai-ge rough Welsh harrier that
it requires an expert to distinguish between the two ; such diflference
as there is existing in the nature of the coat and the form of the feet. Thus the

feet, instead of
having the neat
cat-like form of
those of the har-
riers, are bi'oad
and splay; while
the coat is fur-
nished with a
thick w o o 1 1 A'
under-fur of an
oily nature.
Probably owing
to having to con-
tend with such a
fierce animal as
the otter, the
otterhound is of a
savage and quar-
relsome disposi-
tion, and is verj^
apt to engage in internecine conflicts with its fellow -occupants of the kennel. Otter-
hunting is a favourite sport in the West of England, Devonshire alone possessing
four jjacks, one of which in the summer of 1892 killed three otters in a single
In some cases foxhounds are employed for otter-hunting.

This term is generally applied to any hound standing less than
16 inches in height, although the true pure-bred beagle is a distinct
breed, wliich may be regarded as a miniature of the old southern hound. In build
the ordinary beagle is rather short in the limbs and long in the body, with a
relatively wide and somewhat dome-shaped head and a short nose. The throat is
likewise rather short and thick, and the older breeds used to have a tendency to a
dew-lap. The ears are full and hang in folds. Beagles may vary in height from
about 15 to 10 or 9 inches; but from 11 to 12 inches is esteemed the best. They
are used in hunting both hares and rabbits. The beagle has a remarkably musical
note and an exquisite sense of scent, as well as great perseverance in following a

THE OTTEHHOLXD.

morning.
Beagle.

DOMESTIC DOGS.

535

trail. From its small size, short legs, and ratlier heavy build, it is, however,
necessarily slow. In hunting, beagles follow all the windings of the hare, and for
the first part of the chase are far behind their quarr\-. Their perseverance is,

Turnspit.

THE BEAGLE (^ uat. size).

however, generally successful in the end ; and there is no prettier sight for the
lovers of sport than to watch a well-trained pack of beagles at work.

With the cessation of its monotonous occupation has been

brought to pass the practical extinction of the old English turnspit.
These dogs were long-bodied, short-limbed animals, with the fore-feet everted,
and were closely allied to the dachshund ; but diftered in being relatively taller,
with a longer head, longer nose, straighter forehead, less bent fore-limbs, and a
longer and thinner tail ; the ears being small and placed relatively far back. In
colour, the turnspit was generally black -and-tan. These dogs performed their task
in a kind of wire barrel, somewhat like that in a .squirrel-cage ; and in England
two of them were generally kept, which worked turn-and-turn.

Under the title of dachshund, or badger-dog, the Germans include

two distinct strains of long-bodied dogs with short and crooked legs,
one of which presents these characters in a less marked degree than the other, and
has also relatively larger ears. The breed figured in our illusti-ation has a long
cylinder-like body, supported on short and bent legs, the head and muzzle large, the
drooping ears also large, the paws of great size and furnished with sharp claws, and
the coat short and smooth. The fore-feet are markedly turned outwards, and the
hind-feet have large dew-claws ; while the tail is thick at the root, from which it
rapidly tapers to the end, without any fringe. The colour varies, but is generally
black-and-tan, although not unfrequently either tan or yellowish, and sometimes

Dachshund.

536

CARNIVORES.

grey or parti-coloured. The second variety has a still longer body, and shorter and
more bent legs than the preceding form, from which it is likewise distinguished b}-
its smaller ears and shorter tail. The ear is set further back than in any other
dog, its front border being scarcely in advance of the line of junction of the head
with the neck. The tail should be carried over the back, and the smooth and
glossy coat hard and wiry, except on the ears, where it becomes silky. Black-and-
tan are the favourite colours in this breed ; but whole tan, with a black nose,
occupies the second place in the estimation of fanciers.

Dachshunds are used in their native country chiefly for hunting badgers, which
are numerous in some districts. The strain with the longest body and the shortest
legs is employed for digging the badgere out of their holes, while the other is
used in the chase. From their small size and short limbs dachshunds are, of
course, extremely slow, but they have a keen scent, coupled with great perseverance

THE DACHSHUND (J Hat. size).

and endurance, and therefore make admirable hounds. From its .somewhat
squeakj' voice the dachshund has been regarded as moi-e nearly related to the
terriers than the hounds, but there is no doubt that its place is among the latter.
In addition to badger-hunting, dachshunds are also employed in Gei-many in fox-
hunting, as well as in driving game, more especially roe-deer, which require to
be driven with great care and quietness in order to prevent them breaking back
through the line of beaters.

That the various breeds of pointei-s are descended from the hound
was first clearly indicated by Youatt. The disposition to "point"
appears to be due to the results of training ; and although other dogs have been
taught to point, in no case do they assume the rigid condition so especially
characteristic of the pointer. Indeed, in some of the old Spanish and French
pointers, so intensely was this characteristic developed that the animals assumed a
kind of cataleptic condition : and " Stonehenge" mentions that he has known some
of them remain on the " point " for hours, until absolutely exhausted. Moreover,
such dogs would frequently make " points " at imaginary game.

Pointer.

DOMESTIC DOGS.

537

The pointer differs from the hounds in hunting by " bodj^-scent " instead of
by " foot-scent." The most ancient breed appears to have been the old Spanisli
pointer, wliich stood relatively high on the legs, and had a heavy clumsy head,
with a long, wide, and squared nose, pendulous upper lips, with ears nearly as large
as those of the bloodhound, and a massive throat and distinct dewlap. This
pointer was of a surly disposition, slow in pace, and apt to give chase to hares.
His redeeming point was, however, his marvellous perception of scent, and the
persevei-ance with which he would work his game. The Portuguese pointer is of
rather shorter build, with badly-formed legs and feet, and a long and fully-fringed
tail, and displays the same faults of character as the Spanish breed. The French
pointer is distinguished by the presence of a furrow between the nostrils, which
rendei-s its sense of sm^U less acute. It is, however, a better shaped and more
active dog than either
of the two preceding ^_^ ^ ^

breeds, with more
power for hard work,
but quarrelsome and
given to hare-chas-
ing. The modem
English pointer is
the lightest and best-
sliaped dog of the
whole group, and is
lielieved to liave been
tlerived from the
Spanish breed, with
some intercrossing
either directly with
the greyhound or in-
directly through the
foxhound.

This breed is characterised by its compact and well-knit build, sloping
shoulders, straiglit muscular limbs, and spirited action. The head is still
relatively large, but the pendulous upper lips, dewlap, and the heaviness of
the throat have been lost. The nose should be long, broad, and square in
front. The eyes are moderately large, soft, and intelligent, the colour varj^ing
from buff to dark brown. A peculiarly roundeil outline on the upper side of
the neck marks the well-bred pointer, which can hardly be desci-ibed in words.
The tail is as straight as possible, with no trace of a fringe, sharplj^ pointed at
the end, and carried low. The coat is soft, although not silky. With regard to
coloui-, there are two strains, distinguished as the " lemon- and - whi te " and the
"liver -and -white," which are the most numerous and the most esteemed: in
addition to which there are entirely black and entirely liver-coloured pointers,
the latter being verj^ rare. There are also black-and-white, and black, white,
and tan varieties ; a dog with much white being preferred, in order that he may
readilj" be seen among turnips. There has been much rivalry as to the merits of

E.NCLISH HJlMtli.

538 CARNIVORES.

the lemon-and-white and liver-and-white pointers; the one stram being in the
ascendant at one time and tlie other at another. In tlie best-bred jiointers the
head should be carried high when at work ; animals which have too much of the
foxhound in their blood carrying the head dowTi, and seeking after a " foot-scent,"
instead of trusting entirely to the " body-scent/' while their tails are not cai-ried in
the orthodox rigid position.

The Dalmatian, coach, spotted, or " plum-pudding dog," is prob-
' ably allied to the pointer and hounds, although there have been
suggestions of its affinity to the great Dane. It is distinguished by its dark spots,
which are by preference jet-black on a white ground. In the modem breed these
spots are large and evenly distributed, varying in size from that of a shilling to
that of a half-crown : but in the older breed they were much smaller, and more
like the " ticks " or iiecks of the pointer. As being in England essentially a
carriage-dog, next to the regularity of its spots attention is directed to the perfect
development of the limbs. In its native country the Dalmatian dog is employed as
a pointer, and is said to stand well to game.

With the mastiff we arrive at the fifth division of domestic dogs,
characterised by the more or less shortened muzzle, in which the
lower jaw frequently projects be^'ond the upper, while the skull is greatly elevated
above the eyes by the enlargement of the air-cells in the frontal bones. The
typical forms are of large size and powerful build, with either pendent or erect ears,
pendulous lips, and generallj' short coats and thin tails. They are used chiefly as
watch-dogs, or for fighting. Of the true mastiffs there are two breeds, the English
and the Cuban. The modern English mastiff is a powerful dog of large size,
which, when pure bred, is distinguished by its fully pendent ear.s. The head is
relatively larger, and the body less massive than in the bull-dog ; the head showing
a slight furrow down the middle, and the body having a slight bend. In height
the male should not fall below 29 inches, while the female should reach at least 27
inches. The coat is fine and soft, but may become rather rough on the tail. The
colour most esteemed is either a stone-fawn with black "points," or a brindle,
without any admixture of white ; but red mastiffs are not unknown.

This dog is distinguished by its hideous appearance, its ferocity,
and its low degree of intelligence. Its head should be square in
shape, and as wide as possible, while the skin on the forehead should be well
wrinkled. The indentation between the eyes, technically known as the " stop,"
should be of great depth and size ; while the eyes should be dark, rather prominent,
far apart, and set horizontally. The ears, which vary somewhat in shape, are
required to be small, and placed high on the head, although not at its summit.
Breeders also attach importance to the shortness of the upper as compai-ed with
the lower jaw, this being an essential feature when the dog has to seize large
animals. Needless to say, the tusks should be large and powerful, and the incisor
teeth ought to form a i-egular series. The shape of the bodj^ and limbs is
admirably adapted for the attainment of the maximum strength and power. A
male should not exceed 50 lbs. in weight, while the female should scale about 10 lbs.
less. The coat should be close and fine, the favourite colours being either pure
white, or white marked with brindle, fallow, or red ; while uniformly coloured

DOMESTIC DOGS.

539

brindle, fallow, or red dogs come next in estimation. Eutirel}^ black or black-and-
white bull-dogs are less valued.

Bull-Terrier.

THE BULL-DOG (J Dat. size). ,

This breed, as its name implies, is a cross between the bull-dog
and the smooth terrier : but it varies in form and size according to
the amount of bull or terrier blood. The jaws must be long and powerful, and the
liollow between the eyes of the bull-dog should be quite eliminated, while tlie
profile should be nearly straight. The coat should be short, firm, and close, and,
in a perfect animal, should be milky-white throughout, the nose being black. The
worst point about a bull-terrier is its quai-relsome disposition, which is rendered
all the more objectionable bj^ its courage and strength.

The German boarhound, together with the variety known as the
great Dane, is the largest European representative of the mastiff
group. These dogs have long been bred in Germany and Denmark, although
but comparatively recently introduced into England. In their native countries
they were originally used for boar or deer-liunting, but are now more often
employed as watch-dogs. There is considerable variation in these dogs, and it is
difficult to determine which is the true breed. " Stonehenge " regards the boarhound
and the great Dane as in all respects identical, but Brehm considers them distinct,
and is of opinion that while the German boarhound is a pure-bred animal, the
great Dane is a cross between the bull-dog and the greyhound. The great Dane,

Boaxhound.

540

CARNIVORES.

according to Brehm's description, is a magnificently-proportioned animal, with
slender limbs, rather pointed muzzle, slender tail, and large full eyes. It is
generally either yellow-and-black, or j-ellow in colour, and even in its native
country is a comparatively rare breed. The ears ai'e always cropped, and thus
lose their pendent tips. It was formerly used in deer-hunting. The boarhound
is a shorter-haired and thicker-muzzled dog, with a proportionately shorter and

GERMAN BOARHOUNOS {f, nat. size).

thinner tail. The colour is generally black, light or dark grey, brown or yellow,
the light shades being often brindled. There ai-e often white spots on the chest,
and one or more white toes in the lighter-coloured examples. An unusually large
dog measured upwards of 35 i inches in height at the slioulder, when in his third
year. In the Black Forest these dogs are still used in boar-hunting.

The curly-tailed pug-dog, which is a diminutive member of the
mastiff group, is kept solely as a pet, and has suttered considerably
from the caprice of fashion in England, where it was much esteemed in the last

Pugs.

DOMESTIC DOGS.

541

century, until it was sufi'ered to fall into the neglect from which it was recently
resuscitated. The colour is either yellow or stone-fawn, with black " points " ;
these black points comprising the face and ears, an area under the tail, and
a more or less well-marked streak down the back, which, in the so-called
Willoughb}' pug, is most esteemed when it spreads out into a saddle-shaped patch.
The coat should be soft, short, and glos.sy, except on the tail, where it should be

■^ '

■ 1

: '■

M

PET PUGS (S nat. SlZl;.

rougher ; the tail itself being tightly curled, so as to lie on one side of the back,
with rather more than one complete turn. The head is rounded, and second only
in relative size to that of the bull-dog, with a short but not retreating face.
The black ears should be short, and shaped like a vine-leaf ; the teeth even ; and
the dark brown eyes full and soft. The body is thick and " punchy," with a
very loose skin ; and the legs should be straight, with small bones, narrow feet,
and dark nails, without any white on the toes. A black mole on each cheek, with
several long hairs growing from it, is also considered an essential point in a pug.

The Chinese, or, as it is often incorrectly called from being imported into
Japan and thence brought to Europe, the Japanese pug, is a still more extraordinary

542

CARNIVORES.

animal, exhibiting a kind of degradation from overbreeding. One of these brought
to England about 1867 was a slender-legged animal with very long hair, and the
bushy tail closely curled over its back. The face was extremely short, and tlie jaws
very feeble, with only a single pair of incisor teeth in the lower one. This pug
lived chiefly on vegetables, and exhibited a special partiality for cucumbers.

This dog is a magnificent animal, usually placed among tlie
mastifts, with which it agi-ees in the general physiognomy, and
especially the large pendulous upper lips, or " flews," as they ai'e technically
termed. It differs, however, from all other members of the group by its coat of long

Tibet Dog.

TIBET DOG (^ nat. size).

shaggy hair, witli a thick umlei
the back. The de\'elopment of
character due to the nature of
native. Tlie expression of the
siniken eyes, overhanging eyebr
forehead and cheeks is thrown,
ment of hair is on the throat
entirely black, black-and-tan, or
European dogs.

-fur, and the large bushy tail, carried curled over
this thick pelage is, however, probably an adaptive
the winter climate of the regions of which it is a
countenance is stern and fierce, from the deeply-
ows, and the deep folds into which the skin of the
The ears are pendent ; and ' the greatest develop-
and chest. In colour these dogs may be either
tan ; and in size they are fully equal to the largest

The Tibet dog is used as a watch-dog in the villages and encampments in the

DOMESTIC DOGS. 543

Highlands of Tibet and the neighbouring regions, extending westwards into
Ladak, and southwards into Sikhim. It is iuvahiable in protecting the flocks
from the inroads of wolves and wild dogs. On reaching a Tibetan village or
encampment in the higher regions of Ladak, the traveller is assailed by the
baying of at least half a dozen of these dogs, and until they are leisurely called
off by the women the sensations of the visitor, as the writer knows by experience,
are sometimes the reverse of pleasant. In the more eastern portions of its range
the Tibet dog, in common with sheep and goats, is pressed into service as a
beast of burden.

With the fox-terrier we reach the last group of dogs, which
includes the terriers, the poodle, and a few other species. All
terriers have moderately short and highlj'-arched skulls, in which the elevation is
mainly due to the large size of the brain-case, and consequenth' indicates a high
degree of intelligence, the jaws being generally rather short, as well shown in the
portrait of " Spot " which faces our li.st of contents.

The smooth fox-terrier was formerly used for unearthing foxes, two of these
animals being attached to every pack of hounds ; but is now one of the most
favoured breeds of companionable dogs. It should have a hard, tliick, and glossy
coat, of a pure white ground-colour, more or less fully marked with black-and-tan,
black, or lemon colour, liver-coloured markings being objected to. The " ti-ue
hound colour," that is white and black-and-tan, is the mo.st esteemed ; and it is
considered that this t^-pe of coloi'ation has been produced by a cross with either
the black-and-tan terrier or the beagle. There has been much discussion as to
the advisability of a strain of bull-dog blood in the smooth fox-terrier: such
strain showing itself by a tendencj' for the lower jaw to be " underhung," and
also an unusual massiveness of the jaw muscles. The weight may vary from
15 or 16 to 20 lbs. In a pure-bred animal the head should be flat and rather
narrow, tapering from the eai-s to the muzzle, with a slight hollow in front of the
eyes, but none between them. The jaws should be long and tapering, with a
moderate prominence of the masseter muscle ; and the nose mu.st be black. The
eyes are small, without prominence ; and the ears likewise small, in shape
resembling the letter V, and set close to the cheeks, with their points directed
forwards and downwards.

The rough fox-terrier came into popular favour at a later date than
tlie smooth breed, although it had been bred for many years in the west of
England. " Stonehenge " observes that it " may be regarded in all respects as
similar to liis smooth brother, with the exception of his coat, which on the body
and legs should be about twice the length of that on the smooth dog, with the
addition of a thick under-pile of a woolly nature, and furnished, like that of the
otterhound, with a certain amount of oil, so as to resist the action of the water."

The rough Irish terrier, wliich seems of late years to have
replaced • the old Scotch terrier, is a rather large dog, varjang in
weight from 17 to 25 lbs., with a hard, rough, and wiry coat, having no tendency
to curl. The most admired colour is bright reddish-bay, usually termed " red," but
it may vary through ditl'erent shades of brown and yellow to grej'. The tail is
generallj' cut, but if kept entire should curve. Great importance is attached to

544

CARNIVORES

the form of the head, which should be long and rather narrow, without any
wrinkles or hollow between the eyes. When uncut, the ears should be small,
filbert-shaped, and lyincr close to the head : without any fringe of hair, and rather

.;^,ii';-*>;;is»*»;iii;vV^i^i-'^?^

WELSH TERRIERS (J nat. slze).

Skye Terrier.

darker in colour than the head. The small eyes should be hazel, and the nose
black. The rough terriers, figured in the illustration, belong to a breed known as
the Welsh terrier.

Very different to either of the above is the long-bodied, short-
legged, and long-haired Skye terrier, of which there are two distinct
breeds, distinguished by the form of their eai's and the proportionate length of
the body. The first of these is the drop-eared or .smooth Skye, in which the eai-s
are pendent, and the body almost or quite as long proportionately as in the
dachshund : the length of the animal, from the tip of the nose to the end of the
tail, being in perfect specimens as much as three and a half times the height. The
coat should nearly touch the ground, and almost conceal the shape of the body ;
the long hair being straight, coarse, and shiny, and naturally parting down the
middle of the back, while beneath this there is a thick, woolly under-fur. The
most approved colours are " blue," black, or grizzle, next to which comes silver-
grey with the hairs tipped with brown, and then fa^vn with the tips of the haii-s

DOMESTIC DOGS.

545

also brown. The long hair makes the head appear larger than it really is. It

should be rather narrow, and nearly flat at the top, with little or no elevation at

the eyes. The nose and the roof of the mouth must be black or dark brown, and

the ears should be about 3 inches in length. The latter should have very lono-

hair, which, together with the long hair of the eyebrows and cheeks, should fall

over the eyes. The height of the Skye terrier varies from 9 to 10 inches ; the

length in the former case varying from about 30 to 33 inches. The prick-eared

Skye is a shorter-bodied dog, with a larger and squarer head, a rougher coat, and

large, pointed, erect ears, terminating in a distinct tuft.

Much alteration has ensued in the appearance of the Skve terrier.
Oaudie Dinmont. ,,n ,.111 it

through the fancy of bi-eeders, but the modification is not near so

great as that which has taken place in the Dandle Dinmont, whose height now
varies from 8 to 11 inches at the shoulder, and weight from 14 to 24 lbs. The hair
on the top of the head is soft and silky, while that on the jaws is harder and
darker. Tiie upper-surface of the tail has wiry hair of a darker tint than that of
the body, while below it is softer and lighter in colour. The ears terminate in a
distinct point of hair. The prevailing colour is either " blue " or " mustard," but in
the former case the hair on the fore-k'gs and feet should vary from tan to fawn,
while in the latter they should be darker than the creamy-white head. The ears
vary from brown to black, and the eyes are hazel.

Yorkshire The last of the long-haired terriers that we shall mention is the

Temer. Yorkshire or Halifax terrier. This is a small breed, readily dis-
tinguished by the
enormous length of
the long and silky
hair, especially on
the face. On the
body the length of
the hair is about
3 or 4 inches, while
on the face it
reaches as much as
6 or 7, and thus
communicates a
most grotesque ap-
pearance. The
colour on the upper-
parts is a grizzled
" blue," owing to
the mixture of dark
with light hairs,
while tan occupies
the same parts as in the black-and-tan terrier.

Under the title of English terriers may be included the short-
haired dogs commonly known as the black-and-tan terrier, with its
diminutive representatives the toy terrier and the white terrier. The black-and-

TORKSHIHE TERRIER.

English Terrier.

VOL. I.-

546

CARNIVORES.

SMOOTH AXD ROriiH TEHRIERS.

tan, or Manchester terrier, is too well known to require any description. It is of
about the sanae average size as the fox-terrier, varying in weight from some 10
or 12 to as much as 18 lbs. Especial attention is paid to the coloration of this
terrier, the black being required to be of jetty fulness, and sharply defined from

the tan, which
j|,,|j^';:;lji;'!j|'.''|p,':..,,.,;,..iii!ii,.,.,.| _ should be of a rich

L=^ mahogany. The tan

should occupy a spot
over each ej'e, and
another on the
cheek, as well as
the sides of the
jaws backwards to
the lower parts of
the cheeks, ending
on the throat. It
should also occupy
all the under-parts,
the inner sides of
the ears, a spot on
each side of the
chest, the whole of
the inner sides of
the limbs, their outer sides as far as the wrist and ankle-joints, and the whole of
the feet, with the exception of a narrow line of black along each toe. The black-
and-tan toj' terrier is merely a diminutive derivative from the Manchester terrier.
It should not exceed 6 lbs. in weight, and is most pi-ized when it only weighs 3J or 4
lbs., if it at tlie same time exhibits perfect symmetry. The wliite English terrier is
a less well-known breed, having the same general characteristics as the Manchester
terrier, but of a pure opaque white colour, with dark eyes, nose, and claws.

Although very different in appearance to the tj^pical represen-
tatives of that group, the poodle, which is perhaps the cleverest of
all dogs, and the one most apt to learn tricks, is included among the terriers.
The general appearance is so well known, and is likewise so truthfully por-
trayed in our illustration, that it will be unnecessary to refer to it. There are
several strains, differing mainly from one another in size ; the usual coloui-s being
either black or white, or a mixture of the two. The coat should resemble
astrakan, but may incline more to a silky or to a woolh^ nature in the different
strains. When clipped it should present a satiny sheen. Both on the Continent
and in England the poodle is clipped to a greater or less degree ; but whereas
abroad the coat is permitted to grow in winter, in England the clipping is too
often continued at all seasons. In England and Russia the poodle is treated solely
as a companion and house-dog ; but in France and Germany it is employee^ as a
sporting-dog, and is the constant out-door companion of the farmer. It is an
excellent water-dog, diving well, and seldom failing to find a wounded bird in the
water ; the oily nature of its coat being an admirable protection against chills. In

Poodle.

DOMESTIC DOGS.

547

retrieving on land the poodle relies fully as nmcli on its genei'al intelligence as on
its scent of smell, thereby resembling the Newfoundland ; and it generally hunts
by casting round in circles, rather than by following a direct trail. Poodles are
generally the dogs employed in circuses as performers, and they have frequently
been taught to recognise and pick out many of the cards from a pack at the
direction of their masters. As a remarkable instance of intelligence, Dr. Romanes
relates a case where a poodle, having on one occasion conducted his master to the
larder, and been rewarded with a pier-e of meat, essayed to lead him again to the

Maltese Dog.

WHITE AND BLACK POODLES (i^i Uat. size).

same spot. Being baffled in this attempt, the dog thereupon took up liis master's
hat, with which he proceeded to the larder, and lay down beneatli the shelf on
which was placed the coveted joint.

This dog may be compared to a diminutive Skye terrier, and
should not exceed some 5 or 6 lbs. in weight. It has a short body,
and is covered with very long and silky hair, which is of a uniform semi-trans-
parent white colour, the tail being thickly haired and carried tightly curled over
the back. The nose and roof of the mouth are black ; and the hair of the
moderately long ears, as in other terriers, mingles with that of the neck.

Mexican The Mexican lap-dog is also pure white in colour, but with a

Lap-Dog. flesh-coloured nose. The liair on the head and body is moderately

long and cui'lv, but that of the rather short tail longer and straighter. The ears

548

CARNIVORES.

are small and not pendent, and the head rounded, with the bro\vn eyes widely
sepai-ated from one another. An apparently adult specimen of this diminutive
breed preserved in the British Museum measures only 7'1 inches from the tip of
the nose to the root of the tail.

Asiatic Wild Dogs {Cams alpimis, deccanensis, etc.).

With the Siberian wild dog (C alpinus) we revert to the consideration of the
wild members of the Canidw. It belongs to a small group of Asiatic species.

SIBERIAX WILD DOG (J uat. size).

distinguished from other representatives of Cams by the loss of the last molar
tooth on each side of the lower jaw, so that tlie total number of teet) is forty
instead of forty-two. The group is further distinguished by the shorter muzzle
and the slightly convex profile of the face. On account of these and certain other
points of difference — more especially the presence of either twelve or fourteen teats,
instead of tlie usual ten — these species are frequently referred to a distinct genus,
under the name of Cyon. Another distinctive feature of these animals is the
presence of long hairs between the pads of the feet. The whole of these dogs are
in the habit of hunting in large packs, and are noticeable on account of their
courage and handsome appearance ; the tail being bushy and equal in length to
about half the head and body. Since thei-e is no doubt that thev are not the

ASIATIC WIID DOGS. 549

ancestral stock of any of the domestic dogs, the name " %vild dog " is to a certain
degree a misnomer.
Siberian Wild This species is an inhabitant of Northern Asia, extending from

''•'&• the country from which it derives its name, at least as far southwards

as the Altai mountains, and probably still further. It ma}- be distinguished from
the following species by the circumstance that its molar teeth, especially those of the
upper jaw, are of larger size. Like its southern cousin, the Siberian wild dog is
subject to seasonal and individual variations in the colour of its fur. In summer
it seems to be generally of a foxy-red colour, becoming darker on the back and
lighter on the under-parts and the inner .surfaces of the limbs. There are, how-
ever, two skins in the British Museum characterised by their long and woolly
hair, of which the colour iu one is white, and in the other a yellowish white ; and
these may be presumed to indicate the winter dress.

Accor'ling to Rade, the Siberian wild dog is a forest-loving animal ; generally
frequenting mountains like those on the east bank of the Yenesei where forests
are abundant, but occasionally appearing on the open steppes. It is locally
distributed ; and while in some localities it preys largely upon deer, in others
it is in the habit of hunting ibex. In the Altai these dogs go in troops of from
ten to fifteen, or more individuals, led by an old male ; and where they hunt deer
it is generally hinds or young animals that they select for pursuit. So incessant
is their persecution of the deer that they will sometimes cause them to completely
desert certain localities ; this having taken place in the year 18.59 in the valley of
the Irkut.

The Indian wild dog (C deccanensin) is perhaps the best known
member of the group, and is distinguished fi'om the preceding species
bj- the smaller size of its molar teeth. Like the others, its general build is more
jackal-like than wolf-like ; this being especially .shown by the comparative
shortness of the legs. It agi'ees with the Siberian species in the length of the
fur, and in the presence, at least in Himalayan examples, of a thick and woolly
under-fur. The general colour of the fur of the upper-parts is a nisty red,
varying iu some specimens to a rufous, or even a light brownish grej' ; the under-
parts being paler. GeneraUj^ the end of the tail is black, but its extreme tip may
occasionally be whitish. The young are of a uniform sooty-bro^vn colour. A
specimen measured by Hodgson had a length of 37 i inches, exclusive of the tail ;
the latter measuring Hh inches with the hair and 8 inches without the same.
This wild dog is found throughout the forest-clad portions of the Himalaya, from
Kashmir to Assam, and in Gilgit, Ladak, and Eastern Tibet. Southwards of
the Himalaya, it is found in the larger forests of India, although it is
unknown in Ceylon. In inhabiting alike the forest of peninsular India and the
forest-clad regions of the Himalaya, as well as the treeless districts of Tibet, the
Indian wild dog presents an instance precisely analogous to that of the lyax,
already noticed. Hodgson, who alludes to the animal by the Himalayan name of
buan.su, states that although the Indian wild dog is "not deficient in speed or
power of leaping, yet his motions all appear to be heavy, owing to the measured
uniformity of his pace. He runs in a lobbing long canter, is unapt at the double,
and upon the whole is somewhat less agile and speed}' than the jackal, and very

55°

CARNIVORES.

much less so than the fox. The wild dog preys both by night and day, but chiefly
by day. Six, eight, or ten unite to hunt down their victim, maintaining the chase
by their powers of smell rather than by the eye. . . . The buansu does not buri-ow
like the wolf or the fox, but reposes and breeds in the recesses and natural cavities
of the rocks." After stating that the number in a pack may occasionally be as
many as twenty, Mr. Blanford observes that these wild dogs " live principally upon
deer of various kinds and wild pigs in India, and on wild sheep and antelopes in

iNDLvx TviLD DOG (J iiat. size).

Tibet. Many sambar and spotted deer are killed by them, whilst occasionally nilgai
and Indian antelopes fall victims. Wild dogs avoid the neighbourhood of man,
and consequently but i-arely attack domestic animals ; occasionallj*, however, they
kill sheep, goats, and cattle, and Jerdon mentions one instance, and M'Master
another, of their pulling dowTi a tame buftalo. I came across a third case myself
in the jungles east of Bawda, and I was curious to see how so large an animal had
been destroyed. Thei-e were but a few tooth-marks about the nose and throat, and
some of the pack had evidently attacked the buftalo in front, while others tore it
open. This is probably their usual way of killing large animals ; they have been
seen to snap at the flanks of a number running." It was stated by Hodgson tliat

ASIATIC WILD DOGS.

5SI

■wild dogs are in the habit of giving tongue while hunting. This is, however,
denied both by Hamilton and Blanford ; but it is athrnied that these animals are
in the habit of howling at night.

There does not appear to be any authenticated instance of the Indian wild dog
attacking human beings. In marked contrast to the wolf and the jackal, it is, if
not absolutely untamable, exceedingly difficult to render domesticated in any
degree ; this of itself being a proof that it has nothing to do with the ancestry of
domestic dogs. The young in India are born in the winter, althougli this is
I^robably not the case in the higher Himalaya and Tibet. The number of cubs in
a litter is usually from two to four, but six or more have been observed. In the
Himalaya, near Simla, a breeding-place was discovered where it appeared that
several females bred in company.

By many writers tlie wild dog of the countries to the eastward

of the Bay of Bengal is regarded as inseparable from the Indian

form. Mr. Blanford, however, takes the opposite view, and considers that the

MALAY WILD DOG () Uat. size).

5-2 CARNIVORES.

Malayan wild dog is entitled to rank as a distinct species {C. rutilans). It is
smaller and slifhter in build, and has slenderer limbs than its Indian relative;
while the " brush " is smaller, and the hair of the bodj' is short and harsh, and has
no under-fur. There is also stated to be a difference in regard to the relative length
of the flesh-tooth of the upper jaw to the two molars by which it is followed. In
colour this dog is of a deep ferruginous red above, with the individual hairs .scarcely
lio-hter at their roots ; while the under-parts of the body are whitish. Mr. Blanford
gives the length of the head and body of a young male as 32i inches, and that of
the tail 12 inches. This species is found throughout the Malay penin-sula, and also
in the islands of Sumatra and Java, M'hile it has also been reported to occur in
Borneo. It is also found in Tenasserim, and has been obtained near Moulmein :
but it has yet to be determined whether the wild dog of Upper Burma belongs to
this or the preceding species. It may be suggested that in the latter district it will
be found that the specimens indicate a more or less complete transition between

the two species.

In concluding our notice of the wild dogs of this group, it maj-
Extinct Species. ^^ j^g^^ioned that remains of extinct species are found in the caveni
deposits of France and Germany. These fossil species appear to have been closely
allied to the living ones ; and afford one more instance of the derivation of the
present fauna of the East from the ancient fauna of Western Europe.

The Maned Wolf (Canis jubatus).

With the so-called maned wolf — a name which is in every respect a misnomer,
since the creature is neither distinctly maned nor a true wolf — we come to the first
of a group of South American species, which fomi the remaining representatives of
the wolf-like section of the familj'. The maned wolf, which is of about the same
size as the common wolf, differs from the rest of these South American species by
its superior size, longer legs, and shorter tail. It is placed by Professor Mivart
among the true wolves, but its appearance and habits are so ditferent that we are
persuaded that its proper place is- here.

The aguara-guazu, as this animal is termed in South America, is a long-legged
and long-eared species, with a very conspicuous coloration. The bod}^ is covered
with long and somewhat coarse hairs, which are more lengthened on the back of
the neck than elsewhere; the general colour being of a bright yellowish red.
There is, however, a black patch extending from the nape of the neck towards the
shoulders, and black is also present on the under-surface of the lower jaw. More-
over, the legs have black "stockings," standing out conspicuouslj- against the
general red colour of the body ; while the under-surface of the upper part of the
throat, as well as the insides of the ears and the extremity of the tail are white.

The maned wolf inhabits Brazil, Paraguay, and Northern Argentina, but does
not extend as far south as the Pampas. It differs from the trae wolves in being
an entirely solitary animal — never assembling in packs, and also in being
harmless to men. Generally found in moist regions, it lies concealed during the
day in bushes and thickets, and does not venture forth till evening for its nocturnal
wanderings. It prej's generallj^ upon the various species of rodents which are so

SOUTH AMERICAN WILD DOGS. 553

common in South America, some of which are so swift as to elude the attacks of
domestic dogs, although thej' fall a ready prey to the maned wolf. Its diet is,
however, varied by birds, reptiles, insects, and even fruits ; while it will sometimes
attack deer, and more rarelj' sheep. Owing to its noctui-nal habits the maned
wolf is i-arely seen in inhabited districts, but it appears that in regions remote
from human habitations it is less cautious in its habits and will issue forth during
the day-time.

Other South American Species (Canis azarce, etc.).

The comparatively small and fox -like species known as Azara's
dog (C. azarce), is the best known of several South American species
in regard to the nomenclature of which there has been much confusion. This dog
differs from all the species yet noticed by its fox-like appearance, this being
especially shown bj' its long body, short legs, large eare, and long bushj^ tail. If,
however, we were to assume from this that the creature was nearly related to the
European fox. we should be in error, since it has a skull agreeing with those of the
wolves and jackals, and quite unlike tliose of the true foxes, which are unknown
in South America. This species is found from Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, and also
on the western side of the Andes in Chili and elsewhere. It is true, indeed, that
there is great variation in the colour of specimens from different regions, on which
account a number of nominal species have been determined; but these are all
regarded by Professor Mivart as local races of one species. It likewise appears
that there is a considerable amount of seasonal variation in the colour and length
of the fur in the same individuals ; the haii-s being longer and greyer in winter
than in summer, while those on the back tend to blackness, and those on the face
to a greyish bro^vn instead of a yellowish grey tint during the former season.

In the average form the colour of the sides of the body is grey, while the
longer hairs of the back are black-and-white, with black patches on the shoulders,
the middle of the body and the rump : the limbs being fulvous externalh*, and of
a pale yellowish tint internally. The under-parts of the body and the inner sides
of the thighs are whitish. There is also some white on the upper lip, and on the
chest, as well as on the inner sides of the ears ; the outer sides of the latter being
yellowish, with black tips. The tail, like the back, is mottled with black-and-white
throughout the greater part of its length, but the end is black. White specimens
have occasionally been observed.

Mr. W. H. Hudson speaks of Azara's dog as being purely fox-like in its habits,
and common everywhere in Ai-gentina, where it inhabits the open Pampas. In
Paraguay, on the other hand, according to Rengger, it dwells in jungle-clad
districts, from which during the night it roams on the one side into the dense
forests, and on the other into the open country. Its main food consists of small
mammals and birds, but it will not refuse lizards: and it displays a marked
partiality for .sugar-cane, doing great damage, by the number of canes it destroys
without eating them. In hunting, this dog runs with its nose close to the ground,
after the manner of a foxhound, but will at times raise its head to the wind. For
the greater part of the year Azara's dog is a solitary animal, but during the winter

554 CARNIVORES.

pairs of males and females go together. The young are born in the spring, and
generally comprise from three to four in a litter. The lair may be formed either
beneath the cover of a thick bush, or in the deserted hole of another animal, such
as an armadillo, but it does not appear that the aguarachay (as this species is
termed in South America) ever burrows for itself.

AZARA S DOO.

The crab-eating dog (C. cancrivorus), is a rather larger species
ra - a mg -^j^j^^ ^^le last, sometimes attaining a considerable size : and having a
relatively shorter muzzle and tail.. It inhabits the regions from Guiana and
Demerara to La Plata, although said to be unknown on the Pampas. The colour
is subject to great individual variation, but according to Mivart its pervading
tint may be either a uniform light reddish grey, or darker and mottled. It
may have a black back and bright red legs, or may be a dull grey, with very
little black, or grey with a very black back. The most normal tint seems to be a
brownish grey above, with the crovm of the head, sides of the body, and outside
of the limbs slightly or strongly rufous. There is generally more or less black on
the back and the upper surface of the tail, while the end of the tail is always
black. The reddish brown ears have not the black tips of the preceding speciea
The carasissi, as this dog is called in some parts, is a forest or jungle-dwelling
species, feeding not only upon rodents and birds but likewise upon crustaceans,

RACCOON-DOG.

555

and thus earning its common English title. It is stated that these animals will
collect in packs and ruu down and kill deer ; and they do much damage to poultry
in inhabited districts. Although when hunting in the woods thej^ follow their
prey by scent, it is stated that when in the open they hunt by sight.

The largest and handsomest of the South American fox-like
species, is the colpeo (('. raagellanicxis), from Tierra del Fuego and
Chili. This is somewhat superior in size to the largest individuals of the j^receding
species, from which it is distinguished by its longer and more pointed nose, and the
great length of the more bushy tail. The coloration is, moreover, generally of a
more decidedly reddish hue. Like the other species, there is considerable individual
variation both as regards the colour and length of the fur. Generally, however,
the sides of the body are brownish grey, while the back is mottled with black, and
the limbs are more or less rufous ; the cheeks, throat, under surface of the lower
jaw, and the under-parts being yellowish-white. The ears are dark externally ;
while the bushy tail is of a light reddish grey, except the tip and a patch on the
upper surface near the root, which are black. The colpeo. as Darwin remarks,
inhabits alike the moist forests of Tierra del P'uego and the ari<l deserts of Xorthern
Chili. It is very destructive to poultry ; and, though to a large extent nocturnal,
may frequently be seen during the daytime.

Oar knowledge of the very remarkable species known as the
' short-eared dog (C. inicrotis) is limited to a single specimen, formerly
exhibited in the London Zoological Society's Gardens, and believed to have come
from the valley of the Amazon. This animal was about the size of medium
individuals of the crab-eating dog, measuring 42 inches in total length, of which
12 are occupied by the tail, and standing about 14 inches at the shoulder. It
differs from the other members of the family, except the next, by its short and
rounded ears, which communicate to the face a physiognomy quite different from
that of all other wild dogs. It is further noticeable for its coloration, the fur
being short and thick and generally of a dark iron-grey hue, the individual hairs
being black at the tips and white near their roots. The limbs and bush}- tail are
nearly black, but the latter has a curious white patch on the under surface near
the root. The ears and snout are i-ufous.

The Raccoon-Dog (Canis procyonoides).

This curiously-coloui-ed and .short-eared species is an undoubted dog, and comes
nearest to the South American forms described above. It receives its title from a
supposed resemblance to a raccoon, but it must be confessed that it requires a
considerable amount of imagination to see the likeness. The raccoon-dog inhabit.s
Japan, China, and Amurland, and is characterised by the sharp and pointed
muzzle, the shoi-t rounded ears, the rather short and bushy tail, and the great
length of its fur, more especially during the winter. There is much individual
variation in colour, the prevailing tints being dusky-yellow and black, but the
proportions in which the two occur differing greatly. Black is, however, always
present on the cheeks and around the eyes, extending forwards to the muzzle,
where there is a white spot below the nose on each side. The sides of the head

556

CARNIVORES.

are yellowish, and the forehead maj* be either of the same colour or blackish.
The eai-s have brown margins, but are white intemallj-, and sometimes partiallj-
so externally. The chin and front of the neck are brown, but, as in the
specimen on the right side of our illustration, a yellowish colour may extend
backwards towards the shoulders. The whole of the back has fur varj-ing from a
mixture of black-and-yellow to nearly black, the individual hairs always having long
black tips. On the sides, the ends of the hair are yellowish ; and the chest and under-
parts vary from brown to nearly black, while the limbs are blackish brown. The
tail, on which the hairs are long and pendent, is frequentlj- black above and at its

C^i-'^^^

THE KACCOON-DOQ (J nat. size).

».A>i=

wiS

extremity, while below it may be light yellow. The raccoon-dog is chiefly a
nocturnal animal, dwelling in summer in the wood-clad mountains, and in winter
descending to the neighbourliood of the river valleys, where it is said, when in
good condition, to hibernate. In Amurland, where it does not hibernate, it feeds
largely on fish during the winter, reposing during the daj- in the thick sedges
of the river banks. The asserted hibernation of this animal is a remarkable
feature, since no other member of the family takes a winter sleep. The hiber-
nation is said to take place in the deserted burrow of a fox, or some other
animal; but it can also construct an earth of its o^\-n. The individuals which
do not hibernate may be seen in winter crossing the ice-bound rivers in a
succession of short jumps. The raccoon-dog is far from war-*-, and as it is almost

FOXES.

557

omnivorous in its food, is easily killed by means of strychnine. The fish which
forms its favourite diet in winter is a kind of carp ; while in summer the chief food
consists of mice, which are pursued either in small companies or family parties.
Fruit also forms a portion of its diet. It does little or no damage to poultry ; and
in Japan has been known to make its -n-inter lair beneath the walls of a house.
Both its fur aud its flesh are held in high estimation by the Japanese.

The Foxes {Canis wipes, etc.).

One of the characteristics by whicli the skulls of the wolves and the other
members of the dog family desci'ibed above may be distinguished from those of
the foxes has been mentioned on p. 496. To this it maj^ be added that the frontal
bones of the skulls of the former gi-oup are inflated by internal air-chambei-s, which
are wanting in those of the latter. Moreovei-, the pupil of the eye, when contracted,
is circular in the wolves, jackals, and domestic dogs, whereas in the foxes it is
elliptical. Some of the fox-like South American species of the former resemble,
however, foxes in this respect, as they do in external form to a more or less
marked degree. On account of these intermediate forms, we cannot agree with
those who refer the foxes to a distinct genus, although they difler from all other
members of the family in having but six teats. Foxes are characterised by their
slight build, their long bushy tails, which are nearly always considerably more
than half the length of the head and body, and short limbs; while they generally
have large ears. All the membei-s of the group are chiefly nocturnal in their
habits, hiding in holes or burrows made by them.selves, or in ravines, or auiongst
grass or bushes during the day. They are, as a rule, solitary, and rarelj- if ever
associate in numbers as other Canidw do. All the species are more or less
insectivorous and
f rugivorous ; but the
more tropical forms
appear to live on
insects more than
do those which in-
habit temperate
climates. All are
highly intelligent
and famous for cun-
ning. The gi-oup
is distributed over
North America, Asia,
Europe, and Africa,

but is unknown in South America. The smaller African species are distinguished
by the inordinate length of their ears.

Probably every Englishman thinks he knows the conniion fox
sufficiently well to run no risk of confounding it with any other
animal : and if our observations were confined to the ordinary foxes of Europe we
should have no great cHfliculty in deciding that they might be included under one

SKELETON OP FOX.

Common Fox.

558 CARNIVORES.

name, although even among these there is a considerable amount of variation in
size and colour. When we take into consideration the larger foxes of North
America and India, we find a number of forms which, while approximating more
or less to the British animal, yet differ so remarkably in coloration that it is at first
sight hard to believe that they all belong to the same species ; but the researches of
zoologists have shown that all these various modifications pass more or less
completelj- into the coloration of the typical European fox, and must be regarded
as mere local varieties of that widely-spread species.

Including, then, all these varieties under one title, the common fox has a more
extensive distribution than any other member of the entire family : its range
embracing the whole of Europe and Asia, north of and including the Himalaya,
from Iceland to Japan : and also comprising North America from Hudson's Baj-
and Labrador to the latitude of Northern Mexico, and Afi-ica north of the Sahara
and Sudan. The size of the fox, according to Mivart, is subject to such an amount
of variation — that if the length of the head and body of a specimen at one end of
the series be represented by 100, that of the one at the other will be equivalent to
170. The length of the tail and ears is, however, much less variable.

The ordinary English fox, as represented in our coloured Plate, is of a reddish
brown colour alx)ve, and white beneath, while the outer surfaces of the ears, and
portions of those of the limbs are black, and the extreme tip of the tail is white.
Occasionally, however, the tip of the tail ma\' be dark gi"ey, or even black, while
in one specimen caught in Warwickshire, the whole of the under-pai-ts were
greyish black. The total length of the head and body may varj' from 27 to 46
inches, and that of the tail from 12 to 15 inches.

In Southern Europe, black-bellied foxes are far from uncommon, and connect
the ordinary form with the Himalaj"an variety, which has a somewhat similar
coloration, and is altogether a paler animal than the English fox. In its long
winter dress, the Himalaj^an fox (which is generally smaller than the English),
is a strikingly handsome animal, with the fur of the back varjnng from chestnut
to dull rufous, more or less speckled with yellow, to a dark iron grej'. Frequently
there is a dark stripe across the shoulder, bordered with buft" patches in front and
behind ; while the hinder parts of the back and thighs are grej-er and more
speckled with white, the sides paler, and the under-parts varying from cream-
colour to nearly black. The throat and chest, with the exception of a white spot
in the centre of the latter, are frequently darker than the under-parts of the body,
in which the dusky area may be confined to a streak along the middle. Like the
English fox, the outer sides of the eai-s are black, and the tip of the tail is wliite ;
but the limbs have little or no black, and the general colour of the tail is grej-ish,
with a more or less marked mfous tinge. The face is rufous, with a black spot
below the eyes ; while the cheeks are whitish. Very different is, however, the
appearance of the animal in .summer, after the loss of its long winter coat, when
the dark under-fur communicates a greyish bi'own tinge to the back, while the
sides are paler and the under-parts nearly white. This varietj' is found in the
Western Himalaya, from Nipal and Kashmir to Gilgit. In the higher Himalaya,
Tibet, and probably Afghanistan, it is, however, replaced by another and larger
variety which extends over the greater part of Central Asia. This large Central

FOXES.

559

Asian fox is a paler-coloured and yellower animal as a rule, with verj^ thick fur,
and a superb brush. The Japanese fox is somewhat variable in colour, but has
been declared to present no points of specific distinction ; and the same holds good
for the foxes of Siberia and China. The North African fox, which has also been
considered a distinct species, mu.st likewise be regarded merely as a variety.

American This disposes of the foxes of this group found in the Old World,

Varieties. .^[j,] -yyg turn to those of North America, where there is a greater
ranffe of variation in colour and markings. These American foxes have received
distinct names, according to their coloration. Among these, the so-called red fox is
u.sually of a reddish j-ellow colour, with the hinder part of the back grizzled, the
throat, and more or less of the under-parts white, the outer surfaces of the ears

ARCTIC FOXES ON THE ICE.

black, and the tail, except at the wliite tip, with black extremities to the hairs. The
cross-fox, as its name implies, is characterised by the presence of a transverse dark
stripe across the shoulders, and of another running down the middle of the back.
The tail is darker than in the red fox, while the legs, muzzle, and under-parts, are
nearly or completely black. The beautiful silver, or black fox, of which the fur is
so highly valued, is usualh' nearly or entirely black, with the exception of the tip
of the tail, whicli is generalh^ white. It derives its name from the grey rings
usually marking the otherwise black hairs of the hinder half of the back, the head,
and the thighs, which communicate the peculiar silvery lustre to the fur. Indi-
viduals may, however, be met with, in which the fur is either completely black or
completely grey. That the red fox and the cross fox are undoubtedly a single
species is conclusively proved by a statement of Audubon to the effect that both
varieties may be found in a single litter of cubs. While the red and cross varieties

56c

CARNIVORES.

Habits.

are characteristic of the eastern districts of the United States, the far rarer
silver fox is a northern form, a lai'ge number of its skins coming from the uj^per
reaches of the Mississippi, and the districts to the north-west of the Missouri
River.

So nuich has been written about the habits of the English fox
that our remarks on this subject will be brief. Although the fox is
by no means averse to taking possession of the deserted burrow of a rabbit or a
badger, it generally excavates its own " earth," in which it spends a considerable
portion of its time. As all hunters know, foxes, however-, frequently prefer to
live out in the woods, those witli a northern aspect being, it is said, generally
avoided. Sometimes these animals will prefer a thick hedgerow, or a dry ditch,
while we have known them to select the tall tussocks of coarse grass in swampy

a:j ixteresting discoveri.

meadows as a resting-place : and they have also been found in straw-ricks, where
it is on record tliat in one instance the cubs have been born. The breeding-time
is in April, and the usual number of young in a litter is from four to six. The
prey of the fox consists, writes Bell, " of hares, rabbits, various kinds of ground
birds, particularly partridges, of which it destroys great numbers : and it often
makes its way into the farm-yard, committing sad havoc among the poultry. It
has been known not unfrequently to carry off a young lamb. When other food
fails the fox will, however, have recoui-se to rats and mice, and even frogs and
worms ; while on occasion beetles are largely consumed, and, on the sea-shore, fish,
crabs, and molluscs form a part of its diet. Carrion seems never to come amiss ;
while the old stor}?- of the fox and the grapes alludes to the fruit-eating propensities
of these animals." The usual cry of the fox is a yelping bark. The well-known

FOXES.

561

scent of the fox is secreted by a gland situated beneath the tail. The cunning
displayed by English foxes in escaping from hounds has been so often described,
that we shall make no further allusion to it here, beyond saying that it has
probably attained its present development as the result of the inherited experience
of many genei-ations.

That the fox is an ancient inhabitant of the British Islands is proved by the
occurrence of its fossilised remains in caverns in company with those of the
mammoth and other extinct animals. This, however, is not all, for a skull, in-
distinguishable from that of a large English fox, has been dug up from tlie sands
lying at the top of the Red Cray of Sutiblk, which are vastly older than the
mammoth period.

A very diflei'ent animal from the red American variety of the
common fox is the grey fox (C virginiamis) of North America,
which is regarded by Professor Mivart as exhibiting some approximation to the

Grey Fox.

THE GREI FOX (J Dat. size).

fox-like South American species described above. It is a considerablj'- smaller
animal than the average European fox ; and is characterised by the grizzled grey
colour of the top of the head and the upper part of the body ; in marked contrast
to which is the rufous tint of the fur of the sides of the throat and body and the
limbs. The upper-surface of the tail is dusky, while below it is chestnut ; its
extremity being dark, and there being also a dark patch near its root, connected
with a dark mark running along the back. The chin is black, as is a spot on each
side between the nose and the eye ; the outer surfaces of the ears are rusty red ;
the middle of the throat is nearly or quite white; while the under-parts of the
body are yellowish white. The grey or, as it is often called, the Virginian fox, is
found from the United States to Central America.

VOL. I. — 36

562 CARNIVORES.

Dr. Ellzey, when contrasting the habits of the grey fox with the red American
variety of the common species, observes that the two animals differ very widely
in these respects. " So far as -aiy personal observations inform me," he says,
" the following are some of the principal distinctions. First, as to reproduction,
the red fox nearlj- always brings forth its young in an earth den, the gi'ey fox
generally in a hollow log or tree, or, at most, under a rock. The last one I found
with her 3'oung was a gi'ey. The young, only a few hours old, were in the hollow
stump of an old rotten tree, broken off about five feet high. As I came up, the old
one jumped out of the top of the stump, and ran ofi". I looked down the hole, and
saw at the bottom five young ones, scarcely dry. I have seldom seen a grey with
more than five, and often with only four J'oung. I never found a red with less
than five. I have seen one with nine, and several with seven. I think it certain,
therefore, that the reds are more prolific. Second, as to hunting for prey and
subsistence. The reds are bolder in pui-suit, and hunt over a much greater territory
than the greys. Whether the greys ever climb trees in pursuit of prey I am
uncertain, but they take to a tree as readily as a cat when run hard by hounds. I
think it nearly certain that they climb for persimmons and grapes. Bed foxes
never climb trees under any circumstances : when hard run they go to earth.
Grey foxes run before hounds on]\' a short distance, doubling constantly and for
a short time, when they either hole in a tree, or climb one. I have known the red
fox to run straight away nearly twenty miles. Very commonly they run eight or
ten miles away, and then run back in a parallel course. I have known them to run
the four sides of a quadrilateral, nine or ten miles long by about two miles broad.
It is doxibtful whether a first-rate specimen of the red fox, taken at his best in
point of condition, can either be killed or run to earth by any pack of hounds
living, such are his matchless speed and endurance. It is but a sorry pack which
fails to kill or tree a grey fox in an hour's run. The young of the grey fox closely
resemble small blackish puppies ; those of the i-ed fox are distinctly vulpine in
physiognomj'^ when only a few hours old."

The smallest and prettiest of the North American species is the

Kit Fox

kit fox (C. velox), which derives its Latin name from its extraordinary
fleetness. In this fox the length of the head and body is only 24 inches, and that
of the tail, without the hair, 9 inches. The animal is characterised by the shortness
and stoutness of its limbs, standing relatively lower than the common fox, and also
by the bushy tail being less than half the length of the body. The thickly-furred
ears are also relatively shorter than in the common fox. Another distinctive
character is the length and abundance of the under-fur, which is often visible
externally, and also by the long hairs clothing the soles of the feet. In colour the
kit fox is somewhat variable, but a specimen described and figured by Professor
Mivart has the back and tail dark grey, mingled with black-and-white hairs, the
tip of the tail black, the cheeks, shoulders, flanks, and the outer surfaces of the
limbs rufous, and the under-parts white. The kit fox is confined to North- Western
America, where it inhabits open treeless districts, constructing its own burrows in
the ground. It Avas formerly abundant on the plains of Columbia, and also in those
lying between the Saskatchewan and the Missouri rivers, but it has of late years
considerably decreased in numbers.

FOXES.

563

Arctic Fox.

Widely different from all the other species is the Arctic fox (C.
lagopus), characterised by the diflerence between its summer and
winter dress, as well as by certain peculiarities in its form and habits. This
species, which appears to inhabit nearly the whole of the known Arctic lands,
descending in America to latitude 50', and in the Old World to 60°, has a less
pointed muzzle, and much shorter and more rounded ears than any other fox, while
the hinder-parts of the cheeks are bordered with a kind of ruft" of long hairs, and
the soles of the feet are covered with a thick coat of woolly hair, which is most
developed in winter. In the summer dress the hair is of modei'ate length, and is
frequently of a brown or dull rufous colour on the head, back, outer sides of the
limbs and tail: the under-parts being yellowisli white. The under-fur is bluish

ARCTIC FOX IN oCMMEH lIHJiSS (J uat. size).

grey, and the roots of the long hairs are also of the same tint ; and when this
bluish grey extends farther up the hairs than usual the general colour of the fur
is of the same hue. In other cases, as in the accompanying illustration, the whole
of the upper-parts and the outer sides of the limbs are bluish grey, while the flanks
and under-parts are almost white.

With the assumption of the winter dress the fur becomes longer and thicker,
and the white hairs which are scattered through the summer coat gradually increase
in number, at the same time as the tips of the other hairs become white, until
the whole length of each hair is of that colour. The animal is then completely
clad in white, the naked tip of the nose being, however, black, wliile in certain
cases the extremity of the tail may also be black. A .specimen in the pure white
winter dress is represented in the foreground of our second illustration. This
winter change of colour is, liowever, by no means of con.stant occurrence ; grey
hairs sometimes largely mingling with the white, while at other times the prevalent
hue of the fur is a uniform bluish gi'ey, as sliown in the upper figure of our second

5^4

CARNIVORES.

illustration. Moreover, occasionally, pure white foxes are to be met with in summer.
In Iceland, where the winter is less severe than in the more northerlj- regions, the
winter di-ess of the Arctic fox is nearly similar to the summer one, so that these
animals are " blue ' at all seasons.

The assumption of a white dress in winter is in order to assimilate the colour
of the animal to that of the snow-fields among which it dwells, and it is somewhat
difficult to understand why the change does not invariably take place in the more

ARCTIC FOX, n> WIXTEK DRESS (| uat size).

northern regions. Tlie hair clothing the soles of the feet is to aid the creature in
obtaining a sure foothold on frozen snow and ice.

According to Richardson, Arctic foxes, which were formerly abundant on the
shores of Hudson's Bay, dwelt there in small colonies of fi-om twenty to thirty
burrows each. During the autumn and winter such of these foxes as inhabit the
more northern districts of Arctic America undertake a southerly migration, keeping
as much as possible to the coasts, and the length of the migration depending to a
considerable extent whether the line of the coast coincides with the line of march
The Ai-ctic fox preys largely upon birds, especially upon various members of the
auk famil}% as we learn from Professor A Xewton, who writes, that " the Ai-ctic
fox is pretty numerous along the shores of the Ice Sound [Spitzbergen] : and we
not only frequently saw examples of it, but in the immediate neighbourhood of the

FOXES. 565

cliffs wherein the Alcidce were nesting one could, by listening almost at anj- time in
the twenty-four hours, hear its yapping bark. It is of course the chief enemy of all
the different kinds of birds, and their dread of it appears to influence them greatly
in their choice of breeding quarters. What the foxes do to get a living in winter,
when the birds have left the country, is one of the most curious questions that has
presented itself to my mind for some time. The greater number of tliem are said
to remain on the land and to be as acti\e during the long polar niglit as they are
in summer; yet there are no bei-ries bj- wliieli they miglit eke out their existence,
and there can be no open water, on the margin of which they might find food
\vithin miles of their haunts. The most natural explanation that occurs to one is
that they lay up a stock of provisions ; but nobody, that I am aware of, has ever
found such a store-closet." Not only does this fox prey upon the Arctic birds
themselves, but it also robs their eggs. Dr. Packard, when describing his experiences
in Northern Labrador, writes that on a certain dajr " I started up a blue fox, which
was ininning towards me with a murre's [guillemot's] egg in his mouth ; on my
throwing a stone at him he dropped his egg and scampered off. I hallooed for
nearly ten minutes for some one with a gun to come and shoot him, and kept him
in sight. With more of curiosity than fear he would stop at intervals to look at
me, keeping a safe distance off and barking, until he disappeared. Soon Mr. W.
came up ; we pursued, finding him on the other side of the island, with another egg
in his mouth. ]\Ir. W. gave him his deatli-wound, though he ran some distance
with the egg between his teeth before he di-oppeil deail. His flanks and belly were
white, the rest of a slate-blue colour, his legs very long, and tail long though not
very bushy. The more remarkable features were Ids short, rounded ears, as if
cropped." It is not, however, by any means solely on l)irds and their eggs that the
Arctic fox subsists, as in some districts it also preys largely upon the small Rodents
known as lemmings. In one district during the Arctic Expedition of 1875, under
Sir G. S. Nares, numbers of dead lenanings were discovered which had been killed
by these foxes, and hordes of lemmings were pulled out from the crannies of the
rocks, which had been collected by the foxes as a winter provision ; thus confirming
Professor Newton's suggestion as to the probable manner in which these animals
subsist in winter.

With the desert-fox (C. leucopus) of South-Western Asia we
revert to the foxes of the temperate and tropical regions of the Old
World. This species is considerably smaller than the common fox, the length of
the head and body varjdng from 19 to 22 inches, and that of the tail from 12 to
16 inches. It agrees, however, witli that species in having a small white tip to the
tail, as it also does in the dark-coloured ears. Moreover, when the full tints are
developed, tliis animal is more strikingly coloured than the common species,
although tliere is a considerable amount of individual variation in this respect.
When full}- coloured, the fur of the back varies from brownish yellow to rusty
red, and there is usually a distinct pale patch on each side of the back behind tlie
shoulders, in front of which is a dark transverse stripe across them. The sides
are lighter, while the under-parts generally vary from slaty-grey to blackish,
the chin, and generally a spot on the chest, being white. In summer the dark
under-fur is seen through the ordinary hairs, and the whole colour is greyer, the

566

CARXIVORES.

under-parts being then nearly white. This species is found tlirougho.it most of
the sandy and more or less desert regions on the western side of India, and also
extends into Balucliistan, Afghanistan, probably Persia, Arabia, and most likely
other districts of South- Western Asia. It is essentially a desert-hunting species,
and in India appears to live chiefly on the gerbils so common in the same sandy
regions.

In the deserts of Central Asia the preceding species is replaced
by the corsac fox (f. comae), distinguished by its general paler
colour, white under-parts, and the black tip to the tail, the shoulder-spots and
stripe of the desert-fox being also wanting. The two are, however, evidently very
closely allied, and Professor Mi^■art suggests that they may prove to be local

Corsac Fox.

,k5-^S> ,, \,f^^;^^^<^'^¥llf'J

THE CORSAC FOX (' nat size).

varieties of one species. The range of the coreac extends from the banks of the
Volga and the shores of the Caspian Sea to the south-eastern parts of Siberia ;
while eastwards it is doubtless continued into China, although its limits in this
direction, as well as to the northward, are unknown. It has been obtained from
Amurland. Like the desert-fox, the corsac is entirely restricted to open and more
or less desert regions. It preys largely on small rodents, such as voles, picas, and
the like, and is chiefly nocturnal. It does not appear that it makes a burrow for
itself, generally tenanting the deserted hole of a marmot, which it leaves after a
time for that of another. The corsac is soon run down by dogs, and when tracked
to its lair through the snow in winter is said to remain below, and rather than
bolt perish from hunger.

The little-kno-mi Tibetan fox (C ferrilafu.9), from the neighbourhood of
Lhasa, is another nearly-allied small species, distinguished by tiie relative!}' shorter
ears being pale rufous instead of dark-coloured : the tip of the tail being white.

FOXES. 567

The pretty little Imlian fox (C. benqalensis), which, with the
Indian Fox. • p n- 1 • • 1 ,,

exception 01 an aUied species, is the smallest ot the true foxes,

and is familiar to all who have resided in India, being often to be seen in the early

morning close to the fort at Calcutta. The Indian fox, known like the other

species in its native country by the name of luinri, measures only 20 inches from

the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, while the length of the tail varies from

13 to 14 inches. The tail is thus shorter in proportion to the head and body than

in the common fox, and the limbs are characterised by their slenderness. Although

subject to the usual variation characteristic of the foxes, the general colour of

the fur of this species is grey, with a more or less marked reddish tinge, there

being no cross band on the shouldei*s, and the tip of the tail black, while the

ears are grey. This black tip to the tail, coupled with the small .size of the

animal, at once distinguishes this species from all the other foxes inhabiting

India proper.

This fox is to be met with everywhere in India, except where there is thick
forest ; but it does not occur to the westward of the Punjab nor to the eastward of
Assam, while its reported occurrence in Ceylon is more than doubtful. Its cry is
a short yelping bark, quickly repeated three or four times. It is by no means shy,
and I have shot one which hatl walked boldly up to within gun-shot range of my
camp. Sir W. Elliot writes that " its principal food is rats, land-crabs, grasshoppers,
beetles, etc. On one occasion a half-devoured mango was found in the stomach.
It alwaj's burrows in the open plains, runs with great speed, doubling like a hare ;
but instead of striking out at first like that animal, and trusting to its turns as a
last i-esource, the fox turns more at first, and if it can fatigue the dogs then goes
straight away." Jerdon states that " the burrow which this fox makes has always
several openings converging towards the centre, some of them blind, others leading
towards a larger central one where the animal breeds. This is often two or three
feet below the surface. The buiTOw is usually situated quite in the open plain,
now and then in some thorny scrub. In alluvial plains the fox takes advantage of
any small rise in the ground to prevent its den being Hooded in the rains, and its
bun'ow is frequently found in the dams of tanks and other artificial mounds. I
have on two occasions run foxes to holes in old trees, which, from the marks
round one of them, had evidently been occupied by the animal for long. Lizards
are a favourite I'ooil with the fox, as well as rats, crabs, various insects, white
ants, etc."

On account of not possessing the strong scent of its European relative, the
Indian fox is but little hunted witli hounds. It is, however, frequently coursed
with grej'hounds, when, from its numerous doubles, it gives a good run ; pure-bi-ed
English greyhounds are, however, too fleet to give good sport, and either half-bred
or Arabian or Persian dogs are in consequence generally employed. According to
Jerdon, when the animal is going slowly or hunting for food, the tail is trailed on
the gi-ound ; when ininning, it is stretched out horizontally ; while during the
doubling it is raised erect. The young are almost invariably four in number at a
birth, and are produced during February, March, and April. The Indian fox is
easily tamed, and in this state is more agreeable than most other foxes, owing to
the absence of odour.

568 CARNIVORES.

This fox (C cfUJMs) is a still smaller species inhabiting Balu-
chistan and the southern parts of Afghanistan, and at present known
in Europe by only three specimens. The length of the head and body is only
18 inches, and that of the unusually long tail from 15 to 16 inches. It is distin-
guished from the preceding species by the more ashy-grey tinge of its fur.

Loxg-Eared Foxes {Canis chama, zerda, etc.).

The South African asse fox (C. chama) is the first of a group of four species

from Africa, two of these being characterised by the extreme length of their ears.

It is somewhat smaller than the common fox, but it has considerably longer ears,

and therefore appears to form a kind of transition from the true foxes towards

the fennecs. It is a yellowish-coloured animal, with some black hairs mingled

with the light fur of the back, a black tip to the tail, and some chestnut splashes

on the snout. It inhabits both sides of the Orange River in great and little

Namaqualaud, and extends eastwards to Kimberlej'.

This fox (C pallidus) may be distinguished at a glance from the

preceding, not only hy its much smaller size, but likewise by its

longer ears and the thinness of the tail. The general colour is a pale j-ellow, with

a faint tinge of red; the tail having many black haire among the lighter fur, a

small dark spot on the upper-surface near the root, and a small black tip. In its

smaller size and longer eai-s, this species approaches still closer to the fennecs. It

comes from East and West Africa, having been obtained from Senegambia and

Nubia and Kordofan.

Eiippell's fennec (C. fameliciu^) is distinguished from all the
Ruppell's Fennec. . . . .

species hitherto noticed by the great length of its ears, although these

are pi'oportionately smaller than in the trae fennec. It is a smaller animal than

the pale fox, the length of the head and body being about 19 inches, and that of the

tail 9i inches ; while the eare measure just over 3 inches in length. This fox has

a fawn-coloured head, reddish back, shouldei-s, and tail, greyish sides, and nearly

white imder-parts ; but as it can be so easily recognised bj' its eai-s, it is unnecessary

to devote further attention to its colouring. Riippell's fennec was originally

obtained from the Nubian deserts, but either this or a closely -allied species occurs

in SjTia and parts of Persia, as well as in Afghanistan.

The last and smallest representative of the genus Canis is the

pretty little North African fennec (C zerda), in which the total

length of the head and body is only just over 15i inches, the tail measuring 6f

inches, and the eai-s being at least 3 inches in length, and sometimes even more.

The ears, being wide in proportion to their length, are of enormous size compared

to the head, and thus communicate a remarkable physiognomy to the animal. The

general colour of the fur of the upper-parts of the fennec varies from a pale fawn

to buff, the under-parts being white, and the tip of the tail black ; while there may

be black markings on the upper part of the latter near its root. On the forehead

and round the ej'es the fur is nearlj^ white ; while the outer surfaces of the ears

ai'e rufous, and their inner margins have some long and nearly white hairs.

Sometimes thei'e is a black mark in tjie middle of the hinder-part of the back.

:3j

o
>

o

HUNTING-DOG. 569

The fennec is confined to Northern Africa, ranging from Nubia to Algiei-s,
and occurring over the whole of the Sahara Desert. It is essentially a desert
animal, with the sands of which its pale coloration is in complete harmony ; and it
is likewise mainly nocturnal in its habits. Like the common fox, the fennec makes
a burrow, which is generally situated in the neighbourhood of the tufts of low
plants growing here and there in the desert ; tliese plants rendering the soil more
coherent, and therefore easier to burrow in. The inside of the burrow is lined
with feathers, hair, and soft vegetable substances, and is remarkalile for its cleanli-
ness. The burrows are made with wonderful rajiidity — so quickly, indeed, that
the animal seems to sink into the ground as though it were diving into water ; and
when hunted the creature generally manages to escape by thus burrowino-.
During the day the fennec reposes in its burrow, with its head curled up beneath
the bushy tail, and only the ears exposed. At the slightest sound or movement it
is, however, on the alei-t ; and, when thus disturbed, it utters a slight whimper, and
soon endeavoui-s to dispose itself again to slumber. At sunset the fennec leaves
its burrow and makes for its drinking-place, but instead of going straight across
the sand dunes, it always seeks the protection of such ravines and hollows as there
may be. Around the drinking-places the moist earth is covered with countless
impressions of its feet. After having satisfied its tiiirst, the fennec sets about
seeking its food, which may be either jerboas, small birds, lizards, insects, or
fruit.

The burrows are generally made near together, so that tlie fennecs live in
small colonies or companies. According to native reports, the young are born in
March, the number in a litter being either three or four.

The Cape Hunting-Dog {Lyca.on pictiis).

With the fennec we took leave of the last member of the familj' which can be
included in tlie typical genus Canis, and we now come to the first of three species
which represent as many distinct genera. The curious-looking animal depicted in
the illustration on the next page, and commonly known as the Cape hunting-dog,
differs from other members of the family in having but four toes to each foot, and
also in its peculiar irregularly-spotted coloration. The number of the teeth is the
same as in the wolf ; and the skull has also a considerable resemblance to that of
the latter, although shorter and broader ; while the form of the cheek-teeth is
likewise rather difierent. In point of size the hunting-dog niay be compared with
a tall greyhound. Its limbs are relatively long ; the head is broad and flat, with
a somewhat short muzzle, and I'ather large ears. The fur is rather thin ; and is
coloured with a mixture of black, yellowish ochre, grey, and white, the disposition
of the colours vaiying greatly in difierent individuals, and the patches or blotches
being generally arranged unsjnnmetrically on the two sides of the body. Professor
Mivart describes the usual coloration as follows : — " The general ground-colour is
an ochraceous grey, but with black markings, so that the bodj^ and outer sides of
the extremities are blotched and brindled with black, intermingled here and there
with white spots edged with black ; the markings being very irregular. The
muzzle is black, and a black stripe sometimes, but not always, passes backwards

57°

CARXIVORES.

from between the eyes and ears, and along the neck. The
ochraceous, then more or less black, with the terminal portion
is rather bushj-. The ears are said to be more or less naker
less black M-ithin, though with some white hairs, while exter
ochre colour at their roots, above which they may or may not
specimens, the front of the fore-limbs is more or less marked
specimen here represented, the coloration is very irregular,
amount of \\hite on the under-surface. In others, however

root of the tail is
white or whitish ; it
I : they are more or
nally thej^ are of an
be black." In some
with black. In the
there being a large

the ochre colour is

CAPE HUXTISG-DOG (^5 iiat. size).

predominant, and the black consists mainly of irregular spots, while there is
scarcely any white. This animal inhabits nearly the whole of Africa to the south-
wards and eastwards of the Sahara.

The most remarkable feature about the hunting-dog is its supei-ficial resem-
blance to the spotted hyrena of the same country : this being most noticeable in
those individuals in which the ochre colour predominates, and the dark areas take the
form of spots. From this resemblance, which is merely superficial and indicates no
sort of affinity between the two animals, the hunting-dog is frequently termed the
liy?ena-dog. To account satisfactorilj- for this resemblance is very dilEcult. It has
been suggested that it is a case of " mimicry " : that is to say, the resemblance to the

HUNTIXG-DOG. 571

hysena is due to some advantage which the hunting-dog thereby gains. It is,
however, verv difficult to see what advantage a strong animal hunting in packs,
like the present species, can gain by being mistaken for a hytena, as it is in every
respect fully qualified to take care care of itself. If, however, we could suppose
that the hunting-dog was originally a solitary animal, which had subsequently
become gregarious, then perhaps the resemblance to the hyaena miglit have been
an advantage to it.

Although generally nocturnal, the hunting-dog may occasionally be seen
durino- the day. One of the best accounts of its habits is given by Gordon Gumming,
who writes as follows : — " The wild dogs, or vilde honden, as they are called by the
Dutch boers, are still [about 1845] abundant in the precincts of the Cape Colony,
and are met with in great numbers throughout tlie interior. These animals
invariably hunt together in large organised packs, varying in number from ten to
sixty, and by their extraordinary powers of endurance, and mode of mutual assist-
ance, they are enabled to run into the swiftest or overcome the largest and most
powerful antelope. I have never heard of them attacking the buffalo, and I believe
that the animal pursued in the present instance [a gnu] is the largest to which they
give battle. Their pace is a long never-tiring gallop, and in the chase they relieve
one another, the leading hounds falling to the rear when fatigued, when others,
who have been husbanding their strength, come up and relieve them. Having
succeeded in bringing their quarry to bay, they all surround him, and he is imme-
diately dragged to the ground, and in a few minutes torn to pieces and consumed.
They are of a bold and daring disposition, and do not entertain much fear of man,
evincino- less concern on his approach than any other carnivorous animal with
which I am acquainted. On disturbing a pack, they trot leisurely along before the
intruder, repeatedly halting and looking back at him. The females bring forth
their young in large holes, in desolate open plains. These burrows are connected
with one another underground. When a troop of wild dogs frequenting these
holes observes a man approaching they do not, as might be supposed, take shelter
in the holes, but rather trusting to their speed, they rush forth, even though the
intruder should be close upon them, and retreat across the plain, the young ones,
unless very weak, accompanying them. The devastation occasioned by them
among the flocks of the Dutch boers is inconceivable. It constantly happens that
when the careless shepherds leave their charge, in quest of honey or other amuse-
ment, a pack of these marauders comes across the defenceless flock. A sanguinary
massacre in such cases invariably ensues, and incredible numbers of sheep are
killed and wounded. The voracious pack, not content with killing as many as
they can eat, follow resolutely on, tearing and mangling all that come within- their
reach. Their voice consists of three different kinds of cry, each being used on
special occasions. One of these cries is a short angry bark, usually uttered when
they behold an object which they cannot make out. Another resembles a number
of monkeys chattering together, or men conversing together when their teeth are
chattering violently from cold. This cry is emitted at night, when large numbei-s
of them are togetlier, and tliey are excited by any particular occurrence, such as
being barked at by domestic dogs. The third cry resembles the second note
uttered by the cuckoo which visits our islands during the summer months, and, when

572

CARNIVORES.

heard in a calm morning echoing tln-ongh tlie distant woodlands, has a very
pleasing effect." From later accounts it would appear that the holes referred to
above are inhabited by the hunting-dogs only during the breeding-season, and that
they are not excavated hy the animals themselves.

The numbers in which these dogs were formerly wont to associate together is
illustrated by the following anecdote from the writer just quoted. Being suddenly
wakened from slumber one night, the gi-eat hunter states that " I heard the rushing
of light feet as of a pack of wolves close on every side of me, accompanied by the
most unearthly sounds. On raising my head, to my utter horror, I saw on every
side nothing but savage wild dogs, chattering and growling. On my right and on

HU^TISU-DOUS CHASINU GE.MbBUK.

my left, and within a few paces of me, stood two lines of these ferocious-looking
animals, cocking their ears and stretching their necks to have a look at me ; while
two large troops, in which there were at least forty of them, kept dashing back-
wards across my view, within a few yards of me, chattering and growling with
the most extraordinary volubility. Another troop of wild dogs were fighting over
the wildebeest I had shot, wliich they had begun to devour. On beholding them I
expected no other fate tlian to be instanth- torn to pieces and consumed. . . .
However, I had presence of mind to consider that tlie human voice and a determined
bearing might overawe them, and accordingly^ springing to my feet, I stepped on the
little ledge surrounding the hole, while, drawing myself to my full height, I waved
my large blanket with both hands, at the same time addressing my savage assembly
in a loud and solemn manner. This had the desired eflect ; the wild dogs removed
to a more respectful distance, barking at me something like collies."

BUSH-DOG. 573

Probably a sight like this cannot at the present day be witnessed, although
hunting-dogs are still numerous in the Kilima-njaro tUstrict. Of scarcely less
interest than these large assemblies must, however, be the spectacle of two or
more of these animals in full pursuit of an antelope. Such a hunt was witnessed
by Mr. Selous in Bechuanaland, the pursued being a male sable antelope, and the
pursuer a single hunting-dog. This hunter and his comrades had been for some
time watching the antelope, when suddenly it started oft' full in their direction.
On looking round for the cause of tliis sudden movement, " we saw," writes Mr.
Selous, " that an animal was running on its track, and, although still distant, was
overhauling it fast, for the sable antelope not being pressed was not j-et doing its
best, so that when it was about two hundred yards from us, its pursuer, which we
now saw was a wild dog, was not more than fifty yards behind us. The noble-
looking antelope must just then have seen us, for it halted, looked towards us, and
then turning its head glanced at its insignificant pursuer. That glance, however,
at the open-mouthed dog thirsting for its life-blood must have called unpleasant
reminiscences, for instead of showing fight, as I should have expected it to have
done, it threw out iis limbs conyulsivelJ^ and came dashing past us at its utmost
speed. It was, however, to no purpose, for the wild dog lying flat to the ground
as a greyhound, its bushy tail stretched straight behind it, covered two yards to
its one, and came up to it in no time. It just gave the antelope one bite in the
flank, and letting go its hold instantly fell a few yards behind ; at the bite the
sable antelope swerved towards us, and upon receiving a second in exactly the same
place, turned still more, so that, taking the point on which we stood as centre, both
pursuer and pursued had described about half a circle round us, al\Nays within two
hundred yards, since the sable antelope had first halted. As the wild dog was just
going up the third time it got our wind, and instead of again inflicting a bite
stopped dead and looked toward us, whilst about a himdred yards from it the sable
antelope also came to a stand The baffled hound then turned round, and made oft"
one way, while the sable antelope, delivered from its tormentor, cantered oft" in
another." Mr. Selous adds that this is the only instance known to him of a
hunting-dog pursuing an animal by itself.

In the form of the last premolar tooth of the lower jaw the skull of the
hunting-dog presents a peculiarity by which it can be distinguished from that of
the wolves ; and it is remai-kable that a lower jaw from a cave of Glamorganshire
shows the same peculiarity in the tooth in question, thus indicating that during
the mammoth age a hunting-dog, nearly allied to the li\dng African species, pursued
its prey on the Mendips.

The BrsH-DoG (Icticyon venaticus).

The bush-dog of Brazil and British Guiana is an animal of or about the size
of a fox, diftering from all the other membei-s of the family in external appearance,
although it is not on this ground that it is separated from Canis. It is a short-
eared, short-legged, and long-bodied animal, with a very deep and rather elongated
neck, and of a general dark brown colour. The head, neck, and shoulders, differ
from the general body-colour in being grey, while the hind-quarters, tail, and

574

CARNIVORES.

under-pai-ts are nearly black. The great peculiarity of this animal is, however, the
circumstance that it has usually but one molar tooth in the upper jaw, and only
two of these teeth in the lower jaw, so that it has fewer teeth than an}- other
member of the dog family. This, however, is not all, for the lower flesh-tooth has
no trace of the cusp found on the inner side of the blade in all other dogs ; while
the heel of the same tooth, instead of being broad and adapted for gi-inding, is
brought to a shai-p cutting-edge. These features indicate that the bush-dog is a
more specialised animal than the other membei-s of the family.

But little is known of the habits of the bush-dog in the wild state, as it is but
seldom seen, and is probably nocturnal. We are infonned, however, that these
animals are, for their size, very fierce, and hunt in packs. Thej- ai-e found onh- in
the interior of the countries they inhabit ; and are said to take readil}' to the
water. A specimen kept in captivity was veiy indiscriminate in its feeding, but
preferred animal to vegetable substances. Fossil remains of the bush-dog are
found in the caverns of Brazil, in company with those of a host of strange animals
long since passed away.

Lalaxde's Dog (Otocyon megalotis).

As the bush-dog is remai-kable for the diminution in the number of its teeth,
so the long-eared, or Lalande's dog, is peculiar in that it has more than the ordinarj'

lalakde's dog (S nat. size .

EXTIXCT DOGS. 575

complement of these organs. Thus, while in the lower jaw this animal has
invariably four molar teetli, or one more than in anj- other member of the family,
in the upper jaw it has either three or four of these teeth, whereas in all other
li\nng canine animals there are not more than two upper molars. The total
number of teeth is accordingly either forty-six or forty-eight ; and no other llammal
outside the Mar.'^upial order ever has four molar teeth in both jaws. Indeed, the
tenrec is the only one in which there are four of these teeth even in one jaw.
Lalande's dog is, therefore, a very interesting animal, and one which retains, perhaps,
traces of a Marsupial ancestry lost in other living Manunals, except the tenrec.
This species, which is rather smaller than a common fox, comes nearest in external
appearance to the fennecs, having enormous ears and a thick bushj^ tail. The eyes
are unusually large : the limbs are relatively longer than in tlie fox, but the tail is
proportionately sliorter. The general colour of the fur is brownish or iron grey,
mottled with yellow ; the outer sides of the limbs being nearly black, the under-
parts whitish, and the tail slaty grey, with a black tip, and more or less distinct
dark markings on its upper-surface. Tliese animals are natives of South and East
Africa ; but verj- little is known of their habits. Tiiey are generally found in open
country, dwelling under or among .small bushes, and going about in pair.s. Although
they are said to stand and watch the hunters by the hour together, they are very
difficult of approach.

Extinct Dogs.

It has been mentioned that fossil remains of several living members of the
dog family have lieen obtained fi-oin tlie superficial (h'posits of the countries which
they .severally inhaliit. It has also been mentioned tliat extinct .species of the
Asiatic wild dogs and of the African hunting-dog have been found in Europe, thus
indicating for tho.se two groups a former distrilnition of wider extent than at
present. A number of extinct species belonging to the genus Can is have also been
obtained from the Pliocene and upper-half of the Miocene deposits of different
parts of the world. These, however, are all more or less closeh' allied to living
species, and are accordingly of no very special interest to the evolutionist.

On the other hand, if we go somewhat further back in the geological record,
to the lower portion of the Miocene and the upper part of the Eocene period, we
come across remains of more or less decidedly dog-like animals widely different
from living forms. Some of these extinct ci'eatures are, indeed, to a considerable
extent, intermediate between dogs and civets ; and thus indicate that the civet
family is probably deri\ed from the ancestors of the dog family. This enlarges
our view of tlie relationsliips of the various modern Carnivores to one another, for
we have already sliown tliat the hyfenas are closely related to the ancestral civets,
and the cats are prol)abl_\- another side-branch nearly allied to them. We thus
have reason to belie\-e that all the Carnivores with bladder-like tj'mpanic bullre to
their skulls — namely, cats, civets, hyajnas, and dogs — have sprung from a common
ancestral stock nearly allied to the modern dogs. The most civet-like of these
intermediate extinct animals are known by the name of Cynodictis, and tliey were
mostly creatures of about the size of the fox, with teeth either numerically the
same as in the latter, or as in the cix'et. and with plantigrade feet.

576

CARNIVORES.

Far more remarkable is, howevei-, the comiection which is shown to exist by
these fossil types between the clogs and the bears, which are now so widely
sundered. The connecting type appears to be a creature known as the Amphicyon,
of which a lower flesh-tooth is shown on p. 353. Some of these amphicyons were
not larger than a fox, while others must have fully equalled a bear in size. They
differed from modem dogs in having forty-four teeth, owing to the presence of the
third pair of molars in the upper-jaw, and also in that their feet wei-e plantigrade,
like those of a bear ; while they had five toes on all feet. The teeth of these planti-
grade dogs, as they may be called, were, indeed, essentially those of a modern dog ;
but, as we shall show later on. there is a complete transition through other extinct
forms to those of the bears. Hence we conclude that these plantigrade dogs were
not only the ancestors of the modem dogs, but likewise gave origin to the bear
family. The dog family is, therefore, the most ancient type of Carnivoi-es now
living, and the one which includes the extinct fonns from which nearly all the
others have originated.

I X D E X.

VOL. I.

Aard Wolf, 479.
Adapis, 236.
American Monkeys, ]44.
Amphiej'on, 57B.
Atilhops, 2t)6.

orntUus, 266.
A nthropopilkecus, 22.

calvus, 25.

ni^er, 22.
Anlrozous, 273

pallidum, 273.
Annbis Baboon, 135.
Anurosorex, 330.
Aoliis, 165.
Apes, 14.

Arabian Baboon, 12S.
A ret kits, 463.

biiUwrong, 463.
Arctogalc, 461.

Uucoiis, 461.

trivirgala, 461.
AHibeiis, 304.

planiroslris, 304.

pcrspillatus, 304.
Atalaplia, 280

ciiurea, 280.

noveboracensis, 280.
^/cte, 159.

oter, 162.

bartlMi, 164.

bclzebiUh, 163.

cucullalus, 162.

geqffroyi, 163.

grisescens, 162.

hybridus, 163.

TiuirgiiiafHs, 162.

melanochinia, 163.

pa7tisctis, 160.

subixiitadacli/lus, 162.

varicgaius, 163.

vcUerosas, 163.
AvaJiis, 209.

lanigcr, 209.
Awantibo, 235.
Aye-Aye, 237, 240.

Baboons. 125,
Anubis, 135.
Arabian, 128.
Chacma, 132.
Dogiiera, 132.
Extinct, 142.
Gelada, 124.
Guinea, 137.

VOL. I.— 37

Baboons— continued.

Sacred, 128.

Yellow, 136.
Barbary JIaeaque, 117.
Barba-stelle, 271.
Barrigndo Monkeys, 157.
Bats, 247.

Chin-leafed, 300.

Coniniersou's, 265.

Daubentou's, 283.

False Vampire, 266.

Flower-Nosedv 266.

Fox, 253.

Free-Tailed, 289.

Fruit, 253.

Golden. 288.

Hairy-Araied, 277.

Hare-Lijii)ed, 292.

Hoary, 2S0.

Hodgson's, 286.

Horseshoe, 263.

Indian Painted, 286.

Insect-Eating, 262.

Javelin, 306.

Leaf-Xosed, 263.

Long- Eared, 269.

Long-Tailed, 293.

Long-Tongued, 303.

Mastiff, 294.

Naked, 296.

Xatterer's, 285.

New Zealand, 296.

Noctule, 273, 275.

Paiti-coloured, 278.

Pipistrelle, 273.

Pouch -Winged, 290.

Red, 2S0.

Rough-Legged, 285.

Schreiber's, 287.

Serotine, 273, 277.

Sheath-Tailed, 290.

Silver-Haired, 279.

Sucker-Footed, 288.

Tall-Crowned, 287.

Tomb, 291.

Tricolor, 288.

Tube-Nosed, 282.

Typical, 268.

A'ampire. 299.

Welwitsch's, 286.

Whiskered, 287.

White, 292.

White-Winged. 286.

Wrinkle-Lipped, 297.
Bdeogalc, 473.

BdeogaU — continued.

crassicaudata, 474.

puisa, 474.
Beagle. 534.
Bearded Monkey, 102.
Bengal Monkey, 113.
Binturong, 463.
Black Ape, 122.
Blarina, 327.

brcvkuuda, 327.
Bloodhound, 530.
Boarhound, 539.
Bonnet Monkey, 110.
Budeng, 75.
Bull-Dog, 538.
15ull-Terrier, 539.
Bush-Dog, 573.

CallUhrLc, 172.

amicla, 173.

brunnca, 173.

aqyrca, 172.

donacophila, 173.

melanochira, 173.

molock, 173.

'iiitjrifrons, 173.

torqimla, 172.
Cnnida', 492.
Vanis, 493.

adustns, 506,

alpinus, 548.

antarcticus, 501.

aureus, 592.

azarm, 553.

bengalensis, 567.

cancrivarus, 554.

camts, 568.

duima, 568.

corsac, 566.

deccancusi-1, 549.

dingo, 508.

fmaelicus, 568.

familiaris, 510.

ferrilatus, 566.

hodophylax, 497.

jubatus, 552.

lagopus, 563.

lateralis, 506,

latrans, 500.

lencopus, 565.

lupus, 495.

magellanicus, 555.

me.imtir.las, 504.

microtis, 555.

578

IXDEX.

Canis — coutinued.

occidaitalis, 497.

palluius, 568.

paUipcs, 499.

procyonoidcs, 555.

rutilaiis, 552.

simcnsis, 502.

vclox, 562.

vinfinianus, 561.

vulpes, 557.

zerda, 568.
Cajie Hunting-Dog, 569.
Capuchin lloukeys, 149.
Caracal, 435.
Carnii-om, 349.
Caiuivoies, 349.
CarpoHtftiei'ia, 260.

■minima^ 260.
Ccdarhhii, 144.
Cats, 353.

American, 440.

Angora, 428.

Caffie, 420.

Desert, 424.

Domestic, 425.

Egyptian, 420.

Extinct, 446.

Fishing, 409.

Fhit-Headed, 415.

GeotiVoy's, 41S.

Golden, 40S.

Indian Desert, 424.

.Tungle, 431.

Leopard, 411.

Marbled, 408.

Malay, 429.

Man.x, 429.

Momlias, 429.

I'allas's, 423.

Pampas, 430.

Paraguay, 429.

Persian. 428.

Red, 440.

Rusty-Spotted. 414.

Sabre-Toothed, 447.

Shaw's, 424.

Siamese, 429.

Tibet, 408.

"Waved. 424.

Wild, 422.
Cat Tribe, 349.
Cebida;, 144.
Cebus, 149.

albi/ron.1, 155.

apella, 152.

cirrifer, 153.

capucinus, 153.

faluellus, 151.

hijpoleucus, 15S.

lunatiin, 151.

monachus, 156.

otivacctts, 156.

pallidus, 153.

robustus, 156.
Centclcs, 348.

ccaudatiis, 340,
CetUetidcc, 340.
Centurio, 304.

seiux, 304.
Cercoccbus, 105.

albigaia, 107.

collaris, 107.

Ccrcoccdus — continued.

fuliginosus, 106.
Ccrcopithccidci:, 66.
Cercopit/mcus, 92.

albogularis, 100.

callitrichus, 97.

campbelU, 102.

cephus, 104.

cynosurtis, 94.

diana, 102.

erythrogaslcr, 102.

crythrotis, 105.

griscoviridis, 97.

lalandi, 97.

Icucocaminjx, 103.

?Hf^iO, 105.

inona, 100.

nictUaiis, 104.

jmtas, 98.

petaurisfa, 104.

;)/«/«, 103.

pogoitias, 102.

pi/rrlwnotus, 99.

»■«*<•»■, 98.

rufuviridis, 98.

sab&iis, 97.

taiapoin, 94.

wo/n", 102.
Ccrivoiila, 286.

l>kla. 286.
Chacma, 132.
C/ialiiiolobus, 280. 298.

tubcrcidatus, 298.
Chameck. 161.
Cheeta, see Chita.
Chilonyckris, 300.
ChiinarrogiUc, 331.

himalayka, 331.

plaiycephalus, 331.
Chimpanzee, 22.

Bald, 25.

Extinct, 34,

JIafuka, 33.
Chirogakus, 219.

cvgitcrcli, 220.

furcifcr, 220.

jHi'/jj', 220.

murinus, 220.

myoxinus, 220.

pusUliis, 220.
Ckironicles, 296.

torgualus, 296.
Cliiromyidfe, 237.
Chiromyn, 240.

madagascariciisis, 240.
Chiroptcra, 247.
Chiropotcs, 178.
Chita, 442.
Chrysochloridse, 345.
Chrysochloris, 345.
Chrysothrix, 169.

snlomopliaga, 171.

sciurea,.170.

its^d, 171.
Chuva, 162.
Civets, 448.

African, 451.

P>urmese, 453.

Extinct, 479.

Indian, 452.

.lavan, 453.

Malabar, 453.

Civets — conlinucd.

Palm, 457.

True, 450
Clouded Leopard, 407.
Coaita, 160.
Cobegos, 309.
Collie, 519.
Colobs, 89.

Bav, 91.

Black, 89.

Crested, 91.

Guereza, 87.

King, 89.

Ui-sine, 90.

"White-Thighed, 90.
Colobus, 86.

crislatus, 91.

/crntgiiicHSj 91.

guereza, 87.

jmlyeoinits, 89.

satanas, 89.

idsiuus, 90.

villcrosus, 90.
Colocollo, 419.
Coli)co, 555.
Condylura, 336.

cn'sfnta, 336.
Coyote, 500.

Crab-Eating Macaque, 111.
Crocidxtra, 329.

aranen, 329.

canilia, 330.

fuliijinosa, 320.

murina, 330.

»uarcolcns, 329.
Crossarc/tiis, 475.

fiisci/itus, 475.

giimbiaiius, 475.

obscurus, 475.

:ci;u, 475.
Crossopus, 327.

fodicns, 327.
Cryploproeta, 449.

/crar, 449.
Cusinianse, 475.
Cyntelurus, 442.

jubaliis, 442.

lanitis, 444.
Cynictis, 473.

penicUlata. 474.
Cyiioccphalus, 125.

anubis, 135.

bahuin, 136.

dnijitcra, 132.

lianuidryns, 128.

IcMopheeits. 141.

mormon, 138.

jmrearius, 132.

sjihiiix, 137.
Cynodiclis, 575. ^

Cynogalc, 464.

bciuiclli, 465.
Cynopit/iccus. 122.

nigcr, 122.
Cynojilcrns, 259.

margiuatus, 259.

Dachshund, 535.
Deerhound, 523.
Desmans, 332.

PjTcnean, 334.

INDEX.

579

Desmans — continued.

Russian, 333.
Dcsmodu^, 305.

rv/us, 305.
Biana Monkey, 10"2.
Dididurus, 292.

albiis, 292.
Dingo, 508.
Diphylla, 305.

ecaudata, 305.
Dogs, 492.

Azava's, 553.

Beagle. 534.

Bloodhound. 530.

Boarhotind. 539.

Bull, 538. ■

Bull-Terrier, 539.

Bush, 573.

Collie, 519.

Crab- Eating, 554.

Dalmatian, 538.

Dane, 539.

Deerhound, 523.

Domestic, 510.

Drover's, 520.

Eskimo, 515.

Extinct, 575.

Fo.xhound, 532.

Greyhound, 521.

Hairless, 525.

Hare Indian, 516.

Harrier, 533.

Hunting, 569.

Lalande's, 574.

Lap, 547.

Lurcher, 525.

JIaltese, 547.

Mastiff, 538.

Xewfoundland, 528.

Otterliound, 534.

Pariah, 520.

Pointer, 536.

Pomeranian, 517.

Poodle, 546.

Pug, 540.

Riiccoon, 555.

Retriever, 528.

St. Bernard, 529.

Setter, 527.

Sheep, 518.

Short-Eared, 555.

Spaniel, 525.

Spitz, 517.

Staghoimd. 532.

Tibet, 542.

Terrier, 543.

Turnspit, 535.

"Wild, 548.

AVolf, 523.
Done, 82.
Douroucolis. 165.

Broad-Tailed, 109.

Feline, 169.

Three-Banded, 166.
Drill, 141.
Dryopilhccus, 53.

Emhalloiiiira, 290.

7nonticola, 290.

semkaudata, 290.
Einhallonuridse, 289.

Eonyctcris, 261.

sjydma, 261.
Epomophoriis, 258.

moiistrosus, 258.
Ericulus, 343.

setosiis, 343.

tclfairi, 343.
Erinacddm, 317.
Erinacciis, 318.

albivcnlris, 321.

algirus, 321.

collaris, 321.

ctiropams, 318.

mcgalolis, 321.

miiyrojms, 321.

KHingcnsis, 321.
Eriodes, 158.

arachnoidcs, 158.
Eiiplcrcs, 478.

(joudoii, 478.
EjTa, 419.

Fclidse, 349.
Fclis, 353.

alrox, 447.

auf/iisfa, 447.

haileyi, 441.

hcima/aisis. 411.

mffra, 420.

caliijala, 420.

aunulcnsis, 439.

caracal, 435.

caliis, 422.

chaiis, 431.

colocuHo, 419.

concolor, 397.

cristata, 447.

ci/rn, 419.

giiiyiia, 418.

isabcUina, 438.

jaguarondi, 418.

fco, 357.

/j/na', 436.

■maculala, 440.

maniculata, 420.

manul, 423.

marmorata, 408.

nebulosa, 407.

o«cn!, 394.

ornala, 424.

pajcros, 430.

jyardalis, 416.

2)ardina, 442.

pardiis, 387.

jylankcps, 415.

rubiginosa, 414.

»■«/«, 440.

scripta, 408.

serval, 413.

shaiHana, 424.

temmincki, 408.

tigrina, 417.

tigris. 373.

torquata, 424.

uncia, 393.

vivcrrina, 409.
Fennecs, 468

Common, 568.
Ruppell's, 568.
Fossa, 449.
Fossa, 454.

Fox-Bats, 253.

Collared, 257.

Tailed, 257.
Foxes, 557.

American, 559.

Arctic, 563.

Asse, 568.

Common, 558.

Corsac, 566.

Cross, 559.

Desert, 565.

Grey, 561.

Hoary, 568.

Indian, 567.

Kit, 562.

Long-Eared, 568.

Pale, 568.

Eed, 559.

Silver, 559.

Tibetan, 566.
Foxhound, 532.
Fox-Terrier, 543.
Fruit-Bats, 252.

Cusp-Toothed, 260.

Epauletted, 258.

Long-Tongued, 260.

Short-Nosed, 259.

Tube-Nosed, 259.

(/fl;Za<70, 222.

alhni, 225.

crassicaudata, 223.

demUoffi, 226.

gametti, 224.

»M£)'mi«s, 227.

sencgalensis, 225.
Galagos, 223.

Allen's, 225.

Demidotrs, 226.

Garnett's, 224.

Great, 223.

Senegal, 225.
Galcopithccidx, 309.
Galcopithccns, 309.

philippviiensis, 311.

i-olans, 310.
Galerix, 315.
Galidia, 478.

ekgans, 478.
GaluHctis, 478.

striata, 478.

vittata, 478.
Gelada Balioon, 124.
Genets, 454.

Blotched, 456.

Common, 455.

Feline, 456.

Pardine, 456.
Genetta, 454.

felina, 456.

pardina, 456.

senegalensis, 456.

tigrina, 456.

vulgaris, 455.
Gentle Lemur, 216.
Geogale, 345.
Gibbons. 57.

Agile, 64.

Crowned, 64.

Fossil, 65.

Hainan, 64.

SSo

INDEX.

Gibbons — continued.

Hoolock, 62.

Malay, 64.

Siamang, 60.

Silver, 65.

Variegated, 6.5.

■White- Haired, 62.

White-Handed, 61.
Gibraltar Ape. 119.
Glossophaga, 303.
Golden Moles, 345.
Gorilla, 34.
Gorilla, 34.

gena, 36.

savagci, 36.
Green ilonkey, 97.
Greyhounds, 521.

Albanian, 524.

English, 521.

Grqeian, 524.

Italian, 522.

Persian, 524.

Russian, 525.
Grivet itonkey, 97.
Guenons, 93.
Guereza, 87.
Gymniira, 321.

rajHcsi, 322.

siiilla, 322.
Gjinnuras, 317, 321.

Hanuman, 71.
Hapalidie. 189.
Hapale, 190.

albicollis, 192.

aurita, 192.

chrysolcucus, 192.

humcraii/cr, 192.

jacchus, 190.

melanura, 193.

pcnicillala, 192.

pggmsea, 193.
Bapalenur, 216.

griscus, 216.

simus, 217.
Hapalidm, 188.
Harpijia, 259.
Marpyioccphalus, 282.

Icucogastcr, 282.
Harrier, 533.
Hedgehogs. 317.
Helogale, 473.

parviila, 473.

undulala, 473.
ffemicenJclcs, 342.

nigriccps, 342.

scmispinosus, 342.
Semigale, 462.

hardwictci, 462.

7iOS«i, 462.
Hemigales, 462.
Hemiijalidia, 478.

olivacca, 478.
fferpcstcs, 465.

albicatida, 469.

aiiropunctatiis, 472.

irafhyiiriis, 472.

caffer, 469.

gracilis, 469.

ichttcumon, 466.

javaniciis, 472.

Herpestcs — continued.

mungo, 470.

sanguineus, 469.

scmilorqiial us, 472.

smithi, 472.

wrva, 472.

vitieollis, 472.
Hipposidrrus, 265.

armigcr, 265.

commersonl, 265.
Hocheur Moukev. 104.
Hoolock, 62.
Horseshoe-Bats, 263.
Howlers, 183.

Black, 185.

Brown, 186.

Mantled, 187.

Reel, 1S5.

Vera Cruz, 185.
Hunting-Dog, 569.
Hunting-Leopard, 442.
Hylohates, 57.

agilis, 64.

}iaina7ius, 64.

hoolock, 62.

/ar, 61.

leuciscus, 65.

jrilcatiis, 64.

rajflesi, 64.

syndadylus. 60.

lariegatus, 65.
Htjasna, 482.

dcwiinca, 488.

crocuta, 488.

striata, 485.
Hyrena-Dog, 569.
Hya?nas, 481.

Brown, 48S.

E.'itinct, 491.

Siiotted, 488.

Striped, 485.
ffyxnidee, 481.

Ichneumon, 466.
Ictieyon, 573.

vcnaticns, 573.
Ictithere, 479.
ludri, 203.
Indris, 203.

brcvicaudata, 203.
Jnsectii&ra, 306.
Insectivores, 306.

Jackal, 502.

Black-Backed, 504.

Side-Striped, 506.
Jaguar, 394,
Jaguarondi, 418.
Jumping Shrews, 315.

Kiiberu, 502.
Kaguans, 309.
Kahau, 84.
Kalong. 253.
King- Monkey, 89.

Lagothrix, 156.

humboldti, 156.

Lalande's Dog, 574.
Langurs, 69.

Capped, SO.

Fossil, 84.

Hanuman. 71.

Himalayan, 73.

Hoses, "81.

iladras, 74.

Malabar, 74.

Xilgiri, 77.

Purple-Faced, 78.

Red-Bellied, 80.

Tibetan, 83.

Vaiiegated, 82.
Lanthanotherium, 315.
Lap-Dog, 547.
Leaf-Monkev, 75.
Leaf- Xosed Bats, 263, 265.
Lemur, 210.

albifrons, 213.

cn«rt, 211.

leucomyslar, 215.

macaco, 214.

mungoz, 212.

nigri/rons, 213.

ruber, 215.

rufi/roHS, 212.

rHfy>es, 215.

variu-f, 215.
Lcmuridac, 199.
Lemui-s. 199, 270.

African. 222.

Avahi. 209.

Black, 202, 214.

Black-Fronted, 213.

Broad-Xosed. 217.

Fossil, 236.

Gentle. 216.

Hoary-Headed, 219.

Indri, 203.

Mouse, 219.

Mungoose, 212.

Red, 215.

Red-Fronted, 212.

RuHed, 215.

Sifaka, 205.

Slow, 227.

Smooth-Eared, 215.

Weasel. 217.

White-Fronted, 213.

White- Whiskered, 215.
Leopard, 387.

Black, 3S9.

Clouded, 407.

Hunting. 442.

Snow, .^93.
Lepidolemur, 217.

caniceps, 219.

mtistelinus, 218.
Linsang, 456.

gracilis, 456.

maculosus, 456.

pardicolor, 457.
Lin.sangs, 456.
Lion, 357.

Lion-TaUed Monkey, 113.
Loris, 227.

Common. 228.

Slender, 231.
Loris, 227.

gracilis, 231.
Ludio Monkey, 105.

INDEX.

S8i

Lurchers, 525.
Lutoiig, 75, 81.

Crested, 77.
Ltjcaon, 5ti9.

piclus, 569.
Lyn.\, 436.

Bay, 440.

Canada, 439,

Isabelline, 438.

Northern, 457.

Pardine, 442.

Plateau, 440.

Macaca Barrigudo, 157.
Mataca Prego, 153.
Mataciis, 107.

arcloidcs, 117.

assamensis, 115.

cynomotgus. 111.

fiiscatus, 117.

iiiuu^, 117.

lasiotiSf 115.

Iconiiiits, 116.

?i»aiir««, 117.

iiemestrinus, 115.

ochreatus, 117.

2>ih(Uvs, 111.

rhesus, 113.

silenus, 113.

sinicus, 110.

tibetaniis, 117.
Macaques, 107.

Barbary, 117.

Crab-Eating, 111.

Extinct, 124.

Himalayan, 115.
Jlfachiercxlns, 447.
Macroscelides, 315.

r(ce<!', 316.

Ictradactylus, 316.

typiciis, 315.
Maiyroscclididm, 315.
Magot, 117.
Maha, 79.

JIaUirouck Monkey, 94.
Mammals, 1 .
Maned AVolf, 552.
Mandrill, 138.
JIangabeys, 105.

Grey-Cheeked, 107.

Sooty, 106.
Man -like Apes, 14.
Margay, 417.
Marmosets, 188.

Black-Eared, 192.

Black-Tailed. 193.

Conjmon, 190.

Geoit'roy's, 197.

Long- Tusked, 194.

Pigmy, 193.

Short- Tusked, 190.

Silky, 197, 198.

Silver, 192.

■\Vhite-Eared, 192.
Mastiff, 538.
Meerkat, 476.
Megadcrrtia, 267.

frons, 267.

'hjra, 267.
Mias, 51.
MicrochirojUcm, 262.

Microgale, 343.
Mulax, 194.

argcntatns, 193.

chri/somelas, 198.

(kvUlri, 196.

flax If runs, 196.

gcvffroiji, 197.

tedipus, 196.

labialus, 196.

IcoiiiiiKs, 198.

■mystn-r, 196.

rosfiUri, 198.

rufiinunus, 195.

rufonigcr, 196.

U7-si(his, 194.
iliiiioplcrus, 287.

Si'hirihrrsi, 287.
Moles, 332.

Common, 337.

Golden, 345.

Hairy-Tailed, 336.

Star-Nosed, 336.

Tree, 337.

Yellow-Tailed, 339.

Web-Footed, 335.
irole-Shrews, 334.
Moloch Titi, 173.
Molossus, 294.

glnucinus, 295.

pcrotis, 296.

rufus, 295.
Monkeys, 14, 66, 144.

American, 144.

Banded-Leaf, 75.

Bear, 78.

Bengal, 113.

Bearded. 102.

Black- Bellied, 103.

Bonnet, 110.

Budeng, 75.

Caiarara, 149.

Campliell's, 102.

Capuchin, 149.

Colob, 89.

Diana, 102.

Duskv-Leat; 80.

Grivet, 97.

Guereza. 86.

HocheiM-, 104.

Howling, 182.

King, 89.

Leaf, 75.

Lion-Tailed, 113.

Lndio, 105.

Lntong, 75.

JIalbrovick, 94.

Mangabev, 105.

Mona, 10"0.

Moustache, 104.

Mozambicjue, 98.

Negio, 75.

Nisnas, 99.

Old World, 66.

Patas, 98.

Phavre's, 81.

Pig-Tailed, 108, 115, 116.

Pluto, 103.

Proboscis, 84.

Purple-Faced, 78.

Red-Bellied, 102.

Saki, 175.

Spider, 145, 158, 159.

I Monkeys — continued.

Squirrel, 169.

Stump-Tailed, 117.

Sykes's, 100.

Talapoin, 94.

Thumbless, 86.

Titi, 172.

Uakari, 178.

Yervet, 97.

White. 78.

White-Eyelid, 105.

White-Nosed, 104

Wolf's, 102.

Woolly, 156.
Mormops, 300.

blainvilki, 300.
Mouse-Lemurs, 219.
Moustache Monkey, 104.
Mozambique Monkey, 98.
Mungooses, 465.

Banded, 472, 475.

Barred, 472.

Caffre, 469.

Crab-Eating, 472.

Cnsimanse, 475.

Egyptian, 466.

Four-Toed, 473.

Gambian, 475.

Ichnenmon, 466.

Indian, 470.

ilailagascar, 478.

Meller's, 474.

Red-Tailed, 469.

Ruddy, 472.

Short-Tailed, 472.

Slender, 469.

Small Indian, 472.

Smooth-Nosed, 474.

Stripe-Xecked, 472.

Thick-Tailed, 474.

AVhite-Tailed, 469.

Zebra, 475.
Munguste, 478.
Musk-Shrews, 329.
Mycelcs, 182.

anratus, 185.

bdzcbul, 185.

caraya, 185.

flavimanus, 185.

fusctis, 186.

pallialus, 187.

scniculus, 187.

ursinus, 186.

villosus, 185.
Mycgale, 333.

moschata, 333.

pyreiiaica, 334.
Myopithecus, 94.
Myslacops, 298.

tubenulatus, 298.
Myxopoda, 288.

atirila, 288.

Naiulinia, 462.

biiwtcda, 462.
Nasalis, 84.

larmlus, 84.
Natalus, 287.
NeclogaU, 331.

elcgans, 331.
Negro ilonkey, 75.

582

INDEX.

Ncsonydtcris, 261.

woodfordi, 261.
Nisnas Monkey, 99.
Noctilio, 292.

leporinus, 292.
Kodule, 273, 275. ,
Nyclcridm, 256.
Xijcieris, 267.

javaiiica, 268.
Kycticcbus, 227.

javaiiicus, 231.

tardigradus, 228.
Mjdicejtis, 280, 286.
Nyctinomus, 297.

brasilicnsis, 298.

ccstoiii, 297.
Nijctipithecus, 16,5.

Umurinus, 169.

irivirgalus, 166.

vociferans, 169.
Kyctophilus, 273.

Ocelot, 416.
Oiang-Utan, 46.
Oir.opitluiciis, 143.
Oryzorictcs, 343.
Otocyon, 574.

tncgalotis, 574.
Olonydcris, 272.

hcmprichi, 272.
Otterhound, 534.
Ouistiti, 190.
Ounce, 393.

Palhysena, 491.
Pabn-Civets, 457.

African, 462.

Chinese, 460.

Common, 459.

Malay, 460.

Small-Toothed, 451.
Panther, 386.
Paradoxurus, 457.

aureus, 460.

grayi, 460.

hermaphroditus, 460.

jcrdoni, 460.

lanigcr, 459.

larvatiis, 460.

musschenbrocl'i, 459.

niger^ 459.
Farasorcx, 315.
Parauacii, 175.
Pariah Dog, 520.
Patas Monkey, 98.
Perodidicus, 233.

calaharcnsis, 234.

po«o, 233.
Phyllonydcrk, 303.

sezckorni, 303.
Phyllostoma, 303.

hastatum, 303.
Phyllostomatidai, 299.
Pig-Tailed Monkey, 108, 115, 116.
Pinehe, 194, 196."
Pipistrolle, 273.
Fithecia,, 174.

albicans, 175.

albijiasa, 178.

chiropolcs, 177.

PUhccia — continued.

hirsuta, 175.

Icucoccplinla, 174.

monachus, 175.

rufivaitcr, 176.

sidanas, 178.
Platyrhini, 144.
Pkcotus, 269.

aicrilus, 269.

macrotis, 269.
Pluto Monkey, 103.
Foiana, 456.

poeiisis, 457.
Pointer, 536.
Pongo, 34.
Poodle, 547.
Folamogale, 344.

fc/ox, 344.
Potto, 233.

Bosnian's, 233.
Primates, 14.
Proboscis Monkey, 84.
Propitluxus, 205.

erironatus, 208.

diadcma, 207.

■vcrrcnuxi, 208.
Propitheques, 205.
P)-ota/pa, 339.
Prolclcidse, 479.
ProtcJcs, 479. -

cristntns, 479.
Frotopithe.cus, 187.
Pfcra/vprx, 260.
Ficropodidae. 252.
Flcropu.i, 253.

cdulis, 256.

kcrandrenii, 256.

medius, 253.

nli'uharH'ifs, 255.

polioccplialus, 256.
PtiJoccrcua, 314.

Zou-i, 314.
Piig-Dog. 540.
Puma, 397.
Purjile-Faced Jlonkey, 78.

Red-Bellied Monkey, 102.
Retrievers, 528.
Khinogali', 474.

mcUcri, 474.
lihinoloph ida;, 263.
Rhinolophus, 263.

sdhiops, 264.

capcnsis, 264.

fcrrum-equinurn, 264.

hipposidcrus, 264.

ludus, 264.

mcgaphyllus, 264.
Fht/wpilhecus, 183.
llJiinopoma, 293.

micropliylhnn, 293.
Rhynchociion. 316.
Ring-Tailed Lemur, 211.
Rock-Shrews, 316.

Saccoptcry.r, 290.

canina, 290.

Icpfitra, 290.
Sacred Baboon, 128.

St. Bernard Dog, 529.
Saki Monkevs. 173.

Black, 178.

Humboldt's, 175.

Red-Backed, 177.

Whiskered. 176.

White-Headed, 174.

AVhite-Handed, 178.
Sapajous, 149.

Brown, 149.

Crested, 156.

Horned, 152.

Slender, 153.

Smooth- Headed. 156.

AVeeper. 153.

White-Cheeked, 151.

White-Fronted, 155.

White-Throated, 156.
Scalops, 335.

aqualiciis, 335.
Scapanus, 336.

amcricanus, 336.
Scaptonyx, 339.

fusckaudatus, 339.
Sciurus tiijmioidis, 314.
Scmnopitlircvs, 69.

ccphalopterus, 78.

chrysogaster, 80.

chrysomdax, 75.

crislalus, 76.

cntellus, 71.

femoralis, 75.

AftWi, 81.

hypo/eucHS, 74.

johni, Ti.

inaurtis, 75.

)i(^«iiBits, 82.

obscurus, 80.

phayrci, 81.

jnknt'is, 80.

prkaniis, 74.

jnjrrhus, 75.

roxcllanse, 83.

sc/iistatcus, 73.

ioi^a', 78.

J- tiHus, 78.
Serotii:-'. 273, 277.
Serval, 413.
Setters, 527.

English, 527.

Gordon, 528.

Irish, 527.

Russian, 528.

Welsh, 528.
Shrews, 323.

Alpine, 326.

Burrowing, 330.

Common, 325.

Earless, 326.

Jumping. 315.

Lesser, 326.

Musk, 329.

Rock, 316.

Short-Tailed, 327.

Swimming, 331.

Tree, 312

Water, 327.

Web-Footed, 331.
Siamang, 60.
Sifakas, 205.

Crowned, 208.

Diademed, 207.

INDEX.

583

Sifakas — ami iiiucd.

Verreaiix's, 206, 208.
Simia, 46.

morio, 52.

satifnis, 46.
Simiida; H.
Slow Lemui-s, 227.

Afiieaii, 2.33.
Snow Leoi>ard, 393.
Soko, 25.
Sohnodon, 343.

cubanus, 343.

paradoxwf, 343.
Soleuodons, 343.
Suhnudontidse. 343.
Horei:, 324.

aJpiitus, 326,

bciidirei, 326.

hi/drodromus, 326,

pa/ustris, 326.

pi/gma'us, 326.

culgafis, 324.
Sorkidse, 323.
Soriculus, 325.
Spaniels, 525.

Blenheini, 526.

Clumber, 525.

Cocker, 526.

Field, 525.

King Charles, 526.

Norfolk, 526.

Sussex, 526.

Water, 526.
Spider- Monkeys, 145. 158, 159

Black-Capped. 162.

Black-Faced, 162.

Black-Handed, 163.

Brown, 163.

Grizzled, 162.

Hooded, 162.

Long-Haired, 163.

Red-Faced, 160.

Variegated, 163.

White- Bellied. 163.

White-Whiskered, 162.

Woolly, 15S.
Spitz, 517.
Squirrel-.Monkeys, 169.

Black-Tailed, 171.

Common. 170.

Short-Tailed, 171.
Staghound, 532.
Stcnoderma. 304.
Suricaia, 476.

tctradactijla, 476.
Sykes's Jloukey, 100.
Synoltis, 271.

barbastcUus, 271.

darjilinycnsis, 272.

Talapoin Monkev, 94.

Talpa, 337.

europiea, 337,
micrura, 339.

Talpidce, 332.
Tamarins, 194.

Black and Red, 196.

Bro^vn-Headed, 196.

Deville's, 196.

Jloustached, 196.

Xegro, 194.

Ked-Bellied, 196.

Red-Handed, 195.
Taphozous, 291.

affinis, 291.

HUdiveiUris, 291.
Tarsier, 237.
Tarsiidm, 237.
Tarsius, 238.

spectrum, 238.
Tenrees, 340.

Common, 340.

Hedgehog, 342.

Long-Tailed. 343.

Rice, 343.

Streaked, 342.
Terrier, 543.

Black and Tan, 546

English, 545

Fox, 543.

Irish, 543.

Skye, 544.

Yorkshire, 545.

Welsh, 544.
ThcropilJicais, 124,

gclnda, 125.
Thumliless Jlonkeys 86.
Thyroptcra, 288.
Tibet Dog, 542.
Tiger, 373.
Titis, 172.

Black -Fronted, 173.

Black Handed, 173,

Collared, 172.

Moloch, 173.

Red, 172.

Reed, 173.
Tree-Shrews, 312.

Pen-Tailed, 314.
Troglodytes, 24.
Tupaia, 312.

ellioti, 313.

fcrrtiginca, 313.

tana, 313.
Tupaiklie, 312.
Tupaia.s. 312.
Turnspit, 535.

Uaearia, 178.

calva, 179.

melanocephala, 181.

rubicunda, 181.
Uakari Monkeys, 178.

Bald, 179.

Black-Headed. 181.

Red-Faced, 181
Uropsilits, 334.
Urolrickus, 334.

Urotrichus — continued.
sm-icipes, 334.

Vampires, 299.

Blood-Sucking, 305.

Long-Tongued, 303.

Short-Xosed, 304.
Vampirus, 200.

auritus, 301.

spcc/rimi, 300.
Vervet Monkey, 97,
Fespcrtilio, 283.

bcclistcini, 286.

dauboUoni, 283,

dasycneme, 285.

mystacinus, 287.

luiUcrcri, 285.

icchcUschi, 287,
Vespertiliouidx, 268,
Vcsperugo, 273.

abramus, 275.

borcalis, 273.

discolor, 278.

donncri, 286.

kisleri, 275.

noctivagans, 279,

noclide, 275.

parvulus, 288.

]>ipistrclhis, 273,

schlicfenii, 280,

serolinvs, 277,
Vivcrra, 450.

civetta, 451.

civcllinu, 453.

malacccnsis, 453.

megaspUa, 453.

tangalunga, 453,

sibelha,, 452.
Vixci~rid«, 448.

Wanderu, 71, 79, 113,
Weasel-Lemur, 217.
\Vhaipu-sai, 172.
White-Evelid Monkeys, 105.
White-Xosed Monkey, 104.
Widow- Monkev, 172.
Wolf, 495.

Antarctic, 501.

Coyote, 500.

Indian, 499.

Maned, 552.
Wolf-Dogs, 523.
Wolf's Jionkey, 102.
Woolly Monkeys, 156.
Woolly Spider 'Monkeys, 158.
Wou-Wou, 64.

Xantharpyia, 257.
collaris, 257,

MORRISON AND OIBB, PRIXIEBS, EDISEIRUH.

414

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