VEN aM NA 1] \ va) Qe”, ite Ny w pet ~ RicHarp LypeKKER ose \ ‘ a ' “Yi RH WV ‘ Cla NEI EE VS PEE W. B. FROSTICK 26 MINSTER PRECINCTS PETERBOROUGH le * ee ee s — | P 4 q J we: i - = - 7 , 3 S ! Wen [ “i ; an | ‘ | 7 _ ie > ' , Se , i - i ‘ te ° - gv aa 7 ‘ } 7. _ * f ‘ ‘Fi 4 4 ‘ - a j _ 1 4 a | fi » « i | iy oo : * - ! SS 7 7 © » eis. on ra 4 Tea ys A ee are : « a | s! “as Be Ot \ aol, + | oe we ic Ee 23 7 : ae 0 oes Sis 3 7 hy 3 @re ak = ~ : a 7 . > = : : » 1 : : J / ata a * pry i, iZ - ; ee ee WO Yeast, NATURAL HISTORY ‘? - - £ . ’ . 4 5 A = * ? . \" : ‘ \ i * y ‘ ? ‘ s __ ' ‘ i . “4 . * 7 ° > ~ 7 . = " o : 1 4 , ' 4 AG . , : an . F \ 3 ’ ’ . . ’ : . ‘ : > > * P ih ‘ x “ « o 7 <» . é ad A 7 . ?- a. | + is, 7 - J . 2 ‘ * i ‘ ‘ t - — § + , ws : : -— > > »’ " - L J oh ‘ » ‘ 4 *) ‘ , . s : ‘ ee a ° - Ps ‘ ‘3 us " 6 7 -4 eS : ve “ : ‘ 5 ‘ aA 5 i oe ‘ ‘ i -. a Oe we + | ‘ o 5 1 y ¥ a . . : ° * P . . . ‘ . 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SS ee See at = cod . ’ ’ 7 > « ; ‘ ~ = a. 7S rs o) . i) ae ‘ $ . a a ‘ 7 Eee i toes a | ‘> .. a im. “a . oe , Pela ¥ . y ; ae >a ~— e7 a ae Uh PA 7 i - ie - ; -§~- E ; >> ° wee , : 2 2. or P : i =) a “at ‘o 2 : ; - : rvee a ; = >” _ . _ a - “G . } oar ) _ 7 , : ' : UL , - . >. - oe ’ # sa Y . = 6 J « . 7 a 7 , . oe | Pos a jz s ie rey ys wee eb lo yw) VeAvale, NELURAE HISTORY EDITED IBY RICH ao EY DEKKER, B.A.; F.G:S3.F.Z:S.,.. ETC: ¢ With PRERACES Big ‘ Paper ae LATER, M.A., «PHD., F.R.S., ETC. SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON ¥ ILLUSTRATED WITH . Seventy-two Colowred Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings BY W. KUHNERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF, GAMBIER BOLTON, F.Z.8.; AND MANY OTHERS VOL Ee SECTION Sit. LONDON FREDERICK WARNE & CO. AND NEW YORK 1894 [All Rights Reserved] Ww ; ; : or 4 a 7 : = i i 7 » y MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, ‘EDINBURGH. 7 ny . : % THE FREE-TAILED INSECTIVOROUS Bats CON are ES MAMMALS CHAPTER XI.—Bats,—concluded. Smooth-Nosed Free-Tailed Bats (Emballonuride)— Sheath-Tailed. Bats (Hmballonwra)—Pouch-Winged Bats (Saccopterys)—Tomb-Bats (Taphozous)—White_ Bats (Diclidurus)—Hare-Lipped Bats (Noctilio)—Long-Tailed Bat (Rhinopoma)—Mastitf-Bats (Molossus)—Naked Bat (Chiromeles)—Wrinkled-Lipped Bats (Nyctinomus)—New Zealand Bat (Mystacops)—Vampire Bats (Phyllostomatide)—Chin- Leafed Bats (Chilonycteris and Mormops)—Harmless Vampires (Vampirus)—Javelin Bats (Phyllostoma)—Long-Tongued Vampires (Glossophaga)—Short-Nosed Vampires (Artibeus)—Blood-Sucking Vampires (Desmodus and Diphylla)—Fossil Bats, CHAPTER XII.—Tue InsEctivores,—Order Insectivora. Characteristics of the Group—Cobegos, or Kaguans (Galeopithecide)—Philippine Cobego— Tree-Shrews, or Tupaias (Tupaiide)—Pen-Tailed Tree-Shrew (Ptilocercus)—Fossil Tree- Shrews —Jumping Shrews (Macroscelidide) — Typical Forms (Macrosceles) — Rock Jumping Shrew—Long-Nosed Jumping Shrew (Rhynchocyon)—Its Habits—Hedgehogs and Gymunuras (Erinaceide)—Hedgehogs (Erinaceus)—African Species—Extinct Repre- sentatives—Gymuuras (Gymnura)—Extinct Forms—Shrews (Soricidw)—Typical Shrews (Sorex) —Common Shrew—Lesser Shrew—Alpine Shrew—North American Shrews— Short-Tailed, or Earless Shrews (Blarina)—Water-Shrew (Crossopus)—Musk-Shrews (Crocidura)—Burrowing Shrews (A nurosorex)—Swimming Shrews (Chimarrogale)—W eb- Footed Shrew (Nectogale) — Desmans and Moles (Talpide)— Desmans (Myogale)— Russian Desman—Pyrenean Desman—Mole-Shrews (Urotrichus)—Web-Footed Moles (Sealops)—Hairy-Tailed Moles (Scapanus)—Star-Nosed Mole (Condylura)—The True Moles (Talpa)—Extinct Species—Yellow-tailed Mole—The Tenrees (Centetide)—Struc- tural Features—Common Tenree (Centetes)—Streaked Tenree (Hemicentetes)—Hedgehog Tenrecs (Hriculus) — Long-Tailed Tenrecs (Microgale)— Rice-Tenrees (Oryzorictes) — Solenodons (Solenodontide)—Haytian Solenodon—Cuban Solenodon—The Potamogale (Potamogalide)—The Geogale—The Golden Moles (Chrysochloride), CHAPTER XIII.—TuHeE Carnivores,—Order Carnivora. THE Cat-TrIBE (Felide)—General Characteristics—Distinctive Features of the Cat Tribe— The Lion—Present and Past Distribution—Varieties—Habits—Its Roar—Its Prey— Perils of Lion-Hunting—The Tiger—Habits and Haunts—Partiality for Water—Its Prey—Loss Inflicted on Cattle-Owners—Man-Eating Tigers—Their Victims— Modes of Destroying Tigers—The Leopard—Its Coloration and Characteristics—Black and White Leopards—Distribution—Mode of Life and Haunts-—-Partiality for Dogs—Leopard- PAGE 289 vi CONTENTS PAGE Hunting and Trapping—Snow-Leopard, or Ounce—Distribution and Habits—Jaguar —Distinctive Features and Dimensions—Its Prey—Animosity to the Puma—Lassoing Jaguars—Puma—Its Colour and Size—Adaptability to Climates—Attacks on Horses— Gentleness to Man—Food and Habits—Fossil Pumas—Clouded Leopard—Marbled Cat —Golden Cat—Fishing Cat—Its Habits and Daring—Leopard-Cat—Serval—Rusty- Spotted Cat — Flat-Headed Cat — Ocelot —Its Remarkable Variability — Margay — Jaguarondi—Eyra—lIts Weasel-like Form—Colocollo—Cattfre, or Egyptian Cat—Its “Relation to Domestic Cats—Wild Cat—lIts Present Rarity in Britain—Fierceness of its Disposition—Pallas’s Cat—Indian Desert Cat—Domestic Cats—Different Views as to their Origin—Various Colours—Persian, or Angora Breed—Siamese Cat—Manx Cat —Mombas Cat—Pampas Cat—Jungle-Cat—Caracal—Lynx—Distribution and Races of Lynxes—Northern Lynx—Canada Lynx—Bay Lynx—Pardine Lynx—Hunting- Leopard (Cynelurus)— Name Chita not exclusively applicable to this Species—Capturing Black-Buck with Tamed Hunting-Leopards—Extinct Cats, : : : . 3849 CHAPTER XIV.—CarRnivorEs,—continued. Civets, AARD-WoLF, AND Hynas.—The Civet Tribe (Viverride)—Fossa (Cryptoprocta)— True Civets (Viverra)—African Civet—Indian Civet—Burmese Civet—Javan Civet— Rasse—Genets (Genetta)—Linsangs (Linsang)—Palm-Civets (Paradoxurus)—Indian Palm-Civet—Malay Palm-Civets—Chinese Palm-Civet—Small-Toothed Palm-Civets (Arctogale) — Hemigales (Hemigale)— African Palm-Civet (Nandinia) — Binturong (Arctictis)—Cynogale (Cynogale)—Mungooses (Herpestes)—Egyptian Mungoose—Indian Mungoose, and its Encounters with Snakes—Introduction’ of Mungooses into Sugar Plantations—Crab-Eating Mungoose— Other Species—Four-Toed Mungooses (Cynictis)— Smooth-Nosed Mungooses(Rhinogale)—Cusimanse (Crossarchus)—The Meerkat (Suricata) and its Interesting Habits—-Madagascar Mungooses (Galidictis and Hupleres)—Extinct Civet-like Animals—Aard-Wolf (Proteletde)—Hyenas (Hyenide)—Characteristics— Striped Hyzena—Brown Hyzna—Spotted Hyzena—Extinct Species, . : . 448 CHAPTER XV.—CarnivoreEs,—continued. THE Doc TriBe (Canide).—General Characteristics, Distribution and Habits—Extent of the yenus (Canis)—The Wolf—Its Numerous Varieties and Wide Distribution—Habits —Indian Wolf—Coyote—Antarctic Wolf—Kaberu—Jackals—Black-Backed Jackal— Side-Striped Jackal—Dingo—Domestic Dogs—Origin—Eskimo Dog—Hare Indian Dog —Pomeranian Dog—Sheep-Dog—Collie—Drover’s Dog—Pariah Dogs—English Grey- hound—Italian Greyhound—Deerhound—Irish Wolf-Dogs—Other Greyhounds— Hairless Dogs—Lurchers—Field-Spaniels—Irish Water-Spaniel—Setters—Retrievers — Newfoundlands— Bloodhound —Staghound — Foxhound — Harrier — Otterhound — Beagle—Turnspit—Dachshund—Pointer—Dahnatian Dog—Mastiff—Bull-Dog—Bull- Terrier—Boarhound—Pugs—Tibet Dog—Fox-Terrier—Irish Terrier—Skye-Terrier— Dandie Dinmont — Yorkshire Terrier—English Terrier— Poodle— Maltese Dog— Mexican Lap-Dog—Asiatie Wild Dog—Siberian Wild Dog—Indian Wild Dog—Malay Wild Dog—Extinct Species—Maned Wolf—Azara’s Wild Dog—Crab-Eating Dog— Short-Eared Dog—Raccoon Dog—The Foxes—The Common Fox—Grey Fox—Kit Fox Arctic Fox—Desert Fox—Corsac Fox—Indian Fox—Hoary Fox—Asse Fox—Pale Fox — Ruppell’s Fennee—Common Fennec —Cape Hunting-Dog (Lycaon) — Bush-Dog (Icticyon)—Lalande’s Dog (Octocyon)—Extinct Dogs, : : : : . 492 INDEX TO First VOLUME, COMPRISING Sections I. anv ILI, . : : : SaenOue LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS COEOURED ‘PLATES JAGUAR KILLING TAPIR, . Wepe-Footep SHREWS, TIGRESS AND CUBs, LEOPARDS, WILp Cat, LINSANGS, . Common Fox, AFRICAN FENNECS, Lion AnD LIoNEss, CarRAcaLs HUNTING, Eoyptian MUNGOOSES, A GATHERING oF STRIPED Fremuaes Aw Eskruo anpD His Dogs, Frontispiece Facing page 331 PAGE PLATES TEXT ENGRAVINGS Head of Tomb-Bat, Long-Tailed Bat, Head of Mastiff-Bat, Head of Female of the Naked Bat, Head of Blainville’s Chin-Leafed Bat, The Great Vampire-Bat, The Javelin-Vampire, 2 F Head of Long-Tongued Vampire, . Head of Centurion Bat, ; Skeleton of Hedgehog, The Cobego, The Common Tree- Shey, Pen-Tailed Tree-Shrew, Cape Jumping-Shrew, Rock Jumping-Shrew, The Common Hedgehog, . Hedgehog and Young, Raffles’s Gymnura, Teeth of Swimming-Shrew, Skeleton of Water-Shrew, . PAGE | 291 293 294 297 The Spider Musk-Shrew and Common Shrew, : : : The W. epeeeaee The Common ak: Sites, Skeleton of Mole, Russian Desmans, . Fore-Foot of Mole, The Common Mole, Tritubercular Molar Tooth, The Tenrec, The Cuban Solenodon, The Potamogale, Skeleton of Tiger, . . Skull of the Common Fox, : Flesh-Tooth of the Striped Hyzna, Flesh-Tooth of an Extinct Dog-like Car- nivore, ‘ Cape Maned Lion, . Teeth of Sabre-Toothed ee Lion at a Pool, 373 387 422 456 557 568 ge 348 434 467 484 dll PAGE 325 328 329 332 333 337 338 340 341 344 345 349 352 353 353 358 359 363 Vill LIST OF TIZLOUSTRATIONS Maneless Lion from Senegal, The Tiger and the Tigress, The Bengal Tiger, . ‘ The Struggle in the Stream, The Leopard, Black Leopard, Leopard on the Prowl, The Snow-Leopard, The Puma, The Clouded eee The Marbled Cat, The Fishing-Cat, The Leopard-Cat, The Serval, The Ocelot, The Margay, The Eyra, The Cattre Cat, The Domestic Cat, The Angora Cat, The Pampas Cat, . mae, The Jungle-Cat, The Northern Lynx, The European Lynx, The Pardine Lynx, The Hunting-Leopard, Skull of Sabre-Toothed Cat, Upper Jaw of the Indian Civet, The Fossa, . The Civet, . The Indian Civet, The Rasse, . The Genet, The Common Palm-Civ aes The Malay Palm-Civet, The Chinese Palm-Civet, The Binturong, The Cynogale, The Indian Mungoose, The Crab-Eating Mungoose, The Thick-Tailed Mungoose, The Cusimanse, The Banded Mungoose, The Meerkat, The Aard-Wolf, Skeleton of Spotted Hyeena, Lower Jaw of an Extinct Hyeena, The Brown Hyeena, The Spotted Hyzena, PAGE 367 373 376 384 387 389 391 393 398 407 409 410 412 414 417 418 419 42] 426 428 431 432 437 Teeth of Common Fox and Azara’s Fox, . Skeleton of Wolf, The Wolf, The Coyote, The Jackal, ; The Black-Backed J role The Side-Striped Jackal, Variety of the Side-Striped Jackal, The Dingo, The Pomeranian Dog, Rough-Coated Collies, English Greyhound, Italian Greyhounds, Persian Greyhound, Clumber Spaniel, Trish Setter, Newfoundland Dog, Rough St. Bernard, Bloodhounds, , Staghounds after a Chase, . Foxhounds in Full Cry, The Otterhound, The Beagle, The Dachshund, Liver-and-White Pointer, The Bull-Dog, German Boarhounds, Pet Pugs, Tibet Dog, . Welsh Terriers, Yorkshire Terrier, F Smooth and Rough Terriers, White and Black Poodles, . Siberian Wild Dog, Indian Wild Dog, . Malay Wild Dog, Azara’s Dog, The Raccoon-Dog, . Skeleton of Fox, Arctic Foxes on the Ice, Fox and Cubs, The Grey Fox, Arctic Fox in Summer Duress, Arctic Fox in Winter Dress, The Corsac Fox, Cape Hunting-Dog, Hunting-Dogs chasing Gemsbok, . Lalande’s Dog, Foxhound, . PAGE 493 494 496 500 503 505 506 507 509 SI or or or on mew hw wd we IOnrt we © or Gr ic (Or No} on rs — Ov or TS is or or oO o> Sd > He Ow oo o CEC ASP ipku mo Xeus Bats,—concluded. THE FREE-TAILED INSECTIVOROUS BATs. THE chief distinctive features of this group are that, as a rule, the tail (when present) either penetrates the membrane between the leys, so that its extremity appears on the upper surface, or it is produced considerably beyond the hinder margin ; secondly, that the innermost (frequently the only) pair of upper incisor teeth are generally of large size, and placed very close together; and, thirdly, that except in two genera, each represented by a single species, the first joint of the third or middle finger of the wing is, when at rest, folded back upon the upper surface of its supporting metacarpal, instead of being extended forwards in the same line, as in the species we have hitherto described. Not a single repre- sentative of this large assemblage of bats is found in the British Isles, and, indeed, only one species occurs within the limits of the European area. They are mainly characteristic of tropical and subtropical regions; but whereas the first of the two families into which they are divided ranges over both hemispheres, the second is strictly confined to the central and southern portions of the Western. The number of genera—to say nothing of species—included in the two families is very large, and as many of them are distinguished from one another by comparatively trivial characteristics, we shall notice only a few typical forms, of special interest either from peculiarities of structure or of habits. THE SMOOTH-NOSED FREE-TAILED Barts. Family HMBALLONURIDA. The first family of the group occupies a position precisely similar to that held by the Typical Bats (Vespertilionide) in the other branch of the insect-eaters treated in the preceding section. In addition to the peculiar mode of folding the third finger of the wing, and the characters of the tail already alluded to, they are distinguished by the circumstance that there are but two bony joints in this third finger, as also by the absence of any distinct nose-leaf. As a rule, they have a small tragus in the ear, and only a single pair of upper incisor teeth, which incline towards one another. Moreover, the extremity of the snout is obliquely truncated from above downwards, so as to cause the nostrils to project more or less in front of the tip of the lower jaw. The family is widely distributed over the warmer regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and includes one of the two species which are the only representatives of the entire VOL. I.—19 290 BATS. order (as, indeed, they are of the whole class of Mammals) found in New Zealand ; but the range on either side is mainly restricted to the belt lying within thirty degrees of the Equator. THE SHEATH-TAILED Bats. Genus Hmballonwra. The mountain sheath-tailed bat (4imballonura monticola) is a fairly well- known representative of a group of this family in which the tail is slender, and has its free extremity perforating the membrane between the hind legs, while the legs are relatively long, and the upper incisor teeth comparatively small and weak. The special characteristic of the genus is that there are two pairs of upper incisor teeth; the total number of teeth being 34, of which 2 on each side belong to the incisor, and 2 to the cheek series. The production of the muzzle is more or less strongly marked, the top of the head is flat, and the ears are not united, and have a tragus of somewhat oblong form, and expanded above. The mountain sheath-tailed bat is of a chocolate-brown colour, and measures about 14 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. It is found in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines; the other four species of the genus inhabiting various islands in the region extending from Madagascar to the Navigator group. The genus is, therefore, exclusively an insular one, and, in this respect, quite peculiar. The Polynesian sheath-tailed bat (4. semzcaudata) is found in the Mergui Archipelago lying off Tenasserim. THE PoucH-WINGED Bats. Genus Saccopterye. Omitting two small genera, we come to the remarkable pouch-winged bats (Saccopteryx) of Central and South America, which-do not generally exceed 2 inches in length, and have fewer teeth than the foregoing; the number of incisors being 4, and the cheek-teeth 2 on each side. They derive their name from the presence of a peculiar glandular pouch on the under side of each wing, at or near the elbow-joint. These pouches, which are well developed in the males but rudimentary in the females, secrete a red-coloured strongly-smelling substance, which appears to act as a sexual attraction. In one species from British Guiana (S. leptwra), these pouches are unusually large, and from each of them projects a prominent white frill of skin, which seems capable of being protruded and with- drawn at the will of the animal; the use of this is unknown. In Demerara these . bats may be seen flying about quite close to the houses at dusk. Moseley relates that he caught an example of another species (S. canina) in Bahia, resting fast asleep on the bare bark of a large tree; the dense forest growth overhead making such an exposed situation quite dark enough for a resting-place throughout the day. Nearly all the six species have the fur of a uniform dark brown colour, although one has a reddish tinge. PRE E- LALEED (GRO OP. 291 THE TomB-Bats. Genus Taphozous. These derive both their popular and scientific titles from one of the species being found in vast numbers in the ancient Egyptian tombs, where they were discovered during the first French Expedition to that country. The tomb-bats differ from the other members of the group in having only two pairs of incisor teeth in the lower jaw, and also by the circumstance that the upper pair of these teeth are shed in the adult state. Instead of the glandular pouches on the wings, characteristic of the preceding genus, most of these bats have pouches of a similar nature on the under-surface otf the chin; these being chiefly, and in some cases exclusively, developed in the male sex. Many individuals, especially those taken during the hibernating season, have large deposits of fat around the root of the tail and the base of the thighs. This is probably for supporting life during the hibernating season, which, from the more northerly range of this species, would appear to be longer than among the other representatives of the genus. The tomb-bats are found in Africa, India, Burma, the Malayan region, and Australia, but are unknown in Polynesia. Most of them are dwellers in caves, fissures in rocks, and old buildings; but one Indian species has been observed on the stem of a palm tree. Perhaps the best known species is the naked - bellied tomb-bat (Taphozous nudiventris), readily recognised by its tawny fur and the naked under-parts. It is a large species, measuring 33 inches in length, exclusive of the tail, the span of the wing being about 20 inches. This species is widely distributed over Africa, and is the one found in the Kgyptian tombs, while it also extends into Syria and Palestine. According to Canon Tristram, the caves near the Sea of Galilee are inhabited by clouds of these bats. Writing of the Sumatran species (7. ajfinis), Mr. E. C. Buxton, as quoted by Dr. Dobson, states that at Telok Betong, in Sumatra, “there was an old, hollow cocoa-nut stump in the garden, and about twenty of these bats lived in it. At night, or rather early in the morning, they used to hang at the top of the verandah in company with several other kinds; and I found that they were all fruit-eaters, as there was a great deal of fruit-refuse under them.” Although, as Dr. Dobson remarks, this by no means proves the tomb-bat to be at times a fruit-eater, as, for HEAD OF TOMB-BAT,—After Dobson. all we know, the fruit-refuse might have been deposited by its companions, yet that this is probably the case is indicated by the partially frugivorous habits of some of its American allies. The tail of the tomb-bats perforates the membrane between the legs near its centre, and thus has the tip freely projecting. At the will of the animal it can, however, be withdrawn almost completely within the membrane, which thus forms a kind of sheath. 202 BATS. THE WHITE Barts. Genus Diclidurus. As white is a colour but rarely met with among the Chiroptera, we cannot pass over the white bats, which are represented only by two species from Central and South America. These bats are allied to the tomb-bats, but have three pairs of lower incisor teeth, and they are also distinguished from other bats by the presence of a peculiar pouch on the under side of the membrane between the legs. The typical white bat (Diclidurus albus) has the fur on the body dark at the base, but the greater portion of each hair, up to the tip, is of a yellowish or creamy- white, while the whole of the wing-membranes are pure white. The first known specimen was found in Brazil reposing between the fronds of a cocoanut palm. If this be the normal habitat of the species, its coloration may perhaps be a protective one, adapted to resemble the silvery hue of the under-surface of the palm leaves. Here it may be mentioned that albino varieties of dark-coloured bats are occasion- ally met with; the most recently described example that has come under our notice being a white specimen of a species of Vesperugo (V. capensis), obtained in 1890 near Cape Town. THE HaARE-LIPPED BATs. Genus Noctilio. If the white bats are noteworthy on account of their colour, the two species of hare-lipped bats, which are likewise Central and South American forms, are deserv- ing of mention on account of the curious superficial resemblances of their muzzles to those of the Rodents, while at least the ordinary species (Noctilio leporinus), which has been known since the time of Linnzeus, is not less remarkable from the peculiar nature of its diet. These bats derive their ordinary name from their curiously folded upper lip, which is bent upwards in the middle line in the form of an inverted V, terminated above by the nostrils. The feet and claws are remarkable for their large size. They have 28 teeth, of which there are ? incisors, and # cheek- teeth on each side. The first, or innermost pair of upper incisor teeth, are of great size, and placed close together so as to conceal the small outer pair; and as the large ones bite against the single smaller pair of lower incisors, the resemblance to the mouth of a small Rodent, such as a mouse, is very striking. These bats appear to be almost omnivorous in their diet. That they would freely eat cockroaches was proved long ago by Mr. P. H. Gosse, when in Jamaica; and it was at the same time shown that they would chew, although not swallow, the flesh of small birds. In 1859, a Mx. Fraser, writing from Ecuador, stated that they had a very peculiar and offensive fishy smell, and that he had observed them “skimming the bank of the river, every now and then making a dash along, and actually striking the water, catching the minute shrimps as they pass up stream.” It was not, however, till 1880, that it was definitely known that they actually eaught and fed upon small fish. Professor M‘Carthy, who made special investiga- tions to determine the truth of their alleged fish-eating habits, writes to Mr. J. E. FREE-TAILED GROUP. 293 Harting, that in December 1888 he visited a cave in an island near Menos. “This cave is in a soft shale formation, and the top of the opening is about seven feet from the water at full tide. The bats were then in an active state, and the majority appeared to be flying homewards. There were few fish near the surface of the water, and comparatively little local fishing appeared to be going on. An occasional ‘swish’ now and again far out proved that the bats were trying to secure their prey. Five homeward-bound specimens were secured in the cave, about twelve yards from the mouth. The stomach of one specimen opened within half an hour contained much fish in a finely-divided and partially digested state. On the morning of the 31st I visited the cave from which the specimens were procured at 3 A.M., and found that the bats had apparently forgotten the previous disturbance. They came flying in in dozens, and two specimens were secured. Both contained considerable quantities of fish. I have opened several other specimens of these bats, and in the majority of cases fish-scales were found; but the stomachs of two were perfectly empty. This might be attributed to the absence of the desired fish in the locality.” THE LoNG-TAILED BAT. Genus Rhinopona. The last, and at the same time not the least, noteworthy member of the present subfamily, is the long-tailed bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum), which is found from LONG-TAILED BAT (nat. size). 294 , BATS. North-East Africa, through India, to Burma. It has 28 teeth, of which $ on each side belong to the incisor, and + to the cheek series. Its most distinctive feature is, however, its very long and slender free tail, which projects far beyond the margin of the very short membrane between the legs, and thereby distinguishes it at a glance from all other bats. It is further quite peculiar in that the second or index finger of the wing has two joints. Another feature, of less import, although that which has given the scientific name to the genus, is the presence of a fleshy prominence on the muzzle, just over the nose; this prominence having been incorrectly regarded as a rudimentary nose-leaf. In specimens taken in India during the cold season, there 18 an enormous accumulation of fat around the tail and thighs, which is sometimes so large as to exceed the weight of the rest of the body; the accumulation being similar to that already noticed as occurring in the naked-bellied tomb-bat and doubtless serving the same purpose. According to Mr. Blanford, “this species is common in North-Western India, and hides during the day in caves, clefts in rocks, old ruins, and similar places. In Cutch it takes up its abode in wells. Jerdon relates that in Madras, in 1848, many were captured in a house for three successive nights, having probably been blown by strong westerly winds from the rocky hills to the westward. The species is not of common occurrence in Madras. According to Blyth, this species formerly abounded in the Taj at Agra (it may still be found there), and Cantor found numbers inhabiting the subterranean Hindu place of worship within the fort at Allahabad.” THE MAsTIFF-BATS. Genus Molossus. With the mastiff-bats, which take their name from a supposed resemblance of their broad wide-mouthed muzzles to the head of a mastiff, we come to the first representatives of the second subfamily of this division, the members of which are characterised by the thickness of their tails, which (with a single exception) are prolonged for a considerable distance beyond the hinder margin of the membrane between the hind legs. The legs are short and strong, and the feet of great relative width; while the thumbs of the wings have curious callosities at their bases; and the upper incisor teeth are of large size, and limited to a single pair. As in all these bats, the feet are completely free from the wing-membranes, which can be comfortably er are folded up and stored away between the fore-arms and the Dobson, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1878.) legs, and the membrane between the legs can be retracted to a greater or less extent by being moved backwards and forwards along the tail. In the strength of their limbs, in the development of the corn-like callosities at the bases of their thumbs, as well as in their large and flat feet, and the freedom of their feet from the wing-membranes, the mastiff- bats and their allies are more adapted for crawling on the ground than any other members of this group of animals. And the result of observations on living FPREE-TAILED GROUP. 295 specimens has been to confirm these inductions, made upon the evidence of structural peculiarities. The mastiff-bats are an American group, found in the tropical and subtropical regions of both divisions of the Western Hemisphere. With the exception of two species, in which the number of the lower incisor teeth is reduced to a single pair, they have either 26 or 28 teeth, of which } on either side are incisors, while the cheek-teeth number either ¢ or ?. The upper incisors are placed close together in the middle line; and the large ears, which have a small tragus (occasionally absent) are united by their inner margins. In common with two nearly allied genera of bats, they have very capacious lips, which in most of the species are thrown into a number of wrinkles or puckers; and they are further characterised by their long and slender wings. ‘The great length and narrowness of the wings indicates, as Dr. Dobson observes, rapid flight ; and since they also possess the power of varying the length of the membrane between the legs by a “reefing” process, they must have great dexterity in suddenly changing their direction, as when they are compelled to double in pursuing swiftly flying insects; and, again, their expansive and capacious lips aid the teeth in seizing and retaining the round and solidly armoured bodies of the larger beetles; so that it would seem that they are better adapted than any other members of the order for capturing insects of very swift flight. Of the red mastiff-bat (M/olossus rufus) an account is given by Mr. P. H. Gosse, from which it appears that this bat inhabits the roofs of houses and the hollow trunks of palm trees, where colonies of large size may sometimes be found. It is more active when on the ground than any other species; and, indeed, on such occasions its motions are so rapid that some dexterity is required to ensure its capture. In the act of running it rests on its wrists, with the fore-part of the body considerably raised. In the hollow stem of a palm tree, examined by another observer, it was found that while in one place the males of this species were collected together to a number approaching two hundred, in another spot the assemblage consisted almost entirely of females, with only a solitary male among them here and there. This distinction of the resting-places of the two sexes has also been noticed in certain other bats. In describing the habits of another species, the chestnut mastiff-bat (I. glaucinus), Myr. Gosse writes that “soon after sunset we hear the scrambling of little claws along the plaster (in the loft above) gradually tending towards the point where the hole under the eaves is situated . . . I judge that they crawl along one after another in a straight line to the outlet, in parties. The family assured me that after the mastiff-bats had emerged a few hours, they invariably returned into the hole again; and they several times directed my attention to them when returning. They return between eight and nine o'clock, and issue forth again before the morning twilight. When handled, its impatience of confinement is manifested by a continuous screeching, not very loud, but exceedingly harsh and shrill. The ears are commonly so pendent as completely to cover the eyes; but they are occasionally retracted so as to expose the eyes, especially if the face be touched.” In certain parts of the Amazon Valley the mastiff-bats, together with some species belonging to the under-mentioned nose-leafed family, are so numerous as to 296 BATS. become a serious inconvenience to travellers. Thus when at Caripi, a station situated about twenty miles from Para, Bates narrates how for the first few nights of his stay he slept in a room with the roof open to the tiles and rafters, which had not been used for many months previously; and on the second night of his visit was awakened about midnight by the sudden rushing of swarms of bats flying around him. So numerous were they, that the air was alive with them; the lamp had been extinguished by the rush of their wings, but when relighted revealed the whole room blackened by their multitudes. The traveller proceeded to clear them out by laying about vigorously with a stick, and for a time succeeded in making the unwelcome intruders retire to the tiles and rafters. No sooner, however, was quiet restored than the bats reappeared in full force, and once more extinguished his light. On the third night several of the bats got into his hammock, and crawled over him; these were seized and dashed against the wall. In the morning he was unpleasantly reminded of the nocturnal visitation by finding that he had a wound on the hip, evidently caused by the bite of a bat. Being thereby roused to desperation, he set to work in real earnest to mitigate the nuisance. in very aged individuals even the = single remaining pair may be shed, thus leaving the creature without any upper front teeth. The length of the head and body of the best- known species is about 8 inches; and that of its long, scaly, rat-like tail somewhat less. Its general colour is rusty-brown, becoming blacker on the top of the head and along the back; while the flanks have some bright reddish spots just below the hinder part of the back. Habits. From the reduc- tion in the number of their teeth and toes, as weil as k from the prolongation of the rock sumprye sHRew (4 nat. size), (From a Plate by Peters.) muzzle, we may regard the long- nosed jumping shrews as very specialised creatures. Unfortunately, we know little or nothing of their habits; but from their relatively shorter hind-legs it may be assumed that they are less habitual leapers than the typical members of the family. Like many of the more aberrant Insectivores, the long-nosed jumping shrews appear to be very rare aninals. THE HEDGEHOGS AND GYMNURAS. Family HRINACEIDZ. The hedgehogs and their near allies the gymnuras constitute a well-marked family, distinguished by several important characters from the preceding groups. The more important of these characteristics are, however, of such a nature as to be but briefly referred to in this place. It may be observed, however, that the brain (as may be readily seen from the dimensions of its chamber in the dried skull) is relatively smaller, and the union of the anterior elements of the pelvis in the middle line on the inferior aspect of the body shorter than in the preceding families. Further, if the cavity for the eye in the dried skull be examined, it will be found that there is not even a trace of any bony process to mark off its hinder limit from the larger hollow containing the muscles that work the lower jaw. With the exception of one species, all the members of the family have five- toed feet, provided with simple claws not adapted for digging; this feature being 318 INSECTIVORES. in accordance with their purely terrestrial and non-fossorial habits. And the broad first and second molar teeth of the upper jaw are characterised by having five distinct cusps, of which the central one is very small, and connected with the two inner ones by a pair of oblique ridges. THE HEDGEHOGS. Genus Hrinaceus. The European hedgehog, or urchin, which is far the largest of the British Insectivores, is the best known representative of a somewhat extensive genus distributed over the greater portion of Europe, and parts of Africa and Asia, although unknown in Madagascar, the Malayan Peninsula and Islands, Burma, Siam, Southern China, and Siam. The essential characteristics of the hedgehogs, as distinct from the gymnuras, are to be found in the dense coat of short spines covering the back and sides of the body, and also the shortness of the tail. The hedgehogs have 36 teeth, of which, on each side, 3 are incisors, + canines, and § cheek-teeth. An examination of the skull will show that the first pair of front or incisor teeth in the upper jaw have remarkably long crowns, which are widely separated from one another in the middle line; while the two remaining incisor teeth on each side of the same jaw are much smaller. It will further be observed that the middle region of the palate of the skull contains some open spaces not occupied by bone. The common hedgehog (Hrinaceus ewropeus) is characterised by the short and almost imperceptible neck, the pig-like snout, from which it derives its popular name, and also by the shortness of its limbs. Exclusive of the short naked tail, which measures about 1} inches, an average-sized hedgehog is about 10 inches in length. The great peculiarity of all the hedgehogs is the power they possess of rollmg themselves up into a ball-like form, presenting a chevaua-de-frise of spikes, impenetrable to the great majority of other animals. This rolling-up process is effected by the aid of an extraordinary development of a layer of muscles found beneath the skin of most Mammals, and known as the paniculus carnosus. When rolled up, the head and feet are tucked inwards, so that only the spines are exposed; and it requires a bold dog or fox to attack a hedgehog when in this condition. Under the microscope the spine is seen to be marked by a number of parallel longitudinal grooves; the ridges between them being ornamented, in some of the foreign species, with rows of tubercles. Hedgehogs date from a remote antiquity; and it is doubtless solely due to this protective armour of spines that animals of such low organisation and of such comparatively large size have been enabled to survive without resorting to the protection afforded by a subterranean or aquatic mode of life. The food of the European hedgehog is very varied, including insects, worms, slugs, snails, lizards, snakes, birds’ eggs, rats, mice, and other small animals ; while roots and fruit are also consumed to a certain extent. The partiality of hedgehogs for insects is often taken advantage of in ridding houses of beetles and cockroaches; although the hedgehog itself not unfrequently Habits. HEDGEHOGS. 319 o comes to an untimely end by a too close approach to the kitchen stove for the sake of warmth. A hedgehog kills a snake by inflicting a series of bites, and quickly assuming the defensive when threatened with attack. That eggs are largely con- sumed by these animals is proved by the readiness with which they are caught in traps thus baited. On account of such depredations, as well as from their destructiveness to young birds, they are much persecuted by gamekeepers. There is, moreover, at least one instance on record of a hedgehog having attacked a young leveret, which it would doubtless have despatched had it not been interrupted. Hedgehogs venture forth from their hiding - places in hedges, coppices, or THE COMMON HEDGEHOG (3 nat. size). shrubberies during summer, as soon as the dews of evening commence, and may be detected devouring eaten slowly by being seized by one extremity, and turned from side to side of worms or other prey on moonlight nights. A worm is the mouth, while it is being chewed by the sharp cheek-teeth; much the same process taking place in the case of a snake. Although properly nocturnal in their habits, they may occasionally be met with searching for food during the day; and it has been suggested that on such occasions they are driven to depart from their ordinary habits by the necessity of procuring a sufficient supply of food for.their young, which are usually produced during the months of July and August, and are said not to exceed four in a litter, although it was formerly considered that the number might be as 320 INSE CTLV ORES: many as eight. Occasionally a second litter is produced during the autumn; and it is believed that the period of gestation is not longer than a month. The new- born young are almost naked, and their imperfect spines are soft, flexible, and white, although rapidly hardening in the course of a few days. They are at first totally blind, and « juite incapable of rolling themselves up. The nest in which the young are born is carefully constructed, and is said to be always protected from rain by an efficient roof. In winter the European hedgehog hibernates completely, laying up no store of food, but retiring to a nest of moss and leaves, where, rolled up in a ball, it hes torpid till awakened by the returning warmth of spring. As i a) {) » . Uy Mj \ MUI pi Wsuu"y Nein : ~ : HEDGEHOG AND YOUNG, ‘ . a rule, hedgehogs are comparatively silent creatures, but on occasions they give vent to a sound said to be something between a grunt and a low piping squeak. The range of the hedgehog in Britain includes the whole of England and portions of Ireland, but does not extend beyond the middle of Scotland; its presence in the Shetland Islands being probably due to human introduction. Eastwards it extends to Eastern China and Amurland, and it also embraces the region from the sixty-third parallel of latitude in the Scandinavian Peninsula, to Southern Italy, Asia Minor, and Syria. Not only is the European hedgehog found in the lowlands of the regions over which it extends, but in the Alps it ascends to an elevation of six thousand feet, and in the Caucasus to upwards of eight thousand feet above the sea-level. Altogether there are nearly twenty known species of hedgehogs, and among these the European form is in some respects quite peculiar. Its fur mingled with the spines is very coarse and harsh, and the upper tusk, or canine tooth (the fourth tooth from the extremity of the muzzle), is inserted by a single root, Distribution. GYMNURAS. 321 while in all the others the fur is softer and finer, and the upper canine tooth has two roots, and closely resembles the cheek-teeth. Hedgehogs are represented by five distinct species in India, all characterised by having minute tubercles on the ridges of their spines. It is remarkable that while one of these hedgehogs (£. micropus) is found in Madras, no repre- sentative of the genus is recorded from the Central Provinces and Bengal, the other species not occurring till we reach the North-West Provinces, the Punjab, ete. But little is known of the habits of these Indian species, and nothing as to their breeding ; although it is probable that in both these respects they conform closely to their European cousin. The long-eared Afghan hedgehog (4. megalotis), common in the neighbourhood of Kandahar and Quetta, hibernates, but the species from the Punjab and Southern India are active at all seasons of the year, thus showing how absolutely dependent is the habit of hibernation upon climate. The collared hedgehog (4. collaris), found in the plains of North-Western India, inhabits “sandy country, hiding in holes beneath thorny bushes or in tufts of grass during the day, feeding chiefly on insects, especially a species of Blaps, and also on lizards and snails. It makes a grunting noise when irritated, and when touched suddenly jerks up its back so as to throw its spines forward, making at the same time a sound like a puff from a pair of bellows.” Mr. Blanford just quoted, also states that the Afghan hedgehog feeds on the slugs and snails so common in the fields round Kandahar, as well as worms, insects, and lizards. It hides during the day in holes; and hibernates from the end of October or beginning of November till February. If we know but little of the habits of the Asiatic hedgehogs, this lack of information is still more marked with respect to those of Africa, where some species are found in the Cape district, and others in the regions to the north of the Sahara (Z. algirus), and in Egypt, as well as on the West Coast. One of these (2. albiventris) is peculiar in having lost the inner toe of the hind foot; although its claw has been found on one foot of an adult female from Lagos, as well as on both feet of young specimens from the same locality. Fossil hedgehogs are met with in the Tertiary rocks of Europe as far back as the early portion of the Miocene period. Some of the extinct hedgehogs belonged to the existing genus Hrinaceus; and one of them (EL. wningensis), from the middle Tertiary fresh-water limestones of Baden, appears to be allied to the Algerian hedgehog, being totally different in the structure of its teeth from the common European species. Others are, however, distinguished by having a complete bony roof to the palate, and these form a distinct genus, which may be allied in this respect to the gymnuras. African Species. Extinct Species. THE GYMNURAS. Genus Gymnura. The gymnuras, which are not unlike large rough-haired shrews, take the place of the hedgehogs in Burma and the Malayan region. Although closely allied to the hedgehogs in the structure of their teeth and other details of their anatomy, VOL. I.—21 322 INSECTIVORES. these Insectivores are so unlike them in external appearance that it is difficult to believe in their close affinity. It must be remembered, however, that the spines of the hedgehogs totally alter the appearance of the creature from what it would be, if unprovided with these appendages ; and if we were to compare a gymnura with a young hedgehog, in which the spines were still rudimentary, the difference in appearance would not be so very marked. The gymuuras are distinguished from the hedgehogs by the total absence of spines; and also by the long naked tail, from which they derive their name. Further points of distinction are afforded by the complete bony roof to the palate, and also by the larger number of teeth in the gymnuras, which is upwards of forty-four. The large and typical number of teeth characteristic of these animals is, indeed, but very Characteristics. rarely met with among existing Maminals, although it was com- mon amongst extinct forms. In this respect, therefore, the gymnura betrays the antiquity of the group to which it belongs. eee eee Rafiles’s gymnura (Gymnwra rafiles:) —so named after Sir Stamford Rafiles—is an animal somewhat resembling a large rat with a long pointed nose; the length of the head and body varying from 12 to 14 inches, and that of the long rat-like tail from 84 to 9} inches. The head and body are generally parti-coloured, with considerable individual variation in the distribution of the black and white. Usually, however, the greater part of the head and neck is white; but there is a black patch in front of and another above each of the eyes, and there are frequently some long black hairs on the crown of the head. The terminal third of the tail is generally white. Occasionally specimens are found in Burma of a uniform white colour throughout; these, however, must not be regarded as albinos. The hair is of two kinds—a close, soft under-fur and long coarse bristles. RafHles’s gymnura is found in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, in the Malay Peninsula, and in Burma. It is either a rare animal, or on account of its retiring and strictly nocturnal mode of life is but seldom met with. Of its habits we are still ignorant. It is, however, said to make its home beneath the roots of trees; and, from the contents of the stomachs of specimens that have been examined, we learn that its food consists of different kinds of insects ; cockroaches, white ants, and larvee being apparently its favourites. It is distinguished by a peculiarly disagreeable smell of a somewhat oniony or garlic-like nature. Distribution. Still more rare is the lesser gymnura (G. swilla), a small rusty-brown coloured animal, paler beneath, measuring just short of 5 inches in length, with a tail not exceeding an inch. It occurs in Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, ascending in Borneo to a considerable elevation above the sea-level on Mount Kina Balu in the northern part of the island. SHRE WS. 323 Extinct Gym- Extinct Insectivores, more or less closely allied to the gymnuras, nuras. have left their remains in the Tertiary deposits of France belonging to the upper portion of the Eocene and the lower part of the Miocene period. These extinct forms, although belonging to distinct genera from those now existing, serve to show the antiquity of this group of animals; and, in common with many others, further indicate how the early Tertiary fauna of Europe has its nearest representatives in the remote islands of the Malayan Archipelago. THE SHREWS. Family SorrIciD#. The elegant little creatures known as shrews, or shrew-mice as they are often termed from their mouse-like form, constitute the fourth family of the true Insectivores. So like, indeed, are these animals to mice and rats, that in popular estimation they are often confounded with them; although they are readily distinguishable by their long and pointed snouts, their rounded ears, closely pressed to the sides of the head, and the characters of their teeth. Though there would be little likelihood of mistaking a shrew for a hedgehog, it 1s necessary to point out in some detail the characters on which naturalists refer these groups to separate families; since, as we have seen, the spines of the hedgehogs do not form a characteristic of more than generic importance. Perhaps the most ready means of determining whether or no an Insectivore belongs to the shrew family is afforded by the characters of the first pair of front or incisor teeth. In all shrews these teeth are different from the others; those of the upper jaw (as shown in the figure) being long and generally sickle-shaped, with a more or less distinct cusp at the base of their hinder border; while in the lower jaw they are long and project horizontally forwards, sometimes curving ite a upwards at the tips. Moreover, with the single excep- tion of one peculiar African species, which has a rudi- mental seventh tooth, the lower jaw of every shrew has only six teeth on each side. SIDE VIEW OF THE RIGHT ANTERIOR The above features are sufficient to distinguish SoERe” IRS ACRE aR a shrew from any other Insectivore ; but a few additional MING SHREW FROM UNALASKA sie. . wae ISLAND. characteristics may also be mentioned. Thus the first and second upper molar teeth of all the shrews differ | Much enlarged. The first upper incisor (the tooth on the right of from those of the hedgehogs and gymnuras by the th. figure) is less sickle-shaped absence of the fifth or central cusp on the crown. _ than usual.—After Dobson. Then, again, the skull of a hedgehog or gymnura, as shown in the figure of the skeleton of the former given on p. 308, has a complete bony bar—the zygomatic arch—running below the socket for the eye to connect the upper jaw with the hinder part of the skull. In a shrew, on the other hand, this bony arch, as shown in the accompanying figure, is invariably incomplete beneath the eye, owing to the absence of the cheek-bone.!| A further char- acteristic feature of the shrews is the extreme length and narrowness of their skulls. 1 Tn one Indian hedgehog the zygomatic arch is incomplete. 324 INSEE CTIV ORES. od With the exception of a few species which have taken to an aquatic life, the shrews are terrestrial and nocturnal in their habits. They are all covered with fur, generally remarkable for its softness; the head is long, with a sharply pointed snout projecting far in advance of the tip of the lower Jaw; their eyes are extremely small and bead-like; and the external ears, if present at all, are rounded, and not unlike the human ear in general contour. ; Distribution The shrews have a more extensive distribution than any other and Habits. family of Insectivores, and likewise comprise a far larger number of species. They are to be met with throughout the whole of the temperate and tropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, as well as on many of the adjacent islands; one species extending as far north as Unalaska Island in the Aleutian group. “From their obscure and retiring habits,’ writes Bell, “the shrews are difficult of observation; their long and pointed snout, their extensible form, and short and velvety coat enable them to pass through the closest herbage, or beneath the carpets of dry leaves in the coppice and woodland, in which situa- tions, as well as in the open fields, whether cultivated or in pasture, they seek their SKELETON OF WATER-SHREW. food. But they are not confined in their habitat to such situations, as with their congeners, the water shrews, they are often met with in marshy and fen districts.” On the other hand, one of the Indian shrews constantly frequents dwelling-houses. The number of genera (to say nothing of species) of shrews is so considerable, that it is only possible to notice here some of the more interesting and important. The genera may be arranged under two groups, according as to whether the teeth are stained of a reddish-brown colour or are of the ordinary white hue. THE TYPICAL SHREWS. Genus Sore. Tn addition to their red teeth, the typical shrews, as represented by the common Kuropean shrew (Sorex vulgaris), figured on the right side of the following illustration, are characterised by the number of their teeth being thirty-two, and by the large size of their ears and the length of the tail; the latter being covered with hairs of nearly, or quite, uniform length. With the exception of two peculiar species, all these shrews are terrestrial; and they inhabit Europe, Asia north of the Himalaya, and North America. And it may be remarked here that the red- SHRE WS. 325 toothed shrews are quite unknown in Africa south of the Sahara, and they are only represented in India and the rest of the Oriental region by a single small genus (Soriculus). The common shrew, found abundantly in the British Islands, measures just short of 3 inches in length, exclusive of the tail, and is usually of a reddish mouse-colour above, paler beneath, with the tail somewhat quadrangular and rather shorter than the body. There is, however, considerable individual variation in colour, specimens being sometimes found banded with white. Like the mole, the common shrew has a wide geographical range, extending from England, through Europe and Asia to North America. The facility with which this species conceals itself has been already mentioned. Its Common Shrew. Habits. THE SPIDER MUSK-SHREW AND COMMON SHREW (nat. size), food is chiefly insects and worms, supplemented by snails and slugs. In disposition it is so pugnacious that two are rarely seen together except when engaged in combat; and if two or more are confined together, it is not long before the stronger kills the less robust. The strong scent with which the shrew is provided probably acts as a preventive against the attacks of some of its foes, but it is now ascertained that this is not sufficiently repulsive to deter owls from killing and devouring shrews. It was long considered that the numbers of dead shrews to be found in most gardens during the autumn were due to the attacks of cats, which are known to kill, although they will not eat these animals. Dr. Dobson considers, however, that the real cause of death is rather to be attributed to insufficiency of their proper food at that season of the year; and this interpretation is supported by the consideration that it would be otherwise difficult to account for the mortality being confined to one period of the year. Shrews hibernate in Europe throughout the winter, and during the spring and summer produce their litters of blind and 326 INSECTIVORES. toothless young; the number in each litter being usually five, six, or seven, but occasionally more. In Ireland the place of the common shrew is taken by the lesser shrew (S. pygmeus), which, although also found in England, is there much more rare. It may be distinguished by its inferior size, and also by the circumstance that the third tooth from the extremity of the upper jaw (the third incisor) is not longer than the fourth. Like its larger cousin, this species has an extensive range in Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya, but does not extend across Behring Strait into America. In marked contrast to the wide range of these species is the restricted distribution of the Alpine shrew (S. alpinus), a species of rather larger size than the common shrew, and distinguished by the uniform coloration of the upper and under surfaces of the body. This shrew is only found in the mountains of Central Europe. Lesser Shrew. Alpine Shrew. North American A variation in size comparable to that existing among the Shrews. Kuropean members of the genus is likewise found in its North American representatives, among which Bendire’s shrew (S. bendirez) is the largest, and Cooper's shrew (S. cooper’) the smallest form. Of the latter Dr. Hart Merriam writes that “although underground life does not appear to be as attractive to it as to its relatives the moles, yet it avoids too much exposure, and commonly moves, by night and by day, under cover of the fallen leaves, twigs, and other débris that always cover the ground in our northern forests. The naturalist well knows that, however cautiously he may walk, the stir of his footsteps puts to flight many forms of life that will reappear as soon as quiet is restored; therefore, in his excursions through the woods, he waits and watches, frequently stopping to listen and observe. While thus occupied, it sometimes happens that a slight rustling reaches his ear. There is no wind, but the eye rests upon a fallen leaf that seems to move. Presently another stirs, and perhaps a third turns completely over. Then something evanescent, like the shadow of an embryonic mouse, appears and vanishes before the eye can catch its perfect image. Anon the restless phantom flits across an open space, leaving no trace behind. But a charge of fine shot dropped with quick aim upon the next leaf that moves will usually solve the mystery. The author of the per- plexing commotion is found to be a curious sharp-nosed creature, no bigger than one’s little finger, and weighing hardly more than half a drachm. Its ceaseless activity, and the rapidity with which it darts from place to place, are truly astonishing, and rarely permit the observer a correct impression of its form. Whenever a tree or a large limb falls to the ground these shrews soon find it, examining every part with great care, and if a knot-hole or crevice is detected, leading to a cavity within, they are pretty sure to enter, carry in materials for a nest, and take formal possession. . . Not only are these agile and restless little shrews voracious and almost insatiable, consuming incredible quantities of raw meat and insects with great eagerness, but they are veritable cannibals withal, and will even slay and devour their own kind.” The marsh-shrew (S. palustris) from the Rocky Mountains, together with the swimming shrew (S. hydrodromus) from one of the Aleutian Islands, differ from the other members of the genus in having their feet provided with fringes of long hair to aid them in their aquatie life. SHRE WS. 327 THE SHORT-TAILED OR EARLESS SHREWS. Genus Blarina. With the exception of the water-shrews, the only other members of the red- toothed section of the family to which we shall allude are the so-called short-tailed and earless shrews, of North and Central America. These shrews are readily distinguished by their short tails and the truncation of the upper part of their ears ; some of them having the same number of teeth as the typical shrews, while in others the number is reduced to thirty. The variation in the size of the different species of this genus is nearly as marked as in the preceding one. The common short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda) occurs in the Adirondack Mountains, near New York, and is remarkable for remaining active during the whole of the rigorous winters of these regions, having been observed running about on the snow when the thermometer indicated 20° below zero. This peculiar habit is correlated with equally marked peculiarities in the diet of this species, which frequents both the dense pine forests of the uncultivated districts, and the cleared tracts of the inhabited regions. This shrew, writes Dr. Merriam, “seeks its food both by day and night; and, although the greater part of its life is doubt- less spent under ground, or at least under logs and leaves, and amongst the roots of trees and stumps, it occasionally makes excursions upon the surface, and I have met and secured many specimens in broad daylight. It subsists upon beech-nuts, insects, earthworms, slugs, sow-bugs, and mice, and can inno way be considered other than as a friend to the farmer.” THE WATER-SHREW. Genus Crossopus. The water-shrew (Crossopus fodiens) is the sole representative of a genus agreeing with some of the short-tailed shrews in possessing thirty teeth, but distin- guished by the small ears not being truncated, by the long tail, and also by the fringes of long hair on the under surface of the latter and on the feet. This shrew, as its name implies, is of thoroughly aquatic habits; the fringes of stiff hair on the tail and limbs being designed to afford aid in swimming. In length it measures about 34 inches, exclusive of the long tail. Owing to the circumstances, that while in most cases the under-parts of the body are white, while in others they partake more or less completely of the black hue of the back, it was formerly considered that there were two distinct species of water-shrews, although subsequent observa- tions have shown that such variations are merely individual. The water-shrew, although unknown in Ireland, is commonly, but locally, distributed over England and the south of Scotland. It likewise occurs over a large area of continental Europe, from whence it extends eastwards into Asia as far as the Atlas range. In the water these graceful little Habits. creatures are as much at home as water-voles or beavers; and in clear streams they may not unfrequently be observed during the day diving or running along the 328 TINSE C TIVOLRE S; bottom, and turning over the pebbles with their sharp noses in search of fresh- water shrimps, which appear to constitute their favourite food. In addition to these crustaceans, the water-shrew devours many kinds of aquatic insects or their larvee, while it is also probable that it likewise preys on the spawn or fry of minnows and other small fish. There are, moreover, several instances on record where water- shrews have been found feeding on the flesh of larger animals, which they have found dead. The swimming of the water-shrew, writes Prof. T. Bell, seems to be “ principally effected by the alternate action of the hinder feet, which produces an unequal or wriggling motion; it makes its way, however, with great velocity, and as it swims rather superficially, with the belly flattened, the sides, as it were, spread out, and the tail extended backwards as a rudder, it forms a very beautiful and Alii y/ THE WATER-SHREW (nat. size.) pleasing object, moving on the calm surface of a quiet brook, or diving, in an instant, after its food, its black velvety coat becoming beautifully silvered with the in- numerable bubbles of air that cover it when submerged; and on rising again the fur is observed to be perfectly dry, repelling the water as completely as the feathers of a water-fowl. When submerged, the ear is nearly closed by means of three little valves.” The burrows of the water-shrew are constructed in the banks of the pond or stream in which it dwells; and, if disturbed from the protection thus afforded, the creature plunges forthwith into the water to seek safety in what must be regarded as its native element. The female gives birth to the young in the burrow, the usual number produced at a litter varying from five to seven or eight. In addition to its darker coloration, and the structural differences already mentioned, the water-shrew may be distinguished at a glance from the common shrew by its stouter and somewhat depressed muzzle. The red stain on the teeth SHRE WS. 329 is, moreover, much less decided than in the latter; and indeed, when the teeth have, been much worn by long use, tends more or less completely to disappear. THE MusK-SHREWS. Genus Crocidura. With the musk-shrews, which include by far the largest representatives of the entire family, we come to the first members of the group characterised by their white teeth. No representatives of the musk-shrews occur in Britain, although the spider musk-shrew (Crocidura aranea), represented on the left side of the illustration on p. 325, and the common musk-shrew (C. suaveolens), shown in the accompanying THE COMMON MUSK-SHREW (nat. size). figure, occur on the continent of Europe. These shrews, which are of terrestrial habits, have either thirty or twenty-eight teeth, well-developed ears, and a long tail, and are covered with a coat of mingled long and short hairs. The eyes are very small, and placed nearer to the ears than to the tip of the nose. Each side of the body is furnished with a gland (sometimes absent in the female), secreting the musky product from which these shrews derive their popular name. More than eighty species of musk-shrews have been described; the range of the genus embracing Southern and Central Europe, Africa, and Asia. The species with the widest range is the spider musk-shrew, above-mentioned, which is found from North Africa and Central and Southern Europe to Central Asia, extending as far north as North-Eastern Siberia, and as far south as Ladak. It belongs to the typical group of the genus, characterised by having only three small conical teeth behind the large first upper incisor; and it is a comparatively small species, of about 330 INSECTIVORES. 3 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. This shrew frequents cultivated grounds in Europe, not unfrequently entering houses; and preys on insects, worms, and the young of the smaller Mammals and Birds. The young are born in summer, and vary from five to as many as ten in number. The common musk-shrew (C. suaveolens), of which a figure is given on p. 329, is the second representative of the genus Crocidura in Europe. It belongs to a group characterised by the presence of four small conical teeth, of which the hindmost is very minute, behind the first upper incisor tooth! This group, which is numerously represented in India, includes the largest of all shrews, and those most strongly scented with the characteristic musky odour. The best known, and at the same time the largest, of these Indian species are the brown musk-shrew (C. muwrina), and the grey musk-shrew, C. cwrulea), the latter of which is commonly termed by Anglo- Indians the musk-rat. Both these species have nine teeth on each side of the wpper jaw, and their length may be as much as 6 inches exclusive of the tail. Whereas the hair of the former is of a brownish tinge on the body and feet, in the latter it is more of a slaty hue; while the feet are flesh-coloured or yellowish-white. In other respects these two shrews are very closely allied, but whereas the brown musk-shrew is found as a rule in woods (although it will occasionally enter buildings), the grey musk-shrew generally, if not invariably, haunts human habita- tions. It has accordingly been suggested that the latter is merely a peculiar variety of the former. The grey musk-shrew is nocturnal, and is a common visitor to Indian houses. During the day it les concealed in holes and drains, issuing forth at night to hunt over the floors of rooms for cockroaches and other insects ; while thus engaged it utters from time to time a short, sharp squeak. In respect of its insect-eating habits, this musk-shrew is a benefactor to mankind; but these benefits are accompanied by the drawback that various articles may be so impreg- nated with the musky secretion of the animal as to become utterly useless. There has, however, been much exaggeration as to the penetrating power of this scent, the well-known but absurd story that wine or beer becomes impregnated with a musky flavour from the circumstance of one of these shrews having run over the outside of the bottle containing such liquor, being a case in point. In addition to its favourite cockroaches and other insects, the grey musk-shrew will also readily devour meat, and accounts are on record of an attack made by one of these animals ona frog, and by another on a snake. Other Indian musk-shrews belonging to the same group of the genus, such as Blyth’s musk-shrew (C. fuliginosa) have but eight teeth on each side of the upper jaw, or the same number as in the European spider musk-shrew (C. wraneq). THE BURROWING SHREWS. senus Anwrosoren. The burrowing shrews are small mole-like creatures, inhabiting Tibet, Western China, and Assam, where they are apparently very rare. They are characterised by their large heads, minute eyes, the absence of ear-conchs, a very short tail, and 1 In the figure of the jaw of a true shrew (Sorex) on p. 323 there are five of these small teeth. SHRE WS. 331 fore) thick velvety fur. The total number of teeth is twenty-six, of which there are seven on each side of the upper jaw. There are only two species, of which the one from Assam measures about 5 inches in length, exclusive of the stumpy tail, and is of dark slaty colour, with a tinge of brown. The interest attaching to these shrews arises from the circumstance that their structure is indicative of burrowing habits like the mole, although nothing is known on this point from actual observation. THE SWIMMING-SHREWS. Genus Chimarrogale. Although the name swimming-shrews would be equally applicable to the water-shrews (Crossopus), and the latter name to the members of the present genus, yet it is convenient to take the two terms with the signification here given. The swimming shrews, of which one species (Chimarrogale himalayica) is found in the Himalaya and Mount Kina Balu in Borneo, and the other (C. platycephalus) in Japan, closely resemble the water-shrews in general appearance, but are distin- guished by the teeth being entirely white, and likewise by bemg twenty-eight, instead of thirty in number. These shrews have a small external ear-conch; broad scaly feet, with a fringe of coarse white hairs on their margins, and on the sides of each toe; and the long tail is also fringed with similar hairs. The individual toes are, however, not connected together by webs. The Himalayan swimming-shrew has a slaty-grey fur above, with the tips of the hairs blackish-brown. A female measured a little over 4} inches in length, exclusive of the tail, the length of the latter being 3 inches; but it is probable that other individuals are considerably larger. This shrew inhabits the south-western portions of the Himalayan range, at elevations from three thousand to five thousand feet above the sea-level; and it is also found in the hills of North Burma. It inhabits the banks of streams, and, doubtless, swims quite as well as the European water-shrew. Dr. Anderson has observed it plunging into the water, and running over the stones on the bed of a stream. Like its European cousin, it is said to feed on aquatic insects and their larvee, as well as on tadpoles, and the smaller fish and their fry. The assumption of aquatic habits by members of both the red- toothed and white-toothed sections of the shrews is an interesting example of how animals belonging to different’ groups may acquire almost exactly similar external characters, as being essential to their particular mode of life. THE WeEB-FOOTED SHREW. Genus Nectogale. A still further modification for the purposes of an aquatic life is exhibited by the web-footed water-shrew (Nectogale elegans) of Tibet, of which a group is shown in our coloured Plate. In these shrews not only are the feet and tail fringed with hairs, but the external conchs of the ears are wanting, and the toes are completely joined 332 INSECTIVORES. by webs, while the soles of the feet are furnished with large disc-like pads. The web-footed shrew has a tail of 4 inches in length, while the length of the head and body is but just over 3% inches. ‘The fur, which is extremely dense and soft and evidently adapted to withstand the icy cold of the Tibetan rivers, is of a rich dark brown colour above, with the longer hairs of a glistening white, while the chin and throat are whitish, and the belly light brown. It does not appear that this shrew has ever been seen by Europeans disporting in the waters of its native streams. From its structure we may, however, con- fidently infer that it is more thoroughly aquatic than any other member of the family ; and it has been suggested by Milne-Edwards, its original describer, that the disc-like pads on the soles of the feet act as suckers, and thus enable the animal to cling to the surfaces of smooth pebbles or rocks during its sojourn beneath the water. THE DESMANS AND MOLES. Family TALPIDZ. The European desmans and the more widely-spread moles are the best known representatives of two sections of a family which, while allied in many respects to the shrews, possess characters of sufficient importance to justify its separation ie (eA ae 3s SKELETON OF MOLE. therefrom. In the first place, the skull in all members of the family Talpide is distinguished from that of the Soricide by having a distinct zygomatic arch connecting the upper jaw with the region of the ear; this difference being distinctly shown by a comparison of the figure of the skeleton of the mole given herewith with that of the skeleton of the water-shrew on p. 3824. Then, again, on the under- surface of the hinder part of the skull, whereas the so-called bulla of the internal ear 1s represented in the shrews merely by an open ring, in the desmans and moles it has a complete bladder-like form. Further, the first incisor tooth of both jaws in the members of the present family is of a normal type, and never assumes the peculiar form which has been shown to be characteristic of all the shrews. Most of the members of the present family are of fossorial habits, although a few are more or less completely aquatic, and others cursorial. All have long shrew- like skulls, and small eyes and ears; while in most cases the fore-limbs are placed DESMANS. 338 very far forward on the body, and are more or less specially modified for the purpose of digging in the ground. The family, although by no means so numerous in species as the shrews, is a comparatively large one, containing at least eight distinct generic modifications. It is entirely confined to the Northern Hemi- sphere, where it is widely distributed over the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. | THE DESMANS. Genus Myogale. The strange-looking desmans, of which there are two species, are aquatic animals belonging to a section of the family characterised by the fore-limb not RUSSIAN DESMANS (3 nat size). being specially modified for the purpose of digging, and thus forming a connecting link between the shrews and the moles. This absence of special modification is exhibited by the bones of the skeleton of the fore-limb, in which the collar-bone (clavicle), and the arm-bone (humerus) still retain a distinctly elongate form, while there is no additional bone in the fore-foot. The desmans are provided with the typical number of forty-four teeth, and are further characterised by their completely webbed feet, their long trunk-like snout, which projects far in advance of the upper lip, and the elongated and scaly tail. The Russian desman (Myogale moschata) is considerably the larger of the two, its total length being about 16 inches, of which some 64 are occupied by the tail. The fur is dense and thick, like that of an otter, with the outer portion formed of long stiff hairs, and the under-coat soft and woolly. Above, Russian Desman. it is of a full reddish-brown, and beneath of an ashy-grey, with a silvery lustre 334 IN SE CTIVORES. when viewed in certain lights. The first incisor tooth in each jaw is very large and powerful, the upper one being somewhat chisel-shaped. The tail is laterally flattened. This species inhabits the banks of streams and lakes over a large portion of South-Eastern Russia, dwelling in holes after the manner of the water-vole, and being as much at home in the water as an otter. Indeed, the greater part of the creature's time appears to be spent in that element ; the burrow, which terminates in a large chamber above the level of the water, being chiefly used as a resting and breeding-place. Its chief food consists of aquatic insects and their larve, although it probably also devours small fish. Insects and larve are sought after by means of the proboscis-like snout, which is Habits. used to probe under stones and in chinks and hollows. A sharp hissing sound is given forth when the animal is irritated or disturbed. The specific name of the desman is derived from the musky odour produced by the secretion of a large gland situated beneath the rest of the tail; this taint rendering its flesh quite uneatable. Owing to its beautiful fur, which is not unlike that of the otter or beaver, the Russian desman is largely hunted by the peasants of the regions where it is found ; early autumn being the season when the fur is in the finest condition. Although now confined to the steppes of South-Eastern Russia, it is remark- able that the Russian desman once extended as far westwards as the British Isles, its fossilised remains having been obtained from the so-called forest bed of the Norfolk coast, which was deposited during the epoch immediately preceding the Glacial period. Remains of extinct species of the genus have also been obtained from the Tertiary deposits of the continent as far back as the lower portion of the Miocene period. Pyrenean Des- Far smaller than the Russian species is the Pyrenean desman man. (M. pyrenaica), found on both the French and Spanish flanks of the mountain range from which it derives its name. In total length this animal does not much exceed 10 inches, of which about half is formed by the tail. It is, however, also distinguished from its larger relative by the greater proportionate length of its proboscis, and likewise by the tail being perfectly cylindrical. In mode of life the two species seem to be very similar, although it has been stated that the smaller one has a more marked preference for a diet of fish. THE MOLE-SHREWS. Genera Urotrichus and Uropsilus. A very brief notice must suffice for the curious mole-shrews, which closely connect the moles with the shrews. The true mole-shrews, of which there are two species, constitute the genus Urotrichus, and are respectively found in Japan and North America. They have 36 teeth, of which % are incisors, and either ~ or ¢ cheek-teeth on each side; and they are further characterised by their broad and unwebbed fore-feet and fossorial habits. They are mole-like in appearance and of small size. The Tibetan mole-shrew (Uropsilus soricipes) is the sole representative of a distinct genus differing from the last by having only thirty-four teeth, a narrow fore-foot, and a naked and scaly tail. In habit.it is cursorial; and while WEB-FOOTED MOLES. 335 in external appearance it resembles a shrew its skull and teeth are like those of a mole. Its general colour is slaty-grey. THE WeEs-FooTtepD MOLES. Genus Scalops. With the web-footed moles of North America we come to the first representa- tives of the second section of the family, characterised by having the collar-bone (clavicle) and arm-bone (humerus) so shortened and widened as to have lost all resemblance to the ordinary form; and also by the presence of an additional sickle- shaped bone on the inner side of the fore-foot, next to the thumb, both these features being intimately connected with the purely fossorial habits of all the members of this section of the family. All the moles, whether they belong to the New World or the Old World group, are characterised by their peculiar form, which, as we shall mention later on, is so admirably adapted for their mode of life. All have the fore-paws naked and of enormous width and strength; while in all there are Structure. no external ear-conchs, and the small and useless eyes are deeply buried beneath the fur, and are often further protected by an investing membrane. Then, again, these animals are characterised by the extreme thickness and density of their short velvet-like fur, to which no fragments of the soil through which the burrows are driven ever adheres. Like the New World moles, the web-footed moles are dis- tinguished from their cousins of the Old World by the circumstance that the first incisor tooth in the upper jaw is of much larger size than the second. The special characteristics of the web-footed moles are that they have only 36 teeth, of which 3 are incisors, 3 canines, and € cheek-teeth; and that the hind-feet are webbed, and the tail is short and nearly naked. The common web-footed mole (Scalops aquaticus) doubtless received its specific name on account of its webbed hind-feet, which led to the very natural inference that it was a swimming animal. But according to Dr. Hart Merriam, this is a complete misnomer, for not only is this mole “not known voluntarily to swim, but in the selection of its haunts it shows no preference for the vicinity of water, but manifests rather a contrary tendency. Its home is under ground, and its entire life is spent beneath the surface. Its food consists almost wholly of earth-worms, grubs, ants, and other insects that live in the earth and under logs and stones. It is almost universally regarded as an enemy to the farmer, and is commonly destroyed whenever opportunity attords; for, not- withstanding the fact that it subsists upon insects that injure the crops, it is never- theless true that, in the procurement of these, it disfigures the garden paths and beds by the ridges and little mounds of earth that mark the course of its subter- ranean galleries, and loosens and injures many choice plants in its probing for grubs amongst their roots.” The nest of this mole, “is commonly half a foot or more below the surface, and from it several passages lead away in the direction of its favourite foraging-grounds. These primary passages gradually approach the surface, and finally become continuous with, or open into, an ever-increasing Habits. 336 = LNSECTIVORES. multitude of tortuous galleries, which wind about in every direction, and sometimes come so near the surface as barely to escape opening upon it, while at other times they are several inches deep. Along the most superficial of these horizontal burrows the earth is actually thrown up in the form of long ridges, by which the animal's progress can be traced. The distance that they can thus travel in a given time is almost incredible. Audubon and Bachman state that they have been known, in a single night after a rain, to execute a gallery several yards in length; and I have myself traced a fresh one nearly one hundred yards. The only method by which we can arrive at a just appreciation of the magnitude of this labour is by comparison ; and computation shows that, in order to perform equivalent work, a man would have to excavate in a single night a tunnel thirty-seven miles long, and of sufficient size to easily admit of the passage of his body.” THe Hairy-TAILED MOLES. Genus Scapanus. The hairy-tailed moles, of which there are two species inhabiting the United States, form a connecting link between the web-footed and the star-nosed moles, having the general external appearance of the former, but the same number (forty- four) of teeth as in the latter. The habits of the common hairy-tailed mole (S. americanus) appear very similar to those of the web-footed moles; both inhabiting dry meadow-land in preference to the swampy ground affected by the star-nosed mole. The mounds of the hairy-tailed moles do not, however, contain the central and surface opening of those of the web-footed moles; neither do the former animals indulge in the midday excursions so characteristic of the former. THE StTaR-NosED MOLE. Genus Condylura. The last of the three genera of North American moles is represented only by a single species, the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata), so called on account of the peculiar ring of riband-like appendages surrounding the end of the muzzle, in the middle of which are situated the nostrils. In addition to this feature, this mole is characterised by the tail being nearly as long as the body, and also by the circumstance that the bones of the terminal joints of the fingers are not cleft at their extremities, as they are in the Old World moles. Like the latter, the star- nosed mole possesses the typical number of forty-four teeth. In length this species measures about 5 inches, exclusive of the tail. The food of this mole consists entirely of earth-worms and insects, and its habits are very similar to those of the web-footed mole, although it does not apparently make such extensive excavations, and the hillocks thrown up from the runs are of larger size. In gardens and arable land these moles tunnel near the surface, throwing up a ridge of loose earth along the line of their tunnels, but in pasture land they work at a lower level. In both these respects they Habits. Mi (OULIB, S: 3317 resemble the common European mole, with which they also agree in that, during the late autumn, when the surface of the ground becomes frozen, they follow the worms downwards until a plane is reached where the frost has not penetrated. By following the ridge of loose earth which marks the progress of one of these moles in a garden, and quickly sinking a spade in the creature’s path, a few inches in advance of the moving earth, it is frequently possible to turn a specimen out upon the surface. So quickly, however, do these animals pass through the soft soil of a garden, that the spade, although aimed several inches in front of the moving earth, will not unfrequently cut them in two. Although the precise function of the peculiar dise of tentacles round the muzzle is not yet definitely ascertained, it appears highly probable that it acts as a sensitive organ of touch to aid its owner in discovering the whereabouts of the worms and insects encountered during its subterranean wanderings. In the newly-born young these tentacles are so small as to be scarcely perceptible. A nest examined by Dr. Merriam contained three young ones. THE TRUE MOLES. Genus Talpa. The Old World moles may be at once distinguished from all their North American cousins by having the first upper incisor tooth scarcely larger than the second. With the exception of a single species from Eastern Tibet, the whole of the Old World moles are included in the genus Talpa, of which the typical representative is the common European mole (7. ewropea). The members of this genus, nine in number, are distributed over temperate Europe and Asia, two of the Asiatic species being found to the south of the Himalaya. Asa rule, there is the typical number of forty-four teeth, but a few of the species have not quite so many, owing to the loss either of the lower canine tooth or of the first upper premolar ; while in one species the first premolar is wanting in both jaws. All are characterised by the width UPPER AND LOWER SURFACE OF RIGHT of the fore-foot. FORE-FOOT OF MOLE. As we entered at considerable length into the structure and habits of some of the American moles, our remarks on those of the Old World may be comparatively brief, as there is a great similarity between the two. It is remarkable that, as the European hedgehog differs from all the other species of its genus, so the European mole is distinguished from all its congeners by the absence of a membrane covering the eyes. Nearly or all the moles are normally black in colour, with a more or less pronounced greyish lustre when viewed in certain lights; but pied, buff, or white varieties are not very uncommon. The naked feet are flesh-coloured. The different species of moles show considerable variation as regards the relative length of the tail. Thus, whereas in the European mole the length of the head and body is about 5 inches and that of the tail 1 inch, in the Himalayan short-tailed mole (7. micrwra) the naked tail is VOL. I.—22 338 INSECLTIVOLRES: less than a quarter of an inch in length, and is completely concealed among the fur of the body. The European mole is remarkable for its wide geographical dis- tribution, ranging from England in the west, through Asia north of the Himalaya to Japan, and extending northwards as far as the Altai Mountains. Like its cousin, the common shrew, it 1s, however, unknown in Ireland. The “runs” of the European mole are very similar to those of the American moles already referred to, but the central chamber, or dwelling-place, is of a more complex structure. As this dwelling-place will be found described in detail in almost all works treating of the mole, it will suffice to mention here that it is usually placed near a hillock, or between two trees, and is composed of a central chamber with passages Distribution. THE COMMON MOLE (4 nat. size), conducting to two circular galleries placed one above another. The higher of these two galleries has a smaller diameter than the lower one. From the larger lower gallery there are given off several diverging runs, one of which is larger than either of the others, and is known as the main run, being the one which alone leads to the burrows driven in various directions for the purpose of procuring food. These burrows, or runs, except when so close to the surface as to allow of the earth being raised directly upwards in the form of a ridge showing their course, are marked at intervals by the well-known “ mole-hills,” which are mounds of loose earth pushed up from below, and not containing any internal chamber or passages. Since the voracity of the mole is proverbial, and its food consists exclusively of earth-worms, insects, and their larve, its visits ought to be welcomed alike by the farmer and the gardener. As a matter of fact, however, the mole has an awkward habit of driving its tunnels below the drilled rows of young farm and garden crops, MOLES. 330 o by which not only are the roots of the plants disturbed, but the whole row may be dried up. Moreover, it appears pretty certain that field-voles will take advantage of runs driven in such localities as convenient points from which to make inroads on the sprouting seeds or the roots of the young plants. Then, again, in addition to the unsightliness of a host of mole-hills in a garden, such elevations are incon- venient in a field of standing grass, as they impede the process of mowing. From these and other circumstances, farmers and gardeners generally unite in a war of extermination against the mole, although there can be no doubt but that in many respects its visits are a distinct advantage to its destroyers. It is well known that male moles are more numerous than females, and this seems to be explained by a writer in the /%eld newspaper, who states that a family “of moles appears to consist of five members, in the proportion of four males to one female—this as a rule, though with many exceptions. In the course of my experience I have never caught more than five in succession in the same run; and this, there- fore, appears to be the limit.” It is well known that moles have the habit of feeding at regular hours during the day, and that they may be found at work at eight, twelve, and four o’clock. In regard to mole-catching, it is mentioned that, “when setting a trap in light crumbling soil, as in a flower-bed, care should be taken to remove only sufficient earth to allow of the trap being put in, and the hole leading each way should be carefully cleared, so as to allow the mole a free passage, or he will infallibly dive underneath your trap. The colour may be either uniform, or, as in our illustration, a mixture of dark and light. The Russian greyhound is powerfully-built, and of rather larger size than his English cousin, being covered with a coarse woolly coat, and having fringed ears and fore-legs, and a very thickly-haired tail. It is comparatively slow in pace, and hunts the wolves against which it is employed both by sight and scent. ep ee Here may be mentioned the hairless dogs of Central Africa, which closely resemble greyhounds in general appearance. These dogs have long slender bodies, moderately elongated and thin necks, narrow and pointed muzzles, tall foreheads, long tails and limbs, and no dew-claws on the hind- feet. Their ears are pendent at the tips: and, like the body, are quite devoid of hair. Indeed, it is only in the neighbourhood of the tail, around the mouth, and on the limbs, that there is any hair at all) They are employed in Africa for hunting antelopes, and possess great speed; but their hairless skin renders them unsuited to live in any but the warmest climates. Other breeds of hairless dogs oceur in China, Central and South America, Manilla, and the Antilles and Bahamas. The lurcher is a cross either between the rough Scotch greyhound and the collie, or between the English greyhound and the sheep-dog, or any pair of these four. Some lurchers are very handsome animals, while others are equally ugly. With these variations it is difficult to give any precise description Lurchers. of the breed, which may, however, be roughly designated as a dog with the general shape of a greyhound, combined with the stouter build, larger ears, and rougher coat of the sheep-dog. Deena With the field-spaniel, of which there are several varieties, we reach the third division of domestic dogs, all of which are char- acterised by their large pendent ears, comparatively wide heads, with moderate muzzles, relatively short and stout limbs, thick and frequently long hair, and thickly-haired tails. Their skulls are distinguished from those of all the dogs yet mentioned by their width and comparative shortness, this being especially notice- able in the palate and lower jaw. The profile of the skull is also more markedly concave, the brain case rising suddenly at the eyes, and thus indicating great mental power. True spaniels, as their name denotes, are probably of Spanish origin, and are divided into field and water-spaniels, in addition to which there are the smaller breeds kept only as pets. Field-spaniels form some of the best shooting dogs, and generally give notice of the proximity of game by their voice. They are now divided into the Clumber, Sussex, Norfolk, and Cocker breeds. The Clumber spaniel is distinguished by its silence when hunting; and is a heavily-built animal, of comparatively large size, and soon tiring when at work. The head is massive, with a deep furrow along the top, large flesh or liver-coloured nostrils, large and generally hazel eyes, and long ears shaped like a vine-leaf, without a very long fringe of hair. In build the Clumber is long and low; the length of the head and body being properly two and a half times the height. The 526 CARNIVORES. hair of the body should be silky and of moderate length, with a slight wave, but no curl; its ground-colour being always white, with yellow or orange spots, the lemon-yellow tint being preferred. The Sussex spaniel, which has the ordinary lobe-shaped ear and gives tongue when hunting, has a less heavy head than the Clumber, and a wavy coat of a golden-liver colour, without any ad- mixture of white. The Norfolk spaniel is subject to considerable variation, and is either liver-and- white, or black- and-white in its colour. It differs from the two pre- ceding races by the lesser pro- portionate length (es of the body, and CLUMBER SPANIEL. the longer fringe of hair on the ears, which frequently nearly touch the ground. Cockers are small spaniels, and are now divided into Welsh and modern Cockers; the former being liver, or liver- and-white, while the latter are larger and generally completely black. The head is relatively long, the eyes are less full than in the other breeds; and the coat is soft, silky, and waved, with a considerable amount of fringe on the throat and limbs. The King Charles and Blenheim spaniels are much smaller animals, probably derived from the Cocker. The King Charles is black-and-tan in colour, with a larger or smaller admixture of white, and is characterised by the great length of the ears. In both the muzzle is extremely short, with an upturned nose, while the head is nearly globular, and the ears should touch the ground. The coat should be long, silky, and wavy, but devoid of curl; while the ears, limbs, and feet should be abundantly fringed. Irish Water- The water-spaniels, of which the best-marked breed is the Irish, Spaniel. are relatively large dogs, with broad splay feet, and a woolly, thickly- matted, and often curly coat, which is more or less oily. The southern Irish water- spaniel is characterised by the bare face and thinly-haired tail, the presence of a distinct “top-knot” on the crown of the head, the long curls round the legs, and the thickly-curling coat of the body and ears; the colour being of a uniform puce liver tint. The northern variety of the Irish water-spaniel has shorter ears, with but little fringe, while the curls of the body hair are shorter and closer; the colour being either liver or liver-and-white. DOMESTIC DOGS. aor The various breeds known as setters are large spaniels which have acquired the habit of pomting at their game. They derive their name from having been originally taught to crouch down when marking game, in order to admit of the net with which the quarry was taken being readily drawn over Setters. them. With the use of guns this habit became, however, of no advantage, and setters were taught to assume the attitude of pointers. At the present day there are five chief breeds of setters, three of which are commonly seen in England. The English setter, which is regarded as the result of a cross between the field- spaniel and the pointer, should have a silky coat, with a slight wave, but no curl IRISH SETTER (+ nat, size). in the hair. The fore and hind-legs should be thinly fringed with hair, while in the tail the fringe of long hair should fall regularly like the teeth of a comb, without any signs of bushiness. In the middle of the tail the length of the fringe should be from 6 to 7 inches in length, while at the point it should not exceed half an inch. An abundance of hair between the toes is another “point” of the setter. There is great variation in colour, which is valued according to the following scale, viz. black-and-white ticked with large splashes, known as the “blue Belton”; orange-and-white freckled, known as “orange Belton”; orange or lemon-and-white without ticks; liver-and-white ticked; black-and-white with shght tan markings; black-and-white ; liver-and-white without ticks; pure white : black ; liver; red or yellow. The Irish setter is generally of a red colour without 528 CARNIVORES:. any trace of black, and little or no white; but there is one strain characterised by cigs red and white coloration. It is a rather more “leggy” animal than its English cousin, with a narrower and rather longer head, more produced nose (of which the colour is generally deep mahogany), and more tapering ears, which, when extended, should reach nearly to the nose. The Gordon, or black-and-tan setter, is now characterised by its mixture of jet- black and mahogany-tan colours, although the original breed was black, tan, and white. It is a heavier animal than either the English or Irish breeds, this heaviness being specially shown in the head, which makes some approach to that of the bloodhound. The nose is relatively wide, and rarely shows the concave profile of the English setter; the tail is rather short; while the coat, although in some strains silky, may be much coarser than in the other breeds. The Welsh setter, which shows a great amount of variation in colour, is distinguished from the preceding by its curly coat. Finally, the Russian setter, according to “ Stone- henge,” “is almost entirely concealed by a long woolly coat, which is matted together in the most extraordinary manner, and which would lead to the supposition that he would be unable to stand heat as well as our early setters; but, on the contrary, he bears it almost like a pointer.” This name is apphed to large dogs employed for retrieving game part SMa land, in contradistinction to the water-spaniels which are used for the same purpose in water. These dogs have more or less Newfoundland blood in them, and trace their other parentage to the water-spaniel or setter. The curly- coated retriever, which may be either black or tan, is the product of a cross between the smaller black Newfoundland and the water-spaniel. It is characterised by the short hair of the face, and the tail devoid of any fringe, although covered to within a few inches of its extremity with short crisp curls. The hair on the body is closely and crisply curled. The wavy-coated retriever may be either a pure-bred small black Newfoundland, or a cross between it and the setter. ae The Newfoundland dog, of which there are three distinct breeds, is regarded as nothing more than a large spaniel, and its general form and the facility with which it may be crossed with spaniels and setters seem to fully bear out this view. The especial characteristic of the Newfoundland is its well-known fearlessness of water, and the readiness with which it will risk its own life to rescue human beings from drowning. ‘The true Newfoundland, as represented in our illustration, is the largest breed, and should stand from 25 to 30 or 31 inches in height at the shoulder. The coat should be shaggy and somewhat oily, and the tail long and bushy and slightly curled on one side; the colour black, with or without some admixture of white; the specimens with the least white being the most admired. Sometimes the black has a rusty tinge. The head in the best-bred animals is large and broad, and nearly flat on the top, with a well-marked ridge at the eyes; while the expression of the countenance conveys a look of grandeur and intelligence without fierceness. The muzzle is relatively wide, and clothed with short hair; while the skin on the forehead should show some slight wrinkles. Both the ears and eyes are relatively small; the former being covered with short hairs, which become slightly longer at the edges; while the latter should be brown in colour and mild in expression. The neck has no distinet frill; while DOMESTIC DOGS. 529 the fore-legs should be fringed above, but nearly smooth below. The feet, although necessarily large, should be compact so as not to spread out under the weight of the body. The Landseer Newfoundland, said to be unknown in the island from which these dogs take their name, differs from the preceding in its looser build, less noble appearance, more woolly coat, and by the ground-colour being white, upon which are black spots. The smaller black Newfoundland, also known as the St. John’s Newfoundland, or Labrador dog, is inferior in size to the Newfoundland, standing not more than 22 or 23 inches in height, and having a relatively smaller NEWFOUNDLAND DOG (5 nat. size). and less massive head. Its coat is moderately short and wavy, without any under-fur, and should be entirely black, although there may be a white spot on the forehead or a white toe. The fore-legs are fringed with long hair down to the feet. The magnificent dogs, taking their name from the monastery of Mount St. Bernard, and formerly unknown beyond the Alps and adjacent regions, are remarkable for their high intelligence, and are used in the St. Bernards. Alps for rescuing travellers lost in the snow. In size they attain dimensions only equalled by those of the great Dane, and are larger than any wild member of the family. A very large St. Bernard, known as “ Young Plinlimmon,”’ measures upwards of 684 inches from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail; while others are known which measured respectively 64, 63, and 60 inches. These dogs are VOL. I.—34 530 CARNIVORES. divided into rough and smooth St. Bernards, according to the length of the hair; our illustration representing a specimen of the rough-haired breed. The rough St. Bernard has the coat of the body long and wavy, with the tail very bushy, and the fringe on the fore-legs comparatively small. There is great variety in colour; one strain being a rich orange-tawny mixed with brown, others are red-and-white, others, again, brindled or fawn, or those colours more or less mixed with white, while some may be almost white. The head is large, with a higher elevation at the eyes than in the Newfoundland, and the muzzle rather long and squared, with ROUGH ST, BERNARD (,'5 hat. size). slightly pendulous lips. The ears are relatively small, and their hair should be rather rougher than that of the body. The eyes are full but deeply set. The feet are very large, apparently for the purpose of supporting the animal in the snows of its native home, and may be furnished with double dew-claws. The smooth St. Bernard differs mainly from the rough breed by its nearly smooth coat; the tail being comparatively thin, and the legs and ears entirely free from any fringes of hair. The bloodhound is our first representative of the fourth division of domestic dogs, which includes the pointer, and all those usually denominated hounds. All are characterised by their large drooping ears; and most of them by their smooth coats, and the absence of any fringe of hair on Bloodhound. DOMESTIC DOGS. 531 the ears and legs; while the tail is mostly but thinly fringed. The profile of the face is but slightly concave, and the muzzle relatively long and deep, with a more or less marked overlapping of the upper lip. With the exception of the pointer, they hunt by “ foot-scent.” The most striking and characteristic feature of the bloodhound is its magni- ficent head, which is considerably larger and heavier in the male than in the female. While generally extremely massive, the head is remarkable for its narrowness between the ears, where it rises into a dome-like prominence, termin- ating in a marked protuberance in the occipital region. The skin of the forehead, like that round the eyes, is thrown into a series of transverse puckers, as is well shown in the recumbent figure of our illustration. The long and tapering jaws are BLOODHOUNDS (,/5 nat. size). of great depth but relatively narrow, and abruptly truncated in front; while the upper lips are pendulous. The large and thin ears should hang close to the cheeks; and the small and deeply-sunk hazel eyes are characterised by the exposure of a considerable part of the membrane of the socket, which is generally red, and is technically known as the haw. The throat is heavy, and passes down- wards into a more or less well-marked dew-lap. In the English breed the tail is shghtly fringed with hair, although in our figured example it is quite smooth ; it should be carried in a curve, but not raised above a right angle with the lne of the back. The short coat should be coarse and hard on the back and sides, but soft and silky on the head and ears. The most esteemed coloration is black-and- tan, but the animal may be all tan; the presence of white being a blemish. Our illustration is taken from a foreign strain of the bloodhound, which is lower on its legs than the English breed. 532 CARNIVORES. English hounds are descended from two extinct breeds, respect- ively known as the southern hound and the northern hound. Both of these were large heavily-built animals, with thick throats, distinct dew-laps, and large pendent ears resembling those of the bloodhound. They were slow in pace, and dwelt upon the scent more than their modern descendants. The true English staghound was a considerably larger animal than the foxhound, with a relatively broader and shorter head, and a more thickly-fringed tail, and was also distinguished by several points in the conformation of the limbs. The large foxhounds now used Staghound. STAGHOUNDS AFTER A CHASE (yj, nat, size). for stag-hunting in England stand about 25 inches high in the males, and from 23 to 234 inches in the females. The modern foxhound, derived from either the old southern or northern hound, with perhaps some cross of a different breed, is remarkable for the combination of speed and endurance which it possesses, and is thus an excellent instance of the results which can be attained by breeding with a particular end in view. The appearance of the foxhound is much modified by the artificial rounding of the ears—a process in which a large portion of the extremity of the lobe is cut away in order to prevent its becoming entangled in bushes. The coat should be short and hard, but at the same time glossy; the tail having a Foxhound. DOMESTIC DOGS. 533 distinct fringe of hair on its under surface. The favourite, or true hound colour, is black, white, and tan; but there are also several “ pies” in which the respective colours are blended with white; while whole colours, or black-and-tan only, are not unknown. The endurance and speed of the modern foxhound is fully attested in numerous works on sport, and will not, therefore, be further mentioned here. “Stonehenge” observes that a peculiar “faculty in which the hound differs from his congeners is a mental one, leading him always, when he loses scent of his quarry, to cast forward rather than backward, and to do this with a “dash” VIET FOXHOUNDS IN FULL CRY (} nat. size). altogether unlike the slow and careful quest of the bloodhound. This, of course, may be overdone, and in that case the hound constantly overruns the scent; but without it in these days few foxes would be killed, for unless they are hard pressed the scent soon fails and is altogether lost.” For ordinary country the male fox- hound, such as shown on p. 576, should average 24 inches, and the female 223 inches in height; but in hilly districts smaller hounds are preferred. This is a breed of hound trained to hunt hares instead of foxes, and intermediate in point of size between the foxhound and beagle. Pure-bred harriers, probably descended from the old Southern hound, are to be met with in Wales, but many of those used in England are crossed with the foxhound, Harrier. a4 CARNIVORES. while in some cases a small breed of foxhounds is employed in hare-hunting. Owing to the absence of the practice of “cropping,” harriers may be distinguished from foxhounds by their larger and pointed ears; and they generally have longer and narrower heads, with a deeper hollow under the somewhat fuller eye. The height generally varies from 16 to a little below 20 inches. The colours and general points are the same as those of foxhounds. A rough breed of Welsh harriers is practically indistinguishable from the otterhound. Harriers work more slowly than foxhounds, dwelling more on the scent and tending to cast backwards rather than forwards when theyaome to a check. This breed so closely resembles a large rough Welsh harrier that Otterhound. z it requires an expert to distinguish between the two; such difference as there 1s existing in the nature of the coat and the form of the feet. Thus the feet, instead of having the neat Ae ‘\ / ee cat-like form of Ulf Vi those of the har- riers, are broad and splay: while the coat is fur- nished with a thick woolly under-fur of an oily nature. Probably owing to having to con- tend with such a fierce animal as the otter, the a WA Be Gag a Cuter Ronny is of a NG VISA (ye S savage and quar- THE OTTERHOUND. relsome — disposi- tion, and is very ai apt to engage in internecine conflicts with its fellow-occupants of the kennel. Otter- hunting is a favourite sport in the West of England, Devonshire alone possessing four packs, one of which in the summer of 1892 killed three otters in a single morning. In some cases foxhounds are employed for otter-hunting. This term is generally applied to any hound standing less than 16 inches in height, although the true pure-bred beagle is a distinct breed, which may be regarded as a miniature of the old southern hound. In build the ordinary beagle is rather short in the limbs and long in the body, with a Beagle. relatively wide and somewhat dome-shaped head and a short nose. The throat is likewise rather short and thick, and the older breeds used to have a tendency to a dew-lap. The ears are full and hang in folds. Beagles may vary in height from about 15 to 10 or 9 inches; but from 11 to 12 inches is esteemed the best. They are used in hunting both hares and rabbits. The beagle has a remarkably musical note and an exquisite sense of scent, as well as great perseverance in following < DOMESTIC DOGS. 535 trail. From its small size, short legs, and rather heavy build, it is, however, necessarily slow. In hunting, beagles follow all the windings of the hare, and for the first part of the chase are far behind their quarry. Their perseverance is, | NS is 4 , ; ny : Ky y al ‘ reo N\ vf ar TY SESS BE SS RR Se va eer THE BEAGLE (3 nat. size). however, generally successful in the end; and there is no prettier sight for the lovers of sport than to watch a well-trained pack of beagles at work. With the cessation of its monotonous occupation has been brought to pass the practical extinction of the old English turnspit. These dogs were long-bodied, short-limbed animals, with the fore-feet everted, and were closely allied to the dachshund; but differed in being relatively taller, with a longer head, longer nose, straighter forehead, less bent fore-limbs, and a longer and thinner tail; the ears being small and placed relatively far back. In colour, the turnspit was generally black-and-tan. These dogs performed their task ina kind of wire barrel, somewhat like that in a squirrel-cage; and in England two of them were generally kept, which worked turn-and-turn. Under the title of dachshund, or badger-dog, the Germans include two distinct strains of long-bodied dogs with short and crooked legs, one of which presents these characters in a less marked degree than the other, and has also relatively larger ears. The breed figured in our illustration has a long cylinder-like body, supported on short and bent legs, the head and muzzle large, the drooping ears also large, the paws of great size and furnished with sharp claws, and the coat short and smooth. The fore-feet are markedly turned outwards, and the hind-feet have large dew-claws; while the tail is thick at the root, from which it rapidly tapers to the end, without any fringe. The colour varies, but is generally black-and-tan, although not unfrequently either tan or yellowish, and sometimes Turnspit. Dachshund. 536 CARNIVORES. 3 grey or parti-coloured. The second variety has a still longer body, and shorter and more bent legs than the preceding form, from which it is likewise distinguished by its smaller ears and shorter tail. The ear is set further back than in any other dog, its front border being scarcely in advance of the line of junction of the head with the neck. The tail should be carried over the back, and the smooth and glossy coat hard and wiry, except on the ears, where it becomes silky. Black-and- tan are the favourite colours in this breed; but whole tan, with a black nose, occupies the second place in the estimation of fanciers. Dachshunds are used in their native country chiefly for hunting badgers, which are numerous in some districts. The strain with the longest body and the shortest legs is employed for digging the badgers out of their holes, while the other is used in the chase. From their small size and short limbs dachshunds are, of course, extremely slow, but they have a keen scent, coupled with great perseverance THE DACHSHUND (% nat. size). and endurance, and therefore make admirable hounds. From its somewhat squeaky voice the dachshund has been regarded as more nearly related to the terriers than the hounds, but there is no doubt that its place is among the latter. In addition to badger-hunting, dachshunds are also employed in Germany in fox- hunting, as well as in driving game, more especially roe-deer, which require to be driven with great care and quietness in order to prevent them breaking back through the line of beaters. That the various breeds of pointers are descended from the hound was first clearly indicated by Youatt. The disposition to “point” appears to be due to the results of training; and although other dogs have been taught to point, in no case do they assume the rigid condition so especially characteristic of the pointer. Indeed, in some of the old Spanish and French pointers, so intensely was this characteristic developed that the animals assumed a kind of cataleptic condition; and “Stonehenge” mentions that he has known some of them remain on the “point” for hours, until absolutely exhausted. Moreover, Pointer. such dogs would frequently make “ points” at imaginary game. DOMESTIC DOGS. 537 The pointer differs from the hounds in hunting by “body-scent” instead of by “foot-scent.” The most ancient breed appears to have been the old Spanish pointer, which stood relatively high on the legs, and had a heavy clumsy head, with a long, wide, and squared nose, pendulous upper lips, with ears nearly as large as those of the bloodhound, and a massive throat and distinct dewlap. This pointer was of a surly disposition, slow in pace, and apt to give chase to hares. His redeeming point was, however, his marvellous perception of scent, and the perseverance with which he would work his game. The Portuguese pointer is of rather shorter build, with badly-formed legs and feet, and a long and fully-fringed tail, and displays the same faults of character as the Spanish breed. The French pointer is distinguished by the presence of a furrow between the nostrils, which renders its sense of smell less acute. It is, however, a better shaped and more active dog than either of the two preceding breeds, with more power for hard work, but quarrelsome and given to hare-chas- ing. The modern English pointer is the lightest and best- shaped dog of the whole group, and is believed to have been derived from the Spanish breed, with some intercrossing’ either directly with the greyhound or in- directly through the foxhound. This breed is characterised by its compact and well-knit build, sloping shoulders, straight muscular limbs, and spirited action. The head is. still relatively large, but the pendulous upper lips, dewlap, and the heaviness of the throat have been lost. The nose should be long, broad, and square in front. The eyes are moderately large, soft, and intelligent, the colour varying from buff to dark brown. ~ SSS ~ blue,” owing to @yee BESS SSS NG SSSSSS the mixture of dark fan) SANA AAA ip LNA KATA eS Ns VPP i with lght hairs, while tan occupies the same parts as in the black-and-tan terrier. Under the title of English terriers may be included the short- YORKSHIRE TERRIER. English Terrier. 2 : : 5 haired dogs commonly known as the black-and-tan terrier, with its diminutive representatives the toy terrier and the white terrier. The black-and- VOL. I.—35 546 CARNIVORES. tan, or Manchester terrier, is too well known to require any description. It is of about the same average size as the fox-terrier, varying in weight from some 10 or 12 to as much as 18 lbs. Especial attention is paid to the coloration of this terrier, the black being required to be of jetty fulness, and sharply defined from the tan, which should be of a rich mahogany. The tan should occupy a spot over each eye, and another on the cheek, as well as the sides of the jaws backwards to the lower parts of the cheeks, ending on the throat. It should also occupy all the under-parts, the inner sides of the ears, a spot on = each side of the TERRIERS: chest, the whole of the inner sides of the limbs, their outer sides as far as the wrist and ankle-joints, and the whole of the feet, with the exception of a narrow line of black along each toe. The black- and-tan toy terrier is merely a diminutive derivative from the Manchester terrier. It should not exceed 6 Ibs. in weight, and is most prized when it only weighs 34 or 4 lbs., if it at the same time exhibits perfect symmetry. The white English terrier is a less well-known breed, having the same general characteristics as the Manchester terrier, but of a pure opaque white colour, with dark eyes, nose, and claws. Although very different in appearance to the typical represen- tatives of that group, the poodle, which is perhaps the cleverest of all dogs, and the one most apt to learn tricks, is included among the terriers. The general appearance is so well known, and is likewise so truthfully por- trayed in our illustration, that it will be unnecessary to refer to it. There are several strains, differing mainly from one another in size; the usual colours being either black or white, or a mixture of the two. The coat should resemble astrakan, but may incline more to a silky or to a woolly nature in the different strains. When clipped it should present a satiny sheen. Both on the Continent and in England the poodle is clipped to a greater or less degree; but whereas abroad the coat is permitted to grow in winter, in England the clipping is too often continued at all seasons. In England and Russia the poodle is treated solely as a companion and house-dog; but in France and Germany it is employed as a sporting-dog, and is the constant out-door companion of the farmer. It is an excellent water-dog, diving well, and seldom failing to find a wounded bird in the water; the oily nature of its coat being an admirable protection against chills. In Poodle. DOMESTIC DOGS. 547 retrieving on land the poodle relies fully as much on its general intelligence as on its scent of smell, thereby resembling the Newfoundland; and it generally hunts by casting round in circles, rather than by following a direct trail. Poodles are generally the dogs employed in circuses as performers, and they have frequently been taught to recognise and pick out many of the cards from a pack at the direction of theiy masters. As a remarkable instance of intelligence, Dr. Romanes relates a case where a poodle, having on one occasion conducted his master to the larder, and been rewarded with a ame of meat, essayed to lead him again to the ie HN Wg Hat i OMAN WHITE AND BLACK POODLES (75 Nat. size). same spot. Being baffled in this attempt, the dog thereupon took up his master’s hat, with which he proceeded to the larder, and lay down beneath the shelf on which was placed the coveted joint. maa This dog may be compared to a diminutive Skye terrier, and should not exceed some 5 or 6 Ibs. in weight. It has a short body, and is covered with very long and silky hair, which is of a uniform semi-trans- parent white colour, the tail being thickly haired and carried tightly curled over the back. The nose and roof of the mouth are black; and the hair of the moderately long ears, as in other terriers, mingles with that of the neck, Mexican The Mexican lap-dog is also pure white in colour, but with a Lap-Dog. flesh-coloured nose. The hair on the head and body is moderately long and curly, but that of the rather short tail longer and straighter. The ears 548 CARNIVORES. are small and not pendent, and the head rounded, with the brown eyes widely separated from one another. An apparently adult specimen of this diminutive breed preserved in the British Museum measures only 7:1 inches from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail. Asiatic WiLp Dogs (Canis alpinus, deccanensis, etc. ). | , With the Siberian wild dog (C. alpinus) we revert to the consideration of the wild members of the Canide. It belongs to a small group of Asiatic species, SIBERIAN WILD DOG (% nat. size). distinguished from other representatives of Canis by the loss of the last molar tooth on each side of the lower jaw, so that the total number of teetl. is forty instead of forty-two. The group is further distinguished by the shorter muzzle and the slightly convex profile of the face. On account of these and certain other points of difference—more especially the presence of either twelve or fourteen teats, instead of the usual ten—these species are frequently referred to a distinct genus, under the name of Cyon. Another distinctive feature of these animals is the presence of long hairs between the pads of the feet. The whole of these dogs are in the habit of hunting in large packs, and are noticeable on account of their courage and handsome appearance; the tail being bushy and equal in length to about half the head and body. Since there is no doubt that they are not the ASIATIC WILD DOGS. 549 ancestral stock of any of the domestic dogs, the name “wild dog” is to a certain degree a misnomer. Siberian Wild This species is an inhabitant of Northern Asia, extending from Dog. the country from which it derives its name, at least as far southwards as the Altai mountains, and probably still further. It may be distinguished from the following species by the circumstance that its molar teeth, especially those of the upper jaw, are of larger size. Like its southern cousin, the Siberian wild dog is subject to seasonal and individual variations in the colour of its fur. In summer it seems to be generally of a foxy-red colour, becoming darker on the back and lighter on the under-parts and the inner surfaces of the limbs. There are, how- ever, two skins in the British Museum characterised by their long and woolly hair, of which the colour in one is white, and in the other a yellowish white; and these may be presumed to indicate the winter dress. According to Rade, the Siberian wild dog is a forest-loving animal; generally frequenting mountains like those on the east bank of the Yenesei where forests are abundant, but occasionally appearing on the open steppes. It is locally distributed; and while in some localities it preys largely upon deer, in others it is in the habit of hunting ibex. In the Altai these dogs go in troops of from ten to fifteen, or more individuals, led by an old male; and where they hunt deer it is generally hinds or young animals that they select for pursuit. So incessant is their persecution of the deer that they will sometimes cause them to completely desert certain localities; this having taken place in the year 1859 in the valley of the Irkut. The Indian wild dog (C. deccanensis) is perhaps the best known member of the group, and is distinguished from the preceding species by the smaller size of its molar teeth. Like the others, its general build is more Indian Wild Dog. jackal-like than wolf-like; this being especially shown by the comparative shortness of the legs. It agrees with the Siberian species in the length of the fur, and in the presence, at least in Himalayan examples, of a thick and woolly under-fur. The general colour of the fur of the upper-parts is a rusty red, varying in some specimens to a rufous, or even a light brownish grey; the under- parts being paler. Generally the end of the tail is black, but its extreme tip may occasionally be whitish. The young are of a uniform sooty-brown colour. A specimen measured by Hodgson had a length of 375 inches, exclusive of the tail; the latter measuring 141 inches with the hair and 8 inches without the same. This wild dog is found throughout the forest-clad portions of the Himalaya, from Kashmir to Assam, and in Gilgit, Ladak, and Eastern Tibet. Southwards of the Himalaya, it is found in the larger forests of India, although it is unknown in Ceylon. In inhabiting alike the forest of peninsular India and the forest-clad regions of the Himalaya, as well as the treeless districts of Tibet, the Indian wild dog presents an instance precisely analogous to that of the lynx, already noticed. Hodgson, who alludes to the animal by the Himalayan name of buansu, states that although the Indian wild dog is “not deficient in speed or power of leaping, yet his motions all appear to be heavy, owing to the measured uniformity of his pace. He runs in a lobbing long canter, is unapt at the double, and upon the whole is somewhat less agile and speedy than the jackal, and very 550 CARNIVORES. much less so than the fox. The wild dog preys both by night and day, but chiefly by day. Six, eight, or ten unite to hunt down their victim, maintaining the chase by their powers of smell rather than by the eye... . The buansu does not burrow like the wolf or the fox, but reposes and breeds in the recesses and natural cavities of the rocks.” After stating that the number in a pack may occasionally be as many as twenty, Mr. Blanford observes that these wild dogs “live principally upon deer of various kinds and wild pigs in India, and on wild sheep and antelopes in , i. Ny = . = y \ yes ‘ RANI 1 WW) WW a My Ye: a ee f = = neo SS SS INDIAN WILD DOG ($ nat. size). Tibet. Many sambar and spotted deer are killed by them, whilst occasionally nilgai and Indian antelopes fall victims. Wild dogs avoid the neighbourhood of man, and consequently but rarely attack domestic animals; occasionally, however, they kill sheep, goats, and cattle, and Jerdon mentions one instance, and M‘Master another, of their pulling down a tame buffalo. I came across a third case myself in the jungles east of Bawda, and I was curious to see how so large an animal had been destroyed. There were but a few tooth-marks about the nose and throat, and some of the pack had evidently attacked the buffalo in front, while others tore it open. This is probably their usual way of killing large animals; they have been seen to snap at the flanks of a number running.” It was stated by Hodgson that ASIAIIC WILD DOGS. 551 wild dogs are in the habit of giving tongue while hunting. This is, however, denied both by Hamilton and Blanford; but it is affirmed that these animals are in the habit of howling at night. There does not appear to be any authenticated instance of the Indian wild dog attacking human beings. In marked contrast to the wolf and the jackal, it is, if not absolutely untamable, exceedingly difficult to render domesticated in any degree; this of itself being a proof that it has nothing to do with the ancestry of domestic dogs. The young in India are born in the winter, although this is probably not the case in the higher Himalaya and Tibet. The number of cubs in a litter is usually from two to four, but six or more have been observed. In the Himalaya, near Simla, a breeding-place was discovered where it appeared that several females bred in company. By many writers the wild dog of the countries to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal is regarded as inseparable from the Indian form. Mr. Blanford, however, takes the opposite view, and considers that the Malay Wild Dog. : MALAY WILD DOG (} nat. size), 552 CARNIVORES. Malayan wild dog is entitled to rank as a distinct species (CL rutilans). It is smaller and slighter in build, and has slenderer limbs than its Indian relative ; while the “brush” is smaller, and the hair of the body is short and harsh, and has no under-fur. There is also stated to be a difference in regard to the relative length of the flesh-tooth of the upper jaw to the two molars by which it is followed. In colour this dog is of a deep ferruginous red above, with the individual hairs scarcely lighter at their roots ; while the under-parts of the body are whitish. My. Blanford gives the length of the head and body of a young male as 32} inches, and that of the tail 12 inches. This species is found throughout the Malay peninsula, and also in the islands of Sumatra and Java, while it has also been reported to occur in Borneo. It is also found in Tenasserim, and has been obtained near Moulmein; but it has yet to be determined whether the wild dog of Upper Burma belongs to this or the preceding species. It may be suggested that in the latter district it will be found that the specimens indicate a more or less complete transition between the two species. In concluding our notice of the wild dogs of this group, it may be mentioned that remains of extinct species are found in the cavern deposits of France and Germany. These fossil species appear to have been closely allied to the living ones; and afford one more instance of the derivation of the present fauna of the East from the ancient fauna of Western Europe. Extinct Species. THE MANED WOLF (Canis jubatus). ( i) With the so-called maned wolf—a name which is in every respect a misnomer, since the creature is neither distinctly maned nor a true wolf—we come to the first of a group of South American species, which form the remaining representatives of the wolf-like section of the family. The maned wolf, which is of about the same size as the common wolf, differs from the rest of these South American species by its superior size, longer legs, and shorter tail. It is placed by Professor Mivart among the true wolves, but its appearance and habits are so different that we are persuaded that its proper place is here. The aguara-guazu, as this animal is termed in South America, is a long-legged and long-eared species, with a very conspicuous coloration. The body is covered with long and somewhat coarse hairs, which are more lengthened on the back of the neck than elsewhere; the general colour being of a bright yellowish red. There is, however, a black patch extending from the nape of the neck towards the shoulders, and black is also present on the under-surface of the lower jaw. More- over, the legs have black “stockings,” standing out conspicuously against the general red colour of the body; while the under-surface of the upper part of the throat, as well as the insides of the ears and the extremity of the tail are white. The maned wolf inhabits Brazil, Paraguay, and Northern Argentina, but does not extend as far south as the Pampas. It differs from the true wolves in being an entirely solitary animal—never assembling in packs, and also in being harmless to men. Generally found in moist regions, it les concealed during the day in bushes and thickets, and does not venture forth till evening for its nocturnal wanderings. It preys generally upon the various species of rodents which are so SOUTH AMERICAN WILD DOGS. 553 common in South America, some of which are so swift as to elude the attacks of domestic dogs, although they fall a ready prey to the maned wolf. Its diet is, however, varied by birds, reptiles, insects, and even fruits; while it will sometimes attack deer, and more rarely sheep. Owing to its nocturnal habits the maned wolf is rarely seen in inhabited districts, but it appears that in regions remote from human habitations it is less cautious in its habits and will issue forth during the day-time. OTHER SouTH AMERICAN SPECIES (Canis azarae, etc.). ae The comparatively small and fox-like species known as Azara's dog (C. azar), is the best known of several South American species in regard to the nomenclature of which there has been much confusion. This dog differs from all the species yet noticed by its fox-like appearance, this being especially shown by its long body, short legs, large ears, and long bushy tail. If, however, we were to assume from this that the creature was nearly related to the European fox, we should be in error, since it has a skull agreeing with those of the wolves and jackals, and quite unlike those of the true foxes, which are unknown in South America. This species is found from Brazil to Tierra del Fuego, and also on the western side of the Andes in Chili and elsewhere. It is true, indeed, that there is great variation in the colour of specimens from different regions, on which account a number of nominal species have been determined; but these’ are all regarded by Professor Mivart as local races of one species. It likewise appears that there is a considerable amount of seasonal variation in the colour and length of the fur in the same individuals; the hairs being longer and greyer in winter than in summer, while those on the back tend to blackness, and those on the face to a greyish brown instead of a yellowish grey tint during the former season. In the average form the colour of the sides of the body is grey, while the longer hairs of the back are black-and-white, with black patches on the shoulders, the middle of the body and the rump; the limbs being fulvous externally, and of a pale yellowish tint internally. The under-parts of the body and the inner sides of the thighs are whitish. There is also some white on the upper lip, and on the chest, as well as on the inner sides of the ears; the outer sides of the latter being yellowish, with black tips. The tail, like the back, is mottled with black-and-white throughout the greater part of its length, but the end is black. White specimens have occasionally been observed. Mr. W. H. Hudson speaks of Azara’s dog as being purely fox-like in its habits, and common everywhere in Argentina, where it inhabits the open Pampas. In Paraguay, on the other hand, according to Rengger, it dwells in jungle-clad districts, from which during the night it roams on the one side into the dense forests, and on the other into the open country. Its main food consists of small mammals and birds, but it will not refuse lizards; and it displays a marked partiality for sugar-cane, doing great damage, by the number of canes it destroys without eating them. In hunting, this dog runs with its nose close to the ground, after the manner of a foxhound, but will at times raise its head to the wind. For the greater part of the year Azara’s dog is a solitary animal, but during the winter 554 CARNIVORES. pairs of males and females go together. The young are born in the spring, and generally comprise from three to four in a litter. The lair may be formed either beneath the cover of a thick bush, or in the deserted hole of another animal, such as an armadillo, but it does not appear that the aguarachay (as this species is termed in South America) ever burrows for itself. A tify 14 iS yi S \ bf CC ——— Wi “Lt a AZARA’S DOG. AR The crab-eating dog (C. canerivorus), is a rather larger species than the last, sometimes attaining a considerable size; and having a relatively shorter muzzle and tail. It inhabits the regions from Guiana and Demerara to La Plata, although said to be unknown on the Pampas. The colour is subject to great individual variation, but according to Mivart its pervading tint may be either a uniform light reddish grey, or darker and mottled. It may have a black back and bright red legs, or may be a dull grey, with very little black, or grey with a very black back. The most normal tint seems to be a brownish grey above, with the crown of the head, sides of the body, and outside of the limbs slightly or strongly rufous. There is generally more or less black on the back and the upper surface of the tail, while the end of the tail is always black. The reddish brown ears have not the black tips of the preceding species. The carasissi, as this dog is called in some parts, is a forest or jungle-dwelling species, feeding not only upon rodents and birds but likewise upon crustaceans, RACCOON-DOG. 555 and thus earning its common English title. It is stated that these animals will collect in packs and run down and kill deer; and they do much damage to poultry in inhabited districts. Although when hunting in the woods they follow their prey by scent, it is stated that when in the open they hunt by sight. The largest and handsomest of the South American fox-like species, is the colpeo (C. magellanicus), from Tierra del Fuego and Chili. This is somewhat superior in size to the largest individuals of the preceding species, from which it is distinguished by its longer and more pointed nose, and the great length of the more bushy tail. The coloration is, moreover, generally of a more decidedly reddish hue. Like the other species, there is considerable individual variation both as regards the colour and length of the fur. Generally, however, the sides of the body are brownish grey, while the back is mottled with black, and _the limbs are more or less rufous: the cheeks, throat, under surface of the lower jaw, and the under-parts being yellowish-white. The ears are dark externally ; while the bushy tail is of a light reddish grey, except the tip and a patch on the upper surface near the root, which are black. The colpeo, as Darwin remarks, inhabits alike the moist forests of Tierra del Fuego and the arid deserts of Northern Chili. It is very destructive to poultry; and, though to a large extent nocturnal, may frequently be seen during the daytime. Our knowledge of the very remarkable species known as the short-eared dog (C. microtis) is limited to a single specimen, formerly exhibited in the London Zoological Society's Gardens, and believed to have come from the valley of the Amazon. This animal was about the size of medium individuals of the crab-eating dog, measuring 42 inches in total length, of which 12 are occupied by the tail, and standing about 14 inches at the shoulder. It differs from the other members of the family, except the next, by its short and rounded ears, which communicate to the face a physiognomy quite different from that of all other wild dogs. It is further noticeable for its coloration, the fur being short and thick and generally of a dark iron-grey hue, the individual hairs being black at the tips and white near their roots. The limbs and bushy tail are nearly black, but the latter has a curious white patch on the under surface near the root. The ears and snout are rufous. Colpeo. Short-Eared Dog. THE Raccoon-Doe (Canis procyonoides). This curiously-coloured and short-eared species is an undoubted dog, and comes nearest to the South American forms described above. It receives its title from a supposed resemblance to a raccoon, but it must be confessed that it requires a considerable amount of imagination to see the likeness. The raccoon-dog inhabits Japan, China, and Amurland, and is characterised by the sharp and _ pointed muzzle, the short rounded ears, the rather short and bushy tail, and the great length of its fur, more especially during the winter. There is much individual variation in colour, the prevailing tints being dusky-yellow and black, but the proportions in which the two occur differing greatly. Black is, however, always present on the cheeks and around the eyes, extending forwards to the muzzle, where there is a white spot below the nose on each side. The sides of the head 556 CARNIVORES. are yellowish, and the forehead may be either of the same colour or blackish. The ears have brown margins, but are white internally, and sometimes partially so externally. The chin and front of the neck are brown, but, as in the specimen on the right side of our illustration, a yellowish colour may extend backwards towards the shoulders. The whole of the back has fur varying from a mixture of black-and-yellow to nearly black, the individual hairs always having long black tips. On the sides, the ends of the hair are yellowish ; and the chest and under- parts vary from brown to nearly black, while the limbs are blackish brown. The tail, on which the hairs are long and pendent, is frequently black above and at its THE RACCOON-DOG (4 nat. size). extremity, while below it may be light yellow. The raccoon-dog is chiefly a nocturnal animal, dwelling in summer in the wood-clad mountains, and in winter descending to the neighbourhood of the river valleys, where it is said, when in good condition, to hibernate. In Amurland, where it does not hibernate, it feeds largely on fish during the winter, reposing during the day in the thick sedges of the river banks. The asserted hibernation of this animal is a remarkable feature, since no other member of the family takes a winter sleep. The hiber- nation is said to take place in the deserted burrow of a fox, or some other animal; but it can also construct an earth of its own. The individuals which do not hibernate may be seen in winter crossing the ice-bound rivers in a succession of short jumps. The raccoon-dog is far from wary, and as it is almost ~S eens FOXES. 557 omnivorous in its food, is easily killed by means of strychnine. The fish which forms its favourite diet in winter is a kind of carp; while in summer the chief food consists of mice, which are pursued either in small companies or family parties. Fruit also forms a portion of its diet. It does little or no damage to poultry ; and in Japan has been known to make its winter lair beneath the walls of a house. Both its fur and its flesh are held in high estimation by the Japanese. THE Foxes (Canis vulpes, etc.). One of the characteristics by which the skulls of the wolves and the other members of the dog family described above may be distinguished from those of the foxes has been mentioned on p. 496. To this it may be added that the frontal bones of the skulls of the former group are inflated by internal air-chambers, which are wanting in those of the latter. Moreover, the pupil of the eye, when contracted, is circular in the wolves, jackals, and domestic dogs, whereas in the foxes it is elliptical. Some of the fox-hke South American species of the former resemble, however, foxes in this respect, as they do in external form to a more or less marked degree. On account of these intermediate forms, we cannot agree with those who refer the foxes to a distinct genus, although they differ from all other members of the family in having but six teats. Foxes are characterised by their slight build, their long bushy tails, which are nearly always considerably more than half the length of the head and body, and short limbs; while they generally have large ears. All the members of the group are chiefly nocturnal in their habits, hiding in holes or burrows made by themselves, or in ravines, or amongst grass or bushes during the day. They are, as a rule, solitary, and rarely if ever associate in numbers as other Canidw do. All the species are more or less insectivorous and frugivorous; but the more tropical forms appear to live on insects more than do those which in- habit temperate climates. All are highly intelligent and famous for cun- ning. The group is distributed over North America, Asia, SKELETON OF FOX. Europe, and Africa, but is unknown in South America. The smaller African species are distinguished by the inordinate length of their ears. Probably every Englishman thinks he knows the common fox sufficiently well to run no risk of confounding it with any other animal; and if our observations were confined to the ordinary foxes of Europe we should have no great difficulty in deciding that they might be included under one Common Fox. 558 CARNIVORES. name, although even among these there is a considerable amount of variation in size and colour. When we take into consideration the larger foxes of North America and India, we find a number of forms which, while approximating more or less to the British animal, yet differ so remarkably in coloration that it is at first sight hard to believe that they all belong to the same species; but the researches of zoologists have shown that all these various modifications pass more or less completely into the coloration of the typical European fox, and must be regarded as mere local varieties of that widely-spread species. Including, then, all these varieties under one title, the common fox has a more extensive distribution than any other member of the entire family; its range embracing the whole of Europe and Asia, north of and including the Himalaya, from Iceland to Japan; and also comprising North America from Hudson’s Bay and Labrador to the latitude of Northern Mexico, and Africa north of the Saharz and Sudan. The size of the fox, according to Mivart, is subject to such an amount of variation—that if the length of the head and body of a specimen at one end of the series be represented by 100, that of the one at the other will be equivalent to 170. The length of the tail and ears is, however, much less variable. The ordinary English fox, as represented in our coloured Plate, is of a reddish brown colour above, and white beneath, while the outer surfaces of the ears, and portions of those of the limbs are black, and the extreme tip of the tail is white. Occasionally, however, the tip of the tail may be dark grey, or even black, while in one specimen caught in Warwickshire, the whole of the under-parts were greyish black. The total length of the head and body may vary from 27 to 46 inches, and that of the tail from 12 to 15 inches. In Southern Europe, black-bellied foxes are far from uncommon, and connect the ordinary form with the Himalayan variety, which has a somewhat similar coloration, and is altogether a paler animal than the English fox. In its long winter dress, the Himalayan fox (which is generally smaller than the English), is a strikingly handsome animal, with the fur of the back varying from chestnut to dull rufous, more or less speckled with yellow, to a dark iron grey. Frequently there is a dark stripe across the shoulder, bordered with buff patches in front and behind; while the hinder parts of the back and thighs are greyer and more speckled with white, the sides paler, and the under-parts varying from cream- colour to nearly black. The throat and chest, with the exception of a white spot in the centre of the latter, are frequently darker than the under-parts of the body, in which the dusky area may be confined to a streak along the middle. Like the English fox, the outer sides of the ears are black, and the tip of the tail is white; but the limbs have little or no black, and the general colour of the tail is greyish, with a more or less marked rufous tinge. The face is rufous, with a black spot below the eyes; while the cheeks are whitish. Very different is, however, the appearance of the animal in summer, after the loss of its long winter coat, when the dark under-fur communicates a greyish brown tinge to the back, while the sides are paler and the under-parts nearly white. This variety is found in the Western Himalaya, from Nipal and Kashmir to Gilgit. In the higher Himalaya, Tibet, and probably Afghanistan, it is, however, replaced by another and larger variety which extends over the greater part of Central Asia. This large Central FOXES. 359 Asian fox is a paler-coloured and yellower animal as a rule, with very thick fur, and a superb brush. The Japanese fox is somewhat variable in colour, but has been declared to present no points of specific distinction; and the same holds good for the foxes of Siberia and China. The North African fox, which has also been considered a distinct species, must likewise be regarded merely as a variety. Acierican This disposes of the foxes of this group found in the Old World, Varieties. and we turn to those of North America, where there is a greater range of variation in colour and markings. These American foxes have received distinct names, according to their coloration. Among these, the so-called red fox is usually of a reddish yellow colour, with the hinder part of the back grizzled, the throat, and more or less of the under-parts white, the outer surfaces of the ears ARCTIC FOXES ON THE ICE. black, and the tail, except at the white tip, with black extremities to the hairs. The cross-fox, as its name implies, is characterised by the presence of a transverse dark stripe across the shoulders, and of another running down the middle of the back. The tail is darker than in the red fox, while the legs, muzzle, and under-parts, are nearly or completely black. The beautiful silver, or black fox, of which the fur is so highly valued, is usually nearly or entirely black, with the exception of the tip of the tail, which is generally white. It derives its name from the grey rings usually marking the otherwise black hairs of the hinder half of the back, the head, and the thighs, which communicate the peculiar silvery lustre to the fur. Indi- viduals may, however, be met with, in which the fur is either completely black or completely grey. That the red fox and the cross fox are undoubtedly a single species is conclusively proved by a statement of Audubon to the effect that both varieties may be found in a single litter of cubs. While the red and cross varieties 560 CARNIVORES. are characteristic of the eastern districts of the United States, the far rarer silver fox is a northern form, a large number of its skins coming from the upper reaches of the Mississippi, aud the districts to the north-west of the Missouri River. So much has been written about the habits of the English fox that our remarks on this subject will be brief. Although the fox is by no means averse to taking possession of the deserted burrow of a rabbit or a badger, it generally excavates its own “earth,” in which it spends a considerable portion of its time. As all hunters know, foxes, however, frequently prefer to live out in the woods, those with a northern aspect being, it is said, generally avoided. Sometimes these animals will prefer a thick hedgerow, or a dry ditch, while we have known them to select the tall tussocks of coarse grass in swampy Habits, AN INTERESTING DISCOVERY. meadows as a resting-place; and they have also been found in straw-ricks, where it is on record that in one instance the cubs have been born. The breeding-time is in April, and the usual number of young in a litter is from four to six. The prey of the fox consists, writes Bell, “of hares, rabbits, various kinds of ground birds, particularly partridges, of which it destroys great numbers; and it often makes its way into the farm-yard, committing sad havoc among the poultry. It has been known not unfrequently to carry off a young lamb. When other food fails the fox will, however, have recourse to rats and mice, and even frogs and worms; while on occasion beetles are largely consumed, and, on the sea-shore, fish, crabs, and molluses form a part of its diet. Carrion seems never to come amiss ; while the old story of the fox and the grapes alludes to the fruit-eating propensities of these animals.” The usual ery of the fox ig a yelping bark. The well-known FOXES. 561 scent of the fox is secreted by a gland situated beneath the tail. The cunning displayed by English foxes in escaping from hounds has been so often described, that we shall make no further allusion to it here, beyond saying that it has probably attained its present development as the result of the inherited experience of many generations. That the fox is an ancient inhabitant of the British Islands is proved by the occurrence of its fossilised remains in caverns in company with those of the mammoth and other extinct animals. This, however, is not all, for a skull, in- distinguishable from that of a large English fox, has been dug up from the sands lying at the top of the Red Cray of Suffolk, which are vastly older than the mammoth period. A very different animal from the red American variety of the common fox is the grey fox (C. virginianus) of North America, which is regarded by Professor Mivart as exhibiting some approximation to the Grey Fox. 5 = N\A \\ = r s \ we AE WN a\ YAN tH Se 27 = s ) NHI \ | NY 3 ly ft THE GREY FOX (3 nat. size). fox-like South American species described above. It is a considerably smaller animal than the average European fox; and is characterised by the grizzled grey colour of the top of the head and the upper part of the body; in marked contrast to which is the rufous tint of the fur of the sides of the throat and body and the limbs. The upper-surface of the tail is dusky, while below it is chestnut; its extremity being dark, and there being also a dark patch near its root, connected with a dark mark running along the back. The chin is black, as is a spot on each side between the nose and the eye; the outer surfaces of the ears are rusty red; the middle of the throat is nearly or quite white; while the under-parts of the body are yellowish white. The grey or, as it is often called, the Virginian fox, is found from the United States to Central America. VOL. I.—36 562 CARNIVORES. Dr. Ellzey, when contrasting the habits of the grey fox with the red American variety of the common species, observes that the two animals differ very widely in these respects. “So far as my personal observations inform me,” he says, “the following are some of the principal distinctions. First, as to reproduction, the red fox nearly always brings forth its young in an earth den, the grey fox generally in a hollow log or tree, or, at most, under a rock. The last one I found with her young was a grey. The young, only a few hours old, were in the hollow stump of an old rotten tree, broken off about five feet high. As I came up, the old one jumped out of the top of the stump, and ran off. I looked down the hole, and saw at the bottom five young ones, scarcely dry. I have seldom seen a grey with more than five, and often with only four young. I never found a red with less than five. I have seen one with nine, and several with seven. I think it certain, therefore, that the reds are more prolific. Second, as to hunting for prey and subsistence. The reds are bolder in pursuit, and hunt over a much greater territory than the greys. Whether the greys ever climb trees in pursuit of prey I am uncertain, but they take to a tree as readily as a cat when run hard by hounds. I think it nearly certain that they climb for persimmons and grapes. Red foxes never climb trees under any circumstances; when hard run they go to earth. Grey foxes run before hounds only a short distance, doubling constantly and for a short time, when they either hole in a tree, or climb one. I have known the red fox to run straight away nearly twenty miles. Very commonly they run eight or ten miles away, and then run back in a parallel course. I have known them to run the four sides of a quadrilateral, nine or ten miles long by about two miles broad. It is doubtful whether a first-rate specimen of the red fox, taken at his best in point of condition, can either be killed or run to earth by any pack of hounds living, such are his matchless speed and endurance. It is but a sorry pack which fails to kill or tree a grey fox in an hour’s run. The young of the grey fox closely resemble small blackish puppies; those of the red fox are distinctly vulpine in physiognomy when only a few hours old.” The smallest and prettiest of the North American species is the kit fox (C. velox), which derives its Latin name from its extraordinary fleetness. In this fox the length of the head and body is only 24 inches, and that of the tail, without the hair, 9 inches. The animal is characterised by the shortness and stoutness of its limbs, standing relatively lower than the common fox, and also by the bushy tail being less than half the length of the body. The thickly-furred ears are also relatively shorter than in the common fox. Another distinctive character is the length and abundance of the under-fur, which is often visible externally, and also by the long hairs clothing the soles of the feet. In colour the kit fox is somewhat variable, but a specimen described and figured by Professor Mivart has the back and tail dark grey, mingled with black-and-white hairs, the tip of the tail black, the cheeks, shoulders, flanks, and the outer surfaces of the limbs rufous, and the under-parts white. The kit fox is confined to North-Western America, where it inhabits open treeless districts, constructing its own burrows in the ground. It was formerly abundant on the plains of Columbia, and also in those lying between the Saskatchewan and the Missouri rivers, but it has of late years considerably decreased in numbers. Kit Fox. FOXES. 563 Widely different from all the other species is the Arctic fox (C. lagopus), characterised by the difference between its summer and winter dress, as well as by certain peculiarities in its form and habits. This species, Which appears to inhabit nearly the whole of the known Arctic lands, descending in America to latitude 50°, and in the Old World to 60°, has a less pointed muzzle, and much shorter and more rounded ears than any other fox, while the hinder-parts of the cheeks are bordered with a kind of ruff of long hairs, and the soles of the feet are covered with a thick coat of woolly hair, which is most developed in winter. In the summer dress the hair is of moderate length, and is frequently of a brown or dull rufous colour on the head, back, outer sides of the limbs and tail; the under-parts being yellowish white. The under-fur is bluish Arctic Fox. ARCTIC FOX IN SUMMER DRESS ($ nat. size). grey, and the roots of the long hairs are also of the same tint; and when this bluish grey extends farther up the hairs than usual the general colour of the fur is of the same hue. In other cases, as in the accompanying illustration, the whole of the upper-parts and the outer sides of the limbs are bluish grey, while the flanks and under-parts are almost white. With the assumption of the winter dress the fur becomes longer and thicker, and the white hairs which are scattered through the summer coat gradually increase in number, at the same time as the tips of the other hairs become white, until the whole length of each hair is of that colour. The animal is then completely clad in white, the naked tip of the nose being, however, black, while in certain cases the extremity of the tail may also be black. A specimen in the pure white winter dress is represented in the foreground of our second illustration. This winter change of colour is, however, by no means of constant occurrence; grey hairs sometimes largely mingling with the white, while at other times the prevalent hue of the fur is a uniform bluish grey, as shown in the upper figure of our second 564 CARNIVORES. illustration. Moreover, occasionally, pure white foxes are to be met with in summer. In Iceland, where the winter is less severe than in the more northerly regions, the winter dress of the Arctic fox is nearly similar to the summer one, so that these animals are “blue” at all seasons. The assumption of a white dress im winter is in order to assimilate the colour of the animal to that of the snow-fields among which it dwells, and it is somewhat difficult to understand why the change does not invariably take place in the more ARCTIC FOX, IN WINTER DRESS (< nat. size). northern regions. The hair clothing the soles of the feet is to aid the creature in obtaiming a sure foothold on frozen snow and ice. According to Richardson, Arctic foxes, which were formerly abundant on the shores of Hudson’s Bay, dwelt there in small colonies of from twenty to thirty burrows each. During the autumn and winter such of these foxes as inhabit the more northern districts of Arctic America undertake a southerly migration, keeping as much as possible to the coasts, and the length of the migration depending to a considerable extent whether the line of the coast coincides with the line of march. The Arctic fox preys largely upon birds, especially upon various members of the auk family, as we learn from Professor A. Newton, who writes, that “the Arctic fox is pretty numerous along the shores of the Ice Sound [Spitzbergen]; and we not only frequently saw examples of it, but in the immediate neighbourhood of the FOXES. 565 cliffs wherein the Alcid@ were nesting one could, by listening almost at any time in the twenty-four hours, hear its yapping bark. It is of course the chief enemy of all the different kinds of birds, and their dread of it appears to influence them greatly in their choice of breeding quarters. What the foxes do to get a living in winter, when the birds have left the country, is one of the most curious questions that has presented itself to my mind for some time. The greater number of them are said to remain on the land and to be as active during the long polar night as they are in summer; yet there are no berries by which they might eke out their existence, and there can be no open water, on the margin of which they might find food within miles of their haunts. The most natural explanation that occurs to one is that they lay up a stock of provisions; but nobody, that I am aware of, has ever found such a store-closet.”. Not only does this fox prey upon the Arctic birds themselves, but it also robs their eggs. Dr. Packard, when describing his experiences in Northern Labrador, writes that on a certain day “I started up a blue fox, which was running towards me with a murre’s [guillemot’s] egg in his mouth; on my throwing a stone at him he dropped his egg and scampered off. I hallooed for nearly ten minutes for some one with a gun to come and shoot him, and kept him in sight. With more of curiosity than fear he would stop at intervals to look at me, keeping a safe distance off and barking, until he disappeared. Soon Mr. W. came up; we pursued, finding him on the other side of the island, with another egg in his mouth. Mr. W. gave him his death-wound, though he ran some distance with the egg between his teeth before he dropped dead. His flanks and belly were white, the rest of a slate-blue colour, his legs very long, and tail long though not very bushy. The more remarkable features were his short, rounded ears, as if cropped.” It is not, however, by any means solely on birds and their eggs that the Arctic fox subsists, as in some districts it also preys largely upon the small Rodents known as lemmings. In one district during the Arctic Expedition of 1875, under Sir G. 8S. Nares, numbers of dead lemmings were discovered which had been killed by these foxes, and hordes of lemmings were pulled out from the crannies of the rocks, which had been collected by the foxes as a winter provision ; thus confirming Professor Newton's suggestion as to the probable manner in which these animals subsist in winter. With the desert-fox (C. leucopus) of South-Western Asia we revert to the foxes of the temperate and tropical regions of the Old World. ‘This species is considerably smaller than the common fox, the length of the head and body varying from 19 to 22 inches, and that of the tail from 12 to 16 inches. It agrees, however, with that species in having a small white tip to the tail, as it also does in the dark-coloured ears. Moreover, when the full tints are developed, this animal is more strikingly coloured than the common species, Desert-Fox. although there is a considerable amount of individual variation in this respect. When fully coloured, the fur of the back varies from brownish yellow to rusty red, and there is usually a distinct pale patch on each side of the back behind the shoulders, in front of which is a dark transverse stripe across them. The sides are lighter, while the under-parts generally vary from slaty-grey to blackish, the chin, and generally a spot on the chest, being white. In summer the dark under-fur is seen through the ordinary hairs, and the whole colour is greyer, the 566 CARNIVORES. under-parts being then nearly white. This species is found throughout most of the sandy and more or less desert regions on the western side of India, and also extends into Baluchistan, Afghanistan, probably Persia, Arabia, and most likely other districts of South-Western Asia. It is essentially a desert-hunting species, and in India appears to live chiefly on the gerbils so common in the same sandy regions. In the deserts of Central Asia the preceding species is replaced by the corsac fox (C. corsac), distinguished by its general paler colour, white under-parts, and the black tip to the tail, the shoulder-spots and stripe of the desert-fox being also wanting. The two are, however, evidently very closely allied, and Professor Mivart suggests that they may prove to be local Corsac Fox. THE CORSAC FOX (4 nat. size). varieties of one species. The range of the corsac extends from the banks of the Volga and the shores of the Caspian Sea to the south-eastern parts of Siberia ; while eastwards it is doubtless continued into China, although its limits in this direction, as well as to the northward, are unknown. It has been obtained from Amurland. Like the desert-fox, the corsac is entirely restricted to open and more or less desert regions. It preys largely on small rodents, such as voles, picas, and the like, and is chiefly nocturnal. It does not appear that it makes a burrow for itself, generally tenanting the deserted hole of a marmot, which it leaves after a time for that of another. The corsae is soon run down by dogs, and when tracked to its lair through the snow in winter is said to remain below, and rather than bolt perish from hunger. The little-known Tibetan fox (C. ferrilatus), from the neighbourhood of Lhasa, is another nearly-allied small species, distinguished by the relatively shorter ears being pale rufous instead of dark-coloured ; the tip of the tail being white. FOXES. 5 6 | The pretty little Indian fox (C. bengalensis), which, with the exception of an allied species, is the smallest of the true foxes, and is familiar to all who have resided in India, being often to be seen in the early morning close to the fort at Caleutta. The Indian fox, known like the other species in its native country by the name of lumri, measures only 20 inches from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, while the length of the tail varies from 13 to 14 inches. The tail is thus shorter in proportion to the head and body than in the common fox, and the limbs are characterised by their slenderness. Although subject to the usual variation characteristic of the foxes, the general colour of the fur of this species is grey, with a more or less marked reddish tinge, there being no cross band on the shoulders, and the tip of the tail black, while the ears are grey. This black tip to the tail, coupled with the small size of the animal, at once distinguishes this species from all the other foxes inhabiting India proper. This fox is to be met with everywhere in India, except where there is thick forest ; but it does not occur to the westward of the Punjab nor to the eastward of Assam, while its reported occurrence in Ceylon is more than doubtful. Its ery is a short yelping bark, quickly repeated three or four times. It is by no means shy, and I have shot one which had walked boldly up to within gun-shot range of my camp. Sir W. Elliot writes that “its principal food is rats, land-crabs, grasshoppers, beetles, ete. On one occasion a half-devoured mango was found in the stomach. It always burrows in the open plains, runs with great speed, doubling like a hare; but instead of striking out at first ike that animal, and trusting to its turns as a last resource, the fox turns more at first, and if it can fatigue the dogs then goes straight away.” Jerdon states that “the burrow which this fox makes has always several openings converging towards the centre, some of them blind, others leading towards a larger central one where the animal breeds. This is often two or three feet below the surface. The burrow is usually situated quite in the open plain, now and then in some thorny scrub. In alluvial plains the fox takes advantage of any small rise in the ground to prevent its den being flooded in the rains, and its burrow is frequently found in the dams of tanks and other artificial mounds. I have on two occasions run foxes to holes in old trees, which, from the marks round one of them, had evidently been occupied by the animal for long. Lizards are a favourite food with the fox, as well as rats, crabs, various insects, white ants, ete.” On account of not possessing the strong scent of its European relative, the Indian fox is but little hunted with hounds. It is, however, frequently coursed with greyhounds, when, from its numerous doubles, it gives a good run; pure-bred English greyhounds are, however, too fleet to give good sport, and either half-bred or Arabian or Persian dogs are in consequence generally employed. According to Jerdon, when the animal is going slowly or hunting for food, the tail is trailed on the ground; when running, it is stretched out horizontally; while during the doubling it is raised erect. The young are almost invariably four in number at a birth, and are produced during February, March, and April. The Indian fox is easily tamed, and in this state is more agreeable than most other foxes, owing to the absence of odour. Indian Fox. 568 CARNIVORES. This fox (C. canus) is a still smaller species inhabiting Balu- chistan and the southern parts of Afghanistan, and at present known in Europe by only three specimens. The length of the head and body is only 18 inches, and that of the unusually long tail from 15 to 16 inches. It is distin- guished from the preceding species by the more ashy-grey tinge of its fur, Hoary Fox. LoNG-EARED Foxes (Canis chama, zerda, ete.). The South African asse fox (C. chama) is the first of a group of four species from Africa, two of these being characterised by the extreme length of their ears. It is somewhat smaller than the common fox, but it has considerably longer ears, and therefore appears to form a kind of transition from the true foxes towards the fennees. It is a yellowish-coloured animal, with some black hairs mingled with the light fur of the back, a black tip to the tail, and some chestnut splashes on the snout. It inhabits both sides of the Orange River in great and _ little Namaqualand, and extends eastwards to Kimberley. This fox (C. pallidus) may be distinguished at a glance from the preceding, not only by its much smaller size, but likewise by its longer ears and the thinness of the tail. The general colour is a pale yellow, with Pale Fox. a faint tinge of red; the tail having many black hairs among the lighter fur, a small dark spot on the upper-surface near the root, and a small black tip. In its smaller size and longer ears, this species approaches still closer to the fennecs. It comes from East and West Africa, having been obtained from Senegambia and Nubia and Kordofan. Riippell’s fennee (C. famelicus) is distinguished from all the species hitherto noticed by the great length of its ears, although these are proportionately smaller than in the true fennec. It is a smaller animal than the pale fox, the length of the head and body being about 19 inches, and that of the tail 95 inches; while the ears measure just over 3 inches in length. This fox has Riippell’s Fennec. a fawn-coloured head, reddish back, shoulders, and tail, greyish sides, and nearly white under-parts ; but as it can be so easily recognised by its ears, it is unnecessary to devote further attention to its colouring. Riippell’s fennee was originally obtained from the Nubian deserts, but either this or a closely-allied species occurs in Syria and parts of Persia, as well as in Afghanistan. The last and smallest representative of the genus Canis is the pretty little North African fennee (C. zerda), in which the total length of the head and body is only just over 154 inches, the tail measuring 63 inches, and the ears being at least 3 inches in length, and sometimes even more. Common Fennec. The ears, being wide in proportion to their length, are of enormous size compared to the head, and thus communicate a remarkable physiognomy to the animal. The general colour of the fur of the upper-parts of the fennee varies from a pale fawn to buff, the under-parts being white, and the tip of the tail black; while there may be black markings on the upper part of the latter near its root. On the forehead and round the eyes the fur is nearly white; while the outer surfaces of the ears are rufous, and their inner margins have some long and nearly white hairs. Sometimes there is a black mark in the middle of the hinder-part of the back. Soa N NESS ING Si aeny. , an “s- : we By, Le ae 7 7 Hy * ‘ n 7 a as - = “a , ae > a ae I 7 ns 7 oa _ : re 2 is ae ' - 4 i y wi a a9 We fh - : | 7 e ye, € a <« a '» aan = oe . ae . ee s. a a ee a - - a o % vr *," a : cre y 7 o4 oo! oy Ver 3 = Pe ee on : ~ ere ~ 34 op! ve » Fe diem ee ae ee . ; ie ar) - a 7 ' “ rb. oo ae) ; ih : _ ~ oe F ger" ee ae a4 a oy) eae i ae ae ° " ro Toe ; ro ian vr A ~ re. ae i >. * iy re aot rp Beet 3 7 7 ‘ 7 et \ | ve gin) in n fs _ ay sae es) a oe) = a de 7 7 Py + 2, 7 - af af 7 mal i i a wn av i : a, * id a hg “a i i. > a 7 aot ee e ee w i Ria ae we a ie .; a4 hs a Pos HIUNTING-DOG. 569 The fennec is confined to Northern Africa, ranging from Nubia to Algiers, and occurring over the whole of the Sahara Desert. It is essentially a desert animal, with the sands of which its pale coloration is in complete harmony ; and it is likewise mainly nocturnal in its habits. Like the common fox, the fennec makes a burrow, which is generally situated in the neighbourhood of the tufts of low plants growing here and there in the desert; these plants rendering the soil more coherent, and therefore easier to burrow in. The inside of the burrow is lined with feathers, hair, and soft vegetable substances, and is remarkable for its cleanli- ness. The burrows are made with wonderful rapidity—so quickly, indeed, that the animal seems to sink into the ground as though it were diving into water; and when hunted the creature generally manages to escape by thus burrowing. During the day the fennee reposes in its burrow, with its head curled up beneath the bushy tail, and only the ears exposed. At the slightest sound or movement it is, however, on the alert; and, when thus disturbed, it utters a slight whimper, and soon endeavours to dispose itself again to slumber. At sunset the fennec leaves its burrow and makes for its drinking-place, but instead of going straight across the sand dunes, it always seeks the protection of such ravines and hollows as there may be. Around the drinking-places the moist earth is covered with countless impressions of its feet. After having satisfied its thirst, the fennec sets about seeking its food, which may be either jerboas, small birds, lizards, insects, or fruit. The burrows are generally made near together, so that the fennecs live in small colonies or companies. According to native reports, the young are born in March, the number in a litter being either three or four. THE Cape Huntinc-Doe (Lycaon pictus). With the fennec we took leave of the last member of the family which can be included in the typical genus Canis, and we now come to the first of three species which represent as many distinct genera. The curious-looking animal depicted in the illustration on the next page, and commonly known as the Cape hunting-dog, differs from other members of the family in having but four toes to each foot, and also in its peculiar irregularly-spotted coloration. The number of the teeth is the same as in the wolf; and the skull has also a considerable resemblance to that of the latter, although shorter and broader; while the form of the cheek-teeth is likewise rather different. In point of size the hunting-dog may be compared with a tall greyhound. Its limbs are relatively long; the head is broad and flat, with a somewhat short muzzle, and rather large ears. The fur is rather thin; and is coloured with a mixture of black, yellowish ochre, grey, and white, the disposition of the colours varying greatly in different individuals, and the patches or blotches being generally arranged unsymmetrically on the two sides of the body. Professor Mivart describes the usual coloration as follows:—* The general ground-colour is an ochraceous grey, but with black markings, so that the body and outer sides of the extremities are blotched and brindled with black, intermingled here and there with white spots edged with black; the markings being very irregular. The muzzle is black, and a black stripe sometimes, but not always, passes backwards 570 CARNIVORES. from between the eyes and ears, and along the neck. The root of the tail is ochraceous, then more or less black, with the terminal portion white or whitish; it is rather bushy. The ears are said to be more or less naked; they are more or less black within, though with some white hairs, while externally they are of an ochre colour at their roots, above which they may or may not be black.” In some specimens, the front of the fore-lhmbs is more or less marked with black. In the specimen here represented, the coloration is very irregular, there being a large amount of white on the under-surface. In others, however, the ochre colour is CAPE HUNTING-DOG (,1, nat. size). predominant, and the black consists mainly of irregular spots, while there is scarcely any white. This animal inhabits nearly the whole of Africa to the south- wards and eastwards of the Sahara. The most remarkable feature about the hunting-dog is its superficial resem- blance to the spotted hyena of the same country; this being most noticeable in those individuals in which the ochre colour predominates, and the dark areas take the form of spots. From this resemblance, which is merely superficial and indicates no sort of affinity between the two animals, the hunting-dog is frequently termed the hyeena-dog. To account satisfactorily for this resemblance is very difficult. It has been suggested that it is a case of “mimicry ”; that is to say, the resemblance to the HUNTING-DOG. 571 hyena is due to some advantage which the hunting-dog thereby gains. It is, however, very difficult to see what advantage a strong animal hunting in packs, like the present species, can gain by being mistaken for a hyzena, as it is in every respect fully qualified to take care care of itself. If, however, we could suppose that the hunting-dog was originally a solitary animal, which had subsequently become gregarious, then perhaps the resemblance to the hyzna might have been an advantage to it. Although generally nocturnal, the hunting-dog may occasionally be seen during the day. One of the best accounts of its habits is given by Gordon Cumming, who writes as follows :—* The wild dogs, or vilde honden, as they are called by the Dutch boers, are still [about 1845] abundant in the precincts of the Cape Colony, and are met with in great numbers throughout the interior. These animals invariably hunt together in large organised packs, varying in number from ten to sixty, and by their extraordinary powers of endurance, and mode of mutual assist- ance, they are enabled to run into the swiftest or overcome the largest and most powerful antelope. * T have never heard of them attacking the buffalo, and I believe that the animal pursued in the present instance [a gnu] is the largest to which they give battle. Their pace is a long never-tiring gallop, and in the chase they relieve one another, the leading hounds falling to the rear when fatigued, when others, who have been husbanding their strength, come up and relieve them. Having succeeded in bringing their quarry to bay, they all surround him, and he is imme- diately dragged to the ground, and in a few minutes torn to pieces and consumed. They are of a bold and daring disposition, and do not entertain much fear of man, evincing less concern on his approach than any other carnivorous animal with which I am acquainted. On disturbing a pack, they trot leisurely along before the intruder, repeatedly halting and looking back at him. The females bring forth their young in large holes, in desolate open plains. These burrows are connected with one another underground. When a troop of wild dogs frequenting these holes observes a man approaching they do not, as might be supposed, take shelter in the holes, but rather trusting to their speed, they rush forth, even though the intruder should be close upon them, and retreat across the plain, the young ones, unless very weak, accompanying them. The devastation occasioned by them among the flocks of the Dutch boers is inconceivable. It constantly happens that when the careless shepherds leave their charge, in quest of honey or other amuse- ment, a pack of these marauders comes across the defenceless flock, A sanguinary massacre in such cases invariably ensues, and incredible numbers of sheep are killed and wounded. The voracious pack, not content with killing as many as they can eat, follow resolutely on, tearing and mangling all that come within their reach. Their voice consists of three different kinds of cry, each being used on special occasions. One of these cries is a short angry bark, usually uttered when they behold an object which they cannot make out. Another resembles a number of monkeys chattering together, or men conversing together when their teeth are chattering violently from cold. This ery is emitted at night, when large numbers of them are together, and they are excited by any particular occurrence, such as being barked at by domestic dogs. The third cry resembles the second note uttered by the cuckoo which visits our islands during the summer months, and, when 572 CARNIVORES. heard in a calm morning echoing through the distant woodlands, has a very pleasing effect.” From later accounts it would appear that the holes referred to above are inhabited by the hunting-dogs only during the breeding-season, and that they are not excavated by the animals themselves. The numbers in which these dogs were formerly wont to associate together is illustrated by the following anecdote from the writer just quoted. Being suddenly wakened from slumber one night, the great hunter states that “I heard the rushing of light feet as of a pack of wolves close on every side of me, accompanied by the most unearthly sounds. On raising my head, to my utter horror, I saw on every side nothing but savage wild dogs, chattering and growling. On my right and on HUNTING-DOGS CHASING GEMSBOK, my left, and within a few paces of me, stood two lines of these ferocious-locking animals, cocking their ears and stretching their necks to have a look at me; while two large troops, in which there were at least forty of them, kept dashing back- wards across my view, within a few yards of me, chattermg and growling with the most extraordinary volubility. Another troop of wild dogs were fighting over the wildebeest I had shot, which they had begun to devour. On beholding them I expected no other fate than to be instantly torn to pieces and consumed... . However, I had presence of mind to consider that the human voice anda determined bearing might overawe them, and accordingly, springing to my feet, I stepped on the little ledge surrounding the hole, while, drawing myself to my full height, I waved my large blanket with both hands, at the same time addressing my savage assembly in a loud and solemn manner. This had the desired effect ; the wild dogs removed to a more respectful distance, barking at me something like collies.” BUSIEDOG. 573 Probably a sight like this cannot at the present day be witnessed, although hunting-dogs are still numerous in the Kilima-njaro district. Of scarcely less interest than these large assembles must, however, be the spectacle of two or more of these animals in full pursuit of an antelope. Such a hunt was witnessed by Mr. Selous in Bechuanaland, the pursued being a male sable antelope, and the pursuer a single hunting-dog. This hunter and his comrades had been for some time watching the antelope, when suddenly it started off full in their direction. On looking round for the cause of this sudden movement, “we saw,” writes Mr. Selous, “that an animal was running on its track, and, although still distant, was overhauling it fast, for the sable antelope not being pressed was not yet doing its best, so that when it was about two hundred yards from us, its pursuer, which we now saw was a wild dog, was not more than fifty yards behind us. The noble- looking antelope must just then have seen us, for it halted, looked towards us, and then turning its head glanced at its insignificant pursuer. That glance, however, at the open-mouthed dog thirsting for its life-blood must have called unpleasant reminiscences, for instead of showing fight, as I should have expected it to have done, it threw out its limbs convulsively, and came dashing past us at its utmost speed. It was, however, to no purpose, for the wild dog lying flat to the ground as a greyhound, its bushy tail stretched straight behind it, covered two yards to its one, and came up to it in no time. It just gave the antelope one bite in the flank, and letting go its hold instantly fell a few yards behind; at the bite the sable antelope swerved towards us, and upon receiving a second in exactly the same place, turned still more, so that, taking the point on which we stood as centre, both pursuer and pursued had described about half a circle round us, always within two hundred yards, since the sable antelope had first halted. As the wild dog was just going up the third time it got our wind, and instead of again inflicting a bite stopped dead and looked toward us, whilst about a hundred yards from it the sable antelope also came to a stand. The baffled hound then turned round, and made off one way, while the sable antelope, delivered from its tormentor, cantered off in another.” Mr. Selous adds that this is the only instance known to him of a hunting-dog pursuing an animal by itself. In the form of the last premolar tooth of the lower jaw the skull of the hunting-dog presents a peculiarity by which it can be distinguished from that of the wolves; and it is remarkable that a lower jaw from a cave of Glamorganshire shows the same peculiarity in the tooth in question, thus indicating that during the mammoth age a hunting-dog, nearly allied to the living African species, pursued its prey on the Mendips. THE BusH-Doe (Lcticyon venaticus). The bush-dog of Brazil and British Guiana is an animal of or about the size of a fox, differing from all the other members of the family in external appearance, although it is not on this ground that it is separated from Canis. It is a short- eared, short-legged, and long-bodied animal, with a very deep and rather elongated neck, and of a general dark brown colour. The head, neck, and shoulders, differ from the general body-colour in being grey, while the hind-quarters, tail, and 574 CARNIVORES. under-parts are nearly black. The great peculiarity of this animal is, however, the circumstance that it has usually but one molar tooth in the upper jaw, and only two of these teeth in the lower Jaw, so that it has fewer teeth than any other member of the dog family. This, however, is not all, for the lower flesh-tooth has no trace of the cusp found on the inner side of the blade in all other dogs; while the heel of the same tooth, instead of being broad and adapted for grinding, is brought to a sharp cutting-edge. These features indicate that the bush-dog is ¢ more specialised animal than the other members of the family. But little is known of the habits of the bush-dog in the wild state, as it is but seldom seen, and is probably nocturnal. We are informed, however, that these animals are, for their size, very fierce, and hunt in packs. They are found only in the interior of the countries they inhabit; and are said to take readily to the water. A specimen kept in captivity was very indiscriminate in its feeding, but preferred animal to vegetable substances. Fossil remains of the bush-dog are found in the caverns of Brazil, in company with those of a host of strange animals long since passed away. LALANDE’S Doe (Otocyon megalotis). As the bush-dog is remarkable for the diminution in the number of its teeth, so the long-eared, or Lalande’s dog, is peculiar in that it has more than the ordinary LALANDE’S DOG (# nat. size). HITTING DOGS. SYS complement of these organs. Thus, while in the lower jaw this animal has invariably four molar teeth, or one more than in any other member of the family, in the upper jaw it has either three or four of these teeth, whereas in all other living canine animals there are not more than two upper molars. The total number of teeth is accordingly either forty-six or forty-eight ; and no other Mammal outside the Marsupial order ever has four molar teeth in both jaws. Indeed, the tenrec is the only one in which there are four of these teeth even in one jaw. Lalande’s dog is, therefore, a very interesting animal, and one which retains, perhaps, traces of a Marsupial ancestry lost in other living Mammals, except the tenree. This species, which is rather smaller than a common fox, comes nearest in external appearance to the fennecs, having enormous ears and a thick bushy tail. The eyes are unusually large; the limbs are relatively longer than in the fox, but the tail is proportionately shorter. The general colour of the fur is brownish or iron grey, mottled with yellow; the outer sides of the limbs being nearly black, the under- parts whitish, and the tail slaty grey, with a black tip, and more or less distinct dark markings on its upper-surface. These animals are natives of South and East Africa; but very little is known of their habits. They are generally found in open country, dwelling under or among small bushes, and going about in pairs. Although they are said to stand and watch the hunters by the hour together, they are very difficult of approach. EXtTINcT Does. It has been mentioned that fossil remains of several living members of the dog family have been obtained from the superficial deposits of the countries which they severally inhabit. It has also been mentioned that extinct species of the Asiatic wild dogs and of the African hunting-dog have been found in Europe, thus indicating for those two groups a former distribution of wider extent than at present. A number of extinct species belonging to the genus Canis have also been obtained from the Pliocene and upper-half of the Miocene deposits of different parts of the world. These, however, are all more or less closely allied to living species, and are accordingly of no very special interest to the evolutionist. On the other hand, if we go somewhat further back in the geological record, to the lower portion of the Miocene and the upper part of the Eocene period, we come across remains of more or less decidedly dog-like animals widely different from living forms. Some of these extinct creatures are, indeed, to a considerable extent, intermediate between dogs and civets; and thus indicate that the civet family is probably derived from the ancestors of the dog family. This enlarges our view of the relationships of the various modern Carnivores to one another, for we have already shown that the hyenas are closely related to the ancestral civets, and the cats are probably another side-branch nearly allied to them. We thus have reason to believe that all the Carnivores with bladder-like tympanic bull to their skulls—namely, eats, civets, hyzenas, and dogs—have sprung from a common ancestral stock nearly allied to the modern dogs. The most civet-like of these intermediate extinct animals are known by the name of Cynodictis, and they were mostly creatures of about the size of the fox, with teeth either numerically the same as in the latter, or as in the civet, and with plantigrade feet. 576 CARNIVORES. Far more remarkable is, however, the connection which is shown to exist by these fossil types between the dogs and the bears, which are now so widely sundered. The connecting type appears to be a creature known as the Amphicyon, of which a lower flesh-tooth is shown on p. 353. Some of these amphicyons were not larger than a fox, while others must have fully equalled a bear in size. They differed from modern dogs in having forty-four teeth, owing to the presence of the third pair of molars in the upper-jaw, and also in that their feet were plantigrade, like those of a bear; while they had five toes on all feet. The teeth of these planti- grade dogs, as they may be called, were, indeed, essentially those of a modern dog ; but, as we shall show later on, there is a complete transition through other extinct forms to those of the bears. Hence we conclude that these plantigrade dogs were not only the ancestors of the modern dogs, but likewise gave origin to the bear family. The dog family is, therefore, the most ancient type of Carnivores now living, and the one which includes the extinct forms from which nearly all the others have originated. Lie Fis Uf. FOXHOUND, Aard Wolf, 479. Adapis, 236. American Monkeys, 144. Amphicyon, 576. Anthops, 266. ornatus, 266. Anthropopithecus, 22. calvus, 25. niger, 22. Antrozous, 273. pallidus, 273. Anubis Baboon, 135, Anurosorex, 330. Aotus, 165. Apes, 14. Arabian Baboon, 128. Arctictis, 463. binturong, 463. Arctogale, 461. leucotis, 461. trivirgata, 461. Artibeus, 304. planirostris, 304, perspillatus, 304. Atalapha, 280 cinerea, 280. noveboracensis, 280. Ateles, 159. ater, 162. bartletti, 164. belzebuth, 163. cucullatus, 162. geoffroyt, 163. grisescens, 162. hybridus, 163. marginatus, 162. melanochirus, 163. paniscus, 160. subpentadactylus, 162. variegatus, 163. vellerosus, 163. Avalhis, 209. laniger, 209. Awantibo, 235. Aye-Aye, 237, 240. Baboons, 125, Anubis, 135. Arabian, 128. Chaema, 132. Doguera, 132. Extinct, 142. Gelada, 124. Guinea, 137. VOL. I.—37 Baboons— continued. Sacred, 128. Yellow, 136. Barbary Macaque, 117. Barbastelle, 271. Barrigudo Monkeys, 157. Bats, 247. Chin-leafed, 300. Commerson’s, 265. Daubenton’s, 283. False Vampire, 266. Flower-Nosed, 266. Fox, 253. Free-Tailed, 289. Fruit, 253. Golden, 288. Hairy-Armed, 277. Hare-Lipped, 292. Hoary, 280. Hodgson’s, 286. Horseshoe, 263. Indian Painted, 286. Insect-Eating, 262. Javelin, 306. Leaf-Nosed, 263. Long-Eared, 269. Long-Tailed, 293. Long-Tongued, 303. Mastiff, 294. Naked, 296. Natterer’s, 285. New Zealand, 296. Noctule, 273, 275. Parti-coloured, 278. Pipistrelle, 273. Pouch- Winged, 290. Red, 280. Rough-Legged, 285, Schreiber’s, 287. Serotine, 273, 277. Sheath-Tailed, 290. Silver-Haired, 279. Sucker-Footed, 288. Tall-Crowned, 287. Tomb, 291. Tricolor, 288. Tube-Nosed, 282. Typical, 268. Vampire, 299. Welwitsch’s, 286. Whiskered, 287. White, 292. White- Winged, 286. Wrinkle-Lipped, 297. Bdeogale, 473. Bdeogale—continued. crassicaudata, 474. puisa, 474, Beagle, 534. Bearded Monkey, 102. Bengal Monkey, 113. Binturong, 463. Black Ape, 122. Blarina, 327. brevicauda, 327. Bloodhound, 530. Boarhound, 539. Bonnet Monkey, 110. Budeng, 75. Bull-Dog, 638. 3ull-Terrier, 539. Bush-Dog, 573. Callithriz, 172. « anicta, 173. brunnea, 173. cuprea, 172. donacophila, 173. melanochira, 173. moloch, 173. nigrifrons, 173. torquata, 172. Canide, 492. Canis, 493. adustus, 506, alpinus, 548. antarcticus, 501. aureus, 592. azarex, 553. bengalensis, 567. cancrivorus, 554. canus, 568. chama, 568. corsac, 566. deccanensis, 549. dingo, 508. Jamelicus, 568. familiaris, 510. JSerrilatus, 566. hodophylax, 497. jubatus, 552. lagopus, 563. lateralis, 506, latrans, 500. leucopus, 565. lupus, 495. magellanicus, 555. mesomelas, 504, microtis, 555. 578 Canis—continued. occidentalis, 497. pallidus, 568. pallipes, 499. procyonoides, 555. rutilans, 552. stmensis, 502. velox, 562. virginianus, 561. vulpes, 557. zerda, 568. Cape Hunting-Dog, 569. Capuchin Monkeys, 149. Caracal, 435. Carnivora, 349. Carnivores, 349. Carponycteris, 260. minima, 260. Catarhini, 144. Cats, 353. American, 440. Angora, 428. Caffre, 420. Desert, 424. Domestic, 425. Egyptian, 420. Extinct, 446. Fishing, 409. Flat-Headed, 415, Geoffroy’s, 418. Golden, 408. Indian Desert, 424, Jungle, 431. Leopard, 411. Marbled, 408. Malay, 429. Manx, 429. Mombas, 429. Pallas’s, 423. Pampas, 430. Paraguay, 429. Persian, 428. Red, 440. Rusty-Spotted, 414. Sabre-Toothed, 447. Shaw’s, 424. Siamese, 429. Tibet, 408. Waved, 424. Wild, 422. Cat Tribe, 349. Cebidx, 144. Cebus, 149. albifrons, 155. apeila, 152. cirrifer, 153. capucinus, 153. Satuellus, 151. hypoleucus, 156. Junatus, 151. monachus, 156. olivaceus, 156. pallidus, 153. robustus, 156. - Centetes, 348. ecaudatus, 340, Centetidee, 340. Centurio, 304. senex, 304, Cercocebus, 105. albigena, 107. collaris, 107. INDEX. Cercocebus—continued, Suliginosus, 106. Cercopithecidee, 66. Cercopithecus, 92. albogularis, 100. callitrichus, 97. campbelli, 102. cephus, 104. cynosurus, 94. diana, 102. erythrogaster, 102. erythrotis, 105. griseoviridis, 97. lalandi, 97. leucocampyx, 103. ludio, 105. mona, 100. nictitans, 104. patas, 98. petaurista, 104. pluto, 103. pogonias, 102. pyrrhonotus, 99. ruber, 98. rufoviridis, 98. sabwus, 97. talapoin, 94. wolfi, 102. Cerivoula, 286. picta, 286. Chacma, 132. Chalinolobus, 280, 298. tuberculatus, 298. Chameck, 161. Cheeta, see Chita. Chilonycteris, 300. Chimarrogale, 331. himalayica, 331. platycephalus, 331. Chimpanzee, 22. Bald, 25. Extinct, 34, Mafuka, 33. Chirogaleus, 219. coquereli, 220, Surcifer, 220. milii, 220. murinus, 220. myoxrinus, 220. pusillus, 220. Chiromeles, 296. torquatus, 296. Chiromyide, 237. Chiromys, 240. madagascariensis, 240. Chiroptera, 247. Chiropotes, 178. Chita, 442. Chrysochloridx, 345, Chrysochloris, 345. Chrysothriz, 169. entomophaga, 171. sciured, 170. usta, 171. Chuva, 162. Civets, 448. African, 451. Burmese, 453. Extinct, 479. Indian, 452. Javan, 453. Malabar, 453. Civets—continued. Palm, 457. True, 450 Clouded Leopard, 407. Coaita, 160. Cobegos, 309. Collie, 519. Colobs, 89. Bay, 91. Black, 89. Crested, 91. Guereza, 87. King, 89. Ursine, 90. White-Thighed, 90. Colobus, 86. cristatus, 91. Jerrugineus, 91. guereza, 87. polycomus, 89. satanas, 89. ursinus, 90. villerosus, 90. Colocollo, 419. Colpeo, 555. Condylura, 336. cristata, 336. Coyote, 500. Crab-Eating Macaque, 111. Crocidura, 329. aranea, 329. cerulea, 330. Suliginosa, 320. murina, 330. suaveolens, 329, Crossarchus, 475. Susciatus, 475. gambianus, 475. obseurus, 475. zebra, 475. Crossopus, 327. Jodiens, 327. Cryptoprocta, 449. Serox, 449. Cusimanse, 475. Cynelurus, 442. jubatus, 442. lanius, 444. Cynictis, 473. penicillata, 474. Cynocephalus, 125. anubis, 135. babuin, 136. doquera, 132. hamadryas, 128. leucophxus, 141. mormon, 138. porcarius, 132, sphinx, 137. Cynodictis, 575. Cynogale, 464. bennetti, 465. Cynopithecus, 122. niger, 122. Cynopterus, 259. marginatus, 259. Dachshund, 535. Deerhound, 523. Desmans, 332. Pyrenean, 334, Desmans—continued. Russian, 333. Desmodus, 305. rufus, 305. Diana Monkey, 102. Diclidurus, 292. albus, 292. Dingo, 508. Diphylla, 305. ecaudata, 305. Dogs, 492. Azara’s, 553. Beagle, 534. Bloodhound, 530. Boarhound, 539, _ Bull, 538. Bull-Terrier, 539. Bush, 573. Collie, 519. Crab-Eating, 554. Dalmatian, 538. Dane, 539. Deerhound, 523. Domestic, 510. Drover’s, 520. Eskimo, 515, Extinct, 575. Foxhound, 532. Greyhound, 521. Hairless, 525. Hare Indian, 516. Harrier, 533. Hunting, 569. Lalande’s, 574. Lap, 547. Lurcher, 525. Maltese, 547. Mastiff, 538. Newfoundland, 528. Otterhound, 534. Pariah, 520. Pointer, 536. Pomeranian, 517, Poodle, 546. Pug, 540. Raccoon, 555. Retriever, 528. St. Bernard, 529. Setter, 527. Sheep, 518. Short-Eared, 555. Spaniel, 525. Spitz, 517. Staghound, 532. Tibet, 542. Terrier, 543. Turnspit, 535. Wild, 548. Wolf, 523. Doue, 82. Douroucolis, 165. Broad-Tailed, 169. Feline, 169, Three-Banded, 166. Drill, 141. Dryopithecus, 53. Emballonura, 290. monticola, 290. semicaudata, 290. Emballonuridx, 289. INDEX. Eonycteris, 261. spelea, 261. Epomophorus, 258. monstrosus, 258, Ericulus, 343. setosus, 343. telfairi, 343. Erinaceidx, 317. Erinaceus, 318. albiventris, 321. algirus, 321. collaris, 321. europeus, 318. megalotis, 321. micropus, 321. eningensis, 321. Eriodes, 158. arachnoides, 158. Evupleres, 478. goudoti, 478. Eyra, 419. Felidx, 349. Felis, 353. atrox, 447. augusta, 447. baileyi, 441. bengalensis, 411. caffra, 420. caligata, 420. canadensis, 439. caracal, 435. catus, 422. chaus, 431. colocollo, 419. concolor, 397. cristata, 447. eyra, 419. guigna, 418. isabellina, 438. lynx, 436. maculata, 440. maniculata, 420. manul, 423. marmorata, 408. nebulosa, 407. onea, 394. ornata, 424. pajeros, 430, pardalis, 416. pardina, 442, pardus, 387. planiceps, 415. rubiginosa, 414. rufa, 440. scripta, 408. serval, 413. shawiana, 424. temmincki, 408. tigrina, 417. tigris, 373. torquata, 424, uncia, 393. viverrina, 409. Fennecs, 468 Common, 568. Ruppell’s, 568. Fossa, 449. Fossa, 454. 579 Fox-Bats, 253. Collared, 257. Tailed, 257. Foxes, 557. American, 559. Arctic, 563. Asse, 568. Common, 558, Corsac, 566. Cross, 559. Desert, 565, Grey, 561. Hoary, 568. Indian, 567. Kit, 562. Long-Eared, 568. Pale, 568. Red, 559. Silver, 559. Tibetan, 566. Foxhound, 532. Fox-Terrier, 543. Fruit-Bats, 252. Cusp-Toothed, 260. Epauletted, 258. Long-Tongued, 260, Short-Nosed, 259. Tube-Nosed, 259. Galago, 222. allent, 225, crassicaudata, 223. demidoffi, 226. garnetti, 224, murinus, 227, senegalensis, 225. Galagos, 223. Allen’s, 225. Demidoff’s 226. Garnett’s, 224. Great, 223. Senegal, 225. Galeopithecidx, 309. Galeopithecus, 309. philippinensis, 311. volans, 310. Galeriz, 315. Galidia, 478. elegans, 478. Galidictis, 478. striata, 478. wittata, 478. Gelada Baboon, 124, Genets, 454. Blotched, 456. Common, 455. Feline, 456. Pardine, 456. Genetta, 454. Felina, 456. pardina, 456. senegalensis, 456. tigrina, 456. vulgaris, 455. Gentle Lemur, 216, Geogale, 345. Gibbons, 57. Agile, 64. Crowned, 64. Fossil, 65. Hainan, 64. 580 Gibbons—continued. Hoolock, 62. Malay, 64. Siamang, 60. Silver, 65. Variegated, 65. White-Haired, 62. White-Handed, 61. Gibraltar Ape, 119. Glossophaga, 303. Golden Moles, 345. Gorilla, 34. Gorilla, 34. gena, 36. savaget, 36. Green Monkey, 97. Greyhounds, 521. Albanian, 524, English, 521. Grecian, 524. Italian, 522. Persian, 524. Russian, 525. Grivet Monkey, 97. Guenons, 93. Guereza, 87. Gymnura, 321. rafflesi, 322. suilla, 322. Gymnuras, 317, 321. Hanuman, 71. Hapalidx, 189. Hapale, 190. albicollis, 192. aurita, 192. chrysoleucus, 192. huneralifer, 192. jacchus, 190. melanura, 1938. penicillata, 192. pygmexa, 193. Hapalemur, 216. griseus, 216. simus, 217. Hapalide, 188. Harpyia, 259. Harpyiocephalus, 282. leucogaster, 282. Harrier, 533. Hedgehogs, 317. Helogale, 473. parvula, 473. undulata, 473. Hemicentetes, 342. nigriceps, 342. semisptnosus, 342. Hemigale, 462. hardwickei, 462. hoset, 462. Hemigales, 462. Hemigalidia, 478. olivacea, 478. Herpestes, 465. albicauda, 469. auropunctatus, 472. brachyurus, 472. caffer, 469. gracilis, 469. ichneumon, 466, javanicus, 472. INDEX, Herpestes—continued. mungo, 470. sanguineus, 469. semitorquatus, 472. smithi, 472. urea, 472. witicollis, 472. Hipposiderus, 265. armiger, 265. commersont, 265. Hocheur Monkey, 104. Hoolock, 62. Horseshoe-Bats, 263. Howlers, 183. Black, 185. Brown, 186. Mantled, 187. Red, 185. Vera Cruz, 185. Hunting-Dog, 569, Hunting-Leopard, 442. Hylobates, 57. agilis, 64. hainanus, 64. hoolock, 62. lar, 61. leuciscus, 65. pileatus, 64. rafilesi, 64. syndactylus, 60. variegatus, 65. Hyxna, 482. brunnea, 488. crocuta, 488. striata, 485. Hyzna-Dog, 569. Hyzenas, 481. Brown, 488. Extinct, 491. Spotted, 488. Striped, 485. Hyxiide, 481. Ichneumon, 466. Icticyon, 573. venaticus, 573. Ictithere, 479. Indri, 203. Indris, 203. brevicaudata, 208. Insectivora, 306. Insectivores, 306. Jackal, 502. Black-Backed, 504. Side-Striped, 506. Jaguar, 394, Jaguarondi, 418. Jumping Shrews, 315. Kaberu, 502. Kaguans, 309. Kahan, 84. Kalong, 253. King-Monkey, 89. Lagothrix, 156. humboldti, 156. Lalande’s Dog, 574. Langurs, 69. Capped, 80. Fossil, 84. Hanuman, 71. Himalayan, 73. Hose’s, 81. Madras, 74. Malabar, 74. Nilgiri, 77. Purple-Faced, 78. Red-Bellied, 80. Tibetan, 83. Variegated, 82. Lanthanotherium, 315. Lap-Dog, 547. Leaf-Monkey, 75. Leaf-Nosed Bats, 263, 265. Lemur, 210. albifrons, 218. catta, 211. leucomystax, 215. macaco, 214. mungoz, 212. nigrifrons, 213. ruber, 215. rufifrons, 212. rufipes, 215. varius, 215, Lemuridex, 199. Lemurs, 199, 270. African, 222. Avahi, 209. Black, 202, 214. Black-Fronted, 213. Broad-Nosed, 217. Fossil, 236. Gentle, 216. Hoary-Headed, 219. Indri, 203. Mouse, 219. Mungoose, 212. Red, 215. Red-Fronted, 212. Ruffed, 215. Sifaka, 205. Slow, 227. Smooth-Eared, 215. Weasel, 217. White-Fronted,. 213. White-Whiskered, 215. Leopard, 387. Black, 389. Clouded, 407. Hunting, 442. Snow, 393. Lepidolemur, 217. caniceps, 219. mustelinus, 218. Linsang, 456. gracilis, 456. maculosus, 456. pardicolor, 457. Linsangs, 456. Lion, 357. Lion-Tailed Monkey, 113. Loris, 227. Common, 228. Slender, 231. Loris, 227. gracilis, 231. Ludio Monkey, 105. Lurchers, 525. Lutong, 75, 81. Crested, 77. Lycaon, 569. pictus, 569. Lynx, 436. Bay, 440. Canada, 439, Isabelline, 438. Northern, 457. Pardine, 442. Plateau, 440. Macaca Barrigudo, 157. Macaca Prego, 153. Macacus, 107. arctoides, 117. assamensis, 115. cynomolgus, 111. Suscatus, 117. inuus, 117. lasiotis, 115. leoninus, 116. maurus, 117. nemestrinus, 115. ochreatus, 117. pileatus, 111. rhesus, 113. silenus, 113. sinicus, 110. tibetanus, 117. Macaques, 107. Barbary, 117. Crab-Eating, 111. Extinct, 124. Himalayan, 115. Machxrodus, 447. Macroscelides, 315. rozeti, 316. tetradactylus, 316. typicus, 315. Muacroscelididx, 315. Magot, 117. Maha, 79. Malbrouck Monkey, 94. Mammals, 1. Maned Wolf, 552. Mandrill, 138. Mangabeys, 105. Grey-Cheeked, 107. Sooty, 106. Man-like Apes, 14. Margay, 417. Marmosets, 188. Black-Eared, 192. Black-Tailed, 193. Common, 190. Geoffroy’s, 197. Long-Tusked, 194. Pigmy, 193. Short-Tusked, 190. Silky, 197, 198. Silver, 192. White-Eared, 192. Mastiff, 538. Meerkat, 476. Megaderma, 267. Srons, 267. lyra, 267. Mias, 51. Microchiroptera, 262. INDEX. Microgale, 343. Midas, 194. argentatus, 193. chrysomelas, 198. devillei, 196. jlavifrons, 196. geoffroyt, 197. edipus, 196. labiatus, 196. leontinus, 198. mystax, 196. rosalia, 198. rufimanus, 195. rufoniger, 196. wrsulus, 194. Miniopterus, 287. schreibersi, 287. Moles, 332. Common, 337. Golden, 345. Hairy-Tailed, 336. Star-Nosed, 336. Tree, 337. Yellow-Tailed, 339. Web-Footed, 335. Mole-Shrews, 334. Moloch Titi, 173. Molossus, 294. glaucinus, 295. perotis, 296. rufus, 295. Monkeys, 14, 66, 144. American, 144. Banded-Leaf, 75. Bear, 78. Bengal, 113. Bearded, 102. Black-Bellied, 103. Bonnet, 110. Budeng, 75. Caiarara, 149. Campbell’s, 102. Capuchin, 149. Colob, 89. Diana, 102. Dusky-Leaf, 80. Grivet, 97. Guereza, 86. Hocheur, 104. Howling, 182. King, 89. Leaf, 75. Lion-Tailed, 113. Ludio, 105. Lutong, 75. Malbrouck, 94. Mangabey, 105. Mona, 100. Moustache, 104. Mozambique, 98. Negro, 75. Nisnas, 99. Old World, 66. Patas, 98. Phayre’s, 81. Pig-Tailed, 108, 115, 116. Pluto, 103. Proboscis, 84. Purple-Faced, 78. Red-Bellied, 102. Saki, 175. Spider, 145, 158, 159. 581 Monkeys—continued. Squirrel, 169. Stump-Tailed, 117. Sykes’s, 100. Talapoin, 94. Thumbless, 86. Abhi, 17 Uakari, 178. Vervet, 97. White, 78. White-Eyelid, 105. White-Nosed, 104 Wolf's, 102. Woolly, 156. Mormops, 300. blainvillei, 300. Mouse-Lemurs, 219. Moustache Monkey, 104. Mozambique Monkey, 98. Mungooses, 465. Banded, 472, 475. Barred, 472. Caffre, 469. Crab-Eating, 472. Cusimanse, 475. Egyptian, 466. Four-Toed, 473. Gambian, 475. Ichneumon, 466. Indian, 470. Madagascar, 478. Meller’s, 474. Red-Tailed, 469. Ruddy, 472. Short-Tailed, 472. Slender, 469. Small Indian, 472. Smooth-Nosed, 474. Stripe-Necked, 472. Thick-Tailed, 474. White-Tailed, 469. Zebra, 475. Munguste, 478. Musk-Shrews, 329. Mycetes, 182. auratus, 185. belzebul, 185. caraya, 185. jlavimanus, 185. Juscus, 186. palliatus, 187. seniculus, 187. ursinus, 186. villosus, 185. Mycgale, 333. moschata, 333. pyrenaica, 334, Myopithecus, 94. Mystacops, 298. tuberculatus, 298. Myxopoda, 288. aurita, 288. Nandinia, 462. binotata, 462. Nasalis, 84. larvatus, 84. Natalus, 287. Nectogale, 331. elegans, 331. Negro Monkey, 75. 582 Nesonycteris, 261. woodfordi, 261. Nisnas Monkey, 99. Noetilio, 292. — leporinus, 292. Noctule, 273, 275. Nycteridx, 266. Nycteris, 267. javanica, 268. Nycticebus, 227. javanicus, 231. tardigradus, 228. Nycticejus, 280, 286. Nyctinomus, 297. brasiliensis, 298. cestoni, 297. Nyctipithecus, 165, lemurinus, 169. trivirgatus, 166. vociferans, 169. Nyctophilus, 273. Ocelot, 416. Orang-Utan, 46. Oreopithecus, 143. Oryzorictes, 3435. Otocyon, 574. megalotis, 574. Otonycteris, 272. henprichi, 272. Otterhound, 534. Ouistiti, 190. Ounce, 393. Palhyena, 491. Palm-Civets, 457. African, 462. Chinese, 460. Common, 459. Malay, 460. Small-Toothed, 451. Panther, 386. Paradoxurus, 457. aureus, 460. grayi, 460. hermaphroditus, 460. jerdont, 460. laniger, 459. larvatus, 460. musschenbroekt, 459. niger, 459. Parasorex, 315. Parauacu, 175. Pariah Dog, 520. Patas Monkey, 98. Perodicticus, 233. calabarensis, 234. potto, 233. Phyllonycteris, 303. sezekorni, 303. Phyllostoma, 303. hastatum, 303. Phyllostomatidx, 299. Pig-Tailed Monkey, 108, 115, 116. Pinché, 194, 196. Pipistrelle, 273. Pithecia, 174. albicans, 175. albinasa, 178. chiropotes, 177. INDEX. Pithecia—continued. hirsuta, 175. leucocephala, 174. monachus, 175. rufiventer, 176. sutanas, 178. Platyrhini, 144. Plecotus, 269. auritus, 269. macrotis, 269. Pluto Monkey, 103. Poiana, 456. poénsis, 457. Pointer, 536. Pongo, 34. Poodle, 547. Potamogale, 344. velox, 344. Potto, 233. Bosman’s, 233. Primates, 14. Proboscis Monkey, 84. Propithecus, 205. coronatus, 208. diadema, 207. verreauxt, 208. Propitheques, 205. Protalpa, 339. Proteleidx, 479. Proteles, 479. cristatus, 479. Protopithecus, 187. Pteralopex, 260. Pteropodidx, 252. Pteropus, 253. edulis, 256. kerandrenti, 256. medius, 253. nicobaricus, 255. poliocephalus, 256. Ptilocercus, 314. * lowt, 314. Pug-Dog, 540. Puma, 397. Purple-Faced Monkey, 78. Rasse, 453. Red-Bellied Monkey, 102. Retrievers, 528. Rhinogale, 474. melleri, 474. Rhinolophide, 263. Rhinolophus, 263. ewthiops, 264. capensis, 264. Serrum-equinum, 264. hipposiderus, 264. luctus, 264. megaphyllus, 264. Rhinopithecus, 183. Rhinopoma, 293. microphyllum, 293. Rhynchocyon, 316. Ring-Tailed Lemur, 211. Rock-Shrews, 316. “ Saccopteryx, 290. canina, 290. leptura, 290. Sacred Baboon, 128. St. Bernard Dog, 529. Saki Monkeys, 173. Black, 178. Humboldt’s, 175. Red-Backed, 177. Whiskered, 176. White-Headed, 174. White-Handed, 178. Sapajous, 149. Brown, 149. Crested, 156. Horned, 152. Slender, 153. Smooth-Headed, 156. Weeper, 153. White-Cheeked, 151. White-Fronted, 155. White-Throated, 156. Scalops, 335. aquaticus, 335. Scapanus, 336. americanus, 336, Scaptonyx, 339. Suscicaudatus, 339. Sciurus tupaioides, 314. Semnopithecus, 69. cephalopterus, 78. chrysogaster, 80. chrysomelas, 75. eristatus, 76. entellus, 71. Semoralis, 75. hosei, 81. hypoleucus, 74. johni, 77. maurus, 75. nemeus, 82. obscurus, 80. phayret, 81. pileatus, 80. priamus, 74. pyrrhus, 75. roxellanx, 83. schistaceus, 73. senex, 78. ursinus, 78. Serotine, 273, 277. Serval, 413. Setters, 527. English, 527. Gordon, 528. Irish; 527. Russian, 528. Welsh, 528. Shrews, 323. Alpine, 326. Burrowing, 330. Common, 325. Earless, 326. Jumping, 315. Lesser, 326. Musk, 329. Rock, 316. _ Short-Tailed, 327. Swimming, 331. Tree, 312. Water, 327. Web-Footed, 331. Siamang, 60. Sifakas, 205. Crowned, 208. Diademed, 207. Sifakas—continued. Verreaux’s, 206, 208. Simia, 46. morio, 52. satyrus, 46. — Simiidex, 14. Slow Lemurs, 227. «| African, 238. Snow Leopard, 393. 7 Soko, 25. i * Solenodon, 343. cubanus, 343. paradoxus, 343. Solenodons, 343. Solenodontide, 343. Sorex, 324. alpinus, 326. bendirei, 326. hydrodromus, 326. palustris, 326, pygmeus, 326. vulgaris, 324. Soricidx, 323. Soriculus, 325, Spaniels, 525. Blenheim, 526. Clumber, 525. Cocker, 526. Field, 525. King Charles, 526. Norfolk, 526. Sussex, 526. Water, 526. Spider-Monkeys, 145, 158, 159 Black-Capped, 162. Black-Faced, 162. Black-Handed, 163. Brown, 163. Grizzled, 162. Hooded, 162. Long-Haired, 163. Red-Faced, 160. Variegated, 163. White-Bellied, 163. White-Whiskered, 162. Woolly, 158. Spitz, 517. Squirrel-Monkeys, 169. DBlack-Tailed, 171. Common, 170. Short-Tailed, 171. Staghound, 532. Stenoderma, 304. Suricata, 476. tetradactyla, 476. Sykes’s Monkey, 100. Synotus, 271. barbastellus, 271. darjilingensis, 272. Talapoin Monkey, 94. Talpa, 337. europea, 337. micrura, 339. INDEX. ” Talpide, 332. Tamarins, 194. Black and Red, 196, Brown-Headed, 196. Deville’s, 196. Moustached, 196. _ Negro, 194. Red-Bellied, 196. Red-Handed, 195. Taphozous, 291. affinis, 291. nudiventris, 291, Tarsier, 237. Tarstidx, 237. Tarsius, 238. spectrum, 238. Tenrecs, 340. Common, 340. Hedgehog, 342. Long-Tailed, 343. Rice, 348. Streaked, 342. Terrier, 543. Black and Tan, 546 English, 545 Fox, 543. Trish, 543. Skye, 544. Yorkshire, 545. Welsh, 544. Theropithecus, 124. gelada, 125. Thumbless Monkeys 86, Thyroptera, 288. Tibet Dog, 542. Tiger, 373. Titis, 172: Black-Fronted, 173. Black-Handed, 173. Collared, 172. Moloch, 173. Red, 172. Reed, 173. Tree-Shrews, 312. Pen-Tailed, 314. Troglodytes, 24. Tupaia, 312. ellioti, 313. Serruginea, 313. tana, 313. Tupatide, 312. Tupaias, 312. Turnspit, 535. Uacaria, 178. calva, 179. melanocephala, 181. rubicunda, 181. Uakari Monkeys, 178. Bald, 179. Black-Headed, 181. Red-Faced, 181 Uropsilus, 334. Urotrichus, 334. SE ——— Urotrichus—continued. soricipes, 334. Vampires, 299. Blood-Sucking, 305. Long-Tongued, 303. Short-Nosed, 304. Vampirus, 200. auritus, 301. spectrum, 300. Vervet Monkey, 97. Vespertilio, 283. bechsteini, 286. daubentoni, 283. dasycneme, 285. mystactnus, 287. nattercrt, 285. welwitschii, 287. Vespertilionidx, 268. Vesperugo, 273. abramus, 275. borealis, 273. discolor, 278. dormeri, 286. leisleri, 275. noctivagans, 279. noctule, 275. ; parvulus, 288. pipistrellus, 273. schliefenti, 280. serotinus, 277. Viverra, 450. civetta, 451. civettina, 453. malaccensis, 453. megaspila, 453. tangalunga, 453. zibetha, 452. Viverridex, 448. — Wanderu, 71, 79, 113. Weasel-Lemur, 217. Whaipu-sai, 172. White-Eyelid Monkeys, 105. White-Nosed Monkey, 104. Widow Monkey, 172. Wolf, 495. Antarctic, 501. Coyote, 500. Indian, 499. Maned, 552. Wolf-Dogs, 523. Wolf's Monkey, 102. Woolly Monkeys, 156. Woolly Spider Monkeys, 158. Wou-Wou, 64. ~ Xantharpyia, 257. collaris, 257. 583 . y ss : = : 4 f i ps i . ‘ iP a a Pe] | = i A ; . . ca ‘ tet : iy “ t . : 7 ‘ . 7: 1 i f ‘ b j we is het - 4 - ‘a * Ne mv aly ft I< Poa) ae a 51) eh a ay ‘ a Ged as ae ee = af age 8 ‘ = =a “ . oe =e uo : ’ tht 7 I os