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NELURAE HISTORY
EDITED IBY
RICH ao EY DEKKER, B.A.; F.G:S3.F.Z:S.,.. ETC:
¢
With PRERACES Big
‘ Paper ae LATER, M.A., «PHD., F.R.S., ETC.
SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON
¥
ILLUSTRATED WITH
.
Seventy-two Colowred Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings
BY
W. KUHNERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF,
GAMBIER BOLTON, F.Z.8.; AND MANY OTHERS
VOL Ee
SECTION Sit.
LONDON
FREDERICK WARNE & CO.
AND NEW YORK
1894
[All Rights Reserved]
Ww ; ; : or
4 a
7 : = i
i 7 » y
MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, ‘EDINBURGH. 7 ny .
: %
THE FREE-TAILED INSECTIVOROUS Bats
CON are ES
MAMMALS
CHAPTER XI.—Bats,—concluded.
Smooth-Nosed Free-Tailed Bats (Emballonuride)—
Sheath-Tailed. Bats (Hmballonwra)—Pouch-Winged Bats (Saccopterys)—Tomb-Bats
(Taphozous)—White_ Bats (Diclidurus)—Hare-Lipped Bats (Noctilio)—Long-Tailed Bat
(Rhinopoma)—Mastitf-Bats (Molossus)—Naked Bat (Chiromeles)—Wrinkled-Lipped Bats
(Nyctinomus)—New Zealand Bat (Mystacops)—Vampire Bats (Phyllostomatide)—Chin-
Leafed Bats (Chilonycteris and Mormops)—Harmless Vampires (Vampirus)—Javelin
Bats (Phyllostoma)—Long-Tongued Vampires (Glossophaga)—Short-Nosed Vampires
(Artibeus)—Blood-Sucking Vampires (Desmodus and Diphylla)—Fossil Bats,
CHAPTER XII.—Tue InsEctivores,—Order Insectivora.
Characteristics of the Group—Cobegos, or Kaguans (Galeopithecide)—Philippine Cobego—
Tree-Shrews, or Tupaias (Tupaiide)—Pen-Tailed Tree-Shrew (Ptilocercus)—Fossil Tree-
Shrews —Jumping Shrews (Macroscelidide) — Typical Forms (Macrosceles) — Rock
Jumping Shrew—Long-Nosed Jumping Shrew (Rhynchocyon)—Its Habits—Hedgehogs
and Gymunuras (Erinaceide)—Hedgehogs (Erinaceus)—African Species—Extinct Repre-
sentatives—Gymuuras (Gymnura)—Extinct Forms—Shrews (Soricidw)—Typical Shrews
(Sorex) —Common Shrew—Lesser Shrew—Alpine Shrew—North American Shrews—
Short-Tailed, or Earless Shrews (Blarina)—Water-Shrew (Crossopus)—Musk-Shrews
(Crocidura)—Burrowing Shrews (A nurosorex)—Swimming Shrews (Chimarrogale)—W eb-
Footed Shrew (Nectogale) — Desmans and Moles (Talpide)— Desmans (Myogale)—
Russian Desman—Pyrenean Desman—Mole-Shrews (Urotrichus)—Web-Footed Moles
(Sealops)—Hairy-Tailed Moles (Scapanus)—Star-Nosed Mole (Condylura)—The True
Moles (Talpa)—Extinct Species—Yellow-tailed Mole—The Tenrees (Centetide)—Struc-
tural Features—Common Tenree (Centetes)—Streaked Tenree (Hemicentetes)—Hedgehog
Tenrecs (Hriculus) — Long-Tailed Tenrecs (Microgale)— Rice-Tenrees (Oryzorictes) —
Solenodons (Solenodontide)—Haytian Solenodon—Cuban Solenodon—The Potamogale
(Potamogalide)—The Geogale—The Golden Moles (Chrysochloride),
CHAPTER XIII.—TuHeE Carnivores,—Order Carnivora.
THE Cat-TrIBE (Felide)—General Characteristics—Distinctive Features of the Cat Tribe—
The Lion—Present and Past Distribution—Varieties—Habits—Its Roar—Its Prey—
Perils of Lion-Hunting—The Tiger—Habits and Haunts—Partiality for Water—Its
Prey—Loss Inflicted on Cattle-Owners—Man-Eating Tigers—Their Victims— Modes of
Destroying Tigers—The Leopard—Its Coloration and Characteristics—Black and White
Leopards—Distribution—Mode of Life and Haunts-—-Partiality for Dogs—Leopard-
PAGE
289
vi CONTENTS
PAGE
Hunting and Trapping—Snow-Leopard, or Ounce—Distribution and Habits—Jaguar
—Distinctive Features and Dimensions—Its Prey—Animosity to the Puma—Lassoing
Jaguars—Puma—Its Colour and Size—Adaptability to Climates—Attacks on Horses—
Gentleness to Man—Food and Habits—Fossil Pumas—Clouded Leopard—Marbled Cat
—Golden Cat—Fishing Cat—Its Habits and Daring—Leopard-Cat—Serval—Rusty-
Spotted Cat — Flat-Headed Cat — Ocelot —Its Remarkable Variability — Margay —
Jaguarondi—Eyra—lIts Weasel-like Form—Colocollo—Cattfre, or Egyptian Cat—Its
“Relation to Domestic Cats—Wild Cat—lIts Present Rarity in Britain—Fierceness of its
Disposition—Pallas’s Cat—Indian Desert Cat—Domestic Cats—Different Views as to
their Origin—Various Colours—Persian, or Angora Breed—Siamese Cat—Manx Cat
—Mombas Cat—Pampas Cat—Jungle-Cat—Caracal—Lynx—Distribution and Races
of Lynxes—Northern Lynx—Canada Lynx—Bay Lynx—Pardine Lynx—Hunting-
Leopard (Cynelurus)— Name Chita not exclusively applicable to this Species—Capturing
Black-Buck with Tamed Hunting-Leopards—Extinct Cats, : : : . 3849
CHAPTER XIV.—CarRnivorEs,—continued.
Civets, AARD-WoLF, AND Hynas.—The Civet Tribe (Viverride)—Fossa (Cryptoprocta)—
True Civets (Viverra)—African Civet—Indian Civet—Burmese Civet—Javan Civet—
Rasse—Genets (Genetta)—Linsangs (Linsang)—Palm-Civets (Paradoxurus)—Indian
Palm-Civet—Malay Palm-Civets—Chinese Palm-Civet—Small-Toothed Palm-Civets
(Arctogale) — Hemigales (Hemigale)— African Palm-Civet (Nandinia) — Binturong
(Arctictis)—Cynogale (Cynogale)—Mungooses (Herpestes)—Egyptian Mungoose—Indian
Mungoose, and its Encounters with Snakes—Introduction’ of Mungooses into Sugar
Plantations—Crab-Eating Mungoose— Other Species—Four-Toed Mungooses (Cynictis)—
Smooth-Nosed Mungooses(Rhinogale)—Cusimanse (Crossarchus)—The Meerkat (Suricata)
and its Interesting Habits—-Madagascar Mungooses (Galidictis and Hupleres)—Extinct
Civet-like Animals—Aard-Wolf (Proteletde)—Hyenas (Hyenide)—Characteristics—
Striped Hyzena—Brown Hyzna—Spotted Hyzena—Extinct Species, . : . 448
CHAPTER XV.—CarnivoreEs,—continued.
THE Doc TriBe (Canide).—General Characteristics, Distribution and Habits—Extent of the
yenus (Canis)—The Wolf—Its Numerous Varieties and Wide Distribution—Habits
—Indian Wolf—Coyote—Antarctic Wolf—Kaberu—Jackals—Black-Backed Jackal—
Side-Striped Jackal—Dingo—Domestic Dogs—Origin—Eskimo Dog—Hare Indian Dog
—Pomeranian Dog—Sheep-Dog—Collie—Drover’s Dog—Pariah Dogs—English Grey-
hound—Italian Greyhound—Deerhound—Irish Wolf-Dogs—Other Greyhounds—
Hairless Dogs—Lurchers—Field-Spaniels—Irish Water-Spaniel—Setters—Retrievers
— Newfoundlands— Bloodhound —Staghound — Foxhound — Harrier — Otterhound —
Beagle—Turnspit—Dachshund—Pointer—Dahnatian Dog—Mastiff—Bull-Dog—Bull-
Terrier—Boarhound—Pugs—Tibet Dog—Fox-Terrier—Irish Terrier—Skye-Terrier—
Dandie Dinmont — Yorkshire Terrier—English Terrier— Poodle— Maltese Dog—
Mexican Lap-Dog—Asiatie Wild Dog—Siberian Wild Dog—Indian Wild Dog—Malay
Wild Dog—Extinct Species—Maned Wolf—Azara’s Wild Dog—Crab-Eating Dog—
Short-Eared Dog—Raccoon Dog—The Foxes—The Common Fox—Grey Fox—Kit Fox
Arctic Fox—Desert Fox—Corsac Fox—Indian Fox—Hoary Fox—Asse Fox—Pale Fox
— Ruppell’s Fennee—Common Fennec —Cape Hunting-Dog (Lycaon) — Bush-Dog
(Icticyon)—Lalande’s Dog (Octocyon)—Extinct Dogs, : : : : . 492
INDEX TO First VOLUME, COMPRISING Sections I. anv ILI, . : : : SaenOue
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
COEOURED ‘PLATES
JAGUAR KILLING TAPIR, .
Wepe-Footep SHREWS,
TIGRESS AND CUBs,
LEOPARDS,
WILp Cat,
LINSANGS, .
Common Fox,
AFRICAN FENNECS,
Lion AnD LIoNEss,
CarRAcaLs HUNTING,
Eoyptian MUNGOOSES,
A GATHERING oF STRIPED Fremuaes
Aw Eskruo anpD His Dogs,
Frontispiece
Facing page 331
PAGE PLATES
TEXT ENGRAVINGS
Head of Tomb-Bat,
Long-Tailed Bat,
Head of Mastiff-Bat,
Head of Female of the Naked Bat,
Head of Blainville’s Chin-Leafed Bat,
The Great Vampire-Bat,
The Javelin-Vampire, 2 F
Head of Long-Tongued Vampire, .
Head of Centurion Bat, ;
Skeleton of Hedgehog,
The Cobego,
The Common Tree- Shey,
Pen-Tailed Tree-Shrew,
Cape Jumping-Shrew,
Rock Jumping-Shrew,
The Common Hedgehog, .
Hedgehog and Young,
Raffles’s Gymnura,
Teeth of Swimming-Shrew,
Skeleton of Water-Shrew, .
PAGE |
291
293
294
297
The Spider Musk-Shrew and Common
Shrew, : : :
The W. epeeeaee
The Common ak: Sites,
Skeleton of Mole,
Russian Desmans, .
Fore-Foot of Mole,
The Common Mole,
Tritubercular Molar Tooth,
The Tenrec,
The Cuban Solenodon,
The Potamogale,
Skeleton of Tiger, . .
Skull of the Common Fox, :
Flesh-Tooth of the Striped Hyzna,
Flesh-Tooth of an Extinct Dog-like Car-
nivore, ‘
Cape Maned Lion, .
Teeth of Sabre-Toothed ee
Lion at a Pool,
373
387
422
456
557
568
ge 348
434
467
484
dll
PAGE
325
328
329
332
333
337
338
340
341
344
345
349
352
353
353
358
359
363
Vill LIST OF TIZLOUSTRATIONS
Maneless Lion from Senegal,
The Tiger and the Tigress,
The Bengal Tiger, . ‘
The Struggle in the Stream,
The Leopard,
Black Leopard,
Leopard on the Prowl,
The Snow-Leopard,
The Puma,
The Clouded eee
The Marbled Cat,
The Fishing-Cat,
The Leopard-Cat,
The Serval,
The Ocelot,
The Margay,
The Eyra,
The Cattre Cat,
The Domestic Cat,
The Angora Cat,
The Pampas Cat, . mae,
The Jungle-Cat,
The Northern Lynx,
The European Lynx,
The Pardine Lynx,
The Hunting-Leopard,
Skull of Sabre-Toothed Cat,
Upper Jaw of the Indian Civet,
The Fossa, .
The Civet, .
The Indian Civet,
The Rasse, .
The Genet,
The Common Palm-Civ aes
The Malay Palm-Civet,
The Chinese Palm-Civet,
The Binturong,
The Cynogale,
The Indian Mungoose,
The Crab-Eating Mungoose,
The Thick-Tailed Mungoose,
The Cusimanse,
The Banded Mungoose,
The Meerkat,
The Aard-Wolf,
Skeleton of Spotted Hyeena,
Lower Jaw of an Extinct Hyeena,
The Brown Hyeena,
The Spotted Hyzena,
PAGE
367
373
376
384
387
389
391
393
398
407
409
410
412
414
417
418
419
42]
426
428
431
432
437
Teeth of Common Fox and Azara’s Fox, .
Skeleton of Wolf,
The Wolf,
The Coyote,
The Jackal, ;
The Black-Backed J role
The Side-Striped Jackal,
Variety of the Side-Striped Jackal,
The Dingo,
The Pomeranian Dog,
Rough-Coated Collies,
English Greyhound,
Italian Greyhounds,
Persian Greyhound,
Clumber Spaniel,
Trish Setter,
Newfoundland Dog,
Rough St. Bernard,
Bloodhounds, ,
Staghounds after a Chase, .
Foxhounds in Full Cry,
The Otterhound,
The Beagle,
The Dachshund,
Liver-and-White Pointer,
The Bull-Dog,
German Boarhounds,
Pet Pugs,
Tibet Dog, .
Welsh Terriers,
Yorkshire Terrier, F
Smooth and Rough Terriers,
White and Black Poodles, .
Siberian Wild Dog,
Indian Wild Dog, .
Malay Wild Dog,
Azara’s Dog,
The Raccoon-Dog, .
Skeleton of Fox,
Arctic Foxes on the Ice,
Fox and Cubs,
The Grey Fox,
Arctic Fox in Summer Duress,
Arctic Fox in Winter Dress,
The Corsac Fox,
Cape Hunting-Dog,
Hunting-Dogs chasing Gemsbok, .
Lalande’s Dog,
Foxhound, .
PAGE
493
494
496
500
503
505
506
507
509
SI
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Bats,—concluded.
THE FREE-TAILED INSECTIVOROUS BATs.
THE chief distinctive features of this group are that, as a rule, the tail (when
present) either penetrates the membrane between the leys, so that its extremity
appears on the upper surface, or it is produced considerably beyond the hinder
margin ; secondly, that the innermost (frequently the only) pair of upper incisor
teeth are generally of large size, and placed very close together; and, thirdly,
that except in two genera, each represented by a single species, the first joint of
the third or middle finger of the wing is, when at rest, folded back upon the
upper surface of its supporting metacarpal, instead of being extended forwards in
the same line, as in the species we have hitherto described. Not a single repre-
sentative of this large assemblage of bats is found in the British Isles, and,
indeed, only one species occurs within the limits of the European area. They are
mainly characteristic of tropical and subtropical regions; but whereas the first of
the two families into which they are divided ranges over both hemispheres, the
second is strictly confined to the central and southern portions of the Western.
The number of genera—to say nothing of species—included in the two families
is very large, and as many of them are distinguished from one another by
comparatively trivial characteristics, we shall notice only a few typical forms, of
special interest either from peculiarities of structure or of habits.
THE SMOOTH-NOSED FREE-TAILED Barts.
Family HMBALLONURIDA.
The first family of the group occupies a position precisely similar to that held
by the Typical Bats (Vespertilionide) in the other branch of the insect-eaters
treated in the preceding section. In addition to the peculiar mode of folding the
third finger of the wing, and the characters of the tail already alluded to, they
are distinguished by the circumstance that there are but two bony joints in this
third finger, as also by the absence of any distinct nose-leaf. As a rule, they
have a small tragus in the ear, and only a single pair of upper incisor teeth, which
incline towards one another. Moreover, the extremity of the snout is obliquely
truncated from above downwards, so as to cause the nostrils to project more
or less in front of the tip of the lower jaw. The family is widely distributed
over the warmer regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and
includes one of the two species which are the only representatives of the entire
VOL. I.—19
290 BATS.
order (as, indeed, they are of the whole class of Mammals) found in New Zealand ;
but the range on either side is mainly restricted to the belt lying within thirty
degrees of the Equator.
THE SHEATH-TAILED Bats.
Genus Hmballonwra.
The mountain sheath-tailed bat (4imballonura monticola) is a fairly well-
known representative of a group of this family in which the tail is slender, and has
its free extremity perforating the membrane between the hind legs, while the legs
are relatively long, and the upper incisor teeth comparatively small and weak.
The special characteristic of the genus is that there are two pairs of upper incisor
teeth; the total number of teeth being 34, of which 2 on each side belong to the
incisor, and 2 to the cheek series. The production of the muzzle is more or less
strongly marked, the top of the head is flat, and the ears are not united, and have
a tragus of somewhat oblong form, and expanded above.
The mountain sheath-tailed bat is of a chocolate-brown colour, and measures
about 14 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. It is found in Java, Sumatra,
Borneo, and the Philippines; the other four species of the genus inhabiting various
islands in the region extending from Madagascar to the Navigator group. The
genus is, therefore, exclusively an insular one, and, in this respect, quite peculiar.
The Polynesian sheath-tailed bat (4. semzcaudata) is found in the Mergui
Archipelago lying off Tenasserim.
THE PoucH-WINGED Bats.
Genus Saccopterye.
Omitting two small genera, we come to the remarkable pouch-winged bats
(Saccopteryx) of Central and South America, which-do not generally exceed 2
inches in length, and have fewer teeth than the foregoing; the number of incisors
being 4, and the cheek-teeth 2 on each side. They derive their name from the
presence of a peculiar glandular pouch on the under side of each wing, at or near
the elbow-joint. These pouches, which are well developed in the males but
rudimentary in the females, secrete a red-coloured strongly-smelling substance,
which appears to act as a sexual attraction. In one species from British Guiana
(S. leptwra), these pouches are unusually large, and from each of them projects a
prominent white frill of skin, which seems capable of being protruded and with-
drawn at the will of the animal; the use of this is unknown. In Demerara these .
bats may be seen flying about quite close to the houses at dusk. Moseley relates
that he caught an example of another species (S. canina) in Bahia, resting fast
asleep on the bare bark of a large tree; the dense forest growth overhead making
such an exposed situation quite dark enough for a resting-place throughout the
day. Nearly all the six species have the fur of a uniform dark brown colour,
although one has a reddish tinge.
PRE E- LALEED (GRO OP. 291
THE TomB-Bats.
Genus Taphozous.
These derive both their popular and scientific titles from one of the species
being found in vast numbers in the ancient Egyptian tombs, where they were
discovered during the first French Expedition to that country. The tomb-bats
differ from the other members of the group in having only two pairs of incisor
teeth in the lower jaw, and also by the circumstance that the upper pair of these
teeth are shed in the adult state. Instead of the glandular pouches on the wings,
characteristic of the preceding genus, most of these bats have pouches of a similar
nature on the under-surface otf the chin; these being chiefly, and in some cases
exclusively, developed in the male sex. Many individuals, especially those taken
during the hibernating season, have large deposits of fat around the root of the
tail and the base of the thighs. This is probably
for supporting life during the hibernating season,
which, from the more northerly range of this
species, would appear to be longer than among the
other representatives of the genus.
The tomb-bats are found in Africa, India,
Burma, the Malayan region, and Australia, but are
unknown in Polynesia. Most of them are dwellers
in caves, fissures in rocks, and old buildings; but
one Indian species has been observed on the stem
of a palm tree. Perhaps the best known species is
the naked - bellied tomb-bat (Taphozous nudiventris), readily recognised by its
tawny fur and the naked under-parts. It is a large species, measuring 33 inches
in length, exclusive of the tail, the span of the wing being about 20 inches.
This species is widely distributed over Africa, and is the one found in the
Kgyptian tombs, while it also extends into Syria and Palestine. According to
Canon Tristram, the caves near the Sea of Galilee are inhabited by clouds of these
bats.
Writing of the Sumatran species (7. ajfinis), Mr. E. C. Buxton, as quoted
by Dr. Dobson, states that at Telok Betong, in Sumatra, “there was an old, hollow
cocoa-nut stump in the garden, and about twenty of these bats lived in it. At
night, or rather early in the morning, they used to hang at the top of the verandah
in company with several other kinds; and I found that they were all fruit-eaters,
as there was a great deal of fruit-refuse under them.” Although, as Dr. Dobson
remarks, this by no means proves the tomb-bat to be at times a fruit-eater, as, for
HEAD OF TOMB-BAT,—After Dobson.
all we know, the fruit-refuse might have been deposited by its companions, yet
that this is probably the case is indicated by the partially frugivorous habits of
some of its American allies. The tail of the tomb-bats perforates the membrane
between the legs near its centre, and thus has the tip freely projecting. At the
will of the animal it can, however, be withdrawn almost completely within the
membrane, which thus forms a kind of sheath.
202 BATS.
THE WHITE Barts.
Genus Diclidurus.
As white is a colour but rarely met with among the Chiroptera, we cannot
pass over the white bats, which are represented only by two species from Central
and South America. These bats are allied to the tomb-bats, but have three pairs of
lower incisor teeth, and they are also distinguished from other bats by the presence
of a peculiar pouch on the under side of the membrane between the legs. The
typical white bat (Diclidurus albus) has the fur on the body dark at the base,
but the greater portion of each hair, up to the tip, is of a yellowish or creamy-
white, while the whole of the wing-membranes are pure white. The first known
specimen was found in Brazil reposing between the fronds of a cocoanut palm. If
this be the normal habitat of the species, its coloration may perhaps be a protective
one, adapted to resemble the silvery hue of the under-surface of the palm leaves.
Here it may be mentioned that albino varieties of dark-coloured bats are occasion-
ally met with; the most recently described example that has come under our notice
being a white specimen of a species of Vesperugo (V. capensis), obtained in 1890
near Cape Town.
THE HaARE-LIPPED BATs.
Genus Noctilio.
If the white bats are noteworthy on account of their colour, the two species of
hare-lipped bats, which are likewise Central and South American forms, are deserv-
ing of mention on account of the curious superficial resemblances of their muzzles
to those of the Rodents, while at least the ordinary species (Noctilio leporinus),
which has been known since the time of Linnzeus, is not less remarkable from the
peculiar nature of its diet. These bats derive their ordinary name from their
curiously folded upper lip, which is bent upwards in the middle line in the form of
an inverted V, terminated above by the nostrils. The feet and claws are remarkable
for their large size. They have 28 teeth, of which there are ? incisors, and # cheek-
teeth on each side. The first, or innermost pair of upper incisor teeth, are of great
size, and placed close together so as to conceal the small outer pair; and as the
large ones bite against the single smaller pair of lower incisors, the resemblance to
the mouth of a small Rodent, such as a mouse, is very striking.
These bats appear to be almost omnivorous in their diet. That they would
freely eat cockroaches was proved long ago by Mr. P. H. Gosse, when in Jamaica;
and it was at the same time shown that they would chew, although not swallow,
the flesh of small birds. In 1859, a Mx. Fraser, writing from Ecuador, stated that
they had a very peculiar and offensive fishy smell, and that he had observed them
“skimming the bank of the river, every now and then making a dash along, and
actually striking the water, catching the minute shrimps as they pass up stream.”
It was not, however, till 1880, that it was definitely known that they actually
eaught and fed upon small fish. Professor M‘Carthy, who made special investiga-
tions to determine the truth of their alleged fish-eating habits, writes to Mr. J. E.
FREE-TAILED GROUP. 293
Harting, that in December 1888 he visited a cave in an island near Menos. “This
cave is in a soft shale formation, and the top of the opening is about seven feet from
the water at full tide. The bats were then in an active state, and the majority
appeared to be flying homewards. There were few fish near the surface of the
water, and comparatively little local fishing appeared to be going on. An
occasional ‘swish’ now and again far out proved that the bats were trying to
secure their prey. Five homeward-bound specimens were secured in the cave,
about twelve yards from the mouth. The stomach of one specimen opened within
half an hour contained much fish in a finely-divided and partially digested state.
On the morning of the 31st I visited the cave from which the specimens were
procured at 3 A.M., and found that the bats had apparently forgotten the previous
disturbance. They came flying in in dozens, and two specimens were secured.
Both contained considerable quantities of fish. I have opened several other
specimens of these bats, and in the majority of cases fish-scales were found; but
the stomachs of two were perfectly empty. This might be attributed to the
absence of the desired fish in the locality.”
THE LoNG-TAILED BAT.
Genus Rhinopona.
The last, and at the same time not the least, noteworthy member of the present
subfamily, is the long-tailed bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum), which is found from
LONG-TAILED BAT (nat. size).
294 , BATS.
North-East Africa, through India, to Burma. It has 28 teeth, of which $ on each
side belong to the incisor, and + to the cheek series. Its most distinctive feature is,
however, its very long and slender free tail, which projects far beyond the margin
of the very short membrane between the legs, and thereby distinguishes it at a
glance from all other bats. It is further quite peculiar in that the second or index
finger of the wing has two joints. Another feature, of less import, although that
which has given the scientific name to the genus, is the presence of a fleshy
prominence on the muzzle, just over the nose; this prominence having been
incorrectly regarded as a rudimentary nose-leaf. In specimens taken in India
during the cold season, there 18 an enormous accumulation of fat around the tail
and thighs, which is sometimes so large as to exceed the weight of the rest of the
body; the accumulation being similar to that already noticed as occurring in the
naked-bellied tomb-bat and doubtless serving the same purpose. According to Mr.
Blanford, “this species is common in North-Western India, and hides during the
day in caves, clefts in rocks, old ruins, and similar places. In Cutch it takes up its
abode in wells. Jerdon relates that in Madras, in 1848, many were captured in a
house for three successive nights, having probably been blown by strong westerly
winds from the rocky hills to the westward. The species is not of common
occurrence in Madras. According to Blyth, this species formerly abounded in the
Taj at Agra (it may still be found there), and Cantor found numbers inhabiting the
subterranean Hindu place of worship within the fort at Allahabad.”
THE MAsTIFF-BATS.
Genus Molossus.
With the mastiff-bats, which take their name from a supposed resemblance of
their broad wide-mouthed muzzles to the head of a mastiff, we come to the first
representatives of the second subfamily of this division, the members of which are
characterised by the thickness of their tails, which (with
a single exception) are prolonged for a considerable
distance beyond the hinder margin of the membrane
between the hind legs. The legs are short and strong, and
the feet of great relative width; while the thumbs of the
wings have curious callosities at their bases; and the
upper incisor teeth are of large size, and limited to a single
pair. As in all these bats, the feet are completely free
from the wing-membranes, which can be comfortably
er are folded up and stored away between the fore-arms and the
Dobson, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1878.) legs, and the membrane between the legs can be retracted
to a greater or less extent by being moved backwards
and forwards along the tail. In the strength of their limbs, in the development
of the corn-like callosities at the bases of their thumbs, as well as in their large
and flat feet, and the freedom of their feet from the wing-membranes, the mastiff-
bats and their allies are more adapted for crawling on the ground than any other
members of this group of animals. And the result of observations on living
FPREE-TAILED GROUP. 295
specimens has been to confirm these inductions, made upon the evidence of
structural peculiarities.
The mastiff-bats are an American group, found in the tropical and subtropical
regions of both divisions of the Western Hemisphere. With the exception of two
species, in which the number of the lower incisor teeth is reduced to a single pair,
they have either 26 or 28 teeth, of which } on either side are incisors, while the
cheek-teeth number either ¢ or ?. The upper incisors are placed close together in
the middle line; and the large ears, which have a small tragus (occasionally absent)
are united by their inner margins. In common with two nearly allied genera of
bats, they have very capacious lips, which in most of the species are thrown into a
number of wrinkles or puckers; and they are further characterised by their long
and slender wings. ‘The great length and narrowness of the wings indicates, as Dr.
Dobson observes, rapid flight ; and since they also possess the power of varying the
length of the membrane between the legs by a “reefing” process, they must have
great dexterity in suddenly changing their direction, as when they are compelled to
double in pursuing swiftly flying insects; and, again, their expansive and capacious
lips aid the teeth in seizing and retaining the round and solidly armoured bodies
of the larger beetles; so that it would seem that they are better adapted than any
other members of the order for capturing insects of very swift flight.
Of the red mastiff-bat (M/olossus rufus) an account is given by Mr. P. H. Gosse,
from which it appears that this bat inhabits the roofs of houses and the hollow trunks
of palm trees, where colonies of large size may sometimes be found. It is more
active when on the ground than any other species; and, indeed, on such occasions
its motions are so rapid that some dexterity is required to ensure its capture. In
the act of running it rests on its wrists, with the fore-part of the body considerably
raised. In the hollow stem of a palm tree, examined by another observer, it was
found that while in one place the males of this species were collected together to
a number approaching two hundred, in another spot the assemblage consisted
almost entirely of females, with only a solitary male among them here and there.
This distinction of the resting-places of the two sexes has also been noticed in
certain other bats.
In describing the habits of another species, the chestnut mastiff-bat (I.
glaucinus), Myr. Gosse writes that “soon after sunset we hear the scrambling of
little claws along the plaster (in the loft above) gradually tending towards the
point where the hole under the eaves is situated . . . I judge that they crawl along
one after another in a straight line to the outlet, in parties. The family assured
me that after the mastiff-bats had emerged a few hours, they invariably returned
into the hole again; and they several times directed my attention to them when
returning. They return between eight and nine o'clock, and issue forth again
before the morning twilight. When handled, its impatience of confinement is
manifested by a continuous screeching, not very loud, but exceedingly harsh and
shrill. The ears are commonly so pendent as completely to cover the eyes; but
they are occasionally retracted so as to expose the eyes, especially if the face be
touched.”
In certain parts of the Amazon Valley the mastiff-bats, together with some
species belonging to the under-mentioned nose-leafed family, are so numerous as to
296 BATS.
become a serious inconvenience to travellers. Thus when at Caripi, a station
situated about twenty miles from Para, Bates narrates how for the first few nights
of his stay he slept in a room with the roof open to the tiles and rafters, which had
not been used for many months previously; and on the second night of his visit
was awakened about midnight by the sudden rushing of swarms of bats flying
around him. So numerous were they, that the air was alive with them; the lamp
had been extinguished by the rush of their wings, but when relighted revealed the
whole room blackened by their multitudes. The traveller proceeded to clear
them out by laying about vigorously with a stick, and for a time succeeded in
making the unwelcome intruders retire to the tiles and rafters. No sooner,
however, was quiet restored than the bats reappeared in full force, and once more
extinguished his light. On the third night several of the bats got into his
hammock, and crawled over him; these were seized and dashed against the wall.
In the morning he was unpleasantly reminded of the nocturnal visitation by
finding that he had a wound on the hip, evidently caused by the bite of a bat.
Being thereby roused to desperation, he set to work in real earnest to mitigate
the nuisance.
in very aged individuals even the =
single remaining pair may be shed,
thus leaving the creature without
any upper front teeth. The length
of the head and body of the best-
known species is about 8 inches;
and that of its long, scaly, rat-like
tail somewhat less. Its general
colour is rusty-brown, becoming
blacker on the top of the head and
along the back; while the flanks
have some bright reddish spots
just below the hinder part of the
back.
Habits.
From the reduc-
tion in the number of
their teeth and toes, as weil as k
from the prolongation of the rock sumprye sHRew (4 nat. size), (From a Plate by Peters.)
muzzle, we may regard the long-
nosed jumping shrews as very specialised creatures. Unfortunately, we know
little or nothing of their habits; but from their relatively shorter hind-legs it may
be assumed that they are less habitual leapers than the typical members of
the family. Like many of the more aberrant Insectivores, the long-nosed jumping
shrews appear to be very rare aninals.
THE HEDGEHOGS AND GYMNURAS.
Family HRINACEIDZ.
The hedgehogs and their near allies the gymnuras constitute a well-marked
family, distinguished by several important characters from the preceding groups.
The more important of these characteristics are, however, of such a nature as to
be but briefly referred to in this place. It may be observed, however, that the
brain (as may be readily seen from the dimensions of its chamber in the dried
skull) is relatively smaller, and the union of the anterior elements of the pelvis in
the middle line on the inferior aspect of the body shorter than in the preceding
families. Further, if the cavity for the eye in the dried skull be examined, it will
be found that there is not even a trace of any bony process to mark off its
hinder limit from the larger hollow containing the muscles that work the lower
jaw. With the exception of one species, all the members of the family have five-
toed feet, provided with simple claws not adapted for digging; this feature being
318 INSECTIVORES.
in accordance with their purely terrestrial and non-fossorial habits. And the
broad first and second molar teeth of the upper jaw are characterised by having
five distinct cusps, of which the central one is very small, and connected with
the two inner ones by a pair of oblique ridges.
THE HEDGEHOGS.
Genus Hrinaceus.
The European hedgehog, or urchin, which is far the largest of the British
Insectivores, is the best known representative of a somewhat extensive genus
distributed over the greater portion of Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia,
although unknown in Madagascar, the Malayan Peninsula and Islands, Burma,
Siam, Southern China, and Siam.
The essential characteristics of the hedgehogs, as distinct from the gymnuras,
are to be found in the dense coat of short spines covering the back and sides of
the body, and also the shortness of the tail. The hedgehogs have 36 teeth, of
which, on each side, 3 are incisors, + canines, and § cheek-teeth. An examination
of the skull will show that the first pair of front or incisor teeth in the upper jaw
have remarkably long crowns, which are widely separated from one another in
the middle line; while the two remaining incisor teeth on each side of the same
jaw are much smaller. It will further be observed that the middle region of
the palate of the skull contains some open spaces not occupied by bone. The
common hedgehog (Hrinaceus ewropeus) is characterised by the short and almost
imperceptible neck, the pig-like snout, from which it derives its popular name,
and also by the shortness of its limbs. Exclusive of the short naked tail,
which measures about 1} inches, an average-sized hedgehog is about 10 inches
in length. The great peculiarity of all the hedgehogs is the power they possess
of rollmg themselves up into a ball-like form, presenting a chevaua-de-frise
of spikes, impenetrable to the great majority of other animals. This rolling-up
process is effected by the aid of an extraordinary development of a layer of
muscles found beneath the skin of most Mammals, and known as the paniculus
carnosus. When rolled up, the head and feet are tucked inwards, so that only the
spines are exposed; and it requires a bold dog or fox to attack a hedgehog
when in this condition. Under the microscope the spine is seen to be marked
by a number of parallel longitudinal grooves; the ridges between them being
ornamented, in some of the foreign species, with rows of tubercles. Hedgehogs
date from a remote antiquity; and it is doubtless solely due to this protective
armour of spines that animals of such low organisation and of such comparatively
large size have been enabled to survive without resorting to the protection afforded
by a subterranean or aquatic mode of life.
The food of the European hedgehog is very varied, including
insects, worms, slugs, snails, lizards, snakes, birds’ eggs, rats, mice, and
other small animals ; while roots and fruit are also consumed to a certain extent.
The partiality of hedgehogs for insects is often taken advantage of in ridding
houses of beetles and cockroaches; although the hedgehog itself not unfrequently
Habits.
HEDGEHOGS. 319
o
comes to an untimely end by a too close approach to the kitchen stove for the sake
of warmth. A hedgehog kills a snake by inflicting a series of bites, and quickly
assuming the defensive when threatened with attack. That eggs are largely con-
sumed by these animals is proved by the readiness with which they are caught
in traps thus baited. On account of such depredations, as well as from their
destructiveness to young birds, they are much persecuted by gamekeepers. There
is, moreover, at least one instance on record of a hedgehog having attacked a young
leveret, which it would doubtless have despatched had it not been interrupted.
Hedgehogs venture forth from their hiding - places in hedges, coppices, or
THE COMMON HEDGEHOG (3 nat. size).
shrubberies during summer, as soon as the dews of evening commence, and may
be detected devouring
eaten slowly by being seized by one extremity, and turned from side to side of
worms or other prey on moonlight nights. A worm is
the mouth, while it is being chewed by the sharp cheek-teeth; much the same
process taking place in the case of a snake.
Although properly nocturnal in their habits, they may occasionally be met
with searching for food during the day; and it has been suggested that on
such occasions they are driven to depart from their ordinary habits by the necessity
of procuring a sufficient supply of food for.their young, which are usually
produced during the months of July and August, and are said not to exceed
four in a litter, although it was formerly considered that the number might be as
320 INSE CTLV ORES:
many as eight. Occasionally a second litter is produced during the autumn; and
it is believed that the period of gestation is not longer than a month. The new-
born young are almost naked, and their imperfect spines are soft, flexible, and
white, although rapidly hardening in the course of a few days. They are at first
totally blind, and « juite incapable of rolling themselves up. The nest in which the
young are born is carefully constructed, and is said to be always protected from
rain by an efficient roof. In winter the European hedgehog hibernates completely,
laying up no store of food, but retiring to a nest of moss and leaves, where, rolled
up in a ball, it hes torpid till awakened by the returning warmth of spring. As
i
a)
{)
»
. Uy
Mj
\
MUI
pi
Wsuu"y
Nein : ~ :
HEDGEHOG AND YOUNG,
‘ .
a rule, hedgehogs are comparatively silent creatures, but on occasions they give
vent to a sound said to be something between a grunt and a low piping squeak.
The range of the hedgehog in Britain includes the whole of
England and portions of Ireland, but does not extend beyond the
middle of Scotland; its presence in the Shetland Islands being probably due
to human introduction. Eastwards it extends to Eastern China and Amurland,
and it also embraces the region from the sixty-third parallel of latitude in
the Scandinavian Peninsula, to Southern Italy, Asia Minor, and Syria. Not
only is the European hedgehog found in the lowlands of the regions over which
it extends, but in the Alps it ascends to an elevation of six thousand feet, and in
the Caucasus to upwards of eight thousand feet above the sea-level.
Altogether there are nearly twenty known species of hedgehogs, and among
these the European form is in some respects quite peculiar. Its fur mingled
with the spines is very coarse and harsh, and the upper tusk, or canine tooth
(the fourth tooth from the extremity of the muzzle), is inserted by a single root,
Distribution.
GYMNURAS. 321
while in all the others the fur is softer and finer, and the upper canine tooth
has two roots, and closely resembles the cheek-teeth.
Hedgehogs are represented by five distinct species in India, all characterised
by having minute tubercles on the ridges of their spines. It is remarkable that
while one of these hedgehogs (£. micropus) is found in Madras, no repre-
sentative of the genus is recorded from the Central Provinces and Bengal, the
other species not occurring till we reach the North-West Provinces, the Punjab, ete.
But little is known of the habits of these Indian species, and nothing as to their
breeding ; although it is probable that in both these respects they conform closely
to their European cousin. The long-eared Afghan hedgehog (4. megalotis),
common in the neighbourhood of Kandahar and Quetta, hibernates, but the
species from the Punjab and Southern India are active at all seasons of the
year, thus showing how absolutely dependent is the habit of hibernation upon
climate. The collared hedgehog (4. collaris), found in the plains of North-Western
India, inhabits “sandy country, hiding in holes beneath thorny bushes or in tufts
of grass during the day, feeding chiefly on insects, especially a species of Blaps, and
also on lizards and snails. It makes a grunting noise when irritated, and when
touched suddenly jerks up its back so as to throw its spines forward, making at
the same time a sound like a puff from a pair of bellows.” Mr. Blanford just
quoted, also states that the Afghan hedgehog feeds on the slugs and snails so
common in the fields round Kandahar, as well as worms, insects, and lizards. It
hides during the day in holes; and hibernates from the end of October or beginning
of November till February.
If we know but little of the habits of the Asiatic hedgehogs, this
lack of information is still more marked with respect to those of
Africa, where some species are found in the Cape district, and others in the regions
to the north of the Sahara (Z. algirus), and in Egypt, as well as on the West Coast.
One of these (2. albiventris) is peculiar in having lost the inner toe of the hind
foot; although its claw has been found on one foot of an adult female from Lagos,
as well as on both feet of young specimens from the same locality.
Fossil hedgehogs are met with in the Tertiary rocks of Europe
as far back as the early portion of the Miocene period. Some of the
extinct hedgehogs belonged to the existing genus Hrinaceus; and one of them
(EL. wningensis), from the middle Tertiary fresh-water limestones of Baden,
appears to be allied to the Algerian hedgehog, being totally different in the
structure of its teeth from the common European species. Others are, however,
distinguished by having a complete bony roof to the palate, and these form a
distinct genus, which may be allied in this respect to the gymnuras.
African Species.
Extinct Species.
THE GYMNURAS.
Genus Gymnura.
The gymnuras, which are not unlike large rough-haired shrews, take the place
of the hedgehogs in Burma and the Malayan region. Although closely allied to
the hedgehogs in the structure of their teeth and other details of their anatomy,
VOL. I.—21
322 INSECTIVORES.
these Insectivores are so unlike them in external appearance that it is difficult to
believe in their close affinity. It must be remembered, however, that the spines of
the hedgehogs totally alter the appearance of the creature from what it would be,
if unprovided with these appendages ; and if we were to compare a gymnura with
a young hedgehog, in which the spines were still rudimentary, the difference in
appearance would not be so very marked.
The gymuuras are distinguished from the hedgehogs by the total
absence of spines; and also by the long naked tail, from which they
derive their name. Further points of distinction are afforded by the complete
bony roof to the palate, and also by the larger number of teeth in the gymnuras,
which is upwards of forty-four.
The large and typical number of
teeth characteristic of these
animals is, indeed, but very
Characteristics.
rarely met with among existing
Maminals, although it was com-
mon amongst extinct forms. In
this respect, therefore, the
gymnura betrays the antiquity
of the group to which it belongs.
eee eee Rafiles’s gymnura (Gymnwra
rafiles:) —so named after Sir
Stamford Rafiles—is an animal somewhat resembling a large rat with a long
pointed nose; the length of the head and body varying from 12 to 14 inches, and
that of the long rat-like tail from 84 to 9} inches. The head and body are
generally parti-coloured, with considerable individual variation in the distribution
of the black and white. Usually, however, the greater part of the head and neck
is white; but there is a black patch in front of and another above each of the eyes,
and there are frequently some long black hairs on the crown of the head. The
terminal third of the tail is generally white. Occasionally specimens are found in
Burma of a uniform white colour throughout; these, however, must not be regarded
as albinos. The hair is of two kinds—a close, soft under-fur and long coarse bristles.
RafHles’s gymnura is found in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo,
in the Malay Peninsula, and in Burma. It is either a rare animal, or
on account of its retiring and strictly nocturnal mode of life is but seldom met
with. Of its habits we are still ignorant. It is, however, said to make its home
beneath the roots of trees; and, from the contents of the stomachs of specimens
that have been examined, we learn that its food consists of different kinds of
insects ; cockroaches, white ants, and larvee being apparently its favourites. It
is distinguished by a peculiarly disagreeable smell of a somewhat oniony or
garlic-like nature.
Distribution.
Still more rare is the lesser gymnura (G. swilla), a small rusty-brown coloured
animal, paler beneath, measuring just short of 5 inches in length, with a tail not
exceeding an inch. It occurs in Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo,
and Java, ascending in Borneo to a considerable elevation above the sea-level on
Mount Kina Balu in the northern part of the island.
SHRE WS. 323
Extinct Gym- Extinct Insectivores, more or less closely allied to the gymnuras,
nuras. have left their remains in the Tertiary deposits of France belonging
to the upper portion of the Eocene and the lower part of the Miocene period.
These extinct forms, although belonging to distinct genera from those now existing,
serve to show the antiquity of this group of animals; and, in common with many
others, further indicate how the early Tertiary fauna of Europe has its nearest
representatives in the remote islands of the Malayan Archipelago.
THE SHREWS.
Family SorrIciD#.
The elegant little creatures known as shrews, or shrew-mice as they are often
termed from their mouse-like form, constitute the fourth family of the true
Insectivores. So like, indeed, are these animals to mice and rats, that in popular
estimation they are often confounded with them; although they are readily
distinguishable by their long and pointed snouts, their rounded ears, closely pressed
to the sides of the head, and the characters of their teeth.
Though there would be little likelihood of mistaking a shrew for a hedgehog,
it 1s necessary to point out in some detail the characters on which naturalists
refer these groups to separate families; since, as we have seen, the spines of the
hedgehogs do not form a characteristic of more than generic importance.
Perhaps the most ready means of determining whether or no an Insectivore
belongs to the shrew family is afforded by the characters of the first pair of front
or incisor teeth. In all shrews these teeth are different from the others; those
of the upper jaw (as shown in the figure) being long and generally sickle-shaped,
with a more or less distinct cusp at the base of their
hinder border; while in the lower jaw they are long
and project horizontally forwards, sometimes curving ite a
upwards at the tips. Moreover, with the single excep-
tion of one peculiar African species, which has a rudi-
mental seventh tooth, the lower jaw of every shrew has
only six teeth on each side.
SIDE VIEW OF THE RIGHT ANTERIOR
The above features are sufficient to distinguish SoERe” IRS ACRE aR
a shrew from any other Insectivore ; but a few additional MING SHREW FROM UNALASKA
sie. . wae ISLAND.
characteristics may also be mentioned. Thus the first
and second upper molar teeth of all the shrews differ | Much enlarged. The first upper
incisor (the tooth on the right of
from those of the hedgehogs and gymnuras by the th. figure) is less sickle-shaped
absence of the fifth or central cusp on the crown. _ than usual.—After Dobson.
Then, again, the skull of a hedgehog or gymnura, as
shown in the figure of the skeleton of the former given on p. 308, has a complete
bony bar—the zygomatic arch—running below the socket for the eye to connect
the upper jaw with the hinder part of the skull. In a shrew, on the other hand,
this bony arch, as shown in the accompanying figure, is invariably incomplete
beneath the eye, owing to the absence of the cheek-bone.!| A further char-
acteristic feature of the shrews is the extreme length and narrowness of their skulls.
1 Tn one Indian hedgehog the zygomatic arch is incomplete.
324 INSEE CTIV ORES.
od
With the exception of a few species which have taken to an aquatic life, the
shrews are terrestrial and nocturnal in their habits. They are all covered with
fur, generally remarkable for its softness; the head is long, with a sharply pointed
snout projecting far in advance of the tip of the lower Jaw; their eyes are extremely
small and bead-like; and the external ears, if present at all, are rounded, and not
unlike the human ear in general contour. ;
Distribution The shrews have a more extensive distribution than any other
and Habits. family of Insectivores, and likewise comprise a far larger number of
species. They are to be met with throughout the whole of the temperate and
tropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, as well as on many of
the adjacent islands; one species extending as far north as Unalaska Island in the
Aleutian group. “From their obscure and retiring habits,’ writes Bell, “the
shrews are difficult of observation; their long and pointed snout, their extensible
form, and short and velvety coat enable them to pass through the closest herbage,
or beneath the carpets of dry leaves in the coppice and woodland, in which situa-
tions, as well as in the open fields, whether cultivated or in pasture, they seek their
SKELETON OF WATER-SHREW.
food. But they are not confined in their habitat to such situations, as with their
congeners, the water shrews, they are often met with in marshy and fen districts.”
On the other hand, one of the Indian shrews constantly frequents dwelling-houses.
The number of genera (to say nothing of species) of shrews is so considerable,
that it is only possible to notice here some of the more interesting and important.
The genera may be arranged under two groups, according as to whether the teeth
are stained of a reddish-brown colour or are of the ordinary white hue.
THE TYPICAL SHREWS.
Genus Sore.
Tn addition to their red teeth, the typical shrews, as represented by the common
Kuropean shrew (Sorex vulgaris), figured on the right side of the following
illustration, are characterised by the number of their teeth being thirty-two, and
by the large size of their ears and the length of the tail; the latter being covered
with hairs of nearly, or quite, uniform length. With the exception of two peculiar
species, all these shrews are terrestrial; and they inhabit Europe, Asia north of the
Himalaya, and North America. And it may be remarked here that the red-
SHRE WS. 325
toothed shrews are quite unknown in Africa south of the Sahara, and they are
only represented in India and the rest of the Oriental region by a single small
genus (Soriculus).
The common shrew, found abundantly in the British Islands,
measures just short of 3 inches in length, exclusive of the tail, and is
usually of a reddish mouse-colour above, paler beneath, with the tail somewhat
quadrangular and rather shorter than the body. There is, however, considerable
individual variation in colour, specimens being sometimes found banded with white.
Like the mole, the common shrew has a wide geographical range,
extending from England, through Europe and Asia to North America.
The facility with which this species conceals itself has been already mentioned. Its
Common Shrew.
Habits.
THE SPIDER MUSK-SHREW AND COMMON SHREW (nat. size),
food is chiefly insects and worms, supplemented by snails and slugs. In disposition
it is so pugnacious that two are rarely seen together except when engaged
in combat; and if two or more are confined together, it is not long before the
stronger kills the less robust. The strong scent with which the shrew is provided
probably acts as a preventive against the attacks of some of its foes, but it is now
ascertained that this is not sufficiently repulsive to deter owls from killing and
devouring shrews. It was long considered that the numbers of dead shrews to be
found in most gardens during the autumn were due to the attacks of cats, which
are known to kill, although they will not eat these animals. Dr. Dobson considers,
however, that the real cause of death is rather to be attributed to insufficiency of
their proper food at that season of the year; and this interpretation is supported
by the consideration that it would be otherwise difficult to account for the mortality
being confined to one period of the year. Shrews hibernate in Europe throughout
the winter, and during the spring and summer produce their litters of blind and
326 INSECTIVORES.
toothless young; the number in each litter being usually five, six, or seven, but
occasionally more.
In Ireland the place of the common shrew is taken by the lesser
shrew (S. pygmeus), which, although also found in England, is there
much more rare. It may be distinguished by its inferior size, and also by the
circumstance that the third tooth from the extremity of the upper jaw (the third
incisor) is not longer than the fourth. Like its larger cousin, this species has an
extensive range in Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya, but does not extend
across Behring Strait into America.
In marked contrast to the wide range of these species is the
restricted distribution of the Alpine shrew (S. alpinus), a species of
rather larger size than the common shrew, and distinguished by the uniform
coloration of the upper and under surfaces of the body. This shrew is only found
in the mountains of Central Europe.
Lesser Shrew.
Alpine Shrew.
North American A variation in size comparable to that existing among the
Shrews. Kuropean members of the genus is likewise found in its North
American representatives, among which Bendire’s shrew (S. bendirez) is the largest,
and Cooper's shrew (S. cooper’) the smallest form. Of the latter Dr. Hart Merriam
writes that “although underground life does not appear to be as attractive to it as
to its relatives the moles, yet it avoids too much exposure, and commonly moves, by
night and by day, under cover of the fallen leaves, twigs, and other débris that
always cover the ground in our northern forests. The naturalist well knows that,
however cautiously he may walk, the stir of his footsteps puts to flight many forms
of life that will reappear as soon as quiet is restored; therefore, in his excursions
through the woods, he waits and watches, frequently stopping to listen and observe.
While thus occupied, it sometimes happens that a slight rustling reaches his ear.
There is no wind, but the eye rests upon a fallen leaf that seems to move. Presently
another stirs, and perhaps a third turns completely over. Then something evanescent,
like the shadow of an embryonic mouse, appears and vanishes before the eye can
catch its perfect image. Anon the restless phantom flits across an open space,
leaving no trace behind. But a charge of fine shot dropped with quick aim upon
the next leaf that moves will usually solve the mystery. The author of the per-
plexing commotion is found to be a curious sharp-nosed creature, no bigger than one’s
little finger, and weighing hardly more than half a drachm. Its ceaseless activity,
and the rapidity with which it darts from place to place, are truly astonishing, and
rarely permit the observer a correct impression of its form. Whenever a tree or a
large limb falls to the ground these shrews soon find it, examining every part with
great care, and if a knot-hole or crevice is detected, leading to a cavity within, they
are pretty sure to enter, carry in materials for a nest, and take formal possession. . .
Not only are these agile and restless little shrews voracious and almost insatiable,
consuming incredible quantities of raw meat and insects with great eagerness, but
they are veritable cannibals withal, and will even slay and devour their own kind.”
The marsh-shrew (S. palustris) from the Rocky Mountains, together with the
swimming shrew (S. hydrodromus) from one of the Aleutian Islands, differ from the
other members of the genus in having their feet provided with fringes of long hair
to aid them in their aquatie life.
SHRE WS. 327
THE SHORT-TAILED OR EARLESS SHREWS.
Genus Blarina.
With the exception of the water-shrews, the only other members of the red-
toothed section of the family to which we shall allude are the so-called short-tailed
and earless shrews, of North and Central America. These shrews are readily
distinguished by their short tails and the truncation of the upper part of their ears ;
some of them having the same number of teeth as the typical shrews, while in
others the number is reduced to thirty. The variation in the size of the different
species of this genus is nearly as marked as in the preceding one.
The common short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) occurs in the Adirondack
Mountains, near New York, and is remarkable for remaining active during the
whole of the rigorous winters of these regions, having been observed running
about on the snow when the thermometer indicated 20° below zero. This peculiar
habit is correlated with equally marked peculiarities in the diet of this species,
which frequents both the dense pine forests of the uncultivated districts, and the
cleared tracts of the inhabited regions. This shrew, writes Dr. Merriam, “seeks
its food both by day and night; and, although the greater part of its life is doubt-
less spent under ground, or at least under logs and leaves, and amongst the roots of
trees and stumps, it occasionally makes excursions upon the surface, and I have met
and secured many specimens in broad daylight. It subsists upon beech-nuts, insects,
earthworms, slugs, sow-bugs, and mice, and can inno way be considered other than
as a friend to the farmer.”
THE WATER-SHREW.
Genus Crossopus.
The water-shrew (Crossopus fodiens) is the sole representative of a genus
agreeing with some of the short-tailed shrews in possessing thirty teeth, but distin-
guished by the small ears not being truncated, by the long tail, and also by the
fringes of long hair on the under surface of the latter and on the feet. This shrew,
as its name implies, is of thoroughly aquatic habits; the fringes of stiff hair on
the tail and limbs being designed to afford aid in swimming. In length it measures
about 34 inches, exclusive of the long tail. Owing to the circumstances, that while
in most cases the under-parts of the body are white, while in others they partake
more or less completely of the black hue of the back, it was formerly considered
that there were two distinct species of water-shrews, although subsequent observa-
tions have shown that such variations are merely individual.
The water-shrew, although unknown in Ireland, is commonly,
but locally, distributed over England and the south of Scotland. It
likewise occurs over a large area of continental Europe, from whence it extends
eastwards into Asia as far as the Atlas range. In the water these graceful little
Habits.
creatures are as much at home as water-voles or beavers; and in clear streams they
may not unfrequently be observed during the day diving or running along the
328 TINSE C TIVOLRE S;
bottom, and turning over the pebbles with their sharp noses in search of fresh-
water shrimps, which appear to constitute their favourite food. In addition to
these crustaceans, the water-shrew devours many kinds of aquatic insects or their
larvee, while it is also probable that it likewise preys on the spawn or fry of minnows
and other small fish. There are, moreover, several instances on record where water-
shrews have been found feeding on the flesh of larger animals, which they have
found dead. The swimming of the water-shrew, writes Prof. T. Bell, seems to be
“ principally effected by the alternate action of the hinder feet, which produces an
unequal or wriggling motion; it makes its way, however, with great velocity, and
as it swims rather superficially, with the belly flattened, the sides, as it were, spread
out, and the tail extended backwards as a rudder, it forms a very beautiful and
Alii
y/
THE WATER-SHREW (nat. size.)
pleasing object, moving on the calm surface of a quiet brook, or diving, in an instant,
after its food, its black velvety coat becoming beautifully silvered with the in-
numerable bubbles of air that cover it when submerged; and on rising again the
fur is observed to be perfectly dry, repelling the water as completely as the feathers
of a water-fowl. When submerged, the ear is nearly closed by means of three little
valves.” The burrows of the water-shrew are constructed in the banks of the
pond or stream in which it dwells; and, if disturbed from the protection thus
afforded, the creature plunges forthwith into the water to seek safety in what
must be regarded as its native element. The female gives birth to the young in
the burrow, the usual number produced at a litter varying from five to seven or
eight.
In addition to its darker coloration, and the structural differences already
mentioned, the water-shrew may be distinguished at a glance from the common
shrew by its stouter and somewhat depressed muzzle. The red stain on the teeth
SHRE WS. 329
is, moreover, much less decided than in the latter; and indeed, when the teeth have,
been much worn by long use, tends more or less completely to disappear.
THE MusK-SHREWS.
Genus Crocidura.
With the musk-shrews, which include by far the largest representatives of the
entire family, we come to the first members of the group characterised by their white
teeth. No representatives of the musk-shrews occur in Britain, although the spider
musk-shrew (Crocidura aranea), represented on the left side of the illustration on
p. 325, and the common musk-shrew (C. suaveolens), shown in the accompanying
THE COMMON MUSK-SHREW (nat. size).
figure, occur on the continent of Europe. These shrews, which are of terrestrial
habits, have either thirty or twenty-eight teeth, well-developed ears, and a long
tail, and are covered with a coat of mingled long and short hairs. The eyes are
very small, and placed nearer to the ears than to the tip of the nose. Each side of
the body is furnished with a gland (sometimes absent in the female), secreting the
musky product from which these shrews derive their popular name.
More than eighty species of musk-shrews have been described; the range of
the genus embracing Southern and Central Europe, Africa, and Asia. The species
with the widest range is the spider musk-shrew, above-mentioned, which is found
from North Africa and Central and Southern Europe to Central Asia, extending as
far north as North-Eastern Siberia, and as far south as Ladak. It belongs to the
typical group of the genus, characterised by having only three small conical teeth
behind the large first upper incisor; and it is a comparatively small species, of about
330 INSECTIVORES.
3 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. This shrew frequents cultivated
grounds in Europe, not unfrequently entering houses; and preys on insects, worms,
and the young of the smaller Mammals and Birds. The young are born in summer,
and vary from five to as many as ten in number.
The common musk-shrew (C. suaveolens), of which a figure is given on p. 329, is
the second representative of the genus Crocidura in Europe. It belongs to a group
characterised by the presence of four small conical teeth, of which the hindmost is
very minute, behind the first upper incisor tooth! This group, which is numerously
represented in India, includes the largest of all shrews, and those most strongly
scented with the characteristic musky odour. The best known, and at the same
time the largest, of these Indian species are the brown musk-shrew (C. muwrina), and
the grey musk-shrew, C. cwrulea), the latter of which is commonly termed by Anglo-
Indians the musk-rat. Both these species have nine teeth on each side of the wpper
jaw, and their length may be as much as 6 inches exclusive of the tail. Whereas
the hair of the former is of a brownish tinge on the body and feet, in the latter it
is more of a slaty hue; while the feet are flesh-coloured or yellowish-white. In
other respects these two shrews are very closely allied, but whereas the brown
musk-shrew is found as a rule in woods (although it will occasionally enter
buildings), the grey musk-shrew generally, if not invariably, haunts human habita-
tions. It has accordingly been suggested that the latter is merely a peculiar
variety of the former. The grey musk-shrew is nocturnal, and is a common visitor
to Indian houses. During the day it les concealed in holes and drains, issuing
forth at night to hunt over the floors of rooms for cockroaches and other insects ;
while thus engaged it utters from time to time a short, sharp squeak. In respect
of its insect-eating habits, this musk-shrew is a benefactor to mankind; but these
benefits are accompanied by the drawback that various articles may be so impreg-
nated with the musky secretion of the animal as to become utterly useless. There
has, however, been much exaggeration as to the penetrating power of this scent, the
well-known but absurd story that wine or beer becomes impregnated with a musky
flavour from the circumstance of one of these shrews having run over the outside
of the bottle containing such liquor, being a case in point. In addition to its
favourite cockroaches and other insects, the grey musk-shrew will also readily
devour meat, and accounts are on record of an attack made by one of these animals
ona frog, and by another on a snake.
Other Indian musk-shrews belonging to the same group of the genus, such as
Blyth’s musk-shrew (C. fuliginosa) have but eight teeth on each side of the upper
jaw, or the same number as in the European spider musk-shrew (C. wraneq).
THE BURROWING SHREWS.
senus Anwrosoren.
The burrowing shrews are small mole-like creatures, inhabiting Tibet, Western
China, and Assam, where they are apparently very rare. They are characterised
by their large heads, minute eyes, the absence of ear-conchs, a very short tail, and
1 In the figure of the jaw of a true shrew (Sorex) on p. 323 there are five of these small teeth.
SHRE WS. 331
fore)
thick velvety fur. The total number of teeth is twenty-six, of which there are
seven on each side of the upper jaw. There are only two species, of which the one
from Assam measures about 5 inches in length, exclusive of the stumpy tail, and is
of dark slaty colour, with a tinge of brown.
The interest attaching to these shrews arises from the circumstance that their
structure is indicative of burrowing habits like the mole, although nothing is
known on this point from actual observation.
THE SWIMMING-SHREWS.
Genus Chimarrogale.
Although the name swimming-shrews would be equally applicable to the
water-shrews (Crossopus), and the latter name to the members of the present genus,
yet it is convenient to take the two terms with the signification here given. The
swimming shrews, of which one species (Chimarrogale himalayica) is found in the
Himalaya and Mount Kina Balu in Borneo, and the other (C. platycephalus) in
Japan, closely resemble the water-shrews in general appearance, but are distin-
guished by the teeth being entirely white, and likewise by bemg twenty-eight,
instead of thirty in number. These shrews have a small external ear-conch; broad
scaly feet, with a fringe of coarse white hairs on their margins, and on the sides of
each toe; and the long tail is also fringed with similar hairs. The individual toes
are, however, not connected together by webs.
The Himalayan swimming-shrew has a slaty-grey fur above, with the tips of
the hairs blackish-brown. A female measured a little over 4} inches in length,
exclusive of the tail, the length of the latter being 3 inches; but it is probable that
other individuals are considerably larger. This shrew inhabits the south-western
portions of the Himalayan range, at elevations from three thousand to five thousand
feet above the sea-level; and it is also found in the hills of North Burma. It
inhabits the banks of streams, and, doubtless, swims quite as well as the European
water-shrew. Dr. Anderson has observed it plunging into the water, and running
over the stones on the bed of a stream. Like its European cousin, it is said to
feed on aquatic insects and their larvee, as well as on tadpoles, and the smaller
fish and their fry. The assumption of aquatic habits by members of both the red-
toothed and white-toothed sections of the shrews is an interesting example of how
animals belonging to different’ groups may acquire almost exactly similar external
characters, as being essential to their particular mode of life.
THE WeEB-FOOTED SHREW.
Genus Nectogale.
A still further modification for the purposes of an aquatic life is exhibited by the
web-footed water-shrew (Nectogale elegans) of Tibet, of which a group is shown in
our coloured Plate. In these shrews not only are the feet and tail fringed with hairs,
but the external conchs of the ears are wanting, and the toes are completely joined
332 INSECTIVORES.
by webs, while the soles of the feet are furnished with large disc-like pads. The
web-footed shrew has a tail of 4 inches in length, while the length of the head and
body is but just over 3% inches. ‘The fur, which is extremely dense and soft and
evidently adapted to withstand the icy cold of the Tibetan rivers, is of a rich dark
brown colour above, with the longer hairs of a glistening white, while the chin and
throat are whitish, and the belly light brown.
It does not appear that this shrew has ever been seen by Europeans disporting
in the waters of its native streams. From its structure we may, however, con-
fidently infer that it is more thoroughly aquatic than any other member of the
family ; and it has been suggested by Milne-Edwards, its original describer, that
the disc-like pads on the soles of the feet act as suckers, and thus enable the
animal to cling to the surfaces of smooth pebbles or rocks during its sojourn
beneath the water.
THE DESMANS AND MOLES.
Family TALPIDZ.
The European desmans and the more widely-spread moles are the best known
representatives of two sections of a family which, while allied in many respects to
the shrews, possess characters of sufficient importance to justify its separation
ie (eA ae
3s
SKELETON OF MOLE.
therefrom. In the first place, the skull in all members of the family Talpide is
distinguished from that of the Soricide by having a distinct zygomatic arch
connecting the upper jaw with the region of the ear; this difference being distinctly
shown by a comparison of the figure of the skeleton of the mole given herewith
with that of the skeleton of the water-shrew on p. 3824. Then, again, on the under-
surface of the hinder part of the skull, whereas the so-called bulla of the internal
ear 1s represented in the shrews merely by an open ring, in the desmans and moles
it has a complete bladder-like form. Further, the first incisor tooth of both jaws
in the members of the present family is of a normal type, and never assumes the
peculiar form which has been shown to be characteristic of all the shrews.
Most of the members of the present family are of fossorial habits, although a
few are more or less completely aquatic, and others cursorial. All have long shrew-
like skulls, and small eyes and ears; while in most cases the fore-limbs are placed
DESMANS. 338
very far forward on the body, and are more or less specially modified for the
purpose of digging in the ground. The family, although by no means so
numerous in species as the shrews, is a comparatively large one, containing at least
eight distinct generic modifications. It is entirely confined to the Northern Hemi-
sphere, where it is widely distributed over the temperate regions of Europe, Asia,
and North America. |
THE DESMANS.
Genus Myogale.
The strange-looking desmans, of which there are two species, are aquatic
animals belonging to a section of the family characterised by the fore-limb not
RUSSIAN DESMANS (3 nat size).
being specially modified for the purpose of digging, and thus forming a connecting
link between the shrews and the moles. This absence of special modification is
exhibited by the bones of the skeleton of the fore-limb, in which the collar-bone
(clavicle), and the arm-bone (humerus) still retain a distinctly elongate form, while
there is no additional bone in the fore-foot.
The desmans are provided with the typical number of forty-four teeth, and are
further characterised by their completely webbed feet, their long trunk-like snout,
which projects far in advance of the upper lip, and the elongated and scaly tail. The
Russian desman (Myogale moschata) is considerably the larger
of the two, its total length being about 16 inches, of which some 64
are occupied by the tail. The fur is dense and thick, like that of an otter, with the
outer portion formed of long stiff hairs, and the under-coat soft and woolly. Above,
Russian Desman.
it is of a full reddish-brown, and beneath of an ashy-grey, with a silvery lustre
334 IN SE CTIVORES.
when viewed in certain lights. The first incisor tooth in each jaw is very large
and powerful, the upper one being somewhat chisel-shaped. The tail is laterally
flattened. This species inhabits the banks of streams and lakes over
a large portion of South-Eastern Russia, dwelling in holes after the
manner of the water-vole, and being as much at home in the water as an otter.
Indeed, the greater part of the creature's time appears to be spent in that element ;
the burrow, which terminates in a large chamber above the level of the water,
being chiefly used as a resting and breeding-place. Its chief food consists
of aquatic insects and their larve, although it probably also devours small fish.
Insects and larve are sought after by means of the proboscis-like snout, which is
Habits.
used to probe under stones and in chinks and hollows. A sharp hissing sound is
given forth when the animal is irritated or disturbed. The specific name of the
desman is derived from the musky odour produced by the secretion of a large gland
situated beneath the rest of the tail; this taint rendering its flesh quite uneatable.
Owing to its beautiful fur, which is not unlike that of the otter or beaver, the
Russian desman is largely hunted by the peasants of the regions where it is found ;
early autumn being the season when the fur is in the finest condition.
Although now confined to the steppes of South-Eastern Russia, it is remark-
able that the Russian desman once extended as far westwards as the British Isles,
its fossilised remains having been obtained from the so-called forest bed of the
Norfolk coast, which was deposited during the epoch immediately preceding the
Glacial period. Remains of extinct species of the genus have also been obtained
from the Tertiary deposits of the continent as far back as the lower portion of the
Miocene period.
Pyrenean Des- Far smaller than the Russian species is the Pyrenean desman
man. (M. pyrenaica), found on both the French and Spanish flanks of the
mountain range from which it derives its name. In total length this animal does
not much exceed 10 inches, of which about half is formed by the tail. It is,
however, also distinguished from its larger relative by the greater proportionate
length of its proboscis, and likewise by the tail being perfectly cylindrical. In
mode of life the two species seem to be very similar, although it has been stated
that the smaller one has a more marked preference for a diet of fish.
THE MOLE-SHREWS.
Genera Urotrichus and Uropsilus.
A very brief notice must suffice for the curious mole-shrews, which closely
connect the moles with the shrews. The true mole-shrews, of which there are two
species, constitute the genus Urotrichus, and are respectively found in Japan and
North America. They have 36 teeth, of which % are incisors, and either ~ or ¢
cheek-teeth on each side; and they are further characterised by their broad and
unwebbed fore-feet and fossorial habits. They are mole-like in appearance and of
small size. The Tibetan mole-shrew (Uropsilus soricipes) is the sole representative
of a distinct genus differing from the last by having only thirty-four teeth, a
narrow fore-foot, and a naked and scaly tail. In habit.it is cursorial; and while
WEB-FOOTED MOLES. 335
in external appearance it resembles a shrew its skull and teeth are like those of a
mole. Its general colour is slaty-grey.
THE WeEs-FooTtepD MOLES.
Genus Scalops.
With the web-footed moles of North America we come to the first representa-
tives of the second section of the family, characterised by having the collar-bone
(clavicle) and arm-bone (humerus) so shortened and widened as to have lost all
resemblance to the ordinary form; and also by the presence of an additional sickle-
shaped bone on the inner side of the fore-foot, next to the thumb, both these
features being intimately connected with the purely fossorial habits of all the
members of this section of the family.
All the moles, whether they belong to the New World or the
Old World group, are characterised by their peculiar form, which, as
we shall mention later on, is so admirably adapted for their mode of life. All have
the fore-paws naked and of enormous width and strength; while in all there are
Structure.
no external ear-conchs, and the small and useless eyes are deeply buried beneath
the fur, and are often further protected by an investing membrane. Then, again,
these animals are characterised by the extreme thickness and density of their short
velvet-like fur, to which no fragments of the soil through which the burrows are
driven ever adheres. Like the New World moles, the web-footed moles are dis-
tinguished from their cousins of the Old World by the circumstance that the first
incisor tooth in the upper jaw is of much larger size than the second. The special
characteristics of the web-footed moles are that they have only 36 teeth, of which 3
are incisors, 3 canines, and € cheek-teeth; and that the hind-feet are webbed, and
the tail is short and nearly naked.
The common web-footed mole (Scalops aquaticus) doubtless
received its specific name on account of its webbed hind-feet, which
led to the very natural inference that it was a swimming animal. But according
to Dr. Hart Merriam, this is a complete misnomer, for not only is this mole
“not known voluntarily to swim, but in the selection of its haunts it shows
no preference for the vicinity of water, but manifests rather a contrary tendency.
Its home is under ground, and its entire life is spent beneath the surface. Its food
consists almost wholly of earth-worms, grubs, ants, and other insects that live in
the earth and under logs and stones. It is almost universally regarded as an enemy
to the farmer, and is commonly destroyed whenever opportunity attords; for, not-
withstanding the fact that it subsists upon insects that injure the crops, it is never-
theless true that, in the procurement of these, it disfigures the garden paths and
beds by the ridges and little mounds of earth that mark the course of its subter-
ranean galleries, and loosens and injures many choice plants in its probing for
grubs amongst their roots.” The nest of this mole, “is commonly half a foot or
more below the surface, and from it several passages lead away in the direction
of its favourite foraging-grounds. These primary passages gradually approach the
surface, and finally become continuous with, or open into, an ever-increasing
Habits.
336 = LNSECTIVORES.
multitude of tortuous galleries, which wind about in every direction, and sometimes
come so near the surface as barely to escape opening upon it, while at other times
they are several inches deep. Along the most superficial of these horizontal
burrows the earth is actually thrown up in the form of long ridges, by which the
animal's progress can be traced. The distance that they can thus travel in a given
time is almost incredible. Audubon and Bachman state that they have been
known, in a single night after a rain, to execute a gallery several yards in length;
and I have myself traced a fresh one nearly one hundred yards. The only method
by which we can arrive at a just appreciation of the magnitude of this labour is by
comparison ; and computation shows that, in order to perform equivalent work, a
man would have to excavate in a single night a tunnel thirty-seven miles long, and
of sufficient size to easily admit of the passage of his body.”
THe Hairy-TAILED MOLES.
Genus Scapanus.
The hairy-tailed moles, of which there are two species inhabiting the United
States, form a connecting link between the web-footed and the star-nosed moles,
having the general external appearance of the former, but the same number (forty-
four) of teeth as in the latter. The habits of the common hairy-tailed mole
(S. americanus) appear very similar to those of the web-footed moles; both
inhabiting dry meadow-land in preference to the swampy ground affected by the
star-nosed mole. The mounds of the hairy-tailed moles do not, however, contain
the central and surface opening of those of the web-footed moles; neither do the
former animals indulge in the midday excursions so characteristic of the former.
THE StTaR-NosED MOLE.
Genus Condylura.
The last of the three genera of North American moles is represented only
by a single species, the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata), so called on account
of the peculiar ring of riband-like appendages surrounding the end of the muzzle,
in the middle of which are situated the nostrils. In addition to this feature, this
mole is characterised by the tail being nearly as long as the body, and also by the
circumstance that the bones of the terminal joints of the fingers are not cleft at
their extremities, as they are in the Old World moles. Like the latter, the star-
nosed mole possesses the typical number of forty-four teeth. In length this species
measures about 5 inches, exclusive of the tail.
The food of this mole consists entirely of earth-worms and insects,
and its habits are very similar to those of the web-footed mole, although
it does not apparently make such extensive excavations, and the hillocks thrown up
from the runs are of larger size. In gardens and arable land these moles tunnel
near the surface, throwing up a ridge of loose earth along the line of their tunnels,
but in pasture land they work at a lower level. In both these respects they
Habits.
Mi (OULIB, S: 3317
resemble the common European mole, with which they also agree in that, during
the late autumn, when the surface of the ground becomes frozen, they follow the
worms downwards until a plane is reached where the frost has not penetrated. By
following the ridge of loose earth which marks the progress of one of these moles
in a garden, and quickly sinking a spade in the creature’s path, a few inches in
advance of the moving earth, it is frequently possible to turn a specimen out upon
the surface. So quickly, however, do these animals pass through the soft soil of a
garden, that the spade, although aimed several inches in front of the moving earth,
will not unfrequently cut them in two.
Although the precise function of the peculiar dise of tentacles round the muzzle
is not yet definitely ascertained, it appears highly probable that it acts as a sensitive
organ of touch to aid its owner in discovering the whereabouts of the worms and
insects encountered during its subterranean wanderings. In the newly-born young
these tentacles are so small as to be scarcely perceptible. A nest examined by Dr.
Merriam contained three young ones.
THE TRUE MOLES.
Genus Talpa.
The Old World moles may be at once distinguished from all their North
American cousins by having the first upper incisor tooth scarcely larger than the
second. With the exception of a single species from Eastern Tibet, the whole of
the Old World moles are included in the genus Talpa, of which the typical
representative is the common European mole (7. ewropea). The members of this
genus, nine in number, are distributed over temperate Europe and Asia, two of the
Asiatic species being found to the south of the
Himalaya. Asa rule, there is the typical number
of forty-four teeth, but a few of the species have
not quite so many, owing to the loss either of the
lower canine tooth or of the first upper premolar ;
while in one species the first premolar is wanting
in both jaws. All are characterised by the width
UPPER AND LOWER SURFACE OF RIGHT
of the fore-foot. FORE-FOOT OF MOLE.
As we entered at considerable length into
the structure and habits of some of the American moles, our remarks on those
of the Old World may be comparatively brief, as there is a great similarity
between the two. It is remarkable that, as the European hedgehog differs from
all the other species of its genus, so the European mole is distinguished from all its
congeners by the absence of a membrane covering the eyes. Nearly or all the
moles are normally black in colour, with a more or less pronounced greyish lustre
when viewed in certain lights; but pied, buff, or white varieties are not very
uncommon. The naked feet are flesh-coloured. The different species of moles show
considerable variation as regards the relative length of the tail. Thus, whereas in
the European mole the length of the head and body is about 5 inches and that of
the tail 1 inch, in the Himalayan short-tailed mole (7. micrwra) the naked tail is
VOL. I.—22
338 INSECLTIVOLRES:
less than a quarter of an inch in length, and is completely concealed among the
fur of the body.
The European mole is remarkable for its wide geographical dis-
tribution, ranging from England in the west, through Asia north of
the Himalaya to Japan, and extending northwards as far as the Altai Mountains.
Like its cousin, the common shrew, it 1s, however, unknown in Ireland. The “runs”
of the European mole are very similar to those of the American moles already
referred to, but the central chamber, or dwelling-place, is of a more complex
structure. As this dwelling-place will be found described in detail in almost all
works treating of the mole, it will suffice to mention here that it is usually placed near
a hillock, or between two trees, and is composed of a central chamber with passages
Distribution.
THE COMMON MOLE (4 nat. size),
conducting to two circular galleries placed one above another. The higher of these
two galleries has a smaller diameter than the lower one. From the larger lower
gallery there are given off several diverging runs, one of which is larger than either
of the others, and is known as the main run, being the one which alone leads to the
burrows driven in various directions for the purpose of procuring food. These
burrows, or runs, except when so close to the surface as to allow of the earth being
raised directly upwards in the form of a ridge showing their course, are marked at
intervals by the well-known “ mole-hills,” which are mounds of loose earth pushed
up from below, and not containing any internal chamber or passages.
Since the voracity of the mole is proverbial, and its food consists exclusively of
earth-worms, insects, and their larve, its visits ought to be welcomed alike by the
farmer and the gardener. As a matter of fact, however, the mole has an awkward
habit of driving its tunnels below the drilled rows of young farm and garden crops,
MOLES. 330
o
by which not only are the roots of the plants disturbed, but the whole row may be
dried up. Moreover, it appears pretty certain that field-voles will take advantage
of runs driven in such localities as convenient points from which to make inroads
on the sprouting seeds or the roots of the young plants. Then, again, in addition
to the unsightliness of a host of mole-hills in a garden, such elevations are incon-
venient in a field of standing grass, as they impede the process of mowing. From
these and other circumstances, farmers and gardeners generally unite in a war of
extermination against the mole, although there can be no doubt but that in many
respects its visits are a distinct advantage to its destroyers.
It is well known that male moles are more numerous than females, and this
seems to be explained by a writer in the /%eld newspaper, who states that a family
“of moles appears to consist of five members, in the proportion of four males to one
female—this as a rule, though with many exceptions. In the course of my experience
I have never caught more than five in succession in the same run; and this, there-
fore, appears to be the limit.” It is well known that moles have the habit of
feeding at regular hours during the day, and that they may be found at work
at eight, twelve, and four o’clock. In regard to mole-catching, it is mentioned
that, “when setting a trap in light crumbling soil, as in a flower-bed, care should
be taken to remove only sufficient earth to allow of the trap being put in, and
the hole leading each way should be carefully cleared, so as to allow the mole
a free passage, or he will infallibly dive underneath your trap.
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PALM-CIVETLS. 457
inches. The body has a greyish ground-colour, marked with about six very
broad and somewhat irregular brownish-black transverse bands extending across
the back, and separated by very narrow intervals. On the flanks and neck the
markings form broken longitudinal lines and spots, one very distinct line always
extending from behind the ear to the shoulder. The outer surfaces of the
fore-limbs and of the thighs are spotted; and the tail has seven complete
dark rings, separated by narrower light interspaces; its tip, as in the genets,
being lighter.
The spotted linsang (1. pardicolor), which is found from the South-Eastern
Himalaya to Yunan, is a somewhat smaller animal; the length of the head and
body being only 15 inches. It is readily distinguished by its coloration; the back
being marked with longitudinal rows of large oblong spots, instead of the transverse
bands of the last species.
A tame specimen of this beautiful animal was once kept by Mr. Brian Hodgson
in Nipal. He describes it as very docile, fond of notice, and never giving vent to
any kind of sound. It was free from the strong odour characteristic of the true
civets, and was fed upon raw meat. Mr. Hodgson states that in its wild con-
dition this species is equally at home on trees and on the ground; and that it
dwells and breeds in the hollows of decayed trees. It is not gregarious at all, and
preys chiefly upon small birds, upon which it is wont to pounce from the cover of
the grass. The times of breeding are said to be February and August, and the
litter to consist of two young, there being two litters each year.
The African linsang (Poiana poénsis), of which some of the distinctive
characters have been already mentioned, is found only on the West Coast, in Sierra
Leone and Fernando Po, and is, therefore, widely separated from its Oriental
relatives. The tail is somewhat longer than the head and body, measuring
upwards of 404 inches; whereas the total length of the head and body is but 38
inches. The spots, as already mentioned, are smaller than in the Oriental linsangs,
and, with the exception of some stripes on the back of the head, and a line extend-
ing from the neighbourhood of the ear to the shoulder, do not run together into
lines or patches. The tail is peculiar in that the light rings separating the large
dark bands are divided in the middle by very narrow dark rings.
THE PALM-CIVETS.
Genus Paradoxrurus.
The palm-civets, tree-cats, or toddy-cats, as they are indifferently called, form
an Asiatic group, with a single outlying West African species, of civet-like animals,
differing in several important respects from all the preceding types, which are more
or less closely allied. The number of the teeth is the same as in the true civets;
but the individual teeth are usually much smaller in proportion to the size of the
skull; and the flesh-teeth are by no means of such a markedly cutting type.
There are also important distinctions in the structure of the skull. In most cases
the tail is uniformly-coloured, or only ringed at its base. Moreover, all these
animals are largely of arboreal habits.
458 CARNIVORES.
The typical palm-civets, constituting the genus Paradoxurus, are exclusively
Asiatic, ranging from India and Burma through the Malayan region to the south
of China, and also occurring in the Philippines, Celebes, and Formosa. They may
be either uniformly-coloured or striped, and, with one exception, have no rings on
the tail, which is very long, but not prehensile. In size most of them may be
compared to a large cat with relatively short legs. Their ears are small and
rounded, the pupil of the eye is vertical, and the claws are completely retractile.
The most distinctive external feature is to be found, however, in the soles of the
feet, which, in both the fore and hind-limbs are almost completely naked; the bald
S f =a
PALMA
THE COMMON PALM-CIVET (} nat. size).
area being continued backwards from the foot-pads without the intervention of any
hairy space.
The palm-civets are purely nocturnal and thoroughly arboreal in their habits ;
their food, in accordance with the structure of their teeth, consisting in part of
animal and in part of vegetable substances. The name Paradowwrus—often
anglicised into Paradoxure—was given to these animals on account of a caged
specimen in Paris having its tail coiled up in a peculiar manner. It was believed
that this was the normal condition, and that the tail could be used as a prehensile
organ. It appears, however, that although the palm-civets have naturally some
power of coiling and uncoiling their tails, yet that the permanently coiled condition,
as shown in the Paris and some other caged specimens, is a kind of disease due to
the effects of captivity. Altogether there appear to be upwards of eleven well-
PAELM-CLIVETS. 459
distinguished species of true palm-civets, five of which are found in India and
Burma. In nine of these species the tail is considerably more than half the
length of the head and body; and in eight of these it is uniformly-coloured. The
Celebes palm-civet (P. musschenbroeki), forming the ninth in this series, is, how-
ever, distinguished by having its tail banded with indistinct rings of darker and
lighter brown. The imperfectly-known woolly palm-civet (P. laniger) was
described upon the evidence of a single skin, said to have been obtained from
Tibet, and differs from all the rest in the woolly nature of its fur, and also by the
length of the tail not exceeding that of the head and body. It is not certain that
it really belongs to the same genus as the other species. The eleventh species is
known only by a skull remarkable for the large size of its teeth.
The best known of all the species is the common Indian palmn-civet (P. niger),
found throughout the greater part of India and Ceylon, and figured on p. 458. In
this species the tail is nearly or quite as long as the head and body; and the
general colour of the coarse and somewhat ragged fur a blackish or brownish-grey,
without any stripes across the back in fully adult individuals. The length of the
head and body of a male measured by Mr. Blanford was 224 inches, and that of
the tail 194 inches; the corresponding dimensions of a female being in one instance
20 and 174 inches, while in a second both were about 18 inches.
Writing of this species, the late Dr. Jerdon observes that “it ives much on trees,
especially on the palmyra and cocoanut palms, and is often found to have taken up
its residence in the thick thatched roofs of native houses. I found a large colony
of them established in the rafters of my own house at Tellicherry. It is also
occasionally found in dry drains, outhouses, and other places of shelter. It is quite
nocturnal, issuing forth at dark, and living by preference on animal food, rats,
lizards, small birds, poultry, and eggs; but it also freely partakes of vegetable food,
fruit, and insects. In confinement it will also eat plantains, boiled rice, bread-and-
milk, ete. Colonel Sykes mentions that it is very fond of cockroaches. Now and
then it will commit depredations on some poultry-yard, and I have often known
it taken in traps baited with a pigeon or a chicken. In the south of India it
is very often tamed, and becomes quite domestic, and even affectionate in its
manners. One I saw at Trichinopoli went about quite at large, and late every
night used to work itself under the pillow of its owner, roll itself up into a ball,
with its tail coiled round its body, and sleep till a late hour in the day. It hunted
for rats, shrews, and lizards. Their activity in climbing is very great, and they
used to ascend and descend my house at one of the corners in a most surprising
manner.” This palm-civet is common in Lower Bengal, and in the gardens of the
suburban residences of Calcutta may occasionally be seen in the late afternoon or
evening crawling among the leaves of a palm previous to starting on its nocturnal
wanderings. That it will sometimes take up its quarters in the very heart of the
town of Calcutta is proved by an incident which happened to the present writer
when on the staff of the Geological Survey of India. At that time (1874) the
office of the Survey was situated in a street leading down to the Hughli, in the old
part of the city. On arriving at the office he found his papers on the writing-
table marked every morning with the footprints of some mammal. He thereupon
1 Also known as P. musanga.
460 CARNIVORES.
procured a packing-case, which he converted into a 4-trap, and set, properly baited,
one night in his room. Next morning he found that the box had fallen, with a
tenant inside. The tube of a sulphuretted-hydrogen bottle was then imserted
through a hole bored in the side of the box, and the latter, after an interval, lifted,
when the dead body of a palm-civet was disclosed.
The name of toddy-cats is applied to these animals from the partiality they, in
common with the fox-bats, display in Southern India and Ceylon for the palm-
juice, or toddy, collected by the natives in vessels suspended on the trees. Like
the other members of the group, the Indian palm-civet, when irritated, gives forth
a most unpleasant odour.
The Malay palm-civet (P. hermaphroditus), which is represented in the
accompanying illustration, occurs throughout the countries to the eastward of the
THE MALAY PALM-CIVET (} nat. size).
Bay of Bengal, as far as Siam, and is distinguished from its Indian congener by the
presence of a pale-coloured band running across the forehead, and also by the
general presence. of stripes across the back in the adult condition. In both the
preceding species the “whiskers” are black, but in the golden palm-civet (P.
aureus) of Ceylon, and also the brown palm-civet (P. jerdonz) of Southern India,
they are respectively rufous and dark brown; the body-colour of those two species
being nearly the same as that of their whiskers. On the other hand, the
Himalayan palm-civet (P. gray?), which occurs throughout Sikhim and Assam, is
readily distinguished by its white whiskers; while it is further characterised by
the great backward production of the bony palate of the skull. The golden palm-
civet is said to be less carnivorous than the other species.
The Chinese palm-civet (P. larvatus), of which we give a figure on the
next page, is closely allied to the Himalayan palm-civet, but differs by the
browner tinge of its greyish fur, and by the markings on the head being
very distinct, and black and white in colour. It has also a broad white band
PALM-CIVETS. 461
running down the head and nose. It is rather smaller than the Himalayan palm-
civet, although its exact dimensions are still unknown. In Southern China this
palm-civet is found in Hangchow, and the provinces of Kwangtung and Fokien;
and it likewise inhabits the Island of Formosa.
‘
THE CHINESE PALM-CIVET ({ nat. size).
THE SMALL-TOOTHED PALM-CIVETS.
Genus Arctogale.
The two species of small-toothed palm-civets are distinguished (as their name
implies), among other characters, from the members of the preceding genus by their
relatively smaller cheek-teeth, and have hence been referred to a distinct genus,
under the name of Arctogale. Externally these civets may be readily distinguished
from the typical palm-civets by the soles of their feet being still more extensively
naked, and likewise by the greater degree of divergence of the first toe of both
pairs of feet from the other digits. The white-eared small-toothed palm-civet
(A. leucotis) is an inhabitant of Assam, Burma, Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, and Java; while the second species (A. trivirgata) is restricted to the
island last mentioned. The former is a short-furred animal, of a fulvous or dusky-
grey colour, sometimes nearly brown on the back, and always paler below, with
a tail about as long as the head and body. It is readily distinguished by the
presence of three dark bands, which may be either continuous, or broken up into
spots, running down the back of the otherwise uniformly-coloured body. In a
male specimen the total length of the head and body was 26} inches, and that of the
462 CARNIVORES.
tail 27 inches. When taken young it is said to be readily tamed. The small size
of the cheek-teeth—especially the nearly triangular form of the upper flesh-tooth
—suggests that it feeds largely upon vegetable substances. The second species is
closely allied, having three similar dark stripes down the back.
THE HEMIGALES.
Genus Henvigale.
Another type of palm-civet is represented by the so-called Hemigale, for which
there does not appear to be any recognised English title. Of this genus there are
two species, the one, Hardwicke’s hemigale (H. hardwickev), found both in the
Malay Peninsula and Borneo, and the other, or Hose’s hemigale (H. hosez), confined
to Mount Dulit in the northern part of the latter island, where it has only recently
been discovered. The hemigales are distinguished from the other palm-civets by
having a much smaller portion of the soles of the feet naked, and likewise by their
coloration, which is different from that of any other representatives of the family,
although approached to some extent by the linsangs. This characteristic coloration
takes the form, in the typical Hardwicke’s hemigale, of a variable number of broad
transverse dark bands crossing the back, of which the ground-colour is a pale
brownish-grey ; the number of these bands being very generally either five or six.
There are also some dark longitudinal stripes on the nape of the neck; while the
upper half of the tail is banded with dark rings. A peculiarity of these animals is
that the direction of the hair on the back of the neck is reversed. Their habits
are probably very similar to those of the other palm-civets.
THE AFRICAN PALM-CIVET.
Genus Nandinia.
The last member of this group is the African palm-civet (Wandinia binotata),
which although nearly allied to the Oriental forms is distinguished by certain
structural peculiarities in the skull, and also by having a shorter muzzle than any
other member of the family to which it belongs. The fur is of a greyish-brown colour,
with the back and sides marked with large dark spots, and a pale spot on either side
of the shoulders from which it takes its second scientific name. The tail, which is
about two-thirds the length of the head and body, is indistinctly ringed with dark
bands; the animal thus being the fourth representative of the palm-civets in which
the tail is thus ornamented. In size this animal is rather smaller than the average
of the typical palm-civets.
The African palm-civet is found on the West Coast, in the district of Fernando
Po; and it will be thus apparent that it presents precisely the same relation to the
Oriental palm-civets in respect to geographical distribution as is presented by the
African linsang to its Eastern cousins. We are not acquainted with any account
of the habits of this animal, but the nature of the teeth suggests that it lives largely
on flesh.
BINTURONG. 463
THE BINTURONG.
Genus Arctictis.
The remarkable animal, represented in the accompanying illustration, and
known as the binturong, or bear-cat, although nearly allied to the palm-civets,
is yet so different from the members of that group in certain respects as to be
entitled to notice under a special heading. It is the sole representative of its
genus, and has a rather wide distribution in the Oriental region, ranging from
THE BINTURONG (+ nat, size).
Assam through Arakan, Tenasserim, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Java.
The binturong (Arctictis bintwrong) is distinguished from all the other members
of the civet family by the long tufts of hair surmounting the ears, and also by the
prehensile nature of the long and somewhat bushy tail. As regards size, the length
of the head and body varies from 28 to 33 inches, and that of the tail from 26 to
27 inches. The tail is thus nearly as long as the head and body, and it is char-
acterised by its great thickness at the root, from which it tapers gradually; it is
covered with bristly straggling hairs, which exceed in length those of the body.
The whole of the fur is, however, long and coarse,—more especially on the back,—
and is of a uniform black tint, more or less washed with grey on the head and
5D d
fore-limbs, and occasionally all over the body.
464 CARNIVORES.
The cheek-teeth of the binturong, although of the same general type, are even
proportionately smaller than in the small-toothed palm-civets, with which they
agree In number. The last molar tooth in the upper, and the first premolar in the
lower jaw may, however, be wanting in some individuals. These peculiarities in
the teeth, coupled with the other structural characteristics of the animal, lead to
the conclusion that the binturong is a highly modified and specialised member of
the palm-civet group, of which the nearest relatives are the small-toothed palm-
civets. Writing of the habits of the binturong, Mr. Blanford observes that it “is
omnivorous, living on small mammals, birds, fishes, earth-worms, insects, and fruits ;
it is also nocturnal and arboreal, its power of climbing about trees being much
aided by its prehensile tail. It is rather slow in its movements. Its ability to
suspend itself by its tail has been questioned, but Blyth has shown that the young,
at all events, can support itself by the extremity of the tail alone. Blyth also
remarks that it is the only known placental mammal with a truly prehensile tail
in the Old World. This species inhabits wild forests, and, owing to its nocturnal
and retiring habits, is seldom seen ; it is said, however, to have a loud howl. It is
naturally fierce, but when taken young is easily tamed, and becomes very gentle
and playful. Of its breeding, nothing appears to be known.” It has been stated
that in the young state the binturong is spotted.
THE CYNOGALE.
Genus Cynogale.
As the palm-civets and the binturong represent the arboreal type of the family
THE CYNOGALE (} nat. size).
MUNGOOSES. 465
under consideration, so the cynogale (for which there is no English name) presents
us with a form adapted specially for a partially aquatic mode of life.
This animal (Cynogale bennettz) is another inhabitant of the eastern part of the
Oriental region, where the civet tribe attains its greatest and most peculiar develop-
ment, being found in the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Borneo and Sumatra.
In appearance the cynogale somewhat resembles a small otter, the muzzle being
very broad and furnished with thick bristles, while the body is shorter and stouter
than in other members of the family, and the tail unusually short, its total length
being only some 6 inches, while that of the head and body is upwards of 24 inches.
The toes of the feet are webbed at their bases, and are further remarkable for their
shortness. The teeth are the same in number as those of the palm-civets, but the
premolars have unusually tall crowns, apparently adapted for holding and biting
the fish, upon which it largely subsists.
According to Mr. Wallace, this animal is exceedingly rare in Borneo. Not
only does it swim well and readily, but it is also said to be a ready climber. In
addition to fish, crabs, ete., which form a considerable proportion of its diet, it
is also reported to eat the flesh of such land animals as it can catch, and
likewise various fruits.
THE MUNGOOSES.
Genus Herpestes, ete.
Of late years the time-honoured name ichneumon, applied to the Egyptian
representative of the group of civet-lke animals, into the consideration of which
we now enter, has been very generally rejected by zoological writers in favour of
the term mungoose, the native Indian name for the Oriental species.
Using, then, the latter term, the mungooses form a well-defined group of small
civet-like animals, with very long and generally uniformly-coloured bodies and
tails, which differ in several important characteristics from the members of the
family hitherto noticed. A large number of the mungooses are included in the
typical genus Herpestes, of which the range includes not only the African, but
also the Indian and Malayan regions; and of which one species is found in Spain.
The other mungooses come from Africa, which may thus be regarded as the head-
quarters of the group.
The mungooses differ from the members of the civet family yet described by
several important modifications in the structure of the skull, into the consideration
of which it would be impossible to enter in the present work. It may be observed,
however, that the socket of the eye (orbit) is very frequently surrounded by
a complete bony ring, while in all the forms hitherto noticed it is widely open
behind; and that the teeth are always relatively tall, with sharp cusps adapted
for a thoroughly carnivorous diet. Mungooses may be distinguished at a glance
by their long straight claws, which are incapable of retraction, and are, therefore,
always protruded, like those of a dog; and no mungoose ever has scent-glands
comparable to those so generally present among the true civets and palm-civets.
So important are these differences that zoologists now divide the civet tribe
VOL, I.—30
466 CARNIVORES.
into three primary groups, or subfamilies ; the first of these being represented solely
by the fossa of Madagascar, the second including the true civets, genets, palm-
civets, ete., and the third the mungooses and their allies.
The true mungooses, or those constituting the genus Herpestes, are so well
known as to be familiar to many of our readers. They have long, weasel-like
bodies, and a more or less elongated tail, which is generally thick at the root, and
may be covered with long hair; its general colour being like that of the body, but
the tip often darker. The longer hairs of almost all the mungooses are marked
with alternate darker and hghter rings, which communicate a peculiar and
characteristic speckled appearance to the fur. The head has a pointed muzzle,
with a rather short nose, in which there is a median groove on the completely
naked under-surface. The ears are small and rounded. The lmbs are likewise
of extreme shortness, the feet being provided with five toes, of which the first,
both in front and behind, is extremely small. These toes are generally detached,
but may be slightly connected by a small web at their bases. The under-surfaces of
the fore-feet are generally naked ; while in most cases only the front part of the soles
of the hind-feet are free from hair. It may be added that most mungooses have the
same number of teeth as the true civets, that is forty ; but, owing to the loss of a
premolar on each side of the lower and upper jaws, in some species the number
may be reduced to thirty-six.
As already mentioned, the true mungooses have a wide distribution, ranging
over the greater part of Africa, extending across the Straits of Gibraltar into
Spain, and eastwards through the south of Asia as far as the islands of the
Malayan region. The number of species belonging to the typical genus is com-
paratively large, Africa claiming eight! (among which is the one ranging into
Spain), and the same number being recognised by Mr. Blanford from India, Ceylon,
and Burma. In respect of size the mungooses exhibit a considerable degree of
variation, for, whereas the head and body of the smallest species may be compared
to those of a weasel, the larger forms rival a domestic cat in dimensions. Sum-
marising the habits of the mungooses, Mr. Blanford describes them as terrestrial
Carnivores, seeking their prey on the ground, and very rarely climbing trees.
They are active, bold, and predacious, and live on small mammals, birds and
reptiles, insects and eggs, and occasionally eat fruit. They are deadly enemies to
snakes, as described under H. mwngo. They live in holes in the ground, hollow
trees, and similar places. When angry or excited, they erect their long hairs,
and especially those of their tails.
The typical representative of the genus is the Egyptian mungoose or
ichneumon (H. ichnewmon), inhabiting Africa, north of the Sahara Desert,
Palestine, Asia Minor, and the southern portions of Spain. It was one of the
sacred animals of the ancient Egyptians, and is often depicted on their frescoes.
It is reported to feed largely upon the eggs of crocodiles, although this habit has
not been recorded of any of the Indian species. It was, and we believe still is,
domesticated in Egypt; and has the same antipathy to snakes alluded to under the
head of the common Indian species. The Egyptian mungoose is a large species ;
the length of the head and body being about 20 inches, and that of the tail some
1 There is also a species known only by the skull, which is believed to be African.
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MUNGOOSES. 469
15 or 16 inches. It is characterised by the tip of the tail being black, and the
grizzled grey-brown colour of the fur, in which the individual hairs are ringed
with reddish-brown and creamy-yellow. South of the Sahara this species is replaced
by the slightly larger but closely allied caffre mungoose (H. caffer), in which the
hairs are ringed with black and white. In South Africa, as far north as Zanzibar,
we have also a much smaller species, the slender mungoose (H. gracilis), agreeing
with the two preceding forms in the black tip to the tail, while in Kordofan the
nearly equal-sized red-tailed mungoose (H. swnguineus) is distinguished by its
general fawn-coloured fur, and the red tip to the tail.
Three other South and West African mungooses of large size are characterised
by the tip of the tail being of the same tint as the body-colour. The largest and
most distinct of the African species is, however, the white-tailed mungoose
THE INDIAN MUNGOOSE (+ nat. size).
(H. albicauda), in which the length of the head and body varies from 22 to as
much as 26 inches. This species is distinguished from all the above by the under-
surface of the ankle being hairy, instead of nearly or quite naked, and also by its
bushy tail. The general colour is blackish-grey, the longer hairs being ringed with
black and white, and having the tips black. According to Mr. Thomas, the white-
tailed mungoose presents a remarkable individual variation in the colour of the
fur of the tail. The hairs are of considerable length, “in some cases with white
bases and long shining black tips, so that the whole tail appears to be black; in
others with a long white tip beyond the black, so that then the tail appears to be
white; in the latter case the hairs at the extreme tip of the tail being generally
wholly white.” This species ranges from the eastern part of Abyssinia to Natal,
and reappears on the West Coast in the Guinea district.
Of the Oriental mungooses we select for especial notice the common Indian
470 CARNIVORES.
mungoose (H. mungo), which belongs to a group of several species characterised
by their uniform coloration, there being no stripe on the neck and no black tip to
the tail. It is a comparatively large species, with rather long hair, of which the
general colour iS grey or rufous; the length of the head and body varying from
15 to 18 inches, and that of the tail from 14 to 15 inches. This species is found
. throughout peninsular India, from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin, and also occurs
in Ceylon, although unknown in the countries to the eastward of the Bay of
Bengal. The common Indian mungoose, writes Mr. Blanford, “is found in hedge-
rows, thickets, groves of trees, cultivated fields, banks of streams, and broken
bushy ground, but not commonly in dense forests. It is often found about houses.
It lives and breeds in holes dug by itself. Very little appears to be known of its
breeding habits. It is often seen in pairs. The young are three or four in number,
and are produced in the spring. The food of this animal is varied. It lives
principally upon rats and mice, snakes and lizards, such birds as it can capture,
eggs and insects; but it eats fruit at times. The stomach of one killed near
Secunderabad contained, according to M‘Master, a quail, a small wasp’s nest, a
lizard, a number of insects, and part of a custard-apple.” In disposition this animal,
for its size, is decidedly fierce and bloodthirsty. Jerdon says that “not untfre- |
quently it gets access to tame pigeons, rabbits, or poultry, and commits great
havoe, sucking the blood only of several. I have often seen it,” he adds, “make
a dash into a verandah where some cages of mynas, parrakeets, ete, were daily
placed, and endeavour to tear the birds from their cages.”
In spite of its natural fierceness, the mungoose is easily tamed, and forms a
gentle and affectionate pet. Tamed mungooses are largely carried about m India
by snake-charmers and other wandering showmen. The following excellent account
of a tame mungoose of this species (which ultimately died from grief at the absence
of its master) is given by Mr. R. A. Sterndale:—“TI got it,” writes the narrator,
“whilst on active service during the Indian Mutiny, when it was a wee thing,
smaller than a rat. It travelled with me on horseback in an empty holster, or in
a pocket, or up my sleeve; and afterwards, when my duties took me out into
camp, ‘Pips’ was my constant companion. He knew perfectly well when I was
going to shoot a bird for him. He would stand up on his hind-legs when he saw
me present the gun, and run for the bird when it fell. He had, however, no notion
of retrieving, but would scamper off with his prey to devour it at leisure. He was
a most fearless little fellow, and once attacked a big greyhound, who beat a retreat.
In a rage his body would swell to nearly twice its size, from the erection of the
hair; yet I had him under such perfect subjection that I had only to hold up my
finger to him when he was about to attack anything, and he would desist. I heard
a great noise one day outside my room, and found ‘ Pips’ attacking a fine male
specimen I had of the great bustard (Hupodotis edwards:), which he had just
seized by the throat. I rescued the bird, but it died of its injuries. Through the
carelessness of my servants, he was lost one day in a heavy brushwood jungle some
miles from my camp, and I quite gave up all hope of recovering my pet. Next
day, however, in tracking some antelope, we happened to cross the route taken by
my servants, when we heard a familiar little yelp, and down from a tree we were
under rushed‘ Pips. He went to England with me after that, and was the delight
MOUNGOOSES. 471
of all the sailors on board ship, for his accomplishments were varied... . From
watching him, I observed many httle habits belonging to these animals. He was
excessively clean, and, after eating, would pick his teeth with his claws in a most
absurd manner. I do not know whether a mungoose in a wild state will eat carrion,
but he would not touch anything tainted, and, though very fond of freshly-cooked
game, would turn up his nose at ‘high’ partridge or grouse. He was very fond
of egos, and, holding them in his fore-paws, would crack a little hole at the small
end, through which he would suck the contents. He was a very good ratter, and
also killed many snakes against which I pitted him. His way seemed to be to
tease the snake into darting at him, when, with inconceivable rapidity, he would
pounce on the reptile’s head. He seemed to know instinctively which were the
poisonous ones, and acted with corresponding caution. I tried him once with some
sea-snakes, which are poisonous, but he could get no fight out of them, and crunched
their heads off, one after the other.”
Much has been written as to the combats of both the Egyptian and the Indian
mungoose with venomous snakes, and also as to the alleged immunity of these
animals from snake-poison. On these points Mr. Blanford writes as follows :—* The
prevalent belief throughout oriental countries is, that the mungoose, when bitten,
seeks for an antidote, a herb or root known in India as manguswail. It is scarcely
necessary to say that the story is destitute of foundation. There is, however,
another view, supported by some evidence, that the mungoose is less susceptible to
snake-poison than other animals. The mungoose is not always willing to attack,
though at other times he is ready enough to fight. I have not seen many combats,
but, so far as I can judge from the few I have witnessed, Jerdon and Sterndale
are correct in their view that the mungoose usually escapes being bitten by his
wonderful activity. He appears to wait till the snake makes a dart at him, and
then suddenly pounces upon the reptile’s head, and crunches it to pieces. I have
seen a mungoose eat up the head and poison glands of a large cobra, so the poison
must be harmless to the mucous membrane of the former animal. When excited,
the mungoose erects its long stiff hair, and it must be very difficult for a snake to
drive its fangs through this and through the thick skin which all kinds of Herpestes
possess. In all probability a mungoose is very rarely scratched by the fangs, and,
if he is, very little poison can be injected. It has been repeatedly proved by
experiments that a mungoose can be killed, like any other animal, if properly
bitten by a venomous snake, though even in this case the effects appear to be
produced after a longer period than with other mammals of the same size.”
In addition to being a benefactor to the human race as a destroyer of poisonous
snakes, the Indian mungoose (like its Egyptian cousin) is equally valuable as an
exterminator of rats; ships having more than once been cleared of those pests in a
comparatively short period by the introduction of a mungoose. Rather more than
twenty years ago (1871) the sugar-planting industry in Jamaica was threatened
with annihilation from the damage inflicted on the canes by a particular species of
cat, Which absolutely swarmed in the island. After ferrets, toads, and ants had
been tried with more or less ill-suecess to stay the plague, Mr. W. B. Espeut
bethought himself of introducing the Indian mungoose. Accordingly, in the spring
of 1872, nine of these animals were imported and let loose in the island. “ Within
“=
a few months,” writes Mr. Espeut, “young ones were seen about, and in less than
six months there was evidence, clear and certain, that the rats were much less
destructive than they had ever been known. Fewer rats were caught and fewer
canes were destroyed, month after month. Within two years the expenditure in
killing rats ceé sed almost entirely, and in another year I enjoyed relief and
immunity ; and ever since the losses from rats have been a mere trifle. Within a
very short time (three years) neighbouring estates found a similar benefit, and some
of my brother sugar-planters, who had laughed at me for supposing the mungoose
would do any good, began to buy all they could procure from the natives, who,
setting traps on my lands, stole all the mungooses they could obtain, and sold them.
By this means, and naturally, the mungoose has now [1882] become general all
over the island, and the beneficial results of this useful animal may safely be taken
as exceeding £150,000 a year.” The mungoose has been subsequently introduced,
with equally satisfactory results, into Cuba, Porto Rico, Grenada, Barbadoes, and
Santa Cruz.
The small Indian mungoose (H. wuropunctatus) is a member of the same
group as the preceding species, but is of smaller dimensions, with closer and shorter
fur, in which the individual hairs of the back do not have more than five coloured
rings. This is a northern form, not found in India to the southward of Caleutta,
and ranging into the Himalaya as far north as the valley of Kashmir, while to the
westward its range includes Baluchistan and portions of Afghanistan and Persia,
and eastwards it extends through Assam into Upper Burma. In Kashmir it may
frequently be seen in the Mohammedan burying-places, where it inhabits old
graves. Omitting mention of other uniformly-coloured Indian species, we may
briefly refer to three other species inhabiting our eastern dominions. One of these
is the ruddy mungoose (H. smithi), widely distributed in India, and distinguished
by the black tip to its tail, and the absence of a stripe on the throat. The second
is the stripe-necked mungoose (/. viticollis), which is the largest of all the Asiatic
species, and is readily distinguished by having both a black tip to the tail and a
black stripe down each side of the neck. It inhabits Western India, from Bombay
to Cape Comorin, and is also found in Ceylon.
The last of these three species is the crab-eating mungoose (H. urva),
remarkable on account of its peculiar habits. In size this species (of which we give
a figure) is rather smaller than the preceding one, and is characterised by its thick
and heavy build, the uniformly-coloured tail, and the presence of a narrow white
stripe running along each side of the neck, from the angle of the mouth to the
shoulder. The crab-eating mungoose is found at low elevations in the South-
Eastern Himalaya, as well as in Assam, Arakan, Pegu, Tenasserim, and the south
of China. It is stated to be of partially aquatic habits, and derives its name from
the crabs which, together with frogs, are asserted to form its chief food. Further
information as to the habits of this species is, however, still required.
The remaining representatives of the true mungooses comprise the large Javan
mungoose (H. javanicus) and the short-tailed mungoose (H. brachywrus) from the
Malay Peninsula and some of the islands of the same region, and the barred
mungoose (H. semitorquatus) from the Island of Borneo. It has already been
mentioned that a few of the true mungooses have but three premolar teeth on
MUNGOOSES. 473
either side of each jaw; such species being found only in Africa. It may be added
that in these species there is always a distinct gap between the tusk or canine
tooth and the premolar corresponding with the second in those species having four
of these teeth. There occur, however, in Africa two small mungooses with only
three premolar teeth, of which the most anterior is placed close up to the tusk, so
that there is no gap in the series. These species are also distinguished from their
African relatives by their proportionately shorter tails, of which the length is less
than that of the body alone. Hence these two animals have been referred to a
distinct genus—Helogale. Of the two species, the one named H. parvula is an
inhabitant of Natal, and is of a greyish-brown colour; while the other—H. wndulata
THE CRAB-EATING MUNGOOSE (% nat. size).
hails from East Africa, in the Mozambique district, and has the hair of a grizzled
rufous tint. Beth have naked soles to the hind-feet.
THE Four-ToED MUNGOOSES.
Genera Cynictis and Bdeogale.
In describing the typical mungooses it was mentioned that the first toes im
both fore and hind-feet are of extremely small size. It might have been added that
this small size of the first toe is more marked in the hind than in the fore-feet, and
that in both limbs these digits appear to be of no functional use. We have now
to mention three African mungooses in which this small first toe disappears either
in the hind-limb alone or in both hind and fore-limbs. The whole of these species
474 CARNIVORES.
have four premolar teeth on either side of each jaw, and are further characterised
by the hairiness of the soles of the hind-feet.
The thick-tailed mungoose (Cynictis penicillata) is the only representative of
its genus which is characterised by having four toes on the hind-foot and five on
the fore-foot. This animal inhabits the Cape Colony, and is of medium size. It
may be readily distinguished from all its allies by its bushy white-tipped tail, and
the peculiar greyish-yellow colour of its fur, which is lable to some degree of
individual variation. The other two species (Bdeogale crassicauda and B. puisa)
are from East Africa,—Mozambique and Zanzibar,—and are distinguished by having
but four toes on both fore and hind-feet. Both species are closely allied, differing
inainly in the colour of the hairs of the tail.
THE THICK-TAILED MUNGOOSE (3 nat. size).
THE SMOOTH-NOSED MUNGOOSES.
Genera Rhinogale and Crossarchus.
The remaining members of the mungoose group, all of which are African,
differ from the whole of the preceding in that there is no median vertical groove
between the nose and the upper lip. They are referred to three distinct genera,
of which the two here mentioned have five toes on each foot.
Meller’s mungoose (Rhinogale melleri) is an East African species, which is of
interest not only on account of its being the sole representative of the genus to
which it belongs, but also from only a single specimen (described as long ago as 1864)
MUNGOOSES. 475
having hitherto been obtained of it. It is of about the same form and size as the
Egyptian mungoose, with the full number of premolar teeth, and with the soles of
the hind-feet completely covered with hair as far as the roots of the toes. The
tail is about equal in length to the body, and the general colour is a uniform pale
brown, becoming lighter on the head, the individual hairs having but one or two
rings of different colours.
The four remaining mungooses to be mentioned under this heading collectively
constitute the genus Crossarchus, which is distinguished from the preceding by
having only three premolar teeth on either side of each jaw, and likewise by the
under-surface of the hind-feet being completely naked. A further distinction
between the two is to be found in the circumstance that, while in Meller’s mungoose
THE CUSIMANSE (} nat. size).
the palate of the skull is concave, in the members of the present genus it is com-
pletely flat. All are of burrowing habits.
Of the four species, the cusimanse (C. obscurus), ranging in West Africa from
the Camerun Mountains to Sierra Leone, and the Gambian mungoose(C. gambianus)
of the Gambia have uniformly-coloured and grizzled fur. The former, which is
figured above, is of a dull brown colour, with yellow tips to the hairs, while the
latter is grey, with the hairs ringed. On the other hand, the East African species,
namely, the zebra mungoose (C. zebra) and the banded mungoose (C. fasciatus), have
the back banded with transverse stripes, which are narrow in the former and broad
in the latter, as shown in the illustration on the next page. The zebra mungoose,
which is confined to Abyssinia, is further distinguished by*the rufous colour of
the under-parts; while in the banded mungoose, of which the range extends from
476 CARNIVORES.
the eastern portion of the Cape Colony to Mozambique, the colour of the under-
surface of the body is grizzled grey.
THE BANDED MUNGOOSE (3 nat. size).
THE MEERKAT.
Genus Suricata.
The meerkat of the Cape Colonists, or suricate as it is frequently called by
zoologists (Suricata tetradactyla), while agreeing with the two genera last
mentioned in the absence of a groove below the nose, differs from both in having
but four toes on each foot. It is further characterised by having three premolar
teeth on each side of the upper jaw, and four on the lower jaw, so that the total
number of teeth is thirty-six. The soles of the hind-feet are naked.
The meerkat is a small animal of slender form, with a tail of about half the
length of the head and body. The fur is long and soft, of a light grizzled grey
colour, with black transverse stripes across the hinder part of the back, the under-
parts rufous, the head nearly white (except a black mark round the eyes), the ears
black, and the tail yellowish, with a black tip. The longer hairs are broadly
ringed with black and white, the white predominating. The transverse lght
and dark bands on the loins are formed, according to Mr. O. Thomas, by the regular
arrangement of the hairs, by which the white and black rings come opposite to
each other on adjacent hairs. The same writer observes that meerkats may be
distinguished at a glance from all other mungooses by their elongated nose and
claws, as well as by their peculiar coloration, no other species having ears differing
in colour from the rest of the head.
Meerkats appear to be confined to the Cape Colony, extending at least as far
MUNGOOSES. 477
north as Algoa Bay. In regard to their habits, we may quote from Mrs. A. Martin,
who, in her work entitled Home Life on an Ostrich Farin, states that these animals
form most admirable and amusing little pets, nearly every homestead on the Karru
having one or more of these creatures. In their wild state the meerkats live in
colonies or warrens, burrowing deep holes in the sandy soil, and “ feeding chiefly
on succulent bulbs, which they scratch up with the long, curved, black claws on
their fore-feet. They are devoted sun-worshippers, and in the early morning,
before it is daylight, they emerge from their burrows, and wait in rows till their
divinity appears, when they bask joyfully in his beams. They are very numerous
on the Karru, and, as you ride or drive along through the veldt, you often come
THE MEERKAT ({ nat. size),
upon little colonies of them sitting up sunning themselves, and looking, in their
quaint and pretty favourite attitude, like tiny dogs begging. As you approach,
they look at you fearlessly and impudently, allowing you to come quite close ; then,
when their confiding manner has tempted you to get down in the wild hope of
catching one of them, suddenly all pop so swiftly into their little holes that they
seem to have disappeared by magic.”
Although in the Cape it appears that the name meerkat is also often applied
to the thick-tailed mungoose (Cynictis), it is the true meerkat alone which makes
such a charming pet. “The quaint, old-fashioned little fellow,” continues Mrs.
Martin, “is as neatly made as a small bird; his coat, of the softest fur, with
markings not unlike those of a tabby cat, is always well kept and spotlessly clean ;
his tiny feet, ears, and nose are all most daintily and delicately finished off; and
the broad circle of black bordering his large dark eye serves, like the antimony of
478 CARNIVORES.
an Egyptian beauty, to enhance the size and brilliancy of the orbs. A curious kina
of seam, starting from the middle of his chin and running underneath him along
the whole length of his body, gives him somewhat the appearance of a stutted
animal which has not been very carefully sewn up. His bright, pretty little face
is capable of assuming the greatest variety of expressions, that which it most
frequently wears when in repose being a contented, self-satisfied smirk ; impudence
and independence displaying themselves at every line of his plump little figure.
He is absolutely without fear, and with consummate coolness and So
all walk up to the largest and most forbidding-looking dog, although a perfect
stranger to him, and, eee investigating the stranger on all sides with great
curiosity, express disgust and defiance in a succession of little short sharp barks.”
Meerkats seem to have, indeed, a remarkable affection for dogs, and, when
tamed, will follow these animals for long distances, trotting contentedly along in
their wake in the same manner as a dog follows his master. Like most of the
civet tribe, when tamed, the meerkat is an inveterate thief.
THE MADAGASCAR MUNGOOSES.
Genera Galidictis, Hwpleres, ete.
It will be convenient to allude, under the name of mungooses, to certain very
curious members of the civet tribe which inhabit the Island of Madagascar. These
are arranged under four distinct genera, of which the first three are nearly allied
to one another, and are also related to the African mungooses, while the fourth is
very different from both, and is indeed an altogether aberrant modification of the
family. Most of these creatures have no recognised English titles, so that we are
compelled to mention them under their scientific names.
The munguste (Galidictis striata) is one of two nearly-allied species charac-
terised by having the ground-colour of the fur of a light tint, marked by longitudinal
dark stripes on the body; this peculiar coloration being alone quite sufficient to dis-
tinguish these animals from all their allies. The munguste measures about 123
inches in length, exclusive of the tail; the latter beg rather shorter than the
head and body. The tail is bushy in both species, and the claws are longer than
in the true mungooses. In the munguste the snout is rather short, but it is more
elongated in the other species (G. vittata).
The galidia (Gaulidia elegans), which is the only representative of its genus,
differs from the munguste in having the fur of the body uniformly coloured ; but
the tail is ringed with black bands, the individual hairs being of one colour
throughout their length. The hemigalidia (Hemigalidia olivacea) differs from it
by the tail being of the same uniform coloration as the head and body, and also in
its more pointed muzzle, and the smaller curvature of the claws.
The most remarkable of these four types of Madagascar Carnivores is, however,
the Hupleres goudoti ; its most peculiar characteristic being the very small size of
the teeth and the weakness of the jaws. The teeth, of which the number is the
same as in the civets (forty) are, hae much more like those of an Insectivore than
of a Carnivore, most of them being separated from one another by spaces; the tusks,
AARD-WOLF. 479
or canines, are not longer than the front teeth, and the flesh-tooth is scarcely dis-
tinguishable from the adjacent teeth. The length of the head and body of the eupleres
is about 194 inches, the tail being about one-third of this length. The body is covered
with a uniformly-coloured woolly fur, of which the general tint is olive, finely speckled
with yellow; this speckled appearance being due to the individual hairs being
banded with ditterently-coloured rings. The ears are large, the short tail is bushy,
the feet, which are furnished with five toes, are remarkable for their extreme
slenderness, and the claws are long and like those of the mungooses. In the young
eupleres the fur of the shoulders has black transverse stripes. It does not appear
that anything is known of the habits of this rare, and doubtless nocturnal, creature,
but the weakness of its teeth and jaws suggests that its food consists rather of
insects than of flesh.
EXTINCT CIVET-LIKE ANIMALS.
It has been mentioned, under the heading of the true civets, that remains of
species belonging to that group are found low down in the Tertiary series of Europe.
It may be added here that remains of mungooses, which have been referred to the
typical genus Herpestes, are also found in these same upper Eocene and lower
Miocene rocks of France. There also occur the bones and teeth of other animals
more nearly allied to the linsangs; while others, again, appear to connect the civets
with the weasels—a connection which would have been wholly unsuspected if
science had only existing animals to deal with. In a later geological epoch—
namely, the lower part of the Phocene—there occurs another interesting type
known as the ictithere, which serves so completely to connect the civets with
the hyznas as to prove conclusively the close alliance of these two families of
Carnivores. Before, however, proceeding to the hyznas, we must first take into
consideration
THE AARD-WOLF.
Family PROTELEID&.
Genus Proteles.
The remarkable creature known*to the Dutch boers of South Africa as the
aard-wolf is one of those animals which have long been a puzzle to zoologists.
It is evidently allied in many respects to the hyznas, but in others it is so
different that it becomes a matter of exceeding difficulty to decide if it should
be included in the same family. The majority of English zoologists appear,
however, to be inclined to regard the aard-wolf (Proteles cristatus) as the solitary
representative of a distinct family.
In size it has been compared to a large and “leggy ” fox; while, in external
appearance, the aard-wolf (which is known to the Kaffirs as the isidawane) some-
what resembles a rather small and thin-bodied striped hyena, but it has longer
ears and a more pointed muzzle. The fur, which is inclined to be shaggy and
of a woolly nature, is of a yellowish or reddish-brown colour, marked with
about half a dozen transverse black stripes on the sides of the body; and there
480 CARNIVORES.
may also be some dark bars on the limbs. The long tail is thickly haired. The
long hair on the back forms a kind of crest (giving origin to the second scientific
name of the aard-wolf), which can be erected at the will of the animal. The claws,
like those of the hyzenas, are not capable of retraction, and are rather long, with
blunted extremities. Whereas, however, the hyzenas have but four toes on both
the front and hind-feet, the aard-wolf has five toes on the front, and four on the
hind-feet. But the most pecuhar feature is to be found in the almost rudimental
condition of the teeth, which may be either thirty or thirty-two in number, their
small size being most apparent in those of the cheek series, which are widely
THE AARD-WOLF (4 nat. size).
separated from one another, and are quite unlike the strongly-developed teeth
of the hyenas. The skull, while agreeing in many respects with that of the
hyenas, has also certain points of resemblance with that of the mungooses. The
aard-wolf may, in short, be regarded as an animal which, in all probability,
originated from the same ancestral civet-like creatures from which the hyenas were
derived, but which has undergone a kind of retrograde development to suit the
needs of a particular mode of life. It was long thought to be confined to South
Africa, but it has been subsequently found to range on the West Coast as far north
as Angola, and quite recently a single skin has been obtained from Somaliland, so
that it probably extends right across the Continent.
HYANAS. 481
According to the accounts of all travellers through the Cape districts, it
appears to be a comparatively rare animal, although this apparent rarity is
doubtless in some degree due to its purely nocturnal habits. As its name implies,
it lives in burrows, which are made by itself; and, according to the account of the
traveller De Lalande, several individuals may inhabit one and the same burrow,
which has generally at least two or three exits. Like all burrowing animals, it is
of a timid and cowardly disposition, and, when driven from its burrow, makes off
at a rapid pace. ‘The aborted condition of the teeth would alone suffice to indicate
that it subsisted on a diet different from that of ordinary Carnivores; and that
such is really the case has been proved by observations made upon both wild
and captive specimens. In the wild state it appears that its chief food consists
partly of carrion, and partly of the so-called white ants, or termites, which are dug
out of their hills with its strong claws.
THE HYANAS.
Family HV “#NIDE.
In our notice of the lion, it was mentioned that there was considerable
diversity of opinion as to his character and bearing; but no such uncertainty ,
exists with regard to the hyzna, which, by common consent, is skulking, cowardly,
SKELETON OF SPOTTED HYAHNA,
treacherous, and cruel; and, so far as we are aware, no one has ever had a good
word to say for him.
Like all the animals described in the present chapter, hyenas are confined to
the warmer parts of the Old World; but unlike the civets, they are unknown at
the present day in Europe and in the countries lying to the eastward of the Bay
of Bengal; although, in past epochs, they were spread over the greater part of
VOL. I.—31
482 CARNIVORES.
Europe, and ranged as far east as China. At no period, however, was the group
represented in the Western Hemisphere.
The existing species of hyenas are three in number, all of them being now
generally included in the single genus Hyena ; this genus forming the sole repre-
sentative of a distinct family. With the exception of the aard-wolf, the nearest
relatives of the hyenas are the civets; but at the present day the two families
are markedly distinct, although, as mentioned on p. 479, extinct forms blend the
two so closely together that it is almost impossible to say where civets end and
hyzenas begin. Hyznas are massively-built animals, with relatively long legs,—
especially the front pair,—deep bodies, short and broad heads, and rather short
tails; their whole appearance being ungainly in the extreme. Their fur is coarse
and shaggy, and marked,
more or less distinctly,
either with irregular
vertical stripes or large
blackish spots. Their feet
have but four toes, on both
the front and hind-limbs,
and are furnished with
stout claws, which are
permanently — protruded,
like those of dogs.
Such are some of their
chief external character-
istics; but, in order to
understand their full
differences from the civet
tribe, it is necessary to
say something with regard
to their teeth. Existing
hyenas have a total of
UPPER AND OUTER VIEWS OF THE HINDER PART OF THE RIGHT HALF OF
THE LOWER JAW OF AN EXTINCT HYANA.
The tooth on the left side of the figure is the flesh-tooth. (From the ; ee
Pale«ontologica Indica.) 354 teeth, of which 2 are
3
incisors, } canines, # pre-
molars, and + molars on either side of the jaws. Thus there is but one tooth,
which is of small size, behind the flesh-tooth in the upper jaw, while in the lower
jaw, as shown in the accompanying figure, the flesh-tooth forms the last of the
series. Here, therefore, we have an important difference from the civets,—with the
single exception of the fossa (p. 449), which is otherwise well distinguished,—most
of these having two molar teeth behind the upper flesh-tooth, and the whole of them
having one molar behind the lower flesh-tooth. This, however, is not all, for,
whereas the civet family (always excepting the fossa) have only two lobes to the
blade of the upper flesh-tooth (see Fig. on p. 449), in the hyenas the same tooth (of
which a figure is given on p. 353) has a three-lobed blade like that of the cats. Then,
again, the lower flesh-tooth, as shown on the left side of the accompanying figure,
is also quite unlike that of a civet, and closely resembles that of a cat; the only
well-marked difference being the presence of a larger or smaller heel at the hinder
A
- t : 18 “a
so a SS ayy
_ 1 7 -
poe ad ays
z a
—
~
=
oo
0
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A GATHERING OF STRIPED HYANAS
HY ENAS. 485
end, although in two of the living species it has also an additional cusp on the inner
side of the cutting blade. This curious resemblance of the flesh-teeth of the hyznas
to those of the cats, it may be remarked in passing, is an instance of what
evolutionists now call parallelisn in development; that is to say, the resemblance
has been acquired independently in the two families, since it is certain that cats are
not descended from hyenas, while it is even more obvious that hyenas are not the
descendants of cats.
This resemblance of the teeth of the hyzenas to those of the cats is, however,
confined to the flesh-teeth. Thus, in place of having but two premolar teeth in
each jaw in front of the flesh-tooth, the hyenas have three of these teeth in both
the upper and the lower jaw between the flesh-tooth and the canine tooth. More-
over, these premolar teeth, in place of being much compressed from side to side like
those of the cats, have nearly conical and very tall crowns, as is well shown in the
figure on p. 482. These strong conical premolar teeth, which are strengthened by
small fore-and-aft tubercles at the base, form crushing instruments of immense
power; and it is due to these teeth, aided by the flesh-teeth and the tusks, that a
hyena is able to crunch in its jaws the shin-bone of an ox almost as readily as a dog
can break that of a fowl. Indeed, no carnivorous animal has jaws and teeth which
can be compared for strength and bone-crushing power with those of hyzenas.
THE STRIPED Hyana (Hycene striata).
The striped hyena, which is the only representative of the genus found in
India, is one of the two smaller and less powerful species, the length of the head
and body measuring 3} feet, and that of the tail 1 foot 6 inches. The species is
characterised by its large and pointed ears, by the presence of a crest or mane of
long hairs running along the middle of the neck and back, and by the long hair
clothing the tail; as well as by the relatively small size of the hind, as compared
with the fore-feet. In colour the striped hyena is dirty grey, with narrow trans-
verse tawny or blackish stripes on the body and legs.
If the skull be examined, it will be found that the lower flesh-tooth differs
from that of the jaw represented in the figure on p. 482, by the greater size of the
heel at its hinder base, while on the inner side of the blade of the same tooth there
is a small conical cusp which does not occur in the figured jaw. Moreover, in the
upper jaw, the molar tooth occurring behind, or rather to the inner side of, the
flesh-tooth, has a somewhat large crown, elongated in the transverse direction.
In these respects the striped hyzena is less widely removed from the civets than is
its cousin the spotted hyzena, and it is also somewhat less powerful in its jaws
and teeth.
The striped hyzna is found throughout India, being especially common in the
North-West and the Central Provinces; but it is unknown in Ceylon. From India
its range extends westwards through Baluchistan into Persia and Mesopotamia, as
far as the Caucasus. It is also common in Palestine, Syria, and Arabia; and the
present writer on one occasion saw from the deck of a P. and O. steamer one of
these animals walking on the Syrian side of the Suez Canal. From Syria it
extends into Northern Africa, where it is occasionally met with in Abyssinia, but
486 CARNIVORES.
is more common in Egypt, and also to the westward in the regions lying to the
north of the Sahara desert. Quite recently Dr. Emin Pasha, writing from Tabora,
in East Africa, stated that a striped hyena, similar to and perhaps identical with
the Egyptian form, but smaller and lghter in colour, occurred in that part of
Africa. During and before the age of the mammoth, the striped hyzna wandered
over a considerable part of Europe, its remains having been discovered in a cave
in the South of France; while teeth have also been obtained in England. It
was, however, far less common in Europe than the spotted species.
Both in India and Syria the striped hyena frequents open hilly or sandy
districts; although in the former country it is occasionally met with in forests, and,
according to Canon Tristram, in the latter it may be found both in the deserts and
in the woods. Like the other species it is nocturnal, although a stray individual
(as the one above referred to) may be occasionally seen in the daytime, more
especially in the early morning or late in the evening; but the striped hyzena
differs from the spotted species in being a comparatively solitary animal, it being
rare to meet with more than two together.
In Syria and Palestine the favourite haunts of the striped hyzna are the
rock-cut tombs so common in these countries; but in India it is more commonly
found in holes and caves in rocks. Dr. Jerdon, writing of this species, says, that
“T have more than once turned one out of a sugar-cane field when looking for
jackals, and it very commonly lurks among ruins; but in general its den is ina
hole dug by itself on the side of a hill or ravine, or a cave in a rock. The call of
the hyzena is a very disagreeable, unearthly ery, and dogs are often tempted out by
it when near, and fall a victim to the stealthy marauder. On one occasion a small
dog belonging to an officer was taken off by a hyzena very early in the morning.
The den of this beast was known to be not far off in some sandstone cliffs, and
some sepoys of the detachment went after it, entered the cave, killed the hyeena,
and recovered the dog alive, with but little damage done to it. A hyzena, though
it does not appear to move very fast, gets over rough ground in a wonderful
manner, and it takes _a good long run to overtake it on horseback, unless in most
favourable ground. A stray hyena is now and then met with by a party of
sportsmen, followed and speared; but sometimes not till after a run of three or
four miles, if the ground is broken by ravines. It is a cowardly animal, and shows
but little fight when brought to bay. The young are very tamable, and show
great signs of attachment to their owner, in spite of all that has been written about
the untamable ferocity of the hyzna.” According to Mr. Blanford, the striped
hyzna is a more silent animal than its spotted cousin; and the cries of the
two species, though in some respects similar, are very different.
The striped hyzena’s food is mainly carrion or careases killed by other animals ;
and in inhabited districts the animal is much dreaded on account of its grave-
robbing propensities. Portions of such carcases as it finds are eaten on the spot,
while other parts are dragged off to its den, the situation of which is generally
indicated by the fragments of bones around the entrance. These hyzenas will also
feast on skeletons that have been picked down to the bone by jackals and vultures ;
the bone-cracking power of the hyzna’s jaws rendering such relics acceptable,
if not favourite, food.
HVENAS. 487
The striped hyena will not unfrequently carry off sheep and goats as well as
dogs. Mr. Blanford states that he has never known instances of larger prey
being taken; and he supports this statement by mentioning that the live
animals, tied up so frequently as baits for tigers and leopards, are never
molested by hyzenas, which are undoubtedly in the constant habit of banqueting
on careases of animals killed by those eats. Canon Tristram relates, however,
THE BROWN HYANA (5 nat. size),
that in Palestine a donkey belonging to one of his servants was killed by
a hyzna while the owner was sleeping alongside.
The striped hyzena—probably on account of its “ body-snatching ” propensities
—is cordially detested by the natives of all the countries it inhabits. When a
hyena is killed, the body is treated in many parts of India with every mark of
indignity, and finally burnt. On one occasion in the Punjab the present writer
came across a party of natives cruelly ill-treating a nearly full-grown hyena,
which had been rendered helpless by its jaws being muzzled and its feet broken.
488 CARNIVORES.
Needless to say, the sufferings of the poor brute were soon terminated by a
bullet. Although, owing to their nocturnal habits, hyenas are seldom seen, yet
in some parts of India, from the multitude of their tracks, they must be very common,
These tracks, as Mr. Blanford observes, are like those of a dog, from which they
may, however, be distinguished by the small size of the prints of the hind as
compared with those of the fore-feet.
THE Brown Hyana (Hycene brunnea).
The brown hyzna is far less well known than either of the other living
species. Although in most respects more nearly allied to the striped hyzna, it
exhibits some points of affinity with the spotted species. It is characterised by
the long mantle of coarse hair, depending from the neck and back, and reaching
below the belly, as is well shown in our illustration on p. 487. The ears are long
and pointed, and the tail is short and bushy. The general colour of the long hair
is uniform dark brown, with hghter brown or whitish patches on the legs; while
the head is dark greyish-brown, and the forehead black, sprinkled with whitish
or reddish-brown. The long hair of the back is whitish-grey at the root, and
blackish-brown above. The legs are striped. In size this species is about the
same as the striped hyzena.
The brown hyena is a South African species, ranging on the East Coast as
far as Kilima-njaro, while on the west side it may extend as far north as
Mossamedes. It does not ever appear to be found at any great distance from the
coast. It is doubtless this species, referred to by Mr. H. H. Johnston as the striped
hyvena, which is common on the flanks of Kilima-njaro, up which it ascends to a
considerable elevation ; the spotted hyzna being confined to the plains. In its pre-
ference for rocky spots in that district it, therefore, resembles the striped hyeena.
THE SporreD Hyana (Hycena crocuta).
The African spotted hyena is by far the largest and most powerful of
the three living species, differmg from the others not only in several structural
features, but also by its habit of associating in packs, and of giving utterance more
frequently to its unearthly cry.
Externally the spotted hyzena is distinguished by its rounded and moderate-
sized ears, by the absence of a crest of long hairs along the neck and back, and the
shorter and less hairy tail. Moreover, the hind feet are relatively larger in
proportion to the fore-feet, and the front and hind-legs are more nearly equal in
length; the hind-limbs being less bent than in the other species. The ground-
colour of the fur of the body is yellowish, and upon it are dark brown spots;
the front of the face and the lower portions of the limbs being also dark.
In addition to certain structural features of the soft parts, into the considera-
tion of which it would be out of place to enter here, the spotted hyzena is
distinguished by the characters of its teeth. As these have been already
partially described (p. 485), it will suffice to mention that the upper molar-tooth,
situated on the inner side of the exceedingly elongated flesh-tooth, has a very
HV.ENAS. 489
small and nearly round crown, and that it is inserted only by a single root, whereas
the corresponding tooth of the striped species has two distinct roots. Then, again,
the lower flesh-tooth resembles that of the jaw figured on p. 482, in the small size
of its posterior heel, and also in the absence of a cusp on the inner side of the
blade.
Owing to the disproportion in the length of the hind and fore-legs being much
less than in the striped hyena, the gait of the spotted hyzena is far less ungainly
and awkward-looking.
The spotted hyzena occurs throughout Africa south of the Sahara, ranging on
THE SPOTTED HYZENA (-); nat, size),
the eastern side of the continent into Abyssinia and Nubia. At one time it
was very abundant in the Cape Colony, and Sir Samuel Baker bears testimony
as to its numbers on the Upper Nile in the neighbourhood of Kassala, while
Mr. H. H. Johnston attests its common occurrence on the plains around
Kilima-njaro. Formerly, however, the geographical range of this hyena was
far more extensive than it is at present, as is proved by the vast quantities
of its remains found in the caves of various parts of Europe, from Gibraltar in
the south to Yorkshire in the north. It was formerly considered, indeed, that
the so-called “ cave-hyzena” indicated a distinct species from the living one; but
zoologists are now generally in accord in regarding the two as_ specifically
hoe CARNIVORES.
identical, although the fossil European hyzenas were generally of larger dimensions
than the existing African form. Moreover, a single lower flesh-tooth obtained
from a cavern in Madras points to the conclusion that the range of this species at
one time also embraced the southern part of India.
When the spotted hyzna was an inhabitant of the vales of Yorkshire and
of the Mendip Hills the climate of Britain must have been very different from
what it is now, it being impossible to believe that an animal now restricted to
Africa could have withstood the rigours of our present winters. That the
British spotted hyenas of the cave period were not mere summer stragglers from
the south is amply shown by the quantities of their remains which are found
in some of the caves. Such caverns were veritable hyzena dens, where the animals
must have lived from year’s end to year’s end, and from generation to generation.
The spotted hyzena is a far fiercer and more aggressive animal than his Indian
relative. During the Abyssinian campaign, Mr. Blanford states that these animals
constantly came amongst the tents at night, and would at times attack the mules,
ponies, cattle, and goats tethered near the camp. In that part of the country the
hyzenas are stated to be as common in the highlands as in the lowlands; although,
as already mentioned, this does not appear to be the case in the Kilima-njaro
distriet, where Mr. Johnston observes that not only do they steal sheep and
calves from the herds, but they even carry off children, and often attack wounded
and weakly men. “I once,” continues Mr. Johnston, “sent a sick man back to the
coast a short distance by himself, and he was severely bitten at might by the
hyznas. He succeeded, however, in beating them off, and recovered from his
wounds. ”
Sir Samuel Baker describes the midnight visit of a hyena to his tent, when
on the Upper Nile, in the following words :—* I was asleep in my tent, when I was
suddenly awakened by a slight pull at my sleeve, which was the signal always
given by my wife if anything was wrong. . . . She now whispered that a hyena
had been within the tent, but that it had just bolted out, as these animals are so
wary that they detect the slightest movement or noise. As a rule, I never shoot at
hyenas, but, as I feared it might eat our saddles, I lay in bed with the rifle to my
shoulder, pointed towards the tent door through which the moon was shining
brightly. In afew minutes a grey-looking object stood like an apparition at the
entrance, peering into the tent to see if all were right before it entered. I touched
the trigger, and the hyzena fell dead.”
The Hon. W. H. Drummond, referring to the spotted hyenas of South-East
Africa, notices the damage these animals do to cattle, more especially cows;
and then mentions certain instances where they have attacked human beings.
“Cowardly when there is the faintest suspicion of danger, daring when there is none,
stealthy and cunning to the last degree, and provided with great powers of scent
and hearing, added to immense strength, there is no animal so universally hated, or
that causes more trouble and annoyance to both hunters and the peaceful natives.”
Common as they are in South-East Africa, spotted hyenas are, however, but
very seldom seen, as they are quite as nocturnal as their striped cousin, retiring
to their holes at the earliest dawn. “Regular beaten paths,” he continues, “lead
to these burrows, along which they invariably go, both when coming out and
HVANAS. 491
returning ; indeed, unless they scent food, they always make use of paths in their
nocturnal rambles, whether made by themselves or by men or game. In a
primitive state there is no doubt that they are chiefly dependent upon the lion
for their daily food, and it is equally certain that they must be able to go
without eating for immense periods. The old hunters declare that their numbers
have much increased within their memory in the districts in which there is
most hunting, and as so much game goes away and dies unseen of its wounds,
which the hyzenas are easily able to find by the blood-track which they leave, to
say nothing of the amount of meat that is purposely left for want of a use for it,
there is every reason to think that they must find man a better purveyor than the
hon, and increase accordingly.”
EXTINCT HYANAS.
The occurrence of fossil remains of the spotted and striped hyznas in the
cavern and other superficial deposits of Europe has been already mentioned. In
the antecedent Pliocene period there were, however, a number of hyzenas belonging
to species now extinct; some of these being nearly allied to the existing forms,
while others differed markedly in the number and characters of their teeth. These
extinct hyzenas are found over the greater part of Kurope—from France to Italy,
Greece, and Hungary—and also in Persia, India, and China. Colvin’s hyzena from
North India, of which a portion of the lower jaw is figured on p. 482, and the robust
hyzena of Italy were nearly allied to the spotted species, while the Pikermi hyzena
of Greece differed from all living species in having four premolar teeth in the lower
jaw. The Siwalik hyena of Northern India and the Grecian hyzna were allied to
the striped species, but both have an additional molar behind the lower flesh-tooth,
while the former has four lower premolars. Again, the long-jawed hyzena from
Northern India and a nearly allied species from Greece differ from existing forms
in their long jaws and the compressed form of the premolar teeth, of which there
were four in the lower jaw. These two species make a marked approach to the
civets, but this is still more evident in a smaller extinct hyena from Europe,
referred to a distinct genus under the name of Palhyena. In this there were
four premolar and two molar teeth in each jaw, so that the total number of teeth
was forty, or the same as in the true civets, and this extinct species was so nearly
allied to the extinct civet mentioned on p. 479 as the ictithere. that the two families
may be regarded as passing one into the other.
CPA ink ee V5
CARNIVORES,—continued.
THE DoG TRIBE,
Family CANIDZ.
Unber the general title of Dogs may be included all the animals commonly
known as wolves, jackals, foxes, and wild dogs, together with the various breeds of
domestic dogs. These collectively constitute the family Canidae, and form a group
in some respects intermediate between the Carnivores treated in the two preceding
chapters, and those described in the three succeeding ones. The Dog family must
always have an especial interest, since it includes the animals which have become
more thoroughly the friends and companions of man than any other creatures. The
origin of the domestic dogs is, however, shrouded in the mist of antiquity, and it
is still an open question whether the various breeds are descended from a single
wild stock, or whether they are the product of several species.
The Dog family, as thus constituted, forms, at the present day, a compact and
well-defined group, the wild members of which cannot be confused with those
of any other. The whole of them are characterised by their long and pointed
muzzles, their moderately long tails, and their perfectly digitigrade feet, furnished
with blunt, nearly straight, and non-retractile claws. Then, again, all the dogs
have but four toes on the hind-feet, while, with the exception of the African
hunting-dog, the number of toes on the fore-feet is five, of which the first, or
innermost, is shorter than either of the others, and does not touch the ground,
The limbs, although varying in relative length, are never so short in proportion to
the body as is the case in so many of the Civet family. The ears are pointed and
erect, but vary greatly in length in the different groups. Such are some of the
chief external characteristics of the dogs, but, in order to understand their distine-
tion from other families of Carnivores, it is essential to pay attention to the skull
and teeth. In all dogs the skull, as shown in the figure on p. 352, is characterised
by its elongated muzzle and the large number of teeth with which it is furnished ;
in both of which respects it is widely different from the skull of the cats. On the
under-surface of the hinder part of the skull the tympanic bulla is inflated and
bladder-like, although it is not divided into two chambers by a complete septum.
This part of the skull serves, therefore, to distinguish the dogs from the
Carnivores yet mentioned, with the exception of the hyenas. From the hyenas,
as well as from the cats, the dogs are readily distinguished by the number
and structure of their teeth. With but few exceptions, the total number of
their teeth is 42, or two more than the true civets; the series consisting of
DOG LRIBEL. 493
with the one given on p. 449, it will be seen that the excess in the number of
the teeth of a dog over those of a civet is owing to the presence of an additional
pair of molars in the lower jaw. This will not, however, serve to distinguish
between all the dogs and the civets, since the Indian wild dogs have but two pairs
of lower molars. In all cases there are four premolar teeth on each side of both
jaws. The cheek-teeth of the dogs are constructed on the same general plan as
those of the civets, the upper flesh-tooth having but two lobes to the blade, while
the lower flesh-tooth has a large heel posteriorly to the cutting-blade; this heel
being, however, relatively smaller than in the civets. In both dogs and civets, the
molars of the upper jaw have the same general triangular form. A good idea of
the characters of the
cheek-teeth of the dogs
will be gathered from the
accompanying figure,
while the skull repre-
sented on p. 352 shows
the lateral aspect of the
whole dental series.
There are other char-
acters connected with the
skull, together with many
points in the structure of
the soft parts, which afford
additional means of dis-
3 incisors, } canines, ¢ premolars, and 2 molars. If this formula be compared
tinguishing the dogs from
other Carnivores, but the | ay la t| | sz. 2 1S larger
above are sufficient to : B
define the group, so far
es THE RIGHT UPPER AND LOWER CHEEK-TEETH OF THE COMMON FOX (A, 4’)
as lhving forms are con- AND OF AZARA’S FOX (B, B’).
cerned. The letters p.m.1 to p.m.4 indicate the premolar, and m.1 to m.3 the molar
In their general uni- teeth; ».m.4 in the upper and m.1 in the lower jaw, being the flesh-tooth.
In m.1 of the lower jaw 6 indicates the hinder lobe of the cutting-blade, and
formity of structure and a its inner cusp. (From Proc. Zool. Soc.—After Huxley.)
outward appearance, the
dogs differ widely from the civets, and more nearly resemble the cats. There is a
considerable amount of difference in external appearance between a fox and a
wolf, but intermediate forms connect them so closely that they are generally
considered as members of a single genus. On the other hand, three members of
the family differ so remarkably from all the rest, and also from one another, that
they are regarded as the representatives of as many genera. Some diversity
of opinion exists as to the advisability of also referring the Asiatic wild dogs to a
distinct genus, but they are here classed in the typical genus Canis. We thus
have the whole of the existing members of the family ranged under four genera,
of which the last three are severally represented by a single species.
With the marked exception of the Cape hunting-dog, all the members of the
family are characterised by their more or less uniform and sombre coloration ; in
494 CARNIVORES.
which respect they are markedly different from both the civets and the coatis.
The general coloration of the dogs varies from grey to a yellowish or reddish-
brown; the upper-part of the head and back, as well as some portions of the limbs,
being generally darker than the flanks, while the under-parts are paler. The outer
surfaces of the ears may be distinctively coloured, and there is often a dark mark
between the eye and the nose, and another near the tail; but, as a rule, stripes or
patches differing in hue from the ground-colour of the fur are absent, or ill-defined.
In spite, however, of this general uniformity of coloration, many of the species are
subject to an extraordinary amount of either individual or seasonal variation, both
in respect of colour, and also as regards the length of their fur. In consequence of
such variations much uncertainty has prevailed as to the number of species.
Professor Mivart gives the probable number as thirty-five, but he reckons a
few forms which other writers do not consider entitled to rank as more than
varieties, while some
F of the forms which
it he considers to be
varieties are regarded
as species by others.
fi"
a a.
MS G 0
(G
Thetotal number may,
therefore, be roughly
estimated at a little
below forty.
As regards the
seasonal and in-
dividual variation in
the coloration of dogs,
it may be observed
that the hue of the
fur is generally
in winter
SKELETON OF WOLF, hghter
than in summer ; this
difference attaining its maximum in the Arctic fox, of which the usual winter
pelage is pure white. Then again, among those species or races inhabiting
high latitudes or mountains, the fur is considerably longer in winter than in
summer. Moreover, as with the cats, some species show more or less marked
tendencies to the development of black individuals. Again, and especially among
the foxes, the colour of different individuals or races of a single species may
vary from a greyish, through a yellowish, to a reddish tinge; while, if the general
colour remains the same, there may be darker or lighter shades. Added to these
variations in the coloration and length of the fur, there may also be a large
amount of individual difference in point of size in the same species.
A peculiar character of many dogs, and one in which they differ markedly
from the cats, is their habit of associating in large packs for the purpose of
hunting their prey. In general, such prey is pursued chiefly or entirely by the
aid of smell, which attains an extraordinary development in some members of
the group. This keen perception of scent is not, however, accompanied by any
DOG TRIBE. 495
deficiencies in the senses of sight and hearing, both of which are also highly
developed. It is probably due to this habit of associating in packs that many of
the dogs are, to a greater or smaller extent, diurnal; but the majority are also in
part nocturnal. From the nature of their claws, no dogs are fitted for climbing
trees; and none are especially adapted for an aquatic life, although several of the
domestic breeds are excellent swimmers. The ery of the various species of wild
dogs varies greatly, but may generally be termed a howl rather than a bark,
although some utter a kind of yelping bark. Apparently, all the species can be
tamed to a certain degree, although the extent to which this taming can be carried
out varies in different species, and even in different individuals of the same species.
All wild dogs are in the habit of living in burrows, in the clefts of rocks, in
caverns, or hollow trees. Some species, like the fox, excavate burrows for
themselves, while others take advantage of the deserted holes of other animals;
and whereas some dogs dig solitary burrows, others excavate them close together,
so as to form a colony, or warren. The number of young in a litter is said to vary
from three to as many as a dozen; and it is believed that in all cases the cubs or
“pups” are born blind. Several of the wild species, like the jackal and the wolf,
will freely interbreed ; and the hybrid offspring between either of these species and
domestic dogs are known to be fertile.
As regards their geographical distribution, the dogs are more widely spread
than any family of Carnivores yet noticed; and in this respect they are only
approached by the weasel family. This wide distribution is the more remarkable
when the uniformity in the organisation and external appearance of the members
of the group are taken into consideration. The great majority are to be found
in the northern hemisphere, in which one is common to both Europe and North
America. A single species, the dingo, is now found wild in Australia, but no wild
dogs occur in either Ceylon or Madagascar.
In disposition and the nature of their food many.of the dogs show marked
differences. Thus, whereas the European wolf, which hunts in packs, and is
exceedingly fierce, will attack both human beings and cattle, the solitary South
American maned wolf is a timid and comparatively harmless animal, except to the
small creatures upon which it preys. Again, whereas the majority of species are
more or less purely carnivorous, and kill their own prey, the jackal lives largely
upon carrion; while other species will devour lizards, mice, and even snails, and
insects. Others, again, will eat marine mollusks and crustaceans, while the Arctic
fox subsists largely upon fish, as does the domestic Eskimo dog.
As already mentioned, with the exception of three species, forming the types
of as many genera, the whole of the existing members of the Dog family are
included in the genus Cunis. In all these forms there are five toes in the hind
feet ; and, with the exception of the Asiatic wild dogs, there are three molar teeth
on each side of the lower jaw.
THE WOLF (Canis lupus).
If we exclude some of the breeds of domestic dogs, the wolf is the largest
> oD
living member of the family; and its reputation for fierceness is too well
D >)
496 CARNIVORES.
known to need more than passing mention. It belongs to a group which includes
the other wolves, the jackals, and the domestic dogs; all the wild species of which
are characterised by their powerful teeth, the moderate brush formed by the tail
(in which the hair is longer than that of the body), and by the pupil of the eye
being round. Moreover, in the skull of all these animals the bony projection
forming the hinder border of the socket of the eye is regularly curved downwards
and has a convex upper surface; whereas in a fox the same process is hollow above,
and has a more or less marked tendency to curve upwards behind.
THE WOLF (4 nat. size).
With the exception of the Antarctic wolf of the Falkland Islands, true wolves
are restricted to the northern hemisphere, being unknown both in Africa and South
America. The European wolf measures about 34 feet in length, exclusive of the
tail, and is characterised by having a woolly under-fur of a slaty-brown colour.
The prevailing hue of the fur is typically of a rufous or yellowish-grey above,
which may be more or less mingled with black; while the under-parts are whitish.
The tail, which is considerably less than half the length of the head and body, may
be tipped with black. From this ordinary type of coloration there may be varia-
WOLVES. | 497
tions, owing to the development of a more or less marked grey or red tinge; while
in some cases the fur may be much paler than usual, and in others nearly or quite
black. In Europe the light-coloured varieties appear to be characteristic of northern,
and the dark of southern regions, black or blackish wolves being not uncommon
in Spain. As in Europe there is a black race of the ordinary wolf, so black
specimens of the woolly variety occur in Tibet; these animals having shaggy fur
of a uniform black colour, except the muzzle, feet, and patch on the chest, which
are white. More uncertainty has prevailed as to whether the Japanese wolf
(C. hodophylax) is distinct from the European form; the Indian wolf is regarded,
however, by Mr. Blanford (although not by Professor Mivart) as entitled to rank
as a Separate species.
The North American wolf has frequently been regarded as specifically distinct
from the European one, under the name of C. occidentalis. Dr. C. H. Merriam
has, however, long regarded the two forms as specifically identical, and the same
view is taken by Prof. Mivart. The latter writer observes that although the fur
of most American wolves is less red than is generally the case with European
specimens, especially on the legs and the hinder-part of the head, yet North
European examples have a nearly similar coloration. Then, again, the American
skins generally have more black on the back than most European ones; but this
tendency to blackness is still more marked in Spanish wolves. As in Europe, there
is in America great individual and racial variation in the colour of the wolf. Thus,
according to Mr. S. F. Baird, there is a pure white wolf on the Upper Missouri, a
dusky blackish wolf on the Lower Missouri, a black wolf in Florida and the
Southern United States, and a red wolf in Texas. There is, moreover, considerable
difference in respect of size and shape; the southern wolves being smaller, more
slender, and more “leggy” than those from the extreme north: while they
have also shorter and closer fur. The southern limit of the wolf in America is
the State of Guanajuato, in Mexico. Including, then, the whole of the varieties
mentioned above, with the exception of the Indian wolf, under a single specific title,
the range of the common wolf will be very extensive: and will embrace the whole
of Europe, the greater part of Asia to the northward of the Himalaya, and as far
east as Japan, and nearly the whole of North America.
In Europe the wolf has disappeared from Britain and Central and Northern
Germany, but still lives in the wilder or more mountainous districts of the rest of
the Continent, being especially abundant in many parts of Russia—both European
and Asiatic. Wolves were formerly abundant in the British Islands; in Yorkshire
they were common in the reign of Richard II.; while in the time of Cromwell parts
of Ireland were much infested by them. Mr. Harting states that the wolf became
extinct in England during the reign of Henry VII.; that it survived in Scotland
until 1743; and that the last was killed in Ireland, according to Richardson, in
1770, or, according to Sir J. E. Tennent, subsequently to 1766.
In America, owing to the rapid spread of cultivation, wolves are disappearing,
or becoming scarce in all but the wilder districts. Prof. Mivart, from data suppled
him by American naturalists, states that at the present day the wolf is found east
of the Mississippi and south of Canada only in the still nearly unsettled parts of
the country, as the northern portion of New England and New York, portions of
VOL. 1.—32
498 CARNIVORES.
the Alleghanies, Southern Florida, and possibly in the sparsely-settled parts of the
interior States south of the Ohio. It is only abundant in the remote districts of
Maine. West of the Mississippi its numbers are very small in comparison with its
former abundance, while over vast areas it has been wholly extirpated.
Wolves inhabit both open country and forests; and although generally found
in pairs, or solitary, they at times, and more especially in winter, associate in
large numbers. They wander abroad both in the daytime and at night.
Although usually cowardly, the wolf becomes bolder and more daring, stealing its
prey by night, when driven by hunger, or when hunting together. Stories of
the attacks of wolves, when in packs, upon travellers in Russia are so numerous, and
have been so frequently quoted that it will be unnecessary to repeat any of them
here; but it may be mentioned that in the year 1875 no less than 161 persons fell
victims to these animals in Russia. Writing of the wolf of the Adirondack region,
Dr. Merriam observes that during the deep snows a small pack of wolves will
sometimes kill hundreds of deer, taking here and there a bite, but leaving the
greater number untouched. In the earlier days of American farming, a couple
of these marauders have been known to kill fifteen or sixteen sheep in a single
night, simply tearing open their throats without otherwise damaging the carcases.
When the bison existed in countless thousands on the prairies of North America,
wolves were in the habit of prowling around the herds for the purpose of
preying on sick or wounded individuals and such calves as strayed from the pro-
tection of their elders. Frequently, it is stated, wolves might be seen wandering
in the midst of a herd of bull bison without attracting the least attention. In
general almost any kind of prey is acceptable to the wolf, which does not by any
means disdain a meal of carrion. The larger mammals, such as cattle, horses,
and the bigger kinds of deer, are generally only attacked when several wolves are
associated together; but it is stated that in Canada a single wolf will kill the
largest male reindeer. Birds always form an acceptable portion of the wolf's
diet. When hard pressed by hunger, wolves will eat almost anything they
come across, down to mice and frogs, and, it is said, even buds of trees and
lichens.
The lair of the wolf is formed either in a rocky cavern, within the hollow of a
fallen trunk, beneath the roots of an overthrown tree, or more rarely in holes in
the ground; such burrows being sometimes dug by the animal itself. A dense
thicket will also not unfrequently serve as a hiding-place. In these lairs the cubs
are born, the number in a litter generally varying from six to ten. The cubs,
which are born in the spring, usually remain with their parents till the end of
November or December, but may sometimes continue with them for a much longer
period. The ordinary cry of the wolf is a loud and prolonged howl. The amount
of noise, writes Dr. Merriam, that a single wolf is capable of producing is simply
astonishing ; and many amusing episodes of camp lore owe their origin to this fact.
More than one lone traveller has hastily taken to a tree, and remained in the in-
hospitable shelter of its branches for an entire night, believing himself surrounded
by a pack of at least fifty fieree and hungry wolves, when in reality there was but
one, and (as its tracks afterwards proved) that was on the further side of a lake, a
couple of miles away. By association with domestic dogs, wolves will soon learn to
WOLVES. 499
bark. They will breed freely with the larger kinds of domesticated dogs; and it is
stated that some of the Indians in the north of America improve the breed of the
sleighing dogs by crossing with the wolf.
The endurance of the wolf's gallop has become proverbial. “ When pursued
by wolves,’ writes Mr. Lett, “deer make for the nearest water, in which they
have a chance to escape, being able to swim much faster than their enemies. Should
the river or lake be narrow, the deer generally swim either up or down, seldom
straight across; frequently landing, after a detour, on the same side in which they
entered the water. By this means the wolves are puzzled and put off the scent.
If there are thick weeds or bush along the shore, the deer frequently sinks his body
under water, so that no part will appear above the surface but his head, and by
this means is enabled to evade the cunning of his pursuers.” The wolf displays
remarkable caution in avoiding all kinds of traps set for his destruction; and
when he is caught will frequently feign death in the hope of being able to
escape.
Fossil remains of the wolf occur in the caverns and superficial deposits of
England and the Continent; the earliest horizon from which they have been
obtained in this country being the so-called forest-bed of the Eastern Coast, which
antedates the glacial period.
THe INDIAN WOLF (Canis pallipes).
As already mentioned, there has been much discussion as to whether the
Indian wolf is distinct from the common species. According to Mr. Blanford, it
is distinguished from the common wolf by its smaller size and slighter build, as
well as by its shorter fur, which has little or no woolly under-fur. The length is
about 3 feet, exclusive of the tail; and the general colour of the fur is a greyish
fulvous, usually with a brownish tinge, and sometimes with more or less black on
the back. Occasionally, however, a more or less strongly marked rufous tint may
be observed. Mr. Blanford states that all the skins that have come under his notice
are browner than is usually the case with the common wolf, and are of an earthy-
grey colour.
The Indian wolf is confined to India south of the Himalaya. It is rare in
Lower Bengal, and unknown on the Malabar coast; and it appears to be replaced
by the common species to the west of the Indus, although a few examples are
occasionally seen in the Trans-Indus districts. The young are born in holes or
eaves among rocks during the months of October, November, and December, the
number in a litter varying from three to eight.
Its habits are very similar to those of the common species; but, although
somewhat gregarious, these wolves do not associate in large packs, six or eight
being the largest number that have been seen together. Moreover, it appears to
be a rather silent animal, rarely, if ever, howling like the common wolf, but,
according to Jerdon, sometimes barking like a pariah dog. Its food includes
such mammals and birds as it can kill, but sheep, goats, and antelopes appear
to be the chief favourites. On occasion these wolves will attack adult human
beings, for which purpose two or more will combine together; and in certain
500 CARNIVORES.
districts a large number of children are annually earried off by them from the
villages. In the South Mahratta country, Sir W. Elhot writes that he has seen
a small pack “steal round a herd of antelope, and conceal themselves on different
sides till an opportunity occurs of seizing one of them unawares, as they approach,
whilst grazing, to one or other of their hidden assailants. On one occasion three
wolves were seen to chase a herd of gazelles across a ravine in which two others
were lying in wait. They succeeded in seizing a female gazelle, which was taken
from them. They have frequently been seen to course and run down hares and
foxes, and it is a common belief of the peasants that in the open plains, where
there is no cover or concealment, they scrape a hole in the earth, in which one of
the pack lies down and remains hidden, while the others drive the herd of
antelopes over him. Their chief prey is, however, sheep.”
THE Coyote (Canis latrans).
Whatever doubt there may be as to the right of the Indian wolf to specific
distinction, there can be none in the case of the coyote, or prairie-wolf, of North
ey
afi!
Nt Py)
WAS ig yy
NG ibe 6 "g AMY Cal Wf mM : Ws /; (; A x
WW 18) GiserN N/o RO ANM VN lym
yf Ye" MY [7 ie
THE COYOTE (} nat, size).
America. ‘This animal is considerably smaller than the common wolf, from which
it is also distinguished by its thicker and longer fur and more bushy tail. On
WOLVES. 501
account of this greater length of the fur, the coyote appears to be a thicker built
and shorter-legged animal than it really is. The colour varies considerably at
different seasons of the year, being of a bright fulvous brown in summer, and grey
or greyish in winter; this ground-colour at both seasons being overlaid with a
shading of black, which tends to form stripes along the back and across the
shoulders and loins. The under-parts are of a dirty white tint; while the
upper portion of the muzzle, and the outsides of the ears and legs, are generally
tawny. The coyote ranges from the south of Costa Rica, in Central America, to
the lower portions of Hudson’s Bay. It is still abundant in Texas and Northern
Mexico, but is rare in Guatemala; and it has been suggested that it is but a com-
paratively recent immigrant into Central America.
The coyote is more generally in the habit of burrowing in the ground than
the common wolf; it is also far less savage and destructive, and becomes more
docile and gentle in captivity. Like the common wolf, it will on occasions hunt
in packs; and it is at least as noisy an animal, although the tone of its howl is
quite different. As regards food, it appears to be almost omnivorous; and, when
an animal diet is unattainable, it will feed upon juniper-berries, or the prickly
pear. Rabbits, rats, young birds, ete., form, however, its staple diet; and it
does not appear that it ever attacks the larger mammals, although, when
wounded and brought to bay, it will defend itself fiercely. In speed it is far
inferior to the wolf, and it can be readily overtaken by a good horse. The cubs
are born in May and June; the number in a litter usually being five or six,
but occasionally ten.
THe Antarctic WoLF (Canis antarcticus).
Seeing that no true wolf is found in continental South America, it is strange
to meet with a small species, apparently nearly allied to the coyote, inhabiting the
Falkland Islands. The antarctic wolf is rather smaller than the larger individuals
of the coyote, and has shorter fur and a less bushy tail. The general colour is
yellowish mingled with black, the individual hairs being yellow at the base,
with black tips; the fur of the under-parts is whitish. White is also the colour
of the fur on the lips, chin, and throat, as well as on the inner margins of the ears.
The most characteristic coloration is, however, that of the tail, in which the first
two-fifths are of the same hue as the body, the next two-fifths black, and the
remainder white.
The antarctic wolf was discovered by Pernety during his voyage in the years
1763 and 1764, and was again observed by Commodore Byron of H.M.S. Dolphin,
who circumnavigated the world in 1767. © Darwin, who saw them during the
voyage of the Beagle, writes that “these wolves are well known, from Byron’s
account of their tameness and curiosity, which the sailors, who ran into the water
to avoid them, mistook for fierceness. To this day their manners remain the same.
They have been observed to enter a tent, and actually pull some meat from
beneath the head of a sleeping seaman. The Guachos also have frequently in the
evening killed them, by holding out a piece of meat in one hand, and in the other
a knife ready to stick them. As far as I ain aware, there is no other instance in
502 CARNIVORES.
any part of the world of so small a mass of broken land, distant from a continent,
possessing so large an aboriginal quadruped peculiar to itself. Their numbers
have rapidly decreased; they are already banished from that half of the island
which lies to the eastward of the neck of land between St. Salvador Bay and
Berkeley Sound.” These wolves do not associate in packs, are largely diurnal, and
are usually silent, except during the breeding season. They burrow in the ground,
and prey on geese and penguins, but are now nearly exterminated.
THE KABERU (Canis simensis).
The kaberu, or Abyssinian wolf, is a little-known species, taking its Latin name
from the district of Simen, or Semyen, in Abyssinia, where the first specimen
brought to Europe was obtained. Although of about the same size as the coyote,
it has no claim to be regarded as a true wolf;. and may rather be looked
upon as an abnormal kind of jackal, in which the size of the body, and notably that,
of the jaws, has increased, without any corresponding enlargement of the teeth,
which are far smaller than in the true wolves. The kaberu, which inhabits
mountainous districts, has an extremely long and narrow snout, larger ears than
the true wolves, and a thick bushy tail like that of a jackal. Its general colour
is a light reddish brown with a tinge of yellow; the mouth, chest, under-parts, and
the front of the lower portions of the legs being whitish. The greater part of the
upper surface of the tail is mottled with black, and its end is of that colour.
THE JACKAL (Canis aureus).
With the common jackal we come to the first of a group of species of smaller
size than the true wolves, with which they are to some extent connected by the
one last described. Their bushy tails are relatively shorter than in the wolves,
being generally equal to about one-third the length of the head and body;
and their skulls may be distinguished by the smaller size of the flesh-teeth as
compared with the molar teeth behind them. As in the case of the wolves, there
is some difference of opinion as to the specific identity of the jackals of different.
countries. The Asiatic jackal is subject to considerable mdividual variation in
point of size; the length of the head and body varying from 2 to 2} feet. Its
general colour varies from a pale isabelline to a pale rufous, with a larger or
smaller admixture of black on the upper-parts. The under-parts are paler, and
the muzzle, ears, and the outer sides of the limbs more rufous than the rest. The
reddish brown hairs of the tail have long black tips, thus forming a distinct black
tip to the tail itself. The African variety is of rather larger size, with relatively
longer ears; and the sides of the body are greyer, and the outer surfaces of the
limbs less rufous. Occasionally rufous, black, and white varieties of the jackal
have been met with; the latter being true albinos.
The jackal ranges from the south-eastern countries of Europe to India and
Ceylon; thence it extends through Assam to Northern Pegu and the neighbourhood
of Mandalay, although it is much less common east of the Bay of Bengal than in
India. In Northern Africa it inhabits Egypt and Abyssinia, and the districts to
JACKALS. 503
o
the north of the Sahara. In the Himalaya it ascends to from three to four
thousand feet above the sea-level. Throughout India it may be found indifferently
in hilly or plain country, in forest or open districts, or in large cities.
Although jackals are frequently in the habit of going singly or in pairs, they —
often associate in packs, which may be of considerable size; these assemblages
being more frequent at night than during the daytime. In India the jackal is
considered by Mr. Blanford to be a more decidedly nocturnal animal than the wolf,
but its wanderings are by no means confined to the night; and, during the
winter, jackals may be seen abroad at all hours of the day. In extremely
We! e
ANY Wy TT
THE JACKAL (} nat. size).
hot weather they appear to suffer much, and may be found either lying in the
water, where they spend most of the day, or sneaking away therefrom, instead
of being, as usual, hidden away in their holes. Their food comprises not only
carrion and the flesh of such animals as they are able to kill, but also fruit, maize,
and sugar-cane. In the towns and villages of India the jackals act as efficient
scavengers. Occasionally they take to killing poultry and lambs or kids; and
Jerdon states that weakly goats and sheep often become their prey, while wounded
antelopes are tracked down and killed. Among vegetable foods, the chief favourite
seems to be the so-called ber-fruit; but Prof. Ball reports that in certain districts
jackals'do enormous damage to the sugar plantations, biting ten or a dozen canes
504 CARNIVORES.
for one they eat. Like the civet in Java, jackals in the Wynaad district of Madras
feed on the ripe fruit of the coffee plant.
Somewhat curiously, the jackal of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor agrees
with the Indian rather than with the African variety; the general colour being a
pale dirty yellow, more or less tinged with rufous, with a variable amount of
black on the back. In the Morea, where these animals are very common, they
are asserted to be in the habit of disinterring dead bodies from the graveyards.
The cry of a pack of jackals, when heard for the first time, strikes the ear
with a peculiarly blood-curdling chill, and gives the impression that it is uttered
by a much larger number of individuals than is really the case. Mr. Blanford
describes the cry as consisting of two parts; first, “a long wailing howl, three or
four times repeated, each note a little higher than the preceding, and then a
succession of usually three quick yelps, also repeated two or three times. The
common Anglo-Indian version of ‘Dead Hindoo, where, where, where, gives some
idea of the call.” In the so-called variegated jackal of the Abyssinian Highlands,
which is sometimes regarded as specifically distinct from the ordinary North
African form, the second half of the ery is omitted.
In addition to the ordinary cry there is, however, as the same writer remarks,
another very peculiar call, “only uttered by the jackal, it 1s believed, when a tiger
or a leopard is in the neighbourhood, and certainly uttered upon such occasions.
The cry is unmistakable; I have several times heard it; but the jackal that makes
it carries us at once into the region of fable and folk-lore. The same story that
has existed on the shores of the Mediterranean for two thousand years at least,
that a jackal acts as scout for the lions, or ‘tions’ provider, and is repaid by a
share of the prey, is commonly believed with regard to the tiger in India; and it
is this peculiar jackal, known as Pheal, Phiou, or Phnew, in Northern India, the
name being taken from the ery, and as Bhalu, or Kol-bhalu in Southern and
Western India, that is said to invariably precede the tiger, and to make the call
just noticed. Several observers have, however, remarked that the jackal which
makes the ery follows the tiger and does not precede him; and Blyth has observed
that a pariah dog, on sniffing a collection of caged tigers in Calcutta, set up a most
extraordinary howl, probably similar to that of the Pheal.”
Occasionally the skull of the jackal has a peculiar bony process growing from
the upper part of the occiput, which is said to be covered during life by a horny
sheath, concealed among the hair, forming the so-called “jackal’s horn.” The
female jackal generally gives birth to her young in a hole in the ground, although
they have been found in an old drain; the number of cubs in a litter being
usually from three to five. The pariah dogs of India breed freely with the jackal.
Fossil remains of the jackal occur in the Siwalik Hills of Northern India.
The Black-Backed The black-backed jackal (Canis mesonelus), is a very distinct
Jackal. § African species. The adults of both sexes are characterised by their
bright coloration, the sides of the body being red, the limbs and the upper part
of the tail reddish yellow ; while the back of the body and the end of the tail are
black. In some cases the line of division between the black of the back and the
red of the sides is more distinct than in others, and the size of the black area is
also subject to variation, although invariably widest over the shoulders. The
VACKAHIES: 505
individual hairs of the body are ringed with black and white or red and white,
so as to produce a speckled appearance in the fur. The under-parts of the body
and the inner sides of the limbs are nearly white, the ears and part of the face
being yellowish brown. This striking coloration occurs, however, only in the
adult condition, the fur of the young being a uniform dusky brown. The dark
band on the neck so often found in the common jackal is absent. The ears are
very long.
The black-backed jackal was obtained by Mr. Blanford in Abyssinia, but not
BLACK-BACKED JACKAL (4 nat. size),
at such high elevations as the common species. The northerly limit of this jackal
is Middle Nubia, from whence its range extends along the East Coast of Africa to
the Cape, although there are many places in this tract of country where it is
apparently absent. In South Africa it extends across the continent, and up the
western side as far as Mossamedes, but it is unknown in the Congo district. This
jackal occurs both in the open country and in bush jungle. In the sandy regions
on the shores of the Red Sea it is to be found frequently in the small thickets
covering the banks of the ravines, which swarm with hares and pangolins, upon
which the jackal feeds. At night it visits the villages of the natives, and in
Somaliland it is stated to bite off the fat tails of the sheep. In the Sudan it lives
chiefly upon the smaller antelopes, mice, jerboas, and other Rodents. In South
506 CARNIVORES.
Africa the fur of the black-backed jackal is much esteemed by the natives, and is
used for making their cloaks or carosses.
Side-Striped The second species of South African jackal is the side-striped
Jackal = jackal (Canis adustus), so named from the oblique light-coloured
stripe running along the flanks. This stripe is, however, very variable in its
distinctness and degree of development, as may be seen by contrasting our two
figures of this animal; and, in consequence of this difference, the species has been
described under two specific names—the so-called C. lateralis being now proved to
be identical with the earlier C. adustus, founded upon a specimen in which the
THE SIDE-STRIPED JACKAL (2 nat. size).
stripe was but little apparent. The side-striped jackal differs from all the other
species in the dark brown colour of the hair on the back of the ears; the ears
themselves being relatively rather shorter than in the preceding species, although
longer than in the common jackal. The snout is characterised by its length and
slenderness. The general colour of the fur is yellowish brown, becoming paler on
the under-parts. In examples which exhibit the feature from which the species
takes its name, a light-coloured line runs on each side of the body from behind
the shoulder-blade to a point near the root of the tail, a black line bordering the
lower margin of this stripe. The greater portion of the tail is black, but its
extremity is white.
This species has a wide distribution in Central and Southern Africa, having
JACKALS. 507
been met with by Du Chaillu in the Gabun district, and by Mr. Johnston in the
plains around Kilima-njaro on the east coast. Du Chaillu states that on the west
coast these animals hunt in packs, surrounding and chasing such kinds of game as
they are able to kill He gives the native name of the animal on the west coast as.
Mboyo, but according to Dr. Pechuel-Loesche—who mentions that it is chiefly
nocturnal, and seldom seen between the hours of nine and four in the day—it is
known in the Loango district as the Mbulu. It preys upon the smaller mammals
and sick individuals of the larger species, and will also eat the fruit of the oil-palm.
VARIETY OF THE SIDE-STRIPED JACKAL (3% nat. size).
In inhabited districts on the west coast the side-striped jackal frequently
enters the native villages, where it interbreeds with the domestic dogs. Its ery,
which may be heard night and morning at all seasons of the year, is fully as long-
drawn and appalling as that of the common jackal. Pechuel-Loesche tells us that
these animals can be tamed with facility, and that, when in the Loango district
he had several young specimens, one of which attained maturity. They were
extremely playful, and would run after and catch almost any animals they saw,
including beetles, grasshoppers, birds, and small mammals. They would readily
eat almost anything that was offered them, such as bread, beans, rice, fish, flesh,
bananas, and oil-palm nuts. Although ge
individuals they took a marked dislike, growling and showing their teeth when-
tle and friendly as a rule, to some
508 CARNIVORES.
ever they approached. One of these tame jackals would answer to its name,
“ Mbulu,” and was remarkable for the cleanliness of its habits, being particularly
averse to getting its feet wetted by rain, seeking during showers the sheiter of the
huts. As a rule, it never sat down on its haunches after the manner of a dog,
but would lie at full length, with its nose resting between its fore-paws, and would
generally select a sunny spot, where it lay blinking in the sunlight.
THE DINGO (Canis dingo).
Were it not for the fact that Australia has so few native Mammals, which do
not belong to the Marsupial group, the dingo would unhesitatingly have been
regarded as an aboriginal inhabitant of the country where it is found; in which
case it would rank as what we may call a natural species. The improbability of
Australia possessing a native placental mammal of such large size as the dingo is,
however, so great as to induce the belief that the animal was introduced by man,
and hence that it originated from some of the dogs of Asia. This supposed
introduction must, however, have taken place at so early a date that there has been
considerable hesitation among some zoologists in admitting any such origin; and
certainly the recent arguments in favour of its being an indigenous species have
very great weight. Be, however, its origin what it may, there can be no doubt
that the dingo is the only true dog now found in a wild state.
The dingo is an animal of smaller size than a wolf, with moderately tall legs,
a long and somewhat bushy tail, a broad and short muzzle, and well-developed ears.
In regard to colour, Prof. Mivart remarks that “the dingo varies in its coloration
from red to black. There is a greyish under-fur, but, save in the black variety,
the long hairs are generally yellow or whitish. The top of the head and dorsal
region generally are of a darker reddish yellow, often intermixed with black. The
under-parts are paler and may be whitish. The end of the tail is very often white,
as are frequently the feet, and sometimes the muzzle, though this is also sometimes
black. The animal may be of a uniformly light reddish or yellowish brown, save
that it is paler beneath, on the outside of the fore-legs, below the elbow, as well as
on the inner side of the limbs and on the cheeks.”
The dingo is found in wooded districts throughout Australia, and in many
such situations is extremely numerous; although the Government reward for its
destruction has in other parts led to a considerable diminution in its numbers.
It is a terrible foe to sheep, killmg and mangling a far greater number than it
eats; and it is equally destructive to poultry. On account of these depredations,
the colonists wage a war of extermination against it, large numbers being poisoned
with strychnine.
In mode of life and habits Brehm compares the dingo to the
fox rather than the wolf. It is shy and retiring, rarely seen during
the daytime, and pursuing its work of devastation during the night. It is but
seldom found in large numbers together, parties of from five to six individuals
—generally consisting of a mother and her cubs—being the most common.
Occasionally, however, troops of from eighty to one hundred individuals have
been seen. Each family is stated to have a strictly detined area, beyond which
Habits.
DINGO. 599
its members do not venture, and into which those of other families do not intrude.
The young are generally born in the hollow trunk of a tree, and vary from six to
eight in a litter. Naturally, dingoes never bark ; although, like wolves, they easily
learn to do so from association with other dogs. When caught they are generally
in the habit of shamming death.
The dingo breeds freely with the various European dogs introduced by the
colonists. In regard to their domestication by the Australian natives, Dr.
Lumholtz states that on the Herbert river there are rarely more than one or two
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THE DINGO ({ nat. size).
dingoes in each tribe, and as a rule they are of pure blood. The natives find them
as puppies in the hollow trunks of trees, and rear them with greater care than they
bestow on their children. The dingo is an important member of the family; it
sleeps in the huts, and gets plenty to eat, not only of meat, but also of fruit. “Its
master never strikes, but merely threatens it. He caresses it like a child, eats the
fleas off it, and then kisses it on the snout. Though the dingo is treated so well it
often runs away, especially in the pairing season, and at such times it never returns.
Thus it never becomes perfectly domesticated, but still is very useful to the natives,
for it has a keen scent, and traces every kind of game; it never barks, and
hunts less wildly than our dogs, but very rapidly, frequently capturing the game
on the run. Sometimes it refuses to go any further, and its owner has then to
510 CARNTVO RES:
earry it on his shoulders, a luxury of which it is very fond. The dingo will follow
nobody else but its owner.”
In writing on the origin of the dingo, Prof. M‘Coy observes that its fossil
remains are found, in certain of the superficial and cavern deposits of Australia,
in association with those of a number of extinct species more or less closely allied
to the Marsupials still inhabitmg the country. The introduction of the dingo—if
introduced it really was—is thus carried back to the Pleistocene division of the
Tertiary period ; but we believe we are right in saying that in some at least of the
deposits in which its remains occur there is also evidence of the contemporary
presence of man. If, indeed, in all the deposits in which dingo bones occur there
were also indications of human presence, the introduction of the animal by human
agency would present no difficulty; but it does not appear that such is the case.
Domestic Dogs (Canis faniliaris).
Although many different views have been and still are entertained as to the
mutual relationship and origin of the various breeds of domestic dogs, authorities
are agreed that primitively the whole of them were derived either from wolves
or jackals, or from both together. Whether, however, the origin has been a single
one, that is to say, whether all domestic dogs were derived from one particular
species of wolf or from a single species of jackal, or whether they are a product
of the crossing of two or more distinct races, independently derived from as many
wild stocks, is still an open question, and one indeed which is likely to remain
undecided. Our own opinion inclines, however, towards the view of the multiple
origin of the domestic dog; but even if its origin be single there can be little
doubt that such an original domesticated breed has subsequently received extensive
crossing with wild species other than the one from which it originally sprang.
That domestic dogs trace their origin to wolves or jackals, or both together,
and not to foxes, is evident from the structure of their skulls; and that the
domesticated races are not descended from the wild dogs of Asia, is evident from
the latter having one molar tooth less in the lower jaw than is the case with the
other members of the genus. Additional testimony that the foxes have nothing
to do with the origin of the domestic dogs is afforded by Mr. Bartlett, who writes
that he has never met with a well-authenticated instance of a hybrid between a
fox and a dog, notwithstanding numerous specimens of supposed hybrids of this
sort, which from time to time have been brought to his notice. Since this was
written there has, however, been some evidence published in Land and Water, to
the effect that these animals may occasionally cross.
The different breeds of domestic dogs present variations far greater, both as
regards size and form, than those between any wild members of the canine family.
Great as these differences undoubtedly are, they are to some extent paralleled
among the various breeds of domestic pigeons an‘ fowls, the former of which are
definitely known to have originated from a single wild stock. But, since dogs of
very different breeds freely cross with one another, and the resulting progeny is
perfectly fertile, there can be no difficulty in regarding all the domesticated races
as now constituting a single species. The fact that at the earliest historical
IMO AND HIS DOGS
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DOMESTIC. DOGS. 513
period in which we have evidence of the existence of domesticated dogs, there were
several distinct breeds, more or less closely resembling some of those still extant,
has been urged as an important argument in favour of the multiple origin of
the. group; but too much weight must not be attached to this. The main
argument in favour of the view of the multiple origin of the dog is that the
different early and original breeds of the domestic dogs of different countries
approximate in appearance to the wild species of the same regions. For instance,
the Eskimo dogs are exceedingly like wolves, and Mr. Bartlett states confidently
that we are justified in regarding them as nothing more than reclaimed wolves.
Indeed, the Eskimo are said to be in the constant habit of crossing their dogs
with wolves, in order to maintain their size and stamina. Then again some of
the more northerly tribes of the Indians of North America have wolf-like dogs,
their howls being so like those of wolves that even their owners can scarcely
distinguish between the two. On the other hand, the domestic dogs of the Hare
Indians closely resemble the coyote, which is the most common species in the
districts inhabited by those tribes. These dogs are stated, indeed, by Sir J.
Richardson to present precisely the same relation to the coyote as is borne by
the Eskimo dog to the common wolf. Then again the black wolf-dog of Florida
is almost indistinguishable from the black variety of the wolf characterising
that country. Further, many of the sheep-dogs and wolf-dogs of Europe resemble
the wolves inhabiting the same districts; and Blyth was struck with the marked
resemblance of some of the pariah dogs of India to the wolf of the same country.
Moreover, in South-Eastern Europe and Southern Asia many of the domestic
dogs so closely resemble jackals, that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish
between them. Still more important is the circumstance that some of the
domestie dogs of South Africa present a striking resemblance in form and colour
to the black-backed jackal of the same regions, although they have lost the distinct
black back characteristic of the latter. Equally noteworthy is the resemblance
observed between certain South American domestic dogs and the wild Azara’s
dog of the same regions. From this evidence Darwin was inclined to believe that
domestic dogs were descended from the common wolf and the coyote, from the
various local varieties of the former, from the Indian wolf, from Azara’s dog and
another South American species, from at least two species of jackals, and perhaps
from one or more extinct species. “Although it is possible or even probable
that domesticated dogs, introduced into any country and bred there for many
generations, might acquire some of the characters proper to the aboriginal
Canide of the country, we can hardly thus account for introduced dogs having
given rise to two breeds in the same country, resembling two of its aboriginal
species.”
Mr. Bartlett, who is likewise a believer in the multiple origin of domestic dogs,
observes that “the fashion of hunting led, in all probability, to the separation of
domestic dogs into two well-known breeds, viz., those that hunt by sight, as dis-
tinguished from those that hunt by scent; for there can be no doubt that at a very
early period dogs were used in the chase of wild animals. . . . The usefulness of
dogs being established at a very early period would naturally lead to great care
being bestowed upon them, and doubtless to the breeding of them in a domestic
VOL. I.—33
514 CARNIVORES.
state. This would lead to the production of the many breeds and varieties that
have been developed, and these varieties may have been perpetuated by the mixing
and crossing of breeds originally obtained from distinct wild animals.”
With the extraordinary diversity existing among the different breeds of dogs,
it is impossible to give any general characters by which they can be collectively
distinguished from the wild species, with the exception of the habit of barking,
which is common to most, although not all, of the former, and is unknown, naturally,
in the latter. This characteristic will, however, distinguish other domesticated
breeds from the Eskimo dog, and also from the dingo. Very generally domestic
dogs have the habit of carrying the tail curled over the back, and thus markedly
different from the manner in which the straight “brush” of a wolf or a jackal is
borne. Then, again, the acquisition by some domestic breeds of drooping ears is a
decided difference from all their wild relatives. And an equally well-marked
characteristic of many domestic breeds is the distribution of more or less brilliant.
colours in patches, in which respect they are widely different from their wild ancestors.
“ Domestic dogs,” observes Mr. Bartlett, “exhibit many of the habits of wolves
and jackals, such as the scratching up of earth with the front-feet, and the pushing
back of it with the hind-feet, in order to cover up the droppings. Again, when
about to rest, the turning round two or three times with the object of forming a
hole in which to repose may be noticed in pet dogs about to lie down upon the
hearth-rug, which is a habit evidently acquired by inheritance from their wild
ancestors. ”
That the dog was one of the earliest animals domesticated by man rests upon
abundant evidence. Summing up the evidence on this pot, Darwin observes that
during the Roman classical period hounds, house-dogs, lap-dogs, and other breeds
were already well established, although it is in most cases impossible with any
certainty to recognise the greater number from their portraits. A fresco repre-
senting two greyhound puppies is, however, quite distinctive; and it appears
that the ancient Romans were accustomed to class their different breeds into
house-dogs, sheep-dogs, and sporting dogs, the latter being again subdivided into
fighting dogs, hounds hunting by scent, and hounds hunting by sight (greyhounds).
An Assyrian monument with an assigned date of about B.c. 640 shows the figure
of a large mastiff; and Egyptian monuments, ranging from about B.c. 3400 to.
2100, exhibit numerous figures of dogs, most of which approach the greyhound
type. On one monument of the later of these two dates there is a dog resembling
a hound, with drooping ears, but with a longer back and more pointed muzzle
than those of modern hounds. There is also a short and crooked-legged dog with a
long body, which Darwin compares to a turnspit, although thinking it improbable
that this ancient race was the parent of the modern breed. The oldest dog
represented on the Egyptian monuments is, however, one of the most peculiar,
resembling a greyhound in general form, but with long pointed ears, and a short
curled tail, a somewhat similar race of dogs still existing in Northern Africa. The
ancient Egyptians had also a dog like the Indian pariah. “We thus see,” observes
Darwin, “that at a period between four and five thousand years ago, various breeds,
viz., pariah dogs, greyhounds, common hounds, mastiffs, house-dogs, lap-dogs, and
turnspits existed, more or less closely resembling our present breeds. But there is.
DOMESTIC DOGS. 515
not sufficient evidence that any of these ancient dogs belonged to the same
identical subvarieties with our modern dogs.” The record of the antiquity of
domesticated dogs does not, however, stop with the Egyptian monuments, for
there is evidence that several breeds existed during prehistoric periods, that is to
say, during the iron, bronze, and polished-stone epochs. Thus, in Denmark, there
was one race in the stone epoch, succeeded by a larger one in the bronze age, and
by a still larger breed in the newer iron age. Again, during the polished-stone
period in Switzerland, the inhabitants of that country had a medium-sized dog
which appears to have possessed characters common to hounds and _ setters, or
spaniels; its skull being markedly distinct from those of both the wolf and the
jackal. In the bronze period this lake-dog was succeeded by a larger kind,
probably very similar to the one we have already noticed as occurring in Denmark
during the same period. Remains of the lake-dog, together with those of two
other breeds, have been recognised from caverns on the Continent; and Woldrich
comes to the conclusion that the lake-dog was not derived from either the wolf or
the jackal but from some extinct species. If, then, we regard the lake-dog as in
any way related to our modern breeds, and also admit its descent from an earlier
extinct form, it will be apparent how hopeless is the task of attempting to solve
the problem of the actual parentage of the dogs of the present day.
The number of varieties of domestic dogs was estimated by Fitzinger in 1876
at no less than one hundred and eighty-five, which were grouped in seven main
divisions. Mr. Harting considers, however, that the main groups may be reduced
to six, characterised to a certain extent by the form and size of their ears. These
groups are—(1) wolf-like dogs, (2) greyhounds, (3) spaniels, (4) hounds, (5) mastifts,
and (6) terriers. By intercrossing between various members of these different
groups he considers that all the existing breeds may have been produced. In the
case of the more important breeds this grouping will be followed so far as practic-
able, although it is frequently difficult to decide under which heading to place
many of the breeds produced by crossing members of different groups.
The most wolf-like of all the domestic breeds is the Eskimo dog,
figured on p. 511. With their small upright ears, nearly straight
bushy tails, moderately sharp muzzles, and rough coats, as well as in their general
build, so closely indeed do these dogs resemble wolves that a pack of them
has at least on one occasion been actually mistaken for such. These affinities
are further indicated by this dog’s inability to bark; and, as already mentioned,
it may be considered as merely a domesticated wolf. The Eskimo dog is found
throughout the greater part of the Arctic regions, and is absolutely essential to
the existence of the inhabitants of those dreary countries, as without its aid
they would be unable to make their migrations, or to transport the produce
of their sealing and fishing expeditions to their homes. Although differing
somewhat in colour, the Eskimo dogs of Arctic America, Siberia, and Kamschatka,
all resemble one another very closely, and the description of those of one district
is equally applicable to those of another.
Many accounts of the habits and appearance of these animals have appeared,
but since many of these have been quoted we shall confine ourselves to certain
extracts from one of the most recent observers, Dr. Guillemard, who states that on
Eskimo Dog.
516 CARNIVORES.
one oceasion he had an opportunity of seeing more than two hundred collected
together. “Most of them are white, with black heads, or entirely of a brown
black ; and their general aspect, owing to the sharp muzzle and prick ears, is
decidedly wolf-like. The only food they are provided with by their masters is
salmon of the hump-backed kind; but during the summer they pick up game,
eggs, and birds in their wanderings about the country. They are usually
inspanned in teams of eight or ten, but where the sledges are heavy or the roads
bad, double that number, or even more are occasionally used. When the snow is
hard and even, they will draw a weight of 360 Ibs. a distance of five-and-thirty or
forty miles with ease in a day’s work; and with an unloaded sledge, with a single
occupant, a pace of eight versts an hour can be kept up for a considerable time.
On the road they are given one-third of a fish twice during the day, and a fish and
a half at night, which they wash down with a few gulps of snow. . . . Each has a
name, which he answers to when he is driven in the sledge, just in the same
way as a Cape ox in a waggon team, for no whips are used. If chastisement be
necessary, the driver throws his stick at the delinquent, or pounds the unfortunate
creature with any stone that comes handy. There are many ways of tethering
these animals, all having in view the one object of keeping them apart, as, excepting
upon the road, they seize every opportunity of fighting. One method is by making
a large tripod of poles, and tying a dog at the bottom of each; and in many
villages, owing to the large number of dogs which have to be kept, these tripods
form a characteristic feature.”
In another passage Dr. Guillemard comments upon the hardships to which
these animals have to submit. “No comfortable home is provided for him to
enable him to withstand the rigours of the Arctic climate, and the poor beast,
except when actually at work, has, in most cases, to ‘find himself’ Long experi-
ence, and the instinct transmitted to him by his ancestors have, however, given
him all the resources of an old campaigner. Stumbling at night about the
uncertain paths of the settlements, the traveller is not unfrequently precipitated
into the huge rabbit-burrows which the animal constructs to avoid the cutting
winds. His coat, nearly as thick as that of a bear, is composed of fur rather than
hair... . Wonderfully well-trained, cunning, and enduring, he is at the same time
often obstinate and unmanageable to a degree, and is apparently indifferent to the
kicks and blows so liberally showeréd upon him by his master. Excepting in
settlements where neighbouring stretches of tundra render the use of sledges
possible in summer, he has a long holiday during that season. During this time
he wanders over the country at will, sometimes returning at night to his burrow,
at others being absent for days together. A good hunter and fisherman, he
supports himself upon the game and salmon he catches, and it is but rarely that
he deserts his master for good. But the inhabitants have to pay a good price for
his services. Owing to his rapacity it is impossible to keep sheep, goats, or any of
the smaller domestic animals, and Kamschatka is one of the few countries in the
world in which fowls are unknown.”
Hare Indian As already mentioned, the Hare Indian dog presents the same —
Dog: relationship to the coyote as is borne by the Eskimo dog to the
common wolf. This breed is found only in the region of the Great Bear Lake and
DOMESTIC DOGS. iy)
the Mackenzie River, and is used for hunting purposes by the Hare and some other
Indian tribes. Richardson states that the “Hare Indian dog has a mild counten-
ance, with at times an expression of demureness. It has a small head, slender
muzzle, erect thickish ears, somewhat oblique eyes, rather slender legs, and a broad,
hairy tail, which it usually carries curled over its right hip. It is covered with long
hair, particularly about the shoulders; and at the roots of the hair, both on the body
and tail, there is thick wool. The hair on the top of the head is long, and on the
posterior part of the cheeks it is not only long, but, being directed backwards, it gives
the animal, when the fur is in prime order, the appearance of having a ruff round
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POMERANIAN DOG (;), nat. size),
the neck. Its face, muzzle, belly, and legs, are of a pure white colour, and there
is a white central line passing over the crown of the head and the occiput. The
anterior surface of the ear is white, the posterior yellowish grey or fawn-colour.
The end of the nose, the eyelashes, the roof of the mouth, and part of the gums
are black. There is a dark patch over the eye. On the back and sides there are
larger patches of dark blackish grey or lead colour, mixed with fawn-colour and
white, not definite in form, but running into each other. The tail is bushy, white
beneath and at the tip. The feet are covered with hairs, which almost conceal the
claws.” This dog
=>
although of a playful and affectionate disposition, is not very
docile, and is impatient of all kinds of restraint. Its general voice is very like
one CARNIVORES
that of the coyote, but when it for the first time sees any new and startling object
it attempts a kind of bark.
Under the title of Pomeranian dog are included a large and a
small variety, of which the latter is represented in the figure on the
preceding page. The Pomeranian may be.regarded as the nearest ally of the
Eskimo dog, and is a middle-sized or small animal, of strong build, with a sharply-
pointed muzzle, upright and pointed ears, and a thick bushy tail generally carried
curled over the back. The fur is long and coarse, and varies in colour from black
Pomeranian Dog.
through grey, yellowish, and foxy-red to pure white; the darker varieties usually
have a lighter patch on the forehead, and also white marks on the feet. The larger
Pomeranian was formerly used as a wolf-dog, and should properly be of a pale
fawn-colour, without any admixture of white, and with black “points.”
The smaller Pomeranian is a better-known animal, although it has the
disadvantage of being somewhat uncertain in temper. The spitz, as this variety
is often called, is employed as a sheep-dog in its native country, and is then
most esteemed when entirely black. There is, however, on the Continent an
almost complete transition from the pure black to the white spitz, which was
the one most commonly met with in England, till the black breed came into
fashion. A well-bred white spitz ought to have a black tip to the nose; and
in all cases the ears should be perfectly upright, without any tendency to fall
over at the tips. The heavily-furred curly tail is generally carried on the left
side of the body. The fur on the throat forms a thick frill or ruff, and there is
a considerable amount of long hair on the fore-legs. The face has only very
short hair.
Closely resembling the spitz in appearance is the Chinese sheep-dog, the
general colour of which is reddish, with a mixture of dark brown hairs in the
fur of the back, which gives it a somewhat speckled look.
The sheep-dog and its ally the Scotch collie depart more from
the wolf-like type than the species hitherto noticed, in having the
tips of the ears pendent. According to “Stonehenge,” the old English sheep-dog
has a sharp muzzle, medium-sized head, with small and piercing eyes; a well-
shaped body, formed after the model of a strong low greyhound, but clothed in
long and somewhat thick and woolly hair, which is particularly strong about the
neck and bosom. The tail is naturally strong and bushy. In almost all sheep-
dogs there is a double dew-claw on each hind-leg, and very often without any bony
attachment. The legs and feet are strong and well-formed, and stand road-work
well, and the untiring nature of the dog is very remarkable. The colour varies
greatly, but most are grey, or black, or brown, with more or less white. Many of
the sheep-dogs used in England have, however, been crossed with other breeds, and
Sheep-Dog.
thus depart more or less widely from the original type.
The sheep-dog of France and Germany is very similar in general appearance to
the English breed, showing the same indifference to caresses and the same attention
to its particular business. Sheep-dogs commence their training during their first
year, and learn their work with wonderful rapidity. On the Continent they are
employed not only in tending sheep, but likewise goats and cattle; but in England
the variety known as the drover’s dog is more generally used for cattle herding.
DOMESTIC DOGS. 519
ae _A handsomer animal than the English sheep-dog is the Scotch
collie, which has the same mental characters, but differs somewhat in
external form and coloration. This dog has the same sharp muzzle as its English
cousin, but a rather broader head, with a slight fall to the tips of the small ears.
The build of the body is rather light and elegant; and the hair with which it is
clothed is long and woolly, and stands out evenly on all sides so as to form an
efficient protection from the extremes of climate to which the animal is exposed
in its native hills. The ruff on the neck is more developed than in the sheep-
dog, and indeed than in any other breed. The tail is very bushy, and is carried
with the tip elevated, so as to keep its long hairs free from the ground. In
ROUGH-COATED COLLIES.
the pure-bred animal there is a thick under-fur beneath the long hairs, and the
hind-legs should be quite free from any fringe of hair, although the fore-legs may have
a little fringe. The colour may be either black-and-tan, or either of these tints
alone, with a larger or smaller admixture of white; but the black-and-tan appears
to be the most admired. The black is seldom very intense in tone, and the
tan has no tinge of the mahogany-red of the setter. The collie has been in-
troduced into England asa pet dog, and is often crossed with the black-and-tan
setter, so as to produce a breed which differs considerably from the original form
—notably in the silky hair, without under-fur, and the long fringes on both fore
and hind-legs. In some parts of the Scottish Highlands, and likewise in the north
of England, there is a smaller and more slender variety known as the smooth collie.
This breed is characterised by the smooth coat of short and stiff hairs, which
520 CARNIVORES.
are generally of a mottled-grey colour, more or less mixed with white, but may
be black-and-tan, or even tan-and-white.
All the breeds of sheep-dogs display their affinity to the wolf in their
elongated and narrow skulls, with very long muzzles, and the profile of the face only
displaying a slight degree of concavity. The premolar teeth are separated from
one another by distinct intervals ; and there is no tendency for the lower incisor
teeth to project beyond the line of those of the upper jaw.
The drover’s dog varies considerably in different districts of
England, and is generally a cross between the sheep-dog and some
other breed. The size of these dogs is likewise very variable; and both this and
Drover’s Dog.
the general form appear to be modified by breeders according to the special needs
of the districts for which the animals are required. Drovers’ dogs generally have
their tails cut short. Their especial duty is to conduct flocks and herds from
one locality to another, and they are remarkably adept in separating the members
of the herd under their own charge from those of any other herd which they may
meet during their journey.
A brief allusion may be made here to those nondescript dogs
found in troops in the towns and villages of Eastern Europe, Asia,
and Africa, and commonly designated pariah dogs. These animals vary greatly
Pariah Dogs.
in different districts, but many present a very wolfish appearance, and it is
probable that they often interbreed with the wolves and jackals of their respective
countries, while in India they may perhaps also cross with wild dogs. Originally,
however, these pariah dogs were undoubtedly domesticated breeds, which, from
neglect, have reverted to a greater or lesser extent towards a wild state. The
pariah dogs of Egypt appear to belong to a single race, and are of about the size
of a sheep-dog, but of a stouter build, with a broader head; the tail being long
and generally bushy, and carried close to the ground. The general colour of their
coarse rough hair is reddish brown, tending in some individuals more decidedly
to grey, and in others to yellow. Occasionally black or tawny individuals may
be observed. Their ears are short, pointed, and usually erect. They live a
perfectly independent life, generally frequenting the rubbish-mounds with which
the old Egyptian towns and villages are surrounded, and passing the greater part
of the day in sleep, while towards evening they wake up and prepare themselves
for their nocturnal peregrinations. Each dog possesses its own particular lair,
which is chosen with especial care; and frequently one dog will have two such
lairs, one of which is occupied in the morning, and the other in the afternoon.
When, as is often the case, the mounds in the neighbourhood of Cairo run nearly
north and south, so that both sides are equally exposed in winter to the cold
north wind, the dogs are careful to excavate a hole facing the south, in which
they may gain protection from the cutting blasts. In the morning the dogs will
be found lying in these lairs, which have an easterly aspect, so that they may
receive the full benefit of the sun’s rays; towards ten or eleven o'clock, however,
these quarters become too hot to be pleasant, and they then shift to the west side
of the mound, or to some other shady spot where they may continue their sleep.
When the sun reaches their lairs on the western side of the mounds the dogs
once more return to their morning haunts, where they remain till sunset.
DOMESTIC DOGS. 521
Pariah dogs in other countries are very similar in manners to the above, but
in Constantinople and most Indian cities they habitually frequent the streets, and
are as habitually ill-used by the passers-by. In Siam and some other Buddhist
countries they are, however, specially protected by the lamas, or priests, and are
allowed to use the temples as places of refuge; but the food supply of these
dogs is of the scantiest, and their appearance is consequently miserable in the
extreme.
English Grey- With this breed we come to the first member of the second main
hound. = croup of dogs, all of which are characterised by their long and
narrow muzzles, their slight build, elongated limbs, and small ears, falling at the
ENGLISH GREYHOUND (j; nat. size).
tips ; but they differ greatly in the length of the hair. They are further characterised
by their habit of hunting either entirely or partially by sight, instead of by scent.
The long slender skull of the greyhound points to close affinity with the
wolf, and this group of dogs is, therefore, placed here. The English greyhound.
which is of great antiquity, has indeed been regarded by some as the ancestral
stock of all our domestic breeds of dogs, but this is more than doubtful. It
inay be so readily distinguished at a glance from all other dogs by its general
slender form, smooth hair, and rat-like tail, coupled with its comparatively large
322 CARNIVORES.
size, that no detailed description is necessary. The animal is, indeed, thoroughly
adapted for extreme speed, the long slender hmbs, with their wire-like muscles,
giving the utmost possible length of stride, while the smooth coat, sharply-pointed
head, elongated neck, and thin tail are calculated to offer the least possible
resistance to the air. The long muzzle and neck are, moreover, necessary to enable
the ereyhound to seize a small apimal like a hare when running at speed. We
may further notice the great depth of the chest, calculated to afford ample room
for the lungs, and the small size of the abdomen. The extremely attenuated
muzzle is of itself sufficient indication that the greyhound cannot hunt solely by
scent, as it is too small to contain space for the large extent of surface in the
cavity of the nose necessary in dogs that hunt in this manner.
At one period the greyhound b2came too weak in the jaws to kill its prey, but
this defect was remedied by crossing with the bull-dog, the bull-dog blood being
gradually eliminated until the proper combination of strength with speed was
attained. The head of the present breed should be broad and flat between the ears,
without that arching characteristic of other breeds of dogs. The eyes should be
of the same colour as the coat; and the ears always now fall at the tips, although
there was an old-fashioned breed in which they were erect. The length of the
neck should be approximately equal to that of the head; although it is not very
easy to say in a living animal where the neck ends and the chest begins. Much
importance is attached by breeders to the formation of the fore-quarters of the
greyhound, the best strains having the shoulder-blades of great length, obliquely
placed, and well clothed with muscle, and likewise the upper arm (humerus) of
considerable relative length. Of not less importance is the conformation of the
hind-limbs, in which the upper and lower leg should be of great relative length,
so that the whole limb should be much bent at the junction of these two segments.
Then, again, the hind-limbs must be set rather wide apart at their lower
extremities, to allow of their being brought forward with the utmost celerity in
running; while in the haunches the attention of the breeder is especially directed
to the development of sufficient width. That the foot-pads should be hard and
horny, to withstand the wear and tear of racing over hard and rough ground, is
self-evident, but there is some difference of opinion as to the precise form of foot
which is most desirable. The tail should be entirely devoid of any fringe of long
hairs, and, while thick at the root, should at first taper somewhat rapidly, and
afterwards more gradually. It should hang close to the hind-quarters for the
greater part of its length, terminating in an upwardly-inclined curve, which
generally forms about three-fourths of a cirele. Colour is regarded as of but minor
importance in determining the “points” of a greyhound.
The colour may be either uniform, or, as in our illustration, a mixture of dark and
light. The Russian greyhound is powerfully-built, and of rather larger size than
his English cousin, being covered with a coarse woolly coat, and having fringed
ears and fore-legs, and a very thickly-haired tail. It is comparatively slow in pace,
and hunts the wolves against which it is employed both by sight and scent.
ep ee Here may be mentioned the hairless dogs of Central Africa,
which closely resemble greyhounds in general appearance. These
dogs have long slender bodies, moderately elongated and thin necks, narrow and
pointed muzzles, tall foreheads, long tails and limbs, and no dew-claws on the hind-
feet. Their ears are pendent at the tips: and, like the body, are quite devoid of
hair. Indeed, it is only in the neighbourhood of the tail, around the mouth, and on
the limbs, that there is any hair at all) They are employed in Africa for hunting
antelopes, and possess great speed; but their hairless skin renders them unsuited to
live in any but the warmest climates. Other breeds of hairless dogs oceur in China,
Central and South America, Manilla, and the Antilles and Bahamas.
The lurcher is a cross either between the rough Scotch greyhound
and the collie, or between the English greyhound and the sheep-dog, or
any pair of these four. Some lurchers are very handsome animals, while others are
equally ugly. With these variations it is difficult to give any precise description
Lurchers.
of the breed, which may, however, be roughly designated as a dog with the
general shape of a greyhound, combined with the stouter build, larger ears, and
rougher coat of the sheep-dog.
Deena With the field-spaniel, of which there are several varieties, we
reach the third division of domestic dogs, all of which are char-
acterised by their large pendent ears, comparatively wide heads, with moderate
muzzles, relatively short and stout limbs, thick and frequently long hair, and
thickly-haired tails. Their skulls are distinguished from those of all the dogs yet
mentioned by their width and comparative shortness, this being especially notice-
able in the palate and lower jaw. The profile of the skull is also more markedly
concave, the brain case rising suddenly at the eyes, and thus indicating great
mental power. True spaniels, as their name denotes, are probably of Spanish
origin, and are divided into field and water-spaniels, in addition to which there
are the smaller breeds kept only as pets. Field-spaniels form some of the best
shooting dogs, and generally give notice of the proximity of game by their voice.
They are now divided into the Clumber, Sussex, Norfolk, and Cocker breeds.
The Clumber spaniel is distinguished by its silence when hunting; and is a
heavily-built animal, of comparatively large size, and soon tiring when at work.
The head is massive, with a deep furrow along the top, large flesh or liver-coloured
nostrils, large and generally hazel eyes, and long ears shaped like a vine-leaf,
without a very long fringe of hair. In build the Clumber is long and low; the
length of the head and body being properly two and a half times the height. The
526 CARNIVORES.
hair of the body should be silky and of moderate length, with a slight wave, but
no curl; its ground-colour being always white, with yellow or orange spots, the
lemon-yellow tint being preferred. The Sussex spaniel, which has the ordinary
lobe-shaped ear and gives tongue when hunting, has a less heavy head than the
Clumber, and a
wavy coat of a
golden-liver colour,
without any ad-
mixture of white.
The Norfolk
spaniel is subject
to considerable
variation, and is
either liver-and-
white, or black-
and-white in its
colour. It differs
from the two pre-
ceding races by
the lesser pro-
portionate length
(es of the body, and
CLUMBER SPANIEL. the longer fringe
of hair on the
ears, which frequently nearly touch the ground. Cockers are small spaniels, and
are now divided into Welsh and modern Cockers; the former being liver, or liver-
and-white, while the latter are larger and generally completely black. The head
is relatively long, the eyes are less full than in the other breeds; and the coat is
soft, silky, and waved, with a considerable amount of fringe on the throat and
limbs.
The King Charles and Blenheim spaniels are much smaller animals, probably
derived from the Cocker. The King Charles is black-and-tan in colour, with a
larger or smaller admixture of white, and is characterised by the great length of
the ears. In both the muzzle is extremely short, with an upturned nose, while the
head is nearly globular, and the ears should touch the ground. The coat should be
long, silky, and wavy, but devoid of curl; while the ears, limbs, and feet should be
abundantly fringed.
Irish Water- The water-spaniels, of which the best-marked breed is the Irish,
Spaniel. are relatively large dogs, with broad splay feet, and a woolly, thickly-
matted, and often curly coat, which is more or less oily. The southern Irish water-
spaniel is characterised by the bare face and thinly-haired tail, the presence of a
distinct “top-knot” on the crown of the head, the long curls round the legs, and
the thickly-curling coat of the body and ears; the colour being of a uniform puce
liver tint. The northern variety of the Irish water-spaniel has shorter ears, with
but little fringe, while the curls of the body hair are shorter and closer; the
colour being either liver or liver-and-white.
DOMESTIC DOGS. aor
The various breeds known as setters are large spaniels which have
acquired the habit of pomting at their game. They derive their name
from having been originally taught to crouch down when marking game, in order
to admit of the net with which the quarry was taken being readily drawn over
Setters.
them. With the use of guns this habit became, however, of no advantage, and
setters were taught to assume the attitude of pointers. At the present day there
are five chief breeds of setters, three of which are commonly seen in England.
The English setter, which is regarded as the result of a cross between the field-
spaniel and the pointer, should have a silky coat, with a slight wave, but no curl
IRISH SETTER (+ nat, size).
in the hair. The fore and hind-legs should be thinly fringed with hair, while in
the tail the fringe of long hair should fall regularly like the teeth of a comb,
without any signs of bushiness. In the middle of the tail the length of the fringe
should be from 6 to 7 inches in length, while at the point it should not exceed
half an inch. An abundance of hair between the toes is another “point” of
the setter. There is great variation in colour, which is valued according to the
following scale, viz. black-and-white ticked with large splashes, known as the
“blue Belton”; orange-and-white freckled, known as “orange Belton”; orange or
lemon-and-white without ticks; liver-and-white ticked; black-and-white with
shght tan markings; black-and-white ; liver-and-white without ticks; pure white :
black ; liver; red or yellow. The Irish setter is generally of a red colour without
528 CARNIVORES:.
any trace of black, and little or no white; but there is one strain characterised by
cigs red and white coloration. It is a rather more “leggy” animal than its English
cousin, with a narrower and rather longer head, more produced nose (of which
the colour is generally deep mahogany), and more tapering ears, which, when
extended, should reach nearly to the nose.
The Gordon, or black-and-tan setter, is now characterised by its mixture of jet-
black and mahogany-tan colours, although the original breed was black, tan, and
white. It is a heavier animal than either the English or Irish breeds, this
heaviness being specially shown in the head, which makes some approach to that
of the bloodhound. The nose is relatively wide, and rarely shows the concave
profile of the English setter; the tail is rather short; while the coat, although in
some strains silky, may be much coarser than in the other breeds. The Welsh
setter, which shows a great amount of variation in colour, is distinguished from the
preceding by its curly coat. Finally, the Russian setter, according to “ Stone-
henge,” “is almost entirely concealed by a long woolly coat, which is matted together
in the most extraordinary manner, and which would lead to the supposition that
he would be unable to stand heat as well as our early setters; but, on the contrary,
he bears it almost like a pointer.”
This name is apphed to large dogs employed for retrieving game
part SMa land, in contradistinction to the water-spaniels which are used for
the same purpose in water. These dogs have more or less Newfoundland blood in
them, and trace their other parentage to the water-spaniel or setter. The curly-
coated retriever, which may be either black or tan, is the product of a cross
between the smaller black Newfoundland and the water-spaniel. It is characterised
by the short hair of the face, and the tail devoid of any fringe, although covered
to within a few inches of its extremity with short crisp curls. The hair on the
body is closely and crisply curled. The wavy-coated retriever may be either a
pure-bred small black Newfoundland, or a cross between it and the setter.
ae The Newfoundland dog, of which there are three distinct breeds,
is regarded as nothing more than a large spaniel, and its general form
and the facility with which it may be crossed with spaniels and setters seem to
fully bear out this view. The especial characteristic of the Newfoundland is its
well-known fearlessness of water, and the readiness with which it will risk its own
life to rescue human beings from drowning. ‘The true Newfoundland, as represented
in our illustration, is the largest breed, and should stand from 25 to 30 or 31
inches in height at the shoulder. The coat should be shaggy and somewhat oily,
and the tail long and bushy and slightly curled on one side; the colour black,
with or without some admixture of white; the specimens with the least white
being the most admired. Sometimes the black has a rusty tinge. The head in the
best-bred animals is large and broad, and nearly flat on the top, with a well-marked
ridge at the eyes; while the expression of the countenance conveys a look of
grandeur and intelligence without fierceness. The muzzle is relatively wide, and
clothed with short hair; while the skin on the forehead should show some slight
wrinkles. Both the ears and eyes are relatively small; the former being covered
with short hairs, which become slightly longer at the edges; while the latter should
be brown in colour and mild in expression. The neck has no distinet frill; while
DOMESTIC DOGS. 529
the fore-legs should be fringed above, but nearly smooth below. The feet, although
necessarily large, should be compact so as not to spread out under the weight of
the body. The Landseer Newfoundland, said to be unknown in the island from
which these dogs take their name, differs from the preceding in its looser build,
less noble appearance, more woolly coat, and by the ground-colour being white,
upon which are black spots. The smaller black Newfoundland, also known as the
St. John’s Newfoundland, or Labrador dog, is inferior in size to the Newfoundland,
standing not more than 22 or 23 inches in height, and having a relatively smaller
NEWFOUNDLAND DOG (5 nat. size).
and less massive head. Its coat is moderately short and wavy, without any
under-fur, and should be entirely black, although there may be a white spot on the
forehead or a white toe. The fore-legs are fringed with long hair down to
the feet.
The magnificent dogs, taking their name from the monastery of
Mount St. Bernard, and formerly unknown beyond the Alps and
adjacent regions, are remarkable for their high intelligence, and are used in the
St. Bernards.
Alps for rescuing travellers lost in the snow. In size they attain dimensions only
equalled by those of the great Dane, and are larger than any wild member of the
family. A very large St. Bernard, known as “ Young Plinlimmon,”’ measures
upwards of 684 inches from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail; while others
are known which measured respectively 64, 63, and 60 inches. These dogs are
VOL. I.—34
530 CARNIVORES.
divided into rough and smooth St. Bernards, according to the length of the hair;
our illustration representing a specimen of the rough-haired breed. The rough
St. Bernard has the coat of the body long and wavy, with the tail very bushy, and
the fringe on the fore-legs comparatively small. There is great variety in colour;
one strain being a rich orange-tawny mixed with brown, others are red-and-white,
others, again, brindled or fawn, or those colours more or less mixed with white,
while some may be almost white. The head is large, with a higher elevation at
the eyes than in the Newfoundland, and the muzzle rather long and squared, with
ROUGH ST, BERNARD (,'5 hat. size).
slightly pendulous lips. The ears are relatively small, and their hair should be
rather rougher than that of the body. The eyes are full but deeply set. The feet
are very large, apparently for the purpose of supporting the animal in the snows
of its native home, and may be furnished with double dew-claws. The smooth St.
Bernard differs mainly from the rough breed by its nearly smooth coat; the tail being
comparatively thin, and the legs and ears entirely free from any fringes of hair.
The bloodhound is our first representative of the fourth division
of domestic dogs, which includes the pointer, and all those usually
denominated hounds. All are characterised by their large drooping ears; and
most of them by their smooth coats, and the absence of any fringe of hair on
Bloodhound.
DOMESTIC DOGS. 531
the ears and legs; while the tail is mostly but thinly fringed. The profile of
the face is but slightly concave, and the muzzle relatively long and deep, with a
more or less marked overlapping of the upper lip. With the exception of the
pointer, they hunt by “ foot-scent.”
The most striking and characteristic feature of the bloodhound is its magni-
ficent head, which is considerably larger and heavier in the male than in the
female. While generally extremely massive, the head is remarkable for its
narrowness between the ears, where it rises into a dome-like prominence, termin-
ating in a marked protuberance in the occipital region. The skin of the forehead,
like that round the eyes, is thrown into a series of transverse puckers, as is well
shown in the recumbent figure of our illustration. The long and tapering jaws are
BLOODHOUNDS (,/5 nat. size).
of great depth but relatively narrow, and abruptly truncated in front; while the
upper lips are pendulous. The large and thin ears should hang close to the
cheeks; and the small and deeply-sunk hazel eyes are characterised by the
exposure of a considerable part of the membrane of the socket, which is generally
red, and is technically known as the haw. The throat is heavy, and passes down-
wards into a more or less well-marked dew-lap. In the English breed the tail is
shghtly fringed with hair, although in our figured example it is quite smooth ; it
should be carried in a curve, but not raised above a right angle with the lne of
the back. The short coat should be coarse and hard on the back and sides, but
soft and silky on the head and ears. The most esteemed coloration is black-and-
tan, but the animal may be all tan; the presence of white being a blemish. Our
illustration is taken from a foreign strain of the bloodhound, which is lower on its
legs than the English breed.
532 CARNIVORES.
English hounds are descended from two extinct breeds, respect-
ively known as the southern hound and the northern hound. Both
of these were large heavily-built animals, with thick throats, distinct dew-laps, and
large pendent ears resembling those of the bloodhound. They were slow in pace,
and dwelt upon the scent more than their modern descendants. The true English
staghound was a considerably larger animal than the foxhound, with a relatively
broader and shorter head, and a more thickly-fringed tail, and was also distinguished
by several points in the conformation of the limbs. The large foxhounds now used
Staghound.
STAGHOUNDS AFTER A CHASE (yj, nat, size).
for stag-hunting in England stand about 25 inches high in the males, and from 23
to 234 inches in the females.
The modern foxhound, derived from either the old southern or
northern hound, with perhaps some cross of a different breed, is
remarkable for the combination of speed and endurance which it possesses, and is
thus an excellent instance of the results which can be attained by breeding with a
particular end in view. The appearance of the foxhound is much modified by the
artificial rounding of the ears—a process in which a large portion of the extremity
of the lobe is cut away in order to prevent its becoming entangled in bushes. The
coat should be short and hard, but at the same time glossy; the tail having a
Foxhound.
DOMESTIC DOGS. 533
distinct fringe of hair on its under surface. The favourite, or true hound colour,
is black, white, and tan; but there are also several “ pies” in which the respective
colours are blended with white; while whole colours, or black-and-tan only, are
not unknown. The endurance and speed of the modern foxhound is fully attested
in numerous works on sport, and will not, therefore, be further mentioned here.
“Stonehenge” observes that a peculiar “faculty in which the hound differs from
his congeners is a mental one, leading him always, when he loses scent of his
quarry, to cast forward rather than backward, and to do this with a “dash”
VIET
FOXHOUNDS IN FULL CRY (} nat. size).
altogether unlike the slow and careful quest of the bloodhound. This, of course,
may be overdone, and in that case the hound constantly overruns the scent; but
without it in these days few foxes would be killed, for unless they are hard pressed
the scent soon fails and is altogether lost.” For ordinary country the male fox-
hound, such as shown on p. 576, should average 24 inches, and the female 223
inches in height; but in hilly districts smaller hounds are preferred.
This is a breed of hound trained to hunt hares instead of foxes,
and intermediate in point of size between the foxhound and beagle.
Pure-bred harriers, probably descended from the old Southern hound, are to be met
with in Wales, but many of those used in England are crossed with the foxhound,
Harrier.
a4 CARNIVORES.
while in some cases a small breed of foxhounds is employed in hare-hunting.
Owing to the absence of the practice of “cropping,” harriers may be distinguished
from foxhounds by their larger and pointed ears; and they generally have longer
and narrower heads, with a deeper hollow under the somewhat fuller eye. The
height generally varies from 16 to a little below 20 inches. The colours and
general points are the same as those of foxhounds. A rough breed of Welsh
harriers is practically indistinguishable from the otterhound. Harriers work more
slowly than foxhounds, dwelling more on the scent and tending to cast backwards
rather than forwards when theyaome to a check.
This breed so closely resembles a large rough Welsh harrier that
Otterhound. z
it requires an expert to distinguish between the two; such difference
as there 1s existing in the nature of the coat and the form of the feet. Thus the
feet, instead of
having the neat
Ae ‘\ / ee cat-like form of
Ulf
Vi
those of the har-
riers, are broad
and splay: while
the coat is fur-
nished with a
thick woolly
under-fur of an
oily nature.
Probably owing
to having to con-
tend with such a
fierce animal as
the otter, the
a WA Be Gag a Cuter Ronny is of a
NG VISA (ye S savage and quar-
THE OTTERHOUND. relsome — disposi-
tion, and is very
ai
apt to engage in internecine conflicts with its fellow-occupants of the kennel. Otter-
hunting is a favourite sport in the West of England, Devonshire alone possessing
four packs, one of which in the summer of 1892 killed three otters in a single
morning. In some cases foxhounds are employed for otter-hunting.
This term is generally applied to any hound standing less than
16 inches in height, although the true pure-bred beagle is a distinct
breed, which may be regarded as a miniature of the old southern hound. In build
the ordinary beagle is rather short in the limbs and long in the body, with a
Beagle.
relatively wide and somewhat dome-shaped head and a short nose. The throat is
likewise rather short and thick, and the older breeds used to have a tendency to a
dew-lap. The ears are full and hang in folds. Beagles may vary in height from
about 15 to 10 or 9 inches; but from 11 to 12 inches is esteemed the best. They
are used in hunting both hares and rabbits. The beagle has a remarkably musical
note and an exquisite sense of scent, as well as
great perseverance in following <
DOMESTIC DOGS. 535
trail. From its small size, short legs, and rather heavy build, it is, however,
necessarily slow. In hunting, beagles follow all the windings of the hare, and for
the first part of the chase are far behind their quarry. Their perseverance is,
| NS is 4
, ; ny
: Ky y al ‘
reo
N\
vf ar TY
SESS BE SS RR Se va eer
THE BEAGLE (3 nat. size).
however, generally successful in the end; and there is no prettier sight for the
lovers of sport than to watch a well-trained pack of beagles at work.
With the cessation of its monotonous occupation has been
brought to pass the practical extinction of the old English turnspit.
These dogs were long-bodied, short-limbed animals, with the fore-feet everted,
and were closely allied to the dachshund; but differed in being relatively taller,
with a longer head, longer nose, straighter forehead, less bent fore-limbs, and a
longer and thinner tail; the ears being small and placed relatively far back. In
colour, the turnspit was generally black-and-tan. These dogs performed their task
ina kind of wire barrel, somewhat like that in a squirrel-cage; and in England
two of them were generally kept, which worked turn-and-turn.
Under the title of dachshund, or badger-dog, the Germans include
two distinct strains of long-bodied dogs with short and crooked legs,
one of which presents these characters in a less marked degree than the other, and
has also relatively larger ears. The breed figured in our illustration has a long
cylinder-like body, supported on short and bent legs, the head and muzzle large, the
drooping ears also large, the paws of great size and furnished with sharp claws, and
the coat short and smooth. The fore-feet are markedly turned outwards, and the
hind-feet have large dew-claws; while the tail is thick at the root, from which it
rapidly tapers to the end, without any fringe. The colour varies, but is generally
black-and-tan, although not unfrequently either tan or yellowish, and sometimes
Turnspit.
Dachshund.
536 CARNIVORES.
3
grey or parti-coloured. The second variety has a still longer body, and shorter and
more bent legs than the preceding form, from which it is likewise distinguished by
its smaller ears and shorter tail. The ear is set further back than in any other
dog, its front border being scarcely in advance of the line of junction of the head
with the neck. The tail should be carried over the back, and the smooth and
glossy coat hard and wiry, except on the ears, where it becomes silky. Black-and-
tan are the favourite colours in this breed; but whole tan, with a black nose,
occupies the second place in the estimation of fanciers.
Dachshunds are used in their native country chiefly for hunting badgers, which
are numerous in some districts. The strain with the longest body and the shortest
legs is employed for digging the badgers out of their holes, while the other is
used in the chase. From their small size and short limbs dachshunds are, of
course, extremely slow, but they have a keen scent, coupled with great perseverance
THE DACHSHUND (% nat. size).
and endurance, and therefore make admirable hounds. From its somewhat
squeaky voice the dachshund has been regarded as more nearly related to the
terriers than the hounds, but there is no doubt that its place is among the latter.
In addition to badger-hunting, dachshunds are also employed in Germany in fox-
hunting, as well as in driving game, more especially roe-deer, which require to
be driven with great care and quietness in order to prevent them breaking back
through the line of beaters.
That the various breeds of pointers are descended from the hound
was first clearly indicated by Youatt. The disposition to “point”
appears to be due to the results of training; and although other dogs have been
taught to point, in no case do they assume the rigid condition so especially
characteristic of the pointer. Indeed, in some of the old Spanish and French
pointers, so intensely was this characteristic developed that the animals assumed a
kind of cataleptic condition; and “Stonehenge” mentions that he has known some
of them remain on the “point” for hours, until absolutely exhausted. Moreover,
Pointer.
such dogs would frequently make “ points” at imaginary game.
DOMESTIC DOGS. 537
The pointer differs from the hounds in hunting by “body-scent” instead of
by “foot-scent.” The most ancient breed appears to have been the old Spanish
pointer, which stood relatively high on the legs, and had a heavy clumsy head,
with a long, wide, and squared nose, pendulous upper lips, with ears nearly as large
as those of the bloodhound, and a massive throat and distinct dewlap. This
pointer was of a surly disposition, slow in pace, and apt to give chase to hares.
His redeeming point was, however, his marvellous perception of scent, and the
perseverance with which he would work his game. The Portuguese pointer is of
rather shorter build, with badly-formed legs and feet, and a long and fully-fringed
tail, and displays the same faults of character as the Spanish breed. The French
pointer is distinguished by the presence of a furrow between the nostrils, which
renders its sense of smell less acute. It is, however, a better shaped and more
active dog than either
of the two preceding
breeds, with more
power for hard work,
but quarrelsome and
given to hare-chas-
ing. The modern
English pointer is
the lightest and best-
shaped dog of the
whole group, and is
believed to have been
derived from the
Spanish breed, with
some intercrossing’
either directly with
the greyhound or in-
directly through the
foxhound.
This breed is characterised by its compact and well-knit build, sloping
shoulders, straight muscular limbs, and spirited action. The head is. still
relatively large, but the pendulous upper lips, dewlap, and the heaviness of
the throat have been lost. The nose should be long, broad, and square in
front. The eyes are moderately large, soft, and intelligent, the colour varying
from buff to dark brown. ~ SSS ~
blue,” owing to @yee BESS SSS NG SSSSSS
the mixture of dark fan) SANA AAA ip LNA KATA
eS Ns VPP i
with lght hairs,
while tan occupies
the same parts as in the black-and-tan terrier.
Under the title of English terriers may be included the short-
YORKSHIRE TERRIER.
English Terrier. 2 : : 5
haired dogs commonly known as the black-and-tan terrier, with its
diminutive representatives the toy terrier and the white terrier. The black-and-
VOL. I.—35
546 CARNIVORES.
tan, or Manchester terrier, is too well known to require any description. It is of
about the same average size as the fox-terrier, varying in weight from some 10
or 12 to as much as 18 lbs. Especial attention is paid to the coloration of this
terrier, the black being required to be of jetty fulness, and sharply defined from
the tan, which
should be of a rich
mahogany. The tan
should occupy a spot
over each eye, and
another on the
cheek, as well as
the sides of the
jaws backwards to
the lower parts of
the cheeks, ending
on the throat. It
should also occupy
all the under-parts,
the inner sides of
the ears, a spot on
= each side of the
TERRIERS: chest, the whole of
the inner sides of
the limbs, their outer sides as far as the wrist and ankle-joints, and the whole of
the feet, with the exception of a narrow line of black along each toe. The black-
and-tan toy terrier is merely a diminutive derivative from the Manchester terrier.
It should not exceed 6 Ibs. in weight, and is most prized when it only weighs 34 or 4
lbs., if it at the same time exhibits perfect symmetry. The white English terrier is
a less well-known breed, having the same general characteristics as the Manchester
terrier, but of a pure opaque white colour, with dark eyes, nose, and claws.
Although very different in appearance to the typical represen-
tatives of that group, the poodle, which is perhaps the cleverest of
all dogs, and the one most apt to learn tricks, is included among the terriers.
The general appearance is so well known, and is likewise so truthfully por-
trayed in our illustration, that it will be unnecessary to refer to it. There are
several strains, differing mainly from one another in size; the usual colours being
either black or white, or a mixture of the two. The coat should resemble
astrakan, but may incline more to a silky or to a woolly nature in the different
strains. When clipped it should present a satiny sheen. Both on the Continent
and in England the poodle is clipped to a greater or less degree; but whereas
abroad the coat is permitted to grow in winter, in England the clipping is too
often continued at all seasons. In England and Russia the poodle is treated solely
as a companion and house-dog; but in France and Germany it is employed as a
sporting-dog, and is the constant out-door companion of the farmer. It is an
excellent water-dog, diving well, and seldom failing to find a wounded bird in the
water; the oily nature of its coat being an admirable protection against chills. In
Poodle.
DOMESTIC DOGS. 547
retrieving on land the poodle relies fully as much on its general intelligence as on
its scent of smell, thereby resembling the Newfoundland; and it generally hunts
by casting round in circles, rather than by following a direct trail. Poodles are
generally the dogs employed in circuses as performers, and they have frequently
been taught to recognise and pick out many of the cards from a pack at the
direction of theiy masters. As a remarkable instance of intelligence, Dr. Romanes
relates a case where a poodle, having on one occasion conducted his master to the
larder, and been rewarded with a ame of meat, essayed to lead him again to the
ie HN
Wg
Hat i
OMAN
WHITE AND BLACK POODLES (75 Nat. size).
same spot. Being baffled in this attempt, the dog thereupon took up his master’s
hat, with which he proceeded to the larder, and lay down beneath the shelf on
which was placed the coveted joint.
maa This dog may be compared to a diminutive Skye terrier, and
should not exceed some 5 or 6 Ibs. in weight. It has a short body,
and is covered with very long and silky hair, which is of a uniform semi-trans-
parent white colour, the tail being thickly haired and carried tightly curled over
the back. The nose and roof of the mouth are black; and the hair of the
moderately long ears, as in other terriers, mingles with that of the neck,
Mexican The Mexican lap-dog is also pure white in colour, but with a
Lap-Dog. flesh-coloured nose. The hair on the head and body is moderately
long and curly, but that of the rather short tail longer and straighter. The ears
548 CARNIVORES.
are small and not pendent, and the head rounded, with the brown eyes widely
separated from one another. An apparently adult specimen of this diminutive
breed preserved in the British Museum measures only 7:1 inches from the tip of
the nose to the root of the tail.
Asiatic WiLp Dogs (Canis alpinus, deccanensis, etc. ).
| ,
With the Siberian wild dog (C. alpinus) we revert to the consideration of the
wild members of the Canide. It belongs to a small group of Asiatic species,
SIBERIAN WILD DOG (% nat. size).
distinguished from other representatives of Canis by the loss of the last molar
tooth on each side of the lower jaw, so that the total number of teetl. is forty
instead of forty-two. The group is further distinguished by the shorter muzzle
and the slightly convex profile of the face. On account of these and certain other
points of difference—more especially the presence of either twelve or fourteen teats,
instead of the usual ten—these species are frequently referred to a distinct genus,
under the name of Cyon. Another distinctive feature of these animals is the
presence of long hairs between the pads of the feet. The whole of these dogs are
in the habit of hunting in large packs, and are noticeable on account of their
courage and handsome appearance; the tail being bushy and equal in length to
about half the head and body. Since there is no doubt that they are not the
ASIATIC WILD DOGS. 549
ancestral stock of any of the domestic dogs, the name “wild dog” is to a certain
degree a misnomer.
Siberian Wild This species is an inhabitant of Northern Asia, extending from
Dog. the country from which it derives its name, at least as far southwards
as the Altai mountains, and probably still further. It may be distinguished from
the following species by the circumstance that its molar teeth, especially those of the
upper jaw, are of larger size. Like its southern cousin, the Siberian wild dog is
subject to seasonal and individual variations in the colour of its fur. In summer
it seems to be generally of a foxy-red colour, becoming darker on the back and
lighter on the under-parts and the inner surfaces of the limbs. There are, how-
ever, two skins in the British Museum characterised by their long and woolly
hair, of which the colour in one is white, and in the other a yellowish white; and
these may be presumed to indicate the winter dress.
According to Rade, the Siberian wild dog is a forest-loving animal; generally
frequenting mountains like those on the east bank of the Yenesei where forests
are abundant, but occasionally appearing on the open steppes. It is locally
distributed; and while in some localities it preys largely upon deer, in others
it is in the habit of hunting ibex. In the Altai these dogs go in troops of from
ten to fifteen, or more individuals, led by an old male; and where they hunt deer
it is generally hinds or young animals that they select for pursuit. So incessant
is their persecution of the deer that they will sometimes cause them to completely
desert certain localities; this having taken place in the year 1859 in the valley of
the Irkut.
The Indian wild dog (C. deccanensis) is perhaps the best known
member of the group, and is distinguished from the preceding species
by the smaller size of its molar teeth. Like the others, its general build is more
Indian Wild Dog.
jackal-like than wolf-like; this being especially shown by the comparative
shortness of the legs. It agrees with the Siberian species in the length of the
fur, and in the presence, at least in Himalayan examples, of a thick and woolly
under-fur. The general colour of the fur of the upper-parts is a rusty red,
varying in some specimens to a rufous, or even a light brownish grey; the under-
parts being paler. Generally the end of the tail is black, but its extreme tip may
occasionally be whitish. The young are of a uniform sooty-brown colour. A
specimen measured by Hodgson had a length of 375 inches, exclusive of the tail;
the latter measuring 141 inches with the hair and 8 inches without the same.
This wild dog is found throughout the forest-clad portions of the Himalaya, from
Kashmir to Assam, and in Gilgit, Ladak, and Eastern Tibet. Southwards of
the Himalaya, it is found in the larger forests of India, although it is
unknown in Ceylon. In inhabiting alike the forest of peninsular India and the
forest-clad regions of the Himalaya, as well as the treeless districts of Tibet, the
Indian wild dog presents an instance precisely analogous to that of the lynx,
already noticed. Hodgson, who alludes to the animal by the Himalayan name of
buansu, states that although the Indian wild dog is “not deficient in speed or
power of leaping, yet his motions all appear to be heavy, owing to the measured
uniformity of his pace. He runs in a lobbing long canter, is unapt at the double,
and upon the whole is somewhat less agile and speedy than the jackal, and very
550 CARNIVORES.
much less so than the fox. The wild dog preys both by night and day, but chiefly
by day. Six, eight, or ten unite to hunt down their victim, maintaining the chase
by their powers of smell rather than by the eye... . The buansu does not burrow
like the wolf or the fox, but reposes and breeds in the recesses and natural cavities
of the rocks.” After stating that the number in a pack may occasionally be as
many as twenty, Mr. Blanford observes that these wild dogs “live principally upon
deer of various kinds and wild pigs in India, and on wild sheep and antelopes in
, i. Ny = . =
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WW) WW a
My Ye: a ee
f =
=
neo
SS
SS
INDIAN WILD DOG ($ nat. size).
Tibet. Many sambar and spotted deer are killed by them, whilst occasionally nilgai
and Indian antelopes fall victims. Wild dogs avoid the neighbourhood of man,
and consequently but rarely attack domestic animals; occasionally, however, they
kill sheep, goats, and cattle, and Jerdon mentions one instance, and M‘Master
another, of their pulling down a tame buffalo. I came across a third case myself
in the jungles east of Bawda, and I was curious to see how so large an animal had
been destroyed. There were but a few tooth-marks about the nose and throat, and
some of the pack had evidently attacked the buffalo in front, while others tore it
open. This is probably their usual way of killing large animals; they have been
seen to snap at the flanks of a number running.” It was stated by Hodgson that
ASIAIIC WILD DOGS. 551
wild dogs are in the habit of giving tongue while hunting. This is, however,
denied both by Hamilton and Blanford; but it is affirmed that these animals are
in the habit of howling at night.
There does not appear to be any authenticated instance of the Indian wild dog
attacking human beings. In marked contrast to the wolf and the jackal, it is, if
not absolutely untamable, exceedingly difficult to render domesticated in any
degree; this of itself being a proof that it has nothing to do with the ancestry of
domestic dogs. The young in India are born in the winter, although this is
probably not the case in the higher Himalaya and Tibet. The number of cubs in
a litter is usually from two to four, but six or more have been observed. In the
Himalaya, near Simla, a breeding-place was discovered where it appeared that
several females bred in company.
By many writers the wild dog of the countries to the eastward
of the Bay of Bengal is regarded as inseparable from the Indian
form. Mr. Blanford, however, takes the opposite view, and considers that the
Malay Wild Dog.
: MALAY WILD DOG (} nat. size),
552 CARNIVORES.
Malayan wild dog is entitled to rank as a distinct species (CL rutilans). It is
smaller and slighter in build, and has slenderer limbs than its Indian relative ;
while the “brush” is smaller, and the hair of the body is short and harsh, and has
no under-fur. There is also stated to be a difference in regard to the relative length
of the flesh-tooth of the upper jaw to the two molars by which it is followed. In
colour this dog is of a deep ferruginous red above, with the individual hairs scarcely
lighter at their roots ; while the under-parts of the body are whitish. My. Blanford
gives the length of the head and body of a young male as 32} inches, and that of
the tail 12 inches. This species is found throughout the Malay peninsula, and also
in the islands of Sumatra and Java, while it has also been reported to occur in
Borneo. It is also found in Tenasserim, and has been obtained near Moulmein;
but it has yet to be determined whether the wild dog of Upper Burma belongs to
this or the preceding species. It may be suggested that in the latter district it will
be found that the specimens indicate a more or less complete transition between
the two species.
In concluding our notice of the wild dogs of this group, it may
be mentioned that remains of extinct species are found in the cavern
deposits of France and Germany. These fossil species appear to have been closely
allied to the living ones; and afford one more instance of the derivation of the
present fauna of the East from the ancient fauna of Western Europe.
Extinct Species.
THE MANED WOLF (Canis jubatus).
( i)
With the so-called maned wolf—a name which is in every respect a misnomer,
since the creature is neither distinctly maned nor a true wolf—we come to the first
of a group of South American species, which form the remaining representatives of
the wolf-like section of the family. The maned wolf, which is of about the same
size as the common wolf, differs from the rest of these South American species by
its superior size, longer legs, and shorter tail. It is placed by Professor Mivart
among the true wolves, but its appearance and habits are so different that we are
persuaded that its proper place is here.
The aguara-guazu, as this animal is termed in South America, is a long-legged
and long-eared species, with a very conspicuous coloration. The body is covered
with long and somewhat coarse hairs, which are more lengthened on the back of
the neck than elsewhere; the general colour being of a bright yellowish red.
There is, however, a black patch extending from the nape of the neck towards the
shoulders, and black is also present on the under-surface of the lower jaw. More-
over, the legs have black “stockings,” standing out conspicuously against the
general red colour of the body; while the under-surface of the upper part of the
throat, as well as the insides of the ears and the extremity of the tail are white.
The maned wolf inhabits Brazil, Paraguay, and Northern Argentina, but does
not extend as far south as the Pampas. It differs from the true wolves in being
an entirely solitary animal—never assembling in packs, and also in being
harmless to men. Generally found in moist regions, it les concealed during the
day in bushes and thickets, and does not venture forth till evening for its nocturnal
wanderings. It preys generally upon the various species of rodents which are so
SOUTH AMERICAN WILD DOGS. 553
common in South America, some of which are so swift as to elude the attacks of
domestic dogs, although they fall a ready prey to the maned wolf. Its diet is,
however, varied by birds, reptiles, insects, and even fruits; while it will sometimes
attack deer, and more rarely sheep. Owing to its nocturnal habits the maned
wolf is rarely seen in inhabited districts, but it appears that in regions remote
from human habitations it is less cautious in its habits and will issue forth during
the day-time.
OTHER SouTH AMERICAN SPECIES (Canis azarae, etc.).
ae The comparatively small and fox-like species known as Azara's
dog (C. azar), is the best known of several South American species
in regard to the nomenclature of which there has been much confusion. This dog
differs from all the species yet noticed by its fox-like appearance, this being
especially shown by its long body, short legs, large ears, and long bushy tail. If,
however, we were to assume from this that the creature was nearly related to the
European fox, we should be in error, since it has a skull agreeing with those of the
wolves and jackals, and quite unlike those of the true foxes, which are unknown
in South America. This species is found from Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, and also
on the western side of the Andes in Chili and elsewhere. It is true, indeed, that
there is great variation in the colour of specimens from different regions, on which
account a number of nominal species have been determined; but these’ are all
regarded by Professor Mivart as local races of one species. It likewise appears
that there is a considerable amount of seasonal variation in the colour and length
of the fur in the same individuals; the hairs being longer and greyer in winter
than in summer, while those on the back tend to blackness, and those on the face
to a greyish brown instead of a yellowish grey tint during the former season.
In the average form the colour of the sides of the body is grey, while the
longer hairs of the back are black-and-white, with black patches on the shoulders,
the middle of the body and the rump; the limbs being fulvous externally, and of
a pale yellowish tint internally. The under-parts of the body and the inner sides
of the thighs are whitish. There is also some white on the upper lip, and on the
chest, as well as on the inner sides of the ears; the outer sides of the latter being
yellowish, with black tips. The tail, like the back, is mottled with black-and-white
throughout the greater part of its length, but the end is black. White specimens
have occasionally been observed.
Mr. W. H. Hudson speaks of Azara’s dog as being purely fox-like in its habits,
and common everywhere in Argentina, where it inhabits the open Pampas. In
Paraguay, on the other hand, according to Rengger, it dwells in jungle-clad
districts, from which during the night it roams on the one side into the dense
forests, and on the other into the open country. Its main food consists of small
mammals and birds, but it will not refuse lizards; and it displays a marked
partiality for sugar-cane, doing great damage, by the number of canes it destroys
without eating them. In hunting, this dog runs with its nose close to the ground,
after the manner of a foxhound, but will at times raise its head to the wind. For
the greater part of the year Azara’s dog is a solitary animal, but during the winter
554 CARNIVORES.
pairs of males and females go together. The young are born in the spring, and
generally comprise from three to four in a litter. The lair may be formed either
beneath the cover of a thick bush, or in the deserted hole of another animal, such
as an armadillo, but it does not appear that the aguarachay (as this species is
termed in South America) ever burrows for itself.
A tify
14 iS
yi
S
\
bf CC ———
Wi “Lt a
AZARA’S DOG.
AR The crab-eating dog (C. canerivorus), is a rather larger species
than the last, sometimes attaining a considerable size; and having a
relatively shorter muzzle and tail. It inhabits the regions from Guiana and
Demerara to La Plata, although said to be unknown on the Pampas. The colour
is subject to great individual variation, but according to Mivart its pervading
tint may be either a uniform light reddish grey, or darker and mottled. It
may have a black back and bright red legs, or may be a dull grey, with very
little black, or grey with a very black back. The most normal tint seems to be a
brownish grey above, with the crown of the head, sides of the body, and outside
of the limbs slightly or strongly rufous. There is generally more or less black on
the back and the upper surface of the tail, while the end of the tail is always
black. The reddish brown ears have not the black tips of the preceding species.
The carasissi, as this dog is called in some parts, is a forest or jungle-dwelling
species, feeding not only upon rodents and birds but likewise upon crustaceans,
RACCOON-DOG. 555
and thus earning its common English title. It is stated that these animals will
collect in packs and run down and kill deer; and they do much damage to poultry
in inhabited districts. Although when hunting in the woods they follow their
prey by scent, it is stated that when in the open they hunt by sight.
The largest and handsomest of the South American fox-like
species, is the colpeo (C. magellanicus), from Tierra del Fuego and
Chili. This is somewhat superior in size to the largest individuals of the preceding
species, from which it is distinguished by its longer and more pointed nose, and the
great length of the more bushy tail. The coloration is, moreover, generally of a
more decidedly reddish hue. Like the other species, there is considerable individual
variation both as regards the colour and length of the fur. Generally, however,
the sides of the body are brownish grey, while the back is mottled with black, and
_the limbs are more or less rufous: the cheeks, throat, under surface of the lower
jaw, and the under-parts being yellowish-white. The ears are dark externally ;
while the bushy tail is of a light reddish grey, except the tip and a patch on the
upper surface near the root, which are black. The colpeo, as Darwin remarks,
inhabits alike the moist forests of Tierra del Fuego and the arid deserts of Northern
Chili. It is very destructive to poultry; and, though to a large extent nocturnal,
may frequently be seen during the daytime.
Our knowledge of the very remarkable species known as the
short-eared dog (C. microtis) is limited to a single specimen, formerly
exhibited in the London Zoological Society's Gardens, and believed to have come
from the valley of the Amazon. This animal was about the size of medium
individuals of the crab-eating dog, measuring 42 inches in total length, of which
12 are occupied by the tail, and standing about 14 inches at the shoulder. It
differs from the other members of the family, except the next, by its short and
rounded ears, which communicate to the face a physiognomy quite different from
that of all other wild dogs. It is further noticeable for its coloration, the fur
being short and thick and generally of a dark iron-grey hue, the individual hairs
being black at the tips and white near their roots. The limbs and bushy tail are
nearly black, but the latter has a curious white patch on the under surface near
the root. The ears and snout are rufous.
Colpeo.
Short-Eared Dog.
THE Raccoon-Doe (Canis procyonoides).
This curiously-coloured and short-eared species is an undoubted dog, and comes
nearest to the South American forms described above. It receives its title from a
supposed resemblance to a raccoon, but it must be confessed that it requires a
considerable amount of imagination to see the likeness. The raccoon-dog inhabits
Japan, China, and Amurland, and is characterised by the sharp and _ pointed
muzzle, the short rounded ears, the rather short and bushy tail, and the great
length of its fur, more especially during the winter. There is much individual
variation in colour, the prevailing tints being dusky-yellow and black, but the
proportions in which the two occur differing greatly. Black is, however, always
present on the cheeks and around the eyes, extending forwards to the muzzle,
where there is a white spot below the nose on each side. The sides of the head
556 CARNIVORES.
are yellowish, and the forehead may be either of the same colour or blackish.
The ears have brown margins, but are white internally, and sometimes partially
so externally. The chin and front of the neck are brown, but, as in the
specimen on the right side of our illustration, a yellowish colour may extend
backwards towards the shoulders. The whole of the back has fur varying from a
mixture of black-and-yellow to nearly black, the individual hairs always having long
black tips. On the sides, the ends of the hair are yellowish ; and the chest and under-
parts vary from brown to nearly black, while the limbs are blackish brown. The
tail, on which the hairs are long and pendent, is frequently black above and at its
THE RACCOON-DOG (4 nat. size).
extremity, while below it may be light yellow. The raccoon-dog is chiefly a
nocturnal animal, dwelling in summer in the wood-clad mountains, and in winter
descending to the neighbourhood of the river valleys, where it is said, when in
good condition, to hibernate. In Amurland, where it does not hibernate, it feeds
largely on fish during the winter, reposing during the day in the thick sedges
of the river banks. The asserted hibernation of this animal is a remarkable
feature, since no other member of the family takes a winter sleep. The hiber-
nation is said to take place in the deserted burrow of a fox, or some other
animal; but it can also construct an earth of its own. The individuals which
do not hibernate may be seen in winter crossing the ice-bound rivers in a
succession of short jumps. The raccoon-dog is far from wary, and as it is almost
~S eens
FOXES. 557
omnivorous in its food, is easily killed by means of strychnine. The fish which
forms its favourite diet in winter is a kind of carp; while in summer the chief food
consists of mice, which are pursued either in small companies or family parties.
Fruit also forms a portion of its diet. It does little or no damage to poultry ; and
in Japan has been known to make its winter lair beneath the walls of a house.
Both its fur and its flesh are held in high estimation by the Japanese.
THE Foxes (Canis vulpes, etc.).
One of the characteristics by which the skulls of the wolves and the other
members of the dog family described above may be distinguished from those of
the foxes has been mentioned on p. 496. To this it may be added that the frontal
bones of the skulls of the former group are inflated by internal air-chambers, which
are wanting in those of the latter. Moreover, the pupil of the eye, when contracted,
is circular in the wolves, jackals, and domestic dogs, whereas in the foxes it is
elliptical. Some of the fox-hke South American species of the former resemble,
however, foxes in this respect, as they do in external form to a more or less
marked degree. On account of these intermediate forms, we cannot agree with
those who refer the foxes to a distinct genus, although they differ from all other
members of the family in having but six teats. Foxes are characterised by their
slight build, their long bushy tails, which are nearly always considerably more
than half the length of the head and body, and short limbs; while they generally
have large ears. All the members of the group are chiefly nocturnal in their
habits, hiding in holes or burrows made by themselves, or in ravines, or amongst
grass or bushes during the day. They are, as a rule, solitary, and rarely if ever
associate in numbers as other Canidw do. All the species are more or less
insectivorous and
frugivorous; but the
more tropical forms
appear to live on
insects more than
do those which in-
habit temperate
climates. All are
highly intelligent
and famous for cun-
ning. The group
is distributed over
North America, Asia, SKELETON OF FOX.
Europe, and Africa,
but is unknown in South America. The smaller African species are distinguished
by the inordinate length of their ears.
Probably every Englishman thinks he knows the common fox
sufficiently well to run no risk of confounding it with any other
animal; and if our observations were confined to the ordinary foxes of Europe we
should have no great difficulty in deciding that they might be included under one
Common Fox.
558 CARNIVORES.
name, although even among these there is a considerable amount of variation in
size and colour. When we take into consideration the larger foxes of North
America and India, we find a number of forms which, while approximating more
or less to the British animal, yet differ so remarkably in coloration that it is at first
sight hard to believe that they all belong to the same species; but the researches of
zoologists have shown that all these various modifications pass more or less
completely into the coloration of the typical European fox, and must be regarded
as mere local varieties of that widely-spread species.
Including, then, all these varieties under one title, the common fox has a more
extensive distribution than any other member of the entire family; its range
embracing the whole of Europe and Asia, north of and including the Himalaya,
from Iceland to Japan; and also comprising North America from Hudson’s Bay
and Labrador to the latitude of Northern Mexico, and Africa north of the Saharz
and Sudan. The size of the fox, according to Mivart, is subject to such an amount
of variation—that if the length of the head and body of a specimen at one end of
the series be represented by 100, that of the one at the other will be equivalent to
170. The length of the tail and ears is, however, much less variable.
The ordinary English fox, as represented in our coloured Plate, is of a reddish
brown colour above, and white beneath, while the outer surfaces of the ears, and
portions of those of the limbs are black, and the extreme tip of the tail is white.
Occasionally, however, the tip of the tail may be dark grey, or even black, while
in one specimen caught in Warwickshire, the whole of the under-parts were
greyish black. The total length of the head and body may vary from 27 to 46
inches, and that of the tail from 12 to 15 inches.
In Southern Europe, black-bellied foxes are far from uncommon, and connect
the ordinary form with the Himalayan variety, which has a somewhat similar
coloration, and is altogether a paler animal than the English fox. In its long
winter dress, the Himalayan fox (which is generally smaller than the English),
is a strikingly handsome animal, with the fur of the back varying from chestnut
to dull rufous, more or less speckled with yellow, to a dark iron grey. Frequently
there is a dark stripe across the shoulder, bordered with buff patches in front and
behind; while the hinder parts of the back and thighs are greyer and more
speckled with white, the sides paler, and the under-parts varying from cream-
colour to nearly black. The throat and chest, with the exception of a white spot
in the centre of the latter, are frequently darker than the under-parts of the body,
in which the dusky area may be confined to a streak along the middle. Like the
English fox, the outer sides of the ears are black, and the tip of the tail is white;
but the limbs have little or no black, and the general colour of the tail is greyish,
with a more or less marked rufous tinge. The face is rufous, with a black spot
below the eyes; while the cheeks are whitish. Very different is, however, the
appearance of the animal in summer, after the loss of its long winter coat, when
the dark under-fur communicates a greyish brown tinge to the back, while the
sides are paler and the under-parts nearly white. This variety is found in the
Western Himalaya, from Nipal and Kashmir to Gilgit. In the higher Himalaya,
Tibet, and probably Afghanistan, it is, however, replaced by another and larger
variety which extends over the greater part of Central Asia. This large Central
FOXES. 359
Asian fox is a paler-coloured and yellower animal as a rule, with very thick fur,
and a superb brush. The Japanese fox is somewhat variable in colour, but has
been declared to present no points of specific distinction; and the same holds good
for the foxes of Siberia and China. The North African fox, which has also been
considered a distinct species, must likewise be regarded merely as a variety.
Acierican This disposes of the foxes of this group found in the Old World,
Varieties. and we turn to those of North America, where there is a greater
range of variation in colour and markings. These American foxes have received
distinct names, according to their coloration. Among these, the so-called red fox is
usually of a reddish yellow colour, with the hinder part of the back grizzled, the
throat, and more or less of the under-parts white, the outer surfaces of the ears
ARCTIC FOXES ON THE ICE.
black, and the tail, except at the white tip, with black extremities to the hairs. The
cross-fox, as its name implies, is characterised by the presence of a transverse dark
stripe across the shoulders, and of another running down the middle of the back.
The tail is darker than in the red fox, while the legs, muzzle, and under-parts, are
nearly or completely black. The beautiful silver, or black fox, of which the fur is
so highly valued, is usually nearly or entirely black, with the exception of the tip
of the tail, which is generally white. It derives its name from the grey rings
usually marking the otherwise black hairs of the hinder half of the back, the head,
and the thighs, which communicate the peculiar silvery lustre to the fur. Indi-
viduals may, however, be met with, in which the fur is either completely black or
completely grey. That the red fox and the cross fox are undoubtedly a single
species is conclusively proved by a statement of Audubon to the effect that both
varieties may be found in a single litter of cubs. While the red and cross varieties
560 CARNIVORES.
are characteristic of the eastern districts of the United States, the far rarer
silver fox is a northern form, a large number of its skins coming from the upper
reaches of the Mississippi, aud the districts to the north-west of the Missouri
River.
So much has been written about the habits of the English fox
that our remarks on this subject will be brief. Although the fox is
by no means averse to taking possession of the deserted burrow of a rabbit or a
badger, it generally excavates its own “earth,” in which it spends a considerable
portion of its time. As all hunters know, foxes, however, frequently prefer to
live out in the woods, those with a northern aspect being, it is said, generally
avoided. Sometimes these animals will prefer a thick hedgerow, or a dry ditch,
while we have known them to select the tall tussocks of coarse grass in swampy
Habits,
AN INTERESTING DISCOVERY.
meadows as a resting-place; and they have also been found in straw-ricks, where
it is on record that in one instance the cubs have been born. The breeding-time
is in April, and the usual number of young in a litter is from four to six. The
prey of the fox consists, writes Bell, “of hares, rabbits, various kinds of ground
birds, particularly partridges, of which it destroys great numbers; and it often
makes its way into the farm-yard, committing sad havoc among the poultry. It
has been known not unfrequently to carry off a young lamb. When other food
fails the fox will, however, have recourse to rats and mice, and even frogs and
worms; while on occasion beetles are largely consumed, and, on the sea-shore, fish,
crabs, and molluses form a part of its diet. Carrion seems never to come amiss ;
while the old story of the fox and the grapes alludes to the fruit-eating propensities
of these animals.” The usual ery of the fox ig a yelping bark. The well-known
FOXES. 561
scent of the fox is secreted by a gland situated beneath the tail. The cunning
displayed by English foxes in escaping from hounds has been so often described,
that we shall make no further allusion to it here, beyond saying that it has
probably attained its present development as the result of the inherited experience
of many generations.
That the fox is an ancient inhabitant of the British Islands is proved by the
occurrence of its fossilised remains in caverns in company with those of the
mammoth and other extinct animals. This, however, is not all, for a skull, in-
distinguishable from that of a large English fox, has been dug up from the sands
lying at the top of the Red Cray of Suffolk, which are vastly older than the
mammoth period.
A very different animal from the red American variety of the
common fox is the grey fox (C. virginianus) of North America,
which is regarded by Professor Mivart as exhibiting some approximation to the
Grey Fox.
5 = N\A \\ = r s
\ we AE WN a\ YAN tH Se 27
= s ) NHI \ | NY 3 ly ft
THE GREY FOX (3 nat. size).
fox-like South American species described above. It is a considerably smaller
animal than the average European fox; and is characterised by the grizzled grey
colour of the top of the head and the upper part of the body; in marked contrast
to which is the rufous tint of the fur of the sides of the throat and body and the
limbs. The upper-surface of the tail is dusky, while below it is chestnut; its
extremity being dark, and there being also a dark patch near its root, connected
with a dark mark running along the back. The chin is black, as is a spot on each
side between the nose and the eye; the outer surfaces of the ears are rusty red;
the middle of the throat is nearly or quite white; while the under-parts of the
body are yellowish white. The grey or, as it is often called, the Virginian fox, is
found from the United States to Central America.
VOL. I.—36
562 CARNIVORES.
Dr. Ellzey, when contrasting the habits of the grey fox with the red American
variety of the common species, observes that the two animals differ very widely
in these respects. “So far as my personal observations inform me,” he says,
“the following are some of the principal distinctions. First, as to reproduction,
the red fox nearly always brings forth its young in an earth den, the grey fox
generally in a hollow log or tree, or, at most, under a rock. The last one I found
with her young was a grey. The young, only a few hours old, were in the hollow
stump of an old rotten tree, broken off about five feet high. As I came up, the old
one jumped out of the top of the stump, and ran off. I looked down the hole, and
saw at the bottom five young ones, scarcely dry. I have seldom seen a grey with
more than five, and often with only four young. I never found a red with less
than five. I have seen one with nine, and several with seven. I think it certain,
therefore, that the reds are more prolific. Second, as to hunting for prey and
subsistence. The reds are bolder in pursuit, and hunt over a much greater territory
than the greys. Whether the greys ever climb trees in pursuit of prey I am
uncertain, but they take to a tree as readily as a cat when run hard by hounds. I
think it nearly certain that they climb for persimmons and grapes. Red foxes
never climb trees under any circumstances; when hard run they go to earth.
Grey foxes run before hounds only a short distance, doubling constantly and for
a short time, when they either hole in a tree, or climb one. I have known the red
fox to run straight away nearly twenty miles. Very commonly they run eight or
ten miles away, and then run back in a parallel course. I have known them to run
the four sides of a quadrilateral, nine or ten miles long by about two miles broad.
It is doubtful whether a first-rate specimen of the red fox, taken at his best in
point of condition, can either be killed or run to earth by any pack of hounds
living, such are his matchless speed and endurance. It is but a sorry pack which
fails to kill or tree a grey fox in an hour’s run. The young of the grey fox closely
resemble small blackish puppies; those of the red fox are distinctly vulpine in
physiognomy when only a few hours old.”
The smallest and prettiest of the North American species is the
kit fox (C. velox), which derives its Latin name from its extraordinary
fleetness. In this fox the length of the head and body is only 24 inches, and that
of the tail, without the hair, 9 inches. The animal is characterised by the shortness
and stoutness of its limbs, standing relatively lower than the common fox, and also
by the bushy tail being less than half the length of the body. The thickly-furred
ears are also relatively shorter than in the common fox. Another distinctive
character is the length and abundance of the under-fur, which is often visible
externally, and also by the long hairs clothing the soles of the feet. In colour the
kit fox is somewhat variable, but a specimen described and figured by Professor
Mivart has the back and tail dark grey, mingled with black-and-white hairs, the
tip of the tail black, the cheeks, shoulders, flanks, and the outer surfaces of the
limbs rufous, and the under-parts white. The kit fox is confined to North-Western
America, where it inhabits open treeless districts, constructing its own burrows in
the ground. It was formerly abundant on the plains of Columbia, and also in those
lying between the Saskatchewan and the Missouri rivers, but it has of late years
considerably decreased in numbers.
Kit Fox.
FOXES. 563
Widely different from all the other species is the Arctic fox (C.
lagopus), characterised by the difference between its summer and
winter dress, as well as by certain peculiarities in its form and habits. This
species, Which appears to inhabit nearly the whole of the known Arctic lands,
descending in America to latitude 50°, and in the Old World to 60°, has a less
pointed muzzle, and much shorter and more rounded ears than any other fox, while
the hinder-parts of the cheeks are bordered with a kind of ruff of long hairs, and
the soles of the feet are covered with a thick coat of woolly hair, which is most
developed in winter. In the summer dress the hair is of moderate length, and is
frequently of a brown or dull rufous colour on the head, back, outer sides of the
limbs and tail; the under-parts being yellowish white. The under-fur is bluish
Arctic Fox.
ARCTIC FOX IN SUMMER DRESS ($ nat. size).
grey, and the roots of the long hairs are also of the same tint; and when this
bluish grey extends farther up the hairs than usual the general colour of the fur
is of the same hue. In other cases, as in the accompanying illustration, the whole
of the upper-parts and the outer sides of the limbs are bluish grey, while the flanks
and under-parts are almost white.
With the assumption of the winter dress the fur becomes longer and thicker,
and the white hairs which are scattered through the summer coat gradually increase
in number, at the same time as the tips of the other hairs become white, until
the whole length of each hair is of that colour. The animal is then completely
clad in white, the naked tip of the nose being, however, black, while in certain
cases the extremity of the tail may also be black. A specimen in the pure white
winter dress is represented in the foreground of our second illustration. This
winter change of colour is, however, by no means of constant occurrence; grey
hairs sometimes largely mingling with the white, while at other times the prevalent
hue of the fur is a uniform bluish grey, as shown in the upper figure of our second
564 CARNIVORES.
illustration. Moreover, occasionally, pure white foxes are to be met with in summer.
In Iceland, where the winter is less severe than in the more northerly regions, the
winter dress of the Arctic fox is nearly similar to the summer one, so that these
animals are “blue” at all seasons.
The assumption of a white dress im winter is in order to assimilate the colour
of the animal to that of the snow-fields among which it dwells, and it is somewhat
difficult to understand why the change does not invariably take place in the more
ARCTIC FOX, IN WINTER DRESS (< nat. size).
northern regions. The hair clothing the soles of the feet is to aid the creature in
obtaiming a sure foothold on frozen snow and ice.
According to Richardson, Arctic foxes, which were formerly abundant on the
shores of Hudson’s Bay, dwelt there in small colonies of from twenty to thirty
burrows each. During the autumn and winter such of these foxes as inhabit the
more northern districts of Arctic America undertake a southerly migration, keeping
as much as possible to the coasts, and the length of the migration depending to a
considerable extent whether the line of the coast coincides with the line of march.
The Arctic fox preys largely upon birds, especially upon various members of the
auk family, as we learn from Professor A. Newton, who writes, that “the Arctic
fox is pretty numerous along the shores of the Ice Sound [Spitzbergen]; and we
not only frequently saw examples of it, but in the immediate neighbourhood of the
FOXES. 565
cliffs wherein the Alcid@ were nesting one could, by listening almost at any time in
the twenty-four hours, hear its yapping bark. It is of course the chief enemy of all
the different kinds of birds, and their dread of it appears to influence them greatly
in their choice of breeding quarters. What the foxes do to get a living in winter,
when the birds have left the country, is one of the most curious questions that has
presented itself to my mind for some time. The greater number of them are said
to remain on the land and to be as active during the long polar night as they are
in summer; yet there are no berries by which they might eke out their existence,
and there can be no open water, on the margin of which they might find food
within miles of their haunts. The most natural explanation that occurs to one is
that they lay up a stock of provisions; but nobody, that I am aware of, has ever
found such a store-closet.”. Not only does this fox prey upon the Arctic birds
themselves, but it also robs their eggs. Dr. Packard, when describing his experiences
in Northern Labrador, writes that on a certain day “I started up a blue fox, which
was running towards me with a murre’s [guillemot’s] egg in his mouth; on my
throwing a stone at him he dropped his egg and scampered off. I hallooed for
nearly ten minutes for some one with a gun to come and shoot him, and kept him
in sight. With more of curiosity than fear he would stop at intervals to look at
me, keeping a safe distance off and barking, until he disappeared. Soon Mr. W.
came up; we pursued, finding him on the other side of the island, with another egg
in his mouth. Mr. W. gave him his death-wound, though he ran some distance
with the egg between his teeth before he dropped dead. His flanks and belly were
white, the rest of a slate-blue colour, his legs very long, and tail long though not
very bushy. The more remarkable features were his short, rounded ears, as if
cropped.” It is not, however, by any means solely on birds and their eggs that the
Arctic fox subsists, as in some districts it also preys largely upon the small Rodents
known as lemmings. In one district during the Arctic Expedition of 1875, under
Sir G. 8S. Nares, numbers of dead lemmings were discovered which had been killed
by these foxes, and hordes of lemmings were pulled out from the crannies of the
rocks, which had been collected by the foxes as a winter provision ; thus confirming
Professor Newton's suggestion as to the probable manner in which these animals
subsist in winter.
With the desert-fox (C. leucopus) of South-Western Asia we
revert to the foxes of the temperate and tropical regions of the Old
World. ‘This species is considerably smaller than the common fox, the length of
the head and body varying from 19 to 22 inches, and that of the tail from 12 to
16 inches. It agrees, however, with that species in having a small white tip to the
tail, as it also does in the dark-coloured ears. Moreover, when the full tints are
developed, this animal is more strikingly coloured than the common species,
Desert-Fox.
although there is a considerable amount of individual variation in this respect.
When fully coloured, the fur of the back varies from brownish yellow to rusty
red, and there is usually a distinct pale patch on each side of the back behind the
shoulders, in front of which is a dark transverse stripe across them. The sides
are lighter, while the under-parts generally vary from slaty-grey to blackish,
the chin, and generally a spot on the chest, being white. In summer the dark
under-fur is seen through the ordinary hairs, and the whole colour is greyer, the
566 CARNIVORES.
under-parts being then nearly white. This species is found throughout most of
the sandy and more or less desert regions on the western side of India, and also
extends into Baluchistan, Afghanistan, probably Persia, Arabia, and most likely
other districts of South-Western Asia. It is essentially a desert-hunting species,
and in India appears to live chiefly on the gerbils so common in the same sandy
regions.
In the deserts of Central Asia the preceding species is replaced
by the corsac fox (C. corsac), distinguished by its general paler
colour, white under-parts, and the black tip to the tail, the shoulder-spots and
stripe of the desert-fox being also wanting. The two are, however, evidently very
closely allied, and Professor Mivart suggests that they may prove to be local
Corsac Fox.
THE CORSAC FOX (4 nat. size).
varieties of one species. The range of the corsac extends from the banks of the
Volga and the shores of the Caspian Sea to the south-eastern parts of Siberia ;
while eastwards it is doubtless continued into China, although its limits in this
direction, as well as to the northward, are unknown. It has been obtained from
Amurland. Like the desert-fox, the corsac is entirely restricted to open and more
or less desert regions. It preys largely on small rodents, such as voles, picas, and
the like, and is chiefly nocturnal. It does not appear that it makes a burrow for
itself, generally tenanting the deserted hole of a marmot, which it leaves after a
time for that of another. The corsae is soon run down by dogs, and when tracked
to its lair through the snow in winter is said to remain below, and rather than
bolt perish from hunger.
The little-known Tibetan fox (C. ferrilatus), from the neighbourhood of
Lhasa, is another nearly-allied small species, distinguished by the relatively shorter
ears being pale rufous instead of dark-coloured ; the tip of the tail being white.
FOXES. 5 6 |
The pretty little Indian fox (C. bengalensis), which, with the
exception of an allied species, is the smallest of the true foxes,
and is familiar to all who have resided in India, being often to be seen in the early
morning close to the fort at Caleutta. The Indian fox, known like the other
species in its native country by the name of lumri, measures only 20 inches from
the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, while the length of the tail varies from
13 to 14 inches. The tail is thus shorter in proportion to the head and body than
in the common fox, and the limbs are characterised by their slenderness. Although
subject to the usual variation characteristic of the foxes, the general colour of
the fur of this species is grey, with a more or less marked reddish tinge, there
being no cross band on the shoulders, and the tip of the tail black, while the
ears are grey. This black tip to the tail, coupled with the small size of the
animal, at once distinguishes this species from all the other foxes inhabiting
India proper.
This fox is to be met with everywhere in India, except where there is thick
forest ; but it does not occur to the westward of the Punjab nor to the eastward of
Assam, while its reported occurrence in Ceylon is more than doubtful. Its ery is
a short yelping bark, quickly repeated three or four times. It is by no means shy,
and I have shot one which had walked boldly up to within gun-shot range of my
camp. Sir W. Elliot writes that “its principal food is rats, land-crabs, grasshoppers,
beetles, ete. On one occasion a half-devoured mango was found in the stomach.
It always burrows in the open plains, runs with great speed, doubling like a hare;
but instead of striking out at first ike that animal, and trusting to its turns as a
last resource, the fox turns more at first, and if it can fatigue the dogs then goes
straight away.” Jerdon states that “the burrow which this fox makes has always
several openings converging towards the centre, some of them blind, others leading
towards a larger central one where the animal breeds. This is often two or three
feet below the surface. The burrow is usually situated quite in the open plain,
now and then in some thorny scrub. In alluvial plains the fox takes advantage of
any small rise in the ground to prevent its den being flooded in the rains, and its
burrow is frequently found in the dams of tanks and other artificial mounds. I
have on two occasions run foxes to holes in old trees, which, from the marks
round one of them, had evidently been occupied by the animal for long. Lizards
are a favourite food with the fox, as well as rats, crabs, various insects, white
ants, ete.”
On account of not possessing the strong scent of its European relative, the
Indian fox is but little hunted with hounds. It is, however, frequently coursed
with greyhounds, when, from its numerous doubles, it gives a good run; pure-bred
English greyhounds are, however, too fleet to give good sport, and either half-bred
or Arabian or Persian dogs are in consequence generally employed. According to
Jerdon, when the animal is going slowly or hunting for food, the tail is trailed on
the ground; when running, it is stretched out horizontally; while during the
doubling it is raised erect. The young are almost invariably four in number at a
birth, and are produced during February, March, and April. The Indian fox is
easily tamed, and in this state is more agreeable than most other foxes, owing to
the absence of odour.
Indian Fox.
568 CARNIVORES.
This fox (C. canus) is a still smaller species inhabiting Balu-
chistan and the southern parts of Afghanistan, and at present known
in Europe by only three specimens. The length of the head and body is only
18 inches, and that of the unusually long tail from 15 to 16 inches. It is distin-
guished from the preceding species by the more ashy-grey tinge of its fur,
Hoary Fox.
LoNG-EARED Foxes (Canis chama, zerda, ete.).
The South African asse fox (C. chama) is the first of a group of four species
from Africa, two of these being characterised by the extreme length of their ears.
It is somewhat smaller than the common fox, but it has considerably longer ears,
and therefore appears to form a kind of transition from the true foxes towards
the fennees. It is a yellowish-coloured animal, with some black hairs mingled
with the light fur of the back, a black tip to the tail, and some chestnut splashes
on the snout. It inhabits both sides of the Orange River in great and _ little
Namaqualand, and extends eastwards to Kimberley.
This fox (C. pallidus) may be distinguished at a glance from the
preceding, not only by its much smaller size, but likewise by its
longer ears and the thinness of the tail. The general colour is a pale yellow, with
Pale Fox.
a faint tinge of red; the tail having many black hairs among the lighter fur, a
small dark spot on the upper-surface near the root, and a small black tip. In its
smaller size and longer ears, this species approaches still closer to the fennecs. It
comes from East and West Africa, having been obtained from Senegambia and
Nubia and Kordofan.
Riippell’s fennee (C. famelicus) is distinguished from all the
species hitherto noticed by the great length of its ears, although these
are proportionately smaller than in the true fennec. It is a smaller animal than
the pale fox, the length of the head and body being about 19 inches, and that of the
tail 95 inches; while the ears measure just over 3 inches in length. This fox has
Riippell’s Fennec.
a fawn-coloured head, reddish back, shoulders, and tail, greyish sides, and nearly
white under-parts ; but as it can be so easily recognised by its ears, it is unnecessary
to devote further attention to its colouring. Riippell’s fennee was originally
obtained from the Nubian deserts, but either this or a closely-allied species occurs
in Syria and parts of Persia, as well as in Afghanistan.
The last and smallest representative of the genus Canis is the
pretty little North African fennee (C. zerda), in which the total
length of the head and body is only just over 154 inches, the tail measuring 63
inches, and the ears being at least 3 inches in length, and sometimes even more.
Common Fennec.
The ears, being wide in proportion to their length, are of enormous size compared
to the head, and thus communicate a remarkable physiognomy to the animal. The
general colour of the fur of the upper-parts of the fennee varies from a pale fawn
to buff, the under-parts being white, and the tip of the tail black; while there may
be black markings on the upper part of the latter near its root. On the forehead
and round the eyes the fur is nearly white; while the outer surfaces of the ears
are rufous, and their inner margins have some long and nearly white hairs.
Sometimes there is a black mark in the middle of the hinder-part of the back.
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HIUNTING-DOG. 569
The fennec is confined to Northern Africa, ranging from Nubia to Algiers,
and occurring over the whole of the Sahara Desert. It is essentially a desert
animal, with the sands of which its pale coloration is in complete harmony ; and it
is likewise mainly nocturnal in its habits. Like the common fox, the fennec makes
a burrow, which is generally situated in the neighbourhood of the tufts of low
plants growing here and there in the desert; these plants rendering the soil more
coherent, and therefore easier to burrow in. The inside of the burrow is lined
with feathers, hair, and soft vegetable substances, and is remarkable for its cleanli-
ness. The burrows are made with wonderful rapidity—so quickly, indeed, that
the animal seems to sink into the ground as though it were diving into water; and
when hunted the creature generally manages to escape by thus burrowing.
During the day the fennee reposes in its burrow, with its head curled up beneath
the bushy tail, and only the ears exposed. At the slightest sound or movement it
is, however, on the alert; and, when thus disturbed, it utters a slight whimper, and
soon endeavours to dispose itself again to slumber. At sunset the fennec leaves
its burrow and makes for its drinking-place, but instead of going straight across
the sand dunes, it always seeks the protection of such ravines and hollows as there
may be. Around the drinking-places the moist earth is covered with countless
impressions of its feet. After having satisfied its thirst, the fennec sets about
seeking its food, which may be either jerboas, small birds, lizards, insects, or
fruit.
The burrows are generally made near together, so that the fennecs live in
small colonies or companies. According to native reports, the young are born in
March, the number in a litter being either three or four.
THE Cape Huntinc-Doe (Lycaon pictus).
With the fennec we took leave of the last member of the family which can be
included in the typical genus Canis, and we now come to the first of three species
which represent as many distinct genera. The curious-looking animal depicted in
the illustration on the next page, and commonly known as the Cape hunting-dog,
differs from other members of the family in having but four toes to each foot, and
also in its peculiar irregularly-spotted coloration. The number of the teeth is the
same as in the wolf; and the skull has also a considerable resemblance to that of
the latter, although shorter and broader; while the form of the cheek-teeth is
likewise rather different. In point of size the hunting-dog may be compared with
a tall greyhound. Its limbs are relatively long; the head is broad and flat, with
a somewhat short muzzle, and rather large ears. The fur is rather thin; and is
coloured with a mixture of black, yellowish ochre, grey, and white, the disposition
of the colours varying greatly in different individuals, and the patches or blotches
being generally arranged unsymmetrically on the two sides of the body. Professor
Mivart describes the usual coloration as follows:—* The general ground-colour is
an ochraceous grey, but with black markings, so that the body and outer sides of
the extremities are blotched and brindled with black, intermingled here and there
with white spots edged with black; the markings being very irregular. The
muzzle is black, and a black stripe sometimes, but not always, passes backwards
570 CARNIVORES.
from between the eyes and ears, and along the neck. The root of the tail is
ochraceous, then more or less black, with the terminal portion white or whitish; it
is rather bushy. The ears are said to be more or less naked; they are more or
less black within, though with some white hairs, while externally they are of an
ochre colour at their roots, above which they may or may not be black.” In some
specimens, the front of the fore-lhmbs is more or less marked with black. In the
specimen here represented, the coloration is very irregular, there being a large
amount of white on the under-surface. In others, however, the ochre colour is
CAPE HUNTING-DOG (,1, nat. size).
predominant, and the black consists mainly of irregular spots, while there is
scarcely any white. This animal inhabits nearly the whole of Africa to the south-
wards and eastwards of the Sahara.
The most remarkable feature about the hunting-dog is its superficial resem-
blance to the spotted hyena of the same country; this being most noticeable in
those individuals in which the ochre colour predominates, and the dark areas take the
form of spots. From this resemblance, which is merely superficial and indicates no
sort of affinity between the two animals, the hunting-dog is frequently termed the
hyeena-dog. To account satisfactorily for this resemblance is very difficult. It has
been suggested that it is a case of “mimicry ”; that is to say, the resemblance to the
HUNTING-DOG. 571
hyena is due to some advantage which the hunting-dog thereby gains. It is,
however, very difficult to see what advantage a strong animal hunting in packs,
like the present species, can gain by being mistaken for a hyzena, as it is in every
respect fully qualified to take care care of itself. If, however, we could suppose
that the hunting-dog was originally a solitary animal, which had subsequently
become gregarious, then perhaps the resemblance to the hyzna might have been
an advantage to it.
Although generally nocturnal, the hunting-dog may occasionally be seen
during the day. One of the best accounts of its habits is given by Gordon Cumming,
who writes as follows :—* The wild dogs, or vilde honden, as they are called by the
Dutch boers, are still [about 1845] abundant in the precincts of the Cape Colony,
and are met with in great numbers throughout the interior. These animals
invariably hunt together in large organised packs, varying in number from ten to
sixty, and by their extraordinary powers of endurance, and mode of mutual assist-
ance, they are enabled to run into the swiftest or overcome the largest and most
powerful antelope. * T have never heard of them attacking the buffalo, and I believe
that the animal pursued in the present instance [a gnu] is the largest to which they
give battle. Their pace is a long never-tiring gallop, and in the chase they relieve
one another, the leading hounds falling to the rear when fatigued, when others,
who have been husbanding their strength, come up and relieve them. Having
succeeded in bringing their quarry to bay, they all surround him, and he is imme-
diately dragged to the ground, and in a few minutes torn to pieces and consumed.
They are of a bold and daring disposition, and do not entertain much fear of man,
evincing less concern on his approach than any other carnivorous animal with
which I am acquainted. On disturbing a pack, they trot leisurely along before the
intruder, repeatedly halting and looking back at him. The females bring forth
their young in large holes, in desolate open plains. These burrows are connected
with one another underground. When a troop of wild dogs frequenting these
holes observes a man approaching they do not, as might be supposed, take shelter
in the holes, but rather trusting to their speed, they rush forth, even though the
intruder should be close upon them, and retreat across the plain, the young ones,
unless very weak, accompanying them. The devastation occasioned by them
among the flocks of the Dutch boers is inconceivable. It constantly happens that
when the careless shepherds leave their charge, in quest of honey or other amuse-
ment, a pack of these marauders comes across the defenceless flock, A sanguinary
massacre in such cases invariably ensues, and incredible numbers of sheep are
killed and wounded. The voracious pack, not content with killing as many as
they can eat, follow resolutely on, tearing and mangling all that come within their
reach. Their voice consists of three different kinds of cry, each being used on
special occasions. One of these cries is a short angry bark, usually uttered when
they behold an object which they cannot make out. Another resembles a number
of monkeys chattering together, or men conversing together when their teeth are
chattering violently from cold. This ery is emitted at night, when large numbers
of them are together, and they are excited by any particular occurrence, such as
being barked at by domestic dogs. The third cry resembles the second note
uttered by the cuckoo which visits our islands during the summer months, and, when
572 CARNIVORES.
heard in a calm morning echoing through the distant woodlands, has a very
pleasing effect.” From later accounts it would appear that the holes referred to
above are inhabited by the hunting-dogs only during the breeding-season, and that
they are not excavated by the animals themselves.
The numbers in which these dogs were formerly wont to associate together is
illustrated by the following anecdote from the writer just quoted. Being suddenly
wakened from slumber one night, the great hunter states that “I heard the rushing
of light feet as of a pack of wolves close on every side of me, accompanied by the
most unearthly sounds. On raising my head, to my utter horror, I saw on every
side nothing but savage wild dogs, chattering and growling. On my right and on
HUNTING-DOGS CHASING GEMSBOK,
my left, and within a few paces of me, stood two lines of these ferocious-locking
animals, cocking their ears and stretching their necks to have a look at me; while
two large troops, in which there were at least forty of them, kept dashing back-
wards across my view, within a few yards of me, chattermg and growling with
the most extraordinary volubility. Another troop of wild dogs were fighting over
the wildebeest I had shot, which they had begun to devour. On beholding them I
expected no other fate than to be instantly torn to pieces and consumed... .
However, I had presence of mind to consider that the human voice anda determined
bearing might overawe them, and accordingly, springing to my feet, I stepped on the
little ledge surrounding the hole, while, drawing myself to my full height, I waved
my large blanket with both hands, at the same time addressing my savage assembly
in a loud and solemn manner. This had the desired effect ; the wild dogs removed
to a more respectful distance, barking at me something like collies.”
BUSIEDOG. 573
Probably a sight like this cannot at the present day be witnessed, although
hunting-dogs are still numerous in the Kilima-njaro district. Of scarcely less
interest than these large assembles must, however, be the spectacle of two or
more of these animals in full pursuit of an antelope. Such a hunt was witnessed
by Mr. Selous in Bechuanaland, the pursued being a male sable antelope, and the
pursuer a single hunting-dog. This hunter and his comrades had been for some
time watching the antelope, when suddenly it started off full in their direction.
On looking round for the cause of this sudden movement, “we saw,” writes Mr.
Selous, “that an animal was running on its track, and, although still distant, was
overhauling it fast, for the sable antelope not being pressed was not yet doing its
best, so that when it was about two hundred yards from us, its pursuer, which we
now saw was a wild dog, was not more than fifty yards behind us. The noble-
looking antelope must just then have seen us, for it halted, looked towards us, and
then turning its head glanced at its insignificant pursuer. That glance, however,
at the open-mouthed dog thirsting for its life-blood must have called unpleasant
reminiscences, for instead of showing fight, as I should have expected it to have
done, it threw out its limbs convulsively, and came dashing past us at its utmost
speed. It was, however, to no purpose, for the wild dog lying flat to the ground
as a greyhound, its bushy tail stretched straight behind it, covered two yards to
its one, and came up to it in no time. It just gave the antelope one bite in the
flank, and letting go its hold instantly fell a few yards behind; at the bite the
sable antelope swerved towards us, and upon receiving a second in exactly the same
place, turned still more, so that, taking the point on which we stood as centre, both
pursuer and pursued had described about half a circle round us, always within two
hundred yards, since the sable antelope had first halted. As the wild dog was just
going up the third time it got our wind, and instead of again inflicting a bite
stopped dead and looked toward us, whilst about a hundred yards from it the sable
antelope also came to a stand. The baffled hound then turned round, and made off
one way, while the sable antelope, delivered from its tormentor, cantered off in
another.” Mr. Selous adds that this is the only instance known to him of a
hunting-dog pursuing an animal by itself.
In the form of the last premolar tooth of the lower jaw the skull of the
hunting-dog presents a peculiarity by which it can be distinguished from that of
the wolves; and it is remarkable that a lower jaw from a cave of Glamorganshire
shows the same peculiarity in the tooth in question, thus indicating that during
the mammoth age a hunting-dog, nearly allied to the living African species, pursued
its prey on the Mendips.
THE BusH-Doe (Lcticyon venaticus).
The bush-dog of Brazil and British Guiana is an animal of or about the size
of a fox, differing from all the other members of the family in external appearance,
although it is not on this ground that it is separated from Canis. It is a short-
eared, short-legged, and long-bodied animal, with a very deep and rather elongated
neck, and of a general dark brown colour. The head, neck, and shoulders, differ
from the general body-colour in being grey, while the hind-quarters, tail, and
574 CARNIVORES.
under-parts are nearly black. The great peculiarity of this animal is, however, the
circumstance that it has usually but one molar tooth in the upper jaw, and only
two of these teeth in the lower Jaw, so that it has fewer teeth than any other
member of the dog family. This, however, is not all, for the lower flesh-tooth has
no trace of the cusp found on the inner side of the blade in all other dogs; while
the heel of the same tooth, instead of being broad and adapted for grinding, is
brought to a sharp cutting-edge. These features indicate that the bush-dog is ¢
more specialised animal than the other members of the family.
But little is known of the habits of the bush-dog in the wild state, as it is but
seldom seen, and is probably nocturnal. We are informed, however, that these
animals are, for their size, very fierce, and hunt in packs. They are found only in
the interior of the countries they inhabit; and are said to take readily to the
water. A specimen kept in captivity was very indiscriminate in its feeding, but
preferred animal to vegetable substances. Fossil remains of the bush-dog are
found in the caverns of Brazil, in company with those of a host of strange animals
long since passed away.
LALANDE’S Doe (Otocyon megalotis).
As the bush-dog is remarkable for the diminution in the number of its teeth,
so the long-eared, or Lalande’s dog, is peculiar in that it has more than the ordinary
LALANDE’S DOG (# nat. size).
HITTING DOGS. SYS
complement of these organs. Thus, while in the lower jaw this animal has
invariably four molar teeth, or one more than in any other member of the family,
in the upper jaw it has either three or four of these teeth, whereas in all other
living canine animals there are not more than two upper molars. The total
number of teeth is accordingly either forty-six or forty-eight ; and no other Mammal
outside the Marsupial order ever has four molar teeth in both jaws. Indeed, the
tenrec is the only one in which there are four of these teeth even in one jaw.
Lalande’s dog is, therefore, a very interesting animal, and one which retains, perhaps,
traces of a Marsupial ancestry lost in other living Mammals, except the tenree.
This species, which is rather smaller than a common fox, comes nearest in external
appearance to the fennecs, having enormous ears and a thick bushy tail. The eyes
are unusually large; the limbs are relatively longer than in the fox, but the tail is
proportionately shorter. The general colour of the fur is brownish or iron grey,
mottled with yellow; the outer sides of the limbs being nearly black, the under-
parts whitish, and the tail slaty grey, with a black tip, and more or less distinct
dark markings on its upper-surface. These animals are natives of South and East
Africa; but very little is known of their habits. They are generally found in open
country, dwelling under or among small bushes, and going about in pairs. Although
they are said to stand and watch the hunters by the hour together, they are very
difficult of approach.
EXtTINcT Does.
It has been mentioned that fossil remains of several living members of the
dog family have been obtained from the superficial deposits of the countries which
they severally inhabit. It has also been mentioned that extinct species of the
Asiatic wild dogs and of the African hunting-dog have been found in Europe, thus
indicating for those two groups a former distribution of wider extent than at
present. A number of extinct species belonging to the genus Canis have also been
obtained from the Pliocene and upper-half of the Miocene deposits of different
parts of the world. These, however, are all more or less closely allied to living
species, and are accordingly of no very special interest to the evolutionist.
On the other hand, if we go somewhat further back in the geological record,
to the lower portion of the Miocene and the upper part of the Eocene period, we
come across remains of more or less decidedly dog-like animals widely different
from living forms. Some of these extinct creatures are, indeed, to a considerable
extent, intermediate between dogs and civets; and thus indicate that the civet
family is probably derived from the ancestors of the dog family. This enlarges
our view of the relationships of the various modern Carnivores to one another, for
we have already shown that the hyenas are closely related to the ancestral civets,
and the cats are probably another side-branch nearly allied to them. We thus
have reason to believe that all the Carnivores with bladder-like tympanic bull to
their skulls—namely, eats, civets, hyzenas, and dogs—have sprung from a common
ancestral stock nearly allied to the modern dogs. The most civet-like of these
intermediate extinct animals are known by the name of Cynodictis, and they were
mostly creatures of about the size of the fox, with teeth either numerically the
same as in the latter, or as in the civet, and with plantigrade feet.
576 CARNIVORES.
Far more remarkable is, however, the connection which is shown to exist by
these fossil types between the dogs and the bears, which are now so widely
sundered. The connecting type appears to be a creature known as the Amphicyon,
of which a lower flesh-tooth is shown on p. 353. Some of these amphicyons were
not larger than a fox, while others must have fully equalled a bear in size. They
differed from modern dogs in having forty-four teeth, owing to the presence of the
third pair of molars in the upper-jaw, and also in that their feet were plantigrade,
like those of a bear; while they had five toes on all feet. The teeth of these planti-
grade dogs, as they may be called, were, indeed, essentially those of a modern dog ;
but, as we shall show later on, there is a complete transition through other extinct
forms to those of the bears. Hence we conclude that these plantigrade dogs were
not only the ancestors of the modern dogs, but likewise gave origin to the bear
family. The dog family is, therefore, the most ancient type of Carnivores now
living, and the one which includes the extinct forms from which nearly all the
others have originated.
Lie
Fis
Uf.
FOXHOUND,
Aard Wolf, 479.
Adapis, 236.
American Monkeys, 144.
Amphicyon, 576.
Anthops, 266.
ornatus, 266.
Anthropopithecus, 22.
calvus, 25.
niger, 22.
Antrozous, 273.
pallidus, 273.
Anubis Baboon, 135,
Anurosorex, 330.
Aotus, 165.
Apes, 14.
Arabian Baboon, 128.
Arctictis, 463.
binturong, 463.
Arctogale, 461.
leucotis, 461.
trivirgata, 461.
Artibeus, 304.
planirostris, 304,
perspillatus, 304.
Atalapha, 280
cinerea, 280.
noveboracensis, 280.
Ateles, 159.
ater, 162.
bartletti, 164.
belzebuth, 163.
cucullatus, 162.
geoffroyt, 163.
grisescens, 162.
hybridus, 163.
marginatus, 162.
melanochirus, 163.
paniscus, 160.
subpentadactylus, 162.
variegatus, 163.
vellerosus, 163.
Avalhis, 209.
laniger, 209.
Awantibo, 235.
Aye-Aye, 237, 240.
Baboons, 125,
Anubis, 135.
Arabian, 128.
Chaema, 132.
Doguera, 132.
Extinct, 142.
Gelada, 124.
Guinea, 137.
VOL. I.—37
Baboons— continued.
Sacred, 128.
Yellow, 136.
Barbary Macaque, 117.
Barbastelle, 271.
Barrigudo Monkeys, 157.
Bats, 247.
Chin-leafed, 300.
Commerson’s, 265.
Daubenton’s, 283.
False Vampire, 266.
Flower-Nosed, 266.
Fox, 253.
Free-Tailed, 289.
Fruit, 253.
Golden, 288.
Hairy-Armed, 277.
Hare-Lipped, 292.
Hoary, 280.
Hodgson’s, 286.
Horseshoe, 263.
Indian Painted, 286.
Insect-Eating, 262.
Javelin, 306.
Leaf-Nosed, 263.
Long-Eared, 269.
Long-Tailed, 293.
Long-Tongued, 303.
Mastiff, 294.
Naked, 296.
Natterer’s, 285.
New Zealand, 296.
Noctule, 273, 275.
Parti-coloured, 278.
Pipistrelle, 273.
Pouch- Winged, 290.
Red, 280.
Rough-Legged, 285,
Schreiber’s, 287.
Serotine, 273, 277.
Sheath-Tailed, 290.
Silver-Haired, 279.
Sucker-Footed, 288.
Tall-Crowned, 287.
Tomb, 291.
Tricolor, 288.
Tube-Nosed, 282.
Typical, 268.
Vampire, 299.
Welwitsch’s, 286.
Whiskered, 287.
White, 292.
White- Winged, 286.
Wrinkle-Lipped, 297.
Bdeogale, 473.
Bdeogale—continued.
crassicaudata, 474.
puisa, 474,
Beagle, 534.
Bearded Monkey, 102.
Bengal Monkey, 113.
Binturong, 463.
Black Ape, 122.
Blarina, 327.
brevicauda, 327.
Bloodhound, 530.
Boarhound, 539.
Bonnet Monkey, 110.
Budeng, 75.
Bull-Dog, 638.
3ull-Terrier, 539.
Bush-Dog, 573.
Callithriz, 172.
« anicta, 173.
brunnea, 173.
cuprea, 172.
donacophila, 173.
melanochira, 173.
moloch, 173.
nigrifrons, 173.
torquata, 172.
Canide, 492.
Canis, 493.
adustus, 506,
alpinus, 548.
antarcticus, 501.
aureus, 592.
azarex, 553.
bengalensis, 567.
cancrivorus, 554.
canus, 568.
chama, 568.
corsac, 566.
deccanensis, 549.
dingo, 508.
Jamelicus, 568.
familiaris, 510.
JSerrilatus, 566.
hodophylax, 497.
jubatus, 552.
lagopus, 563.
lateralis, 506,
latrans, 500.
leucopus, 565.
lupus, 495.
magellanicus, 555.
mesomelas, 504,
microtis, 555.
578
Canis—continued.
occidentalis, 497.
pallidus, 568.
pallipes, 499.
procyonoides, 555.
rutilans, 552.
stmensis, 502.
velox, 562.
virginianus, 561.
vulpes, 557.
zerda, 568.
Cape Hunting-Dog, 569.
Capuchin Monkeys, 149.
Caracal, 435.
Carnivora, 349.
Carnivores, 349.
Carponycteris, 260.
minima, 260.
Catarhini, 144.
Cats, 353.
American, 440.
Angora, 428.
Caffre, 420.
Desert, 424.
Domestic, 425.
Egyptian, 420.
Extinct, 446.
Fishing, 409.
Flat-Headed, 415,
Geoffroy’s, 418.
Golden, 408.
Indian Desert, 424,
Jungle, 431.
Leopard, 411.
Marbled, 408.
Malay, 429.
Manx, 429.
Mombas, 429.
Pallas’s, 423.
Pampas, 430.
Paraguay, 429.
Persian, 428.
Red, 440.
Rusty-Spotted, 414.
Sabre-Toothed, 447.
Shaw’s, 424.
Siamese, 429.
Tibet, 408.
Waved, 424.
Wild, 422.
Cat Tribe, 349.
Cebidx, 144.
Cebus, 149.
albifrons, 155.
apeila, 152.
cirrifer, 153.
capucinus, 153.
Satuellus, 151.
hypoleucus, 156.
Junatus, 151.
monachus, 156.
olivaceus, 156.
pallidus, 153.
robustus, 156.
- Centetes, 348.
ecaudatus, 340,
Centetidee, 340.
Centurio, 304.
senex, 304,
Cercocebus, 105.
albigena, 107.
collaris, 107.
INDEX.
Cercocebus—continued,
Suliginosus, 106.
Cercopithecidee, 66.
Cercopithecus, 92.
albogularis, 100.
callitrichus, 97.
campbelli, 102.
cephus, 104.
cynosurus, 94.
diana, 102.
erythrogaster, 102.
erythrotis, 105.
griseoviridis, 97.
lalandi, 97.
leucocampyx, 103.
ludio, 105.
mona, 100.
nictitans, 104.
patas, 98.
petaurista, 104.
pluto, 103.
pogonias, 102.
pyrrhonotus, 99.
ruber, 98.
rufoviridis, 98.
sabwus, 97.
talapoin, 94.
wolfi, 102.
Cerivoula, 286.
picta, 286.
Chacma, 132.
Chalinolobus, 280, 298.
tuberculatus, 298.
Chameck, 161.
Cheeta, see Chita.
Chilonycteris, 300.
Chimarrogale, 331.
himalayica, 331.
platycephalus, 331.
Chimpanzee, 22.
Bald, 25.
Extinct, 34,
Mafuka, 33.
Chirogaleus, 219.
coquereli, 220,
Surcifer, 220.
milii, 220.
murinus, 220.
myoxrinus, 220.
pusillus, 220.
Chiromeles, 296.
torquatus, 296.
Chiromyide, 237.
Chiromys, 240.
madagascariensis, 240.
Chiroptera, 247.
Chiropotes, 178.
Chita, 442.
Chrysochloridx, 345,
Chrysochloris, 345.
Chrysothriz, 169.
entomophaga, 171.
sciured, 170.
usta, 171.
Chuva, 162.
Civets, 448.
African, 451.
Burmese, 453.
Extinct, 479.
Indian, 452.
Javan, 453.
Malabar, 453.
Civets—continued.
Palm, 457.
True, 450
Clouded Leopard, 407.
Coaita, 160.
Cobegos, 309.
Collie, 519.
Colobs, 89.
Bay, 91.
Black, 89.
Crested, 91.
Guereza, 87.
King, 89.
Ursine, 90.
White-Thighed, 90.
Colobus, 86.
cristatus, 91.
Jerrugineus, 91.
guereza, 87.
polycomus, 89.
satanas, 89.
ursinus, 90.
villerosus, 90.
Colocollo, 419.
Colpeo, 555.
Condylura, 336.
cristata, 336.
Coyote, 500.
Crab-Eating Macaque, 111.
Crocidura, 329.
aranea, 329.
cerulea, 330.
Suliginosa, 320.
murina, 330.
suaveolens, 329,
Crossarchus, 475.
Susciatus, 475.
gambianus, 475.
obseurus, 475.
zebra, 475.
Crossopus, 327.
Jodiens, 327.
Cryptoprocta, 449.
Serox, 449.
Cusimanse, 475.
Cynelurus, 442.
jubatus, 442.
lanius, 444.
Cynictis, 473.
penicillata, 474.
Cynocephalus, 125.
anubis, 135.
babuin, 136.
doquera, 132.
hamadryas, 128.
leucophxus, 141.
mormon, 138.
porcarius, 132,
sphinx, 137.
Cynodictis, 575.
Cynogale, 464.
bennetti, 465.
Cynopithecus, 122.
niger, 122.
Cynopterus, 259.
marginatus, 259.
Dachshund, 535.
Deerhound, 523.
Desmans, 332.
Pyrenean, 334,
Desmans—continued.
Russian, 333.
Desmodus, 305.
rufus, 305.
Diana Monkey, 102.
Diclidurus, 292.
albus, 292.
Dingo, 508.
Diphylla, 305.
ecaudata, 305.
Dogs, 492.
Azara’s, 553.
Beagle, 534.
Bloodhound, 530.
Boarhound, 539,
_ Bull, 538.
Bull-Terrier, 539.
Bush, 573.
Collie, 519.
Crab-Eating, 554.
Dalmatian, 538.
Dane, 539.
Deerhound, 523.
Domestic, 510.
Drover’s, 520.
Eskimo, 515,
Extinct, 575.
Foxhound, 532.
Greyhound, 521.
Hairless, 525.
Hare Indian, 516.
Harrier, 533.
Hunting, 569.
Lalande’s, 574.
Lap, 547.
Lurcher, 525.
Maltese, 547.
Mastiff, 538.
Newfoundland, 528.
Otterhound, 534.
Pariah, 520.
Pointer, 536.
Pomeranian, 517,
Poodle, 546.
Pug, 540.
Raccoon, 555.
Retriever, 528.
St. Bernard, 529.
Setter, 527.
Sheep, 518.
Short-Eared, 555.
Spaniel, 525.
Spitz, 517.
Staghound, 532.
Tibet, 542.
Terrier, 543.
Turnspit, 535.
Wild, 548.
Wolf, 523.
Doue, 82.
Douroucolis, 165.
Broad-Tailed, 169.
Feline, 169,
Three-Banded, 166.
Drill, 141.
Dryopithecus, 53.
Emballonura, 290.
monticola, 290.
semicaudata, 290.
Emballonuridx, 289.
INDEX.
Eonycteris, 261.
spelea, 261.
Epomophorus, 258.
monstrosus, 258,
Ericulus, 343.
setosus, 343.
telfairi, 343.
Erinaceidx, 317.
Erinaceus, 318.
albiventris, 321.
algirus, 321.
collaris, 321.
europeus, 318.
megalotis, 321.
micropus, 321.
eningensis, 321.
Eriodes, 158.
arachnoides, 158.
Evupleres, 478.
goudoti, 478.
Eyra, 419.
Felidx, 349.
Felis, 353.
atrox, 447.
augusta, 447.
baileyi, 441.
bengalensis, 411.
caffra, 420.
caligata, 420.
canadensis, 439.
caracal, 435.
catus, 422.
chaus, 431.
colocollo, 419.
concolor, 397.
cristata, 447.
eyra, 419.
guigna, 418.
isabellina, 438.
lynx, 436.
maculata, 440.
maniculata, 420.
manul, 423.
marmorata, 408.
nebulosa, 407.
onea, 394.
ornata, 424.
pajeros, 430,
pardalis, 416.
pardina, 442,
pardus, 387.
planiceps, 415.
rubiginosa, 414.
rufa, 440.
scripta, 408.
serval, 413.
shawiana, 424.
temmincki, 408.
tigrina, 417.
tigris, 373.
torquata, 424,
uncia, 393.
viverrina, 409.
Fennecs, 468
Common, 568.
Ruppell’s, 568.
Fossa, 449.
Fossa, 454.
579
Fox-Bats, 253.
Collared, 257.
Tailed, 257.
Foxes, 557.
American, 559.
Arctic, 563.
Asse, 568.
Common, 558,
Corsac, 566.
Cross, 559.
Desert, 565,
Grey, 561.
Hoary, 568.
Indian, 567.
Kit, 562.
Long-Eared, 568.
Pale, 568.
Red, 559.
Silver, 559.
Tibetan, 566.
Foxhound, 532.
Fox-Terrier, 543.
Fruit-Bats, 252.
Cusp-Toothed, 260.
Epauletted, 258.
Long-Tongued, 260,
Short-Nosed, 259.
Tube-Nosed, 259.
Galago, 222.
allent, 225,
crassicaudata, 223.
demidoffi, 226.
garnetti, 224,
murinus, 227,
senegalensis, 225.
Galagos, 223.
Allen’s, 225.
Demidoff’s 226.
Garnett’s, 224.
Great, 223.
Senegal, 225.
Galeopithecidx, 309.
Galeopithecus, 309.
philippinensis, 311.
volans, 310.
Galeriz, 315.
Galidia, 478.
elegans, 478.
Galidictis, 478.
striata, 478.
wittata, 478.
Gelada Baboon, 124,
Genets, 454.
Blotched, 456.
Common, 455.
Feline, 456.
Pardine, 456.
Genetta, 454.
Felina, 456.
pardina, 456.
senegalensis, 456.
tigrina, 456.
vulgaris, 455.
Gentle Lemur, 216,
Geogale, 345.
Gibbons, 57.
Agile, 64.
Crowned, 64.
Fossil, 65.
Hainan, 64.
580
Gibbons—continued.
Hoolock, 62.
Malay, 64.
Siamang, 60.
Silver, 65.
Variegated, 65.
White-Haired, 62.
White-Handed, 61.
Gibraltar Ape, 119.
Glossophaga, 303.
Golden Moles, 345.
Gorilla, 34.
Gorilla, 34.
gena, 36.
savaget, 36.
Green Monkey, 97.
Greyhounds, 521.
Albanian, 524,
English, 521.
Grecian, 524.
Italian, 522.
Persian, 524.
Russian, 525.
Grivet Monkey, 97.
Guenons, 93.
Guereza, 87.
Gymnura, 321.
rafflesi, 322.
suilla, 322.
Gymnuras, 317, 321.
Hanuman, 71.
Hapalidx, 189.
Hapale, 190.
albicollis, 192.
aurita, 192.
chrysoleucus, 192.
huneralifer, 192.
jacchus, 190.
melanura, 1938.
penicillata, 192.
pygmexa, 193.
Hapalemur, 216.
griseus, 216.
simus, 217.
Hapalide, 188.
Harpyia, 259.
Harpyiocephalus, 282.
leucogaster, 282.
Harrier, 533.
Hedgehogs, 317.
Helogale, 473.
parvula, 473.
undulata, 473.
Hemicentetes, 342.
nigriceps, 342.
semisptnosus, 342.
Hemigale, 462.
hardwickei, 462.
hoset, 462.
Hemigales, 462.
Hemigalidia, 478.
olivacea, 478.
Herpestes, 465.
albicauda, 469.
auropunctatus, 472.
brachyurus, 472.
caffer, 469.
gracilis, 469.
ichneumon, 466,
javanicus, 472.
INDEX,
Herpestes—continued.
mungo, 470.
sanguineus, 469.
semitorquatus, 472.
smithi, 472.
urea, 472.
witicollis, 472.
Hipposiderus, 265.
armiger, 265.
commersont, 265.
Hocheur Monkey, 104.
Hoolock, 62.
Horseshoe-Bats, 263.
Howlers, 183.
Black, 185.
Brown, 186.
Mantled, 187.
Red, 185.
Vera Cruz, 185.
Hunting-Dog, 569,
Hunting-Leopard, 442.
Hylobates, 57.
agilis, 64.
hainanus, 64.
hoolock, 62.
lar, 61.
leuciscus, 65.
pileatus, 64.
rafilesi, 64.
syndactylus, 60.
variegatus, 65.
Hyxna, 482.
brunnea, 488.
crocuta, 488.
striata, 485.
Hyzna-Dog, 569.
Hyzenas, 481.
Brown, 488.
Extinct, 491.
Spotted, 488.
Striped, 485.
Hyxiide, 481.
Ichneumon, 466.
Icticyon, 573.
venaticus, 573.
Ictithere, 479.
Indri, 203.
Indris, 203.
brevicaudata, 208.
Insectivora, 306.
Insectivores, 306.
Jackal, 502.
Black-Backed, 504.
Side-Striped, 506.
Jaguar, 394,
Jaguarondi, 418.
Jumping Shrews, 315.
Kaberu, 502.
Kaguans, 309.
Kahan, 84.
Kalong, 253.
King-Monkey, 89.
Lagothrix, 156.
humboldti, 156.
Lalande’s Dog, 574.
Langurs, 69.
Capped, 80.
Fossil, 84.
Hanuman, 71.
Himalayan, 73.
Hose’s, 81.
Madras, 74.
Malabar, 74.
Nilgiri, 77.
Purple-Faced, 78.
Red-Bellied, 80.
Tibetan, 83.
Variegated, 82.
Lanthanotherium, 315.
Lap-Dog, 547.
Leaf-Monkey, 75.
Leaf-Nosed Bats, 263, 265.
Lemur, 210.
albifrons, 218.
catta, 211.
leucomystax, 215.
macaco, 214.
mungoz, 212.
nigrifrons, 213.
ruber, 215.
rufifrons, 212.
rufipes, 215.
varius, 215,
Lemuridex, 199.
Lemurs, 199, 270.
African, 222.
Avahi, 209.
Black, 202, 214.
Black-Fronted, 213.
Broad-Nosed, 217.
Fossil, 236.
Gentle, 216.
Hoary-Headed, 219.
Indri, 203.
Mouse, 219.
Mungoose, 212.
Red, 215.
Red-Fronted, 212.
Ruffed, 215.
Sifaka, 205.
Slow, 227.
Smooth-Eared, 215.
Weasel, 217.
White-Fronted,. 213.
White-Whiskered, 215.
Leopard, 387.
Black, 389.
Clouded, 407.
Hunting, 442.
Snow, 393.
Lepidolemur, 217.
caniceps, 219.
mustelinus, 218.
Linsang, 456.
gracilis, 456.
maculosus, 456.
pardicolor, 457.
Linsangs, 456.
Lion, 357.
Lion-Tailed Monkey, 113.
Loris, 227.
Common, 228.
Slender, 231.
Loris, 227.
gracilis, 231.
Ludio Monkey, 105.
Lurchers, 525.
Lutong, 75, 81.
Crested, 77.
Lycaon, 569.
pictus, 569.
Lynx, 436.
Bay, 440.
Canada, 439,
Isabelline, 438.
Northern, 457.
Pardine, 442.
Plateau, 440.
Macaca Barrigudo, 157.
Macaca Prego, 153.
Macacus, 107.
arctoides, 117.
assamensis, 115.
cynomolgus, 111.
Suscatus, 117.
inuus, 117.
lasiotis, 115.
leoninus, 116.
maurus, 117.
nemestrinus, 115.
ochreatus, 117.
pileatus, 111.
rhesus, 113.
silenus, 113.
sinicus, 110.
tibetanus, 117.
Macaques, 107.
Barbary, 117.
Crab-Eating, 111.
Extinct, 124.
Himalayan, 115.
Machxrodus, 447.
Macroscelides, 315.
rozeti, 316.
tetradactylus, 316.
typicus, 315.
Muacroscelididx, 315.
Magot, 117.
Maha, 79.
Malbrouck Monkey, 94.
Mammals, 1.
Maned Wolf, 552.
Mandrill, 138.
Mangabeys, 105.
Grey-Cheeked, 107.
Sooty, 106.
Man-like Apes, 14.
Margay, 417.
Marmosets, 188.
Black-Eared, 192.
Black-Tailed, 193.
Common, 190.
Geoffroy’s, 197.
Long-Tusked, 194.
Pigmy, 193.
Short-Tusked, 190.
Silky, 197, 198.
Silver, 192.
White-Eared, 192.
Mastiff, 538.
Meerkat, 476.
Megaderma, 267.
Srons, 267.
lyra, 267.
Mias, 51.
Microchiroptera, 262.
INDEX.
Microgale, 343.
Midas, 194.
argentatus, 193.
chrysomelas, 198.
devillei, 196.
jlavifrons, 196.
geoffroyt, 197.
edipus, 196.
labiatus, 196.
leontinus, 198.
mystax, 196.
rosalia, 198.
rufimanus, 195.
rufoniger, 196.
wrsulus, 194.
Miniopterus, 287.
schreibersi, 287.
Moles, 332.
Common, 337.
Golden, 345.
Hairy-Tailed, 336.
Star-Nosed, 336.
Tree, 337.
Yellow-Tailed, 339.
Web-Footed, 335.
Mole-Shrews, 334.
Moloch Titi, 173.
Molossus, 294.
glaucinus, 295.
perotis, 296.
rufus, 295.
Monkeys, 14, 66, 144.
American, 144.
Banded-Leaf, 75.
Bear, 78.
Bengal, 113.
Bearded, 102.
Black-Bellied, 103.
Bonnet, 110.
Budeng, 75.
Caiarara, 149.
Campbell’s, 102.
Capuchin, 149.
Colob, 89.
Diana, 102.
Dusky-Leaf, 80.
Grivet, 97.
Guereza, 86.
Hocheur, 104.
Howling, 182.
King, 89.
Leaf, 75.
Lion-Tailed, 113.
Ludio, 105.
Lutong, 75.
Malbrouck, 94.
Mangabey, 105.
Mona, 100.
Moustache, 104.
Mozambique, 98.
Negro, 75.
Nisnas, 99.
Old World, 66.
Patas, 98.
Phayre’s, 81.
Pig-Tailed, 108, 115, 116.
Pluto, 103.
Proboscis, 84.
Purple-Faced, 78.
Red-Bellied, 102.
Saki, 175.
Spider, 145, 158, 159.
581
Monkeys—continued.
Squirrel, 169.
Stump-Tailed, 117.
Sykes’s, 100.
Talapoin, 94.
Thumbless, 86.
Abhi, 17
Uakari, 178.
Vervet, 97.
White, 78.
White-Eyelid, 105.
White-Nosed, 104
Wolf's, 102.
Woolly, 156.
Mormops, 300.
blainvillei, 300.
Mouse-Lemurs, 219.
Moustache Monkey, 104.
Mozambique Monkey, 98.
Mungooses, 465.
Banded, 472, 475.
Barred, 472.
Caffre, 469.
Crab-Eating, 472.
Cusimanse, 475.
Egyptian, 466.
Four-Toed, 473.
Gambian, 475.
Ichneumon, 466.
Indian, 470.
Madagascar, 478.
Meller’s, 474.
Red-Tailed, 469.
Ruddy, 472.
Short-Tailed, 472.
Slender, 469.
Small Indian, 472.
Smooth-Nosed, 474.
Stripe-Necked, 472.
Thick-Tailed, 474.
White-Tailed, 469.
Zebra, 475.
Munguste, 478.
Musk-Shrews, 329.
Mycetes, 182.
auratus, 185.
belzebul, 185.
caraya, 185.
jlavimanus, 185.
Juscus, 186.
palliatus, 187.
seniculus, 187.
ursinus, 186.
villosus, 185.
Mycgale, 333.
moschata, 333.
pyrenaica, 334,
Myopithecus, 94.
Mystacops, 298.
tuberculatus, 298.
Myxopoda, 288.
aurita, 288.
Nandinia, 462.
binotata, 462.
Nasalis, 84.
larvatus, 84.
Natalus, 287.
Nectogale, 331.
elegans, 331.
Negro Monkey, 75.
582
Nesonycteris, 261.
woodfordi, 261.
Nisnas Monkey, 99.
Noetilio, 292.
— leporinus, 292.
Noctule, 273, 275.
Nycteridx, 266.
Nycteris, 267.
javanica, 268.
Nycticebus, 227.
javanicus, 231.
tardigradus, 228.
Nycticejus, 280, 286.
Nyctinomus, 297.
brasiliensis, 298.
cestoni, 297.
Nyctipithecus, 165,
lemurinus, 169.
trivirgatus, 166.
vociferans, 169.
Nyctophilus, 273.
Ocelot, 416.
Orang-Utan, 46.
Oreopithecus, 143.
Oryzorictes, 3435.
Otocyon, 574.
megalotis, 574.
Otonycteris, 272.
henprichi, 272.
Otterhound, 534.
Ouistiti, 190.
Ounce, 393.
Palhyena, 491.
Palm-Civets, 457.
African, 462.
Chinese, 460.
Common, 459.
Malay, 460.
Small-Toothed, 451.
Panther, 386.
Paradoxurus, 457.
aureus, 460.
grayi, 460.
hermaphroditus, 460.
jerdont, 460.
laniger, 459.
larvatus, 460.
musschenbroekt, 459.
niger, 459.
Parasorex, 315.
Parauacu, 175.
Pariah Dog, 520.
Patas Monkey, 98.
Perodicticus, 233.
calabarensis, 234.
potto, 233.
Phyllonycteris, 303.
sezekorni, 303.
Phyllostoma, 303.
hastatum, 303.
Phyllostomatidx, 299.
Pig-Tailed Monkey, 108, 115, 116.
Pinché, 194, 196.
Pipistrelle, 273.
Pithecia, 174.
albicans, 175.
albinasa, 178.
chiropotes, 177.
INDEX.
Pithecia—continued.
hirsuta, 175.
leucocephala, 174.
monachus, 175.
rufiventer, 176.
sutanas, 178.
Platyrhini, 144.
Plecotus, 269.
auritus, 269.
macrotis, 269.
Pluto Monkey, 103.
Poiana, 456.
poénsis, 457.
Pointer, 536.
Pongo, 34.
Poodle, 547.
Potamogale, 344.
velox, 344.
Potto, 233.
Bosman’s, 233.
Primates, 14.
Proboscis Monkey, 84.
Propithecus, 205.
coronatus, 208.
diadema, 207.
verreauxt, 208.
Propitheques, 205.
Protalpa, 339.
Proteleidx, 479.
Proteles, 479.
cristatus, 479.
Protopithecus, 187.
Pteralopex, 260.
Pteropodidx, 252.
Pteropus, 253.
edulis, 256.
kerandrenti, 256.
medius, 253.
nicobaricus, 255.
poliocephalus, 256.
Ptilocercus, 314. *
lowt, 314.
Pug-Dog, 540.
Puma, 397.
Purple-Faced Monkey, 78.
Rasse, 453.
Red-Bellied Monkey, 102.
Retrievers, 528.
Rhinogale, 474.
melleri, 474.
Rhinolophide, 263.
Rhinolophus, 263.
ewthiops, 264.
capensis, 264.
Serrum-equinum, 264.
hipposiderus, 264.
luctus, 264.
megaphyllus, 264.
Rhinopithecus, 183.
Rhinopoma, 293.
microphyllum, 293.
Rhynchocyon, 316.
Ring-Tailed Lemur, 211.
Rock-Shrews, 316.
“
Saccopteryx, 290.
canina, 290.
leptura, 290.
Sacred Baboon, 128.
St. Bernard Dog, 529.
Saki Monkeys, 173.
Black, 178.
Humboldt’s, 175.
Red-Backed, 177.
Whiskered, 176.
White-Headed, 174.
White-Handed, 178.
Sapajous, 149.
Brown, 149.
Crested, 156.
Horned, 152.
Slender, 153.
Smooth-Headed, 156.
Weeper, 153.
White-Cheeked, 151.
White-Fronted, 155.
White-Throated, 156.
Scalops, 335.
aquaticus, 335.
Scapanus, 336.
americanus, 336,
Scaptonyx, 339.
Suscicaudatus, 339.
Sciurus tupaioides, 314.
Semnopithecus, 69.
cephalopterus, 78.
chrysogaster, 80.
chrysomelas, 75.
eristatus, 76.
entellus, 71.
Semoralis, 75.
hosei, 81.
hypoleucus, 74.
johni, 77.
maurus, 75.
nemeus, 82.
obscurus, 80.
phayret, 81.
pileatus, 80.
priamus, 74.
pyrrhus, 75.
roxellanx, 83.
schistaceus, 73.
senex, 78.
ursinus, 78.
Serotine, 273, 277.
Serval, 413.
Setters, 527.
English, 527.
Gordon, 528.
Irish; 527.
Russian, 528.
Welsh, 528.
Shrews, 323.
Alpine, 326.
Burrowing, 330.
Common, 325.
Earless, 326.
Jumping, 315.
Lesser, 326.
Musk, 329.
Rock, 316.
_ Short-Tailed, 327.
Swimming, 331.
Tree, 312.
Water, 327.
Web-Footed, 331.
Siamang, 60.
Sifakas, 205.
Crowned, 208.
Diademed, 207.
Sifakas—continued.
Verreaux’s, 206, 208.
Simia, 46.
morio, 52.
satyrus, 46. —
Simiidex, 14.
Slow Lemurs, 227. «|
African, 238.
Snow Leopard, 393.
7
Soko, 25. i *
Solenodon, 343.
cubanus, 343.
paradoxus, 343.
Solenodons, 343.
Solenodontide, 343.
Sorex, 324.
alpinus, 326.
bendirei, 326.
hydrodromus, 326.
palustris, 326,
pygmeus, 326.
vulgaris, 324.
Soricidx, 323.
Soriculus, 325,
Spaniels, 525.
Blenheim, 526.
Clumber, 525.
Cocker, 526.
Field, 525.
King Charles, 526.
Norfolk, 526.
Sussex, 526.
Water, 526.
Spider-Monkeys, 145, 158, 159
Black-Capped, 162.
Black-Faced, 162.
Black-Handed, 163.
Brown, 163.
Grizzled, 162.
Hooded, 162.
Long-Haired, 163.
Red-Faced, 160.
Variegated, 163.
White-Bellied, 163.
White-Whiskered, 162.
Woolly, 158.
Spitz, 517.
Squirrel-Monkeys, 169.
DBlack-Tailed, 171.
Common, 170.
Short-Tailed, 171.
Staghound, 532.
Stenoderma, 304.
Suricata, 476.
tetradactyla, 476.
Sykes’s Monkey, 100.
Synotus, 271.
barbastellus, 271.
darjilingensis, 272.
Talapoin Monkey, 94.
Talpa, 337.
europea, 337.
micrura, 339.
INDEX.
”
Talpide, 332.
Tamarins, 194.
Black and Red, 196,
Brown-Headed, 196.
Deville’s, 196.
Moustached, 196.
_ Negro, 194.
Red-Bellied, 196.
Red-Handed, 195.
Taphozous, 291.
affinis, 291.
nudiventris, 291,
Tarsier, 237.
Tarstidx, 237.
Tarsius, 238.
spectrum, 238.
Tenrecs, 340.
Common, 340.
Hedgehog, 342.
Long-Tailed, 343.
Rice, 348.
Streaked, 342.
Terrier, 543.
Black and Tan, 546
English, 545
Fox, 543.
Trish, 543.
Skye, 544.
Yorkshire, 545.
Welsh, 544.
Theropithecus, 124.
gelada, 125.
Thumbless Monkeys 86,
Thyroptera, 288.
Tibet Dog, 542.
Tiger, 373.
Titis, 172:
Black-Fronted, 173.
Black-Handed, 173.
Collared, 172.
Moloch, 173.
Red, 172.
Reed, 173.
Tree-Shrews, 312.
Pen-Tailed, 314.
Troglodytes, 24.
Tupaia, 312.
ellioti, 313.
Serruginea, 313.
tana, 313.
Tupatide, 312.
Tupaias, 312.
Turnspit, 535.
Uacaria, 178.
calva, 179.
melanocephala, 181.
rubicunda, 181.
Uakari Monkeys, 178.
Bald, 179.
Black-Headed, 181.
Red-Faced, 181
Uropsilus, 334.
Urotrichus, 334.
SE ———
Urotrichus—continued.
soricipes, 334.
Vampires, 299.
Blood-Sucking, 305.
Long-Tongued, 303.
Short-Nosed, 304.
Vampirus, 200.
auritus, 301.
spectrum, 300.
Vervet Monkey, 97.
Vespertilio, 283.
bechsteini, 286.
daubentoni, 283.
dasycneme, 285.
mystactnus, 287.
nattercrt, 285.
welwitschii, 287.
Vespertilionidx, 268.
Vesperugo, 273.
abramus, 275.
borealis, 273.
discolor, 278.
dormeri, 286.
leisleri, 275.
noctivagans, 279.
noctule, 275. ;
parvulus, 288.
pipistrellus, 273.
schliefenti, 280.
serotinus, 277.
Viverra, 450.
civetta, 451.
civettina, 453.
malaccensis, 453.
megaspila, 453.
tangalunga, 453.
zibetha, 452.
Viverridex, 448.
—
Wanderu, 71, 79, 113.
Weasel-Lemur, 217.
Whaipu-sai, 172.
White-Eyelid Monkeys, 105.
White-Nosed Monkey, 104.
Widow Monkey, 172.
Wolf, 495.
Antarctic, 501.
Coyote, 500.
Indian, 499.
Maned, 552.
Wolf-Dogs, 523.
Wolf's Monkey, 102.
Woolly Monkeys, 156.
Woolly Spider Monkeys, 158.
Wou-Wou, 64.
~
Xantharpyia, 257.
collaris, 257.
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