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NATURAL HISTORY 


EDITED Br 


RICHARD EY DEKKERVs bax, oF R-o.. ETC. 


With PRERACE Bin 


Po Ee SeEATERS MRA:. 7 PHOS Eto. Ele: 


SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON 


ILLUSTRATED WITH 
Seventy-two Colowred Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings 
BY 


W. KUHNERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLE, 
GAMBIER BOLTON, F.ZS.; AND MANY OTHERS 


V.OE. PEt. 


Sie Crk WOON S Vi. 


LONDON 
Bree DERLOK WARNE -&4+0G 
ANID NEW YORK 


1895 


[.4ll Rights Reserved) 


MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS: EDINBURGH 


O 
2". 
n 


CONE Nees 


Se 


MAMMALS 


CHAPTER XXIX.—CeEracreans,—Order Cetacea. 


General Characters —Distribution—Habits—Classification—The W halebone Whales(balenide) 


Right Whales (Balena)—Greenland Whale—Southern Whale—Fossil Species—Pigmy 
Whale (Neobalena)—Grey Whale (Rhachianectes)\—Humpback Whale (Megaptera)— 
Fin-Whales, or Rorquals (Balenoptera)—Lesser Fin-Whale—Rudolphi’s Fin- Whale 
—Common Fin-Whale—Sibbald’s Fin- Whale—Fossil Fin- Whales, 


CHAPTER XXX.—CerracEans,—continued. 


TootHED WHates (Odontoceti).—Distinction between Toothed and Whalebone Whales— 


Sperm-Whales and their Allies (Physeteridw)—The Sperm-Whale (Physeter)—Ex- 
tinct Sperm-Whales—Lesser Sperm-Whale (Cogia)—Bottlenose- Whale (Hyperoddon)— 
Cuvier’s Whale (Ziphius)—Beaked Whales (Mesoplodon)—Sowerby’s Whale—Layard’s 
Whale—Arnux’s Whale (Berardius)—Ancestral Sperm-Whales (Physodontide)—Fresh- 
water Dolphins (Platanistide)—Gangetie Dolphin (Platanista)—Amazonian Dolphin 
(Inia)—La Plata Dolphin (Stenodelphis)—Allied Extinct Dolphins—The Porpoises and 
Dolphins (Delphinidw)—The Narwhal (Monodon)—White Whale (Delphinapterus)— 
Porpoises (Phoceena) —Common Porpoise — Porpoise - Hunting — Indian Porpoise 
Heaviside’s Dolphin (Cephalorhynchus) Irawadi Dolphin (Orcelle)—Kaller, or Grampus 
(Orca)—Lesser Killer (Pseudorca)— Blackfish (@lobiocephalus)— Risso’s | Jolphin (Graimpus) 
—Short-Beaked Dolphins (Lagenorhynchus)—W hite-Sided Dolphin—Pacifie Dolphin 
—White-Beaked Dolphin—True Dolphins (Delphinus)—Common Dolphin—Allied 
Species—Bottle-Nosed Dolphins (Tursiops)—Rough-Toothed Dolphins (Steno)—Long- 
Beaked River Dolphins (Sotalia)—Chinese Dolphin—Squalodonts and Zeuglodonts 
(Squalodontide and Zeuglodontide), 


PAGE 


23 


Vi CONTENTS 


CHAPTER XXXI.—THE RopENtTs,—Order Rodentia. 


PAGE 
General Characteristics of the Order—Teeth—Mouth—Distribution and Habits—African 
Flying Squirrels (Anomaluride)—The Squirrel Family (Sciwride)—Groove-Toothed 
Squirrel (Lhithrosciurus)—Spiny Squirrels ( Xerus)—True Squirrels (Sciwrus)—European 
Squirrels—Distribution—North American Squirrels—Oriental Squirrels—Ground- 
Squirrels, or Chipmunks (Tamas) —Susliks, or Gophers (Spermophilus) — Prairie- 
Marmots (Cynomys)—-True Marmots (Arctomys)—Distribution—Old World Species— 
American Species—Allied Extinct Rodents—Flying Squirrels—Lesser Flying Squirrels 
(Sciwropterus)—Distribution and Habits—Larger Flying Squirrels (Pteromys)— Woolly 
Flying Squirrel (Zupetawrus)— Pigmy Squirrels (Nannosciwrus)— The Sewellels 
(Haplodontide)—Common Sewellel (Haplodon)—Californian Sewellel—The Beavers 
(Castoride)—European and American Species (Castor)—Distribution of the European 
Beaver—Range of the American Species—Habits—Uses and Trapping of Beavers— 

Extinct Beavers, . Z : é ; : : ‘ F ; 65 


CHAPTER XXXII.—RopENts,—continued. 


Tar Moussz-Lixe Ropents.—The Dormice (Myoxide)—Common Dormouse (Muscardinus)— 
Squirrel-Tailed and Garden Dormice (Myoxus)—Tree-Dormouse—Extinct Dormice 
—Jumping Mice and Jerboas (Dipodide)— The Jumping Mouse (Zapus)— The 
Five-Toed Jerboas—Kirghiz Jerboa (Alactaga)—Afghan Jerboa—Yarkand Jerboa 
(Euchoretes)—Broad-Tailed Jerboas (Platycercomys)—Three - Toed, or True Jerboas 
(Dipus) — Habits of Egyptian Jerboa — African Jumping Hare (Pedetes)— The 
Sminthus (Sminthus) — The Mouse Tribe (Muridw) — Australian Water - Rat 
(Hydromys)—Queensland Rat (Xeromys)—Malabar Spiny Mouse (Platacanthomys)— 
The Gerbils (Gerbitlus)—Philippine Rat (Phlewomys)—Hamsters and White-Footed 
Mice (Cricetus)—Common Hamster and Its Habits—Species of White-Footed Mice— 
The Fish-Eating Rat (Ichthyomys)—Grooved-Toothed Mice (Rhithrodontomys and 
Rhithrodon)—Wood-Rats (Neotoma)—African Crested Rat (Lophiomys)—The Voles 
(Microtus)—Water-Vole—Short-Tailed Field-Vole—Bank-Vole— Alpine Vole—Other 
Species—Lemmings (Myodes)—Banded Lemming (Cuniculws)—Musquash (Hiber)— 
Mole-Like Voles (Hllobius and Siphneus)--Rats and Mice (Mus)—Brown Rat—Black 
Rat—House- Mouse—Long- Tailed Field - Mouse—Harvest - Mouse—Other Species— 
Bandicoot Rats (Nesocia)—Bush-Rats (Golunda)—Spiny Mice (Aconvys)—Jerboa-Rats 
(Hapalotis)—Lichtenstein’s Rat (Mastacomys)—Mole-Rats (Spalacide)—Great Mole-Rat 
(Spalax)—Bamboo-Rats (Rhizomys)—Cape Mole-Rats (Bathyergus)—Naked Sand-Rats 
(Heterocephalus)—American Pouched Rats (Geomyidw)— Pocket - Gopher (Geomys)— 
Northern Pocket-Gopher (Thomomys)— Kangaroo- Rats ei! S Pocket- Mice 
(Perognathus and Heteromys), ‘ : 2 : ‘ f . 104 


CHAPTER XXXIII.—Ropgnts,—continued. 


THE PorcuPINE-LIkE RopENnts.—General Characters of the Group—The Octodont Tribe 
(Octodontide)—The Gundi (Ctenodactylus)—The Degu (Octodon)—The Tucotucos 
(Ctenomys)—The Coypu (Myopotamus)—The Hutias (Capromys —Plagiodon —'The 
Cane-Rat (A ulacodus)—Other Genera—The Porcupines (Hystricide)—Canadian Porcu- 
pine (Hrethizon)—Tree-Porcupines (Synetheres)—Brazilian and Mexican Species—Thin- 
Spined Porcupine (Chetomys)—True Poreupines (Hystriz)—Brush- -Tailed Poreupines 
(Atherura)—Giinther’s Poreupine (Trichys)—Chinchillas and Viscachas (Chinchillide) 
- True Chinchillas (Chinchilla)j—Common Species—Short-Tailed Species—Cuvier’s 
Chinchilla (Lagidiwm)—The Viscacha (Lagostomus)—Description of a Viscachera— 
Agutis and Pacas (Dasyproctide)—The Argutis (Dasyprocta)—Common Species—Aguchi 
—The Pacas (Cologenys)—Branick’s Paca (Dinomys)—The Cavies (Caviide)—True 
Cavies (Cavia)—Restless Cavy—Cutler’s Cavy—Guinea-Pig—Bolivian Cavy—Rock- 
Cavy—Patagonian Cavy (Dolichotis)—Carpincho, or Capivara (Hydrocherus),  . 5 Ala 


CONTENTS vil 


CHAPTER XXXIV.—RopEnNts,—concluded. 


Tue Hare-LikE Ropents.—Distinctive Features of the Group—The Picas (Lagomyide)— 
Distribution and Habits—Hares and Rabbits (Leporide)—Common Hare (Lepus)— 
Mountain - Hare—North American Hares— Asiatic Hares— African Species—The 
Rabbit—Its Distribution and Acclimatisation—Domesticated Rabbits, : ass 


PAGE 


CHAPTER XXXV.—THE EpeEntatEs,—Order Edentata. 


Characteristics—Distribution—- Mode of Life—The Sloths (Bradypodidw)—Three-Toed Sloths 
(Bradypus)—Two-Toed Sloths (Cholepus)—Extinet Ground-Sloths (Megatheriidw)— 
—The Ant-Eaters (Myrmecophagide)—Great Ant-Eater (Myrmecophaga)—The Taman- 
dua (Tamandua)—Two-Toed Ant-Eater (Cyclotwrus)—The Armadillos (Dasypodidw)— 

The Pichiciago (Chlamydophorus)—Six-Banded Armadillos (Dasypus)—Their Structure 
and Mode of Life—Broad-Banded Armadillo (Lystwrus)—Giant Armadillo (Priedon)— 
Three-Banded Armadillo (Tolypeutes)—Peba Armadillo (Tatusia)—Other Species— 
The Extinct Glyptodonts (Glyptodontidw)—The Pangolins (Manidw)—Asiatic Species 
—African Pangolins—Aard-Varks (Orycteropodide), ‘ : : : 202 


CHAPTER XXXVI.—TuHE PoucHED MamMats, oR Marsuprats,—Order Marsupialia. 


Distinctive Characters—Teeth—Mode of Suckling Young—Distribution—The Kangaroos and 
Their Allies (Macropodide)—Kangaroos and Wallabies (Macropus)—Rock-Wallabies 
(Petrogale)—Spur-Tailed Wallabies (Onychogale)—Hare- Wallabies (Lagorchestes)—Dorca 
Kangaroos (Dorcopsis)—Tree-Kangaroos (Dendrolagus)—Banded Wallaby (Lagostrophus) 
—Rat-Kangaroos—Common Rat-Kangaroo (Potorous)—Brush-Tailed Rat- Kangaroo 
(Bettongia)—Rufous Rat-Kangaroo (pyprymnus)—Five-Toed Rat-Kangaroo (Hypsv- 
prymnodon)—Extinct Kangaroo-Like Marsupials—The Phalanger Tribe (Phalangeride) 
—Long-Snouted Phalanger (Tarsipes)—Cuscuses (Phalanger)—True Phalangers (Tricho- 
surus)—Crescent-Toothed Phalangers (Pseudochirus)—Great Flying-Phalanger (Petaur- 
oides)—Striped Phalanger (Dactylopsila)—True Flying-Phalangers (Petwwrus)—Lead- 
beater’s Phalanger (Gymmnobelideus)—Dormouse-Phalangers (Dromicia)—Pigmy Flying- 
Phalanger (Acrobates)—Pen-Tailed Phalanger (Distechwrus)—Koala (Phascolarctus)— 
Great Extinct Phalanger (Thylacoleo)—The Wombats (Phascolomyide)—The Bandicoots 
(Peramelide)—True Bandicoots (Perameles)-—Rabbit-Bandicoot (Peragale)—Pig-Footed 
Bandicoot (Cheropus)—The Dasyure Tribe (Dasywride)—Thylacine (Thylacinus)— 
Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus)—Dasyures (Dasyurus)—Phascologales (Phascologale)— 
Common Pouched Mouse (Sminthopsis)—Jerboa Pouched Mouse (Antechinomys)— 
Banded Anteater (Myrmecobius)—The Pouched Mole (Notoryctide)—The Opossums 
(Didelphyide)—True Opossums (Didelphys)—Water-Opossum (Chironectes)— Extinet 
Marsupials, : : ‘ : . 3 : : 


CHAPTER XXXVII.—Eaa-Layriya MamMats, or Monorremes,— Order Monotremata. 
Distinctive Features—The Duckbill (Ornithorhynchidw)—Its Structure and Habits—The 
Echidnas (Echidnide)—Allied Extinct Mammals, : : : : . 283 


INDEX, 289 


Norr.—This Section is the first half of the Third Volume, but as it completes the portion of 
the Work devoted to the Mammals it has its own Index. 


LIST*OF TLLUSTRA GIONS 


COLOURED PEATEs 


THE RED KANGAROO, 
THE GREENLAND WHALE, 
FLYING SQUIRREL, 
Harvest Movuss, . 
CRESTED PORCUPINE, 
THE Two-TorD SLOTH, 


PAGE: PEATES 


Humppack WHALES DISPORTING, 
A Cotony oF Bopac Marmots, 
Breavers AT WoRK, 

PHILIPPINE Rats, 


A ScENE IN SoutH AMERICA WITH Rneae AND Panacontan Cheng, 


A HERD OF CARPINCHOS, 
Cape AARD-VARKS AT HOME, 


TEXT ENGRAVINGS 


PAGE 
Sibbald’s Fin-Whale, ; : ; 1 
Skeleton of Greenland Whale, . : y 
The Greenland Whale, . : : 7 
Section of Skull of Greenland Whale, . 8 
Skeleton of Fin-Whale, . , - 18 
The Lesser Fin-Whale, . ; : 19 
The Common Fin-Whale, - : 5 21 
Skeleton of Sperm-W hale, : 5 Q4 
The Sperm-Whale, , , c 26 
Skull of a Bottlenose-Whale, : : 30 
Bottlenose-Whale, . : . > 32 
Skull of Sowerby’s Whale, . 34 
Skull of the Physodon, . ; : 36 
The Gangetic Dolphin, . . ; 38 
The Amazonian Dolphin, . : : 40 
Skeleton of Dolphin, : ; . 4] 
A School of Narwhals, A : : 42 
The White Whale, . ; 44 
The Common Porpoise, — . : ; 46 
Porpoise Diving, . s : ‘ 47 


Heaviside’s Dolphin, 

Teeth of the Killer, 

The Killer, 

The Blackfish, 

Risso’s Dolphin, 

The Pacifie Short-Beaked Dolpiiin, 
The Common Dolphin, 
Red-Bellied Dolphin, 

The Slender Dolphin, 
Bottle-Nosed Dolphin, 

The Rough-Toothed Dolphin, 
The Pale River-Dolphin, 

Skull of Prairie-Marmot, 
Skeleton of Squirrel, 

The Fulgent Flying Squirrel, 
The Abyssinian Spiny Squirrel, 
The European Squirrel, 

The Irawadi Squirrel, 

The Common Chipmunk, . 

The Common Suslik, 


Frontispiece 
Facing page 8 
os 89 

» 144 

= 168 

» 208 


LIST. OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


The Prairie-Marmot, 

The Alpine Marmot, 

American Flying Squirrel, 

Skeleton and Jaws of Beaver, 

Skeleton and Molars of Dormouse, 

The Common Dormouse, . 

The Squirrel-Tailed and Gane ee 
mouse, ; 

Skeleton of Gane Dormouse, 

Skeleton of Jerboa, 

The Kirghiz Jerboa, 

Egyptian Jerboa, 

The African J umping Hee 

Skeleton of Jumping Hare, 

Skeleton and Molars of Brown Rat, 

Jaw and Teeth of Gerbil, . 

Egyptian Gerbil, 

The Hamster, 

Teeth of Vole, 

The Water-Vole, 

The Continental Field- Vole: 

The Alpine Vole, . 

The Norwegian Lemming, 

The Musquash, 

The Brown Rat, 

The Black Rat, 

The House Mouse, 

The Barbary Mouse, 

The Great Mole-Rat, 

The Common Pocket Gopher, 

The Common Kangaroo-Rat, 

Skeleton of the Cane-Rat, 

The Degu, . é 

The Magellanic Tucotuco, 

The Coypu, 

The Hutia-Couga, . 

The Cane-Rat, 

Skeleton of Porcupine, 

The Canadian Porcupine, . 

Brazilian Tree-Porcupine, . 

Mexican Tree-Poreupine, . 

Common Porcupine, : 

African Brush-Tailed Porcupine, . 

The Chinchilla, , 

The Short-Tailed Chinchilla, 

Cuvier’s Chinchilla, 

The Viscacha, 

A Viscachera, 

Skeleton and Skull of eat, 

The Common Aguti, 

Skull of Paca, 

The Paca, 

The Guinea-Pig, 

Skeleton and Teeth of Har e, 


PAGE 


82 
88 
91 
96 
104 
105 


107 
109 
110 
113 
114 
115 
116 
118 
119 
120 
123 
129 
130 
131 
133 
135 
137 
140 
142 
143 
145 
148 
151 
152 
154 
156 
157 
158 
160 
161 
163 
164 
165 
166 
167 
168 
170 
171 
172 
173 
174 
ily) 
176 
7h 
178 
181 
189 


Siberian Pica, 

Hare in its Form, . 

Common Hare, 
Mountain-Hare, 

Rabbit, 

Lop-Eared Abbie 

Half-Lop Rabbit, 

The Great Ant-Eater, 

Skeleton of Three-Toed Sloth, 
The Common Three-Toed Sloth, 
Skull of Extinct Ground Sloth, 
Skeleton of Great Ant-Eater, 
The Great Ant-Eater, 

The Tamandua, . 

Two-Toed Ant-Eater, 

Skeleton of Armadillo, 

The Pichiciago, 

The Weasel-Headed Neral 
The Giant Armadillo, 

The Three-Banded Armadillo, 


Carapace and Skeleton of Glyptodon, 


Sheath of Tail of Glyptodont, 
Skeleton of Pangolin, 

The Indian Pangolin, 

The Short-Tailed Pangolin, 
White-Bellied Pangolin, 

The Ethiopian Aard-Vark, 
Bennett’s Wallaby, , 
Jaws and Teeth of Rat-Kangaroo, 
Skeleton of Kangaroo, : 
Skull of Lesueur’s Rat-Kangaroo, 
The Great Grey Kangaroo, 

The Pandamelon Wallaby, 
Yellow-Footed Rock-Wallaby, 
The Common Hare-Wallaby, 
The Black Tree-Kangaroo, 
Common Rat-Kangaroo, 
Brush-Tailed Rat-Kangaroo, 
Skull of Diprotodon, 

Skeleton of Phalanger, 

The Long-Snouted Phalanger, 
Spotted Cuscus, 

Common Phalanger, 

Squirrel Flying Phalanger, 
Pigmy Flying Phalanger, . 

The Koala, , 

Skull of Extinct Phe Pages 
Skeleton of Wombat, 

Wombats, ‘ 

Skull of Tasmanian Devils 
Skeleton of Thy lacine, 

The Thylacine, 

The Tasmanian Devil, 

Common Dasyure, 


SwWmPwwnw wb wt 


bo bo bo 
WWwWwwhrd bd Ww bw bw wb tt 
~ CS 
— 


X LIST-OF TELOSTRA TIONS 


Yellow-Footed Pouched-Mouse, 
Brush-Tailed Phascologale, 

Jerboa Pouched-Mouse, 

The Banded Ant-Eater, 

Pouched-Mole, 

Feet of the Pouched- Mtoe 

Skull and Foot-Bones of Pouched-Mole, 
Common Opossum, 

Philander Opossum, 

Water-Opossum, 


a 


Oo 


bo bo bo 
“IO oO 


bo 


co we 


bo bo 
oO 
— 


Lower Jaw of Triconodon, 

Lower Jaw of Amphilestes, 

Lower Jaw of American Jurassic Marina, 

Echidna Walking, 

Skeleton of Duckbill, 

The Duckbill, 

Skeleton of olidia: 

Under-Part of the Skull of a South 
African Secondary Mammal, . 

Lower Jaw of Plagiaulax, : 


PAGE 
282 
282 
282 
283 
284 
285, 
287 


288 
288, 


Tea ROYAL NATURAL HISTORY. 


MAMMALS. 


CHA PTER. XX TX 
CETACEANS,—Order CETACEA. 


UNDER the general title of Cetaceans may be included the whole of those mammals 
commonly known as whales, porpoises, and dolphins, which differ from all hitherto 
described in their assumption of a fish-like form, and their complete adaptation to a 
purely aquatic mode of life. Indeed, so like are Cetaceans in their general outward 
appearance to fishes, that they are commonly regarded as belonging to that class. 
In all essential features of their organisation they are, however, true mammals, 
breathing atmospheric air by means of lungs, having warm blood, a four-chambered 
heart, the skull articulating with the first joint of the backbone by means of two 
condyles, and the cavity of the body divided into two chambers by a midriff; while 
they produce living young, which are nourished by milk drawn from the bodies 
of their mothers. 

The assumption of a fish-like form by the Cetaceans is one of the 
best-marked examples of what are known as adaptive characters, 


which are merely produced in order to suit the animals in which they exist to their 
VOL, II.—I 


Form, 


2 CETACEANS. 


external surroundings, and have no sort of connection with their affinities. The 
fish-like resemblances of the Cetaceans are, moreover, not so close as they may at 
first sight appear; since the tail-fin, instead of being vertical, is horizontal, while 
the structure of the skeleton of the fore-lmb is totally different from that of any 
fish. The general fish-like form of the body is, however, that best adapted for 
progression through the water, which affords sufficient reason for its having been 
acquired in the present group of animals; and we may likewise mention that 
Cetaceans generally resemble fish in having the upper-part of the body coloured 
dark, while the under-parts are light, such a coloration rendering the animals in 
which it occurs not easily seen, either from above or below, when in their native 
element. 

Wo Connection That whales are not even directly descended from fishes is 

with Fishes. evident from the fact of their breathing atmospheric air, by means 
of lungs, for if they had so originated it would be quite clear that they would have 


SKELETON OF GREENLAND WHALE, 


retained fish-like gills, and thus have avoided the necessity of coming periodically 
to the surface for the purpose of breathing. It is probably for this reason that 
Cetaceans have their tails with the expansion placed in a horizontal instead of a 
vertical plane, since the strokes of such a horizontally-expanded organ are the best 
calculated to bring an animal rapidly to the surface. 

The additional circumstance that Cetaceans retain traces of the 
hairy covering, which is so characteristic of mammals in general, 
affords evidence that they derive their origin from terrestrial mammals; and, 
taken together with the absence of hind-limbs, is amply sufficient to disprove 
any notion that they themselves are in any sort of way connected with the 
ancestral stock from which the other members of the class have originated. 
Cetaceans may, therefore, be regarded as some of the most specialised of all 
mammals. With regard to the terrestrial mammals to which these animals are 
most closely related, there is still great uncertainty and some difference of opinion 
among zoologists. Sir W. H. Flower is inclined to consider that they show more 
resemblances to Ungulates, and especially the Even-toed group ; but the teeth of the 
earliest forms are quite unlike those of any Ungulates, and approximate much more 
closely to those of Carnivores. It may, therefore, be suggested that the alliance 
between Cetaceans and Carnivores may prove to be closer than is often considered 


DSI 


Origin. 


GENERAL CHARACTERS. 3 
to be the case. It may be noted here that the few Cetaceans inhabiting fresh- 
water are somewhat less markedly different in structure from ordinary mammals 
than are the marine representatives of the order; and this leads the writer last 
cited to conclude that Cetaceans were first modified for the assumption of a purely 
aquatic life from land mammals frequenting the banks of rivers, and that after 
having acquired natatorial powers in fresh water, their ancestors subsequently 
migrated to the sea, where they have attained their present remarkable develop- 
ment. 

Before making any further remarks on Cetaceans in general, it 
will, however, be convenient to take into consideration the leading 
structural features by which they are distinguished from other mammals. As 
already mentioned, Cetaceans are characterised by their fish-like form, the head 
passing imperceptibly into the body without any distinct neck, and at the other 
extremity the trunk gradually tapering to the tail, which terminates in a forked, 
horizontal fin-ike expansion, commonly known as the “flukes.” ‘The head is 
large in proportion to the body, with a wide mouth, often furnished with a few 
bristles, at least in the young state. The fore-limbs are represented by flippers, 
encased in a continuous skin, showing no outward indications of digits, and without 
the shghtest trace of nails or claws, while of the hind-limbs there is not the least 
external trace. With the exception of the aforesaid sparse bristles in the neigh- 
bourhood of the mouth, the smooth and shining skin is entirely devoid of all traces 
of hair, neither has it any structure corresponding to the seales of fishes. Beneath, 
it is underlain by the thick layer of oily fat termed “blubber,” the function of 
which is to prevent the absorption of the heat of the body by the water. The 
majority of the species have a fin on the back, which is entirely composed of 
integument, and has no internal skeleton corresponding to the similarly situated 
fins of fishes. The eye is extremely small; and, as in fishes, the ear has no external 
conch, and opens by an exceedingly small aperture behind the eye. The nostrils, 
which may have either a single or double opening, are situated on the very summit 
of the head, and thus reach the surface of the water before any other part when 
the animals rise horizontally. 

In the skeleton the bones are remarkable for their loose and 
spongy structure; and in the living state are saturated with oil. 
The majority of the species have teeth, which may be confined to the lower jaw, 
and these represented only by a single pair. In all cases these teeth are of a 
simply conical or compressed form; and in many of the dolphins they are much 
more numerous than in any other mammals. In no instance is there any replace- 
ment of the teeth; but Dr. Kiikenthal has discovered that in some species there 
are rudimentary successional teeth which never come to maturity, whence it is 
considered that the functional teeth correspond to the milk-series of those mammals 
in which there is a replacement. With regard to the great number of teeth present 
in some Cetaceans, the same investigator considers that this is due to the division 
of a number of trilobed teeth like those of certain seals (compare the figure in 
Vol. II. p. 142) into three parts, whereby three distinct teeth have been produced 
out of what was originally a single tooth. In the baleen, or whalebone-whales, the 
place of teeth is taken by the horny structure technically termed “baleen,” but 


Characteristics. 


Skeleton. 


4 CETACEANS. 


commonly known as “whalebone,” the nature of which will be explained later on. 
Even in this group, however, there are rudiments of teeth deeply buried in the gums 
of the young; and the structure of these rudiments is such as to indicate the origin 
of at least that group of Cetaceans from mammals furnished with teeth of a 
complex type. It is further inferred by Dr. Ktikenthal that these rudimentary 
teeth correspond with those of the permanent set in other mammals. 

In conformity with the absence of any external indications of a 
neck, the vertebree in that region of the backbone of Cetaceans are 
abnormally shortened, so that even in the largest species this part of the column 
may not much exceed a foot in length. This shortening of the neck is, however, 
not accomplished by any reduction in the number of the vertebree from the normal 
seven, but by the shortening of the body of each of these vertebrze until it assumes 
the form of a broad, thin plate. The necks of a giraffe and a whale present, 
therefore, the extremes in the modifications assumed by their constituent vertebre ; 
these joints undergoing the maximum degree of elongation in the one, and of 
abbreviation in the other. In many Cetaceans the whole or a certain number of 
the vertebrae of the neck are welded together into one solid mass. In the hinder 
portion of the backbone the region of the tail is only distinguished from that of 
the trunk by the vertebrz (as shown in our figure of the skeleton of the Greenland 
whale) carrying chevron-bones affixed to their under-surfaces; there being no 


Neck. 


mass of united vertebrae, corresponding to the sacrum of other mammals. 

The skeleton of the fore-limbs exhibits all the segments 
characterising those of terrestrial mammals, although some of these 
are much modified. There are no eollar-bones (clavicles) ; but the shoulder-blades, 
or scapulze, are very large, and are much elongated in the antero-posterior direction. 
The humerus, or bone of the upper arm, although much shorter than usual, has a 
free movement at its articulation with the shoulder-blade; but its Junction with 
the two bones of the fore-arm, like all the jomts lower down in the limb, admits of 
scarcely any motion. Indeed, in all these joints the bones articulate by flattened 
surfaces closely applied to one another, and are bound together by fibrous tissue. 
The bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna) are elongated and flattened, and lie 
nearly parallel, one in front of the other. The number of digits in the flippers is 
usually five, although occasionally reduced to four; and in the second and third of 
these there are always more than the ordinary three joimts below the metacarpus. 
The only rudiments of the hind-limbs are a few small bones beneath the sacral 
region of the backbone representing part of the pelvis, and occasionally part of the 
limb itself (f, and p. in the figure on p. 2). 

In accordance with the position of the nostrils at its summit, the 
skull departs considerably from the ordinary type. It will suffice to 
state here that the supraoccipital bone extends forward to join the frontals, and 
thus excludes the parietal bones from taking any share in the formation of the roof 
of the middle line of the skull; while in front of the opening for the nostrils there 
is a more or less prolonged rostrum. 

In regard to the soft parts, it may be mentioned that the stomach 
is always complex; and that the female has two teats, placed far 
back on the abdomen. In order to enable these animals to swim with their mouths 


Limbs. 


SkulL 


Soft Parts. 


GENERAL CHARACTERS. 5 


wide open, the upper part of the windpipe (larynx) is prolonged so as to reach the 
opening of the nostrils in the hinder portion of the mouth, and thus form a closed 
tube from the external nostrils to the lungs. 

As there is frequently some misconception as to the so-called 
“spouting” or “ blowing” of Cetaceans, a few words are advisable on 
this point. When a whale comes to the surface of the water after a longer or 
shorter period of submergence, its first act is to discharge the air from the lungs 
previous to taking a fresh inspiration. The air is expelled from the lungs with 
great force, and thus rises a considerable height above the surface of the water, 
and as it is saturated with water-vapour at a high temperature the contact with 
the cold external air at once condenses this vapour, which forms a column of steam 
or spray. Frequently, however, a whale commences to “blow” before its nostrils 
are actually above the surface, and then a certain amount of sea-water is forced up 
with the column of air. 

Cetaceans include the largest animals now existing on the globe; 
: and they were only approached in point of size by some of the 
gigantic land reptiles which existed during the Secondary period. As a group, they 
are comparatively modern, being unknown before the upper portion of the Eocene 
division of the Tertiary period. In the preceding Secondary period their place in 
the ocean was taken by huge extinct marine reptiles, such as the ichthyosaurs and 
plesiosaurs ; but as these seem to have died out at the close of that period, while 
whales are unknown in the early part of the Eocene, it would seem that there 
was an interregnum, during which our seas were not tenanted by any large 
animals except fishes. 

Difficulty of From their oceanic habits and huge size, the study of the larger 

Observing. Cetaceans is a matter of extreme difficulty; the majority of the 
comparatively few specimens that are cast ashore not being seen by naturalists, 
while even in cases where opportunity is afforded for inspection, the bodies are 
usually more or less distorted from their proper form, while nothing can, of course, 
be learnt as to the habits of the animals. The acquisition of such knowledge as 
we possess of the habits and form of the larger whales has consequently been 
acquired very slowly; but, thanks to the careful observations of several gentlemen 
engaged in the whaling trade, we have a considerable amount of information on 
these subjects, although there is room for much further investigation. 

Cetaceans are found in all seas, from the Equator to within the 
Arctic Circle; and in former years even many of the larger species 
were extraordinarily abundant in certain regions, although they have been greatly 
reduced in numbers, and in some instances almost or completely exterminated. 
Many of the smaller forms, known as porpoises and dolphins, ascend rivers for 
longer or shorter distances; while some of these, as well as all the members of one 
family are exclusively fluviatile; the latter inhabiting the larger rivers of South 
America and South-Eastern Asia. With the single exception of a kind of dolphin 
recently discovered in the large rivers of the Cameruns district on the West Coast 
of Africa, which is believed to be herbivorous, all Cetaceans are carnivorous. Their 
food is, however, very varied; and the size of the animals devoured for food bears 
no sort of relation to the dimensions of their devourers. Thus while the killer, or 


Spouting. 


A Modern Group. 


Distribution. 


6 CETACEANS. 


grampus, feeds on seals and some of the smaller Cetaceans, and is indeed the only 
member of the order which subsists on warm-blooded animals, many of the toothed 
Cetaceans prey on fishes of various kinds, while others devour small crustaceans, 
jelly-fish, and the molluses known as pteropods. The food of many of the larger 
species consists almost exclusively of squids and cuttles; and so small are the 
animals on which the Greenland whale feeds, that it is commonly said that this 
species would be choked if it attempted to swallow a herring. 

Although the killer is renowned for the ferocity of its disposition, 
the majority of Cetaceans are harmless and timid animals, usually 
associating together in companies known as “ schools,’ which may sometimes 
comprise several thousands of individuals. As a rule, the members of a school are 
said to display an affectionate disposition to one another; and numerous anecdotes 
attest the strong attachment and solicitude displayed by the females towards their 
offspring. Some of the finner whales appear to produce two young at a birth not 
uncommonly, but the usual number is one. 

Existing Cetaceans are divided into two great primary groups, 
the one comprising the true, or whalebone whales, in which the place 
of teeth is taken by baleen or “ whalebone,” and the toothed whales, characterised by 
the presence of functional teeth, at least in the lower jaw. These two groups 
differ from one another in many important respects, and if they are derived from 
a single stock, their common ancestor must have existed at a comparatively remote 
epoch. Dr. Kiikenthal is, however, of opinion, that the whalebone and the toothed 
whales have originated independently of one another from totally distinct groups of 
terrestrial mammals. If this view be ultimately maintained, it will be evident 
that the Cetacean order, as at present constituted, is a heterogeneous group; while 
we should have a most remarkable instance of the power of adaptation to a 
particular mode of life of producing similarity in form. 


Habits. 


Classification. 


THE WHALEBONE WHALES. 
Family BALZNIDZ. 


The whalebone, or true whales, constitute but a single family, and are 
characterised as follows. They have no teeth after birth; but the palate is 
furnished with numerous horny plates of baleen or whalebone, which serve to 
strain the small animals on which these whales feed from the water, the structure 
of this being explained below. The skull is symmetrical; and the two branches 
of the lower jaw are outwardly curved, and are joined at the chin only by fibrous 
tissue. The nostrils open externally by two distinct longitudinal apertures. In the 
skeleton the ribs are but very loosely united with the backbone, articulating only 
with the horizontal transverse processes of the vertebre, and having no connection 
with the bodies of the same. The breast-bone is composed of but a single piece, 
to which only one pair of ribs articulate. 

As remarked by Sir W. H. Flower, in the substitution of baleen for teeth, as 
well as in the loose connection of the ribs with the backbone and the breastbone, 
and in the reduction in the size of the latter, the whalebone whales are more 


WHALEBONE WHALES. 7 


specialised than the other group of Cetaceans; this laxity of connection between 
the ribs and the other parts of the skeleton, allowing of a greater degree of 
expansion of the cavity of the chest, and thus permitting a longer submergence 
beneath the water without the necessity of coming up to breathe. On the other 
hand, in the retention of the double apertures to the nostrils, and in their 
symmetrically-formed skulls, as well as in the position of a distinct olfactory organ, 
and certain other features of their organisation, the members of the present group 


THE GREENLAND WHALE (4, nat. size). 


depart less widely from the ordinary type of mammalian structure than do the 
existing toothed Cetaceans. 

The baleen or whalebone, which does not appear until after 
birth, is composed of a numerous series of flattened horny plates, 
placed transversely on either side of the palate, and separated from one another by 
an open space in the middle line. The plates vary greatly in length in the different 
species, and are triangular in form, with their broad bases attached to the palate, 
and their points hanging downwards. Although smooth externally, the inner 


Whalebone. 


edge of each plate is frayed out into a kind of fringe, thus giving a hairy appear- 
ance to the whole of the inside of the mouth when viewed from below. The plates 
attain the greatest length in the middle portion of the series, from whence they 
gradually diminish in size towards the two extremities. Baleen differs greatly not 
only in length, but likewise in its relative thickness and degree of elasticity, in the 


8 CETACEANS. 


different species. In colour it may vary from black to creamy white; while in 
some cases it is ornamented with stripes of dark and light. The object of the 
baleen, as already said, is to strain the water from the small animals on which the 
whale feeds; and its mode of action is described by Sir W. H. Flower as follows :— 
“In feeding, the immense mouth is filled with water containing shoals of these 
small creatures, and then, on the whale closing the jaws and raising the tongue, so 
as to diminish the cavity of the mouth, the water streams out through the narrow 


A 
Mane 


Sec! 
MEDIAN SECTION, SHOWING THE LEFT SIDE OF THE SKULL OF THE GREENLAND WHALE, 
WITH THE WHALEBONE, 


Br, brain-cavity ; J,J* upper and lower jaws ; bo, bones of roof of skull; s, blow-hole, 
with arrows leading from the cavity of the nostrils; w, whalebone: ¢, contour of tongue ; 
n, aperture of nerve canal in lower jaw. (From Southwell’s British Seals and Whales. 
—After Eschricht. ) 


intervals between the hairy fringe of the whalebone blades, and escapes through 
the lips, leaving the living prey to be swallowed.” 

The whalebone whales are commonly divided into right-whales, 
humpbacks, and rorquals or finners, severally representing as many 
genera, in addition to which there are two less well-known forms, each of which is 
entitled to generic distinction. 


Various Kinds. 


RiGHT- WHALES. 
Genus Balcena. 


The right-whales, of which the Greenland whale is the best known repre- 
sentative, are characterised by the absence of any fin on the ‘back, and of any 
furrows in the skin of the throat; and likewise by the proportionately large size 
of the head, and the arched form of the sides of the mouth, which ascends in the 
middle far above the level of the eye. The flipper is relatively short, and contains 
five distinct digits; and the whole of the seven vertebrae of the neck are welded 


together into a solid mass. The baleen is long, narrow, very elastic, and black 
in colour. 


THE GREENLAND WHALE 


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WHALEBONE WHALES. 9 


The Greenland whale (Balena mysticetus) is a northern species, 
characterised by the enormous size of the head, which often exceeds 
one-third the entire length of the animal, by the high arching of the mouth, and 
the great number and length of the baleen plates. The latter in the middle region 
attain a lenoth of 10 or even 12 feet, and their total number may exceed 380 on 
each side of the jaw. In order to afford room for such enormous structures, 
the narrow upper jaw is greatly arched from before backwards, while the two 
branches of the lower jaw are widely separated behind, and curve much outwards 
in the middle of their course. 

The manner in which the plates of baleen perform their function has been 
explained by Captain D. Gray. When the mouth of the animal is closed, the 
slender extremities of the baleen curve backwards in the direction of the throat, 
the longer ones in the middle of the jaw occupying the hollow formed by the 
shorter ones behind. When the jaws are opened for feeding, the baleen by its own 
elasticity springs downwards and forwards, and thus fills wp the whole space 
between the two jaws, irrespective of their degree of separation. An effectual 
strainer is thus interposed between the sides of the cavity of the mouth and the 
external water, which prevents the food swallowed from escaping, while the water 
taken in at the same time has full means of escape upon the closure of the mouth. 
The tongue is of very large size, and fills up the cavity between the two series of 
baleen plates when the mouth is shut; and the stranded prey left upon its surface 
after the completion of the straining process is swallowed at leisure. The large 
lower lip, rising up at the sides above the extremities of the baleen, prevents them 
from being borne outwards by the rush of water as the mouth is closing. 

The general colour of the Greenland whale is black, but there is frequently 
more or less white about the throat, flippers, and in front of the flukes, while some 
individuals are pied all over. A rough prominence at the extremity of the muzzle, 
known as the “bonnet,” is frequently present. In some individuals, at least, the 
tail is more constricted in advance of the flukes than is the case in our figure, 
while the flukes themselves are wider. 

The Greenland whale attains usually a length of about 50 feet, but specimens 
have been recorded exceeding 60 feet, and it is probable that when the species was 
more numerous its average size was greater. These whales usually yield about 
130 barrels of oil, but specimens were formerly killed from which as much as from 
200 to 280 barrels has been obtained. The product of baleen may vary from 1000 
to over 3000 lbs. The price of this commodity in 1881 was as much as £1100 per 
ton, but in ten years it had risen to upwards of £2800 for the best quality, the 
average price being then about £2520 per ton. 

If we follow Sir W. H. Flower in regarding the so-called bow- 
head whale of Behring Strait and the Okhotsk Sea as not specifically 
distinct, the range of the Greenland whale will be circumpolar. In the North 
Atlantic the southern limits of this species may be approximately indicated by a 
line drawn from the coast of Lapland, in latitude 70°, to the southern point of 
Iceland, and thence to the coast of Labrador, in latitude 55°. In Behring Sea it is 
but seldom seen south of latitude 55°, while in the Sea of Okhotsk it ranges about 
1° further south. With regard to the northern limits of this whale, there is some 


Greenland Whale. 


Distribution. 


10 CETACEANS. 


degree of uncertainty. Captain Feilden is, however, of opinion that no whale 
could inhabit the frozen sea lying to the north of Robeson Channel, above Baffin 
Bay, in latitude 82° N., and that none would be found in the neighbourhood of the 
pole. This species undertakes annual migrations of considerable extent, always 
travelling northwards in summer as the ice breaks up. Captain Scammon states 
that “everything tends to prove that Balena mysticetus is truly an ‘ice-whale, for 
among the scattered floes, or about the borders of the ice-fields or barriers is its 
home and feeding-ground. It is true that these animals are pursued in the open 
water during the summer months, but in no instance have we learned of their 
being captured south of where winter ice-fields are occasionally met with.” 

The huge size of the mouth and the enormous development of 
the baleen in this species is in correlation with the nature of the 
food, which is composed mainly of small shrimp-like crustaceans and swimming 
molluscs belonging to the group known as pteropods; a vast number of such 
minute creatures being necessary to afford sustenance to an animal of the dimensions 
of the Greenland whale. When feeding, these whales swim near the surface of the 
water, with the nostrils and a portion of the middle of the back showing above. 
Captain Scammon, writing about twenty years ago, says “they are often met with 
singly in their wanderings; at other times in pairs or triplets, and scattered over 
the surface of the water as far as the eye can discern from the masthead. Toward 
the end of the season they are seen in large numbers, crowded together. These 
herds are called ‘gams, and they are regarded by experienced whalemen as an 
indication that the whales will soon leave the ground. Their manner of respira- 
tion is to blow seven to nine times at a ‘rising, then ‘turning flukes’ (elevating 
them six to eight feet out of the water), they go down and remain twelve or 
fifteen minutes.” Captain Gray states, however, that he has known a whale when 
harpooned stay under water for fifty minutes. 

There is still some degree of uncertainty as to the breeding-habits of the 
Greenland whale. Dr. R. Brown states that the pairing-season is from June to 
August, and that the young are born in the following March, April, and May. 
Some other writers have, however, considered that the period of gestation is 
thirteen or fourteen months. The single offspring is believed to be suckled for 
about a year, during which time the baleen is gradually developed. The affection 
of the female parent for her young is most intense, and if she be captured there is 
little difficulty in securing her offspring. 


Habits. 


The Greenland whale is a peaceful and timid animal, and appears never to 
attack the boats of its pursuers. The accidents which occur in hunting this species 
are mainly due either to its descending suddenly to great depths when first 
wounded, whereby the boat may be swamped or dragged under water, or by a too 
close approach to the animal when in its last terrible death-strugele, or “ flurry,” as 
it is called by the whalers. The ordinary speed of a Greenland whale, whether 
swimming at or below the surface, is estimated by Captain Gray at about four 
miles an hour, while when the animal is frightened or wounded its rate of progress 
will be accelerated to about eight miles. 

The Greenland whale has for more than a century been systematic- 


Whaling. ee 
ally hunted by British whalers, whose headquarters are the ports of 


WHALEBONE WHALES. Il 


Peterhead and Dundee. From information given by Capt. Gray to Mr. T. South- 
well, it appears that between the years 1788 and 1879 no less than four thousand 
one hundred and ninety-five whales were killed by the Peterhead vessels; while 
between 1790 and 1879 four thousand two hundred and twenty were accounted for 
by those sailing from Dundee. When we add to these the numbers killed by the 
whalers of other nations, it is not surprising to learn that the Greenland whale has 
now become a comparatively scarce animal. In the year 1891 only seventeen 
whales were captured by the Scotch whalers, and these were of comparatively 
small size, yielding whalebone of less than six feet in length. It has, indeed, been 
supposed that the species is either well-nigh exterminated, or has been driven north- 
ward beyond its ancient haunts. Neither of these suppositions appear, however, to 
be true, for it is now ascertained that the whales have not altered their original lines 
of migration, while so late as 1891 considerable numbers were seen in the Green- 
land seas. Writing on this subject, Mr. Southwell expresses his belief that the 
want of success experienced of late years by the whalers is “mainly owing to the 
introduction of steam, which enables the modern ships to follow the whales in 
localities where formerly they would have been safe from molestation. The rattle 
of the screw also, which can be heard by the whales for long distances, is now to 
them a well-known sound; above all, the eagerness with which they are followed 
up—all the vessels consorting together—has at length rendered them so wild as to 
be practically unapproachable. Even now, however, it appears quite possible that 
a vessel approaching their haunts alone, and in the quiet manner which prevailed 
before the introduction of steam, might be rewarded by the success of old. 
Certainly the fishery appears to be in a hopeless condition at present (1892); but 
it is possible that a few years’ rest might restore the confidence of the whales, and 
that, if then pursued with due caution by a limited number of vessels, paying 
cargoes might again be obtained.” 

The method of capturing whales has been so frequently described, that it will 
be unnecessary to do more than briefly allude to it here. In former days the 
actual pursuit of the whale was always made in open boats, and the harpoon, with 
the line attached, thrown by hand; the animal being subsequently despatched by 
long sharp weapons known as lances. Later on, a harpoon-gun was substituted 
for the thrower; while at the present day the ships themselves are in some cases 
used in the attack, and the employment of open boats dispensed with. The vessels 
thus employed are mounted with a massive and elaborately constructed gun fixed 
in the boat upon a swivel support. The gunner takes his stand upon a platform, 
which is furnished with wings overlapping the small angle of the bows, and thus 
allowing him plenty of room to move freely. The projectile is a harpoon, armed 
with movable flukes, and containing an explosive in the head. When fired, the 
flukes lie flat on the sides of the harpoon, but on entering the flesh of the whale 
they open out so as to form a grapnel in its body; while the act of expansion also 
fires the explosive, by which the animal, if hit anywhere near a vital part, is 
generally killed outright. 

Although the whale of the North Atlantic has been separated 
as a distinct species from the one inhabiting the southern part of 
that ocean, while those of the North and South Pacific have likewise received 


Southern Whale. 


12 CETACEAN'S: 


o4 


distinct names, it is, on the whole, probable that all these indicate only local races 
of a single widespread species, which may be known as the southern right-whale 
(B. australis). This species differs from the last by its relatively smaller head, 
in which the contour of the lower lip is much more highly arched, and the baleen 
considerably shorter; while the number of ribs is fifteen in place of twelve. It is 
also of smaller size and yields less blubber. In its movements this whale is said 
to be quicker, more active, and more violent than the other, and is thus more 
difficult and dangerous to kill. In the North Atlantic it was still not unfrequent 
in the latter part of the eighteenth century, and ranged as far north as Iceland 
and Norway; but it is now all but exterminated in these regions. Several 
instances of whales, probably belonging to this species, having been seen or 
captured off the British Coasts previous to the commencement of the present 
century are on record; and it is highly probable that whales seen off Peterhead in 
1806 and 1872 were likewise of the same kind. An example was captured in the 
harbour of San Sebastian in 1854, a second in the Gulf of Taranto in 1877, and 
a third on the Spanish Coast in the following year. The practical extermination 
of this species in European waters, appears to be due to the Basque fishermen of 
the Biscayan ports, by whom it was persistently hunted from the tenth to the 
sixteenth century. It was known to them as the sletbag, and had become exceed- 
ingly scarce on the discovery of Spitzbergen in 1596, when the Basque whalers 
turned their attention to the far more valuable Greenland species. 

On the western side of the Atlantic, where it is known as the black whale, 
examples are occasionally met with. In the North Pacific it occurs in Japanese 
waters ; and it likewise frequents the Australian and New Zealand seas, as well 
as the regions around the Cape of Good Hope. The southern limits of the 
southern right-whale are not yet definitely known, but the species certainly does 
not penetrate the icebound Antarctic Ocean. 

Fossil Right- Several species of right-whales have left their remains in the 

Whales. —_ Pliocene deposits of Belgium and the east coast of England. One of 
these extinct forms appears to have been allied to the Greenland, and a second 
to the southern whales, while the other two are smaller species unlike any 
now living. 


THE PigMy WHALE. 
Genus Neobalena. 


A rare whale (Neobalena marginata), from the New Zealand, Australian, and 
South American seas, is the smallest representative of the family, and while most 
nearly allied to the right-whales, presents certain peculiarities in structure which 
entitle it to rank as the representative of a distinct genus. It derives its common 
name of pigmy whale from its comparatively small size, the length never exceeding 
20 feet, and being sometimes only 15 or 16 feet. Although agreeing with the 
right-whales in having the skin of the throat smooth, and all the vertebree of the 
neck united into a solid mass, the pigmy whale differs by having a small fin on the 
back, by the baleen, which is of great length and slenderness, being white, and also 
by the small and narrow flipper containing but three digits in its skeleton. The 


WHALEBONE WHALES. 13 


ribs are very broad and flattened, and are seventeen in number. The whalebone 
of this species is more flexible, more elastic, and tougher than that of any other; 
and if it could be obtained in any quantity would fetch a higher price in the 
market than that of the Greenland whale. 


THE GREY WHALE. 
Genus Rhachianectes. 


The grey whale of the North Pacific (Rhachianectes glaucus), taking its name 
from the bluish grey colour of its skin, is also the single representative of its 
genus. This species serves as a kind of connecting link between the right-whales 
on the one hand and the humpback and finners on the other, and is in all prob- 
ability a very ancient and generalised type. It agrees with the humpback in the 
absence of a fin on the back and the narrowness of the flippers, but resembles 
the finners in the relatively small size of the head, the elongated form of the body, 
the shortness and brittle nature of the whalebone, and in the almost complete 
separation of all the vertebrae of the neck. A further approximation to the 
humpback and finners is made by the presence of a single pair of flutings in 
the skin of the throat, The male attains a length of from 35 to 42 feet, and the 
female from 40 to 44 feet, the length of the flippers being about 64 feet. The 
general colour is a mottled bluish grey, becoming very light in some individuals, 
while in others it is nearly black. The whalebone is relatively shorter than in 
any other species, scarcely exceeding 18 inches in length, and is yellow in colour. 

In the skeleton the ribs are remarkable for their shortness and great width, 
and the consequent narrowness of the spaces between them; while the first two 
are more or less completely united together to form a solid shield of bone. In the 
flippers the joints of the digits are very short and thick, and appear to be less 
numerous than in the finners. The blubber is solid and tough, with a reddish 
colour, and yields comparatively little oil. 

At the present day the grey whale is confined to the North 
Pacific, and does not range further south than the 20th parallel 
of north latitude. From the evidence of certain bones found in the superficial 
deposits of the British Islands, and described under the name of Eschrichtius, 
it is, however, not improbable that it formerly frequented the Atlantic. 

It is a migratory species, appearing on the coasts of California 


Distribution. 


Habits. ; : : > y 
and Oregon for the purpose of breeding from November to May, and 


going northwards for the rest of the year. Captain Scammon says that in its 
regular migrations from the hot southern latitudes to within the Arctic Circle this 
whale follows the general trend of an irregular coast so closely that it is exposed to 
attack from the savage tribes inhabiting the seashores, who pass much of their 
time in their canoes, and consider the capture of this singular wanderer a feat 
worthy of the highest distinction. As it approaches the waters of the torrid 
zone, it presents an opportunity to the civilised whalemen to practise their 
different modes of strategy, thus hastening the period of its entire disappearance. 
This species of whale manifests the greatest affection for its young, and seeks the 


14 CETACEA NS. 


sheltered estuaries lying under a tropical sun, as if to warm its offspring into 
activity and promote its comfort, until grown to the size nature demands for its 
first northern visit. When the parent animals are attacked, they show a power 
of resistance and tenacity of life that distinguish them from all other Cetaceans. 
This species has of late years become very rare, and is now in considerable danger 
of extermination. 


THE Humppack WHALE. 
Genus Megaptera. 


The humpback whale (Megaptera boops) belongs to the group characterised 
by the presence of a number of longitudinal flutings in the skin of the throat, and 
of a fin on the back. It is distinguished from the finners (described below), by the 
comparatively large size of the head, the short and deep body, the small size of the 
fin on the back, and the enormous length of the flippers. The flukes are relatively 
large, and the flippers are characterised by their scalloped margins. As in the grey 
whale and finners, the vertebree of the neck are relatively longer than in the right- 
whales, and remain perfectly separate from one another throughout life. The whale- 
bone, which is of a deep black colour, is short and broad, and of a coarse and but 
slightly elastic structure. In length the humpback varies from 45 to 50 feet; the 
flippers measuring from 10 to 14 feet in length. The general colour of the body is 
black above, but often more or less marbled with white below, while the flippers 
may be either entirely white, or black above and speckled with white below. The 
skeleton of the flippers has four digits, with a great number of joints. 

The name humpback, according to Captain Scammon, is derived from the 
prominence on the back which carries the fin, but there appears to be considerable 
individual variation in regard to the degree of its development. Captain Scammon, 
from whose figures our plate is taken, makes this prominence at least as high as 
any other part of the back, while in the position assumed by the suckling female 
in the lower half of the plate it is the highest point of all. In a figure given by 
Sir W. H. Flower the whole back is made more arched, with the highest point only 
a short distance behind the base of the flippers; possibly, however, there may be 
individual differences in this respect. It may be mentioned here that when a whale 
leaps out of the water, as in the topmost figure of our plate, it is said to “ breach ” ; 
when a fin is shown out of the water, as in the two right upper figures, the action is 
termed “ finning”; while, when the flukes alone are exposed, as on the left side of 
the plate, it is called “ lob-tailing.” 

Humpbacks are found in nearly all seas, and at present it appears 
impossible to distinguish more than a single species, although some 
writers maintain that the one inhabiting the Persian Gulf is distinet from the 
common form. Although they are said to be not uncommon off the eastern coast 
of Scotland during the summer, but few examples have been taken in the British 
Seas. One was, however, captured at Newcastle in 1839, a second at the mouth 
of the Dee in 1863, a third in Wick Bay, Caithness, in 1871, and a fourth in the 
‘Tay during the winter of 1883-84. 


Distribution. 


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WHALEBONE WHALES. rit 


As regards the habits of the humpback, Captain Seammon states 
that this whale generally prefers “to feed and perform its uncouth 
gambols near extensive coasts or about the shores of islands, in all latitudes between 
the Equator and the frozen oceans, both north and south. It is irregular in its 
movements, seldom going a straight course for any considerable distance; at one 
time moving about in large numbers, scattered over the sea as far as the eye can 
discern from the masthead, at other times singly, seeming as much at home as if it 
were surrounded by hundreds of its kind, performing at will the varied actions of 
‘breaching, ‘rolling, ‘finning, ‘lob-tailing, or ‘scooping, or, on a calm sunny 
day, perhaps lying motionless on the molten-looking surface, as though life were 
extinct.” On the coasts of Norway, although generally found in small numbers, 
Mr. Collett states that it is occasionally very numerous—so much so that in one 
instance a steamer had to exercise great care in steering, in order to avoid coming 
into collision with these whales. They were met with in great profusion by Captain 
Gray in 1880 to the north of Ireland, accompanied by numbers of the lesser fin- 
whales. Two young are frequently produced at a birth. 

The amount of oil yielded by a humpback is very variable, a 
female with a large young one having scarcely any blubber. Captain 
Scammon states that he has known the amount of oil taken from some individuals 
not to exceed eight or ten barrels, while in others the yield has been as much as 
seventy-five. 


Habits. 


Products. 


FIN-WHALES, OR RORQUALS. 
Genus Balenoptera. 


The remaining living representatives of the whalebone whales are known as 
fin-whales, or rorquals, or sometimes fin-backs or razor-backs, and include four 
well-defined species. These whales are distinguished from the humpback by their 
more elongated and slender form and proportionately smaller head, which measures 
from one-fifth to one-fourth the total length, and also by the comparative shortness 
of their flippers. The latter are narrow and pointed, and vary from one-seventh to 
one-eleventh of the total length. The small and recurved back-fin is placed about 
two-thirds of the distance from the head to the flukes, and the latter are smaller 
than in the humpback. The whalebone is short and coarse, and the lateral line of 
the mouth is consequently nearly straight, and does not rise above the level of 
the eye. 

Fin-whales are the most common and widely distributed of all the larger 
Cetaceans, and are far more active and speedy in their movements than right- 
whales; and since their yield of blubber is relatively small, while the shortness and 
inferior quality of their whalebone renders it of much less value than that of the 
right-whales, they were formerly but little molested by whalers. The yearly 
increasing scarcity of the Greenland whale, and the enormous advance in the price 
of whalebone, coupled with the invention of harpoon-guns, which renders the 
capture of these animals far less difficult than in the old days, have, however, led 
to both humpbacks and finners being regularly hunted. Fin-whales are found in 
nearly all seas except those of the Antarctic regions, and the four well-defined 

VOL. III.—2 


18 CETACEANS. 


species have an almost cosmopolitan distribution; but there is some evidence that 
the Indian seas possess two other species with a much more limited distribution. 

Most of the fin-whales feed mainly on fish, the larger species consuming an 
enormous quantity of cod. 

Lesser The smallest representative of the group is the lesser fin-whale, 

Fin-Whale. oy rorqual (Balewnoptera rostrata), frequently known, from its pointed 

muzzle, as the pike-whale. It is represented in the accompanying figure. The 
average length of this species varies from 25 to 30 feet, and a length of 33 feet 
is but very seldom exceeded. The general colour of the upper-parts is greyish 
black, while the whole of the under surface, inclusive of the flukes, is white. The 
most distinctive characteristic of the species is, however, the broad band of white 
running across the upper part of the outer surface of the flippers, which forms a 
striking contrast to the black of the remainder. The flippers measure about one- 
eighth the entire length of the animal, and the number of pairs of ribs is eleven. 
The whalebone is nearly white. 

This whale is by no means rare on the British coast; and an example was 
captured off the Scilly Islands so lately as 1887, while two were taken in the Firth 


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nag tin ccegesc rire. 
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SKELETON OF FIN-WHALE. 


of Forth in the year following. It is more common on the shores of Norway, where 
it is frequently captured in the bays and fjords; the natives stretching a net across 
the mouth, after one or more whales have entered, and then despatching them with 
spears. Its habits in North American waters, where it 1s known as the sharp- 
nosed finner, are described by Captain Scammon. He writes that this whale 
“frequently gambols about vessels when under way, darting from one side to 
another beneath their bottoms. When coming to the surface, it makes a quick, 
faint spout, such as would be made by a suckling of one of the larger Cetaceans, 
which plainly accounts for whalemen taking it to be the young of more bulky 
species. At sea the sharp-headed finners are seldom seen in pairs, but wander 
solitarily along, frequently changing their course in the depths below, and meander- 
ing along the whole continental coast of the North Pacific, occasionally visiting the 
large estuaries about the shore. They pass through Behring Sea and Strait into 
the Arctic Ocean where they appear to be as much at home as their superiors in 
size.” The writer then goes on to say that, like the Pacitie grey whale, “ they 
thread the icy floes, and frequently emerge through the narrow fissures bolt upright, 
with their heads above the broken ice, to blow. When roaming about the inland 
waters of lower latitudes, they often shoot along the shallow waters of the bays in 
search of the myriads of small fry on which they mainly sustain themselves.” 
Kden’s fin-whale (B. eden), from the Indian seas, is only known by skeletons, 
and appears to be closely allied to the present species, but attains somewhat 


WHALEBONE WHALES. 19 


larger dimensions, and is believed to have a few more vertebre in the back- 
bone. 


Rudolphi’s Fin- The next species in point of size is Rudolphi’s fin-whale (B. 
Whale. —_ borealis), which attains a length of from 40 to 45, or occasionally as 


much as 52 feet. In colour it is bluish-black above, with oblong white spots, 
while the under-parts are more or less white; the under-surface of the flukes, as 
well as both sides of the flippers are, however, coloured like the back. The 
back-fin is smaller, and placed further back than in the lesser finner: while the 


THE LESSER FIN-WHALE (7; lat. size). 


flippers are very small, equalling only one-fourteenth of the total length. There 
are thirteen pairs of ribs; and the whalebone is black. 

This species is much rarer than the other rorquals, and does not appear to have 
been recorded from the Pacific. It ranges as far south as Biarritz, and migrates 
northward in summer as far as the North Cape ; and either this or a closely-allied 
species occurs in the seas around Java. Of specimens recorded from the British 
Islands, the first was stranded on the shores of the Firth of Forth in 1872; the 
second was caught in the river Crouch, in Essex, in 1883, a third in 1884 in the 
Humber, a fourth in the Thames at Tilbury in 1887, and a fifth in the Medway in 
1888. On the coasts of Finmark the numbers of this whale are very variable, and 
while it is a constant summer visitor on the Western seas, it only occasionally 


20 CETACEAHS: 


resorts to these on the East. In 1885 the coasts of that country were visited by 
enormous numbers of this species, while the larger finners and humpbacks which 
usually resort there did not appear at all; and during that summer no less than 
771 specimens were killed. 

Rudolphi’s whale, according to the observations of Mr. Collett, differs from the 
other finners in feeding entirely on minute crustaceans, never touching fish; and, 
in accordance with this difference in its diet, the edges of its whalebone are more 
frayed out and curling than in the other species. On the Finmark coast these 
whales appear sometimes singly, but more generally in schools of varying size, 
which may occasionally include some fifty individuals). When migrating, or not 
engaged in feeding, they swim rapidly, and do not require to breathe so frequently 
as the other species. When they come up to blow, they make but one or two 
respirations, while the others take five or six. When swimming under water, their 
course can be traced by the bubbles of air continually rising to the surface; and 
when gorging on the swarms of crustaceans found in the northern seas these 
whales swim quite slowly, with the muzzle and half the back above water. 
Rudolphi’s whale never appears to utter any sound; and is timid and inoffensive 
in disposition. The occasional accidents that happen to boats engaged in the 
pursuit of this whale appear to be caused unintentionally during the death-throes 
of the animals. As a rule, but a single young is born at a time, but Mr. Collett 
records one instance of twins. The whalers of Finmark believe that this whale, 
like the two larger species of the genus, can remain under water when resting for 
upwards of eight or twelve hours; such periods of repose often occurring at 
particular hours of the day. Mr. Collett states that the yield of oil varies from 
fifteen to thirty barrels, and that the value of one of these whales ranges from £27 
to £33, or about half that of the common fin-whale. 

Common Fin- The common fin-whale, or rorqual (B. muculus) averages from 

Whale. 60 to 65 feet in length, and rarely exceeds 70 feet. It is very 
elongated in form, with moderately long jaws; the flippers measuring one-ninth of 
the total length. The colour of the upper-parts and the left side of the lower jaw 
is slaty grey; while the right side of the lower jaw and the under-parts, including 
the inferior surface of the flukes and flippers, are white. The whalebone is slate 
coloured at the ends, with the first two or three rows white. 

The common rorqual is found rarely in the Mediterranean, but abundantly 
throughout the more northern seas of Europe, ranging as far as the 70th or 75th 
parallels of latitude. It is likewise widely distributed in American waters, where 
it is commonly known as the fin-back; and it appears that the so-called southern 
fin-whale of New Zealand is not specifically separable. It is not uncommon off the 
British coasts, two dead specimens having been found floating in the Channel in 
1885, while another was stranded at Skegness in 1887. 

The common fin-whale swims with great rapidity and strength, being second 
in this respect only to the next species; and is consequently taken with difficulty, 
except when explosive harpoons are used. Its habits appear to be generally very 
similar to those of the lesser fin-whale; and it is described as playing around 
vessels under way in the same manner. These whales are frequently found alone, 
but occasionally assemble in schools of from ten to fifteen or twenty individuals. 


WHALEBONE WHALES. 2% 


When these animals come up to breathe, they inhale the air so rapidly as to produce 
a sharp sound which may be heard at a considerable distance, and is said to be 
perfectly distinguishable from that produced by any other species. When about 
to descend, Captain Scammon says that this finner “assumes a variety of positions, 
sometimes rolling over nearly on its side, at other times rounding, or perhaps 
heaving, its flukes out, and assuming nearly a perpendicular attitude. F requently 
it remains on the surface, making a regular course and several uniform ‘blows.’ ” 


nat. size). 


THE COMMON FIN-WHALE, FROM A STRANDED SPECIMEN (y} 


The food of the species is mainly fish; and the quantity of cod it consumes is 
enormous. 


Sibbald’s Fin- The gigantic Sibbald’s fin-whale (B. sibbaldi)—the ‘sulphur- 
Whale. bottom’ of the American whalers—enjoys the distinction of being the 


largest of living animals. It is a somewhat stouter-built species than the last, and 
commonly attains a length of from 70 to 80 feet, and occasionally reaches 85 feet, 
or perhaps more. The general colour is dark bluish grey, with some white spots 
on the chest, the lower edges and under surface of the flippers being white. In 
American specimens at least, there is, however, a more or less marked yellowish 
tinge on the under surface of the body, which has given origin to the popular 
name. The flippers are longer than in either of the other species, measuring one- 
seventh of the entire length; and the jaws are also of more than usual proportionate 
size. The back-fin is small, and situated comparatively near the tail. The whale- 


22 CETACEANS. 


bone is black; and there are usually sixteen pairs of ribs, against fifteen in the 
preceding species. 

This tinner has a wide distribution, and in the northern hemisphere, after 
passing the winters in the open sea, migrates northwards in the spring towards the 
coasts for the purpose of breeding. In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, 
Sibbald’s whale is represented by a closely-allied species or variety (B. indica), 
which attains a length of upwards of 90 feet, and is said to have a somewhat more 
slender lower jaw than the European form. Whether this whale be a distinct 
species, or, as is more probable, a local race, it differs somewhat in habits, as it has 
been observed in the warm Indian seas during the summer months when the true 
Sibbald’s whale is visiting the cool shores of Norway. In the Pacific this species is 
to be found at all seasons on the coasts of California, thus tending to show that the 
Indian finner is not specifically distinct. Examples of Sibbald’s whale have been 
taken in the Firth of Forth. 

During the period of their sojourn on the Norwegian coasts, these whales 
subsist exclusively on crustaceans, and when in pursuit of these small creatures they 
inay frequently be seen swimming on their sides. At other times, however, they 
feed largely on sardines, sprats, and other fish. When near the shore, they may 
sometimes be seen playing around vessels at anchor, but as a rule they do not 
exhibit the same boldness as the common rorqual, although they will occasionally 
follow in a ship’s wake for long distances. In one instance it is recorded that a 
whale of this species, in spite of having been repeatedly fired upon, pursued a vessel 
for upwards of twenty-four days. Sibbald’s whale is considered to be the fastest 
of all the larger Cetaceans; it but seldom “breaches,” yet when it does so, it 
exhibits its splendid proportions and its marvellous activity to the fullest degree. 
Captain Scammon writes that, “im contemplating this, the greatest whale of the 
ocean, one can but admire its prominent characteristics, which are its enormous, yet 
symmetrical proportions, and the muscular development which enables it to excel 
in velocity all its congeners, while its whole bearing indicates its superiority to all 
the other Cetaceans. It glides over the surface of the ocean, occasionally display- 
ing its entire length. When it respires, the volume of its vaporous breath ascends 
to a height which reveals at once to the observer the presence of that leviathan of 
the deep, whose capture baffles the practical skill of the most experienced whalers. 
When ‘rounding’ to descend to the depths below, it throws its ponderous flukes 
high above the waves, with a swoop that is well in keeping with its matchless 
strength and vigour.” The invention of explosive harpoons propelled from power- 
ful guns has now rendered the capture of Sibbald’s whale a comparatively easy 
task, and it is regularly hunted from the factory at Hammerfest. A specimen 
measuring 85 feet in length yielded ninety barrels of oil. 

Fossil The Pliocene deposits of Belgium and the eastern coast of 

Fin-Whales. England yield remains of several kinds of fin-whales, and likewise of 
a humpback, all of which appear to be more or less closely related to the various 
living species. Other whales from the Pliocene deposits of Europe constitute an 
extinct genus—Cctotheriwm—which, while evidently nearly allied to the rorquals, 
exhibits certain peculiar features in the structure of the skull whereby it departs 
less widely from the ordinary mammalian type. 


CHAPTER XXX. 


CETACEANS,—continued. 
THE TOOTHED WHALES, OR ODONTOCETES. 


THE whole of the remainder of the existing Cetaceans form a group dis- 
tinguished from the preceding one by the absence of whalebone, and the presence 
of permanent teeth in at.least the lower jaw. This group, comprising existing 
families, is known as the Odontoceti, or Toothed Cetaceans, in contradistinction to 
the Mystacoceti, or Whalebone Whales. 

In addition to the presence of teeth, the group is also characterised by the 
following distinctive features. The two nostrils unite before they reach the surface, 
and thus open by a single aperture, which usually takes the form of a erescentic 
valvular shit placed transversely to the long axis of the head. In the skull the 
bones of the upper surface are arranged unsymmetrically on the sides; the nasal 
bones in existing forms being reduced to nodules, taking no share in roofing 
over the cavity of the nostrils. The two branches of the lower jaw are nearly 
straight, and of great vertical extent behind, while in front they come in contact 
with one another by flattened surfaces of larger or smaller extent, as is ordinarily 
the case among mammals. The ribs are more firmly jomed to the rest of the 
skeleton than in the whalebone whales, several of the anterior pairs articulating 
with the bodies as well as with the horizontal transverse processes of the vertebre, 
while below they are joined to the breast-bone by the intervention of so-called 
chest-ribs; the breast-bone itself usually consisting of several distinct portions, 
placed one behind the other. In all cases the flippers have five digits. 


SPERM-WHALES AND THEIR ALLIES. 
Family PHYSETERIDZ. 


The well-known gigantic sperm-whale is the typical representative of a family 
characterised by the total absence of any functional teeth in the upper jaw; those 
of the lower jaw being either numerous or reduced to a single pair. These characters 
are sufficient to distinguish the members of this family from those of the two others 
now existing, but it may be added that the skull is much elevated in the hinder 
region, so as to form a high prominence or crest behind the aperture of the nostrils. 

The members of this family include the largest of the toothed Cetaceans, and 
the whole of them are exclusively oceanic in their habits; their food consisting 
mainly or solely of squids and cuttles. 


24 CETACEANS. 


THE SPERM- WHALE. 
Genus Physeter. 


The sperm-whale, or, as it is frequently called from its French title, cachalot 
(Physeter macrocephalus), is one of the largest of the Cetaceans, fully rivalling in 
size the Greenland whale. As with many other species, its dimensions have, how- 
ever, been considerably exaggerated ; although, on the other hand, it is quite probable 
that when the species was more abundant than at present, some individuals attained 
a size which is now never reached. Be this as it may, the male sperm-whale is 
definitely known to attain a length of from 55 to 60 feet; but females are said not 
to reach much more than half these dimensions, while their form is proportionately 
more slender. The essential generic characteristics of the sperm-whale are to be 
found in the great proportionate size of the head, which equals about one-fourth of 


SKELETON OF SPERM-WHALE, 


the total length of the animal, and in the number of the teeth being from twenty to 
twenty-five on each side of the lower jaw. 

In appearance the sperm-whale is ungainly and ugly in the 
extreme, this being chiefly due to the great height and abrupt trunca- 
tion of the enormous muzzle, upon the summit of which is situated the S-shaped 
aperture of the nostrils, somewhat to the left of the middle line. The mouth, which 
is of great length and capacity, opens below, and at some distance behind the 
extremity of the muzzle. On the upper surface of the skull, as seen in our figure 
of the skeleton, is a huge cavity, bounded behind by a tall vertical wall of bone ; 
this cavity being filled in the living animal with the substance known as spermaceti, 
of which more anon. In front of this hollow protrudes the long rostrum of the 
upper jaw; the gum of which contains rudimentary teeth. The lower jaw is very 
long and slender; its two branches being united in the middle line for about half 
their total length. The teeth are implanted in the lower jaw in a long groove, 
partially divided into sockets by incomplete bony partitions. These teeth are of 
large size, and, when unworn, are pointed and recurved at their tips. They are 
composed solely of ivory, and the pulp-cavity at their base remains open for a long 
period, although generally more or less completely closed in adult life, when the 
whole base of the tooth becomes much flattened from side to side. The tongue and 
interior of the mouth are of a glistening white colour; and the diameter of the 
throat is very large. The eye is placed somewhat above the angle of the mouth, 
and a short distance behind it is the minute aperture of the ear, which is said not 
to exceed a quarter of an inch in diameter, 


Form. 


TOOTHED WHALES. 25 


At the junction of the head with the body there is a distinct prominence in 
the middle line of the back; while half-way between this and the tail, is a larger 
projection, followed by a number of smaller ones, and technically known as the 
“hump.” There is no back-fin. The flippers are placed a little behind and below 
the eyes, and seldom exceed 6 feet in length by 3 in width; while the maximum 
diameter of the flukes is about 15 feet. In colour the sperm-whale is generally 
either black or blackish brown on the upper-parts, becoming rather lighter on the 
sides and under surface, and passing into silvery grey on the chest. Occasionally, 
however, piebald individuals are met with; and old males frequently become grey 
in the region of the muzzle and crown of the head. 

The sperm-whale is essentially an inhabitant of the open seas, 
the individuals that appear on the British coasts being either stragglers 
or such as have been carried after death by the Gulf Stream. The range of the 
species extends over all the warmer oceans, but does not include the polar seas ; 
and that the sperm-whale is in the habit of travelling immense distances is proved 
by the circumstance that specimens have been killed in the Atlantic bearing in their 
bodies spears that had been fixed there during a sojourn in the Pacific. Formerly, 
this whale was much hunted in the Bay of Bengal and around Ceylon; but 
it is now comparatively rare in these regions, while its numbers have been 
greatly diminished by constant persecution in its favourite haunts in the South 
Pacific. 


Distribution. 


Captain Scammon states that a very large sperm-whale, captured 
off the Galapagos Islands in 1853, yielded eighty-five barrels of oil. 
This quantity was, however, exceeded by one caught in the year 1817 in the same 
region by the ship Adam, belonging to a great-uncle of the present writer; the yield 
in that case being one hundred barrels. A tooth taken from this whale is stated by 
Sir R. Owen, to have measured 9} inches in length, and 9 in girth, with a weight of 
3 Ibs.; and there is another nearly equally large tooth in the British Museum which 
formerly belonged to the writer, and not improbably came from the same whale. 
As no sperm-whales killed at the present day have teeth of these dimensions, it 
seems not improbable that the old statements as to specimens of 80 feet in length, 
may not have been so far from the truth; and it is possible that the one killed 
by the crew of the Adam may have been the largest individual of which there 
is any record. 


Size. 


Sperm-whales are gregarious animals, and assemble in “ schools,’ 
which in former days might comprise from fifteen to twenty to several 
hundred individuals. Although for a part of the year some of the largest and 
oldest males live by themselves, the “schools” generally comprise individuals of 
both sexes and all ages, and are led by two or three old mates. The females 
display much solicitude for the safety of one another and likewise for that of 
their offspring; and when one female out of a party is killed, it is generally 
easy to capture several others. The young males, which are found associated 
together in herds at certain times of the year, are however, according to Captain 
Seammon, far less chivalrous in disposition, and will at once leave a wounded 
companion to its fate. 

The sperm-whale, as recorded by Beale in 1838, is distinguished from all other 


Habits. 


26 CETA CEAMS, 

Cetaceans by the regularity with which it comes to the surface to breathe, although 
there is some variation in this respect according to age. “When emerging to the 
surface,” writes Captain Scammon, “the first portion of the animal seen is the 
region of the hump, then it raises its head and respires slowly for the space of 
about three seconds, sending forth diagonally a volume of whitish vapour, like an 


THE SPREM-WHALH (rs nat. size). 

escape of steam; this may be seen from the masthead at a distance of three to 
five miles. In respiring at its leisure, the animal sometimes makes no headway 
through the water; at other times it moves quietly along at the rate of two or 
three miles an hour, or, ‘if making a passage’ from one feeding-ground to another, 
it may accelerate its velocity. When in progressive motion, hardly an instant is 
required for inspiration; when the animal dips its head a little and momentarily 
disappears, then it rises again to blow as before, each respiration being made with 


TOOTHED WHALES. 27 


great regularity. The number of its spoutings, when in a state of quietude, depends 
on the size of the animal. The same may be said as to the time it remains upon 
or beneath the surface of the ocean. With the largest bulls the time occupied in 
performing one expiration and one inspiration is from ten to twelve seconds, and 
the animal will generally blow from sixty to seventy-five times at a rising, 
remaining upon the surface of the sea about twelve minutes. As soon as ‘his 
spoutings are out’ he pitches head-foremost downward, then, ‘rounding out, turns 
his flukes high in the air, and, when gaining a nearly perpendicular altitude, 
descends to a great depth, and there remains from fifty minutes to an hour and 
a quarter.” During the spouting there is no sound heard. When swimming in the 
ordinary manner, with the hump just showing above the surface, Beale believes 
that sperm-whale can attain a speed of about seven miles an hour, but when 
swimming with the head alternately in and out of the water he estimates the 
speed at from ten to twelve miles in the hour. 

When at the surface, sperm-whales frequently indulge in what appear to be 
mere sportive gambols. At one time they will violently beat the water into foam 
with their flukes, this action being known to whalers as “lob-tailing,” while at 
others they will leap completely out »f the water. Beale states that the way in 
which the sperm-whale performs this action of “breaching” “appears to be by 
descending to a certain depth below the surface, and then making some powerful 
strokes with his tail, which are frequently and rapidly repeated, and thus convey 
a certain degree of velocity to his body before it reaches the surface, when he darts 
completely out. When just emerged and at its greatest elevation, his body forms 
with the surface of the water an angle of about forty-five degrees, the flukes lying 
parallel with the surface; in falling, the animal rolls his body slightly, so that he 
always falls on his side. He seldom ‘breaches’ more than twice or thrice at a 
time or in quick succession.” It is added that the “ breaching” of a sperm-whale 
is discernible at a distance of six miles from the masthead on a clear day. It is 
believed by some authorities that these actions of the sperm-whale are not gambols, 
but are undertaken to rid its body of certain parasites. If frightened, the animal 
can sink suddenly to the bottom, even when lying horizontally. 

The female cachalot, according to Beale, breeds at all seasons of the year, and 
there is generally but a single young one produced at a birth, although twins are 
not unknown. At birth the length of the young sperm-whale is said to vary from 
11 to 14 feet. 

The chief food of the sperm-whale consists of squids and cuttles, 
but considerable quantities of fish—comprising rock-cod, albicore, 
and bonito—are likewise consumed. All these different kinds of food are procured 
at a considerable depth below the surface of the water, but the mode of capture is 
at present unknown. It has indeed been suggested that, when below the surface, 
the whale remains stationary and drops its lower jaw nearly perpendicularly, thus 
revealing the glistening white interior of the capacious mouth. This, it is alleged, 
serves to attract the various animals upon which the creature feeds, and when 
a sufficient number have entered the trap, the lower jaw is suddenly closed. 
Although the suggestion is ingenious, it is one that scarcely admits either of proof 
or disproof. 


Food. 


28 CETACEANS. 


Products and The sperm-oil yielded by the thick layer of blubber investing the 
Hunting. body, and the spermaceti contained in the cavity of the head, are the 
two products for which the sperm-whale is hunted; and since the former fetches a 
far higher price than ordinary whale-oil, this animal is one of the most valuable 
of all the Cetaceans. The spermaceti exists in the form of oil in the living animal, 
and is ladled out in buckets from the skull when the carcase is cut up. The 
spermaceti of commerce is produced by a process of refining. The use of this 
enormous mass of oil in the skull does not appear to be ascertained. 

In addition to sperm-oil and spermaceti, the substance known as ambergris is 
also a product of the sperm-whale. It is not, however, usually taken from the 
animal, but is found floating in the sea, and has been ascertained to be formed in 
the intestines. This substance always contains a number of the beaks of the squids 
and cuttles upon which the whale has fed. Although formerly employed in 
medicine, it is now used exclusively in perfumery. 

In the old days of sperm-whale-hunting (of which alone we shall speak) the 
vessels engaged in the trade were from three hundred to four hundred tons burden, 
and were equipped for a three years’ voyage; their usual destination being the 
South Seas. They each had a crew of from twenty-eight to thirty-three officers 
and men, and carried six whale-boats. These boats were about twenty-seven feet 
in length, with a beam of four feet, and were built sharp at both ends. Four boats 
took part in the chase, each being furnished with a pair of two hundred fathom 
harpoon-lines, and carrying a crew of six men. The crew comprised a boat-steerer 
in the bow, four hands, and the headsman in the stern. It was the business of the 
boat-steerer to harpoon the whale, and when this was accomplished he changed 
places with the headsman, whose duty it was to kill the animal with the lances. 
When a whale was harpooned, immediately after its first struggles, and when it 
was lying exhausted from its endeavours to escape, the boat was pulled close 
alongside, and the headsman began the work of destruction by thrusting his lance 
into the vital parts behind the flipper. As soon as the whale was lanced, the boat 
was backed with all possible speed. When first struck the whale frequently 
“sounded,” or descended to immense depths, sometimes taking out nearly the 
whole of the eight hundred fathoms of line carried by the four boats. Subse- 
quently, however, when weakened by loss of blood, it kept on or near the surface, 
towing after it one or more of the boats. By hauling in the line, the boat or 
boats were once more pulled up alongside, and the monster finally destroyed either 
by darting or thrusting the lances. 

Whaling, as thus carried out, was full of danger, and there are hundreds of 
accounts of hairbreadth escapes from death, and of feats of daring. In the 
southern seas Maories were not unfrequently shipped by British whalers as 
harpooners, and the following narrative of the daring of one of these men is 
related by Dr. A. 8. Thomson in his History of New Zealand. “One morning,” 
writes the narrator, “a lone whale was seen on the placid Pacific; the boat was 
pulled up to it, and the New Zealander, balancing himself on the gunwale, darted 
the harpoon at the creature and missed. After several hours’ chase, under a 
tropical sun, the whale was approached a second time, and the New Zealander 
darted two harpoons at him, but again missed. Then the bitterest disappointment 


TOOTHED WHALES. 29 


arose among the tired boat’s crew, which they expressed in curses deep and loud. 
These taunts maddened the Maori; and no sooner was the boat again pulled up to 
the whale than he bounded on the animal’s back, and for one dizzy second was 
seen there. The next, all was foam and fury, and both were out of sight. The 
men in the boat shoved off, flung over a line as fast as they could, while ahead 
nothing was seen but a red whirlpool of blood and brine. Presently a dark object 
swam out, the line began to straighten, then smoke round the loggerhead, and the 
boat sped like an arrow through the water. They were fast, and the whale was 
running. But where was the New Zealander? His brown head was on the boat’s 
gunwale, and he was hauled aboard in the very midst of the mad bubbles that 
burst under the bows.” 

When harpooned or lanced, females and young males generally make the most 
frantic efforts to escape; and being very active in their motions, give the most 
trouble to despatch. The larger whales, yielding eighty or more barrels of oil, 
being less active animals, are in most cases killed more easily. This is 
however, by no means always so; and there are many instances on record where 
large sperm-whales have turned with the utmost fury upon their pursuers, and 
destroyed every object that came in their way, either by blows from the enormous 
flukes, or by attacking with the head and lower jaw. There are, moreover, well- 
authenticated instances, not only of sperm-whales demolishing the boats of a 
whaling-ship, but actually attacking and sinking the vessel itself; and Captain 
Scammon thinks it probable that many ships which have perished without leaving 
any clue as to their fate, have been wrecked by these whales. In 1820 the Lssex 
was destroyed in the South Pacific by an infuriated cachalot, which made two 
deliberate charges at the vessel, the first of which produced a considerable leak, 
while the second stove in the bows. Again, in 1851, the Ann Alexander was sunk 
in a similar manner off the Peruvian coast. Whether the ship Union, which was 
wrecked in 1807 by striking a sperm-whale in the night, was actually attacked 
by the animal, or whether this was a case of accidental collision, can never be 
ascertained. As an instance of the ferocity of these whales, it may be mentioned 
that in 1851, when the ship Citizen was whaling in the Atlantic, a wounded 
cachalot, after attacking and demolishing one boat, made for a second, from which 
it was only diverted by its attention being transferred to a third. This third boat 
only escaped with difficulty, and the whale thereupon headed straight for the 
vessel itself, which was then approaching under full sail. By putting the head 
before the wind, the rush of the whale was, however, avoided; and before the 
animal could gather itself for a second charge, it was seized with its death-throes 
and expired. In another case a sperm-whale, not content with having smashed a 
whale-boat, actually seized the timbers in its jaws and chewed them into match-wood. 

Extinct Sperm-whales, belonging mostly to extinct genera, were abundant 
Sperm-Whales. in the Pliocene period, their remains occurring in the crag deposits of 
England and Belgium, and likewise in Australia. Some of these forms (Lucetus) 
were of large size, and appear to have been allied to the living species; but others 
(Scaldicetus) were distinguished by having the summits of the teeth surmounted 
with a cap of grooved enamel. <A third type is considered to be closely allied to 
the whale described below. 


30 CETACEANS. 


LESSER SPERM- WHALE. 
Genus Cogua. 


The lesser sperm-whale (Cogia breviceps) is a little-known species, differmg 
‘widely both in size and form ‘from the sperm-whale; and more resembling a 
porpoise in both these respects. It agrees, however, with the sperm-whale in having 
no functional teeth in the upper jaw and a full series in the lower. The rudimentary 
upper teeth are reduced to a single pair, or may be wanting; and there are only from 
nine to twelve pairs of teeth in the lower jaw. These teeth, which are rather long 
and slender, with curved 
summits, differ from 
those of the sperm- 
whale in having a coat- 
ing of enamel; and the 
two branches of the 
lower jaw are united for 
less than half their 
length. The upper sur- 
face of the hinder part 
of the skull is hollowed, 
with a thick elevated 
rim behind and at the 
base; and the rostral 


Ws = SK y O Ow AW WH: s = o 
THE WATER-WORN SKULL, WITHOUT THE L cs JAW, OF A WHALE portion of the skull is 
ALLIED TO THE BOTTLENOSE. 


(From Sir W. H. Flower, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1882.) shorter and more 

rapidly tapering than in 

the larger species. This whale attains a length of about 10 feet: and, as already 

said, is not unlike a porpoise in general appearance. The head is about one-sixth 

the total length, and has a bluntly-pointed muzzle, with the small mouth opening 

on the under surface, far behind the extremity. The back carries a large fin. The 
colour of this species is glistening black above, becoming paler beneath. 

The lesser sperm-whale is known only from a comparatively small number of 
individuals obtained from such widely-separated areas as the Indian and Australian 
seas, the Cape of Good Hope, and the North Pacific; and we may accordingly 
assume that it has probably an almost cosmopolitan distribution. Nothing has at 
present been ascertained in regard to its habits. 


THE BOTTLENOSE- WHALE. 
Genus Hyperoddon. 


The bottlenose-whale (Hyperoddon rostratus), which is one of the most 
common Cetaceans stranded on the British shores, is the first representative 
of a group of four allied genera distinguished from the sperm-whales by the 
functional teeth being reduced to a single pair, or in one case two pairs; these 


TOOTHED WHALES. 31 


Id 


teeth, more especially in the males, sometimes attaining very large dimensions. 
The muzzle is produced into a longer or shorter beak or rostrum, behind which there 
is a marked and sudden elevation caused by the presence of a fatty cushion on the 
top of the head in front of the blowhole; the latter having a crescent-like form, 
and being situated in the middle line. With the exception of one species, the 
whales of this group are characterised by the (premaxillary) bones situated in the 
skull behind the opening of the nostrils being raised into a pair of crests over- 
hanging the latter; these two crests, as shown in the accompanying figure, being 
unsymmetrically disposed, and one larger than the other. All the members 
of the group agree in having a curved back-fin, placed considerably behind the 
middle of the body; and they also display the common feature of possessing 
flutings in the skin of the throat, which are close together in front and diverge as 
they pass backwards. 
2A Like the sperm-whales, the members of this group are inhabitants 
of the open sea, and feed almost entirely upon squids and cuttles. 

Except the bottlenose, most of them are known mainly by stranded specimens ; and 
when any of these whales approach the shore, they seem to have no idea of saving 
themselves, but are almost invariably stranded. In this respect they resemble the 
sperin-whales ; and it would thus seem that whales accustomed to live in the open 
seas and to seek their food at considerable depths, become confused and help- 
less when they reach the neighbourhood of a coast. Most of them go about 
in pairs or alone; but the bottlenose frequently associates in schools of 
considerable size. 

Characters of The bottlenose derives its name from the elevation of the upper 

Bottlenose. surface of the head above the rather short beak and in front of the 
blowhole into a rounded abrupt prominence. The lower jaw has merely a pair of 
small conical teeth at the extremity, which in the living state are totally concealed 
by the gum. In the skull the crests behind the aperture of the nostrils are greatly 
developed ; and in addition to these there are a pair of longitudinal bony crests lying 
on either side of the base of the beak, which in old males becomes of great size, 
with their front surfaces broad and flat. This excessive development of the crests 
in the adult males produces a great difference in the appearance of the two sexes 
when adult; the females (like the young) having the beak distinctly projecting, 
whereas in the males it is almost buried beneath the elevated and flattened surface 
of the upper part of the head, which has a disc-like form when seen from in front. 
The flukes are not notched. In length the male bottlenose may reach as much as 
30 feet, but the female does not exceed 24 feet. The young individuals are black 
above, but with advancing age they gradually pass to a light brown tint; the 
under-parts being greyish white. Very old individuals turn almost yellow, with a 
white band round the neck, and the front of the head and beak also white. 


Distribution and The bottlenose is a migratory species, confined to the North 
Habits. Atlantic. During the summer it ranges as far northwards as Spitz- 


bergen, but how far southward it travels in winter is not yet ascertained. In the 
early autumn some specimens are usually stranded on the coasts of Britain, and 
the countries bordering the British Channel and North Sea; but none are recorded 
from the shores of Spain, Western France, or the Mediterranean countries. The 


32 CETACEANS. 


majority of such specimens, according to Sir W. H. Flower, are solitary and gener- 
ally young individuals, although occasionally an adult female with her offspring is 
taken. The best account of the habits of the bottlenose is given by Captain D. Gray, 
of which the following is a summary. In the early spring these whales are to be met 
with occasionally after leaving the Shetland Islands, and thence northward to the 
borders of the polar ice, where they are more numerous. They also frequent the seas 
around Iceland, Greenland as far north as latitude 77°, Western Spitzbergen, and 
Davis Strait, and it is highly probable that they may range as far as Novaia 
Zemlia. Although they do not venture in among the ice itself, they frequent the 
open bays along its margin for the shelter thus afforded from the open sea. They 


BOTTLENOSE-WHALE. 


are generally to be found in herds comprising from four to ten individuals; but 
many different herds may be in sight at the same time. The adult males are 
frequently solitary; but sometimes one of them may be seen leading a herd. 
These whales exhibit little fear of ships, swimming around them, and beneath the 
boats, till their curiosity is satisfied. The herd remain around a wounded com- 
panion till its death, upon which they immediately desert. If, however, a second 
individual be harpooned before the death of the one first struck, and this process 
continued, a whole herd may be killed at once. They exhibit great endurance of 
wounds and tenacity of life, old males taking out from three hundred to four 
hundred, and occasionally as much as seven hundred, fathoms of line. Captain Gray 
describes their activity as very great, stating that they are able to leap out of the 
water many feet high in the air, and while so doing have time to turn their heads 


LOOLAED WITAILES. 33 


to look about them. When descending, they re-enter the water head first, instead 
of falling helplessly on their sides like the larger whales. Their ordinary food, 
according to the same observer, consists of a bluish white cuttle-fish, 6 inches long 
and 3 inches in circumference, and pointed towards the tail. The stomachs of 
those whales that were examined contained nothing but remains of these cuttles. 
In their search after food it appears that the bottlenose-whales descend to great 
depths, as they remain under water for a long period, and blow very heavily 
upon reaching the surface. When wounded, they will sometimes remain below 
for as much as two hours at a time, after which they will come up apparently 
untired. 

The bottlenose yields spermaceti, and an oil very similar to 
sperm-oil and capable of being used for the same purposes. An adult 
male will produce about two hundred weight of spermaceti and two tons of oil. 
The protuberance on the front of the head of the female contains a small quantity 
of colourless oil which is twice the density of that obtained from the blubber ; 
while in the male the same region is composed of solid fat. 

A fossil bottlenose-whale, apparently closely allied to the living species, has 
left its remains in the Pliocene crag deposits of the eastern coast of England. 

The rare Cetacean, known as Cuvier’s whale (Ziphius cavirostris), 
differs from the bottlenose in having a pair of well-developed conical 
teeth at the extremity of the lower jaw, which are directed forwards and upwards. 
In the skull there are but slight indications of the longitudinal bony crests of the 
bottlenose ; while the beak is longer and much more solid in structure, owing to 
the ossification of certain cartilages and their fusion with the adjacent bones. 
When viewed from above, their beak is triangular in form, gradually tapering 
from its broad base to its narrow extremity. A further point of difference from 
the bottlenose is to be found in the circumstance that only the first three, instead 
of the whole seven, of the vertebra of the neck are united together. The colour 
is believed to be black above and white below. This whale appears to be known 
only from stranded specimens, which have been obtained from regions as remote 
from one another as the Shetland Islands, the Cape of Good Hope, Eastern South 
America, and New Zealand. Sir W. Turner appears, therefore, to be fully justified 
in his opinion that its distribution is as extensive as that of the sperm-whale. 


Products. 


Cuvier’s Whale. 


THe BEAKED WHALES. 
Genus Mesoplodon. 


The beaked whales derive their English name from the great development of 
the rostral portion of the skull, which is long and narrow, and formed of extremely 
solid and ivory-like bone; while they take their scientific title from the presence 
of a pair of teeth generally situated near the middle of each side of the lower jaw. 
Each of these two teeth is pointed and much flattened, sometimes being elongated 
into a strap-like form, so as to overhang the beak of the skull; their position is 
variable, but generally some distance behind the extremity of the jaw. The skull 
has the same curving crests over the aperture of the nostrils as in the bottlenose, 


VOL. I1I.—3 


34 CETACEANS. 


re) 


but has no sign of the longitudinal crests. Usually only the first two or three 
of the vertebre are united together. The massive rostrum of the skull is not 
unfrequently picked up on the shores of regions where these whales are common ; 
and similar rostra are among the commonest of Cetacean remains found in the 
Pliocene crag deposits of the Sussex and Essex coasts, thus indicating that beaked 
whales formerly abounded in the English seas. These rostra are, perhaps, the 
most solid bones found among the Vertebrates, their material being as dense as 
ivory. In some cases a row of minute functionless teeth are present in the upper 
jaw, and thus serve to show that the whales of this group are descended from 
ancestors possessing a full set of teeth in both the upper and lower jaws. In 
the Crag period seven species are recognisable; in these days the beaked whales 
are represented by at least two species; and they range over most seas, although 
they appear more common in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere. 
Nothing is known as to their habits. 

The best-known species of the genus is Sowerby’s whale (Jes- 


Sowerby’s Whale. i ‘ ‘ : 2 
oplodon bidens), of which, according to Sir W. Turner, eighteen 


SKULL OF SOWERBY’S WHALE. 


specimens have been taken between the years 1800 and 1889 in the North Atlantic 
and its inlets, ali but two of which occurred on the coasts of Europe. Seven of 
these were captured between 1880 and 1888; the one taken in 1885 having been 
stranded at the mouth of the Humber, and being the only known English 
example. The first specimen known to science was captured off the coast of Elgin 
in 1800. By its deseriber, after whom it is now named, it was then called the two- 
toothed eachalot, on account of the feature so well shown in our illustration. 

This. whale usually attains a length of about 15 feet, and its teeth are of 
comparatively small size, and sometimes only project slightly from the sides of 
the mouth when the jaws are closed. Above the nearly straight beak the head 
rises gently into a marked prominence in front of the blowhole, behind which 
is another prominence, with the level of its summit continued backwards into the 
line of the back. The opening of the ear is so small as to admit only of the 
passage of a fine bristle. In a specimen stranded in 1888 on the shores of the 
Firth of Forth the colour of the upper-parts was bluish slate, while that of the 


TOOTHED WHALES. 35 


o 


under-parts was a light slate. The body was also marked with a number of whitish 
spots, which were most numerous on the sides; these spots being in some places 
connected by narrow streaks. Other individuals are described as being nearly 
black above, while in others the tint becomes more decidedly blue. A specimen 
captured at New Jersey in 1889 measured 124 feet in length. 

Whether Sowerby’s whale ranges into the seas of the Southern Hemisphere 
is not definitely ascertained, although, as already mentioned, the genus is more 
abundantly represented there than to the north of the equator; and it is still a 
question whether many of the southern forms, to which separate names have been 
received, are entitled to rank as distinct species, or whether they should be 
regarded as merely varieties of the European one. 

Layard’s whale (JL. layardi), from the Cape of Good Hope and 
the seas of the other parts of the Southern Hemisphere, is, however 
undoubtedly a very well-marked species, characterised by the enormous develop- 
ment of the strap-like teeth, to which allusion has already been made. The late 
Prof. Moseley, in describing a skull of this species obtained at the Cape during the 
voyage of the Challenger, observes that “these two teeth in the adult animal 
become lengthened by continuous growth of the fangs into long curved tusks. 
These arch over the upper jaw or beak, and crossing one another above it at their 
tips, form a ring round it, and lock the lower jaw, so that the animal can only open 
its mouth for a very short distance indeed. The tusks are seen always to be worn 
away in front by the grating of the confined upper jaw against them. How the 
animal manages to feed itself under these conditions isa mystery. It is remarkable 
that the main mass of each tusk is made up of what appears to be an abnormal 
growth of the fang. The actual conical tooth, that is the original small cap of 
dentine [ivory] of the tooth of the young animal, which corresponds to the part of 
the teeth showing above the gum in other whales, does not increase at all in size, 
but is carried up by the growth of the fangs, and remains at the tips of the tusks 
as a sort of wart-like rudimentary excrescence.” That these enormous teeth can 
be of no possible advantage to their owner appears perfectly clear; and they must 
probably be regarded as affording an instance of semi-monstrous development 
analogous to the one displayed by the tusks of the babirusa. 

A specimen stranded at the Cape was said to be black above and white 
beneath, with the division between the two tints sharply defined. One measuring 
something over 16 feet in length yielded eighty gallons of oil of a superior 
quality. The species appears excessively rare; and the known examples have 


Layard’s Whale. 


been stranded. 

The last representative of this group is Arnux’s whale (Berardius 
arnuxi), from the New Zealand :seas, which attains a length of about 
30 feet. It differs from all the other forms in having two pairs of teeth near 
the front of the jaw; the first pair being placed close to the tip of the jaw 
and larger than the second pair. They are of moderate size, flattened from 
side to side, pointed at the tips, and inclined directly forwards. The skull lacks 
the high crests above the opening of the nostrils characteristic of the three 
preceding genera; and the long and narrow beak is less solidly ossified than in 


the beaked whales. 


Arnux’s Whale. 


36 CETACEANS. 


ANCESTRAL SPERM WHALES. 
Family PHYSODONTIDZ. 


Teeth of a whale from the Pliocene deposits of Europe, described under the 
name of Physodon, have been long known; but it is only recently that a specimen 


SKULL OF THE PHYSODON. 


from Patagonia has shown that teeth were present in both jaws. These whales 
seem, therefore, to represent a distinct family group, from which the existing forms 
have probably taken origin. 


THE FRESH-WATER DOLPHINS. 
Family PLATANISTIDA. 


Three species of Cetaceans, two of which are entirely confined to fresh-water, 
while the third is estuarine, differ so markedly from all other living members of the 
order as to constitute a family by themselves. They are all of relatively small size, 
and agree with the true dolphins in having a numerous series of small teeth in 
both jaws. They differ from them in that the two branches of the lower jaw are 
united by more than half their length; while the head is marked off from the 
body by a slightly constricted neck. They are also characterised by the ribs 
articulating with the vertebre in a manner very similar to that we have seen in 
ordinary mammals; and the whole of the vertebra of the neck remain separate 
from one another. 

In some respects these Cetaceans are less specialised than the other living 
representatives of the order, and are, therefore, probably more nearly allied to the 
ancestral stock. This leads Sir W. H. Flower to suggest that Cetaceans originated 
in fresh-water from land animals; but Mr. Blanford considers it more probable that 


FRESH-WATER DOLPHINS. 37 


the existing fresh-water dolphins may have been derived from a family which was 
originally widely distributed and marine, and that they have managed to survive 
solely by having taken to a fresh-water life. The isolated distribution of the three 
living species is somewhat in favour of the latter view. 
The Gangetic The Gangetic dolphin, or susu (Platanista gangetica) is the 
Dolphin. typical representative of the family, and inhabits the Indus, Ganges, 
and Bramaputra Rivers, with their larger tributaries, from the regions where they 
leave the mountains to the sea. It is characterised by its long and compressed 
beak, which is slightly enlarged at the extremity; by the back-fin being rudi- 
mentary and replaced by a low ridge; by the flippers being triangular and fan- 
shaped; by the eye being very minute and rudimentary; and by the blowhole 
forming a longitudinal slit. The conical and cylindrical teeth are rather large ; 
and while they are sharply pointed in the young, in the adult they become much 
worn down by use. ‘Towards the extremities of the jaws they are so closely placed 
as to be almost in contact with one another. The skull is characterised by the 
development of enormous crests at the root of the beak, which almost meet in the 
middle line above the latter. In the males the beak is much shorter than in the 
females; and there are generally about thirty teeth on each side of the jaws. The 
colour of the animal is blackish throughout. Females are larger than males; the 
usual length of adults varies from 7 to 8 feet, but a specimen from the Jumna is 
said to measure upwards of 12 feet. 

The Gangetic dolphin is perfectly blind; and, indeed, as Mr. 
Blanford observes, sight would be perfectly useless to it in the turbid 
waters of the Indus at all seasons, and in the Ganges and Bramaputra at most 
periods of the year. It is never seen out at sea; but appears to be to a certain 
extent migratory in the rivers, since none are observed in the Hughli at Calcutta 
during the hot season from March to June, although they are commonly visible in 
the cold months from October to March. That they also remain in the tidal waters 
of the river during the rainy season from June to October is proved by the cireum- 
stance that they are then frequently caught in fishing-nets, although the animals 
rarely show themselves above water. “This fact,’ writes Dr. Anderson, to whom 
we are indebted for a full account of the habits of this interesting Cetacean, “may 
be accounted for on the supposition that the strength of the current is so great when 
the Hughli is full that the dolphin is prevented from rising to the surface in the 
marked manner it does during the cold weather, when the current has slackened 
and there are comparatively quiet reaches in which it can disport. The disturbed 
state of the river when it is swollen doubtless renders the presence of the dolphin 
very difficult of detection, for at such times it will simply expose its blowhole—too 
restricted a surface to be noticed on the troubled waters. In the cold weather its 
presence can easily be detected, without its being seen, by the blowing sound it 
makes when it rises to breathe; but, during the rains, the rush of water effectually 
drowns this means of becoming aware of its existence.” This dolphin has been ob- 
tained one thousand miles above Calcutta; and its upward range appears to be only 
checked by the presence of rocky barriers and the diminishing depth of the water 
of the river, aided perhaps by the increasing lowness of the temperature of the latter. 

Although this Cetacean does not collect in herds, several individuals may often 


Habits. 


38 CETACEANS. 


be observed within a small area in the more placid reaches of the Indian rivers. 
Dr. Anderson writes that “it is difficult to say whether the Gangetic dolphin 
confines itself to limited areas when there is no disturbing cause at work, such as 
the rains, leading it to disperse itself over other channels and branches of the river, 
which are not accessible to it in the dry weather. In rising to breathe, the 
platanista may either simply expose the upper surface of its head, sufficiently to 
bring its blowhole above water, or, what is more common, plunge out of the water 
upwards, forwards, and downwards, first exhibiting its long snout, followed by 
two-thirds of its back. At such times it emits a short, blowing sound, which 
doubtless has given rise to the term [susu] generally applied to it along the Ganges 
and Bramaputra. During the cold months, in the quiet reaches, it even becomes 


THE GANGETIC DOLPHIN. 


at times extravagant in its movements, and will leap altogether out of the water 
with the tail curved downwards. As a rule, however, its respiratory visits to the 
surface are leisurely executed. J have had the rare opportunity of narrowly 
observing the respiratory movements of this dolphin from having had one alive for 
ten days in captivity. In its place of confinement this individual rose slowly to 
the surface, exposing the blowhole and a portion of its back. The blowhole opened 
whenever it reached the surface of the water, the characteristic expiratory sound 
was produced, and so rapid was inspiration that the blowhole seemed to close 
immediately after the expiratory act, and then the animal slowly subsided. The 
respirations were tolerably frequent, occurring at intervals of about one-half or 
three-quarters of a minute, and the whole act did not take more than a few seconds 
for its fulfilment.” 

The food of the Gangetic dolphin consists principally of fish and 


Food. : : . : 
prawns ; many of the fish consumed by it being mud-haunting species 


FRESI-WATER DOLPHINS. 39 


o 


belonging to the cat-fish group (Silwridw). These are doubtless captured by the 
dolphin probing for them in the mud with its long snout. The captive specimen 
above mentioned fed on the fish with which it was supplied only during the night, 
but careful observations made on these dolphins in their native state prove that 
they feed by day as well as by night. Sometimes they may be seen among the 
shipping in the Hughli at Calcutta, in search of their favourite prawns during the 
daytime. The grain which is sometimes found in the stomachs of these animals 
appears to be swallowed unintentionally. 

The young are born from April to July, and it is but very rarely 
that there is more than one at a birth. The period of gestation is 
believed to be from eight to nine months. It is said that the young will hold on 
by its mouth to the base of one of the flippers of its parent ; but such a remarkable 
habit requires confirmation. 

The Amazonian The fresh-water dolphin of the Amazons (Inia geoffroyensis) 
Dolphin. more resembles a porpoise in general appearance than the last species. 
The long cylindrical beak, which carries from twenty-six to thirty-three teeth 
on each side of the jaws, is peculiar in being furnished with a number of sparsely 
distributed bristle-like hairs. The teeth are characterised by having a distinct 
tubercle on the inner side of the base of their crowns; and the back-fin is repre- 
sented merely by a low ridge. The males attain a length of about 7 feet, while 
the females are little more than half the size. In general, the upper-parts are 
blackish, and the under-parts reddish; but individuals are found which are either 
entirely blackish or wholly reddish. The eye is well developed; and the flippers 
have not the fan-like shape characterising those of the Gangetic dolphin. In the 
skeleton, the breast-bone is short and broad, and composed only of a single piece ; 
while the horizontal transverse processes of the vertebrae of the hinder portion of 
the trunk are remarkable for their great width. 
Distribution. The inia, or bouto, as the animal is called in various parts of 
and Habits. South America, is entirely fluviatile, and inhabits the upper portions 
of the Amazons and its affluents; ranging over the area of country included 
between the 10th and 17th parallels of south latitude. In addition to the bouto, 
there are the other species of dolphins, belonging to the family Delphinide, found 
in certain parts of the Amazons. One of these, called the tucuxi (a species of the 
genus Sotalia), when it comes to the surface to breathe rises, according to Bates, 
horizontally, showing first its long, low back-fin. It then draws an inspiration, 
and finally dives gently, head-foremost, down. On the other hand, when the bouto 
rises, “the top of the head is the part first seen; it then blows, and immediately 
afterwards dips head downwards, its back curving over, exposing successively the 
whole dorsal ridge. It thus seems to pitch heels-over-head, but does not show the 
tail-fin. Besides this peculiar motion [which seems to be very similar to that of 
the Gangetic dolphin], it is distinguished from the tucuxi by its habit of generally 
going in pairs. Both species are exceedingly numerous throughout the Amazon 
and its larger tributaries, but they are nowhere more plentiful than in the shoaly 
water at the mouth of the Tocantins, especially in the dry season. In the upper 
Amazon, a third pale flesh-coloured species is also abundant. In the broader 


Young. 


1 Sotalia pallida, p. 62. 


40 CETACEANS. 


parts of the Amazon, from its mouth to a distance of fifteen hundred miles in the 
interior, one or other of the three kinds here mentioned are always heard rolling, 
blowing, and snorting, especially at night, and these impressions contribute much 
to the impression of sea-wide vastness and desolation which haunts the traveller.” 

As the native inhabitants of Amazonia have a great objection to kill the 
fresh-water dolphins, specimens are only procured with difficulty. 


THE AMAZONIAN DOLPHIN (7; nat. size). 


The La Plata The small La Plata dolphin (Stenodelphis blainvillei), from the 
Dolphin. = estuary of the Rio de la Plata, differs from the preceding forms in the 
presence of a well-marked back-fin and the extreme elongation of the jaws, which 
carry from fifty to sixty teeth on each side. The blowhole, instead of forming a 
longitudinal slit, is crescent-shaped and placed transversely. In the skeleton the 
breastbone is long and composed of two distinct pieces. This species does not 
attain a greater length than 5 feet,and in some respects serves to connect the other 
members of the family with those of the one following. 
Allied Extinct The remains of a number of extinct dolphins have been discovered 
Dolphins. in the Tertiary deposits of various parts of the world, which appear 
more or less closely related to the existing members of this family. Among these, 
two species from Argentina, respectively named Pontistes and Sawrodelphis, 
approach the living Stenodelphis ; while a third (Argyrodelphis) from Patagonia 
is noteworthy from having the nasal bones well developed and roofing over the 
hinder part of the nasal cavity in the manner characteristic of whalebone whales. 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 4I 


More remarkable, however, is the occurrence of another nearly-allied form 
(Zniopsis) in the Tertiary of the Caucasus, which serves to confirm the view that 
the Platanistidw were a very ancient and widely-distributed family. Numerous 
other extinct dolphins, some of which approach those of the next family, have been 
described from North America and Europe, and referred to the present group. 


THE PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 
Family DELPHINID. 


The whole of the remaining members of the existing Cetacea, including those 
commonly known as narwhals, porpoises, grampuses, and dolphins, are referred to 
a single family, which contains a far greater number of species than any of the 
others. All the members of this family are of small or medium size, and, with the 
exception of the narwhal and Risso’s dolphin, are furnished with a numerous series 
of teeth in both the upper and lower jaws, the jaws themselves being either 


SKELETON OF DOLPHIN. 


elongated or short. They are distinguished from the preceding family by the 
union between the two branches of the lower jaw being always considerably less 
than half the entire length of the jaw itself, and likewise by the manner in which 
the ribs are articulated to the backbone, as well as by certain features in the base 
of the skull. The vertebree of the neck are generally characterised by the first 
two, three, or four being united together. The blowhole is always in the form of a 
transversely-placed crescent, with its two horns directed forwards. 

The majority of the dolphins (as it is convenient to term 
collectively the whole of the members of the family) are of marine 
habits, but many of them frequent estuaries and ascend tidal rivers, while a few 
are more or less exclusively fresh-water. They have been divided into a considerable 
number of genera, but many of these are very closely allied, and mainly distinguished 
by differences in the skeleton. 


Habits. 


THE NARWHAL. 
Genus Monodon. 


The strange-looking animal commonly known as the narwhal (Monodon 
monoceros) differs from all other members of the family by the enormous spirally- 
twisted tusk projecting from one side of the upper jaw of the male. This tusk is 
nearly always that of the left side, its fellow on the opposite side being only a few 
inches in length, and lying entirely concealed within the bone of the jaw, while in 


42 CETACEANS 


the females both tusks remain in a similar rudimentary condition. The developed 
tusk of the male is composed solely of ivory, and its spiral twist always runs from 
left to right. In form it is cylindrical, and tapers more or less markedly from root 
to tip. Not unfrequently the tusk attains a length of from 7 to 8 feet, or more 
than half that of the entire animal. Very rarely narwhals are met with in which 
the right tusk is developed as well as the left, but there appears to be no known 
instance of the right tusk being developed while the left remains rudimentary ; and 
it is noteworthy that when the right tusk is developed it has the same left-to-right 


A SCHOOL OF NARWHALS (¥5 nat. size). 


twist as its fellow. <A fine narwhal’s skull with two tusks is preserved in the 
Cambridge Museum. Apart from a few small rudimentary ones, which are 
irregular in their occurrence, the male narwhal has no teeth except the tusk, 
while the female—save for similar rudiments—is toothless. 

Although the presence of the tusk in the male narwhal, and the practically 
toothless condition of the female, are alone sufficient to distinguish the genus from 
all other dolphins, it is necessary to say something further regarding the form and 
structure of this singular animal. In the first place, the narwhal belongs to a group 
of dolphins characterised by their blunt and rounded heads, in which the muzzle 
shows no sign of being produced into a beak. A special character of the animal is 
to be found in the absence of a back-fin, which is represented merely by a low and 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 43 


ill-defined ridge. The flippers are short, wide, and rounded. In colour the narwhal 
is dark grey or dusky above and white beneath, the back and sides being irregularly 
mottled with various shades of grey. The entire length may vary from 12 to about 
16 feet. A tusk measuring 8 feet in length had a basal girth of 7} inches. 

The narwhal resembles the Greenland whale in being an inhabit- 
ant of the icy polar seas, and like that species is cireumpolar in its 
distribution ; it is, however, apparently local in its range, being, according to 
Captain Scammon, but rarely found in the seas accessible to the whalers who pass 
through the Behring Strait. Although seldom occurring to the south of the 65th 
parallel of north latitude, there are three instances (one in 1648, a second in 1800, 
and a third eight years later) of narwhals visiting the British coasts. From the 
extreme rarity of such occurrences, there is, however, no dcubt that the individuals 
in question had been carried by currents out of their proper habitat. From constant 
- persecution, the numbers of the narwhal have been greatly reduced in the more 
accessible portions of its habitat; and according to Baron Noidenskidld, it is now 
never seen on the coasts of Novaia Zemlia. It is, however, more common at 
Hope Island, and large herds are reported from the seas between Spitzbergen and 
Novaia Zemlia. It is noteworthy that fossil remains of the narwhal have been 
found in the so-called forest-bed of the Norfolk coast,—a deposit laid down before 
the great cold of the glacial period, but when the temperature may have been 
steadily lowering, whereby Arctic animals were enabled to leave their more 
northerly haunts. 


Distribution. 


Of the habits of narwhals, unfortunately very little is known. 
They are generally found in small schools, comprising from fifteen to 
twenty individuals; and were described long ago by Scoresby as being extremely 
playful in their disposition. Much has been written as to the use of the characteristic 
tusk, but nothing very definite has yet been ascertained with regard to it. That it 
is not employed for the purpose of procuring food, is perfectly evident from the 
fact of its absence in the female. A more probable suggestion is that it is used by 
the males in combats among themselves for the possession of the females ; in which 
case it should be regarded as a sexual appendage, analogous to the antlers of the 
deer. The food of the animal is stated to be mainly composed of cuttles and 
various crustaceans, together with small fishes. As a rule, but a single young is 
produced at a birth, but an instance of twins is on record. 

The narwhal is valued both for its ivory and its oil; the latter 
being of superior quality to ordinary whale-oil. The ivory of the 
tusk is very dense in structure, and of a pure creamy-white colour; but since the 
tusk is hollow throughout the greater part of its length, its value is much less than 
it would be otherwise. The price of narwhal tusks, although very variable is, 


however, considerable. 


Habits. 


Products. 


THE WHITE WHALE. 
Genus Delphinapterus. 


Nearly allied to the narwhal is the white whale, or beluga (Delphinapterus 
lewcas), which is likewise an Arctic species. It resembles the narwhal in having 


44 CETACEANS. 


the back-fin represented merely by a low ridge; and it also agrees with that 
animal, and thereby differs from the other members of the family, in having all the 
vertebre of the neck separate. The flippers are short, very broad across the 
middle, and bluntly pointed; and the short and rounded head is separated from 
the body by a slight constriction indicating the neck. The teeth are usually nine 
or ten in number on each side of the jaws; but vary in size, and are often irreg- 
ularly and obliquely implanted. The white whale attains a length of 16 or 16} 
feet. In colour the young are light greyish brown; but the skin of the adult is a 


THE WHITE WHALE (+ nat. size). 


pure glistening white. Baron Nordenskiéld says that the adult animal is 
singularly beautiful, the glistening white hide scarcely even showing a spot, 
scratch, or wrinkle. 

The white whale ranges as far northward as latitude 81° 35’, 
while it occasionally straggles as far southward as Cape Cod, in 
Massachusetts, and the Scottish coasts. It occurs in large herds on the coasts of 
Spitzbergen and Novaia Zemlia, and es>ecially frequents the neighbourhood of the 
mouths of rivers, up which it will ascend for considerable distances. Five instances 
of the occurrence of this species on the coasts of Scotland have been recorded; the 
last of these being in the summer of 1879, when a specimen was found near 
Dunrobin, Sutherlandshire, at ebb-tide, with its flukes caught between two short 


Distribution. 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 45 


posts, to which a net was fastened. Near by lay a salmon, which the white 
whale was supposed to have been pursuing when it was caught in this manner. 

In regard to its habits, Captain Scammon writes that, like most 
of the other members of the family, the white whale “is fond of 
gathering in troops, yet we have observed that it generally advances in lines of 
seldom more than two or three abreast, or more frequently in single file ; spouting 
irregularly, and showing little of its form above water. When undulating along 
in this manner, it often makes a noise at the moment of coming to the surface to 
respire, which may be likened to the faint lowing of an ox, but the strain is not so 
prolonged. Sometimes these animals will gambol about vessels as porpoises do; 
but at the slightest noise upon the water, or at the discharge of firearms, they 
instantly disappear.” This species is fairly rapid in its motions, more especially in 
pursuit of the fish which constitute its chief food. When pursuing fish like 
halibut and flounders, the beluga frequently enters shoal-water, in which it can 
scarcely float; but in such situations it is said to exhibit no alarm, and to make 
but slight efforts to reach deeper waters. In addition to fish, the white whale also 
consumes cuttles and various crustaceans. 

In captivity the beluga is easily tamed, and exhibits considerable docility. A 
specimen was shown alive at the Westminster Aquarium in 1877, and another in 
1878; but neither lived long. 

The white whale is killed for its blubber, flesh, and hide; a 
specimen measuring 164 feet in length, yielded one hundred gallons 
of oil. To give some idea of the commercial importance of this animal, it may be 
mentioned that in 1871 the Tromsoe whalers captured no less than 2167 individuals, 
each of which was worth about £3; the catch that year appears, however, to have 
been considerably above the average. The Greenlanders dry the flesh for winter 
use, and in parts of Siberia the Eskimo dogs are mainly fed on this meat. The fat 
is considered a luxurious dish in winter. In Russia, white whale skin is used for 
reins and traces; and it is now imported in some quantities into England under the 
name of porpoise-hide. In some of the Siberian rivers, white whale are harpooned 
and lanced in the ordinary manner; but in other districts they are taken in nets 
from June to September. 


Habits. 


Products. 


PORPOISES. 
Genus Phocena. 


The common porpoise (Phocena communis), of the European seas, is the best- 
known representative of a genus readily distinguished from all the others by the 
characters of the teeth. These are from sixteen to twenty-six in number on each 
side of the jaws, and are very small, with flattened spade-like crowns separated from 
the roots by a distinct neck ; sometimes the upper border of the crown is entire, but 
in other cases it is divided into two or three distinct lobes. In size, porpoises are small; 
and the head has a rounded muzzle, without a beak. There is generally a fin on the 
back, although this is wanting in one species. The skull has a very broad palate, 
and the union between the two branches of the lower jaw is very short. There are 


46 CETACEANS. 


frequently one or more rows of horny tubercles on the front edge of the back-fin, 
or of the ridge which takes its place. 

Common The common porpoise is by far the best-known of all the Cetaceans 

Porpoise. frequenting the british coasts, generally keeping near the shores, and 
often ascending the larger rivers to considerable distances. It is characterised by 
having twenty-five to twenty-six teeth on each side of the jaws, by the sloping head, 
the equality in the length of the upper and lower jaws, and by the length of the 
mouth exceeding half that of the flipper. There is a large fin on the back, which is 
triangular in shape, and situated somewhat in advance of the middle of the total 


THE COMMON PORPOISE (75 nat. size). 


length of the animal. In length, the common porpoise measures about 5 feet, or 
rather more. The colour of the upper-parts is dark slate, or blackish, while the 
sides become gradually lighter till the colour fades into the pure white of the under- 
parts. In some cases there is a yellowish or pinkish tinge on the flukes. 

The distribution of this species is extensive, comprising the North 
Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, the North Sea, and the coasts of 
Europe. In Davis Strait it extends as far northwards as latitude 67° or 69°, and 
it also occurs on the Alaskan coasts; while southwards it extends in America to the 
shores of New Jersey and Mexico. In the Mediterranean it is comparatively rare. 

Porpoises associate in shoals or herds of considerable size; and 
their sportive gambols are probably familiar to most of our readers. 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 47 


Few sights are, indeed, more interesting than to watch a shoal of these animals 
diving and sporting round a vessel, whether it be making rapid headway, or lying 
at anchor. At one moment will be seen the roll of the arched back, surmounted 
by the fin, as the porpoise swims along in a series of gentle curves; while at another 
the white belly will flash in the sunlight as the creature turns on its side, or leaps 
completely out of the water. In the ordinary undulating mode of swimming, the 


. . . . . . . = 
porpoise just brings its blowhole to the surface, breathes without checking its course, 


POQRPOISE DIVING. 


and then dips downwards, to expose the back-fin in the manner represented in our 
second illustration; this elegant motion being continued without intermission. 
Throughout its course, the flukes are the propelling instrument; the flippers being 
laid close against the sides during the onward movement, and only spread out to 
check its speed when the animal desires to stop. The food of the porpoise appar- 
ently consists exclusively of fish; mackerel, pilchards, and herrings, being its 
especial favourites, although it also consumes salmon. On the British coasts 
porpoises may frequently be seen in pursuit of shoals of mackerel and herrings, 
and when thus engaged are often caught in the nets set for the latter. The pairing- 
season is said to be in the summer, and it is believed that the single offspring is 


48 CETACEANS. 


produced after a period of six months’ gestation. Three porpoises which were 
enclosed by a fence in the Wareham River in Dorsetshire, many years ago, are 
reported to have incessantly uttered the most distressing cries, which were continued 
by night as well as by day. 

Porpoise- Formerly porpoises were esteemed in England for their flesh, 

Hunting. but they are now taken mainly for their oil, although the skin is also 
sometimes used. The leather commonly known as porpoise-hide is, however, as we 
have already had occasion to mention, generally made from the skin of the white 
whale. On parts of the coast of North America, porpoise-shooting is regularly 
practised by the Indians; and this pursuit affords to the Passamaquody tribe their 
chief means of support. The average yield of oil will be about three gallons, and 
in a good season an Indian may kill from one hundred to one hundred and fifty 
porpoises. “To make a successful porpoise-hunter,’ writes Mr. C. C. Ward, 
“requires five or six years of constant practice. Boys, ten or twelve years of age, 
are taken out in the canoes by the men, and thus early trained in the pursuit of 
that which is to form their main support in after years. Porpoise-shooting is 
followed at all seasons and in all kinds of weather—in the summer sea, in the 
boisterous autumn gales, and in the dreadful icy seas of mid-winter. In a calm 
summer day, the porpoise can be heard blowing for a long distance. The Indians, 
guided by the sound long before they can see the game, paddle rapidly in the 
direction from which the sound comes, and rarely fail to secure the porpoise. They 
use long smooth-bored guns, loaded with a handful of powder, and a heavy charge 
of double-B shot. As soon as the porpoise is shot, they paddle rapidly up to him 
and kill him with a spear, to prevent his flopping about and upsetting the canoe 
after they have taken him aboard. The manner of taking a porpoise on board is 
to insert two fingers of the right hand into the blowhole, take hold of the pectoral 
fin with the left hand, and lift the creature up until at least one half of his length 
is above the gunwale of the canoe, and then drag him aboard. This is comparatively 
easy to accomplish in smooth water, but when the feat is performed in a heavy sea, 
one can hardly realise the skill and daring required. In rough weather, with a 
high sea running, the Indian is compelled to stand up in his canoe when he fires, 
otherwise he could not see his game. In such work as this, one would suppose that 
upsets would be unavoidable; but, strange to say, they seldom happen, and only 
under circumstances where the Indian’s skill or foresight is unavailing.” 

Although Mr. True believes that there are two other species of 
porpoise with back-fins inhabiting American waters, it will be 
unnecessary to allude further to them here; and we accordingly pass on to the 
Indian porpoise (P. phoceenoides). This species is readily distinguished by the 
absence of the back-fin, and the reduced number of the teeth, of which there are 
about eighteen on each side of the jaws. Of small size, it is less than 4 feet in 
length, and is of a uniform black colour. It inhabits the shores of the Indian 
Ocean, from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan; and has been taken in many of the 
tidal rivers of India, and in the Yang-tse-Kiang, at a distance of nearly one 
thousand miles from its mouth. 

The following account of the habits of this species is given by 
Mr. F. W. Sinclair, who states that it “frequents the tidal creeks, 


Indian Porpoise. 


Habits. 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 49 


not ascending very far, and the sounds among the reefs and islands. It feeds 
chiefly on prawns, also on small cephalopods and fish. It does not appear to herd 
in schools, more than four or five, being rarely, if ever, seen together. Usually 
it is solitary; the pairs seem to consist of female and calf, more often than male 
and female. The young (one in number) are born, apparently, about October. The 
roll of this porpoise is like that of P. communis. It does not jump or turn somer- 
saults, and is, on the whole, a sluggish little porpoise.” It appears to be found 
only in shallow water. 


HEAVISIDE’S DOLPHIN. 
Genus Cephalorhynchus. 


Heaviside’s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus heavisidei), from the Cape of Good 
Hope, is the typical representative of a genus which, according to Mr. True, 
includes four species, all inhabiting the warmer seas of the Southern Hemisphere. 
These dolphins are of small size, and remarkable for their peculiar coloration. 


HEAVISIDE’S DOLPHIN. 
(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) 


The head is conical, without any distinct beak; and the teeth are small and sharp, 
varying in number from twenty-five to thirty-one on each side of the jaws. The 
back-fin is triangular or ovate; and, except in one species, the flippers have a 
characteristic elliptical form. The coloration is black above and white below; the 
white of the under-parts terminating posteriorly in a trident-shaped form, with the 
lateral prongs of the trident extending obliquely upwards on the sides. The total 
length of Heaviside’s dolphin is about 4 feet; the number of teeth being from 
twenty-five to thirty. The white-fronted dolphin (C. albifrons), from New 
Zealand, is a rather larger species, with thirty-one teeth on each side. Nothing 
seems to be recorded as to the habits of these species. 


THE ITRAWADI DOLPHIN. 
Genus Orcella. 


The upper waters of the Irawadi River are tenanted by a rather large dolphin 
or porpoise (Orcella fluminalis), which, together with a closely allied species, or 
variety (0. brevirostris), from the Bay of Bengal and its estuaries, as well as 
Singapore and Borneo, constitutes a distinct genus. These dolphins are characterised 
by their globe-like head, without beak, and their comparatively few and small 
teeth, which occupy nearly the whole length of the jaws, and number from thirteen 


VOL. I1l.—4 


50 CETACEANS. 
to seventeen in the upper, and from twelve to fifteen in the lower jaw. In 
form the teeth are conical and pointed, and they are set close together; those in the 
front of the jaws of old animals being directed outwards. The back-fin is small 
and hook-like, while the flippers are of moderate size, broad at the base, and 
subovate in form. These dolphins attain a length of from 7 to 74 feet, and are of 
a slaty or blackish colour. In the Irawadi dolphin the colour is pale slaty above 
and whitish below, with numerous irregular streaks on the sides; but in the one 
inhabiting the Bay of Bengal the colour is uniformly blackish without any streaks. 
The latter form, whether it be specifically distinct from the dolphin of the Irawadi, 
or merely a variety, appears never to ascend the rivers beyond the distance 
influenced by the tides, while the Irawadi dolphin never descends to the estuaries. 

The following account of the habits of the Irawadi dolphin is 
taken from Dr. J. Anderson, who writes that it “has much the 
character of its marine fellows, being generally seen in small schools, which 
frequently accompany the river steamers, careering in front and alongside of them, 
as is the custom of the dolphins of the sea. Occasionally, however, a solitary 
individual may be observed, but this is the exception, as two or three are usually 
associated together, hence this may be considered as a gregarious form. In the 
defile below Bhamo, where the river runs for ten miles over a deep bed forty 
to sixty fathoms in depth, and from two hundred to five hundred yards in width, 
and defined by high, wooded hills on either side, numerous troops of dolphins may 
be observed passing up and down, rising every minute or two to the surface to 
emit the short blowing sound, which ends in the more feeble one of inspiration, 
and all night through this sound may be heard. They never leave the deep water ; 
and when they rise to breathe (which they do in periods varying from sixty to 
one hundred and seventy seconds, although occasionally exceeded) the blowhole is 
first seen, then at the end of the inspiration the head disappears and the back 
comes into view, and is gradually exposed as far as the dorsal fin, but the tail- 
flippers are rarely visible. The act of breathing is rapid, so much so indeed 
that it requires a very expert marksman to take aim and fire before the animal 
disappears. I have observed some of them disporting themselves in a way that 
has never yet been recorded of Cetacea, as far as I am aware. They swam with a 
rolling motion near the surface, with their heads half out of the water, and every 
now and then fully exposed, when they ejected great volumes of water out of their 
mouths, generally straight before them, but sometimes nearly vertically ... On 
one occasion I noticed an individual standing upright in the water, so much so that 
one-half of its pectoral fins was exposed, producing the appearance against the 
background as if the animal was supported on its flippers. It suddenly disappeared, 
and again, a little in advance of its former position, it bobbed up in the same 
attitude, and this it frequently repeated. The Shan boatmen who were with me 
seemed to connect these curious movements with the season—spring—in which the 
dolphins breed.” The food of this dolphin apparently consists exclusively of fish. 
Dr. Anderson adds that “the fishermen believe that the dolphin purposely draws 
fish to their nets, and each fishing-village has its particular guardian dolphin, 
which receives a name common to all fellows of his school; and it is this superstition 
which makes it so difficult to obtain specimens of this Cetacean.” 


Habits. 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 51 


THE KILLER, OR GRAMPUS. 
Genus Orca. 


One of the largest, and at the same time the most ferocious, of all the dolphin 
family is the killer, or killer whale, frequently also known as the grampus 
(Orca gladiator). It is characterised as a genus by its large size, and the conical 
and depressed head, devoid of a beak. The back-fin is of great length, especially 
in the males; and the flippers are large and 
broadly ovate. The teeth (as shown in our 
figure) are comparatively few in number, varying 
from ten to thirteen on each side of the jaws, 
and are much larger than in any dolphins yet 
noticed, being often an inch or more in diameter, 
and having an oval-section. The coloration is 
striking, the upper-parts and fins being black, THE FIRST SIX UPPER TEETH OF THE KILLER. 
while the lower jaw, chest, and under-parts are (From Sir W. H. Flower.) 
whitish. The white area of the under-parts does 
not, however, extend to the flukes, but ends posteriorly in a trident, of which the 
lateral and shorter prongs extend obliquely upwards on the flanks. There is a 
large white streak above and behind the eye; and frequently at least a purple 
crescentic area extends across the back behind the fin. The killer attains a length 
of at least 20 feet. 


In spite of many nominal species having been recognised, there 
can be little doubt that the killer has a cosmopolitan distribution ; 
ranging from Greenland in the north to the coasts of Australia in the south. 
Although chiefly keeping to the open sea, killers occasionally ascend tidal rivers: 
and three specimens were observed in the Thames in the spring of 1890. These 
individuals entered the river during the night, and on the following morning were 
seen swimming up and down the reach between Battersea and Chelsea Bridges. 
After continuing there for several hours, they at length headed for the sea, which 
they probably reached, as there is no record of their having been attacked. 

When at sea, killers may always be recognised by their tall and 
nearly vertical back-fin. They generally associate in small parties: 
and subsist not only on fish, but likewise on the flesh of other members of their 
own order, as well as on that of seals. Captain Scammon writes that “ the killers 
exhibit a boldness and cunning peculiar to their carnivorous propensities. At 
times they are seen in schools, undulating over the waves,—two, three, six, or eight 
abreast,—and, with the long, pointed fins above their arched backs, together with 
their varied marks and colours, they present a pleasing and somewhat military 
alternately 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


aspect. But generally they go in small squads,—less than a dozen, 
showing themselves above the surface of the water, or gliding just below, when 
nothing will be visible but their projecting dorsals; or they disport themselves by 
rolling, tumbling, and leaping nearly out of the water, or cutting various antics 
with their flukes. At such times, they usually move rapidly over the surface of 
the sea, and soon disappear in the distance.” It appears that at times both the 


52 CETACEANS. 


long-finned males and the shorter-finned females may be found in the same school, 
while at other times the two sexes keep apart. The swiftness of the killer is very 
great, as it is able to overtake the smaller dolphins, which it swallows alive. Its 
voracity is apparently insatiable; Eschricht stating that one of these animals was 
known to swallow four porpoises in succession, while from the stomach of another 
individual, whose length did not exceed 16 feet, were taken fourteen seals. 
Whales attacked Like the other larger members of the order, the Greenland whale 
by Killers. ig sometimes attacked by a party of killers. Writing on the subject 
of these attacks Captain Scammon says that “three or four of these voracious 
animals do not hesitate to grapple with the largest baleen-whale ; and it is surprising 
to see those leviathans of the deep so completely paralysed by the presence of 
their natural, although diminutive enemies. Frequently the terrified animal— 
comparatively of enormous size and superior strength—evinces no effort to escape, 
but lies in a helpless condition, or makes but little resistance to the assaults of 
its merciless destroyers. The attack of these wolves of the ocean upon their 


THE KILLER. 
(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) 


gigantic prey may be likened in some respects to a pack of hounds holding a 
stricken deer at bay. They cluster about the animal’s head, some of their 
number breaching over it, while others seize it by the lips and draw the bleeding 
monster under water; and when captured, should the mouth be open, they eat out 
its tongue. We once saw an attack made by three killers upon a cow whale and 
her calf, in a lagoon on the coast of California in the spring of 1858. The whale 
was of the California grey species, and her young was grown to three times the 
bulk of the largest killers engaged in the contest, which lasted for an hour or 
more. They made alternate assaults upon the old whale and her offspring, finally 
killing the latter, which sank to the bottom, where the water was five fathoms 
deep. During the struggle the mother became nearly exhausted, having received 
several deep wounds about the mouth and lips. As soon as their prize had settled 
to the bottom, the three killers descended, bringing up large pieces of flesh in their 
mouths, which they devoured after coming to the surface. While gorging themselves 
in this wise, the old whale made her escape, leaving a track of gory water behind.” 

On the 9th of September 1893, when off the coast of Minas Geraes, Brazil, at 
no great distance from the islands of Los Abrolhos, in long. 39° W., lat. 18° 8., the 
attention of the present writer was attracted by the appearance of a whale and 
some other creatures at a distance of apparently something less than a quarter of 


PORPOTSES AND DOLPHINS. 53 


a mile from the ship. The whale was a finner, or humpback, of no very great size, 
and was seen spouting, and again descending. Immediately after its first descent 
there appeared above the surface of the sea what seemed to be the tail-fin of some 
animal unknown. This supposed fin was raised in a vertical position, where it 
remained vibrating for some seconds and then suddenly disappeared. In colour 
it was a pure glistening white; while in form it appeared to be laterally com- 
pressed, with sharp edges and an acute termination. It gave the impression of 
belonging to some animal which was engaged in attacking the whale beneath the 
surface ; and I should estimate its height above the water approximately at 5 or 6 
feet. Soon after the disappearance of this strange white object, the broad black 
head of what I presume to have been a killer was seen above the water; and in a 
few seconds the whale itself again rose to spout. That these black animals, which 
appeared to be harrassing and attacking the whale, were killers, I have no reason- 
able doubt; but the question arises as to the nature of the animal to which the 
strange white tail-like object seen standing above the water could have belonged. 
My impression at the time was that it must be the upper lobe of the tail of some 
enormous shark allied to the threshers (Alopecias) ; and this impression has been 
confirmed by a subsequent examination of the stuffed specimens of that genus in 
the British Museum. The thresher is, however, a black shark: while the minute 
size of its teeth seems to discredit the common accounts of its attacking whales. 
Unless, however, it could have been the flipper of a humpback, I am at a loss to 
imagine to what other animal the aforesaid white tail-like object could have 
belonged, save to some gigantic shark allied to the thresher, but of a white colour, 
and probably armed with much larger teeth. 


THE LESSER KILLER. 
Genus Pseudorca. 


An adventitious interest attaches to the Cetacean known as the lesser killer 
(Pseudorea crassidens) owing to its having been originally described on the 
evidence of a skull dug up in the Lincolnshire fens, which was for a long time 
regarded as pertaining to an extinct species. This animal is distinguished from 
the killer by its smaller back-fin, the pointed flippers, and the cylindrical roots of 
the teeth, as well as by certain features in the structure of the skull. In colour 
the lesser killer is entirely black ; and it attains the length of about 14 feet. There 
are generally eight teeth in the upper jaw on each side, and ten in the lower jaw. 
This species appears to be cosmopolitan, having been met with in small herds on 
the coast of Denmark, and also in Tasmania. Its habits are probably somewhat 
similar to those of the killer. 


THE BLACKFISH. 
Genus Globiocephalus. 


The blackfish (Globiocephalus melas) derives its English name from its nearly 
uniform black coloration, while its generic title refers to the characteristic globular 


54 CETACEANS. 


form of the head. In size this species is one of the largest representatives of the 
family, attaining a length of about 20 feet. 

In addition to its beakless globular head, the blackfish is characterised by the 
long, low, and thick back-fin, the long and narrow flippers, and the small size and 
number of the teeth, which are contined to the front of the jaws. The usual 
number of the teeth is from eight to twelve on each side of the jaws, but in a distinct 
variety or species from the Bay of Bengal they are rather fewer, The skull is 
very broad and much depressed; and the union between the two branches of the 


THE BLACKFISH (35 nat. size). 


lower jaw very short. In the typical form there is a large spear-shaped white area 
on the chest, extending from the corners of the mouth to the flippers. This white 
area is, however, absent in certain forms, which have been regarded as indicating 
distinct species. 

The ordinary blackfish has a wide distribution, having been 
obtained from the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North 
America, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Mr. True considers, however, 
that the blackfish of the North Pacifie (G. scammon), and also the one found on 
the Atlantic coast to the south of New Jersey, are distinct species ; and there is 
also some evidence of the existence of a fourth in the Bay of Bengal. In Europe 


Distribution. 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 55 
the blackfish or, as it is often called, the pilot-whale, or ca’ing whale, is a frequent 
although irregular visitant to the British coasts; and it occasionally extends as far 
north as Greenland. In the Mediterranean it appears to be rare. 

The blackfish is the most gregarious of all the Cetaceans, 
assembling in herds which frequently comprise from two hundred to 
three hundred individuals, and occasionally include as many as one thousand or 
even two thousand. The members of a herd always blindly follow a leader, after 
the manner of a flock of sheep, and from this strange habit the species derives its 
names of pilot-whale and ca’ing (=driving) whale. Curiously enough, if the 
leader of a herd happen to run into shoal-water and become stranded, the other 
members follow suit; and in this way large numbers are often captured by the 
inhabitants of Iceland and the Faroe, Orkney, and Shetland Islands. In disposition 
this species is mild and gentle, and thus offers a marked contrast to the killer. 
Its chief and favourite food is cuttle-fish, but it is said also to eat fish. The young, 
of which there is generally but one at a birth, are said to be born in the late 
summer, and suckled throughout the winter. 

Regarding their capture in the islands of the North Sea and 
Atlantic, the late Prof. Bell writes that, on the appearance of a herd, 
“the whole fishing squadron of the neighbourhood is put into requisition, each boat 
being provided with a quantity of stones. The first object is to get to seaward of 
the victims, then the boats are formed into a large semicircle, and the whole herd 
is driven into some bay or creek. The stones are thrown to splash and frighten 
the whales if they try to break back ; and in Faroe ropes are stretched from boat 
to boat, with wisps of straw hung at intervals. Should one whale break through the 
line all is lost, as the rest will follow it in spite of every exertion of the fishermen. 
But if they are forced into shallow water, they plunge wildly on till they strand them- 
selves, and then the whole population rush upon them, armed with harpoons, spears, 
hatchets, picks, spades——any weapon that comes to hand,—and the cries and dying 
struggles of the poor animals, the shouts of the men, the clash of the weapons, and 
the bloody and troubled sea combine to form an extremely exciting, if somewhat 
revolting scene.” It is stated that in this manner no less than 1110 blackfish 
were captured in Iceland in the winter of 1809-10, while upwards of 2080 
were taken in Faroe within a period of six weeks during the year 1845. 


Habits. 


Capture. 


Risso’s DOLPHIN. 
Genus Grampus. 


Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) is a rare and rather large species, which 
appears to be the only representative of its genus, and is easily recognised by the 
peculiar striped character of the skin; the arrangement of the stripes and the 
general coloration presenting a large amount of individual variation. It is dis- 
tinguished from all other dolphins, except the female narwhal, by the total absence 
of teeth in the upper jaw; while in the lower jaw there are only from three to 
seven small teeth on each side, and these confined to the anterior region of the jaw. 
In general external characteristics Risso’s dolphin approaches very closely to the 


56 CETACEANS. 


blackfish, but the front of the head is less completely globe-like, and the length of the 
flippers somewhat less. The mouth is obliquely placed, and the lower jaw shorter 
than the upper; while the back-fin is high and pointed. The flukes are very narrow. 
The general colour is slaty grey, mottled, and very irregularly streaked. As a rule, 
the back, with its fin, and the flukes are dark grey or blackish, more or less tinged 
with purple; while the flippers are blackish, mottled with grey. The head and 
fore-half of the body are light grey, of varying tint, and more or less tinged with 
yellow; the under-parts are greyish white; and the whole body is marked with a 
number of irregular and unsymmetrically arranged light striz. In the young the 
colour is dark grey above, and greyish white below, with the head yellowish white; 
and the flukes marked with five or more narrow and nearly vertical lines, placed 
at almost equal distances from one another. In length the animal measures about 
13 feet when full grown. 

Risso’s dolphin appears to have an almost world-wide distribution, 


Distribution. : : 
although not occurring in the polar seas. It has been recorded from 


RISSO'S DOLPHIN. 
(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) 


the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, the North Sea, the Mediterranean, 
the Cape of Good Hope, and Japan. Several examples have been taken on the 
British coasts. One of these was killed at Puckaster, Isle of Wight, in 1843; 
while a second was captured in a mackerel-net near the Eddystone Lighthouse in 
1870. A third specimen sold in Billingsgate market in the latter year was probably 
taken in the Channel; and a fourth, also caught in the Channel, near Chichester, 
was kept alive for a day in the Brighton Aquarium in 1875. The fifth example 
was caught in 1886 in the same manner, and near the same locality as the second. 
In the autumn of 1889 a shoal of nine of ten or these Cetaceans were observed off 
Hillswick, Shetland, of which six were captured by fishermen; and in 1892 a 
single specimen was taken in the Solway. Beyond the fact that its chief food 
consists of cuttle-fish, nothing definite appears to be known as to the habits of this 
species. 


THE SHORT-BEAKED DOLPHINS. 
Genus Lagenorhynchus. 


Under the general title of short-beaked dolphins may be included a group of 
several small species, serving to connect the beakless forms with those furnished 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 57, 
with distinct beaks, and remarkable for their strongly-contrasting coloration. They 
are generally characterised by the head having a short and not very well-defined 
ploughshare-like beak, although in one species the head is pointed and beakless. 
The fin and flippers are of moderate size; and the tail has very prominent ridges. 
The teeth are variable in size and number; the beak of the skull is flat, and not 
longer than the hinder part of the same; and the union between the two branches 
of the lower jaw is short. The coloration takes the form of two light-coloured 
areas of variable size on the sides, separated from one another by irregular, oblique 
dark bands. Representatives of this genus are found in most of the temperate and 
tropical seas, and two species have been taken off the British coasts. 
White-Sided Of the two British species, the white-sided dolphin (Lageno- 
Dolphin. §=yhynchus acutus), is blackish grey above, and white beneath, with 
a broad band of yellowish brown between the two, in the middle of which is a 
large white patch; while a narrow black band extends from the flukes nearly 
to the line of the back-fin, and another runs from the base of the flipper to a point 


THE PACIFIC SHORT-BEAKED DOLPHIN. 
(From True, Bulletin of the U.S, National Museum, 1889.) 


between the eye and the mouth; the eye being surrounded by a black ring. The 
length varies from 6 to 8 feet. This species inhabits the North Atlantic and the 
North Sea. It is very rare on the British coasts, although said to be not unfre- 
quently seen off the Orkneys. 

Pacific Short- The species figured to represent this genus (1. erucigera) is one 
Beaked Dolphin. from the Pacific, which is selected on account of the marked contrasts 
of black and white. It has a short beak, only slightly marked off from the skull. 
In colour, the muzzle, the forehead, the back, and the fin, flippers, and flukes are 
black; while a broad black band runs from the eye and the base of the flipper 
along each side to the flukes; the other parts of the body being a more or less 
pure white. 

White-Beaked The second species of this genus which has been met with on 

Dolphin. the British coasts is the white-beaked dolphin (LZ. albirostris) ; this 
species resembling the white-sided dolphin in general form, but having a more 
swollen head, a narrower and more sloping back-fin, and longer flippers. It takes 
its distinctive name from the fact of the muzzle, including the extremities of both 
jaws, being white, more or less tinged with grey. The upper-parts are black, the 
sides greyish, and the under-parts white, frequently of a creamy hue; while there 
are three more or less distinctly defined whitish areas on the flanks, placed one 


58 CETACEANS. 


behind the other, and more or less mottled with darker tints. There is also a 
similar light area behind the blowhole on the back, and another near the root of 
the flukes. There is, however, considerable individual variation in regard to 
the coloration. When freshly-stranded specimens come under observation, the 
black of the back is often seen to be shot with a rich purplish tint, and the whole 
coloration is then exceedingly beautiful. There are usually about twenty-six 
teeth on each side of the jaws; and the length attained by adults is from 
8 to 9 feet. The white-beaked dolphin inhabits the North Atlantic, the North Sea, 
and the Baltic, ranging as far northward as Greenland and Davis Strait. Between 
the years 1834 and 1885, a total of nineteen specimens of the dolphin had been 
taken in British waters; and since the latter date a specimen was taken on the 
Trish coast in 1887, and a third in the river Colne in 1889. 


THE TRUE DOLPHINS. 
Genus Delphinus. 


The true dolphins bring us to the first genus of the second great group of the 
family, which includes all the forms with distinct beaks, except the short-beaked 
dolphins just described. The beak is generally distinctly marked off from the 
forehead by a V-shaped groove; and in the skull the beak considerably exceeds 
the brain-cavity in length. In the skeleton the first two vertebrae of the neck are 
united, but the other five remain separate. All the members of the group are of 
comparatively small size, most of them not exceeding 10 feet in length. Dolphins 
associate in shoals, and feed mostly on fish, although some of them at least also 
consume crustaceans and molluscs. 

The common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), which apparently 
frequents all temperate and tropical seas, is the typical representative 
of the genus Delphinus, which presents the following characteristics. The beak 
is long, and the back-fin and flippers are elongated and falcate. In the skull the 
bony beak is long and narrow, and generally about twice the length of the region 
of the brain-case. The jaws are furnished with a numerous series of teeth, 
varying from about forty to sixty-five on each side, which are sharply pointed, with 
their bases oval in section. The bony union between the two branches of the 
lower jaw is short. 

The common dolphin has a slender body and small head; the beak being long 
and narrow, and the flippers about three times as long as broad, with their 
extremities pointed. There is considerable individual variation in colour, but 
usually the back is dark grey, the under-parts white or whitish, and the flanks 
marked by varying bands of grey or fulvous. The length of the animal is about 
7z feet, and there are from forty-one to fifty teeth in the upper, and from forty- 
five to fifty-one in the lower jaw. 

There seems no doubt that this species is the dolphin of the 
ancients, although the pictorial representations on old coins, and 
the descriptions of the habits of the animal which have come down to us from the 
writers of antiquity, are alike untrue to nature. The species is occasionally met 


Common Dolphin. 


Habits. 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 59 


with around the coasts of Britain, but it is much rarer off Scotland than in the 
south. It is not uncommonly captured in fishing-nets, and examples have from 
time to time been exposed for sale in Billingsgate market. Like the other 
dolphins, this species associate in shoals. “The excessive activity and playfulness 
of its gambols,” writes Bell, “and the evident predilection which it exhibits for 
society, are recorded by every mariner. Large herds of these animals will surround 
a ship in full sail with the most eager delight, throwing themselves into every 


\ 
Din 


<== 


THE COMMON DOLPHIN (ys nat. size). 


possible attitude, and tossing and leaping about with elegant and powerful agility, 
for no apparent purpose save mere pastime.” In the British seas the chief food 
of this species is formed by herrings and pilchards. The dolphin is said to utter a 
low murmuring sound. A single offspring is produced at a birth, and is tended by 
the female parent with assiduous care. Formerly the flesh of the dolphin was 
eaten in England and other European countries. 

There are several other species more or less closely allied to the 
common dolphin, although some of them are still very imperfectly 
known. Such are Dussumier’s dolphin (D. dussumierz), from the Malabar coast 
of India, and the Cape dolphin (D. capensis), from the Cape of Good Hope. The 
red-bellied dolphin (D. roseiventris), from the Moluccas and Torres Straits, is a 


Allied Species. 


60 CETACEANS. 


small species, not exceeding 4 feet in length, with forty-eight teeth on each side of 
the jaws, which has a skull intermediate between that of the common dolphin 
and the next species. The slender dolphin (D. attenwatus) may be taken as an 


RED-BELLIED DOLPHIN. 
(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) 


example of a group of several species, distinguished from the common dolphin 
and its allies by the palate being nearly flat, instead of deeply hollowed on each 
side in its posterior portion. Most of them are further distinguished by the skin 


THE SLENDER DOLPHIN. 
(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) 


being either spotted, or marked with longitudinal bands. The slender dolphin is: 
a spotted species from the Atlantic and the Cape of Good Hope; while the Malayan 
dolphin (D. malayanus), from the Indian Ocean, which attains a length of 6} feet, 
is uniform ashy grey. 


THE BotTTrLE-NOSED DOLPHINS. 
Genus Tursiops. 


The bottie-nosed dolphin, or, as it is often incorrectly called, porpoise (7ursiops 
twrsio), is the best known of three or four species constituting a genus distinct from 
Delphinus. The general form of these dolphins is stout, with the beak shorter and 
more tapering than in the true dolphins, and the number of teeth considerably less 
—not exceeding from twenty-two to twenty-six on each side of the jaws. 

The bottle-nosed dolphin attains a length of from 9} feet to 12 feet. In colour 
it is usually purplish grey above, passing gradually into pure white on the under- 
parts; but some specimens are black above and pale grey below, while others are 
grey all over. 


PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 61 


This species appears to range over all temperate and tropical seas, 
being occasionally met with on the British coasts. An example was 
taken at Holyhead in the autumn of 1868; a second was stranded in 1888 on the 
coast of Kirkcudbrightshire ; while two entered the river Humber in 1889. 

Till recently very little was known as to the habits of this species, 
but the establishment of a fishery for its capture at Hatteras, in North 
Carolina, has enabled Mr. F. W. True to gather some information on this subject. 
It appears that these dolphins are abundant off the coasts of Hatteras, and associate 
in schools of considerable size. On the 19th of May fourteen of these animals were 
secured at one haul of the nets in the morning, while in the afternoon of the same 
day no less than sixty-six were taken. In the spring the schools generally comprise 
a nearly equal number of individuals of each sex, and include animals of all ages; 
but later on in the season they are more uniform as regards sex and age, some 
herds consisting only of old males. It is believed that these dolphins migrate 
northward in the spring, and southward in the autumn, although a few remain at 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


BOTTLE-NOSED DOLPHIN. 
(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) 


Hatteras throughout the year. The breeding-season commences in the spring, 
but in the more northerly districts appears to be continued on into the summer. 
When the old ones were captured in the nets, the young would remain close 
alongside. 

The largest specimen caught at Hatteras measured 12 feet in length and 
yielded twenty-four gallons of oil; but the average product during the winter is 
only about eight gallons. Some idea of the number of these dolphins frequenting 
the Carolina seas may be gathered from the fact that between 15th November 1884 
and the middle of the following May, no less than twelve hundred and sixty-eight 
of them were caught at Hatteras. 


THE RovuGH-TOOTHED DOLPHINS. 
Genus Steno. 


The rough-toothed dolphin (Steno frontatus), from the Indian and Atlantic 
oceans, is the representative of a genus comprising several more or less nearly 
allied species, mostly confined to the warmer seas. They are distinguished by the 
great length of the beak, which is distinctly marked off from the head, and in the 
dried skull is very narrow and compressed; and also by the length of the bony 


62 CETACEANS. 


union between the two branches of the lower jaw, which exceeds one-quarter the 
total length of the jaw. The teeth vary in number from twenty to twenty-five on 
each side of the jaws; and are of rather large size, with the crowns often marked 
by vertical groovings. The colour is variable. 

The rough-toothed dolphin attains a length of 83 feet; and takes its name 
from its coarsely-fluted teeth. The colour of the upper-parts is purplish black, the 
sides being marked with rather large star-shaped spots, and the snout and under- 
parts white, tinged with purple and rose-colour, and ornamented with purple spots. 
The plumbeous dolphin (S. plwmbeus) of the Indian Ocean, has an extremely long 


THE ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN. 
(From True. Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) 


beak, and is of a uniform leaden-grey colour, with the exception of the extremity 
and under surface of the lower jaw, which are white. <A third species from the 
Indian seas is the speckled dolphin (S. lentiginosus), which above is of a leaden- 
grey colour, with numerous long, drop-shaped spots, most of which are pure white, 
but others slaty or black ; while below it is white, more or less mottled with grey. 


LONG-BEAKED RIVER-DOLPHINS. 
Genus Sotalia. 


Under the above title may be included several species of dolphins closely allied 
to those of the preceding genus, but distinguished by their fluviatile or estuarine 
habits, and the smaller number of joints in the backbone. Their teeth are always 
smooth; and the flippers very broad at the base. They must not be confounded 
with the fresh-water dolphins of the family Platanistide. 

Amazonian Dolphins of this group are abundant in the upper portions of the 

Dolphins. Amazon, but there is still great uncertainty as to whether these 
belong to one or to three species, or whether all or any of these are distinct from 
the Brazilian dolphin (Sotalia brasiliensis) of the bay of Rio de Janeiro. There 
is also a closely allied form (S. quianensis) from Cayenne. Of the Amazonian 
dolphins one is commonly known as the tucuxi (S. twcuai), a second as the pale 
river-dolphin (S. pallida), and a third as (S. fluviatilis), which differ chiefly in 
coloration, the relative length of the fins, and the number of teeth. The pale 
dolphin, which is figured in the accompanying illustration, has the upper-parts and 
flukes yellowish white, and the under-parts and flippers white. A notice of some of 
the habits of the tucuxi has been given above on p. 39. 


SQUALODONTS AND ZEUGLODONTS. 63 


Chinese White Another representative of this group is the Chinese white dolphin 
Dolphin. § = (8. sinensis), from Quemoy Island, in the harbour of Amoy, and the 
Foochow and Canton rivers. It is said to be characterised by its general milk- 
white colour, pinkish fins, and black eyes. 
Camerun The most interesting member of this group is, however, the 
Dolphin. yecently described Camerun dolphin (S. tewzsv) from the estuaries and 


THE PALE RIVER-DOLPHIN. 
(From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) 


rivers of the Camerun district of Western Africa, which is reported to be of 
herbivorous habit. If this alleged habit should be confirmed, this dolphin will 
differ not only from all the other members of the family to which it belongs, but 
likewise from all other living Cetaceans. 


SQUALODONTS AND ZEUGLODONTS. 
Families SQUALODONTIDE and ZEUGLODONTIDZ. 


In addition to numerous extinct representatives of the existing Cetacean 
families, to some of which reference has been made above, there are two extinct 
groups which cannot be included in either of the existing families; one of these 
differing very much indeed from all modern Cetaceans. 

Pre neaetia The name of squalodonts (genus Squwalodov) is applied to the 
members of the first of these two groups on account of the somewhat 
shark-like structure of their cheek-teeth. In the general characters of their skulls 
these Cetaceans approximate to the modern dolphins, from which they are, however, 
at once distinguished by the teeth being of different characters in different parts 
of the jaws, as in ordinary mammals. They have a total of fifteen teeth on each 
side of both the upper and lower jaws. Of these the first four are of simple 
structure, and correspond to the incisors and canines of other mammals; the next 
four, which are also comparatively simple, appear to represent the premolars ; while 
the last seven have two roots, and laterally-compressed triangular crowns, with 
sharp cutting edges, upon which there are a number of cusps arranged in a saw- 
like manner. The squalodonts, which are found in Miocene and Pliocene forma- 
tions, both in the Old and New World, clearly form one step between modern 
Cetaceans and ordinary mammals. And, so far as the structure of their teeth can 
be relied upon, they appear to suggest a kinship between Cetaceans and Carnivores. 


64 CETACEANS. 


Very different from the above are the still earlier forms known 
as zeuglodonts (genus Zeuglodon), which appear to be mainly or 
entirely confined to the Eocene Tertiary, and have been obtained from regions 
as far asunder as North America, Western Europe, the Caucasus, and Australia and 
New Zealand. So different, indeed, were these animals from all existing Cetaceans, 
that it has even been doubted whether they can be included within the limits of 
the same order. Some of them rivalled the larger whales in point of size, while 
the Caucasian species was not larger than an ordinary dolphin. 

The zeuglodonts had teeth of the same general type as those of the squalodonts, 
but those of the cheek-series were fewer in number, the premolars and molars 
together being apparently only five on each side. The skull differs from that of 
ordinary Cetaceans in having elongated nasal bones, and the cavity of the nose 
placed more forwardly, as well as in certain other features; all these points of 
difference being in the direction of ordinary mammals. Unfortunately, we know 
but very little of the structure of the limbs. The humerus, or bone of the upper 
arm, is, however, proportionately much longer than in modern Cetaceans, although 
it has flattened articular surfaces at its lower end, showing that the bones of the 
fore-arm had searcely any free motion, and thus indicating that the fore-limbs 
were modified into flippers. So far as they can be determined, the general 
characters of these zeuglodonts are such as we should expect to find in an 
ancestral group of Cetaceans; but it is remarkable that the body appears to have 
been protected by an armour of bony plates. 


Zeuglodonts. 


CHAPTER XXXII. 


THE RopEents,—Order RopEnTIA. 
SQUIRRELS, MARMOTS, AND BEAVERS. 


UnpER the common title of Gnawing or Rodent Mammals are grouped that 
extensive assemblage of small or medium-sized species which, like rats, porcupines, 
beavers, squirrels, and hares, are characterised by their habit of gnawing. At the 
present day these creatures are more numerously represented than in any other 
Mammalian order, both as regards individuals and species; the number of the 
latter being probably fully one thousand, while the swarms of individuals by which 
some species are represented are too well known to need more than passing mention. 
Nearly all the Rodents are inhabitants of the dry land, and a large proportion of 
them seek protection from enemies by living in subterranean burrows which they 
construct for themselves, and wherein they generally associate in larger or smaller 
colonies. Some, however, like the water-vole and the beaver, are aquatic; while 
others, like the squirrels and tree-porcupines, lead an arboreal life. A few, again, 
have acquired the power of spurious flight through the development of folds of 
skin along the sides of the body and limbs, by the aid of which they are enabled 
to take long flying leaps. 

The Rodents are some of the most easily defined of all mammals, and are best 
characterised by the number and nature of their teeth—especially those in the 
front of the jaws. They are distinguished by the presence in each jaw of a pair 
of large chisel-like front or incisor teeth, which grow continuously throughout the 
life of their owners. As a rule, no other incisor teeth, save these two pairs, are 
developed, but in the hares and rabbits and their allies a second smaller pair occur 
behind those of the upper jaw. There are no tusks or canine teeth in either jaw, 
and in the cheek-series the number of premolars is always reduced below the normal 
four, very generally only one of these teeth being present, while in some cases even 
this may be wanting. In consequence of the reduced number of incisor teeth, 
coupled with the absence of canines and the reduction in the premolars, the skull 
of a Rodent is always distinguished by the presence of a long gap between the 
front and the cheek-teeth. Indeed, the presence in all Rodents of only a single 
pair of chisel-shaped and permanently-growing lower incisors, opposed to a 
corresponding pair in the upper jaw, the total absence of canines, the long gap 
between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, and the reduction in the number of 
the premolars, are of themselves sufficient to distinguish the Rodent order from 
all other mammals, with the exception of the aye-aye among the lemurs. 


Among other distinctive characteristics of the group, the following may be 
VOL. II.—5 


66 RODENTS. 


mentioned. The feet are usually furnished with five toes, which generally terminate 
in sharp claws, although they sometimes have broad nails. In walking, either the 
whole or the greater part of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground, so that 
these animals may be described as entirely or partially plantigrade. Rodents are 
nearly always furnished with collar-bones (clavicles), although these may be more 
or less imperfectly developed, and are 
thereby broadly distinguished from all 
living Ungulates. Their skulls are 
characterised by the condyle of the 
lower jaw being elongated from front 
to back, instead of from side to side, and 
thus permitting of that backwards-and- 
forwards motion of the lower upon the 
upper jaw, which is so noticeable when 
we watch a rabbit feeding; this char- 
SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULL OF THE PRAIRIE-MARMoT. acter serving to distinguish Rodents 
alike from Ungulates and from Carni- 
vores. Another point in connection with the skull is that the cavity for the eye 
is not separated behind by a bar of bone from the temporal fossa; this feature 
serving to distinguish the Rodents from the aye-aye, in which the eye-socket is 
surrounded by a bony ring. 

The teeth being so important in the definition of the Rodents 
require somewhat fuller consideration. With regard to the incisors, 
it may be observed that these teeth are of great length, and curved nearly in the 
are of a circle; their inserted portion extending far backwards in the jaws, so that 
in the upper jaw it comes nearly in contact with the base of the first of the cheek- 
teeth, while in the lower jaw it runs beneath the whole of the cheek-series. The 
lower incisors form a small segment of a very large circle (roughly speaking), while 
the upper ones constitute a much greater segment of a far smaller circle. In the 
great majority of Rodents the enamel on the incisor teeth is confined almost 
exclusively to their front surface, and is generally thicker on one side than on the 
other; but in the hares and rabbits it also extends somewhat on to the lateral 
surfaces. In cross-section these teeth are somewhat triangular; the front enamel- 
covered surface being broad and flattened, and the two lateral surfaces gradually 
converging to a rounded posterior edge. Whereas, however, the inner surface, 
which comes in contact with the tooth on the opposite side of the jaw, is nearly 
flat, the outer surface is convex. As a natural result of the front surface of these 
teeth being composed of the hard enamel (which is very frequently of an orange or 
reddish colour}, whereas the remaining portion consists of much softer ivory, it 
follows that the effect of wear is to produce a sharp chisel-edge at their summits. 
Indeed, the structure of an incisor tooth of a Rodent is precisely analogous to a 
chisel; the hard enamel corresponding to the steel with which the latter is faced, 
and which forms the cutting edge, while the ivory represents the soft iron forming 
the support to the thin plate of steel. As these incisor teeth are continually grow- 
ing, they always present the same chisel-like edges, which are worn away by use 
at a rate commensurate with that of the growth. It follows from this that if one 


Teeth. 


GENERAL CHARACTERS. 67 


of these teeth be broken away during life, the corresponding tooth in the opposite 
jaw, having nothing to check its growth by wear, will continue to grow on un- 
interruptedly till it forms nearly a circle, when its point will enter the jaw of its 
unfortunate owner, and probably lead to a lingering death. Most museums possess 
specimens of the skulls of Rodents with such abnormally-developed teeth. 

The cheek-teeth of Rodents may be either provided with distinct roots, or 
may grow throughout life and never develop such roots. In the cases of those 
with distinct roots, the crowns may carry mere simple tubercles; but in other 
instances they may have their summits or sides penetrated by infoldings of the 
enamel, thus producing a more or less complicated pattern when worn. On the 
other hand, the permanently-growing rootless molars always have complex crowns, 
which are sometimes interpenetrated by lateral infoldings of the enamel, and at 
others are divided into a series of parallel transverse plates. There is, indeed, a 
precise parallelism in this respect between the molar teeth of the Rodents and 
those of the mastodons and elephants; the molar tooth of a mouse, which has 
distinct roots, and a low crown with simple cusps, being exactly comparable to 
that of a mastodon, whereas the high-crowned, laminated, and rootless molar of 
a guinea-pig corresponds as closely with that of a modern elephant. Rodents are 
always furnished with milk-teeth, which, however, in some instances are shed 
before birth. 

The Rodents present a peculiarity in the structure of the mouth, 
which is quite unknown in any other mammals. In examining the 
mouth of any one of these animals—say a rabbit—it will be found that behind the 
upper front teeth the outer hairy skin of the face is continued inwards into the 
sides of the mouth, which by this means is divided into two distinct chambers, 
communicating with one another through a comparatively narrow orifice ; the first 
chamber containing only the front teeth, while the cheek-teeth are included in the 
second chamber. It appears that this arrangement is designed to prevent the 
entrance of extraneous substances into the true cavity of the mouth when the 
creatures are engaged in their characteristic operation of gnawing. In addition to 
this peculiarity, the whole of the inside of the cheeks in the hares and rabbits is 
covered with hair; while the pouched rats and hamsters have large pouches inside 
the cheeks, which are also lined with hairy skin. On the other hand, the gophers 
have pouches in the cheeks which open externally instead of internally. 


Mouth. 


Distribution and The Rodents have a wider distribution than any other group of 
Habits. terrestrial mammals, being found in all parts of the globe except the 


extreme polar regions. With the exception of the bats, they include the only 
representatives of the placental mammals which are undoubtedly indigenous to 
Australia. They are, however, but poorly represented in that country, and likewise 
in the great island of Madagascar. On the other hand, the order attains an 
extraordinary development in South America, where its largest representatives 
occur, and which may be looked upon as its headquarters. In time, the Rodents 
certainly date from the upper portion of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period ; 
but the whole of the extinct forms hitherto discovered present all the essential 
peculiarities of the existing representatives of the group, and we are, therefore, at 
present almost completely in the dark as to their relationship to other orders, 


68 RODENTS. 


although it has been suggested that they are derived directly from the Marsupials. 
The number of genera of Rodents is great, that in a work like the present 
it is only possible to notice some of the leading and more generally interesting 
types. 

The whole of the Rodents are almost entirely herbivorous in their habits; and 
they all of them obtain their food by gnawing. We have already noticed that 
while the majority are terrestrial and burrowing, some are arboreal, others aquatic, 
and a few endowed with the power of spurious flight; and it may be added that 
of the terrestrial forms the hares are among the fleetest runners of all mammals, 
while the jerboas and chinchillas are distinguished by their leaping powers. They 
are mostly harmless and inoffensive creatures, fleeing with the greatest terror and 
precipitancy from the smallest of foes; but a few, like the common rat, when 
driven to bay, will defend themselves desperately, and will then inflict comparatively 
severe bites with their powerful front-teeth. 

Many Rodents yield furs which are very largely used in commerce, 
although of less intrinsic value than those of many other mammals. 
The flesh of hares and rabbits is largely consumed in Europe, while that of other 
members of the order is also eaten in various parts of the world; but the strong 
odour which characterises many Rodents renders their flesh more or less un- 
palatable. 


Value. 


As a whole, Rodents are characterised by their dull and frequently 
uniform coloration, although there are many exceptions to this. 
Indeed, many of the squirrels from the warmer regions of the globe, as well as one 
of the species of marmot, are among the most brilliantly coloured of all animals. 
In the brighter-coloured forms it does not appear that any rule can be laid down 
as to the plan of coloration. Thus while in many of the squirrels the brilliant 
colours take the form of distinct patches, distributed over various parts of the body, 
in the palm-squirrels and ground-squirrels there are light longitudinal stripes on a 
dark ground, and in the pacas there are light-coloured spots. It appears, however, 
that no Rodent exhibits transverse bars of different colours on the body, and in 
none is the tail ornamented with alternate light and dark rings. 

The tail is very variable; being totally wanting in the guinea- 
pig, while in the jerboas it attains an enormous relative length. 


Coloration. 


Tail. 


THE AFRICAN FLYING SQUIRRELS. 
Family ANOMALURID. 


The true flying-squirrels are confined to Asia, Europe, and North America, 
but Africa possesses a group of somewhat similar animals, which differ so decidedly 
in structure that they are assigned to a distinct family. 

Before considering these animals in detail, a few words are necessary as to the 
leading characteristics common to all the Rodents treated of in the present chapter, 
which are collectively spoken of as the squirrel-like Rodents, or, technically, as the 
Sciuromorpha. Together with the mouse-like Rodents described in the following 
chapter, all these animals are characterised by the angular process of the lower 


SQUIRRELS. 


69 


jaw! taking its origin from the root of the sheath of the incisor tooth. The 
squirrel-like Rodents are especially distinguished by having the two bones of the 


lower leg (tibia and fibula), as shown in 
the accompanying figure of the skeleton 
of the squirrel, quite distinct from one 
another. They are further characterised 
by the zygomatic or cheek-arch of the 
skull being slender, and mainly formed 
by the jugale or cheek-bone itself.” These 
distinetive characters, which are some- 
what difficult for those not versed in 
anatomy to understand, may appear 
trivial and unimportant; but the fact is 
that all Rodents are so alike in general 
structure, that it is only by such slight 
points of difference that the various 
groups can be satisfactorily distin- 
guished from one another. 


SKELETON OF SQUIRREL, 


The African flying squirrels (Anomalurus) are distinguished from the true 
flying squirrels by the parachute-like membrane running along the sides of the 


THE FULGENT AFRICAN FLYING SQUIRREL. 


body being supported in front by 
a rod of bony cartilage arising 
from the elbow-joint (instead of 
from the wrist); and also by the 
presence of a row of overlapping 
horny scales on the under surface 
of the root of the long and 
thickly-haired tail. Their skulls 
also differ from those of the true 
squirrels by the absence of a bony 
projection from the frontal bones 
defining the hinder border of the 
socket of the eye. They have, 
moreover, but a single pair of 
premolar teeth in each jaw. 

Most of these flying squirrels 
are confined to Western Africa, 
but one species (A. pusillus) 
occurs in Kquatoria, while 
another is found on the east 
coast near Zanzibar. The fulgent 
flying-squirrel (A. fulgens), from 


the Gabun is one of the largest species, measuring 21 inches in total length, of 


1 This is the projecting process seen at the hinder extremity of the lower jaw in the skull figured on p. 66. 
2Tn the same figure the zygomatic arch is the bar of bone beneath the socket of the eye, of which the front 


portion is formed by the jugale or cheek-bone. 


70 RODENTS. 


which a third is occupied by the tail; its colour is bright tawny orange, with a 
white spot between the ears, and another on each side of the muzzle. On the 
other hand, in the pigmy African flying squirrel—the mboma of the natives—the 
length of the head and body is only 11 inches, and that of the tail 54 inches; the 
colour of the upper-parts being dark grizzled grey, while beneath it is yellowish 
white, with the tail uniform pale brown. 

The habits of these animals appear to be very similar to those of 
their Asiatic allies. In climbing tree-stems, preparatory to taking 
their flying leaps, it is said that they use the scales at the root of the tail to aid in 
obtaining a hold on the bark. 


Habits. 


THE SQUIRREL FAMILY 
Family SCIURIDZ. 


The Squirrel family, which includes the true flying squirrels, ordinary squirrels, 
marmots, and susliks, is distinguished from the last by the absence of scales on the 
tail, and the presence of distinct bony (postorbital) processes defining the hinder 
border of the upper half of the socket of the eye. Moreover, when a parachute- 
like membrane is present, it is supported by a rod of cartilage arising from the 
wrist. The palate is broad; and there are generally two pairs of premolar teeth 
in the upper, and one in the lower jaw; but the first upper premolar is small, and 
may be shed or wanting. The molars have roots, and in the young state at least 
have their crowns surmounted by tubercles, but in the adult they often have 
deep wavy enamel-folds, forming transverse plates extending partially across 
the crown. 

Till quite recently the members of the family were divided into two groups, 
or subfamilies, according as to whether they are arboreal or terrestrial in their 
habits; the first group including the true squirrels and flying squirrels, and the 
second comprising the susliks and marmots. From a careful study of their 
dentition, Dr. Forsyth-Major has, however, come to the conclusion that this 
arrangement is an artificial one; he accordingly classes them under three groups, 
of which the first includes the true squirrels, susliks, and marmots, the second the 
flying squirrels, and the third the Oriental pigmy squirrels. 


THE GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL. 
Genus Rhithrosciwrus. 


According to the above-mentioned scheme, the first representative of the family 
is the Bornean groove-toothed squirrel (Rhithrosciwrus macrotis), which is the sole 
member of a genus easily characterised by the presence of a number of vertical 
grooves on the front of the incisor teeth. Much larger than the common squirrel, 
this species has an enormous bushy tail, long tufted ears, and black and white bands 
along the flanks. The molar teeth are of a simpler type than in any other member 
of this family. 


SQUIRRELS. 71 


THE SPINY SQUIRRELS. 
Genus Xerus. 


In addition to being the home of a considerable number of true squirrels, Africa 
is the sole habitat of a group of squirrels constituting a distinct genus of the family. 
The typical representatives of these Ethiopian spiny squirrels are characterised by 
their coarse and spiny hair, the small] size or total absence of the external conchs of 
the ears, and the comparative straightness of the long claws. According to the new 
classification, certain other Ethiopian species, formerly mcluded among the true 
squirrels, may however find a place in this genus, which will be best characterised 
by the skull and molar teeth. As regards the skull, this is distinguished by its 


THE ABYSSINIAN SPINY SQUIRREL (} nat. size). 


elongate form, which is especially shown in the frontal bones, and the extreme 
shortness of the (postorbital) processes forming the hinder border of the upper part 
of the sockets of the eyes. The molar teeth, in place of the low-crowned, basin- 
shaped form characterising those of the true squirrels, have somewhat taller crowns, 
with more or less well-marked transverse plates; thus approximating to the corre- 
sponding teeth of the porcupines, and evidently indicating a specialised type. 


Distribution and The genus now includes a very large number of species, ranging 
Habits. from Abyssinia to the Cape; its typical representatives differing from 


the true squirrels in being entirely terrestrial, taking refuge either in clefts and 
holes among rocks, or in the burrows excavated by themselves. The Abyssinian 
spiny squirrel (Xerus rutilus), which is the species represented in our illustration, 
is of a uniform yellowish red colour, with distinct conchs to the ears; its size being 
comparable to that of the English squirrel, but rather larger. Mr. Blanford states 
that these animals may be commonly seen in the neighbourhood of Annesley Bay in 
rocky places, associating in parties of five or six individuals. The striped Abyssinian 


72 RODENTS. 


spiny squirrel (Y. lewcowmbrinus) agrees with the last in having external ear- 
conchs, but differs in its longitudinally-striped body; in the latter respect it re- 
sembles the Cape spiny squirrel CY. setosus), of South Africa, in which, however, 
the conchs of the ears are wanting. The small spiny squirrel (Y. getulus), which 
is also striped, is the most diminutive member of the group, and in size and appear- 
ance much resembles the Indian palm-squirrel. A fossil species of this genus occurs 
in the Miocene deposits of France. 


THE TRUE SQUIRRELS. 
Genus Sciwrus. 


The common squirrel is the sole representative in Western Europe of an ex- 
ceedingly large and widely-distributed genus, of which the following are the leading 
characteristics. The tail is very long and bushy; the ears are in most cases of 
considerable size, and may be surmounted with tufts of long hair; and in the fore- 
limbs there are only four functional toes, owing to the rudimental condition of the 
one corresponding to the human thumb. ‘The claws are long, curved, and sharp ; 
while the female may have either four or six teats. From that of the spiny 
squirrels the skull differs by its shortened form and the elongation of the backwardly- 
directed (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the sockets of the eyes. 
The molar teeth are low-crowned and of a simple type, those of the lower jaw having 
the grinding surface basin-shaped, with a longitudinal wall on the inner and outer 
side, and no transverse plates formed by infoldings of the enamel; and the first 
upper premolar, if present, is small, and may be shed at an early age. 

While the common squirrel is of a uniform brownish red colour on the upper- 
parts, many of the tropical species are most brilliantly tinted with orange and other 
bright colours, while others, like the little Indian palm-squirrel, have their bodies 
ornamented with longitudinal light stripes on a dark ground. One of the Malayan 
species, which is ordinarily grey, assumes a brilliant crange-coloured dress during 
the breeding-season; and some of the North American species also undergo a 
seasonal change of coloration, one of them having a dark stripe along the sides of 
the body in summer, which completely disappears in winter. There is great differ- 
ence in the size of the various species, the large Malayan squirrel (Sciwrus bicolor) 
from India and the Malay region, measuring about 40 inches or more in total length, 
while the Indian palm-squirrel does not exceed a weasel in size. 

The true squirrels inhabit the temperate and tropical portions of 
the whole globe, with the exception of Madagascar and the Australasian 
region. The number of species probably does not fall far short of fifty or sixty, 
and these are most numerous in the Malayan region, which may be regarded as the 


Distribution. 


headquarters of the group. There is, however, great difficulty in deciding as to 
the real number of species, since a large number of squirrels, especially those from 
North America and Africa, exhibit extraordinary local variation in coloration, so 
that it is almost impossible to say where varieties end and species begin. 
European The common squirrel (S. vulgaris), as being the best known 
Squirrel. representative of the genus, may be selected for special notice, as the 


SQUIRRELS. 73 


habits of all the species appear to be very similar. Belonging to a group in which 
the first upper premolar is present, this little animal is so well known by appearance 
to all, that but few words need be devoted to its description. The general colour 
of the head and body is brownish red above, and white beneath; the whole tail 
being of the same hue as the back. In summer, the edges of the ears are smooth, 
but in winter they are tipped with a thick fringe of hair. In winter the squirrel in 
England is greyer than in summer; and in the more northern and eastern parts of 
its habitat, the grey tint, especially in winter, becomes much more marked, while 
in Japan the colour is nearly black. Drab-coloured squirrels occur in Siberia; and 
white or pied specimens are occasionally met with. In some parts of England the 
tail is not unfrequently cream-coloured in autumn. The total length of the animal, 


THE EUROPEAN SQUIRREL (3 nat. size). 


exclusive of the hairs at the end of the tail, is about 15} inches, of which 7 inches 
are taken up by the tail. 

The geographical range of the European squirrel is very exten- 
sive, comprising almost the whole of Europe, Northern Africa, Asia 
Minor, and Asia north of the Himalaya, as far eastward as Japan. Indeed, 
Ireland and Japan respectively mark the western and eastern boundaries of its 
‘ange; while its extreme northern and southern limits are indicated by Lapland 
and the north of Italy. In the south of the latter country, and likewise in the 
Caucasus and the Crimea, the squirrel is, however, quite unknown. 

Like other members of the genus, this species of squirrel is mainly 
diurnal and arboreal in its habits, but seldom descending to the 
ground, and when aloft leaping from bough to bough with surprising agility. The 
extent of these flying leaps shows that the “flight” of the flying squirrels is but 
an ultra development of this mode of progression. Its chief food consists of nuts, 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


74 RODENTS. 


beech-mast, bark, buds, and young shoots of trees; but there is evidence that it is 
also not averse to a diet of birds’ eggs, and perhaps insects. In feeding, all squirrels 
sit up on their hind-quarters, and hold their food to their mouths with the fore- 
paws. The shells of nuts are pierced by the sharp front teeth, and every fragment 
removed before the kernel is consumed. Stores of food are laid up by the common 
squirrel for winter use, but instead of being deposited in a single place they are 
hidden in several repositories. In England and the whole of its more northerly 
habit, the squirrel partially hibernates during the winter, but it wakes up at 
intervals to feed when the weather is mild, and again retires to slumber. Probably 
in more southern regions it is active throughout the year, as are the species 
inhabiting the warmer parts of the globe. Squirrels associate in pairs, apparently 
for life, and generally frequent the same tree or clump of trees from year to year. 
The nest, or “drey,” in which the young are produced, is built either in the fork of 
a branch, or in some hole of the stem of a tree, and is composed of leaves, moss, and 
fibres, carefully intertwined. When placed in a fork, it so closely resembles the 
boughs in colour that its detection from below is difficult. In England the 
blind and naked young are born in June, and are usually three or four in number. 
They remain with their parents till the following spring; and if captured at a 
sufficiently early age form docile and affectionate pets. The squirrel can swim 
well; and its flesh is said to be good eating. 

Squirrel-fur is extensively used for boas, linings, and trimmings. The 
quantity formerly imported into England was very great, the total number of skins 
in 1839 reaching 2,730,826; but of late years the imports have declined, the chief 
seat of the industry in this fur being now in Germany. The darker bluish grey 
skins are the most valued, most of these being obtained from Okhotsk by the 
Alaska Company; the number imported by that company into London being, 
according to Mr. Poland, 43,235 in 1891, but it is sometimes double as many. 

North American In North America the place of the European species is taken by 
Squirrels. the red squirrel, or chickari (S. hudsonianws), and the grey squirrel 
(S. carolinensis) ; the former frequenting forests of all kinds, while the latter is 
chiefly restricted to those composed of deciduous trees. Dr. Hart Merriam, 
describing the habits of the red squirrel in the Adirondack Mountains, near New 
York, says that this species exhibits but little fear of man, and is the least wary of 
all its tribe. It is on the alert from dawn to sunset, and sometimes, especially 
when there is a moon, continues its rambles throughout the night; while whenever 
abroad it enlivens the solitudes of the forests with its continual chatterings. 
“Though an expert climber, delighting in long leaps from bough to bough, which 
he executes with grace and precision, he spends far more time on the ground than 
the other arboreal squirrels, sometimes even making his home in holes in the earth. 
Old logs, stumps, wood-piles, and brush-heaps, are favourite places of resort, and, 
by excavating burrows beneath, he converts them into the securest of retreats . 
As might be inferred from the boreal distribution of this animal, he is the hardiest 
of our squirrels. Not only does he inhabit regions where the rigours of Arctic 
winter are keenly felt, but refusing to hibernate, he remains active throughout the 
continuance of excessive cold; when running upon the snow he often plunges 
down out of sight, tunnels a little distance, and, reappearing, shakes the snow from 


SQUIRRELS. 75 


his head and body, whisks his tail, and skips along as lightly and with as much 
apparent pleasure as if returning from a bath in some rippling brook during the 
heat of a summer's afternoon.” This squirrel is fond of a variety of fruits, and 
also sucks the eggs and kills the young of the smaller birds. The young are 
generally born early in April, and usually include from four to six in a litter. 

This species is of small size, with a relatively short tail, and short tufts to the 
ears in winter; its usual colour being greyish, more or less mixed with yellowish 
or reddish above, and generally white below. It shows dusky markings on the 
back, and sometimes also on the under-parts. Its geographical range includes the 
northern half of North America. 

The grey squirrel is a more southerly species, extending from the south of 
Canada to Mexico and Guatemala. In size it is superior to the last, and its tail is 
proportionately longer, while there are no ear-tufts. Its usual colour is whitish 
grey above, varied with fulvous, and white below; the flanks being marked with 
a pale fulvous line. There are, however, numerous varieties, one of which is dark 
olive-brown above, and grey beneath. In habits this species seems to be more like 
the common squirrel, being extremely wary and alert, and partially hibernating 
during the winter. It buries its stores of food just beneath the surface of the 
ground in various parts of the woods. In confinement these squirrels form 
charming little pets. There are at least seven other well-defined representatives 
of the genus in North and Central America, and several others in the southern 
half of the same continent. 

Oriental As already mentioned, squirrels attain their maximum develop- 
Squirrels. ment of size and species, as well as their most brilliant coloration, in 
the Oriental region, and especially in its Malayan portion. 

In India and Burma Mr. Blanford recognises no less than twenty species of 
squirrels, three of which are of large size, measuring not less than a foot from the 
nose to the root of the tail, while eleven vary from 10 to 7 inches in length, and 
all the remainder are small striped species, averaging from 5 to 7 inches in length. 
The medium and smaller species retain the first premolar tooth of the upper jaw, 
which is usually lost in those of the largest groups. Among the two first groups 
some of the better known are the large Indian squirrel (S. indicus), with tufted 
ears, which is not known to the east of the Bay of Bengal, the large Malayan 
squirrel (S. bicolor), ranging from the eastern Himalaya to Borneo, the golden- 
backed squirrel (S. caniceps), already alluded to as the one which assumes a special 
breeding-dress, although this is confined to one variety of the species, and the 
nearly allied Ivrawadi squirrel (S. pygerythrus), in which the length of the head 
and body is about 9 inches, and the ears have no tufts. 

Of the smaller striped species, the best known is the Indian palm-squirrel (NS. 
palmarum), so commonly distributed in open districts throughout India and 
Ceylon, but unknown to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal, and never found in 
forests. The length of the head and body of this species is from 53 to 6 inches, 
and that of the tail rather more. The general colour of the upper-parts is some 
shade of brown, with three narrow whitish or slightly rufescent longitudinal stripes 
on the back; the under-parts varying from white to grey. This pretty little 
squirrel is one of the most familiar of Indian mammals, exhibiting scarcely any fear 


76 RODENTS. 


of man, and uttering its bird-like chirp in every Indian garden. It is commonly 
found in groves and on the rows of trees bordering the roads in most Indian 
stations; but, according to Mr. Blanford, exhibits no especial predilection for palms. 
It generally feeds on the ground 
in the neighbourhood of trees, 
and when alarmed seeks refuge 
in their boughs by darting up 
the stems with lightning-like 
rapidity. Dogs newly imported 
into India invariably take to 
hunting palm-squirrels, but 
usually give up the pursuit in 
a short time as being utterly 
hopeless. These squirrels fre- 
quently take up their abode in 
the roofs of houses, and will 
freely enter the rooms. In 
addition to the usual food of 
its kindred, this species will also 
consume white ants and other 
insects. The young—two to four 
in a litter—are produced in a 
large bulky nest of grass or wool, 
usually placed either in a tree 
or among the rafters of a house. 

Extinct The European 

Squirrels. squirrel dates from 
the deposition of the Norfolk 
“ forest-bed,” belonging to the earliest series of the Pleistocene period; but extinct 
species of the genus are found in formations of Tertiary age down to the upper 
division of the Eocene. 


THE IRAWADI SQUIRREL.— After Anderson. 


THE GROUND-SQUIRRELS, OR CHIPMUNKS. 


The ground-squirrel of Siberia, portions of Eastern Europe, and North 
America, together with several other closely-allied North American species com- 
monly known as chipmunks, constitute a group serving to connect the two squirrels 
with the susliks. Having molar teeth of the same type, the chipmunks are indeed 
so closely allied to the true squirrels that Dr. Forsyth-Major proposes to include 
them in the same genus. They differ, however, from both the spiny-squirrels and 
the true squirrels in the possession of pouches inside the cheeks; on which account 
they may, for the present at least, be allowed to stand under the generic title by 
which they are commonly known. They are further characterised by the sides, or 
the back and sides together, being marked by longitudinal white or greyish white 
stripes bordered by black bands. The ears are of medium size or small, and are 
never tufted with long hair; while the tail is shorter than the head and body, 


SQUIRRELS. 77 


flattened, and rather wide. The skull is generally like that of the true squirrels, 
but rather narrower and more slender; and the first premolar tooth in the upper 
jaw is either absent or very minute. 

The common American chipmunk (Zamias striatus), together with its 
numerous varieties, is distinguished by having two white stripes, each bordered 
with black, and a simple black stripe running down the middle of the back; and 
has also two white stripes, separated by a black one, above and below the eye. It 
is about the size of the European squirrel, with which it also agrees approximately 
in the general ground-colour of the fur. There is, however, great local variation in 
this respect, specimens from the southern portions of the chipmunks’ range being 
lighter in colour than those from the north. The distribution of this species 
extends from Canada and Manitoba to Georgia and Western Missouri. The long- 
eared chipmunk (7. macrotus), from California, differs from it in the much greater 
length of its ears. 

On the other hand, the Siberian chipmunk (7. asiaticus), which, as we have 
said, is common to the Old and the New World, together with some other North 
American species, differs by having four light-coloured and five black stripes on the 
body. The tail is also relatively longer. In the Old World this species ranges 
from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk westward over the whole of Northern Asia, 
extending in Russia as far as the river Dwina, and along the whole course of the 
Amur. Including under the specific name a large number of varieties, which some 
writers are disposed to regard as distinct species, the Siberian chipmunk ranges in 
North America from Lake Superior and the neighbourhood of the Barren Grounds 
to New Mexico and Arizona, and extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboard. 

Chipmunks are among the commonest of North American 
Rodents, and their habits are consequently thoroughly well known. 
As those of all of the species are probably nearly similar, the excellent account 
given by Dr. Hart Merriam of the habits of the common chipmunk will suffice for 
all. These animals are migratory, and may be very abundant in a certain district 
in one year, while in the next comparatively few will be seen; their relative 
abundance being dependent upon the supply of food. Chipmunks feed not only 
on nuts and beech-mast, but likewise on various kinds of corn and roots; and they 
are also partial to the. larvee of insects. When beech-mast is abundant in the 
Adirondack Mountains, it may be safely predicted that swarms of chipmunks will 
make their appearance in the autumn. In such seasons the forerunners arrive in 
September, while by October the woods are alive with these creatures. “Finding 
an abundance of food,” writes Dr. Merriam, “they immediately establish themselves 
for the winter, and begin at once to hoard up large stores. They are the least 
hardy of our squirrels, commonly going into winter-quarters before the middle of 
November, and rarely appearing again in any numbers till the warm sun, in March 
or April, has caused plots of bare ground to appear between the snow-banks. 
Early thaws sometimes bring them out in February; and after having once 
emerged they often make little excursions over the snow during pleasant days, 
though the temperature may be several degrees below freezing. In running from 
tree to tree, even when not pursued, the length of their bound varies from twenty- 
five to thirty-four inches—a long leap for so small an animal.” They commonly 


Habits. 


78 RODENTS. 


leave the Adirondack region in July, since it is but seldom that there is a good 
crop of beech-nuts in two successive years. The young are born in the spring, and 
leave the nest by June. 

Chipmunks collect an astonishing quantity of food for the winter, which is 
carried to its place of deposit in their capacious cheek-pouches. In addition to 
regular storehouses, these animals lay up a portion of their winter supply here and 
there beneath the leaves of the forest. In a hole tenanted by four chipmunks, 
Audubon and Bachman relate that in the nest itself they found about a gill of 
corn, and in the communicating galleries upwards of about a quart of nuts, a peck 
of acorns, about two quarts of buckwheat, and a small quantity of Indian corn and 
grass seeds. Generally the chipmunk keeps to the ground, although it will often 
run some few feet up the trunk of a tree, and when pursued, if its hole be not 


THE COMMON CHIPMUNK (3 hat. size). 


°o 


accessible, will take refuge among the branches. Instances are, however, on record 
where these animals have been observed regularly ascending tall trees in search of 
food; and they seemed perfectly at home among the boughs, although they never 
leapt from branch to branch after the manner of the true squirrels. 

In regard to its general mode of life, Dr. Merriam observes that “the chip- 
munk establishes his headquarters in some log or stump, or in a hole excavated by 
himself in the earth, generally among the roots of a tree. He is partial to brush- 
heaps, wood piles, stone walls, rail fences, accumulations of old rubbish, and other 
places that afford him a pretty certain escape, and at the same time enable him to 
see what is transpiring outside. For, though by no means wary, he delights in 
these loosely sheltered hiding-places, where he can whisk in and out at will, peep 
unobserved at passers-by, and dart back when prudence demands. If suddenly 
surprised, he utters a sharp chip-per, 7, 7,7, and makes a sudden quick dash for his 
retreat, which is no sooner reached than, simultaneously with the disappearance of 


SUSLIKS. 79 


his tail, out pops his head, his keen dark eyes gazing intently at the source of 
alarm. If not pursued farther, he is very apt to advance towards the supposed 
enemy, betraying his excitement by a series of nervous starts and precipitous 
retreats, till finally, making a bold rush, he dashes by the object of his dread, and 
in another instant is peering out from a hole beneath the roots of a neighbouring 
tree.” ‘The chipmunk does not appear to make an agreeable pet, as it is apt to be 
sulky and morose, and disposed to bite the fingers of any one who offers it food. 


THE SUSLIKS, OR GOPHERS. 
Genus Spermophilus. 


The suslik or sisel of North-Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, and the 
striped gopher of North America are the best known representatives of the fourth 
genus of the Squirrel family. Both in this and the two following genera the 
incisor teeth are not compressed, while the form of the body is generally stout, 
and the tail either short or of moderate length; the molar teeth being of a simple 
type. The whole of the species are confined to Europe, Asia Minor, Asia north 
of the southern flanks of the Himalaya, and North America. 

The susliks, as the members of the genus Spermophilus may be collectively 
termed, are characterised by their somewhat slender and squirrel-like form, and 
the presence of large cheek-pouches. The external ears may be very small, or 
comparatively large and tufted; and the tail varies from a mere stump to 8 or 9 
inches in length. In the fore-feet the first toe is rudimentary, but its nail is 
sometimes present. The skull approximates to that of the squirrels, but the 
first upper premolar is relatively larger; and the two rows of upper cheek-teeth 
are nearly parallel to one another. The coloration may be either uniform or 
striped, but never resembles that of the chipmunks. 

The susliks are mainly confined to the colder regions of the 
Northern Hemisphere, and have very nearly the same distribution 
as the chipmunks, although there is no species common to the Old and the New 
World. With the exception of Eversmann’s suslik (S. eversmanni) of North- 
Eastern Asia, all the Old World species have short tails, while those of the New 
World are nearly all long-tailed, and approach more closely in form to the 
chipmunks. In North America no representatives of the genus occur to the east- 
ward of the plains and prairies forming the centre of the continent, but they 
range westwards to the coast of the Pacific. In latitude the range of the genus 
extends from the shores of the Arctic Sea to the plains of Northern Mexico. 

The common suslik (S. citillus), which is the species depicted in our illustra- 
tion, is common in Central and Eastern Europe and Siberia, and is a uniformly- 
coloured animal, scarcely as large as the European squirrel, with a very short tail, 
and minute external ears. In America the commonest representative of the genus 
is the striped gopher (S. tridecemlineatus), which is some 7 or 8 inches in length, 
with a tail of about two-thirds that length, and small ears. In colour it is typically 
dark reddish brown above, with six to eight longitudinal light stripes, alternating 
with from five to seven rows of light spots; the under-parts being yellowish brown 


Distribution. 


80 RODENTS. 


in the middle line, bordered on the sides with yellowish, with a narrow black band 
running between the two tints. This species ranges from the Red River in 
Y ) N97) a 2 2 7 ) 1 N a 
Canada to Texas. The long-eared gopher (S. grammurus), ranging from Colorado 
to California, may be cited as an example of another group of the genus, in which 
the ears are very large, and often fringed with long hairs, while the tail is very 
long and bushy. Fossil remains show that susliks were more widely distributed 
in Europe during the Pleistocene period than they are at the present day ; some of 
their remains having been discovered in the brick-earths of the Thames Valley. 

All the susliks are social and burrowing animals, generally 
selecting open plains, with a sandy or clayey soil, for the construction 
of their domiciles, and studiously avoiding forests or swampy districts. The burrows 
of the common suslik are as much as from six to eight feet in depth, and have each 


Habits. 


THE COMMON SUSLIK (3 nat. size), 


but a single entrance. When, however, these animals retire to the depths of their 
burrows for their winter sleep, they excavate a second passage from the sleeping- 
chamber to within a short distance from the surface of the ground. On awakening 
in the spring, an exit is made through this second passage, and the original entrance 
blocked up; and hence the length of time that a suslik-burrow has been occupied 
is indicated by the number of these deserted entrances around it. Within the 
burrow a large quantity of food, such as roots, seeds, berries, ete., is accumulated 
in the summer and autumn for winter use. Susliks will, however, also eat mice 
and small birds and their eggs. The young are born in the spring, and usually 
comprise from four to eight in a litter. If captured sufficiently young, susliks can 
be easily tamed ; and their flesh is much esteemed by the peasants of North-Eastern 
Europe and Siberia. 

In America all the more northern species pass the colder portion of the year 
in a state of hibernation, but in the more southern portion of their range the period 


MARMOTS. 81 


of sleep is considerably shortened, while the species in the extreme south remain 
more or less active throughout the winter. The striped gopher seems to be more 
decidedly carnivorous in its habits than the common suslik, devouring not only 
field-voles and other mice, but also some of the smaller species of squirrels, which 
cannot even live in a district abounding with gophers. Dr. Hoy states that, when 
a squirrel is put into the same cage with a striped gopher, the latter “will in a 
moment be all animation and activity, darting at the intruder, inflicting a wound, 
and flying back with such rapidity as to leave but little chance of defence. As 
soon as it has disabled its antagonist, it seizes it by the back of the neck and 
instantly kills it.” The gopher during the combat utters a low snarling growl, and 
after the death of its victim feasts on the brain and blood. This gopher also 
frequently robs hens’ nests, while other species have been detected in carrying off 
young chickens and turkeys. More remarkable is the circumstance that Richardson’s 
gopher (S. richardsonz) was formerly in the habit of feeding on the flesh of the 
innumerable carcases of bison left by the hunters on the prairies. 

Writing of the habits of Parry’s suslik (S. empetra), from the neighbourhood 
of Hudson Bay and Behring Strait,—a species closely allied to Eversmann’s suslik 
of Siberia,—Sir J. Richardson observes that “it is found generally in stony districts, 
but seems to delight chiefly in sandy hillocks amongst rocks, where burrows, in- 
habited by different individuals, may be often observed crowded together. One of 
the society is generally observed sitting erect on the summit of the hillock, whilst 
the others are feeding in the neighbourhood. Upon the approach of danger, he 
gives the alarm, and they instantly betake themselves to their holes, remaining 
chattering, however, at the entrances, until the advance of the enemy obliges them 
to retire to the bottom.” 


THE PRAIRIE-MARMOTS. 
Genus Cynomys. 


In addition to being the home of several species of true marmots akin to 
those of the Old World, North America also possesses a closely allied, but 
‘somewhat more specialised genus of Rodents, which may be designated prairie- 
marmots, although they are often most inappropriately termed prairie-dogs, while 
they are likewise known as barking squirrels. In size these animals hold a 
position intermediate between the susliks and the true marmots. They have small 
ears, and generally short tails, while their cheek-pouches are much less capacious 
than those of the susliks. In their fore-feet the first toe is well developed and 
furnished with a claw nearly as large as that of the fifth. The skull is massive, 
with the large postorbital processes directed nearly outwards (as shown in the 
figure on p. 66); and the molar teeth are very stout, with three grooves on their 
grinding-surfaces, in place of the two characterising those of the other two genera 
of the group. A further peculiarity in connection with the upper molar teeth, is 
that the two series, in place of running nearly parallel, are convergent behind. 

There are three species of prairie-marmots, two of which are confined to the 
prairies of the Rocky Mountain plateau, while the third inhabits Mexico. The 
common prairie-marmot (Cynonys ludovicianus) is confined to the drier districts 

VOL. I11.—6 


82 RODENTS. 


to the east of the Rocky Mountains, and is entirely an inhabitant of open plains. 
The length of the head and body usually varies from 11} to 123 inches, and that 
of the tail, inclusive of the hairs at the tip, from 4 to 5 inches. In colour the 
upper-parts are reddish brown varied with grey, and the under parts yellowish or 
brownish white, the tail being coloured like the back, but with a brownish black 
tip. The Columbian prairie-marmot (C. columbianus) is a smaller species dis- 
tinguished by its much shorter tail, which is entirely white, and by the more 
yellow tinge of the fur of the body. It occurs in the regions to the west of the 
Rocky Mountains, ranging at irregular intervals from Columbia through Colorado 


THE PRAIRIE-MARMOT ({ nat. size). 


and Arizona to the Sierra Nevada, and is a more mountain-dwelling animal than 
the preceding, occurring at elevations of as much as ten thousand feet above the 
sea. The Mexican prairie-marmot (C. mexicanus) is the largest of the three, and 
is distinguished from the common species of the plains by its much longer tail, in 
which the black at the tip is darker and extends for a greater distance. 

In general habits the prairie-marmots very closely resemble the 
true marmots, but it is stated that there is a distinct difference in 
this respect between the common and the Columbian species; the burrows of the 
latter being unprotected by a raised funnel-shaped entrance which is so characteristic 
of those of the former. The following account of the habits of the Columbian 
prairie-marmot is taken from the travels of Lewis and Clark, who write that 


Habits. 


MARMOTS. 83 


“these animals form large companies, like those on the Missouri, occupying with 
their burrows sometimes two hundred acres of land. The burrows are separate, 
and each possesses perhaps ten or twelve of these inhabitants. There is a little 
mound in front of the hole, formed of the earth thrown out of the burrow; and 
frequently there are three or four distinct holes, forming one burrow, with their 
entrances around the base of these little mounds. These mounds, sometimes about 
two feet in height and four in diameter, are occupied as watch-towers by the 
inhabitants of these little communities. The marmots, one or more, are irregularly 
distributed on the tract they thus occupy, at the distance of ten, twenty, or some- 
times from thirty to forty yards. When anyone approaches they make a shrill 
whistling sound, somewhat resembling tweet, tweet, tweet, the signal for their 
party to take the alarm and to retire into their intrenchments. They feed on 
the roots of grass, ete.” In Kansas the common prairie-marmot appears. only 
to retire for a few days at a time during the most inclement portion of the 
winter, having been observed in January as active as in summer. Farther to 
the north these animals doubtless, however, retire to their burrows for longer 
periods. 

Some of the burrows of the eastern species are commonly tenanted by a small 
kind of owl, while others are occupied by rattlesnakes; and it is a common popular 
error that all these three animals live together in mutual association and harmony. 
This, however, is far from being the true state of the case. The owls, indeed, take 
up their abode in some of the deserted burrows, and do no harm to their former 
owners, their food consisting mainly of insects and crayfish. On the other hand, 
the rattlesnakes resort to the colony for the purpose of feeding upon the young 
marmots; and although they usually dwell in one burrow, from which they have 
expelled the rightful occupants, they enter others in search of food. 


THE TRUE MARMOTS. 
Genus Arctomys. 


All who have travelled in the higher Alps or Himalaya, are familiar with the 
shrill, piercing, whistle-like screams of the marmots, uttered when they first catch 
sight of an intruder on their lonely domains, and preparatory to taking refuge in 
the security of their burrows. The true marmots, which are the largest members 
of the present group, are distinguished from prairie-marmots by their still stouter 
build, the absence of pouches in the cheeks, and the rudimentary condition of the 
first toe of the fore-foot, which has only a flattened nail in lieu of a claw. Their 
skulls are, moreover, still broader, with the two rows of upper molar teeth nearly 
parallel, and each molar tooth marked only by a pair of transverse grooves. The 
ears are small, like those of the prairie-marmots; and the tail is generally short, 
although occasionally equal to half the length of the head and body. In size 
marmots vary from about 15 to 25 inches in length, exclusive of the tail; the 
measurements of the latter ranging from 3 to about 12 inches. In general appear- 
ance, the stoutness of their bodies and the shortness of their limbs are their most 
obvious features. The head is wide and short, the small ears are more or less 


84 RODENTS. 


rounded, the eyes large and full, and the tail bushy. Their fur is of moderate 
length and rather coarse and stiff; and their colour is some shade of golden or 
reddish brown, shading more or less decidedly into black along the middle line of 
the back and on the tail, the tip of the latter being invariably dark. 

Marmots inhabit the northern portions of both the Old and New 
World, but in the former have a much more extensive distribution 
than either susliks or chipmunks. In the more southern portions of their range 
in the Old World, these animals are found only at considerable elevations above 
the sea-level, but in more northern districts, like the Siberian steppes, they are 
found on the lowland plains. In North America the common marmot, or wood- 
chuck, inhabits low elevations in districts where the winter climate is severe; but 
a second species is exclusively a mountain-dweller. None of them are found in 
forest districts ; and, whether in the mountains or on the plains, they generally 
select open spaces with a sandy soil, and within easy distance of water, for the 
construction of their burrows. 

Old World In Europe there are two representatives of the genus, of which 

Marmots. the first and larger is the Alpine marmot (Arctomys marmotta), now 
confined to the three disconnected mountain-ranges of the Pyrenees, Alps, and 
Carpathians; although, as attested by its fossil remains, during the Pleistocene 
period, when the climate was different, it was an inhabitant of the lowlands of 
Germany and other parts of the Continent. The length of this marmot is about 
20 inches, exclusive of the comparatively short tail. 

The bobae (A. bobac), of which a group is represented in our plate, is a smaller 
species, measuring only about 15 inches from the nose to the root of the tail, and 
with a much wider geographical range. This species has its present westerly 
limits on the frontier of Germany, and thence ranges eastwards through Galicia 
and Poland, across the steppes of Southern Russia, and so on to Amurland, 
Kamschatka, and Siberia; the climate of these regions being sufficiently cold to 
admit of the existence of marmots at low elevations. In Lapland and Scandinavia, 
marmots are quite unknown; but the southern limits of the bobac do not yet 
appear to be ascertained. 

Central Asia and the higher ranges of the inner Himalaya are inhabited by 
numerous species of marmots, but the genus is quite unknown to the southward of 
the latter range. Of these Asiatic species, one of the best known is the short-tailed 
Himalayan marmot (A. himalayanus), which is nearly allied to the bobac, but of 
somewhat larger size. Its range extends from the mountains of Yarkand and 
other parts of Turkestan to Ladak and Eastern Tibet, where it is usually found at 
elevations of from twelve thousand to thirteen thousand feet. The largest and 
handsomest of the whole Old World group is, however, the long-tailed red marmot 
(A. caudatus), in which the length of the head and body is about 24 inches, and 
that of the tail fully half as much. This marmot is readily recognised, not only 
by its large size and the great length of the tail, but also by the deep rufous tinge 
of the fur, and the large amount of black in the region of the back. This fine 
marmot may be met with on the mountain-ranges to the north of the valley of 
Kashmir, and thence to Gilgit in one direction, and parts of Ladak in the other, 
while it is also said to extend far into Central Asia. Other kindred but smaller 


Distribution. 


NI Nt! 
A ae 


Ny 


oe 


viay\\(\N\ 
wae 

et 
if 


i 


aye Rings 
oe 


COLONY OF BOBAC MARMOTS. 


MARMOTS. 7 87 


species are the Cabul marmot (A. dichrous) from Northern Afghanistan, and the 
golden marmot (A. aureus) from the mountains to the west of Yarkand. 

The districts inhabited by all the marmots of the Old World are desolate and 
barren ; being in most cases scorched with fierce heat in summer, while in winter 
they are subject to intense cold. In the Himalaya, these animals are not met with 
until the traveller has crossed the wooded outer ranges, and entered the bleak 
Tibetan districts. ‘The barren nature of the Siberian steppes is too well known to 
need more than passing mention. The occurrence of fossil remains of the Alpine 
marmot in many parts of Europe, such as Germany, the south of France, Italy 
as far south as Mentone, and Belgium, naturally leads to the conclusion that 
Western Europe had at one time a more or less steppe-like climate. As milder 
and more genial climatic conditions supervened, the Alpine marmot gradually 
retreated to the nearest mountain-ranges ; and we thus have a complete explanation 
of its present isolated distributional areas. 

The habits of all the marmots of the Old World appear to be 
very similar; all the species of these animals living in large 
companies, and excavating burrows in which they pass the whole of the winter 
buried in profound slumber. Indeed, marmots seem to be the most thoroughly 
hibernating of mammals, since their sleep is apparently unbroken, and they lay up 
no store of winter food. All the species are diurnal in their habits; and their food 
is purely of a vegetable nature, consisting mainly of roots, leaves, and seeds of 
various plants. In the Himalaya the burrows are very generally constructed 
beneath the shelter of a plant of wild rhubarb; and the tenants on a fine day take 
up their station on the mound at the entrance, or journey for a short distance in 
search of food. At the least alarm, they rush at once to the entrance of their 
burrow, when they sit up on their hind-quarters to survey the scene and detect the 
danger. If the enemy approach too close, the loud whistling scream is uttered, and 
the animal dives headlong into its burrow, to reappear after a time and see if the 
coast is clear. Both in the Alps and Himalaya marmot-warrens are situated in 
exposed situations, generally where there is a considerable open space, and which 
in winter are deeply buried in snow. In the case of the Alpine species, the winter- 
querters are made in large burrows, each with a single entrance, and terminating 
in an extensive chamber lined with grass; such chambers, according to Prof. 
Blasius, frequently containing as many as from ten to fifteen occupants during the 
winter, all lying closely packed together. From two to four young appears to be 
the usual number in a litter of the Himalayan species. 

The flesh of marmots is said to be of good flavour, and is largely consumed by 
the inhabitants of the Siberian steppes, who as soon as the bobac reappears in 
spring, after its winter sleep, organise a regular system of hunting. In shooting 
marmots it is essential that they should be killed at the first shot, as the sportsman 
is only able to come within range when they are sitting at the mouths of their 
burrows, and if only wounded, no matter how severely, they are well-nigh sure 
to have sufficient power left to struggle down. Marmots in the Himalaya 
will generally reappear after being fired at once, but after a second fright 
they are seldom seen again on that day. All the species appear to be readily 
tamed. 


Habits. 


Soa RODENTS. 


American Three well-defined species of marmot inhabit North America, 

Marmots. namely the woodchuck (A. monax), the Rocky Mountain marmot 
(A. flaviventer), and the hoary marmot (A. pruinosus). Of these the last is the 
largest, and agrees closely with the Alpine species, though the length of the head 
and body is said to reach from 23 to 25 inches. The second does not exceed 18} 
inches in length of head and body, but has a much longer tail, of which the length 
is from 9 to 10 inches. This species ranges from California through the Rocky 
Mountains to about the 49th parallel of latitude ; it appears to be a strictly Alpine 
animal, and is to some extent gregarious, like the Old World species. 


THE ALPINE MARMOT (+ nat. size). 


The woodchuck is the smallest of the three species, averaging only 144 inches 
in length of head and body, with a tail of nearly half this dimension. It is 
generally mixed fulvous, brownish black, and grey above, and yellowish or 
brownish red below; but some specimens are almost wholly black. The range of 
the woodchuck extends from Manitoba to Carolina, and westwards from the 
Atlantic to Missouri and Minnesota. 

In habits this species appears to differ considerably from the Old World forms. 
According to Dr. Hart Merriam, it delights in the open meadows and rocky hill- 
sides in the cultivated area round the Adirondack Mountains, where it feeds 
chiefly upon grass and clover. Although generally living in burrows of its own 


Fu Nee 0 ites ale 


FLYING SQUIRRELS. 89 


excavation, the woodchuck will sometimes take up its abode in rocky ledges or in 
the hollow roots of trees. During the summer the greater number of these animals 
live in the open fields; but in the winter it appears that in the Adirondack region 
at least they retire for the winter to burrows situated close to, or actually within, 
the borders of woods. In the Adirondacks the woodchucks become very fat in the 
early autumn, and retire for their winter sleep—no matter what be the temperature 
or the state of the weather—about the equinox, from which they do not awake 
till the middle or latter part of March. Still more remarkable is the circumstance 
that the animal often retires when the weather is genial and food abundant, while 
at the time of its reappearance the ground is frequently deep in snow. 

“Woodchucks,” writes Dr. Merriam, “are both nocturnal and diurnal, the 
periods of feeding being determined, in a general way, by the time of the year, the 
weather, and the proximity of enemies. In summer, throughout the farming 
districts, they commonly leave their burrows early in the morning, late in the 
afternoon, and during moonlight nights; but may sometimes be found abroad at 
all hours. As autumn approaches, and they become more fat and sleepy, they 
usually appear only in fine weather, and then but for a few hours in the hottest 
part of the afternoon.” Like the Old World species, the woodechuck when much 
hunted becomes exceedingly wary and difficult to approach; but it differs from all 
the latter in that it will sometimes ascend trees and shrubs—making these ascents 
sometimes for pleasure and at others to avoid foes. _Woodchucks live either singly 
or in pairs; the young, which are born at the end of April or beginning of May in 
the Adirondack district, remaining with their parents only a few months. The 
number in a litter is usually from four to six. When the young first leave their 
parents they take refuge in stone walls, hollow logs, or even hollow trees—habits 
quite different from those of their Old World cousins, and showing a marked 
approximation towards the chipmunks. 

In some parts of New Hampshire woodchucks are so numerous as to cause 
serious inconvenience to agriculturists, and rewards have consequently been offered 
by the State for their destruction. 

Extinct Marmot- Remains of extinct species of susliks occur in the higher 

like Rodents. Tertiary rocks of Europe; in addition to which the Upper Eocene 
beds of France yield evidence of an extinct but apparently allied genus, known as 
Plesispermophilus. More primitive are the forms described as Plesiarctomys, 
which, while showing certain resemblances both to the marmots and the squirrels, 
have triangular three-cusped upper molar teeth, and no bony process defining the 
hinder limit of the upper border of the socket of the eye. These Rodents are 
found in the Middle Tertiary deposits both of Europe and North America. 


THE FLYING SQUIRRELS. 
Genera Sciwropterus, Pteromys, and Eupetawrus. 


The flying squirrels of the Northern Hemisphere, which are divided into the 
three generic groups named above, are sufficiently characterised by possessing a 
parachute-like membrane extending from the sides of the body to the toes, and 


go RODENTS. 


supported in front by a cartilage attached to the outer side of the wrist. There 
is also another membrane connecting the sides of the neck with the fore-limb; and 
there may be likewise one between the hind-legs and the root of the tail. The 
molar teeth are of a very complex type, and as their skulls differ considerably 
from those of all the preceding genera, the flying squirrels are now regarded as 
indicating a distinct subfamily. Moreover, as the group is known to be of consider- 
able antiquity, it is not improbable that it has no generic affinity with any of the 
foregoing genera but that it traces its descent to some totally extinct group of 
the family. With the exception of one North American species, and a second from 
Siberia and Eastern Europe, the flying squirrels are confined to the Indian and 
Malayan regions. They are all exclusively nocturnal in their habits, and mainly 
inhabit forest regions, although one may frequent rocks alone. Their mode of 
flight and general habits appear to be very similar to those of the flying lemur ; 
and when leaping from tree to tree they utter sharp piercing cries which are 
familiar to all who have travelled in regions where flying squirrels are to be found. 
Lesser Flying The lesser flying squirrels, constituting the genus Sciuropterus, 
Squirrels. are those which have the lowest crowned molar teeth in the group, 
although there is considerable variation in the structure of these teeth. All the 
members of the genus are distinguished by the parachute-like membrane along 
the sides being of moderate width; and by the rudimentary condition of the 
membrane between the hind-legs, which does not include any portion of the tail. 
The fur, as in all other members of the group, is very thick and soft; but the 
tail differs from that of the other flying squirrels in being broad, and flattened 
from above downwards, in order, probably, to act as an aid in flight. In size these 
animals vary from 5 to 12 inches in length. The large size of their expressive 
eyes, and the beautiful silky softness of their fur, render them exceedingly 
attractive creatures. The North American species (S. volucella), which is the 
one represented in our illustration, has the fur of an ashy brown above, and 
creamy-white below. 
Distribution and The lesser flying squirrels include a considerable number of 
Habits. species, one of whichis an inhabitant of North America, and a second 
of Siberia and North-Eastern Europe, while all the others are confined to the 
Indian and Malayan regions, extending as far northwards as Afghanistan and 
Kashmir. The following notes refer mainly to the habits of the North American 
species, of which an excellent account is given by Dr. Hart Merriam. Like ordinary 
squirrels, these animals subsist mainly on nuts, seeds, and buds, but the American 
species also eats beetles, and probably other insects, and may be taken in traps 
baited with meat, while in confinement it will but seldom refuse flesh. The American 
flying squirrels construct nests in the hollow trees they haunt, and in the cold 
winters of the Adirondack region near New York they retire to these nests, and 
probably hibernate. The same habits will doubtless hold good for the species 
inhabiting Kashmir and Afghanistan, but those inhabiting India proper and the 
warm Malayan region remain active at all seasons. The Kashmir flying squirrel 
(S. fmbriatus), in some cases at least, produces four young at a birth. 
In the daytime these squirrels remain concealed in hollow trees, and only 
issue forth at sunset in quest of food. Numbers frequently associate in one tree ; 


FLYING SQUIRRELS. gt 


and if such a tree be discovered the creatures may be induced to come forth one 
after another by tapping the stem. With regard to the flying leaps of the 
American flying squirrel, Dr. Merriam observes that “the ease, grace, and rapidity 
with which it glides from tree to tree inspires the merest passer-by with wonder 
and admiration. Its ordinary mode of progression is by a series of alternate 
climbs and leaps. Upon reaching a tree, the first act 1s to ascend, for, being 
unable to sail horizontally, it must attain a considerable elevation before venturing 
toleap to the next. Instead of moving off in this way when disturbed, it some- 
times runs up into the topmost branches of the nearest tree, and, curling itself 
into a surprisingly small compass, remains motionless until the intruder has taken 
his departure.” 

The earlier writers, Audubon and Bachman also describe very graphically the 


AMERICAN FLYING SQUIRREL (4 nat. size). 


movements of a colony of these animals they once encountered. ~ At times, they 
write, “one would be seen darting from the topmost branches of a tall oak, and 
with wide extended membranes and outspread tail gliding diagonally through the 
air, till it reached the foot of a tree about fifty yards off, when at the moment we 
expected to see it strike the earth, it suddenly turned upwards and alighted on 
the body of the tree. It would then run to the top and once more precipitate 
itself from the upper branches and sail back again to the tree it had just left. 
Crowds of these little creatures joined in these sportive gambols; there could not 
have been less than two hundred. Scores of them would leave each tree at the 
same moment, seeming to have no other object in view than to indulge a playful 
propensity.” In America the flying squirrels breed early in April. 

The American flying squirrel, if taken sufficiently young, can be readily and 
speedily tamed, and forms a most charming pet. Indeed, it is said that they 
become tame and thoroughly confiding much sooner than any other kind of wild 


g2 RODENTS. 


creature. When going to sleep, a specimen kept by Prof. F. H. King was in the 
habit of first placing its nose upon the table, or other surface upon which it 
happened to be standing, and then walking forwards and at the same time rolling 
itself up, until the nose almost protruded from between the hind-legs. The tail 
was then curved in a horizontal coil around the feet, so that the whole animal 
appeared to form a complete ball of soft fur. 

One of the smallest representatives of these animals is the pigmy flying 
squirrel (iS. spadiceus), from Arakan and Cochin-China, in which the length of 
the head and body is only about 5 inches, while the tail is half an inch shorter. 
This species is chestnut-red above, with the basal portions of the hairs black, and 
white beneath. The polatouche, or Siberian flying squirrel (S. volans) is about 
6 inches in length, with the upper-parts of the body in summer tawny brown, and 
the under-parts pure white; the tail being greyish above and rufous beneath. 
Extinct representatives of these flying squirrels have recently been recognised 
from the middle Tertiary deposits of Europe, and it is probable that the genus is 
likewise represented in the corresponding rocks of North America. 

Larger Flying The larger flying squirrels (Pteromys), of which an example is 
Squirrels. yepresented in our coloured Plate, in addition to their superior dimen- 
sions, are distinguished from the preceding by the greater relative width of the 
flank-membrane, by the presence of a well-developed membrane connecting the 
hind-legs and embracing the upper part of the tail, as well as by the perfectly 
cylindrical form of the latter appendage. They are further characterised by the 
taller crowns and somewhat more complex structure of the molar teeth, which are 
nearly similar in all the species. 

There are at least ten species of this genus, ranging from India, through 
Burma and the Malayan region to the south of China and Formosa, and also 
extending northwards into Eastern Tibet. One of the best known species is the 
Malayan flying squirrel, or taguan (P. petawrista) from the Malay Peninsula and 
Islands. Closely allied, is Hodgson’s flying squirrel (P. magnificus), from the 
Nipal Himalaya and the ranges south of the Assam Valley, at elevations of from 
five thousand to six thousand feet. The length of the head and body of this species 
is 16 inches, and that of the tail from 18 to 22 inches. Its colour appears to undergo 
a seasonal change; the upper-parts, in what is considered to be the summer-dress, 
being of a deep maroon colour, usually with a more or less distinct yellow line down 
the middle of the back; while the sides of the neck and the inner border of the 
parachute yellowish, and the rest of the latter reddish or chestnut. On the other 
hand, in the presumed winter-coat, the upper-parts are chestnut, without any light 
line down the back. The larger forests of peninsular India south of the Ganges, as 
well as those of Ceylon, Burma, and Mergui, are tenanted by another very fine 
species known as the large brown flying squirrel (P. oral), in which the length of 
the head and body varies from 16 to 18 inches, and that of the tail from 24 to 25 
inches. ‘The general colour is grizzled-brown above, varying from deep chestnut to 
grey in one direction, and to black in the other; the under-parts being white, often 
more or less tinged with grey or brown. In the Western Himalaya, at elevations 
of from six thousand to ten thousand feet, and in Kashmir, this species is replaced 
by the closely allied large red flying squirrel (P. inornatus), distinguished by its 


PIGMY SQUIRRELS. 93 


more rufous pelage. The spotted flying squirrel (P. punctatus), represented in 
our coloured Plate, is a considerably smaller species from Malacca and Burma, dis- 
tinguished by the white spots on the back. 

The habits of all the members of this genus are very similar and closely 
resemble those of the lesser flying squirrels. The large red species probably 
hibernates, but most of the others are active throughout the year. The common 
brown Indian form inhabits the forest, but in forest-clad districts they may be 
found near villages in clumps of mango and other trees. In addition to fruits and 
nuts, it is said to eat bark, and also insects and their larvee; and it drinks by lapping 
with the tongue. Its ery is described as a low, soft monotone, quickly repeated. 
Mr. Blanford writes that this “flying squirrel sleeps during the day, sitting, like 
so many arboreal mammals, with its back bent into a circle and its head thrust 
inside ; or, in hot weather, lying on its back with the parachute extended. It is 
not so active as other squirrels, either on trees or on the ground, the parachute 
impeding its movements. When passing from one tree to another at a distance, it 
leaps, with its parachute extended, from the higher branches, and descends, at first 
more directly, then, apparently, by availing itself of the resistance of the air, more 
and more obliquely, until its flight gradually growing slower, becomes horizontal 
and finally terminates in an ascent to the trunk or branch of the tree to which its 
flight is directed.” It is stated that these squirrels have been known to traverse 
distances of sixty and nearly eighty yards in their flight from tree to tree. Although 
readily tamed, they are very difficult to keep alive in captivity. 

Woolly Flying The woolly flying squirrel (Hupetawrus cinereus) differs from all 
Squirrel. the other members of the family in having markedly high-crowned 
teeth, with flat (instead of ridged) grinding surfaces, and is accordingly referred 
to a distinct genus, which must be regarded as the most specialised member of the 
group. This magnificent flying squirrel inhabits the district of Gilgit, to the north- 
west of Kashmir, and is one of the largest species, the length of the head and body 
being about 18 inches, and that of the unusually bushy tail about 24 inches. This 
species differs from the members of the preceding genus by its shorter and blunter 
claws; its general colour being dull greyish brown, with a slight greenish tinge 
above, and ashy brown below. From the nature of the districts in which it occurs, 
and also from the shortness and bluntness of its claws, it is inferred that this 
squirrel is in the habit of climbing about on rocks, instead of living on trees. A 
magnificent skin of this species was obtained in Kashmir by the present writer 
about 1878, but it was not till the arrival in England ten years later of a living 
although smaller example of the animal that it was recognised as a distinct species. 
It is not improbable that this fine flying squirrel also occurs in Tibet. 


THE PIGMY SQUIRRELS. 


Genus Nannosciurus. 


A small group of tiny squirrels comprising only five species, of which three 
are from Borneo, and the fourth is an inhabitant of the Philippines, while the fifth 
(Nannosciurus minutus) is West African, are now regarded as constituting not only 


94 RODENTS. 


a distinct genus, but likewise a separate subfamily, although they were till recently 
included among the true squirrels. Their skulls are remarkable for the elongated 
form of the region of the face, while the forehead is much broader than in any 
other type; and the process defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye is 
so elongated as to cause the eye to be almost surrounded by bone. In the upper 
jaw there may be either one or two pairs of small premolar teeth; and the molars 
are much more complex than in any other squirrels, closely approaching those 
of the dormice in structure; the upper molars having only three transverse 
plates, instead of the four characterising those of the other members of the 
family. 

One of the prettiest representatives of the group is Whitehead’s pigmy squirrel 
(N. whiteheadi), from North Borneo, in which the head and body measure only 
about 31 inches in length, and the ears are surmounted by extraordinarily long 
tufts of black and white hairs, apparently more elongated than in any other squirrel. 
This little animal, which is grizzled olive grey in general colour, may be commonly 
seen running up and down the trunks of the forest trees on Mount Kina Balu. 


THE SEWELLELS. 


Family HAPLODONTIDZ. 


These North American Rodents differ so remarkably from the other living forms 
that they are regarded as constituting a family by themselves, of which the nearest 
affinities are supposed to be with the Squirrel family. They differ from all the 
members of that family by their extremely flattened and broad skulls, in which 
there is no postorbital process defining the hinder part of the upper border of the 
socket of the eye. The molar teeth have no roots, and the first pair of premolars 
in the upper jaw are exceedingly minute. 

Common The common sewellel (Haplodon rufus) is an animal measuring 
Sewellel. = about a foot in length, exclusive of the stump-like tail, which measures 
little more than an inch. The general colour of the fur is brown, more or less 
mingled with black, with the under-parts greyish; the front teeth being yellow. 
The general form of the animal is short and clumsy, with the body relatively large 
and cylindrical. Dr. Hart Merriam observes that “this singular animal, which has 
come down to us as a relic of the past, and has no near affinities with any existing 
group, inhabits a narrow strip of country on the north-west coast of the United 
States. All the specimens thus far obtained have come either from Oregon or 
Washington, or from the Chilukweyuk River near its junction with the Fraser, 
just across our border in British Columbia.” The animal lives in companies, 
constructing burrows in moist ground. 
Californian The Californian sewellel (H. major)—the mountain-beaver of 
Sewellel the inhabitants—is a larger animal, measuring 16 inches in length, 
with greyish brown fur above. These Rodents inhabit the Sierra Nevada, and are 
largely aquatic in their habits). Mr. C. A. Allen, by whom the species was 
discovered, writes that they “live in small colonies, and inhabit wet ground where 
there is plenty of running water. They are very compact and strong, with a head 


BEAVERS. 95 


which resembles that of a pug-dog. They are very shy, timid animals. On first 
seeing a human being, they try to hide away, but on being aroused are savage 
enough. . . They come out of their burrows about sundown to get their food, and 
again at daylight in the morning.” Mr. Allen proceeds to say that the food of this 
sewellel is mainly composed of aquatic plants, especially the stems of a water-lily ; 
and he adds that the burrows of these animals are always on the lower part of a 
hillside, and frequently have running water passing through them. Their feet are 
eminently adapted for grasping, and it is stated that these creatures are in the 
constant habit of ascending broken and small trees furnished with branches. 
They are generally captured by means of traps set in the water. 


THE BEAVERS. 
Family CASTORIDZ. 


From the large relative size of the animals themselves, coupled with their 
extraordinary constructive and destructive powers, an amount of interest invariably 
attaches to beavers which is not vouchsafed to other members of the order to 
which they belong. As is so frequently the case in analogous instances, the 
constructive abilities and engineering capacities of these animals—marvellous 
as they undoubtedly are—have, however, been greatly exaggerated in popular 
estimation; and the creatures have been credited with performing tasks of which 
they are utterly incapable. 

Beavers, of which there are two species or varieties,—one confined to Northern 
and Eastern Europe and parts of Western and Northern Asia, and the other to 
North America,—are the only existing representatives of the family to which they 
belong, and constitute the genus Castor. The family is characterised by the 
massive form of the skull, in which there are no postorbital processes defining the 
hinder border of the eye-sockets, and the angle of the lower jaw is rounded off. 
There is but one pair of premolars in each jaw; and the cheek-teeth have no roots, 
a perfectly flat grinding-surface, and re-entering folds of enamel. The two series 
of cheek-teeth converge towards the front of the jaws, and the premolar in each 
jaw is larger than either of the molars. 

As a genus, beavers are characterised by their stout and heavy bodily 
conformation, this being most marked in the hinder quarters. The head is large 
and rounded, with short ears; and the tail is of moderate length, much flattened, 
and covered with a naked, scaly skin. The limbs are short, with five sharp-clawed 
toes on both the fore and hind-feet!; all the toes of the hind-feet beimg connected 
by a web extending to the roots of the claws. The portion of the muzzle 
surrounding the nostrils is naked, as are the soles of the feet, while the ears are 
scaly. Both the ears and the nostrils are capable of being closed. The fur is 
peculiarly thick and soft, its general colour being reddish brown above, and greyer 
beneath. There is, however, some amount of individual variation in this respect, 
individuals from northern regions inclining to be darker in coloration than those 
from the southern districts of the habitat of these animals. Occasionally pied or 


1 There is an additional claw on the second toe of the hind foot, probably employed in dressing the fur. 


96 RODENTS. 


white beavers are met with. Each molar tooth has three folds of enamel on one 
side, and one on the other; the three folds occurring on the outer side in those of 
the upper jaw, and on the inner side in the lower teeth. In size, the beaver is the 
largest of all the Old World Rodents, its total length being about 40 inches, of 
which 10 are taken up by the tail. The weight of the adult animal usually varies 
from about 45 to 50 lbs., but may reach as much as 60. 
Hav Orean There has been much discussion as to whether the American 
and American beaver (C. canadensis) is entitled to rank as a distinct species, or 
Beavers. merely as a well-marked variety of the Kuropean Castor fiber; and 
there is still a difference of opinion among zoologists on this point. That the two 
are very closely allied is admitted on all sides; and, although the matter is not of 
very much importance one way or the other, it is, on the whole, convenient to 
adopt the view of their specific duality. The main difference between the two 
forms is to be found in the characters of the skull; that of the European beaver 
being relatively narrower in front, with the nasal bones extending somewhat 


SKELETON AND JAWS OF BEAVER, 


farther back than is the case with its transatlantic cousin. <A large series of 
specimens show, however, that these characteristics are liable to a certain amount 
of variation in the two forms. 
Distcibution ce Owing to incessant persecution for the sake of their valuable 
the European fur, both the European and the American beaver are doomed to 
Beaver. —_ extinction as wild animals at no very distant date; this fate having 
already practically overtaken the European species, which only lingers on here 
and there in small numbers. Formerly, beavers were widely spread over 
Europe; and their abundance in the British Isles is attested not only by the 
numerous remains found in the fens and cavern-deposits of England, but lke- 
wise by the number of places, such as Beaverbourne, Beverage, Beaverege, 
Bevercater, Beverley, Beverstone, and Beversbrook, which derive their names 
from these animals. According to the researches of Mr. J. E. Harting, it does not 
appear that there is any historic evidence of the existence of beavers in England ; 
but in Wales it is on record that they still lingered in Cardiganshire as late as 
the year 1188. That they occurred in the south of Scotland is proved by the 
occurrence of their remains, but there is no definite historic evidence of their 
existence; while in Ireland we have neither the testimony of their remains nor 
of documents. 


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BEAVERS AT WORK. 
VOL, III.—7 


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BEAVERS. 99 


On the Continent beavers were exterminated from Holland in 1825. In 
France evidence of the former abundance of these animals is afforded by their 
buried remains, and by the names of places like Bievre and Beuvray. Within the 
historic period the Rhine and its tributaries appear to have been their last strong- 
holds, although they had become very rare during the last century. Beavers are, 
however, still met with in the Rhone and its affluents, where M. Mayet, writing in 
1889, estimates that from twenty-five to thirty are annually killed. In the 
Pleistocene period the beaver ranged into Italy as far south as Rome, but there is 
no evidence of its existence there since that date. The lake-villages of Switzerland 
afford evidence of the abundance of beavers in that country during the prehistoric 
period; and in the early part of this century they still lingered on in the Rhine, 
one having been captured in the year 1829. In North-Western Germany the 
Moselle and the Maas were formerly noted for the number of their beavers. The 
Lippe—one of the tributaries of the Rhine—was likewise a well-known haunt; and 
at Kettlinghausen and Paderborn on that river, there were large colonies of these 
animals at the beginning of the present century. Again, in the Elbe basin, there 
was a considerable colony near Magdeburg in 1829, while at Wittenberg and 
Kahnert these animals were abundant in 1801, while no less than eight individuals 
were observed in the latter locality so late as 1878. In Bohemia, the valley of 
the Moldau, forming the upper part of the Elbe basin, abounded in beavers up 
to the year 1848, although this was largely owing to strict protection. On 
the upper Danube and its tributaries there were numerous colonies in the first 
half of this century, one of the most noted being on the small river Amper, to the 
north of Munich, which was in a flourishing condition between the years 1837 
and 1846. Beavers also existed on the lower Danube in Austria, Hungary, and 
Turkey; and they have been recorded from the upper Euphrates Valley and the 
Caucasus. On the lower Danube a colony is preserved by the Emperor of 
Austria. 

From the Caucasus the range of the beaver extended through Russia, Poland, 
and Livonia, to Lapland and Scandinavia. Beavers were abundant in the Tereck 
Valley to the north of the Caucasus in 1842; and in Livonia they were so common 
in 1724, that their dams were a serious inconvenience to the district. The last 
Livonian beaver was, however, killed in 1841; but a few were still living in the 
Dnieper and the Svislocz (Government of Minsk) in 1889. The Russian rivers 
Dwina and Petchora, respectively flowing into the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, 
were inhabited by beavers till 1842. Through Silesia it is believed that these 
animals extended as far east as Amurland; but in the valley of the Obi they are 
now extinct in the Irtish, although still lingering in the Pelyin; and they have 
quite disappeared from the eneters in Sage Silesia. In Poland and Lithuania 
a few may still survive; but the last Lapland beaver was killed about 1830. In 
Scandinavia three considerable colonies still exist near Arendal in Norway, the 
number of individuals living in 1883 being about one hundred; these colonies are 
strictly preserved. In Denmark we only know of the existence of the beaver by 
the evidence of its remains buried in the peat-mosses. It may be added that in 
1874 the Marquis of Bute introduced beavers into the island from which he takes 
his title, where they have since thriven. 


100 RODENTS. 


Distribution of At the time of the discovery of America, the beaver of that 
the American continent had a wider distribution than any other mammal except 
Beaver. the puma. Its range extended from Alaska and the Hudson’s Bay 
district in the north, along the Atlantic seaboard as far south as Georgia and 
Northern Florida, and thence along the Gulf of Mexico as far as the Rio Grande in 
Texas, and also some distance into Mexico; while on the Pacific Coast it extended 
to California and Arizona. The desert and the prairie districts of the interior, as 
being unsuitable to its habits, were, however, of course, not tenanted by the beaver, 
which was necessarily confined to the valleys of the great rivers and lakes. 
Writing in 1877, Mr. C. A. Allen observes that “its present range, however, is 
much more restricted, very few being found east of the Mississippi River south of 
the great lakes, and it is everywhere less numerous than formerly. Some still 
remain in northern Maine and in the Adirondack region of New York, and 
probably some still survive thence southwards in the sparsely-settled districts to 
Alabama and Mississippi. A recent article states that they are still abundant in 
portions of Virginia. Their existence is in great abundance throughout the 
Atlantic States, and thence westward to the Pacific.” Since the date when this 
passage was penned, the extermination of the beaver appears to have gone on apace ; 
and Mr. H. T. Martin, writing in 1892, says that only a few colonies now linger in 
the United States, especially on the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, while in Canada 
the numbers of the animal are vastly diminished. “ Along the watershed, between 
the Hudson’s Bay rivers and the St. Lawrence, in the upper waters of the Frazer 
and Peace Rivers, and along the Rocky Mountain Range, may be considered the last 
homes of the beaver.” Mr. Martin adds that “as to the ultimate destruction of 
the beaver no possible question can arise, and the evidences of approaching exter- 
mination can be seen only too plainly in the miles of territory exhibiting the 
decayed stump, the broken dam, and deserted lodge. The passing bear or wolverene 
tears open the lodge, partly in the vain hope of finding a meal; partly from habit ; 
the rising waters float the logs away, while the drifting ice in fall and spring 
gradually destroys the dam, till within a decade, where once the busy colony spent 
their happy domestic lives, no sign remains of all their wondrous toil.” 

Beavers are mainly nocturnal, and almost exclusively aquatic 
animals; although it is stated that during the summer they will 
sometimes make journeys of considerable length on land, when they subsist upon 
fruit and corn, instead of their usual diet of bark and twigs. They are likewise 
essentially social creatures, usually associating in larger or smaller colonies; 
although the few still remaining in the rivers of the Old World are—owing to the 
lack of companions—for the most part either solitary or in pairs. Needless to say, 
these animals are expert divers and swimmers; their movements in the water being 
graceful in the extreme, and effected almost entirely by the aid of their powerful and 
webbed hind-limbs. In addition to bark and twigs, they consume large quantities of 
the roots and stems of water-lilies and other aquatic plants. The young, usually from 
three to four in a litter, are produced at the close of the winter or early in the 
spring, in the shelter of the burrow or lodge, but 1t is not yet ascertained 
whether they are born with their eyes open or closed. Beavers do not hibernate, 
in the strict sense of the term, although during the depth of the winter they sleep 


Habitat. 


BEAVERS. IOI 


longer, and move about much less than at other times. In the winter, in America 
at all events, they swim about beneath the ice, dragging up water-lily roots for 
food and feasting upon the store of branches they have accumulated in the deep 
pools during the winter; and it is for the purpose of securing a sufficient depth of 
water in which to swim beneath the ice that they construct their well-known 
dams. Most of the beavers still remaining in the rivers of the Old World live in 
burrows in the banks, without constructing either dams or lodges. The colony 
near Magdeburg, alluded to above, are known, however, to have undertaken both 
these engineering works; and it is hence probable that European beavers were 
originally similar as regards their habits to their American cousins, but that 
through their reduced numbers and the constant persecution which they have 
undergone, the building propensity has been lost. 

In America beavers generally select as their haunts a well-timbered district 
traversed by a narrow stream; and by felling the trees on the banks, and forming 
with the aid of their trunks and boughs a dam and lodges across the stream, the 
water is headed back so as to form a large lake or pool. In some cases a series of 
such dams and pools may be seen one above another in the course of the stream. 
It is believed that the original object of tree-felling is to obtain a supply of food 
for winter; and that the employment of the peeled trunks and branches for the 
construction of the dam and lodges is a secondary development. The beaver 
fells the trees it requires by gnawing through their stems with its sharp front 
teeth at a short distance above the ground; the stem being generally gnawed 
nearly equally all round till the tree falls with its own weight. As trees on a river 
bank generally incline towards the water, they usually fall in the required direction. 
Sometimes, however, the animals miscalculate, and trees which they have felled 
may be seen caught in the forks of neighbouring stems. The trees selected for 
felling are usually from five to eight or nine inches in diameter, but occasionally 
trunks of as much as eighteen across are successfully attacked. The beaver 
goes to work in a thoroughly scientific manner, gnawing out very large chips, 
which are sometimes as much as nine inches in length. When the trees are felled, 
they are stripped of their boughs, and the trunks cut into lengths of five or six feet, 
which, after being barked, are rolled into the stream or pond, and employed in the 
construction of the dam and lodges. 

The term “lodge,” it may be explained, is applied in America to the abodes 
constructed by these animals in the water of their ponds. It is now generally 
accepted that the lodge is nothing more than an extreme development of the burrows 
or “wash” in the banks. On this subject Mr. Martin writes as follows: “Starting 
with the simple burrow, the next step is the accumulation of logs and branches 
about its entrance, forming what is called a ‘bank-lodge. In places where the 
water is shallow towards the shore, a great advantage would be derived from ex- 
tending this artificial covering of brushwood, so that in time a natural evolution 
of the lodge disconnected entirely from the shore would take place, and form an 
independent and very convenient refuge from landward enemies.” The lodge con- 
tains a large internal chamber, lined with grass, and is entered by several 
approaches beneath the surface of the water. The construction of the lodge is, 
however, of a much less elaborate nature than has often been stated to be the case. 


102 RODENTS. 


On this point Mr. Martin writes that “the beaver-lodge is generally included in the 
list of marvels reserved for the investigation of those who visit beaver-districts, and 
yet no greater disappointment awaits the inquirer than the first inspection of one. 
Somehow the minds of all lovers of natural history become affected by the fabulous 
accounts concerning this structure, and it is a shock to stand for the first time 
before a pile of twigs, branches, and logs, heaped in disorder upon a small dome of 
mud, and to learn that this constitutes the famous lodge. Of course the superficial 
glance does not convey all that can be learnt in connection with this work, but it 
does most completely disillusionise the mind. On breaking through the upper 
walls, the interior is found to be similar to the general type of an animal’s sleeping 
apartment, and has scarcely any distinguishing characteristic.” 

Both dams and lodges are made more or less impervious to water by the 
addition of a quantity of mud, which is plastered on by the beavers with the aid of 
the fore-feet, and not, as is often supposed, with the assistance of the tail; the latter 
organ acting only as a rudder in swimming. The length of a beaver-dam may 
occasionally be as much as one hundred and fifty or two hundred yards, and their 
ponds may cover many acres. Frequently a formation of peat commences round 
the edges of the ponds, and this may extend over the whole area, converting it into 
a swampy tract known as a beaver-meadow. A considerable part of the city of 
Montreal is built upon such beaver-meadows. 

In summer beavers generally forsake the neighbourhood of their lodges to 
travel up or down the stream; occasionally, as already mentioned, taking consider- 
able journeys on land. With the advent of early autumn they return to their 
winter-quarters, and at once set about the necessary repairs to the dam and lodges, 
and the collection of a supply of food for the winter. 

Commercial Uses The beaver is hunted in North America not only for its valuable 

and Hunting. fur, but likewise for the substance known as castoreum, which is 
contained in two elongated glands at the hinder part of the body; while its flesh is 
also used as an article of food. Castoreum is a waxy substance with a peculiar 
smell, and is used in medicine, although chiefly on the Continent. It sells, accord- 
ing to Mr. Poland, from thirty-eight to forty-five shillings per lb., and no less 
than 1486 lbs. of this substance were sold in London alone in the year 1891. 
Formerly the great demand for beaver-fur was for the manufacture of hats, 
but since the supersession of silk for beaver-hair in this manufacture, the fur 
has been used for more ordinary purposes. Mr. Poland states that the number of 
beaver-skins sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1891 was 63,419, while in the 
year 1743 upwards of 127,080 were imported into Rochelle alone. The price, 
according to the same writer, varies from 5s. 3d. to 6s. 9d. perskin. The incisor teeth 
of the beaver were used by the North American Indians, and also by some of the 
ancient inhabitants of the Old World, as cutting instruments, the bases being fixed 
into a wooden handle with the aid of twine or thongs. 

Before the advance of civilisation a large number of beavers were killed in 
America by the native Indians for the sake of their skins and flesh, but the 
slaughter was not such as to have any marked effect on their numbers. Some 
appear to have been taken in wooden traps, but the favourite method was to attack 
a lodge in the months of January and February. <A party of Indians—male and 


BEAVERS. 103 


female—would on such occasions proceed to a beaver-colony, and, after cutting a 
series of holes in the ice around each lodge, in which nets were placed, the lodges 
themselves were dug open. Some of the animals would be killed in their sleeping- 
places, others were caught in the nets, while others were hunted by the dogs 
accompanying the party to their burrows, where they were dug out. Some 
individuals were, however, always allowed to escape, in order to re-populate the 
colony. With the increasing demand for skins as the country was opened up by 
Europeans, the Indians resorted to more effectual modes of capture, the rivers and 
ponds being staked across at the commencement of a raid, in a manner which 
prevented the escape of a single member of the colony. Subsequently steel traps 
were introduced, but, from the nature of the beaver’s food, it was long before an 
attractive bait could be discovered. At length it was found that castoreum itself 
was a deadly lure, and from that date the traps have always been baited with some 
preparation of that drug. So attractive is castoreum to the animals by which it is 
produced, that a beaver which swam away with a trap attached to one leg has 
been known to be caught in another trap on the following day; and there is an 
instance recorded where one of these animals, after having gnawed off a leg in 
order to escape, again suffered itself to be ensnared. 

The great natural enemy of the beaver is the glutton, or wolverene, whose 
common Canadian name of careajou is a corruption of the Indian word 
quickwahuy, said to mean “beaver-eater.” The glutton either digs the beavers 
out of their lodges, or catches them by lying in wait in the woods. 

The Hudson’s Bay Company have wisely assigned certain islands in their 
territory as beaver-preserves, where a certain number of the animals are killed 
every third year only. It has been proposed to establish “beaver-ranches” in 
America, but, as Mr. Martin points out, the attempts hitherto made to domesticate 
these animals do not hold out much encouragement as to the success of the project. 
It is true that beavers live and become fairly tame in menageries (where, from 
their nocturnal habits, they are but rarely seen), but they rapidly deteriorate, losing 
the brilliant gloss of their coats, and acquiring dull, listless habits. 

The European beaver makes its first appearance in the “forest- 
bed” of the Norfolk coast, belonging to the lower part of the Pleistocene 
period. Here it was accompanied by the giant extinct beaver (Vrogontheriwm), 
distinguished not only by its superior size, but by differences in the structure of 
the skull and teeth. Its range extended to Siberia. Beavers belonging to the 
living genus occur in the Pliocene strata of Europe and the Miocene of North 


Extinct Beavers. 


America. The earliest European beaver is the Chalicomys, which is found in the 
Miocene beds of the Continent, and was of considerably smaller size than the living 
forms, while it differed from all living Rodents in having a perforation at the 
lower end of the upper arm-bone or humerus. 


CHAPTER  XX3rr 


RopENTS,— continued. 
THE MousE-LikE RODENTS. 
Families MvoxID2Z, MurRIDZ, SPALACIDA, ete. 


THE Rodents treated of in the present chapter comprise several families more or 
less closely related to the rats and mice, and hence collectively termed the mouse- 
like group. They differ from the squirrel-like Rodents described in the preceding 
chapter in the following points. In the first place, as shown in the accompanying 
figure of the skeleton of the dormouse, 
the two bones of the lower leg (tibia and 
fibula) are united at their extremities. 
Secondly, in the slender zygomatic or 
cheek-arch of the skull, the cheek-bone 
(jugal) seldom extends far forwards, and 
is usually supported from below by a long 
process from the upper jawbone (maxilla). 
None of them have any _postorbital 
SKELETON AND MOLARS OF COMMON DORMOUSE. — processes in the skull marking the hinder 
boundary of the upper part of the eye- 
sockets, and in no ease is there more than a single pair of premolar teeth in each 
jaw, while frequently even these may be wanting in either one or both jaws. 


ALi. Pn 
p Sito 

Nay Oy” 
Tae 


THE DORMICE. 
Family MYoXxIDz. 


The elegant little creatures known as dormice, or sleepers, so closely resemble 
diminutive squirrels in form and habits, that they are commonly regarded as closely 
allied to that group. Apparently, however, these external resemblances are solely 
due to adaptation to a similar mode of life, the relationship of the dormice to the 
true mice being much closer than it is to the squirrels. 

The dormice are confined to Europe, Asia (exclusive of the Indian and Malayan 
regions), and Africa, and are all of small size and arboreal habits. They are 
characterised by their large ears and eyes, and long, thickly-haired tails, the fore- 
limbs being short in proportion to the hinder ones. There is a pair of premolar 
teeth in both jaws, so that the total number of cheek-teeth on each side is four; 


DORMICE. 105 


and these teeth are furnished with distinct roots, and have their crowns marked 
with transverse folds of enamel. The claws on the feet are short, and the first toe 
in the fore-foot is rudimentary. 


THE COMMON DORMOUSE. 
Genus Muscardinus. 


The common dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius) is the sole representative 
of the group inhabiting the British Isles, and is the type of a distinct genus. This 


— 


THE COMMON DORMOUSE (# nat. size). 


tiny little animal, which is about equal in size to the common mouse, is so familiar 
to most persons from being commonly kept as a pet by children, that any deserip- 
tion seems almost superfluous. It is, however, particularly characterised by the 
cylindrical form of the long and somewhat bushy tail; while internally it is 
distinguished from all its kindred by the complex structure of the anterior portion 
of its stomach. Its cheek-teeth have flattened grinding surfaces, with the folds of 
enamel arranged in a complex manner. 

This dormouse has a rather large head, and a thick, compact body; the muzzle 
is somewhat pointed, and the ears are about a third the length of the head. The 
most striking feature of the animal is, however, the large size and prominence of 


106 TiO LANGES: 


the full black eyes, which stand out in marked prominence to the tawny hue of 
the coat. In the adult the fur of the upper-parts is of a hight reddish tawny colour, 
while below it is paler and yellower; the throat and upper part of the chest being 
marked by a white patch. In the young the colour is, however, at first of mouse- 
grey, the reddish tinge of the adult appearing first on the head and flanks, and 
thence spreading over the body. The length of the head and body is 3 inches, and 
that of the tail about half an inch less. 

The common dormouse appears to be confined to Europe, ranging 
from Sweden and Britain in the north to Northern Italy in the 
south, and extending eastwards as far as the north of Turkey, Galicia, Hungary, 
and Transylvania. Although generally more common in the southern than in the 
northern districts of its habitat, it is reported to be less abundant in the south 
of France than either of the other two species inhabiting Europe. 

In its arboreal mode of life, and the manner in which it holds its 
food between its fore-paws when eating, as well as in the nature of 
its food, there is much to remind us in the common dormouse (and likewise its 
allies) of the squirrel. Whereas, however, squirrels are mainly diurnal, dormice 
are exclusively nocturnal, remaining curled up during the day in their nests, or in 
some hole, asleep, and only issuing forth in search of food with the falling shades 
of evening. The dormouse is usually to be found in dense thickets and coppices, 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


or in hedgerows; making its nest generally among the underwood, although some- 
times beneath a protecting tussock of grass in the open field. The winter-nest is a 
globular structure composed of twigs, leaves, moss, and grass; and is built in the 
autumn, and stored with a small supply of food for winter use. Occasionally small 
colonies of either the breeding or the winter-nests may be placed in the same 
thicket; Yarrell having observed as many as ten or twelve together. After 
feasting on the abundant nuts and mast of autumn, the dormouse accumulates 
a large amount of fat, and with the approach of winter retires to its nest for the 
period of hibernation. A warm day in winter serves, however, to arouse the little 
creature from its slumbers, when it will consume some of its store of food. The 
chief food of the dormouse consists of hazel-nuts, acorns, beech-mast, corn, and 
haws, and other wild berries. It is reported to extract the kernels from hazel-nuts 
without removing them from their stems; and in climbing from branch to branch 
in search of food it exhibits marvellous agility. Bell observes that “both fore 
and hind-feet are well padded internally with fleshy, broadish tubercles, thus 
converting them into hands, in the use of which the creature, when creeping 
about in a bush of whitethorn, as we have seen it, exhibits an adroitness 
which is quite unequalled by the little agile harvest-mouse, and scarcely surpassed 
by the squirrel.” 

The duration of the winter sleep is generally from five to six months, dor- 
mice generally retiring about the middle of October, and not resuming activity 
before the end of March or April, by which time they have completely lost all 
traces of the fat accumulated in autumn. The young do not-generally commence 
their hibernation so early in the autumn as the adults. In England the young of 
this species are generally born in the spring, although there is evidence that in 
some cases they may be produced as late as September; thus indicating the prob- 


DORMICE. 107 


ability of their being two litters in a year. Brehm, however, states that on the 
Continent the young are not born till August. The young are born blind and 
naked; the usual number in a litter being three or four. They are produced in 
a nest very similar to the one used for the winter sleep, which is always placed at 
a height of a yard or so above the ground. In Germany this species is known as 
the hazel-mouse (haselinaus). 


THE SQUIRREL-TAILED AND GARDEN DORMICE. 
Genus Myoxus. 


By many zoologists the two larger species of European dormice are each 
referred to distinct genera, while certain African representatives of the group 
constitute another pair of generic groups. Although clearly entitled to be separated 


THE SQUIRREL-TAILED DORMOUSE AND GARDEN DORMOUSE (4 nat. size). 


generically from the common dormouse, all these species are, however, so intimately 
allied, that it seems preferable to include the whole of them in the single genus 
Myozus, distinguished from Muscardinus by the simple structure of the stomach. 
Squirrel-Tailed Of the European species the largest is the squirrel-tailed dor- 
Dormouse. mouse (J. glis)—the siebenschlafer of the Germans and the loir of 
the French,—easily recognised by its thick, bushy tail (as shown in the left-hand 
figure of our illustration), in which the hairs are arranged in two rows. This 
species is further characterised by the large size of its cheek-teeth, in which the 
grinding surfaces of the crowns are flat, and the foldings of the enamel complex. 
The length of the head and body is a little over 6, and that of the tail rather less 
than 5, inches. The thick and soft fur is of an ashy-grey colour, more or less 
shaded with dark brown above, while on the under-parts and the inner sides of 


108 RODENTS. 


the limbs it is silvery-white; near the junction of the dark upper-parts with the 
white of the under surface the colour becomes greyish brown. The eyes are 
surrounded by dark rings, and the tip of the snout, as well as part of the throat, 
are white. The ears are moderate size, and rounded. 

This species is found in Southern and Eastern Europe, extending from Spain, 
Greece, and Italy, through South and Central Germany to Austria, Syria, and the 
south of Russia; it is unknown in Denmark and Scandinavia. 

In general habits this species closely resembles the common dormouse, but it 
generally lies concealed during the day in the hollow of a tree, the cleft of a rock, 
or the burrow of another rodent; and its breeding-nest is invariably concealed in 
some such situation, and is never built among the boughs of bushes like that of 
the English dormouse. In autumn it becomes still fatter than the latter; and in 
this state it was much esteemed as a delicacy by the ancient Romans. The period 
of hibernation, according to Brehm, generally endures for upwards of seven months ; 
these animals rarely coming forth before the latter part of April. The young, 
which are sometimes born in the deserted nest of a starling, are usually from three 
to six in number; and although blind, naked, and helpless at birth, are remarkable 
for the rapidity with which they come to maturity. In addition to various nuts 
and berries, this dormouse consumes fruit, and is also said to devour small birds 
and other animals. In its turn, it is preyed upon by martens, polecats, stoats, and 
wild cats. Like the common species, the squirrel-tailed dormouse is easily 
domesticated ; and during its period of activity forms an attractive little pet. 

The Tree- In Southern Russia, Hungary, lower Austria, and Siberia there 

Dormouse. jg a second species of dormouse (JL dryas), nearly allied to the 
last, but of considerable smaller size, although larger than the garden dormouse. 
It is generally reddish brown above and white beneath (including the lower surface 
of the tail); and is easily recognised by the black line extending from near the 
nose through the eye to the root of the ear. The painted dormouse (JZ. pictus), 
of Eastern Persia, is a brighter coloured form closely allied to the above. 

The Garden The garden dormouse (J/. nitela), which is represented on the 

Dormouse. right hand of the illustration on p. 107, is the European repre- 
sentative of a group of several species; distinguished from the preceding by the 
thinner and tufted tail, the larger and more pointed ears, and the characters of 
the cheek-teeth. These teeth are relatively small, and have their grinding 
surfaces concave, with the foldings of enamel very faintly marked. The group is 
represented in Africa as well as in Southern Europe. 

The garden dormouse was known to the ancient Romans as the nitela, and on 
the Continent at the present day is termed in France the lerot, and in Germany 
the gartenschlafer. It is smaller than the squirrel-tailed dormouse, although 
larger than the common species, the length of the head and body being at the most 
53 inches, while the tail measures about 33 inches. The head and upper-parts are 
greyish brown, with a more less marked rufous tinge, and the under-parts pure 
white. A black ring encircles the eye, and thence extends backwards as a streak 
beneath the ear to the neck; while there are dark and light spots behind and in 
front of the ears. The tail is greyish brown at the base, but at the end black above 
and white below. 


JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. 109 


The garden dormouse takes its name from being commonly found in the 
gardens and orchards of the warmer parts of the Continent, where it does much 
damage to the choicer kinds of fruit. It is found in Central and Western Europe, 
including France, Belgium, 
Switzerland, Italy, Germany, 
Hungary, Galicia, and the Baltic 
provinces of Russia; and is 
stated to be specially common 
in the Hartz Mountains. There 
is nothing calling for par- 
ticular remark in the habits 
of this species, except that it is 
stated to be more carnivorous 
in its tastes than any of its 
European kindred. The young may be produced in a deserted thrush’s nest, or in 
some hole in a tree, or in a freely suspended nest; and it is characteristic of this 
species that whenever it builds a nest this is always placed between small boughs 
and never concealed. 

Omitting mention of the other species allied to the garden 
dormouse, it may be observed that there is a third group of the 
genus confined to Africa, the members of which are characterised by the hair being 
arranged uniformly on the tail, instead of in two longitudinal rows; the whole tail 
being relatively shorter than in the other groups, with a well-marked tuft at the 
tip. These African dormice are further characterised by the very small size of 
their cheek-teeth, in which the foldings of enamel are nearly obsolete. 

Remains of dormice are found not uncommonly in the Tertiary 
strata of Europe, as far down as the upper portion of the Eocene 
period; most of the species agreeing approximately in size with some of the living 
forms. The extinct giant dormouse from the rock fissures and cavern deposits of 
Malta was, however, far larger than any existing species, and more nearly resembled 
a guinea-pig; this association of giant dormice with pigmy elephants in Malta 
being not a little remarkable. 


SKELETON OF GARDEN DORMOUSE, 


Other Species. 


Extinct Dormice. 


JUMPING MICE, JERBOAS, ete. 
Family DIPoDIDZ. 


The Rodents included in this family are all purely terrestrial, and for the 
most part characterised by the great length of their hind-limbs as compared with 
the front pair, and their long and generally hairy tails; their general appearance 
and mode of progression thus being markedly kangaroo-like. They have very 
frequently four upper cheek-teeth; and in all cases the incisor teeth are narrow, 
and the molars marked by transverse enamel-folds. The skull, as shown in the 
accompanying figure of the skeleton of the jerboa, is characterised by the shortness 
of the brain-case, and the very large size of the apertures in front of the eye- 
sockets for the passage of the nerves supplying the face. There are also other 


I10 


RODENTS. 


distinctive features in the skull, more especially in the large size of the hinder 
part of the auditory bulla, into which it would be out of place to enter here. 


SKELETON OF JERBOA. 


The jerboas and their allies are mainly Asiatic 
and African forms, although there is one outlying 
species in North America, and a few range into 
Southern Europe. Most of the jumping kinds are 
inhabitants of open and dry districts, such as grassy 
steppes or sandy deserts; and approximate in colora- 
tion very closely to that of the ground on which 
they dwell. They form burrows in clayey or sandy 
soil, which are generally situated in the open plains, 
but sometimes among thicker or thinner bush-jungle. 
In habits they are mostly nocturnal, lying concealed 
in their burrows by day, and issuing forth to feed 
at night. Their nutriment consists of roots, berries, 
seeds, fruits, leaves, grass, and other herbage; but a 
few will also eat insects, small birds, and carrion. 
In feeding they sit in a half-erect posture upon their 
hind-quarters and tail, and convey the food to their 
mouth with the aid of their paws. Their move- 
ments are peculiar; the body being supported on 
the hind-limbs alone, perhaps aided, however, at times 
by the tail. In walking, the legs are moved alternately 
in the ordinary manner; in which respect these animals 
differ from kangaroos, which always hop. Progression 
at a more rapid rate is, however, always effected by a 
series of leaps from the hind-legs; the length of such 
leaps being generally very great in proportion to the 
size of the animal. Like all desert-haunting animals, 
the jerboas are extremely quick of hearing and long- 
sighted. Although generally silent, many of these 
animals have a kind of whining ery, which has been 
compared to that of a kitten. In the colder districts 


of their habitat, the species hibernate more or less completely; but they never 
lay up a store of provisions for winter use. 
The family may be divided into four main groups or subfamilies. 


THE JUMPING MOUSE. 


Genus Zapus. 


The so-called jumping mouse of North America (Zapus hudsonianus) is the 
typical representative of the first group of the family. It is characterised by the 
presence of four pairs of rooted cheek-teeth in each jaw, by the vertebre of 
the neck being entirely separate from each other, and by the long hind-limbs 
being furnished with five complete toes, of which the metatarsal bones are 


JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. III 


separate. In the fore-limbs the first toe is rudimental, and furnished with a flat 
nail. Well-developed cheek-pouches are present. 

In general appearance this animal resembles a mouse with elongated hind- 
limbs and a very long tail; the degree of elongation of the hind-legs not being so 
great as in some other members of the family. The length of the head and body 
is a little more than 3 inches, and that of the tail about 5 inches, although there 
is a considerable amount of individual variation in the relative proportions of the 
latter. In the summer-coat the fur is brown above, yellowish on the flanks, and 
white below; but in the winter it is uniformly brown. The moderate-sized ears 
are black with light-coloured edges, and the long and nearly naked tail is tipped 
with a pencil of hairs. 


Distribution and The geographical range of the jumping mouse is very large, 
Habits. extending from the cold regions of the Great Slave Lake and 


Hudson’s Bay to Arizona and Mexico; although in the latter districts it appears 
to be restricted to the mountains. In British North America and the northern 
United States it ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. 

This species differs from most of its allies in not being strictly nocturnal, 
generally venturing forth early in the evening, and not unfrequently being abroad 
during the day. It likewise frequents more wooded and damper situations. The 
following excellent accounts of its habits was communicated to Dr. Hart Merriam 
by Mr. E. Slade, who observes that, “the long-tailed jumping mouse inhabits high 
land or low land, forest or pasture, cultivated field or swamp, and appears to be 
equally at home in either, and not numerous in any situation. It possesses a 
momentary agility second to no other rodent, and a muscular strength of 
enormous power for so small a creature. When suddenly disturbed, it often 
moves away in a direct line, the first three or four leaps being 8 or 10 feet in 
length, but these distances rapidly decline to about 4 feet. This is not always 
the case, however, for it frequently takes an irregular course and jumps at divers 
angles for several successive leaps, keeping the same general direction, or changing 
at will. It can double, and quickly too, if pursued, and by its manceuvres and 
instantaneous squattings can elude a hawk or an owl, and its spontaneous irregu- 
larities enable it to escape being brained by a weasel, or swallowed whole by the 
common black snake. It feeds upon the buds, leaves, and twigs of many kinds 
of plants; upon seeds, grain, wild berries, chestnuts, acorns, grass, and to some 
extent upon the bark of shrubs. As a rule, three litters are produced in a season, 
each consisting of from two to four young.” In leaping, the successive springs 
ave made with such rapidity that the feet of the animal seem scarcely to touch 
the ground. The nest is placed in a variety of situations, sometimes in the 
hollow stump of a tree, more frequently under logs of timber, often in clefts of 
rocks, and occasionally a short distance from below the surface of the ground in 
an open field. 

The jumping mouse hibernates during the winter in a hole deep down in the 
ground; but the length of the sleep appears to depend upon the latitude of 
the locality and the temperature of the season. In mild winters the hibernation 
is often interrupted for longer or shorter periods. The underground nest is 
carefully made of grass, in which the little animal lies tightly curled up, with 


I1I2 TROD ENS: 


the nose closely pressed to the belly, and the long tail curled round the body, 
which assumes an almost ball-like form. So deep are the slumbers of these 
animals, that they may be handled for a long time without evincing the slightest 
signs of life. The young of the various litters are to be met with from May 
till August. Fossil remains of the jumping mouse occur in the Pleistocene deposits 
of the United States. 


THE FivrE-ToED JERBOAS. 
Genus Alactaga, ete. 


The jerboas, of which there are several genera, may be divided into two 
groups, according to the presence of five or three toes on the hind-feet, and 
constitute the second subfamily. The whole subfamily is characterised by the 
cheek-teeth, of which there may be either three or four pairs, having distinct roots ; 
by the vertebrae of the neck being more or less completely united together; and 
by the long metatarsal bones of the hind-limbs being joimed together so as to form 
a cannon-bone, as shown in the figure on p. 110. In all cases only the three 
middle toes of the hind-feet are of any functional importance; the lateral digits, 
when present, being small and not reaching the ground. 


The Kirghiz The kirghiz jerboa, or alagdaga (Alactaga decumana), is the 
Jerboa. best known representative of the genus to which it belongs, and is 


one of the most characteristic mammals of the steppes of Central Asia. The genus 
Alactaga, in addition to the presence of five toes on the hind-feet, is characterised 
by its long and tufted tail and large ears; there are a pair of premolar teeth in the 
upper, but none in the lower jaw, and the incisor teeth are not grooved. 

The alagdaga (as the animal is designated by the Mongols) is one of the 
largest members of the group, the length of the head and body being about 
7 inches, and that of the tail considerabl y more. The general colour of the fur is 
reddish yellow, with a tinge of grey on the upper-parts; while below, as well as 
on the inner sides and lower parts of the hind-legs, it is white; a white patch also 
occurring on the outer sides of the thighs. The tail is brown, with a black-and- 
white tip. 

The range of this jerboa includes the whole of the steppe 
districts of Central Asia, and also extends into Persia as far as 
Bushire, and into South-Eastern Europe as far as the Crimea and the region of the 
Don. During the Pleistocene period this jerboa inhabited parts of Germany. 

The alagdaga is a social animal, dwelling in small companies, and 
also selecting such portions of the steppes as possess a clayey soil for 
the construction of its large burrows. It is strictly nocturnal in its habits, issuing 
from its burrow at the commencement of darkness, but, according to Radde, not 
remaining abroad the whole night. Its speed is said to be considerably greater 
than that of the true jerboa, and the length of its leaps are enormous; indeed, it is 
stated that even when mounted on a swift horse it is impossible to overtake these 
creatures. The burrows constructed by the Kirghiz jerboa are very complicated, 
having several branches radiating from a central chamber; one of these branches, 
it is said, always stops a short distance below the surface of the ground, and is only 


Range. 


Habits. 


JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. 113 


used as an exit in time of danger, when the animal removes the barrier and escapes 
in an unsuspected direction. Usually two or three pairs occupy the same burrow. 
In addition to the usual vegetable diet, the alagdaga also eats insects, and the eggs 
and young of the steppe-lark, if not the old birds themselves. The young are born 
in summer, in a nest placed deep down in the burrow, and are usually from five to six 
in number, although occasionally there may be as many as eight ina litter. How long 
the young remain with their parents is unknown, but it is quite probable that they 
do not depart till the spring following their birth. In cold weather these animals do 
not leave their nests ; and the winter sleep is a long one, enduring, according to Radde, 
from the beginning of September till the latter part of April. The flesh of the 
alagdaga is eaten by the Kirghiz and other dwellers on the steppes; the capture being 


Mar 


ie L We “ 


aN a 
a) WS eS 
UNS fad =e 
— 


THE KIRGHIZ JERBOA (4 nat. size). 


effected by surrounding the burrows with a fence and pouring water down the 
open holes, when the animals seek to escape by breaking through the closed entrance. 

The Afghan jerboa (A. indica) is a smaller species of the same 
genus, with proportionately longer ears and tail; the length of the 
head and body being about 34 inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the tuft at 
end, upwards of 74 inches. This species inhabits Afghanistan, the south-east of 
Persia, and Northern Baluchistan ; and is found commonly on the plains of Quetta 
at an elevation of about six thousand feet. In habits, this jerboa seems to be very 
similar to the larger species; its period of hibernation lasting from October till 
April. Central Asia is also the home of other species of the same genus. 

The recently discovered Yarkand jerboa (ELuchoretes naso) is the 
sole representative of a distinct genus characterised by certain features 
in the skull, the great length of the nose, and the enormous size of the ears, which 


are longer than the head. The fur is sandy-coloured above and white below; the 
VOL. I11.—8 


Afghan Jerboa. 


Yarkand Jerboa. 


114 RODE NZS: 


tufted tail being black near the end, but white at the extreme tip. The length of 
the head and body is 3} inches, and that of the tail 6} inches. 
Broad-Tailed Certain species of jerboas inhabiting the desert regions of Central 
Jerboas. and Northern Asia and Nubia are distinguished from those of the 
two preceding genera by their flattened and lancet-shaped tails, in consequence of 
which they have received the name of Platycercomys. ‘They are further dis- 
tinguished by the absence of premolar teeth in both jaws. There is nothing worthy 
of special notice in the habits of these species. 


THE THREE-TOED, OR TRUE JERBOAS. 
Genus Dipus. 


The true jerboas, as typically represented by the common Egyptian species 
(Dipus jaculus), are the most specialised representatives of the subfamily, having 
completely lost the two small lateral toes on the hind-limbs. They are further 


EGYPTIAN JERBOA. 


distinguished by the presence of vertical grooves on the front of the incisor teeth ; 
while they have a pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. They resemble the alagdaga 
in the great length of the hind-limbs and tail, and the comparatively large size of 
the ears; the tuft of hair at the tip of the tail is, however, smaller. Usually the 
premolar teeth are wanting. 

In size, the Egyptian jerboa is rather inferior to the alagdaga, the length of the 
head and body being about 6? inches, while the tail, exclusive of the hairs at the 
end, measures a little over 8 inches. The general colour of the upper-parts is a 
sandy grey; the under surface of the body being white, and a broad white stripe 
extending down the hind-limbs. The tail is yellowish brown above and whitish 
beneath, with the usual black-and-white tip. 

The range of the Egyptian jerboa extends from the north of Arabia westwards 


JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. 115 


through Lower Egypt to Oran in Algeria. There are, however, numerous other 
species of the genus, some of which inhabit Eastern Persia and Central Asia. 

The name of two-legged mouse was applied to the Egyptian jer- 
boa on account of the fore-legs being applied so closely to the chest 
when the animal is jumping that it has an almost bird-like appearance. The home 
of this species is arid and desert districts, where the ground consists solely of sand 
and pebbles, and the vegetation is so scant that it is a marvel that even such a tiny 
creature can find the wherewithal to live. Here it lives in companies, frequently 
of considerable size, in association with sand-grouse, the small desert-lark, the cream- 
coloured courser, and various lizards. So exactly does the colour of the jerboa 
harmonise with its surroundings, that when at a short distance it is scarcely 
possible to recognise the presence of a living creature. Although very abundant, 
it is, from its extreme shyness, but seldom seen. Like its kindred, this jerboa 


Habits. 


THE AFRICAN JUMPING HARE (E nat. size). 


is essentially a nocturnal animal; but it generally comes out to feed before sun- 
down, while it not unfrequently sits at the mouth of its hole, or a short distance 
off, even in the full sunshine. It digs a burrow in the hard gravelly soil with its 
fore-feet, aided sometimes by its incisor teeth; these burrows generally having four 
entrances. According to Arab reports, the whole colony take part in the construc- 
tion of the burrows; and at the slightest sound the animals immediately take 
refuge in their retreats. In walking gently the jerboa moves one foot after the 
other, but directly the pace is quickened, it progresses by means of leaps; and so 
rapid are then its movements, that travellers liken them to the flight of a bird. 
When leaping, the tail is carried stuck out nearly straight behind. The jerboa is 
very impatient of rain and damp; and when such conditions are prevalent it 
relapses into a kind of torpid condition, analogous to the hibernation of species 
inhabiting more northern regions. 


116 RODENTS: 


According to Brehm, very little is definitely known regarding the breeding 
of this species. The Arabs state that it forms a nest from its own fur within the 
labyrinths of its burrow, where from two to four young are produced at a birth. 

The Arabs capture these tiny creatures by stopping up all the entrances to a 
burrow except one, where they place a net, and then digging down into the central 
chamber, when the jerboas are either caught in the nets or by the hands of their 
pursuers. Many are thus taken alive, while the flesh of those killed is eaten. 
The chief foes of the jerboa, next to men, are fennecs, caracals, and owls, by all of 
which large numbers are destroyed. 

This jerboa, like its allies of Central Asia, is easily tamed; and from its 
beautiful form and delicate build, as well as its engaging manners, is always highly 
esteemed as a pet by its owners. In its wild state the jerboa eats not only leaves, 
fruits, and seeds, but likewise insects and carrion. 


THE AFRICAN JUMPING HARE. 
Genus Pedetes. 


By far the largest representative of the long-limbed members of the family 
is the South African species, designated by the Cape colonists, inappropriately, 
the jumping hare—the springhaas of the Boers. This 
animal (Pedetes caffer) constitutes not only a distinct 
genus, but also a separate subfamily; being distinguished 
from the jerboas by the following characters. In the neck 
the whole of the seven vertebrae are separate; the hind- 
feet have four toes, and their comparatively short meta- 
tarsal bones are not united together; while the cheek- 
teeth, of which there are four on each side of the jaws, do 
not develop roots. 

In size the jumping hare may be compared with the 
common hare, to which it also approximates in general 
coloration; the length of the head and body being about 
24 inches, and that of the tail rather more. The head is 
relatively large, with long pointed ears; the fore-limbs 
are proportionately longer than in the jerboas; and the 
long tail is thickly haired throughout its extent. There 
are five toes, provided with long, sharp claws on the fore- 
feet, while in the hind-feet the claws are wider and 
blunter, and approximate somewhat to nails; the middle 


SKELETON OF AFRICAN 4 . . . 
POR RING ere hind-toe being much larger than either of the others. The 


long and soft hair of the upper-parts is reddish brown, 
more or less mingled with white ; while beneath the colour is pure white. 


Distribution The range of the jumping hare extends from the Cape to 
and Habits. Angola on the west, and Mozambique on the east coast. Its habits 
approximate very closely to those of the jerboas. Thus it inhabits more or less 
desert districts, where it constructs complex burrows, in which several families 


LHE MOUSE ATRIBE. na Gy 


dwell together ; and is thoroughly nocturnal. At the Cape it is found in consider- 
able numbers, and frequents both the mountains and the open plains. When 
feeding, the jumping hare goes on all fours; but when at speed progresses with 
the leaps characteristic of the family. Ordinarily the length of each spring is from 
six to nine feet; but it is said that the leap may occasionally cover a space of as 
much as twenty or even thirty feet. The young are born during the African 
summer, and are usually from three to four in number; and during the rainy 
season young and old alike seldom stir from their burrows. The food appears to 
be entirely of a vegetable nature. The flesh is largely eaten by the Hottentots, 
who catch almost as many of the creatures as they please by the simple expedient 
of pouring water down their holes, upon which the owners immediately bolt. 


THE SMINTHUS. 
Genus Sminthus. 


Three rat-like Rodents—the one (Sminthus subtilis) from Eastern and 
Northern Europe and Central Asia, the other (S. concolor) from North-Western 
China, and the third (S. leathamz) from Kashmir—are interesting in showing that 
the long hind-limbs are not an essential attribute of the members of the present 
family. Indeed the former of these Rodents—for which there is unfortunately no 
English name—is so rat-like in appearance that it was long referred to the next 
family. It differs, however, from all the members of the latter by the presence of 
a pair of premolar teeth in the upper jaw (although there are none in the lower), 
while its skull agrees in essential features with that of the jerboas. The common 
sminthus has rather long and pointed ears, and a tail of nearly the same length as 
the body, and clothed with short hairs. The premolar and last upper molar teeth 
are very small; and the whole of the cheek-teeth have a complex pattern on 
their crowns. 


THE Mouse TRIBE. 
Family MvuripzZ. 


The Mouse family, which includes mice, rats, hamsters, voles, lemmings, ete., is 
by far the most extensive group in the whole Rodent order, having a cosmopolitan 
distribution, and being the only family represented in Australia. The majority of 
the mice—as we may conveniently term all the members of the group—are of 
terrestrial habits, and have naked and scaly tails of varying length; while in most 
cases there is no great disproportion between the length of the fore and hind-limbs. 
The incisor teeth are narrow; and, owing to the invariable absence of premolars, 
there are never more than three pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. 

In structure these teeth exhibit great variation in the different groups, being 
either furnished with roots, or rootless, while in some cases their crowns are 
surmounted with simple cusps, and in others with folds of enamel arranged in a 
series of angles. In all cases the first toe of the fore-foot is rudimental. The skull 
is the most characteristic part of their entire organisation, although it is difficult 


118 RODENTS. 


in a popular work like the present to point out its distinctive peculiarities without 
the aid of a series of figures. It may be mentioned, however, that the frontal 
region between the eye-sockets is much narrowed; and that in the zygomatic, or 
. cheek-arch, the cheek 
(jugal) bone is usually 
reduced to a mere 
‘splint occupying the 
middle of the arch. 
Again, the lower sur- 
face of the process 
arising from the upper 
jawhone to form the 
front half of the 
cheek-arch is more or 
less flattened out mto 
a nearly perpendicular 
plate; while the vacuity in the front of the eye for the passage of the nerves of 
the face is generally of considerable height, and wider above than below. 

The number of genera and species belonging to this family is so great that it 
is impossible to notice more than a small moiety in this work. Accordingly, only 
representatives of the various subfamilies into which these Rodents are divided, 
and such forms as are of general interest, are selected for description. 


SKELETON AND MOLARS OF BROWN RAT. 


THE AUSTRALIAN Rats. 
Genus Hydromys. 


The Australian rats, of which there is one aquatic species, together with an 
allied terrestrial form from the same region, constitute a subfamily distinguished 
from all the other mice by having only two pairs of molar teeth in each jaw ; these 
teeth being rooted, and having their crowns divided into distinct lobes. 

The Australian water-rat (Hydromys chrysogaster) is a rat-like aquatic Rodent, 
with broad and partially-webbed feet, the webs and claws being larger in the 
hinder than in the front-limbs. The fur of the back is black with an admixture 
of golden-coloured hairs; the under-parts being of a dark golden hue, save for a 
narrow stripe of flaxen running from the lower part of the neck to the middle of 
the belly. Except for its terminal fifth, which is flaxen-coloured, the tail is black. 
The tip of the muzzle is thickly covered with hairs, by means of which the nostrils 
can be closed. The length of the head and body is about 2 feet, and that of the 
tail half as much. The skull differs in the form of the front portion of the cheek- 
arch from the ordinary murine type. This species is confined to Australia and 
Tasmania, where it is known to the colonists as the beaver-rat. It is thoroughly 
aquatic in its habits, and is not uncommon on the banks of the rivers; while it is 
at times seen on the seashore. It is an inhabitant of Australia, Tasmania, and 
New Guinea. 

The Queensland rat (Xeronvys myoides) is a terrestrial species of about double 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. 119g 


the size of an ordinary mouse, which, while possessing teeth like those of the 
Australian water-rat, has unwebbed toes and the external form and skull of a 
mouse. It is, therefore, of interest as serving to connect its aquatic cousin with 
the more typical members of the family. 


THE MALABAR SpIny-Movuse. 
Genus Platacanthomys. 


The pretty little murine known as the Malabar spiny-mouse (Platacanthomys 

lasiwrus), from elevations of about two thousand feet in the hills of Southern 
India, is interesting as being one of the few members of the family which assume 
a dormouse-like appearance and have arboreal habits. It represents a subfamily by 
itself, characterised by the crowns of the molar teeth when worn showing oblique 
and nearly parallel bands of enamel, and by the long tail being thickly haired. 
This little mouse has long pointed ears; and a number of broad flat spines mingled 
with the hair of the upper-parts. In colour it is reddish brown above, and white 
beneath ; the length of the head and body being 44 inches, and that of the tail, 
with the hair at the end, half an inch more. This mouse lives in large trees, in 
which it hollows out small cavities that it fills with leaves and moss. It is stated 
to feed on jack-fruit and the pods of the pepper-tree. 


THE GERBILS. 
Genus Gerbillus. 


The elegant little Rodents commonly known as gerbils constitute the typical 
representatives of a third subfamily, and are easily recognised by their elongated 
hind-limbs, long and hairy tails, and their general jerboa-like appearance and 
habits. Indeed, they might be mistaken at first sight for 
members of the latter group; but a close examination will show 
that they differ externally by their longer muzzles, smaller eyes, 
and the presence of five functional toes to the hind-feet. They 
are further distinguished by their molar teeth being divided 
into transverse lamine, of which there are three in the first, two 
in the second, and one in the third tooth of each side. The upper 
incisor teeth are narrow and grooved; and the bullw of the 
auditory region of the skull are generally very large. The 
true gerbils, of which there are more than half a hundred species, inhabit Asia and 
Africa; but there are some allied genera confined to the latter continent. 

One of the best known species is the Indian gerbil (Gerbillus indicus), which 
is about the size of a rat, with moderate-sized rounded ears, and the fur light 
brownish rufous above, and white beneath. With its large, bright eyes, and long 
tufted tail, this gerbil (like its cousins) is one of the most graceful of the smaller 
Rodents. In common with the other species, it inhabits open sandy plains, where 
it lives in companies, constructing extensive burrows approached by numerous 


LOWER JAW AND TEETH 
OF GERBIL. 


120 RODENTS. 


chambers, and containing large central chambers containing dried grass. The 
Indian gerbil is a thoroughly nocturnal animal, seldom leaving its burrow during 
the daytime. It is frequently found near cultivated grounds, where it does much 
damage to the corn crops, sometimes appearing in such numbers as to constitute a 
veritable plague. Away from cultivated districts, its food consists mainly of grass 
and roots. It has been stated that gerbils lay up stores of food in their burrows, 
but it does not appear that this is really the case. Gerbils resemble jerboas in 
progressing by a series of leaps from their long hind-legs; the length of the leaps 


EGYPTIAN GERBIL. 


in the Indian species being from twelve to fifteen feet. So active are these 
animals, that they are generally able to elude such dogs as may pursue them, 
sometimes even jumping upon their backs. The Indian gerbil is one of the most 
prolific of Rodents, frequently producing from twelve to fifteen young at a birth, 
and occasionally, it is said, even more. 


THE PHILIPPINE Rat. 
Genus Phleomys. 


The Philippine Islands are the habitat of a peculiar species of rat (Phleomys 
cwming?), which differs so markedly from all others that it must be regarded as 
constituting a subfamily by itself. While having the ordinary murine form, these 
rats resemble the gerbils in having their molar teeth divided into transverse lamin, 


‘SLVU ANIddITIHd 


al 


5 HA Ny 
SATIN 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. 123 


of which there are three in the first tooth of the series, and two in each of the 
others. The incisor teeth are very broad, with smooth front surfaces. The muzzle 
is unusually short, the profile convex, and the ears rather small; while the feet are 
characterised by their great breadth, and the large size of their claws. The tail is 
shorter than the head and body, and sparsely-haired. The hair is rather long and 
coarse, and darker on the muzzle, the sides of the face, the back of the head, the 
shoulders, and the fore-part of the back than elsewhere. 


THE HAMSTERS AND WHITE-FOOTED MICE. 
Genus Cricetus. 


The well-known hamsters of the Old World, together with the American 
white-footed mice, constitute an extensive genus of murine Rodents, which, with 
others, represents a distinct subfamily. These Cricetines, as all the members of 


THE HAMSTER (4 nat. size). 


the subfamily may be called, are characterised by the crowns of their molar teeth 
carrying a number of distinct tubercles or cusps, which in the upper jaw are 
arranged in two longitudinal rows separated by a median groove; these teeth being 
always implanted in the jaw by distinct roots. The whole of the Old World 
Cricetines are characterised by the shortness of their tails; but in some of the 


124 RODENTS. 


American forms these appendages are considerably longer. The Cricetines are 
distributed nearly all over the world, with the exception of Australia, and include 
the only representatives of the Rodent order found in Madagascar. In structure 
they appear to be the most generalised group of the entire murine family, and it is 
accordingly believed that they represent the ancestral stock from which came the 
more specialised rats and mice constituting the murine subfamily. This hypothesis 
is supported by the circumstance that the hamsters are some of the oldest types of 
the family with which we are acquainted, their remains being comparatively 
common in the Miocene strata both of Europe and North America. 

Common The common hamster (Cricetus frumentarius), of Europe and 

Hamster. Northern Asia, is the typical representative of the genus under 
consideration ; the leading characters of the genus being that the incisor teeth are 
not marked by grooves, while the first upper molar tooth generally has six 
tubercles on its crown. Cheek-pouches, which may be of large size, are frequently 
present; and the tail is often very short. 

The hamster itself is a decidedly handsomely-coloured Rodent, and is by far 
the largest member of the group, measuring about a foot in length, of which some 
2 inches are taken up by the tapering hairy tail. It is stoutly built, with a 
thick neck, a rather pointed muzzle, medium-sized membranous ears, large and 
brilhant eyes, short legs, and small claws. The thick glossy coat is composed of 
hair and a woolly under-fur. The general colour of the upper-parts is usually 
light brownish-yellow, but the upper surface of the snout and the region of the 
eyes, aS well as a band round the throat, are reddish brown. There is a yellow 
patch on the back, the mouth is whitish; and the under-parts, the greater portion 
of the legs, and a stripe on the forehead are deep black, but the feet are white. 
There is, however, great individual variation with regard to colour, many examples 
being entirely black, while others are pied, and others, again, wholly white. 

The hamster inhabits suitable localities from the Rhine in Germany to the 
Obi in Siberia; but its distribution is somewhat partial. In Germany it is wanting 
in the south and south-western districts, and also in East and West Prussia, but it 
is abundant in Thuringia and Saxony. Its favourite haunts are in soft dry soils, 
but it avoids those of a sandy nature as being unsuitable for its burrows, although 
it will sometimes select gravelly ground. 

The hamster has always attracted a considerable amount of interest, from the 
elaborate structure of its burrows, and the provident nature of its habits. The 
burrow always comprises a large dwelling-chamber, situated at a depth of from one 
_ to two yards below the surface of the ground, with a nearly perpendicular entrance- 
passage and an oblique exit. There is also a store-chamber or granary communi- 
cating with the dwelling-chamber by means of a gallery; and it appears that the 
young, the females, and the males generally occupy distinct burrows, which may be 
distinguished by the size of their entrance-passages, those of the males being the 
largest. When a burrow is tenanted, the passages are kept scrupulously clean, 
and the presence of any litter in them would at once proclaim that the habitation 
was deserted ; chaff and straw may, however, be generally seen near the entrance 
of a burrow. Although the entrance-passage goes nearly straight down into the 
earth, it also has a turn before opening into the dwelling-chamber ; and in old burrows 


LAE MOSSE ERILE, 125 


the entrance and exit passages are polished smooth by the constant friction of the 
coats of their occupants. Of the chambers, the dwelling-place is the smaller, and 
has smooth walls and the floor strewn with fine straw; it has three apertures— 
two communicating with the exterior, and the third with the granary. Young 
hamsters have but a single granary in their burrows, but the old males, which 
spend the whole summer collecting, frequently have from three to five such 
chambers. These are completely filled with corn, the passage communicating with 
the dwelling-chamber being frequently stopped up with earth. All kinds of corn 
are equally acceptable to these industrious little animals; and it will often be 
found that, while one part of the store-chamber is filled with grain of a particular 
kind, the other portion may contain a different sort. In addition to corn, which 
forms their main winter nutriment, hamsters in summer eat peas, beans, roots, 
fruits, grass, and other green herbage ; and in captivity these animals will eat almost 
any kind of food that is put before them. 

Burrows of the nature described above are constructed solely for winter use ; 
and when the weather becomes cold in October the hamsters retire to their inner- 
most recesses for their hibernation; the entrance and exit of each burrow being 
then closed with earth. In February or March the animals awake from their 
slumbers, although they do not for some time open their burrows, where they 
remain feeding upon the stores of corn. About the middle of March the adult 
males make their first appearance abroad ; and these are followed early in April by 
the females. At this time they devour ravenously almost anything that comes 
before them, not refusing an occasional young bird, a mouse, or a beetle. Soon 
afterwards they set about constructing their summer-burrows; on the completion 
of which the sexes pair. These summer-burrows are of simpler construction than 
the winter habitations, being seldom more than one or two feet in depth. Usually 
these burrows contain but a single chamber of about a foot in diameter. In the 
case of the females the nest-chamber has one exit passage, but from two to eight 
entrances; although until the young go afield but one of the latter is used; the 
advantage of these numerous entrances when there is a large number of young 
being sufficiently obvious. The nest-chamber is furnished with a bed of soft hay. 
Towards the end of April the males visit the burrows of the females; and if two 
individuals of them should happen to meet in the same domicile, a fierce en- 
counter ensues, the hamster, for its size, being an extremely ferocious and quarrel- 
some animal. In from four to five weeks after the pairing-time the first litter of 
young is produced, the number in each litter varying from six to eighteen ; and as a 
second equally numerous brood comes into the world in July, the rate of increase 
of these animals is exceedingly rapid. When born, the young, although furnished 
with teeth, are naked and blind. The hair, however, quickly grows, and by the 
eighth or ninth day the eyes are opened; while within a fortnight the young are 
able to burrow, and are soon after driven away by their parents to shift for them- 
selves. Although hamsters do not attain their full growth for a twelvemonth, it 
appears certain that a female born in May is capable of producing offspring in the 
ensuing autumn. 

With these marvellously rapid powers of reproduction it is no wonder that 
hamsters frequently appear in countless swarms, when they inflict incalculable 


126 RODENTS. 


harm upon the harvest. Fortunately, however, they have a host of enemies, and 
buzzards, owls, ravens, and other predacious birds thin their ranks by hundreds; 
while among four-legged foes, polecats and stoats follow the track of the advancing 
legions, and kill them where and when they can. The polecat and stoat are, 
moreover, able to follow the hamsters into the recesses of their burrows, where they 
probably destroy them by hundreds. Man, too, joms the ranks of the destroyers 
of these mischievous rodents ; and in some cases organises regular hunts for their 
destruction. Government rewards are sometimes offered to aid in ridding the 
country of these pests; and Brehm relates that in the year 1888 no less than 
97,519 hamsters were destroyed in the single district of Aschersleben, for which 
a reward of 1950 marks was paid. In digging out the hamsters, the stores of corn 
which they laid up for winter use form not the least important part of the enter- 
prise; the grain being carefully dried and used for human consumption. In many 
districts the flesh of the hamster is eaten, and is said to be not unlike that of the 
squirrel. The fur too, although not of high value, is extensively used for linings, 
some thousands of skins being annually imported into England. 

In Eastern Europe there are smaller species of hamster in which 
the black of the under-parts only occupies a small area on the chest ; 
and from these a transition is easy to the small uniform grey hamsters of Central 


Other Species. 


Asia, one of which ranges as far south as Gilgit, while another occurs in Persia. 


White-Footed The New World possesses not a single indigenous representative 
Mice. of the true rats and mice of the Old World, all the American 


members of the family belonging either to the Cricetine or to the closely allied 
Microtine subfamily. The great majority of the species belong to a group which 
may be conveniently designated white-footed mice, frem the general prevalence of 
white on their feet and under-parts. These American mice, which have representa- 
tives from one end of the continent to the other, are frequently regarded as 
constituting a number of distinct genera; but as they all possess molar teeth of 
essentially the same structure, it 1s simpler to include the whole of them in the 
genus Cricetus. They exhibit, however, great variation in regard to bodily form 
and the relative length of the tail. Thus there are some species with long tails 
and a general dormouse-like appearance, other long-tailed forms are mouse-like, 
others again have short hamster-lke tails and vole-like bodies, while one species 
has spines mingled with the fur. 

The best known representative of the group is the common white-footed 
mouse (C. leucopus) of North America, which may be regarded as taking the place 
filled in Europe by the house-mouse. It is, however, far more attractive in 
appearance than the latter, although of approximately the same size and general 
configuration. In addition to its long tail, large ears, and bead-like eyes, this mouse 
is characterised by having the fur of the upper-parts of the body of a rich fawn 
colour, which forms a striking contrast with the snowy-white of the under-parts 
and feet. Indeed, when we add to this the natural grace and agility of its move- 
ments, we have in this animal, as Dr. Hart Merriam observes, one of the most 
beautiful and interesting inhabitants of the forests of North America. 

The white-footed mouse is an inhabitant either of forests or open fields; and 
in the wild state feeds chiefly upon beech-nuts, of which it accumulates large 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. 127 


stores for winter use. These stores are generally accumulated in hollow trees or 
logs, and sometimes may contain two or three quarts of beech-nuts or clover-seed. 
This mouse, unlike the hamster, remains, however, active throughout the winter ; 
and may be seen running about on the snow, where its long tail leaves a character- 
istic track. It is an agile climber, running up tree-stems with the activity of a 
squirrel, and frequently disappearing in some hole at a great distance above the 
ground. In addition to nuts and seeds, the white-footed mouse will readily eat 
the flesh of such animals as come in its way, and it is possible that it may occasion- 
ally kill small birds for itself. From three to six young are produced at a birth, 
and there appear to be several litters during the year. The first coat of the young 
is of a uniform dull grey colour. In the northern portions of the range of this 
mouse, the nest is generally built either in the hollow of a tree or a log, or ina 
burrow ; but more to the south these animals construct an “outside nest” of moss, 
grass, leaves, or bark, which is generally more or less cocoanut-shaped, and may be 
as much as a foot in diameter. It is usually suspended from a horizontal branch 
at some distance from the ground, and has its entrance on the under surface. The 
group to which this particular species of white-footed mice belongs is distinguished 
by having only five tubercles on the first molar tooth in the upper jaw. The rice- 
field mouse (C. palustris), which attains the size of a small rat, does much damage 
to the rice crops in the Southern States. 


THe FisH-EatTine Rat. 
Genus Ichthyonys. 


A remarkable species (J. stolzmanni) inhabiting the mountain-streams of 
central Peru is allied to the preceding group, but distinguished by its aquatic and 
probably fish-eating habits, as well as by its webbed and fringed hind-feet. In 
size it comes near the brown rat, but has the head much flattened, larger whiskers, 
and very small ears and eyes; while in colour it is dark above and whitish 
beneath, with a black-and-white tail. 


THE GROOVED-TOOTHED MICE. 
Genera Rhithrodontomys and Rhithrodon. 


Two groups of American Cricetines are distinguished by their upper incisor 
teeth being marked by parallel grooves. Of these, the American harvest-mouse 
(Rhithrodontomys humilis) resembles the rice-field mouse in external appearance, 
and is found in the southern United States as far north as Iowa; the two other 
species of the genus being also North American. 

The Rhithrodonts, on the other hand, are exclusively South American, and 
are characterised by their rabbit-like appearance, the head being very short, with 
a highly convex profile, very large eyes, and rather large rounded ears. The 
rabbit-like rhithrodon (Rhithrodon cuniculoides), from Patagonia, is one of the 
best known species. The length of the head and body is 64 inches, and that of 


128 RODENTS. 


the tail about half as much again. Its general colour is yellowish grey mixed 
with black, with the under-parts pale yellow, and the rump, feet, and lower surface 
of the tail white. 


THE Woop-Rats. 
Genus Neotoma. 


The Florida rat (Neotoma floridana) is the best known representative of a 
small genus of North American Cricetines, distinguished by their large size and 
the circumstance that the cusps on their molars show some approximation to the 
type of structure obtaining in the voles. The Florida rat, which inhabits the 
southern United States and the north of Mexico, is about the size of an ordinary 
rat, to which it also approximates in general coloration, although the under-parts 
and feet are entirely white. This species has a thin scaly tail, but in the bushy- 
tailed wood-rat CV. cinerea) from the north-western and western districts of North 
America, this appendage resembles that of a dormouse. ‘The wood-rats are active, 
climbing animals, sometimes found in forests, but in other cases inhabiting rocky 
districts. In woods or near streams they frequently make heaps of twigs, straw, 
ete., in which to form their nests. The young, of which there are from three to six 
in a litter, cling to the sides and back of the female parent when she is walking 
about, somewhat after the manner of certain opossums, and two litters are generally 
produced in the year. In addition to vegetable food, the Florida rat will also eat 
crayfish and frogs. 

There are several other genera belonging to the Cricetine sub- 
family which cannot be mentioned here. It may be observed, 
however, that Hypogeomys, together with four other genera, are confined to 
Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the Rodents. 


Other Cricetines. 


THe AFRICAN CRESTED RAT. 
Genus Lophiomys. 


A rare and remarkable Rodent from North-East Africa differs from the 
preceding Cricetines in certain features, which have been regarded as entitling 
it to rank as the representative of a distinct family, but there can be little doubt 
that it is merely a highly-specialised member of the present group. The African 
crested rat (Lophiomys imhausi) derives its name from the great crest of long 
erectile hairs running down the back and tail, some of which are as much as 33 
inches in length, and at their bases have a peculiar spongy structure. The tail is 
long and bushy, the limbs short, and the ears small. In the hind-foot the small 
front toe can be opposed to the others. The general colour is blackish brown, but 
there is a large triangular white spot on the front of the head, and a white streak 
beneath each eye, while the tip of the tail is also of the same hue. Moreover, the 
long hairs of the body have only the middle portion dark-coloured, their two 
extremities being white. Internally the crested rat differs from all other members 
of the family by its rudimentary collar-bones, and also by the circumstance that 


LHE MOUSE TRIBE. 129 


the sides of the hinder part of the skull are completely roofed over with bone, as 
in a turtle. This Rodent inhabits the district of Shoa, and is doubtless arboreal, 
although nothing definite is known of its habits in a wild state. 


THE VOLES. 
Genus MWicrotus. 


The voles, together with their near allies the lemmings and the musquash, 
constitute a group closely allied to the Cricetines, but distinguished by the peculiar 
character of their molar teeth. Indeed, the voles and their allies are evidently 
nothing more than a specialised modification of the 
Cricetine type, and it is more as a matter of convenience 
than from any well-founded distinctive characters that 
they are placed by themselves in a distinct subfamily. 
The whole group is characterised by the molar teeth being 
usually rootless or with imperfect roots, and composed of 
two longitudinal rows of alternately-arranged triangular 
prisms. These prisms, as shown in the accompanying 
figure, decrease in number from the first to the third 
tooth in each jaw, but are variable in number in the 
different species, and thus form a valuable aid in their 
discrimination. The tail of the voles is either short or of 
moderate length; and these Rodents are distinguished 
from the true rats and mice not only by this character, crown-surrace OF THE UPPER 
but likewise by their more corpulent form, their smaller = “4” SOWBR MOPAR TEETH 

OF THE CHINESE VOLE. 
eyes and ears, their more obtuse muzzles, and proportion- (From Thomas.) 
ately shorter limbs. The subfamily has a wide distribution 
in the Northern Hemisphere, but is quite unknown in Asia south of the Himalaya, 
in the Malayan region, and in Africa and South America. It is connected 
with the Cricetine subfamily by a North American genus known as Phenacomys, 
in which the molar teeth are furnished with roots. 

The water-vole, or, as it is commonly termed, the water-rat 
(Microtus amphibius), may be taken as a typical example of the 
widely-distributed group of voles, of which there are about half a hundred species, 
ranging from Britain through Europe to China, and thence eastwards to North 
America. The genus is sufficiently characterised by the molars being rootless and 
the soles of the feet naked. 

From its diurnal habits and wide distribution the water-vole is one of the best 
known of the indigenous British mammals. In size it agrees approximately with 
the brown rat, the length of the head and body being about 8} inches, and that 
of the tail slightly more than half as much again. The fur is dense and shining, 
and of a full reddish brown colour mingled with grey above and yellowish grey 
below. The feet are not webbed, and the tail is hairy. The number of the prisms 


<P 
_ 
> a 
Se 
+4 


CHIN 


Water-Vole. 


1The name Arvicola has been commonly applied to the voles, but by the rules of zoological nomenclature it 
has had to give place to Microtus. 
VOL. III.—g 


130 RODENTS. 


in the molar teeth are different from those in the smaller British voles, but since 
the species is sufficiently distinguished by its superior size, it will be unnecessary 
to enter into the consideration of this point. A black variety of the water-vole is 
sometimes met with. 

The water-vole has a wide distribution; extending from England in the west 
to China in the east, and occurring throughout continental Europe. Curiously 
enough, however, it is unknown in Ireland, where the other two species of British 
vole are likewise wanting. 

Every English brook and river is tenanted by the water-vole, whose long 
burrows in the banks are sometimes a source of considerable inconvenience to the 
agriculturist. The burrows are, however, by no means confined to the banks of 
rivers, being not unfrequent in water-meadows, and occasionally in ploughed fields 


8 \ wy 


Na Oy 


THE WATER-VOLE (3 nat, size). 


at a considerable distance from the water, Although the water-vole has been 
accused of carnivorous propensities, it is very doubtful if the charge can be 
substantiated. Its favourite food in summer appears to be the sweet inner pith 
of certain kinds of water-flags, but it will also eat many other aquatic plants, 
such as duckweed and horse-tails. In winter, when hard pressed for food, the 
water-vole turns its attention to the bark of trees and shrubs, and at this season 
frequently inflicts very serious damage on osier plantations. In cultivated districts 
it will also then readily eat mangold, turnips, potatoes, etc. When feeding upon 
duckweed, Bell says that “the creature sits, like a squirrel, on its haunches, 
near the water's edge, and, taking up a lump of the soft and slimy-looking 
mass in its fore-paws, eats a small part only, and, letting the remainder fall, 
takes up some more, which is similarly treated and rejected.” 

In May or June, and occasionally as early as April, the female gives birth to 
five or six young in the depths of its burrow; and it is probable that when the 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. 131 


litter is produced early in the spring, a second one follows during the summer. 
When their holes are rendered inaccessible by frost, water-voles are found to take 
shelter on shore, sometimes frequenting the cover afforded by an osier-bed, and on 
other occasions taking refuge in pollard willows. In spite of its feet not being 
webbed, the water-vole is an expert swimmer and diver; and its coat is of such a 
nature as to throw off the water as readily as does the plumage of a duck. Fossil 
remains of the water-vole are found in the cavern-deposits of England, and 
also in the “ forest-bed” of the Norfolk coast ; while those of extinct species of the 
genus to which it belongs, occur in the Pliocene crag-deposits of Suffolk and Essex. 

Short-Tailed In addition to the water-vole, the British Islands (exclusive of 

Field-Voles. Jyeland) possess two other species of the same genus, the commonest 
of which is the short-tailed field-vole, or field-mouse (J/. agrestis). This species is 


THE CONTINENTAL FIELD-VOLE (% nat. size). 


about the size of an ordinary mouse, and is greyish brown in colour above, and 
greyish white beneath, with dusky feet; the tail being about one-third the length 
of the body, while the under surfaces of the hind-feet have six naked pads. It is 
specially characterised by the circumstance that the second molar tooth in the 
upper jaw has five prisms. This character, unimportant as it may seem, serves to 
distinguish this species from the continental field-vole (JI. arvalis)—represented in 
the accompanying illustration—in which, in common with the other continental 
short-tailed members of the genus, the corresponding tooth has but four 
such prisms. 

The common short-tailed field-vole is found all over England and Scotland, as 
well as the greater part of the Continent; its range extending from the north of 
Italy to Finland, and from Spain and France to Russia; but in the southern 
portion of its habitat it is less numerous than the continental field-vole. The 
English species is commonly found in meadows—especially those where the ground 
is moist, and makes extensive runs beneath the grass, in which it roams both by 


132 RODENTS. 


night and day, although it is more active during the dark hours. In addition to 
these runs, the field-vole also constructs burrows of considerable size. The food of 
this species consists of seeds, roots, and herbage of all kinds. In gardens it 
displays an especial taste for the bulbs of crocuses and newly-sown peas and beans, 
among which it frequently does great damage. In winter, when other food is 
scarce, the field-vole will not unfrequently ascend trees to feed upon their bark. 
It is also by no means averse to a diet of insects and flesh. 

The field-vole is an unusually prolific animal, producing from three to four 
litters in a year, and each litter containing from four to six young. The nest in 
which these are born is composed of moss and leaves, and is usually placed beneath 
a tussock of grass in some slight hollow in the ground. 

The most remarkable peculiarity in connection with this field-vole is the 
swarms in which it occasionally makes its appearance in various parts of the 
country. According to Mr. J. E. Harting, one such “mice-plague” appeared in 
1580 in Essex, a second visited Hampshire and Gloucestershire during 1813-14, 
while a third was recorded in Wensleydale which lasted from 1874 to 1876. In 
the second of these visitations, upwards of thirty thousand voles were destroyed in 
the Forest of Dean, and eleven thousand five hundred in the New Forest. Quite 
recently (1892), another such plague has made its appearance in the south of Scot- 
land, especially in parts of Dumfriesshire and Roxburgh; the area over which the 
voles extended being estimated at from eighty thousand to ninety thousand acres. 
The mildness of the winter of 1890-91, coupled with the scarcity of owls, kestrels, 
and weasels (due to the over-zeal of gamekeepers), are supposed to have been the 
inducing cause of this last visitation. It is reported, however, that, as on similar 
occasions, numbers of owls arrived in the affected districts for the purpose of prey- 
ing on the voles, which by the end of 1893 had well-nigh disappeared. 

The habits of the continental field-vole are similar to those of the English 
species. It is stated, however, to be even a more prolific animal, the number of 
young varying from four to eight, while as many as six different litters may be 
produced in a single season. Moreover, it is probable that the young produced in 
the spring will themselves be parents in the following autumn. On the Continent 
the plagues of voles are even more serious than in England. Thus, according to 
Brehm, during a visitation of these animals which took place in Germany in the 
year 1822, upwards of 1,570,000 were taken in one district, 590,327 in another, and 
271,941 in a third. Again, in the summer of 1861, a total of 409,523 voles were 
taken in a single district of Rhine-Hessen. 

The third species of the genus in Britain is the bank-vole 
(M. glareolus), which may be distinguished externally from the field- 
vole by the colour of the back inclining more or less markedly to rufous, and also 
by its larger ears, and proportionately longer tail, which is equal to half the length 
of the head and body. The molar teeth differ from those of the field-vole not 
only by the circumstance that in the second one of the upper jaw there are but 
four prisms, but also in that in the adult state these teeth form imperfect roots. 
The whole proportions of the bank-vole are more elegant than those of the field- 
vole, while its fur is more smooth and glossy, its coloration more brilliant, and the 
eye larger. It is found locally over England and parts of Scotland, as far north as 


Bank-Vole. 


THE. MOUSE TRIBE. 133 


Morayshire, while abroad it ranges from France across Asia to China. Its general 
habits are the same as those of the field-vole, but it is said to be more generally 
found in sheltered situations, and is especially fond of visiting gardens. 

There is, however, a great probability that both the bank-vole and the red- 
backed vole (M. gapperi) of North America, are merely local varieties of the Arctic 
vole (I rutilus), which inhabits the cireumpolar regions of both hemispheres ; 
their differences in coloration being merely such as might well be due to the 
varying climatic conditions of the countries they severally inhabit. 

The Alpine vole (M. nivalis), which is the last species to which 
we refer at any length, is interesting on account of the elevated 
regions forming its habitat. It is a small species with a relatively long tail; the 


Alpine Vole. 


ess 
wae ff 
HN SEN 


THE ALPINE VOLE (2 nat, size). 


total length being about 7 inches, of which slightly more than half is taken up 
by the tail. The ears are large; and the number of prisms in the first upper molar 
tooth is the same as in the water-vole. The colour varies from brownish grey 
above and greyish white beneath to pure white. This species has an exceedingly 
limited distribution, being confined to the Alps and Pyrenees, where it ranges from 
an elevation of about four thousand feet to the limits of perpetual snow. It is, 
indeed, most abundant near the snow line, above which it also sometimes wanders 
in search of the scanty vegetation which exists at such altitudes. Not only is the 
Alpine vole found in these dreary regions during the short season when the ground 
is more or less free from snow, but it likewise remains there from year’s end to 
year’s end. Accordingly, for upwards of nine or ten months of the year, it lives 
beneath a deep pall of snow. Here it makes regular runs, along which it travels in 
search of food when the supply hoarded for winter use becomes exhausted. No 
other known mammal leads a similar existence. 


134 RODENTS. 


The list of species of voles being almost endless, space only per- 
mits of passing references to a few of the more interesting. In North 
America the commonest species is the meadow-vole (IZ. riparius), which in the 
northern regions during the winter abandons its frozen burrows and forms nests on 
the surface of the ground, which soon become buried in the snow. The heat of the 
little animal inside melts and cakes the surrounding snow, which thus forms a con- 
tinually increasing dome-shaped mass around the nest. The root-vole (JL. 
aconomus) of Siberia and Kamschatka, is interesting on account of the large stores 
of food it accumulates in its burrows, and likewise on account of its migratory 
habits, which resemble those of the lemming. Numerous voles occur in the 
Himalaya, Tibet, and Central Asia; the earliest described Himalayan species being 
Royle’s vole (MI. roylet). 


Other Species. 


THE LEMMINGS. 
Genus Myodes. 


Closely related to the voles are the lemmings, of which one species, commonly 
known as the Norwegian lemming (Myodes lemmus), inhabits the mountains of the 
Scandinavian peninsula and thence northwards to the North Cape, while the second 
is confined to North America. Lemmings are distinguished from voles by their 
heavier build, more convex and obtusely snouted head, extremely short tail, and by 
the soles of the small feet being covered with hair. They have also longer claws, 
thicker fur, and very small ears; while there are likewise important differences in 
the structure of the skull and teeth. There is considerable individual variation in 
regard to size and coloration in the Norwegian lemming. Usually, however, its 
length is about 5 inches; while the general colour of the fur is yellowish brown, 
darker above than below, more or less spotted and streaked with blackish 
brown. 
pea Lemmings are the most abundant rodents found in Norway, and 

they have always attracted great interest from the circumstance, 
that at certain intervals countless swarms descend from the mountains to the cul- 
tivated plains, and thence make their way, apparently under the influence of some 
blind impetus, to the sea, into the waters of which they boldly plunge to meet a 
death by drowning. In the course of such migrations, the lemmings take a straight 
line across country, swimming rivers or lakes, climbing mountains, and eating their 
way through fields of corn or grass, and thus leaving a track of desolation in their 
rear. The line of march is marked by flights of predaceous birds hovering above 
the hosts; the flanks and rear of the army being harassed by four-footed foes, who, 
however, at first make but little apparent diminution in its numbers. Disease also 
claims its victims; and from these combined attacks, the numbers which eventually 
reach the sea, sometimes after an interval of from one to three years from the time 
of starting, form but a small minority of the original swarm. 

In general appearance, lemmings look not unlike small marmots or hamsters ; 
and they resemble the latter to a considerable extent in their mode of life. Although 
in Finmark they occur at the sea-level, in the more southern parts of Scandinavia 
they are found only high up in the mountains above the level of firs, in the belt 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. 135 


clothed with birch and juniper. Here they select dry spots in the swampy ground, 
making their shallow burrows either beneath stones or in the peaty soil. Generally 
they do not form well-marked tracks from one hole to another, except when the 
ground is covered with snow. They are on the move by day as well as by night. 
Except when migrating, lemmings show a great aversion to water, always selecting 
the driest portions of the swamps, and if forced to enter a river, manifesting their 
dislike by squeaks and grunts. Generally they sit quietly during the day, in or 
near the entrances of the burrows, but should a human being appear on the scene, 
they at once become violently excited, raising themselves up on their hind-quarters, 


NORWEGIAN LEMMINGS MIGRATING (4 nat. size). 


and squeaking, as if to warn him off from their territories, while their gestures are 
such as to give the impression that they are about to attack the intruder. Indeed, 
they will sometimes bite vigorously at the trousers of any person who approaches 
too close to their holes. The squeaks and grunts uttered on such occasions by the 
lemmings are said to closely resemble those of guinea-pigs. In the winter, they 
form large nests in their tunnels through the snow, which are exposed to view 
when it melts; several tunnels radiating from each nest, which are formed partly 
in the peat and partly in the snow. The chief food of the lemming in its native 
haunts consists of grass, reindeer-moss, the catkins of the birch, and probably 
various descriptions of roots. It appears that the young are born in the nests, 
which are usually made of dry grass with a lining of hair, and that there are 


136 RODENTS. 


usually from five to six young in a litter. It is considered by Brehm that there 
is probably more than one litter in a season; but precise information as to the 
breeding-habits of these creatures is still a desideratum. 

It is probable that the periodical migrations of the lemmings are induced by a 
scarcity of food. Brehm remarks that if an early spring following a wild winter 
is succeeded by a hot and dry summer, everything will be favourable for an un- 
wonted increase in the number of these animals. The dry summer will, however, 
equally tend to diminish the quantity of vegetation available for their support, and, 
accordingly, a migration to more fertile regions will be rendered necessary. Why, 
however, the migration should be continued in this extraordinary manner is a 
question which has not yet received a satisfactory answer. The number of lem- 
mings taking part in a migration has been estimated at many millions; and on 
such occasions every bush and every rock or large stone has a lemming hiding 
under it, while sometimes even the towns swarm with these creatures. Not only 
do the lemmings attempt to swim rivers and lakes which are too wide for them to 
cross, but, writes Mr. T. T. Somerville, “they tumble into holes, wells, and brooks, 
the sides of which are too steep for them to scramble out of again, so that frequently 
people are at a loss to obtain water that is not polluted by their bodies. Doubtless 
this accounts for an epidemic popularly termed ‘lemming fever, that is said to 
prevail after the migration, and which is described as resembling ordinary typhoid.” 


THE BANDED LEMMING. 
Genus Cuniculus. 


The banded lemming (Cuniculus torquatus), from the circumpolar regions of 
both hemispheres, differs in several important points from the true lemmings, and is 
accordingly referred to a distinct genus. Externally it is distinguished by the 
absence of conchs to the ear, the shorter and more thickly-formed feet, the practical 
loss of the first toe of the fore-foot, which has only a rudimental nail, and also by 
the great length of the claws of the third and fourth toes in the same limb. The 
molar teeth are more like those of the voles than in the case of the true lemmings, 
but the first of these teeth in the upper jaw is peculiar in having seven distinct 
prisms. The banded lemming is so variable in coloration as almost to defy deserip- 
tion. It may be said, however, in general that the fur of the upper-parts presents 
a kind of “watered” appearance, owing to the intimate mingling of chestnut, rufous, 
black, grey, and tawny; the under-parts being leaden-grey. Usually a more or 
less distinct black line runs along the back from the muzzle to the tail; while there 
may be a greyish collar on the nape of the neck. 

The habits of the banded lemming are probably very similar to 
those of the other species, although it does not undertake similar 
periodical migrations to the same extent. Baron Nordenskiéld states that there 
are no lemmings in Spitzbergen, but that they must be exceedingly numerous at 
certain seasons in Novaia Zemlia, where, in early summer, the grass is seen to 
be traversed in all directions by the tracks made by these animals beneath the 
snow. 


Habits. 


THE, MOGSE ERIBE. 137 


o 


It is interesting to note that remains of both the Norwegian and 
the banded lemming have been found in the Pleistocene deposits of 
Britain, apparently indicating the prevalence of different climatic conditions to those 


of the present age. 


Fossil Lemmings. 


THE MUSQUASH. 
Genus Fiber. 


The musquash, or musk-rat (Fiber zibethicus), is a North American species, 
considerably exceeding in size all other members of the vole subfamily. 
Although resembling a vole in its general external appearance, as well as in the 
structure of its molar teeth and skull, the musquash differs by its compressed and 


THE MUSQUASH (4 nat. size), 


proportionately longer tail, of which the length is nearly equal to that of the body, 
exclusive of the head. In addition to its compressed form, the tail is also char- 
acterised by being nearly naked, and covered with scales. The feet, which are 
partially webbed, differ from those of the voles in having their soles entirely 
naked. 

The musquash is a massively-built animal, with the head and body attaining 
a length of about a foot, and the tail about 10 inches. The head is unusually wide 
and not separated from the body by any distinctly constricted neck ; while the eyes 
are relatively small, and the ears scarcely project above the fur. With the exception 
of the small area immediately surrounding the nostrils, the muzzle is completely 
covered with hair. The limbs are short, with the first toe rudimentary in the front 
pair, although well developed in the hinder. The compressed form of the tail is 
increased by the presence of a line of hairs on both its upper and lower surfaces. 
The fur, of which the general colour is blackish brown, passing into grey on the 
muzzle and under-parts, has the soft and velvety texture of that of the beaver. It 


138 RODENTS. 


is, however, mostly shorter than in the latter, although on the back and flanks there 
are interspersed a number of longer bristle-like hairs. 
Distribution The geographical range of the musquash is large, extending from 
and Habits. the so-called barren grounds of Arctic America to the genial climate 
of the Rio Grande, while it also reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 

Musk-rats are thoroughly adapted for an aquatic life, and generally frequent 
ponds, swamps, and sluggish streams. Although their food consists mainly of the 
roots of grasses and water-plants, they consume considerable quantities of river 
mussels; they will likewise catch and eat fish, while they are said at times to 
devour the flesh of such individuals of their own species as they may find dead, or 
wounded and helpless. Occasionally they wander considerable distances from the 
water; and Dr. Merriam relates an instance where two of these creatures were 
discovered comfortably ensconced beneath the hearthstone of a room. 

The musquash is an excellent diver, being able to remain below the surface of 
the water for a considerable time. It is much less strictly nocturnal in habits than 
the beaver, and may be frequently observed swimming about in broad daylight, 
more especially if the sky be overcast. In leaping into the water to dive, it 
makes a loud noise by striking the flat tail against the surface. The long burrow 
always has its entrance beneath the surface of the water, from which it inclines 
upwards in the bank for a distance of from 10 to 15 feet, when it expands into a 
large chamber, in which may be a nest. Usually one or more galleries lead from 
this chamber further into the bank. In certain districts where the water is deep 
these animals in the autumn sometimes collect large heaps of vegetable matter im 
the form of haycocks. Such heaps are known as “musk-rat huts” or “houses.” 
After mentioning that some of those built in the water attain enormous dimensions, 
Dr. Merriam observes that “the summit of the structure is commonly high enough 
out of water to admit of an air-chamber within, which communicates with the out- 
side world by means of a hole through the centre of the mass, the entrance or 
entrances being under water. Many of the houses contain no mud or sticks, but 
consist wholly of balls and knots of roots and swamp-grasses. It seems clear that 
the animals make no attempt to construct a dwelling of any particular shape, but 
merely heap the materials together without plan or order, the resulting mound 
naturally assuming, in a general way, the form of a flattened cone.... The 
materials of which the hut are composed, it will be observed, are such as serve as 
food for the animals during the long winters; hence the musk-rat’s house is in 
reality a storehouse, which he devours piecemeal as the winter advances.” 

The nest is usually placed in a burrow in the bank, although occasionally in 
the aforesaid hut. Here from five to nine blind and naked young are produced at 
a birth, and it is reported that there may be as many as three litters in the course 
of a season. 

Although not of much value, the fur of the musquash is much 
used, both in America and Europe. According to Mr. Poland, from 
three to four million skins come into the market annually; the Hudson’s Bay 
Company alone having sold over half a million in 1891. Dr. Merriam states that 
although the flesh of the musquash is red and rather flabby, yet that, failing other 
meat, it 1s eatable. 


Fur. 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. : 139 


THE Mo.e-LIkE VOLES. 
Genera Ellobius and Siphneus. 


Certain representatives of the vole group are specially adapted for a sub- 
terranean mole-like life, and, therefore, differ considerably from the other forms, 
although they retain the ordinary type of molar teeth. In form they are 
characterised by the blunt and rounded head passing imperceptibly into the 
cylindrical mole-like body, the absence of external ears, the short tail and limbs, 
and the broad feet, each provided with five claws. The incisor teeth project 
considerably, and their enamel is usually white, instead of having the yellow 
or orange tinge so prevalent among the ordinary voles. 

These mole-like voles, of which there are but few species, are mainly confined 
to Central and Northern Asia, although one species ranges as far south as 
Afghanistan and Quetta, and another extends into Eastern Europe. They are 
divided into two genera, according as to whether the claws of the fore-feet 
are short or long; Allobius including the short-clawed and Siphneus the long- 
clawed species. ‘The so-called Quetta vole (Z. fuscicapillus) is about 5 inches in 
total length, of which half an inch is occupied by the tail. It is brownish white 
above, with the exception of the greyish brown head, while the under-parts, feet, 
and tail are white; the fur being long and soft. It is reported to construct 
horizontal galleries in the ground, with heaps of earth thrown up at intervals, 
after the fashion of the mole. 


THE RATS AND MICE. 
Genus Mus. 


The true rats and mice, together with certain allied forms referred to distinct 
genera, are the representatives of the last subfamily of the Muride, which is 
exclusively confined to the Old World. They are primarily characterised by the 
crowns of the unworn upper molar teeth carrying a number of tubercles arranged 
in three longitudinal rows; these teeth always having distinct roots. When worn 
by use, the crowns of the molars exhibit transverse bands of enamel. The tail is 
always long and scaly, and in most cases almost destitute of hairs. Moreover, 
the ears are large, and the eyes bright and prominent, while the muzzle is sharply 
pointed, and the build light and elegant. Their movements are quick, active, and 
graceful, and their coloration is in most cases uniform and sombre, as would 
naturally be expected from the nocturnal and burrowing habits of the majority 
of the species. 

The Murine subfamily includes a considerable number of species, by far the 
greater majority of which are comprised in the genus Mus. That genus is character- 
ised by the incisor teeth being smooth, and the molars distinctly tuberculated. 
The ears and eyes are proportionately large, and the tip of the muzzle is naked, 
while the tail is long and scaly. The first toe of the fore-foot has a short nail in 
lieu of a claw; and the fur is soft, although in some cases intermingled with 


140 RODENTS: 


spines. The genus is the largest in the whole mammalian class, comprising not 
far short of a hundred and fifty species, which are distributed over the whole of 
the Old World with the exception of Madagascar; some of these, by human aid, 
having now acquired a cosmopolitan range. With such a multitude of species, it 
is of course only possible to allude to a few of the more interesting. 

The brown or, as it is often inappropriately called, the Norway rat 
(M. decumanus), offers one of the most remarkable instances of a 
successful usurpation to be found in the animal kingdom; this creature having 
ousted the black rat from most parts of England and a large area on the Continent. 
So far as can be ascertained, its original home appears to have been Western China, 
from whence it gradually travelled westward to continental nee, finally reach- 


Brown Rat. 


| MTT HTT 
Ly 


yu 


hl i" 
iis iii uy 


Mia 


THE BROWN RAT (3 nat. size). 


ing the shores of the British Islands by the involuntary aid of ships. Its westerly 
migration was, however, by no means limited to Europe, as it has been carried by 
vessels across the Atlantic, and is now as abundant in many parts of North 
America as it is in the Old World. The migration of the rat into Russia is known 
to have taken place about 1727, in which year large troops of these animals 
crossed the Volga from Central Asia, and made their way westwards. In Paris it 
appeared about the middle of the eighteenth century, and it is generally supposed 
to have first reached England in 1730. 

In appearance the brown rat is unfortunately too well known to need much 
description, although it is advisable to point out the features by which it is 
distinguished from its cousin the black rat. In form this species is characterised 
by its heavy build, massive blunt muzzle, comparatively small ears, and relatively 
short tail; the length of the tail being always less than that of the head and 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. 141 


- body (8 to 9 inches), and usually not exceeding that of the body alone. The colour 
of the upper-parts is usually greyish brown, while the under surface is white; but 
black varieties are often met with, which in Ireland have been regarded as indicat- 
ing a distinct species. 

The brown rat is a far more powerful animal than the black 
species, which has not a chance against its stronger rival, although 
curiously enough it is stated that on some ships the two kinds may be found 
living together. The following anecdote, related by the late Mr. Frank Buckland, 
illustrates in a striking manner the superior power and at the same time the 
extreme ferocity of the brown rat. “A London rat-catcher,” writes the narrator, 
“shut up together in a cage the result of his day’s work, consisting of several 
dozen rats, of both species, and put them away carefully for the night, their 
intended fate being to afford sport for his employer’s dogs the next morning. 
What was his astonishment when he came to fetch them, to find none but brown 
rats remaining! these cannibals having cruelly devoured all their sable brethren.” 

Rats are practically omnivorous in their diet, devouring every kind of human 
food with avidity, and inflicting untold damage on the hen-roost, the dove-cot, and 
the rabbit-warren. Their devastations to corn-ricks, or to grain stored in 
insufficiently protected granaries, are too well known to need more than passing 
mention. Not only will they, as in the instance recorded above, prey on their 
cousin the black rat, but they will likewise slay and devour members of their own 
kind which have been caught in traps or otherwise disabled. In robbing poultry- 
houses, it is a well-ascertained fact that rats will convey the eggs in an unbroken 
condition for considerable distances, although it is not yet ascertained how this 
difficult feat is accomplished. The partiality of these animals for fish is well 
known, but that they will occasionally catch young eels for themselves has been only 
recently discovered. Mr. Harting adds that snails—both land and fresh-water— 
also form a portion of their diet; while on the sea-coast they will eat prawns and 
other crustaceans. 

The prolific nature of the brown rat is little short of marvellous, and 
thoroughly accounts for its enormous numbers when in favourable situations. 


Habits. 


Several litters are produced annually, each of which generally contains from eight 
to ten, and sometimes as many as twelve or fourteen young; and a female rat will 
breed when only half-grown, although the number of its progeny is then but three 
or four at a birth. When these animals obtain access to small islands inhabited by 
sea-birds or rabbits, the abundant food soon leads to a prodigious increase in their 
numbers; but sooner or later they practically exterminate the indigenous 
inhabitants, and then have to seek a more precarious livelihood by preying upon 
the crustaceans and molluscs on the shores. Some years ago the number of rats 
in the slaughter-houses around Paris was so great, that as many as 2650 were 
killed in a single night, and over 16,000 within a month. 

Rats, impelled by scarcity of provisions, at times make migrations in large 
bodies—generally, or always during the night; and on such journeys they will 
not hesitate to plunge boldly into and swim over such rivers as may come in their 
way; and it is related that instances have occurred of their being suddenly 
hemmed in during such voyages by a rapid formation of ice. Some years ago the 


142 RODENTS. 


rats that frequented the London Zoological Gardens were in the habit of regularly 
swimming to and fro across the Regent's Canal. When brought to bay, the 
ferocity with which a rat will defend itself against a human or canine foe, is 
known to most persons. When pressed by hunger, rats will, however, occasionally 
attack human beings without provocation ; and it is on record that an unfortunate 
man on entering a coal-pit which had been closed for some time, was actually 
killed and devoured by a starving host of rats. 

The black rat (M/. rattus) is smaller and more elegantly built 
than the brown, with a longer and thinner tail; the length of the head 
and body being about 7 inches, while that of the tail varies from 8 to 9 inches. 
Its snout, moreover, is longer and more slender, projecting to a greater distance 


1S Iai STG Wh aca Na 


Black Rat. 


PTT MCT 
] \ 


Ue ca A via 
Wy gry vn ne 


AN 


: 
4 


py 
AN 


———— 
\ = 


THE BLACK RAT (3 nat. size). 


beyond the lower jaw, while its ears are considerably larger. In Europe the black 
rat, as its name implies, generally has fur of a deep bluish black colour; but in 
India and other parts of the East there are varieties, in one of which the tint is 
usually brown above and white below, while in a second the hue is rufous or 
yellowish brown, and spines are mingled with the fur. When domesticated, white 
and pied varieties are readily produced; and most of the rats thus coloured which 
are exhibited by showmen, belong to this species. In one of the Indian varieties 
the length of the head and body is not more than 5 inches, while in another it 
reaches 8 inches. 

Distribution. The black rat is very commonly spoken of as the indigenous 

and Habits. British species; this, however, is incorrect, as this rat was also intro- 
duced from the East, although at a much earlier date than its brown cousin. The 
exact date of its arrival in Europe cannot, however, now be determined, although 
it is known to have existed on the Continent in the thirteenth century. At the 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. 143 


present day the European variety of this species is almost cosmopolitan; but the 
brown and rufous varieties extend from Northern Africa through India to Burma, 
and are doubtless indigenous to both these regions. 

The black rat, in addition to its inferior size, is a far less ferocious animal 
than the brown species, which accounts for the ease with which it has been 
conquered by the latter. In England it is now comparatively rare—the Isle of 
Dogs being one of its last strongholds; but it is more common in certain parts of 
the Continent. In Europe its habits are generally very similar to those of the 
brown rat; but in India it frequently ascends trees, where it makes its nests 
among the branches; while in some of the islands of the tropics it lives exclusively 
in the crowns of the cocoanut palm, upon the fruit of which it feeds. 


\\ ee 
\ —— a} i 
WL ets 

= eS 
Goi 


THE HOUSE MOUSE (# nat. size). 


In Britain, from the absence of any species of intermediate size, 
it is easy to distinguish between the rats, or larger species of the 
genus, and the smaller mice; but in other countries it is impossible to draw any 
line of distinction, and the two terms must consequently be employed in a some- 
what arbitrary manner. The typical representative of the mice is the common 
house mouse (JM. musculus), which is now of almost world-wide distribution, 
although probably originally a native of Asia. The characteristic features of this 
species are its relatively large ears, long tail, and nearly uniform brownish colora- 
tion, which is only slightly paler below than above. 

The distinctive peculiarity of this species is its partiality for human habitations 
and their neighbourhood; its tastes being practically omnivorous, although its 


House Mouse. 


144 RODENTS. 


chief food consists of grain and other vegetable articles of human consumption. 
It is noteworthy that in corn-stacks rats and mice live in perfect harmony together, 
without any trace of that mutual antipathy existing between the brown and the 
black rat. This mouse is nearly as prolific as the brown rat, producing from three 
to five litters in a year, each of which includes from four to eight blind young. In 
habits, the house mouse is more active than most of its kindred, being able to 
ascend vertical walls with ease, and also having the power of springing to 
considerable distances. In domestication, white and pied breeds of this species 
are common. 

This mouse exhibits a peculiar susceptibility to musical sounds, to which it 
listens with marked attention. Occasionally, in common with other members of 
the family, individuals of this species are endowed with considerable vocal powers. 
A lady writes that although the song of one of these “ singing-mice” was not very 
effective, yet it was a distinct vocal effort. Sometimes the mouse in her 
possession “would run up an octave, and end with a decided attempt at a trill. 
Sometimes it would try to trill up all the notes. An octave seemed to be about its 
range. I could distinctly see the expansion and vibration of its throat and chest 
as one can in a song-bird. Its favourite position when singing was an erect one, 
standing on its hind-feet.” 

Long-Tailed Since the term “field mice” is popularly apphed to the voles as 

Field Mouse. well as to the true mice, it is necessary to prefix the epithet “long- 
tailed” to the common British species (MZ. sylvaticus) of the present genus. This 
field mouse is rather larger than the field vole, from which it can be distinguished 
at a glance by its lighter build, longer and more pointed muzzle, much larger ears, 
and greatly elongated tail, which is nearly equal in length to the head and body. 
The general colour of the fur is reddish grey above, and whitish beneath, with a 
spot of light brown on the chest. This species is common in many parts of England, 
and is also widely distributed over the temperate regions of Kurope, while eastwards 
it is replaced by the closely allied Persian field mouse, ranging from Persia over a 
large portion of Central Asia. 

This field mouse is generally found in England in gardens, hedgerows, and 
cornfields, but in winter it sometimes takes shelter in houses, while it also frequents 
corn-stacks, although in less numbers than the house mouse. It commonly burrows 
in the ground, and lays up large stores of food for winter use; whole handfuls of 
corn, nuts, or seeds being sometimes discovered in these subterranean retreats. 
Since these mice are exceedingly prolific, the amount of damage they sometimes 
do to cornfields and gardens is almost incalculable; and additional harm is fre- 
quently effected by pigs in their search after the concealed hordes of these little 
Rodents. 

The elegant little creature of which a group is represented in the 
coloured Plate is the most beautiful, and also almost the smallest 
of the British mammals; the one inferior to it in point of size being the pigmy 
shrew. The harvest mouse (Jf. minutus), as the creature is called, was first dis- 
covered in England by Gilbert White of Selborne, and is so small that its weight is 
only about one-sixth of an ounce; the total length being about 43 inches, of which 
nearly one-half is taken up by the tail. The ears and tail are proportionately 


Harvest Mouse. 


THE MOUSE TRIBE. 145 


rather small; and the colour of the fur is yellowish red above and white 
beneath. 

The harvest-mouse, although local, is widely distributed in the British Islands, 
and extends over the great part of Europe, ranging eastwards through Russia into 
Siberia, and occurring as far south as the north of Italy. This species usually keeps 
far away from human habitations, frequenting cornfields and pastures ; but is often 
carried home with corn-sheaves, and then spends the winter in the rick where they 
are deposited. In the latter situations, the harvest-mouse remains active throughout 
the year; but when living in the open fields it constructs a burrow in which to pass 
the winter months in a state of torpor. The summer nest is a globular structure of 
grass and leaves suspended among the corn-stalks at some distance from the ground ; 


KE 
Sp uF 


THE BARBARY MOUSE (nat. size). 


and when ascending or descending the stems to reach this nest, or in search of food, 
the little creatures are much aided by their prehensile tails. No better description 
of this nest exists than the one given by White, which although often quoted will 
bear one more repetition. He writes that the structure was “most artificially 
platted, and composed of the blades of wheat; perfectly round and about the size 
of a cricket ball, with the aperture so ingeniously closed, that there was no discover- 
ing to what part it belonged. It was so compact and well filled that it would roll 
across the table without being discomposed, though it contained eight little mice that 
were naked and blind.” The number in a litter varies from five to eight or nine, 
and it is probable that there are several broods in the course of a summer. The 
numbers of the species are, however, kept down by the hosts of predaceous birds 
and small carnivorous mammals that make it their prey. Like the long-tailed field- 
mouse, the present species is partly insectivorous in its diet. Mr. Harting states 
that he has several times kept harvest-mice in captivity, and succeeded in rearing 
VOL. III.—10 


146 RODENZTS: 


their young to maturity. He describes them as charming little pets, allowing 
themselves to be handled without making any attempts to bite, and readily taking 
food from the hand. 

The only other species of the genus J/us that can be noticed here 
are two, one of which is remarkable for its coloration, and the other 
on account of its habits. The Barbary striped mouse (Wl. barbarus) is the most 
strikingly coloured member of the group, the ground-colour of the fur of the upper- 
parts being a yellowish brown, upon which are a number of longitudinal blackish 
brown stripes; the under-parts being pure white. This mouse inhabits Northern 
and Central Africa, being especially common in the Atlas Mountains, and also occurs 
in the desert regions of the interior as far as Kordofan. There appears to be 
nothing worthy of special note in its habits. 

The Australian brown-footed rat (ML. fuscipes) is remarkable as being nearly 
or quite as aquatic in its habits as the water-vole. 


Other Species. 


THE BaAnpicooT-RAtTs 
Genus NVesocia. 


The bandicoot-rats of Southern Asia differ from ordinary rats in the much 
greater width of their incisor and molar teeth, and also by the tubercles on the 
crowns of the latter being so completely connected as to form transverse ridges. 
Members of the genus extend from Palestine to Formosa, and from Ceylon to Central 
Asia; but they are most abundant in India and the adjacent regions. The great 
Indian bandicoot-rat (Nesocia bandicota) is the largest member of the subfamily, 
measuring from 12 to 15 inches from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, 
and weighing between 2} and 3 Ibs. It is common in cultivated districts and near 
human dwellings in most parts of India, although unknown in Lower Bengal. It 
is a burrower, like other species of the same genus, some of which turn up mounds 
of earth like mole-hills. When disturbed, this rat utters grunts like a pig; but it 
has far less pluck than the brown rat, and makes but a poor fight against a dog. 


OTHER GENERA. 


There are about eleven other genera belonging to this family, of which a few 
of the more interesting may be briefly noticed. 

The bush-rats (Golunda) are represented by one Indian and one 
African species, and are distinguished by the presence of a groove on 
the front of the upper incisor teeth. The length of the head and body in the 
Indian species (G. elliotz) is about 43 inches, and that of the tail half an inch less. 

The spiny mice (Acomys), of which there are several species of 
the approximate size of the house-mouse, are peculiar in having the 
hinder portion of the back covered with thick, rigid, grooved spines in lieu of hair, 
and thus look almost like minute hedgehogs. They are desert-loving creatures, 
ranging from Syria to Eastern Africa as far south as Mozambique, while a single 
example of one of the species has been found in Sind. 


Bush-Rats. 


Spiny Mice. 


MOLE-RATS. 147 


The sandy deserts of Australia are inhabited by certain elegant 
representatives of the present group distinguished by their elongated 
hind-limbs, long ears and tail, and general jerboa-like appearance. Indeed, these 
jerboa-rats (Hapalotis) seem to take the place of the true jerboas in the regions 
they inhabit. 

Lichtenstein’s A peculiar species from Tasmania, known as Lichtenstein’s rat 
Rat. (Mastacomys), differs from ordinary rats in the great width of the 
molar teeth, and also by the circumstance that the female has but four teats. It 
somewhat resembles the water-vole in size and form, although the body is clothed 
with longer and softer fur. 


Jerboa-Rats. 


THE MoLE-Rats. 
Family SP4LACIDZ, 


The strange-looking creature shown in the illustration on p. 148 is the 
typical representative of a small family of Old World Rodents, all of which are 
adapted for a purely subterranean mole-lke life. Except for their large and 
projecting incisor teeth, which at once proclaim them members of the Rodent 
order, the mole-rats have a general mole-like appearance, their eyes and external 
ears being small or rudimentary, the limbs short and provided with large and 
powerful claws, and the tail usually short or practically wanting, while the body 
is cylindrical and not marked off from the head by any distinct neck. Their molar 
teeth are furnished with roots, and have re-entering folds of enamel on their crowns, 
and premolars may or may not be present. It may be remarked here that the 
assumption of mole-like habits and a more or less mole-like bodily form is common 
to several groups of smaller mammals. Thus, among the Insectivores, we have the 
true moles and the Cape golden mole; while in the Rodents we find mole-like 
forms in the mole-voles in the present family, and also in the South American 
tucutuco, belonging to the family Octodontide, described in the next chapter. 
The marsupial mole of Austraha presents. us with an example of the Pouched 
Mammals, having a similar form and mode of life. 

The great mole-rat (Spalax typhlus), which is the only repre- 
sentative of its genus, is characterised by the absence of premolar 
teeth, by the minute eyes being completely covered with skin, and the rudimental 
wart-like ears. The fur is soft, and so arranged as to be reversible, by which 
means the movements of the animal in its burrow are much facilitated. The 
general colour is yellowish brown tinged with ashy grey above, and ashy grey, 
mingled with spots and flecks of white, beneath. This species inhabits South- 
Eastern Europe, whence it extends eastwards to Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia, 
and also occurs in Lower Egypt. 

The great mole-rat constructs tunnels very much resembling 
those of the mole, their course being marked by heaps of earth thrown 
out at intervals. But while the mole constructs its lengthy burrows for the sake 
cf feeding upon carth-worms, the present species and its allies make their sub- 
terranean journeys in search of bulbs and roots. In Egypt, according to Dr. J. 


Great Mole-Rat. 


Habits. 


148 RODENTS. 


Anderson, the burrows of the moie-rat are made in sandy soil containing quantities 
of bulbs of asphodels and hyacinths, upon which the creature feeds. The tunnels 
are of great extent and complexity, some of the passages being as much as thirty 
or forty yards in length, and are generally about eighteen inches below the surface. 
In certain spots the borings descend, however, to a depth of some four feet, and 
here some of them terminate in chambers packed full of bulbs, while others open 
out into sleeping apartments, from which secondary passages again radiate. Dr. 
Anderson states that “the tunnels are perfectly smooth and cylindrical, and in 
digging through the soil above them numerous bulbs of the same kind as those 
found in the storehouse were observed.” When taken from its burrow, the first 
instinct of the animal is to dig headlong into the soil; and when underground it is 
able to move with equal facility either backwards or forwards. 

In Northern India, Tibet, China, Burma, and the Malayan region, 
as well as in Abyssinia, the family is represented by a group of species, 
commonly known as bamboo-rats (Rhizonys), which differ from the preceding by 


Bamboo-Rats. 


THE GREAT MOLE-RAT (4 nat. size). 


the minute eyes not being covered with skin, as well as by the presence of small 
external naked ears, and of a short tail partially covered with hair. The bay 
bamboo-rat (R. badius), ranging from the Eastern Himalaya to Siam, is one of the 
best known representatives of this genus, and attains a length of from 7 to 9 inches, 
exclusive of the tail, which is about 24 more. This species generally makes its 
burrows among tall rank grass, but sometimes at the roots of trees, and in their 
construction uses its teeth as well as its claws. There is some doubt whether these 
animals drive tunnels in search of roots, as they are known to issue forth at night 
in order to feed on the young shoots of grass, and probably bamboo, but it is 
generally believed that they also eat roots. When above ground, they move 
slowly, and they are said to be so fearless, or stupid, as to allow themselves 


MOLE-RATS. 149 


to be caught without resistance, although when taken they bite savagely and 
severely. From three to four young are produced at a birth. The hill-tribes of 
Burma are in the habit of eating the flesh of these animals. The Sumatran bamboo- 
rat (R. sumatrensis), ranging from Tenasserim to Siam, is a much larger species, 
measuring from 15 to 19 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. Remains of an 
extinct bamboo-rat occur in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of 
the Himalaya. 
Africa, south of the Sahara, is the habitat of several types of mole- 
rats differing from these above mentioned in the formation of the lower 
jaw, and also by the general presence of premolar teeth. At the Cape there are 
two species, one of which (Bathyergus maritimus) is nearly a foot in length, with 
the upper incisor teeth grooved, no external ears, and extremely powerful claws ; 
the silky hair being of a light greyish brown colour. This second species (Georychus 
capensis) is about half the size of the former, with smooth upper incisors, and 
weaker claws. The late Prof. Moseley states that the strand-mole (Bathyergus), 
which is always found on the flats near the shore, constructs numbers of tunnels 
and_hillocks, the former of which are large enough to easily admit the hand and 

-arm. On the other hand, the runs of the smaller species are generally constructed 
on higher ground, although sometimes with those of the so-called strand-mole. 
The hillocks constructed by the latter are generally about a foot in height; those 
freshly made being of a dark colour. Prof. Moseley writes that “one has not long 
to watch, standing a few yards off, before the fresh heap is seen to heave up, three 
or four times in succession, as the strand-mole forces freshly scooped-out earth up 
into it from below. I tried at first shooting into the heap as it was thus heaving, 
in the hope of getting the mole, but never with any success. In order to shoot the 
worker, the earth should be quickly thrown back from the fresh heap, and the hole 
laid open to the air. One then only has to retire about ten paces and wait patiently. 
The strand-mole does not like the fresh air, and in the course of five minutes or so 
comes back to fill up the hole, but usually puts its head out for a moment first to 
find what’s up, though it certainly cannot see far with its minute eyes, which are 
not bigger than the heads of carpet-pins, the whole eyeball when extracted being 
not bigger than a tenth of an inch in diameter.” When trapped, the animal bites 
the air fiercely with its enormous front teeth, at the same time uttering a half- 
snarling, half-growling noise. 

Although there is but a single species of Bathyergus, there are several of 
Georychus in different parts of Africa. In addition to these there is an allied form, 
known as Myoscalops, characterised by having usually three pairs of premolar teeth 
in each jaw, in addition to the three molars. 

The sandy deserts of Somaliland and Shoa are inhabited by two 
members of the present family, which are some of the most extra- 
ordinary-looking little creatures in existence. In size the naked sand-rats (Hetero- 
cephalus) may be compared to a common mouse, but in appearance they are likened 
by Mr. O. Thomas, on account of their nearly naked skin, small eyes, and peculiar 
physiognomy, to tiny hairless puppies. They have small heads, with projecting 
incisor teeth, and no external ears, while the limbs and tail are of moderate length. 
The eyes are almost functionless; and, although the feet are fringed with hairs, 


Cape Mole-Rats. 


Naked Sand-Rats. 


150 RODENTS. 


the yellowish skin is almost naked, save for a few sparsely scattered hairs. One of 
the two species has three pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, while in the other there 
are but two. 

These sand-rats are entirely subterranean in their habits. Mr. Lort Phillips 
states they throw up “groups of miniature craters, which exactly represent 
volcanoes in active eruption. When the little beasts were at work I used frequently 
to watch them, and found that the loose earth from their excavations was brought 
to the bottom of the crater, and sent with great force into the air in a succession of 
rapid jerks, but they themselves never venture forth from the shelter of their 
burrows.” 


THE AMERICAN POUCHED RATSs. — 
Family GEOMYIDZ. 


The possession of large cheek-pouches lined with hair, which open externally 
to the mouth at the lower edges of the cheeks, forms the distinctive peculiarity of 
a family of rat-like Rodents confined to the New World. The forms included in 
the family vary considerably in external appearance and habits; its larger and 
burrowing representatives being known as pocket-gophers, while the smaller 
terrestrial types are respectively termed kangaroo-rats and pocket-mice. In 
addition to three pairs of molar teeth with transverse plates of enamel on their 
crowns, and which may or may not be rooted, all these Rodents have a single pair 
of premolar teeth in each jaw. Their skulls are characterised by the great twisting 
of each branch of the lower jaw, and likewise by the forward extension of the 
cheek-bone. 


POCKET-GOPHERS. 
Genera Geomys and Thomomys. 


The pocket-gophers include large rat-like species, with burrowing habits, and 
are characterised by their small eyes, rudimental external ears, and the equality 
in length of their comparatively short limbs. The whole of them are confined to 
North and Central America. 

Common Pocket- The common pocket-gopher (Geomys bursarius) is selected for 

Gopher. —jJlustration as the best known representative of the group, and as 
being the type of the genus Geomys, characterised by the presence of a deep groove 
on each of the broad upper incisor teeth. This species attains a length of from 7 
to 8 inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail ; while the hairy tail itself 
varies from 2 to 8 inches. The fur is of a soft and mole-like texture; and of a 
beautiful reddish brown colour above, becoming greyish beneath, while on the feet, 
and generally also on the tail, it is white. 

This pocket-gopher is an inhabitant of the extensive plains of the valley of 
the Mississippi and its tributaries, extending somewhat beyond these limits to the 
northwards. Here it lives a mole-like life, constructing subterranean tunnels and 
throwing up at intervals conical heaps of earth, after the fashion of the “ little 
gentleman in black velvet.” The tunnels generally run at a distance of about a 


AMERICAN POUCHED RATS. I51 


foot below the surface; but sometimes, as when passing beneath a garden path, 
they descend deeper. They are driven for the purpose of obtaining access to the 
roots of plants on which these animals chiefly subsist. The tunnels generally com- 
municate with one another by cross-passages; and in a certain spot—generally 
beneath the roots of some large tree—the animal sinks a deep shaft, at the termina- 
tion of which is constructed a dwelling-chamber. This chamber is generally as 
much as from four to five feet below the surface, and is entered by a tortuous 
passage. It is of large size, and generally lined with soft grass, upon which the 
owner reposes. The nest of the female is constructed in a similar chamber, which 


THE COMMON POCKET-GOPHER (4 nat. size). 


is, however, encircled by a horizontal gallery, after the manner of the residential 
chamber of the mole. Here in the latter part of March or beginning of April are 
produced from five to seven young’; their nest consisting partly of soft fur from the 
body of the mother. Generally a passage proceeds from one side of the nest- 
chamber to a store-chamber, which is filled with roots, nuts, and seeds—in cultivated 
districts potatoes often forming a large proportion of its contents. The food is 
said to be carried to this storehouse in the capacious cheek-pouches of the animal. 
Usually the pocket-gopher works at its tunnels or domicile from about four to ten 
o'clock in the morning, during which time it excavates from twelve to twenty feet 
of tunnelling, and will throw up from two to five hillocks. Other species of pocket- 
gophers belonging to this genus are found in the Southern United States, Mexico, 
and Central America. 


152 RODENTS. 


Northern Pocket- The northern pocket-gopher (Thomonvys talpoides) is the best 

Gopher. known representative of a second genus, containing at least two 
species, and distinguished by the absence of grooves in the upper incisor teeth. 
This species measures from 6 to 8 inches in length, and the tail some 8 inches 
more; while its general colour is very similar to that of the brown rat. The 
animals of this genus are distributed over the whole of Canada and North America 
west of the Rocky Mountains. In habits they precisely resemble the preceding 
genus. 


THE KANGAROO-RATS. 
Genus Dipodomys. 


The kangaroo-rats and their smaller allies the pocket-mice are utterly unlike 
the pocket-gophers in external appearance, having elongated hind-limbs and tails, 


THE COMMON KANGAROO-RAT (3 nat. size). 


large eyes, and well-developed ears, while their habits resemble those of the 
jerboas. They agree, however, with the former in the possession of large external 
cheek-pouches, and their general internal structure, although their upper incisor 
teeth are proportionately much narrower, and there are certain peculiarities in the 
conformation of the skull. 

Common The kangaroo-rats are characterised by the molar teeth being 
Kangaroo-Rats. rootless, and their best known representative is the common species 
(Dipodomys phillipst) depicted in our illustration, which inhabits the desert 
regions to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and is characterised by the 
possession of four toes on the hind-feet. The head and body of this animal 
measure a little over 4 inches in length; while the tail is very long and tufted 
at the end, and the general build of the creature light and elegant. The colour of 


POCKET-MICE. 153 


the upper-parts is mouse-brown, becoming tawny on the flanks, while the under- 
parts, the tip of the tail, and a spot above each eye are white or yellowish. In the 
Rocky Mountains the place of this species is taken by Ord’s kangaroo-rat (D. ordi), 
which is a rather larger and more stoutly built animal, with a relatively shorter 
tail, and having five toes on each hind foot. 

The habits of the kangaroo-rats are very similar to those of the 
jerboas, these Rodents frequenting the most arid districts they can 
find, and living in burrows made beneath rocks or stones. In such districts there 
is no water, and but little vegetation save gigantic cactuses; and it appears that 
the food of the kangaroo-rats is formed by the roots, blades, and seeds of the 
seanty grass that manages to struggle into existence. Probably the only water 
that these creatures drink is that derived from dew collected on the cactuses. 
Little or nothing seems to be known of their breeding-habits. 


Habits. 


THE PocKkET-MICE. 
Genera Perognathus and Heteromys. 


The tiny little Rodents known in the United States as pocket-mice are dis- 
tinguished from the kangaroo-rats by the presence of roots to their molar teeth, 
and also by their inferior size—the whole length of the head and body seldom 
exceeding 2 inches. The genus Perognathus, as represented by the banded 
pocket-mouse (P. fasciatus), of North America, is characterised by the hair being 
coarse and bristly; whereas in the genus Heteromys, of which representatives 
extend as far southwards as Trinidad, the fur is mingled with a number of 
flattened spines. Most of these animals are brownish above and white beneath, 
with a tawny stripe on the flanks dividing the dark from the light area. 


CH AGP 2 ERs Xa 


RopENTS,—continued. 
THE PorcUPINE-LIKE RODENTS. 
Families OCTODONTID#, HYSTRICIDZ, ete. 


The Rodents described in the present chapter, which include the whole of the 
remaining members of the order, with the exception of the hares, rabbits, and 
picas, are distinguished from all those described above by the conformation of the 
lower jaw. In both the squirrel-like and mouse-like groups, the angular, or lower 
posterior process of the lower jaw, it will be remembered, takes its origin from the 
inferior edge of the socket of the lower incisor teeth. In the present group, on 


SKELETON OF THE CANE-RAT. 


the other hand, this process originates from a prominent ridge on the outer side 
of the jaw; the position of this ridge being shown in the figure of the skeleton of 
the cane-rat. All the members of the group are further characterised by the 
stoutness of the zygomatic or cheek-arch of the skull; and also by the bones of 
the lower leg (tibia and fibula) being perfectly distinct from one another. 

The porcupine-like Rodents are very characteristic of America, and more 
especially of the southern half of that continent. Thus the whole six families 
into which the group is divided occur in America, while only two of them have 
any Old World representatives. Of the latter, the porcupine family is almost 
cosmopolitan; while the Octodontide are represented in the Old World only in 
Africa, south of the Sahara. With the exception of one species, these Rodents 
have one pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. 


THE OCTODONE TRIBE. 155 


THE OcTODONT TRIBE. 
Family OCTODONTID&: 


As there is no collective English name for the various members of this 
extensive family, we are compelled to adopt a modification of its Latin title. 
These Rodents are more or less rat-like animals, characterised by having complete 
collar-bones, and their molars marked by enamel-folds on both sides. In the skull 
the jugal portion of the cheek-arch nearly always has an angle on its lower edge. 
The feet, which are armed with long curved claws, generally have five toes. The 
teats are placed high up on the sides of the body; the ears are short and but 
thinly haired; while the tail, which varies greatly in length, may be either clothed 
with short hair, or scaly. With the exception of a few African forms, and others 
from the West Indies, this family is characteristic of South America. 


THE GUNDI. 
Genus Ctenodactylus. 


One of the most remarkable of the African representatives of the family is 
the gundi (Ctenodactylus guid) from the regions bordering the Sahara, character- 
ised by the two inner toes of the hind-feet being furnished with a horny comb and 
bristles, which are employed in cleaning the fur. In size this animal may be 
compared to a water-vole, with relatively long hind-legs. It has no premolar 
teeth, the feet have only four toes each, the ears are small, and the tail is reduced 
to a mere stump. The gundi inhabits rocky districts, and is diurnal; its mode of 
life being very similar to that of the jerboas. 

In Somaliland the gundi is replaced by a closely allied species, 
known as Pectinator spekei, distinguished by its moderately long and 
bushy tail, and the presence of a small premolar tooth in each jaw. 


Pectinator. 


THE Dercu. 
Genus Octodon. 


The degu (0. degus), which is the typical representative of the family, is a species 
inhabiting Chili and Peru, and distinguished from the last group by the feet having 
five toes, without any comb-like appendages, in the hind-limb. The molar teeth are 
alike in both jaws, and are simply indented on both sides by the folds of enamel. 
In general form the degu is like a rat, and it is slightly inferior in size to the water- 
vole; the length of the head and body varying from 7} to 8 inches, while the tail, 
exclusive of the tuft at the end, measures about 4 inches. The fur is remarkable 
for its softness, the ears are of moderate size, and the nearly naked tail terminates 
in a distinct tuft. The general colour of the fur on the upper-parts is brownish 
yellow, mottled with black, while the under-parts are yellowish, and the feet white ; 
the tail is dusky above and whitish below, with the hair at the tip blackish. 


156 RODENTS. 


The degus are some of the commonest Rodents in Chili, and 
associate in large companies. They are generally found in hedges or 
bushes, and in the neighbourhood of towns may frequently be observed running 
across the high-roads, while they often resort to gardens and orchards, where they 
commit considerable damage. Their burrows are constructed in hedge-banks or 
under bushes, and those of the whole colony communicate more or less freely with 
one another. When disturbed, they scamper off at once to seek refuge in their 
burrows, with their tails raised over their backs. In many respects they resemble 
squirrels in their habits, cimbing trees with facility, and laying up stores of food 
for winter use, although, owing to the mildness of the climate of the regions 
they inhabit, they do not hibernate. Their food usually consists of the various 


Habits. 


THE DEGU (2 nat. size). 


plants growing round their burrows, supplemented in winter by bark. It is 
believed that two litters are produced annually, each containing five or six 
young. 

There are other species of Octodon inhabiting Chili and Bolivia; 
and in addition to these the latter country possesses two representa- 
tives of the allied genus Habrocoma, so named from the extreme softness of the 
fur, which approaches that of the chinchilla. The habrocomas are about the size 
of an ordinary rat, and distinguished by their larger ears, the absence of a tuft to 
the tail, and by the lower molar teeth being more complex than the upper ones. 
Another allied Rodent from the Southern Andes, known as Aconwmys, 1s 
distinguished by the enamel-folds of the molars meeting in the middle line. The 
regions where these animals are found are buried in snow for several months of 
the year. 


Habrocoma. 


TE, “OCTLOD ONDER LE, 157 


THE TUCOTUCOS. 
Genus Ctenomys. 


The tucotucos, of which there are several South American species, are 
characterised by their adaptation for a subterranean life. They have small and 
almost. rudimental ears, small eyes, and short tails. Their incisor teeth are 
extremely broad; and their molars are rootless, with kidney-shaped crowns. On 
the fore-feet the curved claws are longer than the toes; while the hind-toes are 
furnished with a number of bristles. The species of tucotuco vary in length from 
8 to 12 inches, exclusive of the tail, which is about one-fourth as long again; and 
the general colour of the soft fur is greyish, while the incisor teeth are red. 


\ t SS 
KR AS 
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7 2, 
<7 
i es 
a yj ——— —<——— 
Fe ee 
6 eae a 
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2 ez = ee 
SS i ~ ee 
= ae BS oe 
ae Sieteciee— ge 
THE MAGELLANIC TUCOTUCO (} nat. size). 
Distribution. There are four species of these animals, ranging from Brazil and 


and Habits. Bolivia to the Straits of Magellan; our figured example being the 
Magellanic species (Ctenomys magellanica). The name tucotuco is derived from the 
peculiar cry of these animals, which, from their subterranean habits, are also termed 
oculto. In many districts, especially where the soil is sandy, these Rodents are 
found in large numbers; whole tracts being frequently undermined by their long 
and shallow burrows, of which the course is indicated by lines of hillocks. They 
are nocturnal in their habits, feeding mainly upon the roots of plants, of which 
they are saved to lay up a store. Mr. W. H. Hudson writes that on the Argentine 
pampas wherever there is a stretch of sandy soil, or a range of sandhills, the 
tucotuco is to be found; “not seen, but heard; for all day long and all night 
sounds its voice, resonant and loud, like a succession of blows from a hammer; as 


158 RODENTS. 


if a company of gnomes were toiling far down underfoot, beating on their anvils, 
first with strong measured strokes, then with lighter and faster, and with a swing 
and rhythm as if the little men were beating in time to some rude chant unheard 
above the surface.” The tucotucos seem to be somewhat gregarious in their habits, 
as several may be often taken from a single burrow. 

Chili is the home of two species of Rodents known as cururo 
(Spalacopus), nearly allied to the last, but distinguished by their 
rudimental cars. Somewhat curiously, another nearly related form (Petronys 
typicus) is found in South Africa, which differs from its American cousins by the 
harshness of its fur, the shortness of the thumb, the rather bushy tail, and the 
partially rooted molar teeth. 


Cururo. 


THE CoyPu. 
Genus Myopotumus. 


Widely different in its habits from the tucotuco is the coypu (A/yopotanus 
coypu) of South America, which is one of the largest members of the order, 


THE COYPU (2 nat. size), 


attaining a length of from 20 inches to 2 feet, exclusive of the tail. It belongs toa 
group of several genera distinguished from the preceding American examples by the 
very harsh nature of the fur, and depth of the folds of enamel in the half-rooted 
or rootless molars. The coypu itself is characterised by the very large size of its 
incisor teeth; and by the upper molars having two folds of enamel on each side, 
while in those of the lower jaw there are one external and three internal folds. 
The molars are partially rooted, and the last one is larger than either of the others. 
The ears are of moderate size; and the tail, which is scaly, with a thin coating of 
short hairs, is about two-thirds the length of the head and body. Each of the feet 


THE OCTODONT BRIBE. 159 


has five toes, which in the hind-limb are connected by webs. The fur of the 
coypu is long, but beneath there is a dense and soft under-fur. The colour of the 
upper-parts is a mixture of dusky and brownish yellow, the sides and under-parts 
being pure brownish yellow, the tip of the muzzle and chin white, the feet dusky 
brown, and a patch below each ear yellow. 

The coypu is found in the rivers and lakes of South America, on 
both sides of the Andes, from Chili and Peru to about the 48th parallel 
of south latitude. In the Chonos Archipelago, according to Darwin, coypu 
are found exclusively in the channels and bays separating the various small 
islands. 


Distribution. 


In general appearance and habits the coypu is not unlike a 
beaver, being thoroughly aquatic, and making its burrow in the banks 
of the rivers and lakes it frequents. When, however, the banks are not sufficiently 
high to allow of this, a platform-like nest is constructed among the reeds. The burrow 
is generally three or four feet in depth, and expands at the end into a chamber of 
some two feet in diameter. They are generally found in pairs, but in Argentina 
the writer has seen them coming out in large parties in the evenings to swim and 
sport in the water. Here they utter peculiarly mournful cries; the females, at the 
proper season, being each accompanied by some eight or nine offspring, which 
endeavour to obtain a seat on their parent’s back, those that are unable to attain this 
position of security swimming behind. Although a first-rate swimmer, the coypu is 
said not to be an adept at diving; and its movements on land are always awkward 
and ungainly. These animals usually select for their haunts the stillest parts of 
the rivers, lakes, or ponds; and their food consists of the foliage, seeds, and roots 
of the water-plants growing hard by. In the Chonos Archipelago, where they 
make their burrows in the forest at some distance from the shore, they are said, 
however, to subsist partly on molluscs. 

In Argentina Mr. Hudson states that at one time the coypu became very scarce 
owing to the numbers killed for their fur. An enactment was then passed forbid- 
ding the killing of these animals; the result being that they “increased and multi- 
plied exceedingly, and, abandoning their aquatic habits, they became terrestrial and 
migratory, and swarmed everywhere in search of food. Suddenly a mysterious 
malady fell on them, from which they quickly perished and became almost extinct.” 


Habits. 


The under-fur of the coypu is an important article of commerce, the average 
number of skins annually collected varying from three hundred thousand to five 
hundred thousand. In Argentina the coypu is universally known as the nutria, 
which is properly the Spanish name for the otter; the same term being applied in 
commerce to the fur. 


THE HUTIAS. 
Genus Capronvys. 


The large Rodent known as the hutia-couga (C. pilorides), is one of a group of 
four or five species confined to the West Indian Islands, where they appear to be 
the only indigenous members of the order. They are all allied to the coypu, from 
which they are distinguished by their arboreal habits and more rat-like appearance, 


160 RODENTS. 


as well as by certain structural peculiarities. Thus the incisor teeth are narrower 
than in the latter, while the upper molars are characterised by one fold of enamel on 
the inner side, and two on the outer side. The ear is relatively small, and the tail 
generally of considerable length, thick, and sparsely haired. The hutia-couga, which 
is the species represented in our figure, is confined to Cuba, and is somewhat smaller 
than the coypu, the length of the head and body being about 22 inches. The fur 
is very long and coarse, its general colour being a mixture of yellowish grey and 
brown, becoming reddish brown on the back and loins, while beneath it is dusky 
brownish grey, with a more or less marked yellow tinge. The paws are black, the 


THE HUTIA-COUGA (4 nat. size). 


ears dark, and the chest and a streak down the middle of the belly grey. Internally 
this species is remarkable in that the liver is split up into a number of small lobules. 
Another Cuban species is the hutia-carabali (CL prehensilis), distinguished, among 
other characters, by the tip of the tail being prehensile. In Jamaica there is the 
short-tailed hutia (CL brachyurus), while in the Bahamas the genus is represented 
by Ingraham ’s hutia (CL ingraham‘). 

The hutia-couga inhabits dense forests, and is an expert climber, 
ascending trees both to avoid pursuit and in search of food. It sub- 
sists mainly on fruits, leaves, and bark; but it also eats the flesh of small animals, 
particularly that of a kind of lizard. This species can be easily tamed; and its 
flesh is considered a delicacy by the natives of Cuba, who either hunt the creature 
with dogs, or capture it by means of snares. The smaller hutia-carabali is said to 
confine itself to the most remote districts of the forests, and to frequent the top- 


Habits. 


LHE OCLODONGAURIBE. 161 


most branches of the trees. It is more shy and less easily tamed than the 
first species; and, like the latter, fights fiercely in self-defence when attacked. 
In one of the species, at least, there are but four teats in the female, from which 
it may be inferred that the number of young in a litter is small. The nipples, 
as in the coypu, are situated high up on the sides of the body; and this seems 
to disprove the suggestion that in the latter animal they are thus situated in 
order that the young may be able to suckle while the parent is in the water. 
In Hayti and Jamaica the hutias are also represented by a nearly allied rodent 
known as Plagiodon cedium, distinguished by the extreme complexity of the 
enamel-folds of the molar teeth, which in the upper jaw form a kind of zigzag 
pattern. 

Africa possesses a single representative of this group of the 
family, known as the cane-rat (Aulacodus swinderianus), which is a 
large species of burrowing habits, easily recognised by three deep grooves on each of 


Cane-Rat. 


THE CANE-RAT (4 nat. size). 


its broad red upper incisor teeth; these grooves giving the name to the genus of 
which this animal is the only representative. The molar teeth resemble those of 
the hutias. The cane-rat attains a length of about 21 inches to the root of the 
tail; the tail measuring from 5} to 8} inches. Its general appearance is rat-like, 
with the fur very coarse, and the tail but sparsely haired. In the fore-feet the 
thumb is rudimentary and the fifth toe small; while in the hind-foot the first toe 
is entirely wanting. The general colour of the fur is brown, richer in tint on the 
back than on the flanks; the chin and upper lip being whitish, while the throat is 
a dirty yellow, and the under-parts pale brownish yellow. The feet are pencilled 
with black and yellow. A full-grown male will weigh as much as 9 or 10 Ibs. 
VOL. II, —II 


162 RODENTS. 


The cane-rat has an extensive distribution in Africa, ranging from the Upper 
Nile (where it is represented by a variety with partially-webbed hind-feet) through 
Eastern and Central Africa to the Cape; while on the western side it ranges as far 
north as Guinea. In Guinea it is known to the natives as the yumba, while in 
South-Eastern Africa it is termed the ivondue. In Sierra Leone it is said to 
feed chiefly upon ground-nuts and roots, in search of which it digs in the soil, 
while it also forms burrows for its residence. In South-Eastern Africa the habits 
of these rodents appear to be somewhat different. For instance, Mr. W. H. 
Drummond states that cane-rats “do not form burrows of their own; but when 
forced out of the thick tangle of overgrown grass or reeds in which they 
lie, a task by no means easy of accomplishment, they take refuge in any hole 
or crevice among rocks or stones, or in the deserted burrows of the ant-eater or 
porcupine. They are not only destructive to a degree among sugar-cane, gnawing 
down stem after stem, but most difficult to extirpate. In spots such as these, they 
live in what fields happen to be lying fallow, which, being covered with an impene- 
trable thicket of grass and weeds, offer them a secure retreat from which they can 
nightly issue forth into the canes.” The cane-rat is largely hunted by the natives, 
and in some cases by Europeans, for the sake of its flesh. Schweinfurth remarks that 
its flesh “is excellent when roasted; it is rich, and without being sweet and insipid 
like that of the hyrax, it is free from any unpleasant flavour. In quality it is about 
equal to poultry, whilst in taste it may be described as being intermediate between 
pork and veal.” 

There are numerous other South American representatives of the 
Octodonts. These are mostly smaller rat-like forms than the preceding, 
with long cylindrical tails ; many of them being remarkable for the intermixture of 
flattened lance-like spines with the fur. Some of the best known genera are Loncheres 
and Hchinomys, and these are mostly characterised by the possession of the above- 
mentioned spines. The majority of the species of these two genera inhabit Guiana 
and Brazil, but one species of Kchinomys ranges into Central America. Most of them 
are brown above and white beneath, but in some cases the white extends on to the 
flanks, shoulders, and head, thus giving them somewhat the appearance of long- 
tailed guinea-pigs. <A third genus, Carterodon, of which there is but one Brazilian 
species, is distinguished by a longitudinal groove on each upper incisor. 


Other Genera. 


THE PORCUPINES. 
Family HYS7RICID.Z. 


The well-known poreupines, which have the widest geographical distribution 
of any family of this section of the order, are distinguished from their allies by 
the presence of a number of large quill-like spines in the skin. Their build is stout 
and massive; and the fore and hind-limbs are of subequal length. In the skull, 
the region of the face is comparatively short and broad; while the cheek or jugal 
bone in the zygomatic arch is devoid of the angle on its lower edge, distinctive of 
most of the members of the preceding family. The molar teeth are partly or 
completely rooted with folds of enamel on each side. Poreupines derive their 


PORCUPINES. 163 


name from the French porc-épin (spiny-pig), probably in allusion to their grunting 
pig-like cries. They are common to both the Old and New Worlds; although the 
representatives of the group found in the two hemispheres constitute two distinct 
subfamilies. 

Canadian The common Canadian porcupine (/rethizon dorsatus) belongs to 

Porcupine. a croup confined to America, all the members of which are arboreal 
in their habits, while most of them have prehensile tails. They are all characterised 
by the absence of a cleft in the upper lip, by the naked soles of the feet being 
covered by a number of tubercles, by the want of the first toe in the fore-foot, and 
the presence of only three teats in the female. Their molar teeth have complete 
roots; and the collar-bones are fully developed. . dorsatus differs from its allies 
in having a short and nonprehensile tail; and also in the presence of five toes in the 
hind-feet. It is a heavy and clumsily-built animal, with long brown hair, almost or 
completely concealing 
the short spines, which 
are white with brown- 
ish tips. The length of 
the creature is about 2 
feet, and its weight 
from 15 to 20 lbs. The 
limbs, neek, ears, and 
muzzle are short; the 
ears being almost con- SKELETON OF PORCUPINE. 
cealed by the long bristly 
hair at the sides of the head. The claws are very long and powerful; and the tail 
massive and almost four-sided in shape. The stout spines vary in length from less 
than one inch to more than four inches in different parts of the body; they cling 
loosely to the skin, and are thus easily detached, and as they are slightly barbed at 
the points they make their way completely through the flesh of any animal in which 
they may become fixed. As in other members of the family, the quills, when the 
animal is in repose, lie smoothly and are directed backwards; but under the influ- 
ence of excitement they can be erected by the aid of a sheet of muscle underlying 
the skin. The Canadian porcupine extends in the country from which it takes its 
name as far northwards as the limit of trees, while in the United States it extends 
on the eastern side as far south as Virginia, and on the western coast from Alaska 
to Arizona and New Mexico. Despite its heavy form and nonprehensile tail, it 
is an adept at climbing, and spends the greater part of its time among the 
branches of trees. Dr. Hart Merriam states that although largely nocturnal, 
these animals may at times be seen abroad during daylight. Their lair is 


usually made among the clefts of rocks, but sometimes in a hollow tree or heap 
of bushes. Even in the cold climate of the Adirondacks, this porcupine, although 
less active in winter, never hibernates. Dr. Merriam writes that when one of 
these animals “has selected and settled himself in a tree to his liking, he may not 
leave it, day or night, until he has denuded it of the whole of its foliage. I have 
seen many hemlocks thus completely stripped, not a green twig remaining, even 
on the smallest bough. It seems incredible that so large and clumsy an animal 


164 RODENTS. 


should be able to climb out far enough on the branches of trees to reach the 
terminal leaves; but he distributes his weight by bringing several branches 
together, and then, with his powerful paws, bends back their ends and passes them 
through his mouth. When high in the tree-tops he is often passed unnoticed, 
mistaken, if seen at all, for the nest of a crow or a hawk.” 

The food of this animal consists not only of the leaves of various trees— 
especially the hemlock-spruce—but likewise of their twigs and bark ; while beech- 
mast is also a favourite article of its diet. The pods of water-lilies are also eaten ; 
while a partiality for salt is very marked. The nest is constructed in the same 
situations as the sleeping lair. The young in the Adirondack region are born 
early in May, and are usually one or two in number. At birth, according to Dr. 


THE CANADIAN PORCUPINE (é nat. size). 


Merriam, they are very large for the size of the animal, being actually larger, and 
proportionately more than thirty times the size of the cubs of the black bear. 
This porcupine uses its tail as a weapon of offence, inflicting severe blows by its 
lateral action. Few animals care to attack the porcupine, although, as previously 
mentioned, both the puma and fisher-marten make these animals their prey, and 
are frequently found with their flesh bristling with quills. 

The tree-porcupines are distinguished from the Canadian porcu- 
pine by their long prehensile tails, and the presence of only four 
toes on the hind-feet. They are also of lighter build; and their spines are short, 
closely set, and parti-coloured, sometimes almost concealed by long hairs. In the 
absence of the first toe, the inner side of each hind-foot is furnished with a large 
fleshy lobe which can be bent inwards to a certain degree, and forms an efficient 
aid in climbing; more especially as the whole foot is set so obliquely on the leg 
that the rough sole is directed somewhat outwardly. The tail is thick at the 


Tree-Porcupines. 


PORCUPINES. 165 


base, but slender at the end, where its upper surface is devoid of hair. It is this 
upper surface which is applied to the branch, and the tail is, therefore, coiled in the 
reverse direction to that of the spider-monkeys, as shown in our illustration. 
The muzzle is thick, and obliquely truncated, so that the upper lip somewhat 
overhangs the lower portion, with large nostrils; the whole being clothed with 
fine velvety hair. Both the ears and eyes are small. The quills have numerous 
exceedingly minute spines at their extremities, with their points directed back- 
wards, so as to act as barbs. 
Brazilian Tree- The Brazilian tree- porcupine (S. prehensilis), which is the 
Porcupine. species commonly seen in menageries, is found in Brazil, Guiana, and 
part of Bolivia, and has the spines projecting freely above the fur. In length the 
head and body measure from 16 to 18 inches; the tail being about an inch shorter. 


BRAZILIAN TREE-PORCUPINE (4 nat, size), 


These animals, like the other species of the genus, are usually solitary, passing the 
greater part of the day in slumber, and feeding in the morning and evening. 
Their food consists of the leaves, young shoots, and bark of the trees on which 
they dwell. In climbing it is said that they ascend the trunks of trees by the feet 
alone, the tail being employed only when among the smaller branches, which these 
animals but seldom leave. When sleeping, they generally rest in the fork of a 
branch. Comparatively little is known of their habits in a wild state; but in 
captivity they are harmless, stupid creatures. Their flesh is eaten by the natives 
of Brazil, by whom they are known by the name of cuandu. 
Mexican Tree- The Mexican tree-porcupine (Synetheres novehispanice), belongs 
Porcupine. to a group which has the hair so long as almost to conceal the spines. 
It is distinguished by the nearly uniform black colour of the fur, and also by the 
presence of numerous spiny bristles mingled with the hair of the lower parts of the 
body. These bristles arise in small clusters from tubercles, and being white for 


166 RODENTS. 


the greater part of their length form star-like spots among the dark fur. These 
bristles and the spines on the back are black at the tips. 

This species inhabits the forests on the eastern coasts of Mexico. Nothing 
special is recorded of its habits; but it may be mentioned that from observations 
made on captive individuals of other species, it is probable that none of the tree- 
poreupines ever drink. It is stated that in those long-haired species in which the 
fur is of a greyish tint, the general appearance of the animal when reposing on the 
arm of a tree closely simulates a gnarled and lichen-clad knot. 


MEXICAN TREE-PORCUPINE (4 nat. size). 


Thin-Spined A peculiar porcupine (Chatonys subsprnosus), from Central and 

Porcupine. Northern Brazil, differs from all the members of the preceding genus 
by the shape of its skull and the more complicated structure of its molar teeth, as 
well as by the slenderness of its spines, which may be described as half-way 
between those of the other groups and mere bristles. It is a large species, of a dull 
brown colour, with the under-parts inclining to rufous, and the feet and tail 
brownish black. The tail, although long, is not prehensile ; and the habits of the 
animal are less completely arboreal than those of the preceding group. Remains 
of a species of Hrethizon occur in the superficial deposits of Pennsylvania, and those 
of Synetheres in the caverns of Brazil. 

With the true porcupines, as typically represented by the 
common South European species (Hystria cristata), we come to 
the second subfamily, all the members of which are confined to the Old World, 
and differ from their Transatlantic cousins by the following characteristics. 
Externally the soles of the feet are perfectly smooth, the fore-feet have a small 
thumb, and the female is provided with six teats. In the skeleton, the collar- 
bones are incomplete; and the molar teeth have imperfect roots. In habits all 


True Porcupines. 


» 


PORCUPINES. 167 


these porcupines are purely nocturnal and terrestrial; consequently, the tail is 
never prehensile. 

Common The common porcupine, of which a group is represented in our 

Porcupine. coloured Plate, and a single individual in the accompanying woodcut, 
is the best known member of the first of these genera. As is the case with the other 
species of the genus, it is characterised by its massive form, its large size, the great 
length of the quills on the body, and by the short spiny tail terminating in a cluster of 
short slender-stalked quills, which are hollow and open at their extremities ; these tail- 
quills making the peculiar rattling 
noise noticeable when a porcupine 
isinmotion. The genus is further 
characterised by the great eleva- 
tion and convexity of the skull, 
in which the chamber of the nose 
is frequently more capacious than 
the brain-case. 

Next to the beaver, the porcu- 
pines are the largest of the Old 
World Rodents, the common 
species measuring from 26 to 28 
inches in length, exclusive of the ae 
tail. The prevailing colour of this ee 2 eee 
species 1s brownish black, with a RORETGIS RECESS. 
white band crossing the front of 
the neck, and about half-way up the sides, when it becomes gradually narrow. 
The neck is furnished with a crest of long bristles, which are mostly brown at the 
base and white above. The quills on the body are of two kinds—the one distin- 
euished by their great length, slenderness, and flexibility, while the others are shorter 
and stouter, and are mostly concealed by the longer ones. These quills are mostly 
marked with broad rings of black and white; both extremities being of the latter hue. 
Those on the rump are, however, chiefly black; while the open quills at the end of the 
tail,as well as most of those clothing the rest of that appendage, are entirely white. 
This porcupine inhabits Southern Europe and Northern and Western Africa. 

In India the common species is replaced by the closely allied 
hairy-nosed porcupine (H. lewewra), distinguished by the muzzle 
being densely clad with hairs, as well as by the quills at the base of the tail, and 
sometimes a row in the middle of the hinder part of the back, being mostly white. 
The skull, moreover, is less convex, with smaller nasal bones. This species is found 
from Ceylon to Kashmir, and appears to extend westwards as far as the Black Sea. 
Two other species inhabit India; of which the Bengal porcupine (1. bengalensis) 
has a much shorter crest on the neck, while in Hodgson’s porcupine this crest is 
totally wanting. The latter occurs in the Eastern Himalaya, and is represented by 
allied forms in Borneo and the Malayan region. The South African porcupine (Z. 
afre-australis) is a third representative of the crested group. Fossil porcupines 
oceur in the Pliocene rocks of Northern India, and also in the upper and middle 
Tertiaries of Europe. 


Other Species. 


a 


168 RODENTS. 


As the habits of all the true porcupines appear to be very similar, 
they may be treated collectively. In the first place, it should be 
mentioned that the old idea of porcupines being able to eject their quills at an enemy 
isa pure fable. Although a belated individual may occasionally be seen making its 
way homeward in the early morning, porcupines remain concealed during the day- 
light hours, either in caves or clefts of rocks, or in burrows excavated by themselves. 
They generally prefer rocky hills, and although in Europe they are usually found 
either solitary or in pairs, in India they are frequently gregarious. Their food is 
entirely vegetable, and consists mainly of roots, although in cultivated districts 
they do much damage to crops, garden vegetables, and such fruit as they can reach. 
In Europe the pairing-season takes place early in the year; and in the spring or 
commencement of the summer the female produces from two to four young, in a nest 


Habits, 


AFRICAN BRUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE (i nat. size). 


formed of leaves, grass, and root-fibres. The young are born in an advanced state, 
having their eyes open, and their bodies covered with soft flexible spines, which 
soon harden by exposure to the air. When frightened or irritated, poreupines 
erect their quills, with a peculiar rattling of the hollow ones at the tip of the tail, 
at the same time stamping with their hind-feet. If attacked by dogs or other four- 
footed foes, they rush backwards and inflict severe wounds with the long quills on 
their hind-quarters, which are sometimes driven deeply into the flesh of their 
antagonists. Dogs, according to Dr. Jerdon, readily follow the scent of poreupines, 
and thus track them to their lairs. Leopards are said to despatch them easily by a 
single well-directed blow on the head. From the large size of their teeth and jaws, 
porcupines have great gnawing powers; and the writer has seen in India tusks of 
elephants which have been half-eaten by these animals as they lay in the jungles. 
The flesh of poreupines is excellent eating, and is said to resemble something 
between pork and veal in flavour. 


CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. 169 


Brush-Tailed The brush-tailed poreupines, of which one species (Atherura 
Poreupines. qfricand) imbhabits Western and Central Africa, and the other 
(A. macrura) Burma and the Malayan region, are much smaller and more rat-like 
animals than the true porcupines, from which they are distinguished at a glance 
by their long and scaly tails terminating in a tuft of bristles. The body is covered 
with flattened and grooved spines, which are not much longer on the hind-quarters 
than on the back and shoulders. In the Indian species the length of the head and 
body may reach as much as 22 inches; that of the tail being about 10 inches. In 
colour this species is dark brown, with the tips of the spines sometimes paler. The 
longer spines on the hind-quarters are mostly white; the under-parts, and the 
bristles at the end of the tail, are whitish. 
Gunther's A rare porcupine from Borneo (Trichys quentheri) ditters so 
Porcupine. markedly from the preceding in the characters of its skull, that it is 
regarded as indicating a third genus of the subfamily. It is distinguished exter- 
nally from the brush-tailed porcupines by its shorter spines, and the narrow 
parallel-sided bristles of the tail. 


CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. 
Family CHINCHILLIDZ. 


The remaining porcupine-like Rodents are contined to South and Central 
America and the West Indies. Those included in the present family are few in 
number, and are characterised by their terrestrial habits, elongated hind-limbs, 
long bushy tails, and extremely soft fur. Internally they have complete clavicles ; 
their molar teeth are divided into a series of parallel transverse plates by the 
extension of the folds of enamel completely across their crowns; and the incisors 
are remarkable for their shortness. In the skull the palate is very narrow in 
front, while behind it remains unossified for a considerable distance in advance of 
the last molar teeth. 

The chinchillas are characterised by having four toes on the hind- 
feet, and five on the fore-feet, by the length of the bushy tail, and 
also by the enormous size of the bulle of the internal ear on the base of the 
skull, which are so much enlarged as to appear on the sides of its upper surface. 


Chinchillas, 


Common The common chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) is a squirrel-like 
Chinchilla. Rodent, with very large ears, and a tail about half the length of the 
head and body ; the latter measuring 10 inches. The fur, which is about an inch 
in length, is of extreme softness, and of a delicate pearly grey, mottled with black 
above, and yellowish white beneath; while the tail is mostly black, with lghter 
bands on the sides. The front surfaces of the incisor teeth are of a bright orange. 
This species inhabits the higher Andes, from the south of Chili to the north of 
Bolivia; and in certain districts is very abundant. Chinchillas live in burrows, 
where they associate in large companies, and may frequently be seen abroad during 
the daytime, keeping, however, to the shade thrown by the rocks. On the ground 
they run much after the fashion of mice, but when feeding they sit up on their 
hind-quarters in a squirrel-like manner, and grasp their food between the fore-paws. 


170 RODENTS. 


The regions which these animals inhabit are lonely and barren, with but very 
small amount of vegetation. In such places there are numerous perpendicular 
faces of rock, up and down which these tiny creatures dart with such hghtning- 
like rapidity as to render it almost impossible for the eye to follow them. Although 
by no means shy, the report of a gun is sufficient to send them at once to their 
holes; and a spot which at one moment may be seen covered with hundreds of 
these creatures, will be left deserted in an instant. The natives hunt them with 
the aid of a species of weasel, which enters their burrows. From its peculiar 
softness and delicacy, the fur has long been highly appreciated in Europe, where 
large quantities are annually imported. 


THE CHINCHILLA (2 nat. size). 


Short-Tailed The short-tailed chinchilla (CL brevicaudata), from Peru, is an 
Chinchilla. animal very little known to naturalists, some of whom have even 
doubted its right to rank as a distinct species. It is, however, decidedly larger 
than the common chinchilla, with relatively shorter ears and tail. The general 
colour of the fur of the upper-parts is a very pale bluish grey, mottled with slaty 
black ; the under-surface of the body, as well as the feet, being white. The tail 
gradually becomes bushy towards the tip; its fur being a mixture of greyish white 
and greyish black, becoming darker towards the tip on the upper-surface. 
Cuvier’s This (Lagidium cuviert) is considerably larger than either of 
Chinchilla. the preceding, the length of the head and body varying from 
about 16 to 20 inches, and that of the tail, exclusive of the hair at the tip, 


CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. 171 


from 11 to 12 inches; and since it differs by having only four toes on each 
foot, it is considered to represent a distinct genus. The ears, moreover, are longer 
and more pointed ; while in the skull the bulle of the internal ear are relatively 
smaller. The general hue of the long and soft fur is ashy grey, tinged with 
yellow and pencilled with black; while on the under-parts it is pale yellow, 
gradually becoming deeper in hue on the flanks. The feet are grey; while the 
tail is black below, with very long hairs above, some of which are also of the same 
jetty tint. One of the most remarkable features about the animal is the length 
of the black whiskers, in which some of the hairs may measure seven 
inches. This species is also an inhabitant of the higher Andes of Chili, 


THE SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA (} nat, size). 


Peru, and Bolivia, ranging to elevations of some sixteen thousand feet above 
the sea-level. In habits these animals seem to be almost identical with the 
true chinchillas, dwelling in barren rocky districts, and exhibiting the same 
marvellous activity. Their food is composed of grass, roots, and moss, to procure 
which they have frequently to travel long distances from their homes. Their 
principal enemies are the condor, and the dogs of the shepherds. They are 
captured by the Indians in snares for the sake of their fur, which is, however, far 
less valuable than that of the chinchilla. 

The third generic modification of the present family, which is 
represented only by the viseacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus), differs 
from its cousins in being an inhabitant of the open pampas, ranging from the Rio 
Negro to the Uruguay River, instead of the heights of the Andes. These animals 


Viscacha. 


172 RODENTS. 


are primarily distinguished from the last by the toes of the hind-feet being 
reduced to three in number; while the claws on these feet, and to a less degree 
those of the fore-feet also, are relatively longer. The cheek-teeth, with the excep- 
tion of the last in the upper jaw, are also distinguished by having only two 
transverse plates of enamel, and their squarer form. 

In its stoutly-built body and sturdy limbs the viscacha, as remarked by the 
late Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, presents a contrast to the delicately-formed chinchillas 
exactly similar to that existing between the squirrels and the marmots; this 


CUVIER’S CHINCHILLA (4 nat. size), 


difference in form being accompanied by a precisely similar difference in habits, 
the viseachas being purely burrowing rodents. 

In the viscacha the length of the head and body varies from some 19 to 23 
inches; that of the tail being about a third as much again. The ears are rather 
small, and distinctly notched behind, the tail is bushy throughout the greater part 
of its length, and the fur is rather short. The colouring of the fur is somewhat 
striking. Above, the general hue is grey, with some dusky mottlings and black 
markings; while the whole of the under-parts are white or yellowish white. 
From the muzzle a blackish band extends across each cheek; above which is a 
broad white stripe terminating in front of the eyes, while a third narrower dusky 
band crosses the lower part of the forehead. The tail is blackish brown. 


CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. 173 

The viscacha is by far the most common rodent on the Argentine 
pampas; and an excellent account of its habits is given by Mr. W. 
H. Hudson, from which the following summary is compiled. These animals live 
in societies usually numbering from twenty to thirty individuals; they form 
warrens known as viscachera, each of which may contain from twelve to fifteen 
burrows, some of them being double or triple. Such a viscachera will cover 
from one to two hundred square feet of ground. The burrows vary much in 
extent; some opening out into wide chambers, from which other tunnels radiate ; 
while others communicate with their neighbours. The whole viscachera forms a 
raised mound of earth which has been brought up from the burrows. It is always 
formed on the open plains: and the entrances to some of the compound burrows 


Habits. 


THE VISCACHA (1 nat, size). 


are sometimes as much as a yard in diameter. Usually the burrow takes the form 
of the letter Y. A passerine bird (Geositta) belonging to the wood-hewer family, 
makes its breeding-holes in the sides of the viscacha-burrows; while when deserted 
by their rightful owners they are occupied by a kind of swallow (Atticora). 
Moreover, on the mound of the viscachera may frequently be observed a pair of 
burrowing owls (Speotito), which generally excavate a domicile for themselves, but 
sometimes occupy one of the burrows on the flanks of the mound. The whole of 
the ground in the neighbourhood of the burrows is carefully cleaned from all 
vegetation, the refuse of which is heaped up near the entrance; and it is this 
habit which renders these animals so obnoxious to the farmer. Their usual food 
is grass and seeds, but they sometimes also eat roots; while in the dry season they 
are reduced to withered grass and thistles. When the herbage is green the 
viseachas require no water; but the first shower in the dry season brings them at 
once out of their holes to imbibe the much-needed fluid. 


174 KRODPINES. 


Viscachas are essentially nocturnal. Mr. Hudson states that in winter they 
“seldom leave their burrows till dark, but in summer come out before sunset; and 
the viscachera is then a truly interesting spectacle. Usually one of the old males 
first appears, and sits on some prominent place on the mound, apparently in no 
haste to begin his evening meal. When approached from the front he stirs not, 
but eyes the intruder with a bold indifferent stare. If the person passes to one 
side, he deigns not to turn his head. Other viscachas soon begin to appear, each 
one quietly taking up his station at his burrow’s mouth, the females, known by 
their greatly inferior size 
and lighter grey colour, 
sitting upright on their 


haunches, as if to command 
a better view, and indicat- 
ing by divers sounds and 
gestures that fear and curi- 
osity struggle in them for 
the mastery. With eyes 


A VISCACHERA, 


fixed on the intruder, at intervals they dodge the head, emitting at the same time 
an internal note with great vehemence ; and suddenly, as the danger comes nearer, 
they plunge simultaneously, with a startled ery, into their burrows.” When driven 
to the recesses of their burrows they utter a peculiar kind of growling sound. 

The viscacha is a far from prolific animal, the female producing in September 
a single litter, which usually contains two, but occasionally three young. As the 
animal takes about two years in reaching maturity, the vast numbers in which it 
existed on the pampas, previous to a war of extermination waged against it by the 
agriculturists, is not a little remarkable. 

The habit of accumulating the remains of its food around the entrance of its 


AGULITS AND PAGCAS. 175 


burrow has been already mentioned; but, in addition, the viscacha collects every 
hard object with which it meets. Darwin writes that “around each group of holes 
many bones of cattle, stones, thistle-stalks, hard clumps of earth, ete., are collected 
into a heap, which frequently amounts to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain. 
I was credibly informed that a gentleman, when riding one dark night, dropped his 
watch; he returned in the morning, and by searching in the neighbourhood of 
every viscacha-hole on the line of road, as he expected, soon found it. 

Remains belonging to the same genus as the viscacha are met 
with in the superficial deposits of South America ; while in the older 
formations there occur those of allied extinct genera. One of these extinct rodents 
(Megamys) was the largest member of the order; its size approaching that of 
an Ox. 


Fossil Forms, 


THE AGUTIS AND PACAS. 
Family DASYPROCTIDZ. 


The South American Rodents, respectively known by the names of aguti and 
paca, constitute a small family with the following characteristics. The limbs are 
of nearly equal lengths, and 
furnished with hoof - like 
claws; the tail is short or 
wanting; the molar teeth 
have imperfect roots, and 
enamel-folds on both sides 
of the crowns; and_ the 
incisor teeth are long. In 
the skeleton the collar-bones 
are rudimentary, the palate SRELRRON: AND BELT On AGOTE 
is broad, and the lower jaw 
lacks the distinct ridge on the outer side characteristic of the preceding families. 

The agutis are elegantly-formed Rodents, with a superficial 
resemblance to the chevrotains among the Ungulates; and are char- 
acterised by their long and slender limbs, and the presence of only three toes on 
the hind-feet; the fore-feet, however, having the full number of digits. The hair 
is coarse, more especially on the hind-quarters, where it becomes longer than 
elsewhere. The crowns of the molar teeth are rounded; and when worn exhibit a 
single lateral fold of enamel, with several islands of the same on their summits. 
There are several species of aguti inhabiting the greater part of Central and 
South America as far as Paraguay; and there is one species in the West 
Indies. The common aguti (Dasyprocta aguti) may be taken as the chief 
example of the genus, all the members of which are very similar to one 
another in form and habits. This species, which occurs abundantly in the dense 
forests of Guiana, Brazil, and Northern Peru, attains a length of from 18 to 20 
inches, and is of general olive-brown colour. The middle line of the under surface 


Agutis, 


of the body is, however, yellow or whitish; while the long hairs of the hind- 
quarters are mostly of a bright orange tint. The feet are pencilled with black and 


176 RODENTS. 


yellow, and the toes dusky. The large ears are pinkish, except on their margins ; 
and the small fleshy tail is naked, and of a dusky hue. 

Although essentially forest-dwelling animals, agutis are sometimes seen in the 
early morning or evening on the open spaces. They are mainly nocturnal, 
remaining concealed during the day in hollow trees or in cavities or burrows 
among their roots; such burrows, according to Bates, being in some cases two or 
three feet in depth. Their movements are extremely active and graceful. When 
going slowly they advance at a kind of trot; but when running their pace takes 
the form of a series of rapid springs, which succeed each other so quickly as to 
give the appearance of a gallop. Cutias, as these animals are called on the 
Amazons, can swim well, but are unable to dive. Their food consists of the 


vi - 
7S 
Nh Sey 


THE COMMON AGUTI (} nat. size). 


foliage and roots of ferns and other plants, as well as fallen fruits; their sharp 
incisor teeth enabling them to perforate the shells of the hardest nuts. In culti- 
vated districts they do much harm to plantations of sugar-cane and plantains. 
Of their reproduction in a wild state but comparatively little is known. They 
breed, however, at least twice in the year,—generally once in May, before the 
commencement of the period of drought, and again in October, at the setting 
in of the rainy season. In captivity, where these animals not unfrequently 
breed, there are usually only one or two at a birth; but in a wild state it is 
quite probable that the number may be greater. For a considerable portion of 
the year the two sexes remain apart; but at the pairing-season each male selects 
a female, which he follows with squeaks and grunts, and with whom he remains 
until after the birth of their offspring. The female brings forth her young 
in a lair or nest carefully formed of leaves, roots, and hair; and attends them 
sedulously fer some weeks, preventing the male from having any access to them 


AGOLTS AND ePACAS: 177 


until some days after birth. When first born the young closely resemble their 
parents. If captured at a sufficiently early age, agutis can be readily tamed; and 
it is not uncommon in South American houses to find one or more of these animals 
roaming at large. The nocturnal foes of the aguti are the ocelot and other 
species of cats, and also the Brazilian wolf. They are much hunted by the 
natives for the sake of their flesh. Bates writes that on the Amazons they are 
hunted with dogs; the method being for one hunter to proceed in the early 
morning to beat the forest in the neighbourhood of a river, while his companion 
takes his station in a boat. On being hard pressed by the dogs, the agutis at once 
make for the water, where they are shot by the man in waiting. 

The only other member of the genus to which we shall allude is 
the aguchi (D. cristata), which inhabits Northern Brazil and Guiana 
as well as parts of the West Indies. This species is distinguished from the others 
by its smaller size, and its longer and more slender tail, which is clothed with 
silver-white hairs. Its general colour is rich chestnut-brown, with a characteristic 
bright golden yellow, or rust-coloured patch behind each ear. 


Aguchi. 


It may be added that fossilised remains of agutis are met with abundantly in 
the caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil. 

The Rodent known in South America by the title of paca 
(Caelogenys paca) is readily distinguished externally from all its allies 
by the longitudinal rows of light spots ornamenting 
its fur; while internally it is remarkable for the 
extraordinary structure of its skull. Its hind-feet 
are distinguished from those of the agutis by having 
five distinct toes; and the limbs are much shorter 
and the whole build far more massive than in the 
latter. In the skull, as shown in the accompanying 
figure, the zygomatic or cheek-arches are greatly 
expanded from above downwards, so as to form 
huge bony capsules on the sides of the face, each of which encloses a large cavity 
communicating by a narrow aperture with the mouth. Externally the paca is 
stout-bodied, measuring about 2 feet in length, with rather short limbs, and a 
broad head, terminating in a blunted muzzle covered with fine hair. The ears are 
rather small, and but scantily clothed with hair; the feet are naked below; and 
the tail is reduced to a fleshy tubercle. The fur is coarse, and closely applied to 
the body. Its general colour varies from fawn to blackish; and the number of 
longitudinal rows of spots is likewise variable, being in some instances only three, 
while in others there may be five such rows. The female has two pairs of teats, 
placed at a considerable distance apart. 

The common paca has a very extensive range, being found throughout the 
greater part of South America as far as Paraguay. In Brazil it is fairly common, 
but it is much searcer in Paraguay, while in Peru it is rare. It occurs in Tobago 
and Trinidad, but is unknown to the westward of the Andes. In the highlands of 
Ecuador, at elevations of from six thousand to ten thousand feet, it is represented 
by Taczanowski’s paca (C. taczanowskiz), distinguished hy its inferior size, and the 
difference in the form of the skull, as well as in coloration. 

VOL. I1.—12 


Pacas. 


SKULL OF PACA, 


RODENTS. 


io) 


17 


The habits of the common paca appear to be very similar to those 
of agutis; these animals going about either singly or in pairs, and 
being strictly nocturnal. Their resting-place during the day is either some cavity 
among the roots of a forest-tree, or a burrow excavated by their own exertions, 
and reaching to a depth of from four to five feet. Their food is precisely similar 
to that eaten by the agutis. In disposition they are shy and timid; and when 
pursued they invariably make for the water, in which they swim well and 
with considerable rapidity. During the summer the female produces a single 


Habits. 


THE PACA (+ nat. size). 


{occasionally two) offspring, which is believed by the natives to remain in the 
burrow during the period of suckling—several months in duration. The Ecuador 
paca is said to be not uncommon in the forests on both sides of the Andes. It 
makes a burrow with two entrances, in which a male and female take up their 
residence. The natives, who hunt these animals for the sake of their flesh, pursue 
them in the forests with dogs, and then drive them out from their burrows by 
lighting a fire at one of the entrances. 

A tame individual of the common species noticed by Rengger was at first very 
shy and suspicious, biting fiercely at the hands of any person approaching it. 
During the day it endeavoured to conceal itself as much as possible, but at night it 


CAVIES. 179 


would wander about the house, uttering a grunting noise, and consuming such food 
as was placed for it. In the course of a few months its shyness and ferocity gradu- 
ally disappeared, and it learned to distinguish between its master and strangers, 
although it never exhibited friendliness to anyone. It would eat almost any kind 
of human food, except flesh ; and was remarkably cleanly in its habits, frequently 
dressing its fur with its claws. Bright sunlight seemed to blind the creature ; 
while in the dark its large eyes gleamed like those of a eat. 

The skin of the paca is so thin, and its hair so coarse and harsh, that its 
pelage is of no commercial value. Its flesh is, however, white and well-flavoured ; 
and on this account the animal is much sought after by the natives of the countries 
it inhabits. During the months of February and March pacas become most 
extraordinarily fat, and it is at this season that their flesh is most esteemed. In 
the woods of Brazil pacas and agutis, together with certain edentates, are the 
only mammals whose flesh is eatable; and they are accordingly most accept- 
able to the traveller, who is often compelled for long periods to subsist on a 
vegetable diet. 

This animal is interesting as apparently forming a connecting 
link between the true pacas and the other families of the present 
group, and on these grounds it has been made the type of a family by itself. In 
size and general form of the head and body, as well as in coloration, this animal 
closely resembles the paca; from which it is distinguished externally by its rather 
long and thickly-haired tail, by each foot having four toes, and by the vertical 
cleft on the upper-lip. Internally it differs by the complete clavicles, and by the 
molar teeth being divided into transverse plates of enamel, as in the chinchillas 
and cavies. The only known example (Dinomys branicki) was discovered one 
morning at daybreak, rather more that twenty years ago, wandering about the 
courtyard of a building in Peru; and from that day to this nothing more has ever 
been heard of the species. 


Branick’s Paca. 


THE CAVIES. 
Family CAVIID. 


The cavies, familiar to us all from childhood in the form of the domestic 
guinea-pig, form a well-marked family distinguished by the following characters. 
The limbs are generally similar to those of the agutis, and are furnished with four 
toes in front and three behind. The collar-bones are imperfect; and the molar 
teeth are divided by continuous folds of enamel into transverse plates. As 
indicated by the well-known proverb concerning the guinea-pig, the tail is 
small or rudimentary. The incisor teeth are short; and the lower jaw differs 
from that of the agutis in having a strongly-marked ridge on each external 
surface. The majority of the members of the family are terrestrial, but one 
genus is aquatic. 

The true cavies, as represented by the guinea-pig, are comparatively small 
Rodents, characterised by their stout build, short and subequal limbs, small ears, 
and the total absence of a tail. All the wild species are uniformly coloured, and 
their range comprises the whole of South America. 


180 RODENES: 


One of the best known of the many species is the restless cavy 
(Cavia porcellus) of Uruguay and Brazil, which measures rather 
more than 10 inches in length, and attains a weight of about a pound. The 
colour of the rather long and coarse fur is greyish brown; and the incisor teeth 
are white. This species is common in certain districts in the neighbourhood 
of the Rio de la Plata, where it is known by the name of aperea. According to 
Darwin, it is occasionally found on the sandhills or the hedges of aloes and 
cactuses; but its more usual and favourite haunts are marshy spots covered 
with aquatic plants. In the latter situations it lives among the shelter of the 
vegetation, but in sandy districts it excavates burrows. It usually comes forth 
to feed in the evenings and mornings; but in cloudy weather may sometimes 
be seen abroad at all hours. In Paraguay Dr. Rengger states that it is 
invariably found in moist situations on the borders of the forest, where it 
lives in societies comprising from six to fifteen individuals, among the dense 


Restless Cavy. 


masses of bromelia. Here it makes regular beaten paths, and never wanders 
far afield. It breeds but once a year, producing only one or two young. Cutler's 
cavy (C. cutlert), from Peru, is a rather smaller species, distinguished by the 
general black hue of the fur, although the flanks and more especially the under- 
parts tend to brown. 

cae Much discussion has arisen as to the origin of the domestic 
guinea-pig. It was long considered to have been derived from the 
restless cavy ; although several writers pointed out that from its aversion to wet 
and cold such an origin was improbable. From the researches of Dr. Nehring of 
Berlin, it appears, however, that the real ancestor of the domestic breed is the 
above-mentioned Cutler’s cavy. It has been ascertained that the latter species 
was domesticated by the Incas of Peru, from whence it was carried to Colombia 
and Ecuador; while, on the other hand, no cavy was ever domesticated in Brazil. 
The domesticated cavies of the Incas were either uniformly white or reddish brown, 
or a mixture of those two colours. In Europe guinea-pigs are generally either 
white or white marked with yellow and black. Occasionally, however, they may 
be white marked with pale yellow, and in such cases they invariably have pink 
eyes. Sometimes, again, they may be marked with brownish black, mouse-colour, 
or yellowish grey; while in certain cases the black may be replaced by ashy 
erey, when the eyes are pink. Of late years a breed has been formed with 
exceedingly long coarse hair, and of larger size than ordinary. Guinea-pigs 
were introduced into Europe by the Dutch during the 16th century, shortly 
after the discovery of America; the name being probably a corruption of 
Guiana-pig. From their pretty appearance and ways, as well as the ease with 
which they are kept and the rapidity with which they multiply, guinea-pigs 
have always been favourite pets with children; although it must be confessed 
that from their stupidity and want of affection they cannot be regarded as very 
interesting creatures. When, however, a number of these rodents are kept 
together, they certainly form a pretty sight; and the manner in which they 
follow one another round and round their place of confinement in unbroken order 
is very remarkable. In some respects they resemble rabbits in their habits, while 
in others they are more like mice. Their pace is by no means swift and consists 


CAVES: ISL 


partly of a series of short springs; while the peculiar manner in which the body is 
elongated when creeping is familiar to all. Their food consists of roots, corn, and 
various vegetables; and it is essential to the well-being of these animals that the 
place where they are kept should be dry and warm. If supplied with abundance 
of fresh vegetables, guinea-pigs do not require water; and when they do drink 
they take but little, and this with a lapping action. When pleased, guinea-pigs 
utter a soft murmuring cry; when alarmed, this changes to a squeak; while a 
series of short grunts (from which they probably derive their name) appear to be 
their mode of expressing their wants and desires. The two sexes live in company, 


i) 


om i iy i 
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n fe a es 


hi a 
Ni i it 
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UN Wt 


== __— = = == 
——————SSSSLSS_S SE = 


THE GUINEA-PIG (} nat. size). 


but each male selects a partner from the herd; and during such selection conflicts 
not unfrequently take place between rival males. 

Few animals exceed the guinea-pig in fertility, and this is the more remark- 
able, since, as we have seen, the wild cavies increase but slowly. In Europe the 
female will produce from two to three litters in a year, each of which will contain 
from two to five young; while in warmer regions the number produced at a birth 
may be as many as six or seven. The young are brought forth in a highly advanced 
state of development, with their eyes fully opened, and, curiously enough, their milk- 
teeth already shed. Ina few hours they are able to run by the side of the mother ; 
while by the second day they are able to nibble not only soft plants, but even corn. 
They are suckled for a fortnight, during which period they are carefully tended by 
the dam; but after this the parental affection rapidly wanes, and in three weeks 
(by which time the parents have again paired) the young are left to shift by them- 


182 RODENTS. 


selves. In from five to six months the young guinea-pig. is able. to reproduce its 
kind, although it does not attain full maturity till eight or nine weeks. With 
care, these animals will live for six or eight years. Although guinea-pigs seem too 
stupid to display the slightest affection for their owners, they have the great 
advantage of never making any attempts to bite, and may therefore be handled by 
children with impunity. 

The Bolivian cavy (C. boliviensis), which is of rather smaller 
size than the restless cavy,is interesting from its habitat. It lives 
among the higher regions of the Bolivian Andes at elevations of from ten to 
twelve thousand feet; dwelling in large societies, and forming burrows which 
completely undermine the whole ground in certain districts. In colour this species 
has the fur of the upper-parts grey, with a yellowish tinge, while the throat and 
under-parts are white, and the feet whitish. The incisor teeth are orange in front. 

The last species of the genus that we shall notice is the rock- 
cavy (C. rupestris), differing from those mentioned above by the 
extreme shortness of its claws, which scarcely project beyond the toes. It has 
the fur greyish above, and whitish beneath. This species inhabits rocky districts in 
certain parts of Brazil, dwelling in cracks and crevices, and not constructing 
burrows. It is much hunted by the Indians, and it is known to them as the 
hoki. 


Bolivian Cavy. 


Rock Cavy. 


The Patagonian cavy, or mara (Dolichotis patachonica), is readily 
distinguished from the true cavies by its longer limbs and ears, and 
the presence of a short tail, which is always turned to one side. Its skull is 
characterised by the extreme narrowness of the front portion of the palate; this 
being carried to such an extent that the premolar teeth of opposite sides are 
actually in contact at their front edges. In length it is from 30 to 34 inches, and 
it stands about 18 inches at the shoulder. Its fur is thick and crisp, and of a 
greyish colour on the upper-parts, while on the flanks it becomes rusty yellow, and 
beneath white. The rump is black, with a broad transverse band of white running 
from the hocks to just above the tail; and the limbs are rusty yellow, but greyish 
in front. The hair of the throat is elongated into a fringe. Both in habits and 
general appearance the mara has a superficial resemblance to the hare, but the legs 
are longer and the ears shorter and wider. It inhabits not only the barren country 
from which it derives its name, but likewise extends northwards into the grassy 
pampas of Argentina, where it ranges as far as Mendoza, in lat. 33° 30’. On the 
Atlantic coast, however, where the climate is moister, it only ranges as far north as 
37° 30’; while its extreme southern limit is about the 48th parallel. 

Absolutely dry and more or less desert-like districts are 
essential to the well-being of the mara; and it is probable that its 
original home was the Patagonian wastes. In Patagonia the mara is so common 
as to form almost a characteristic feature in the landscape, Darwin observing that 
it is usual “to see in the distance two or three of these cavies hopping one after 
the other in a straight line over the gravelly plains, thinly clothed by a few thorny 
bushes, and a withered herbage.” Generally these rodents are found either in pairs 
or in parties of from four to eight individuals, but occasionally in large flocks of 
thirty or forty. They live in burrows, generally excavated by themselves; and 


Patagonian Cavy. 


Habits. 


A SCENE IN: SOUTH AMERICA WITH RHUEAS AND PATAGONIAN CAVIES. 


CAVIES. 185 


differ from the other cavies in being diurnal. To protect its eyes from the glare of 
the midday sun, the mara has well-developed eyelashes, which are wanting in its 
nocturnal allies. In disposition these cavies are extremely shy and timid, taking 
to flight at the least alarm, and generally trusting to their legs, rather than to the 
shelter of their burrows, for safety. Their food consists chiefly of grass and the 
roots and stems of such other plants as grow near their burrows. Of their repro- 
duction, it is only known that the female produces twice in the year from two to 
five young, which are born and nurtured in the burrow. They have been introduced 
by Sir E. G. Loder into his park near Horsham, having bred there several times. 

Maras are among the few mammals that habitually enjoy basking in the 
full sunshine. When thus reposing it usually lies stretched out on its side or 
flat on its belly; and in the latter posture, as shown in the central figure of our 
engraving, bend the fore-foot backward in a manner unlike any other rodent. 
When disturbed, they at once assume a sitting position, resting on their fore-feet 
and heels, and raising their heads as high as possible in order to see whence the 
danger comes. After taking to flight, they generally stop when they have run 
fifty or a hundred paces, and turn to look round; repeating this process after 
having again run a short distance. When caught young, they can be tamed 
without much difficulty, although they require to be tethered. By the natives 
mara are hunted for their flesh; but this, although white when cooked, is described 
as being dry and tasteless. 

Fossilised remains of three species of these animals have been obtained from 
the caves of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil; one of these being probably inseparable from 
the existing form. 

The carpincho or capivara (H. capivara), which takes its second 
name from a Spanish modification of the native term capugua, is the 
largest of living Rodents, reaching a length of about 4 feet, and weighing as much 
as 98 lbs. From this large size, coupled with its bristly hair and grunting ery, the 
animal is often designated the water-hog. It is a rodent of bulky build, with 
moderately long legs, small ears, cleft upper lip, no tail, and short webs between the 
short-nailed toes. The neck is short; the head long, broad, and much flattened 
above; the eyes large and widely separated; and the ears with a notch in their 
hinder border. The hind-legs are considerably longer than the front pair. The 
skin is clothed somewhat sparsely with long and coarse hair, of a reddish brown 
colour above, and brownish yellow beneath; the bristles around the mouth being 
black. The upper incisor teeth are marked with a broad and shallow groove in 
front ; while the molars are characterised by the great complexity of the last tooth 
of the series. Thus in the upper jaw the last molar comprises some twelve trans- 
verse plates, and exceeds the united length of the three teeth in front of it; while 
in the lower jaw the corresponding tooth is somewhat less complex, although still 
much larger than either of the others. This complexity of the last molar, which is 
quite unparalleled elsewhere among the rodents, presents a condition analogous to 
that existing in the wart-hogs. 

The carpincho is distributed over the whole of Eastern South 
America, as far south as the Rio de la Plata; and also extends west- 
wards into the lowlands of Bolivia and Peru. The existing species occurs in the 


Carpincho. 


Distribution. 


186 RODENTS. 


caverns of Brazil; while in the Tertiary deposits of Argentina fossil remains 
indicate an extinct species of 5 feet in length, and another considerably larger. 

This gigantic cavy is thoroughly aquatic in its habits, frequenting 
the margins of lakes and rivers, and swimming and diving with great 
speed. Darwin, for instance, writes that these rodents “ occasionally frequent the 
islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the water is quite salt, but are more 
abundant on the borders of fresh-water lakes and rivers. Near Maldonado three 
or four generally live together. In the daytime they either lie among the aquatic 
plants, or openly feed on the turf plain. When viewed at a distance, from their 
manner of walking, as well as from the colour, they resemble pigs; but when 
seated on their haunches, and attentively watching any object with one eye, they 
resume the appearance of their congeners the cavies. These animals were very 
tame; by cautiously walking, I approached within three yards of four old ones. 
This tameness may probably be accounted for by the jaguar having been banished 
for some years, and by the gaucho not thinking it worth his while to hunt them. 
As I approached nearer and nearer, they frequently made their peculiar noise, 
which is a low, abrupt grunt, not having much actual sound, but rather arising 
from the sudden expulsion of the air; the only noise I know at all like it is the 
first hoarse bark of a large dog. Having watched the four, from almost within 
arm’s length for several minutes, they rushed into the water at full gallop, with 
the greatest impetuosity, and emitted at the same time their bark. After diving 
a short distance, they came again to the surface, but only just showed the upper 
parts of their heads.” 

In other places the carpincho occurs in larger herds, which may comprise 
twenty or more individuals. The usual pace of the animal is a long trot, of no 
great swiftness; but when pressed it will advance in a series of leaps. It has no 
regular lair, although the herd generally returns to the same part of the river- 
bank. The general food consists of water-plants and the bark of young trees; but 
in the neighbourhood of cultivated lands carpinchos will consume large quantities of 
water-melons, maize, rice, and sugar-cane. In disposition these animals are quiet 
and peaceful, not to say stupid; and they never appear to indulge in sportive 
gambols. They occupy their time either in feeding, or in reposing in a listless 
manner on the banks of the rivers or lakes they frequent. When thus reposing, 
one individual will from time to time raise its head. to see if any foe be approaching; 
and if an alarm arise they soon plunge headlong into the water. In the settled 
portions of Uruguay they are but seldom seen, although their footprints, as the 
writer can testify, are very numerous on the sandy banks of the rivers. 

The female produces from five to eight young ones in the year; but it is not 
yet ascertained whether a regular lair is prepared for their reception. The young 
follow their parents closely, although not exhibiting any marked signs of affection 
towards her. <Azara states that each male appropriates two or three females. 
When captured young, carpinchos are capable of being completely tamed, and may 
be suffered to run about a house like a dog. 


Habits. 


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RopENts,—concluded., 
THE HARE-LIKE RODENTS. 


Families LAGOMYID4 and LEPORIDA. 


THE whole of the Rodents described in the preceding chapters are characterised 
by having but a single pair of incisor teeth in the upper (as in the lower) jaw; 
and they are hence collectively spoken of as the single-toothed Rodents, or Rodentia 
Simplicidentata. On the other hand, the hares and rabbits, together with their 
cousins the picas, have a second smaller pair of incisors placed behind the large 
front pair in the upper jaw, as shown in the accompanying cut. These Rodents 
are accordingly regarded as con- 
stituting a group of equal value 
with the one containing all the 
other families, for which the term 
double-toothed Rodents, or Rodentia 
Duplicidenta, is adopted. In the 
young of this group three pairs of 
incisors are present in the upper 
jaw, but the hindmost pair soon 
disappear, and are not succeeded by . 
permanent teeth. In addition to STi Coun) GTR) See 
these extra incisor teeth, these 
Rodents are characterised by the enamel extending all round the large incisors, 
instead of being confined to their front surfaces. In the skull the palate is 
distinguished by the shortness of its bony portion, in which there are very large 
vacuities in front; while its hinder border is situated between, instead of behind, 
the molar teeth. In all cases the latter teeth have tall crowns without roots, and 
are divided into parallel transverse plates surrounded by enamel. In the hind- 
limb the bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are united together. The upper 
lip is invariably cleft. 

These Rodents, which are divided into two families, are all strictly terrestrial 


in their habits, and have a wide geographical distribution, although more abundant 
in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere. 


Igo RODENTS. 


THE PICAS. 
Family LAGOM VID. 


Most travellers in the Himalaya are familiar with the pretty little Rodents, 
known as picas, tailless hares, or mouse-hares, which may be seen in the higher 
regions, cautiously poking their noses out from between broken rocks, and again 
disappearing with the rapidity of lightning directly they catch a glimpse of the 
intruder. These creatures constitute a family of the present group, of which there 
is but the single genus Lagomys, and present the following characteristics. 

All the species are of comparatively small size, being considerably inferior in 


SIBERIAN PICA (1 nat. size). 


this respect to a rabbit; and are easily recognised by their small ears, and the 
absence of any external traces of a tail. The fore and hind-limbs are short and 
of nearly equal length. In the skeleton the collar bones are complete; and the 
skull has no descending (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the 
socket of the eye. In the living species there are two pairs of premolar teeth, in 
addition to three molars, in each jaw. The picas have the soles of the feet well 
covered with hair; and the fur of the body is generally thick and soft. 

Picas, of which there are a considerable number of species, may 
be considered as especially characteristic of Northern and Central 
Asia, one species alone ranging into Eastern Europe, while another inhabits North 
America. In Asia the genus extends into Eastern Persia, Afghanistan, the 
Himalaya, and Tibet. The best known species is the Siberian pica (Lagomys 
alpinus), inhabiting the steppes of Eastern Europe, Siberia, and Kamschatka. 
This animal may be compared in size to a guinea-pig, its length being from 9 to 


Distribution. 


PICAS AND HARES. 1QI 


94 inches. The general colour of the long and soft fur is greyish brown on the 
upper-parts, although the individual hairs are of a deep grey near the skin; while 
beneath it is grey tinged with yellow. The feet are pale, suffused with brownish 
yellow; and the ears have white margins. The common Himalayan pica (L. roylev), 
which ranges to elevations of from eleven thousand to fourteen thousand feet, or 
more, is a much smaller species, measuring only 64 inches in length, with fur of a 
dark brown or bay colour. Other species from the inner Himalaya, such as the 
Ladak pica (LZ. ladacensis), are, however, larger; the one named measuring 9 inches 
in length, and inhabiting regions situated at an elevation of from fifteen thousand 
to nineteen thousand feet above the sea-level. During the Plocene and Miocene 
divisions of the Tertiary period picas were common in Central and Southern Europe, 
while in Sardinia they lived on into the Pleistocene. Some of these Tertiary picas 
differed from the living forms in having only one pair of premolar teeth in the 
lower jaw; while in others there were but a single pair of these teeth in both jaws. 

Picas inhabit only cold and desert regions, and, therefore, in the 
greater part of their range, are found at great elevations, although in 
Siberia they can exist at much lower levels. They either form burrows among 
rocks, or live in the crevices between the rocks themselves; in the Eastern 
Himalaya Lagomys roylei is, however, found in the pine-forests. Although mainly 
nocturnal in their habits, picas will often venture abroad in the daytime, especially 
if the sky be overcast ; and the writer has several times seen them in the Himalaya 
darting about in the full glare of the sun. Their movements are so quick, that 
they are exceedingly difficult to shoot. Their food consists of various plants, more 
especially grasses; and of these a large store is accumulated for winter use. In 
Siberia this provender is piled up into heaps like small haystacks, which gradually 
disappear during the winter; unless they are plundered by the sable-hunters as 
fodder for their horses. None of the picas appear to hibernate, although in most 
of their haunts they must be buried deep beneath the snow for several months in 
the year. Although often found in the Himalaya in pairs or small parties, picas 
are generally more or less gregarious, sometimes associating in very large 
numbers. In Northern and South-Eastern Mongolia, where they are exceedingly 
abundant, their burrows consist of a vast number of separate holes, which may be 
counted by hundreds, or even thousands. From the peculiar loud chirping or 
whistling cries uttered by many of the species whilst feeding, picas are often 
termed piping-hares; but this habit does not appear to have been observed in the 
Himalayan forms. 

All the picas drink but little. In summer some amount of rain falls in many 
of the districts they inhabit, while in winter the snow supplies them with as much 
liquid as they require; but in spring and autumn there is scarcely even dew in 
the Mongolian steppes, so that at such seasons they must exist entirely without 
water. According to Pallas, the females give birth at the commencement of the 
summer to about six naked young, to which she attends with the greatest care. 

In Central Asia picas have many foes, among which the most prominent are 
the manul cat, the wolf, the corsac fox, and many eagles and falcons; while in 
winter they are harried by the great snowy owl. The fur-hunters of Siberia do 
not, however, consider these creatures worth the trouble of killing. 


Habits. 


192 RODENTS. 


HARES AND RABBITS. 
Family LEPORIDZ. 


The hares and rabbits, all of which are included in the single genus Lepus, 
constitute a family distinguished from the picas by their elongated hind-limbs, 
short recurved tail, long ears, and imperfect collar-bones. The skull is distinguished 
by the extremely narrow frontal region, and the presence of large wing-like 
(postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the eye-sockets; while there 
are three pairs of premolars in the upper, and two in the lower Jaw, the total 


HARE IN ITS FORM. 


number of cheek-teeth thus being £ on each side of the jaws. The eyes are large 
and full, and devoid of eyelids. 

In all the species the fore-limbs are furnished with five, and the hinder pair 
with four toes each; the soles of the feet being as densely clothed with hair as are 
the legs. The inner sides of the cheeks are also lined with hair. The females 
have teats both on the breast and on the belly. 

With the exception of one remarkable Indian species, noticed in the sequel, all 
the members of the family are very much alike in appearance and coloration; the 
usual tint of the fur on the upper-parts being a mixture of grey and reddish brown, 
although in some cases the red, and in others the grey tends to predominate. 
This coloration harmonises well with the general tint of the open country on which 
most of the species dwell. A noteworthy feature (which, however, is absent in the 
above-mentioned Indian species), is the pure white of the under-surface of the up- 
turned tail. This, in the case of the rabbit at least, is considered by Mr. Wallace 
as serving the purpose of a guiding signal to other individuals in the presence of 
danger, so that when the leader of a flock is in full retreat towards its hole, the 
remainder at once see in which direction to follow. 


PICAS AND HARES. 193 


Hares, as all the members of the family save the rabbit are 
called, have an almost cosmopolitan distribution, although none are 
indigenous to Australasia. Of some thirty known species, by far the greater 
majority are, however, confined to the Northern Hemisphere; the whole of South 
America having only a single species, the Brazilian hare (Lepus brasiliensis). 

With the exception of the rabbit and the curious hispid hare of 
Northern India, all the members of the family dwell either in open 
country among grass and other herbage, or among rocks and bushes. They are 
solitary ; and each inhabits a particular spot known as its form ; such form being 
either a flattened resting-place among grass or bushes, or merely the sheltered side 
of some rock or stone. As a rule, a hare returns to its form, sometimes day by 
day, for a considerable portion of the year ; but the situation is changed periodically. 
Hares are mainly nocturnal, going forth at evening in quest of food, and not 
returning to their forms till after sunrise. Their speed is great; but, owing to the 
great relative length of their hind-limbs, they are better adapted for running 
uphill than down. All the members of the genus are remarkable for their extreme 
timidity, and their long ears are admirably adapted to collect the least sound, and 
thus to give the earliest possible notice of danger. It will not fail to be observed 
that the ears are the shortest and the legs the less elongated in the rabbit and the 
hispid hare, both of which dwell in burrows, and have not, therefore, such need of 
protecting themselves by acuteness of hearing and extreme speed. All the members 
of the family breed with great rapidity ; the young being able to reproduce their 
kind within about six months after birth. Whereas, however, the young of the 
true hares are born fully clothed with hair and with their eyes open, those of the 
rabbit, and probably also of the hispid hare, come into the world blind and naked. 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


THE ComMon Hare (Lepus ewropeus). 


Such a well-known animal as the common hare requires but a comparatively 
brief description, although it is necessary to point out such features as serve to 
distinguish it from the mountain-hare. The length of the head and body is 
generally a little short of 22 inches; the ears being rather longer than the head, 
with black tips. The general colour of the soft fur of the upper-parts and flanks 
is tawny grey, more or less mingled with rufous, but tending to a purer grey in 
winter than in summer. The under-parts are white; while the tail, of which the 
length is nearly equal to that of the head, is black above and white beneath. The 
usual weight is from 7 to 8 lbs. 

With the exception of the north of Russia, the Scandinavian 
Peninsula, and Ireland, the common hare is found over the whole of 
Europe, ranging as far eastwards as the Caucasus; but in the north of Scotland 
the species is confined to the low grounds and valleys. It may be mentioned 
here that this species is commonly alluded to under the name of Lepus timidus ; 
that name was, however, applied by the Swedish naturalist Linné to the hares of 
his own country, and therefore clearly rightly belongs to the next species. In the 
more northern parts of its habitat the hare tends to become white in winter; while 
the maximum of rufous in its coloration occurs in the more southerly districts. 

VOL. II.—13 


Distribution. 


194 RODENTS. 


The hare, like other members of the genus, is an exelusively 
vegetable feeder, its food consisting of grass, corn, bark, ete. In 
cultivated districts hares often inflict much damage on growing wheat, and like- 
wise on garden vegetables ; while the destruction these animals cause among young 
trees by nibbling away the bark is sometimes very great. In fine weather hares 
are usually to be found in the open, while during rain they show a decided prefer- 
ence for cover; but while on some days they select the bare fallows, on others they 


Habits. 


SSW YRC MARV AY RQq1w~ 
San \X QQ AY WA 


\ 


COMMON HARE (t nat. size). 


repair to fields with long grass or other herbage. On some occasions, either when 
lying in the open or in their forms, they will almost allow themselves to be trodden 
upon before stirring; and it is then that they are sometimes captured by the 
poacher merely walking silently up and throwing himself suddenly upon them. 
On other occasions they are so wild that it is difficult for the sportsman to come 
within range; Prof. T. Bell observing that they are generally most wild in bad 
weather, and more so in the afternoon than in the morning. The hare will take 
readily to the water, not only to escape from pursuit, but likewise to obtain food 


PICAS AND: FARES. 195 


or a mate; and there is a record of one actually swimming across an arm of the 
sea about a mile in width. ‘The author last mentioned writes that “on hearing an 
unusual sound the first impulse of a hare is to sit upright with erected ears to 
reconnoitre ; then it either endeavours to conceal itself by ‘clapping’ close to the 
ground, or at once takes to flight. It is a cunning animal, and the sharp turns or 
‘wrenches’ by which it strives to battle the fleeter but less agile greyhound, con- 
stitute one of the principal beauties of the sport of coursing.” 

The female produces several litters in the course of the year, the earliest of 
which may arrive in January and the latest in November. The number of young 


—< 


MOUNTAIN-HARE (} nat. size). 


in a litter varies from two to five; and the “leverets” are suckled for about a 
month, after which they are left to shift for themselves. 

The mountain or Alpine hare (Lepus timidus) is a species with a 
very wide distribution, ranging over the greater part of Northern 
Europe and Asia, from Ireland in the west to Japan in the east, and also met with 
in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Caucasus. It is represented by a variety known 
as the Polar hare in Arctic America, which extends as far south as Nova Scotia. 
In the British Isles this species is not met with except in Scotland and Ireland ; 
and in the former country is commonly termed the blue hare. Its present distribu- 
tion is doubtless to be accounted for by the glacial period, when it was able to exist 


Mountain-Hare. 


196 RODENTS. 


in the lowlands of the greater part of Europe; but it is somewhat curious that it 
should find the wild climate of Ireland suitable to its existence. 

The mountain-hare is intermediate in size between the common hare and the 
rabbit; and has a relatively smaller and more rounded head, with shorter ears, 
hind-legs, and tail than the former. Throughout the year in Ireland and the 
south of Sweden, and during summer in the greater part of the rest of its habitat, 
the general colour of the pelage is. ight fulvous grey; the tips of the ears being 
black. With the commencement of winter, however, except in the regions named, 
the fur gradually becomes more and more flaked with white, until at length it 
assumes a uniformly white hue, save on the black tips of the ears. It is believed, 
however, that in the extreme north the fur is white throughout the year. 

In general habits the mountain-hare appears to agree very closely with the 
common species. Its “form” is generally made in the clefts of rocks, or between 
stones; and during the winter its food consists largely of lichens and pine-seeds. 
In summer it ascends the higher mountains, produces from four to six young at a 
birth, and it is doubtful if there is more than one litter in a year. It seems to be 
more inclined to seek shelter under tree-stems, thick evergreens, etc, than the 
common hare; and the young are believed to be produced in sheltered cover. In 
Arctic America the Polar hare remains active throughout the winter, feeding 
chiefly on the berries of the arbutus and the bark of dwarf willows. 

North American In addition to the polar hare, North America is the home of 

Be several species of the genus, two of which turn white in winter, 
although the bases of the hairs retain their normal colour. The two species in 
question are the prairie-hare (1. campestris), distinguished by its large size, long 
ears, and the white hue of both surfaces of the tail; and the smaller varying hare 
(L. americanus), with shorter ears, and the tail dark above. 

Of the North American species, which do not turn white in winter, the best 
known is the small wood-hare (L. sylvaticus), not unfrequently termed the grey 
rabbit ; the usual colour of the upper-parts being grey, varied with black, and more 
or less tinged with yellowish brown, while the under-parts are white. This hare is 
a southern species, not ranging further north than the Adirondack region of New 
York. In habits this species approximates somewhat to the rabbit, frequently 
dwelling in hollow tree-stems or the deserted burrows of other mammals. Mr. 
Kennicctt states that it “is very prolific, producing young three or four times a 
year, and usually from four to six at a birth. In open ground the female scratches 
a shallow hollow, in which to bring forth her young. In this she forms a nest of 
soft leaves and grasses, well lined with fur from her own body; and when she is 
absent the young are always completely covered and concealed in the nest, which 
they leave at an early age, and separate from the mother as soon as able to take 
care of themselves.” The Brazilian hare (L. brasiliensis) is very closely allied to 
the wood-hare, but has the under surface of the tail yellowish brown. 

There are a large number of species of hares inhabiting Central 
Asia, India, and the regions to the eastward. Of these the Indian 
black-naped hare (L. nigricollis) is distinguished by the presence of a black patch 
on the back of the neck, which is wanting in the common Indian hare (L. rufi- 
caudatus). Both these species appear to be much less prolific than the European 


Asiatic Species. 


PICAS AND HARES. 197 


species ; and when pursued generally take refuge in holes. Of the Tibetan species, 
the Afghan hare (L. tibetanus), which is found as low as five hundred feet above 
the sea, is distinguished by the black upper surface of the tail; while in the woolly 
hare (Z. ovostolus) and upland hare (LZ. hypsibius) both surfaces of the tail are 
nearly or quite white. The latter species does not occur below fourteen thousand 
or fifteen thousand feet; and I have found it in swarms among eleagnus bush in 
the higher valleys of the Ladak. 

The most remarkable of the Indian species is, however, the hispid hare (L. 
hispidus), inhabiting the foot of the Eastern Himalaya. In this hare the ears are 
shorter than the skull, the eyes small, the ears coarse and bristly, the tail dark both 
above and below, and the hind-legs scarcely longer than the front pair. Although 
not gregarious, this species is said to burrow like a rabbit; and probably, therefore, 
produces blind and naked young. Its flesh is reported to be white. An allied 
species (LZ. nitscheri) inhabits Sumatra. 

In Africa hares are found from Egypt to the Cape; those from 
South Africa afford but poor sport, as their speed is not great, and 
when pursued they almost invariably run to ground. Moreover, some of them at 
least, are very foul feeders. The Egyptian hare (1. wgyptius) is considerably 
smaller than the common species, but with relatively longer ears, and paler fur. 
Of the Cape species, the rock-hare (Z. saxatilis) is nearly equal in size to the 
common European hare, and has relatively long limbs and ears, with the fur rufous 
above and dirty white below. The Cape hare (LZ. capensis) differs by its shorter 
legs, and the absence of a rufous tinge on the back of the neck, and the yellowish 
colour of the throat; when hunted, it always carries the ears erect. Lastly, we 
have the small thick-tailed hare (LZ. crassicaudatus), which is not larger than a 
rabbit, and is of a foxy-red colour above, paler beneath, with the large and thick 
tail of the same rufous tint as the body. This species, which has very short legs, 
is confined to the highlands, ranging from the Cape Colony to the Transvaal. 


African Species. 


THE Rappit (Lepus cuniculus). 

From the foregoing account of the non-European species of hares it will be 
gathered that some of them show a transition, both as regards form and habits 
from the European hare in the direction of the rabbit, although none of them are 
as gregarious as the latter, and, with one probable exception, none produce blind 
offspring. On these grounds the rabbit cannot be separated generically from the 
hare. The rabbit is characterised by its small size, relatively short ears, which about 
equal the length of the head, its small head, and the comparatively slight elongation 
of the hind-legs. The general colour is greyish brown, with the neck reddish fawn, 
the under-parts and lower surface of the tail white, and, at most, only the margins 
of the tips of the ears white. Black, fawn, or parti-coloured individuals are, how- 
ever, at times met with even in the wild state. The length of the rabbit is usually 
about 164 inches; and its weight from 24 to 3 lbs. although it may occasionally 
reach as much as 5 lbs. 

These rodents which, as compared with the hare, are deficient in speed, are 
eminently gregarious, forming in suitable soils numerous burrows, collectively 
termed “warrens.” Sandy soils, especially those clothed with heath or gorse, are 


198 RODENTS. 


their favourite resorts; but in damp situations rabbits sometimes content them- 
selves with forming a series of runs among the thickly-matted gorse or heather. 
Occasionally, it is stated, they will take possession of a hollow tree, and ascend 
the stem for a considerable height. Although mainly nocturnal, rabbits when 
undisturbed may be seen abroad at all hours; but their favourite feeding- 
times are in the evening and early morning. The prolific nature of the rabbit 


h 


ee 
Nea 


wy Y 


RABBIT (4 nat size). 


is proverbial; several litters being produced in the course of a year, both during the 
summer and the winter, and the number of young in each litter usually varying 
from five to eight. The young are born ina blind and nearly naked condition ; 
and at the age of six months are themselves able to breed. The ordinary burrow 
usually has two entrances, but the young are born in a special excavation to which 
there is but a single approach. In this breeding-burrow the mother forms a soft 
nest from her own fur; and during her absence in the day she covers over the 
entrance with earth. It does not appear to be generally known that these animals 
can swim; but a rabbit startled by a dog belonging to the present writer, from a 
tuft of grass on the margin of a river, at once plunged into the water and reached 


PICAS AND HARES. 199 


the opposite bank in safety. Rabbits, from their numbers, do even more damage 
to young plantations than is inflicted by hares. The chief foes of these animals are 
weasels, stoats, and polecats, which either hunt them in the open, or attack them 
within the recesses of their subterranean haunts; the curious kind of paralysis 
which seems to seize the rabbit when pursued by one of these carnivores has been 
already mentioned under the heading of the stoat. 

Although now widely distributed, it is believed that the original 
home of the rabbit was in the countries on both sides of the western 
portion of the Mediterranean, where it is still abundant at the present day. Thence 
it is considered to have spread northwards, and to have reached England and 
Ireland by human agency. In Scotland it has increased and spread enormously of 
late years, having been formerly but sparsely distributed, and unknown in the 
more northern parts of the country. On the continent its distribution is somewhat 
local; and it is unknown in the more northern and eastern parts of Europe. It 
should be observed that remains of rabbits occur in the caves of England in 
company with those of the mammoth and other extinct mammals, which would 
seem at first sight to disprove the view that these rodents are immigrants from the 
south. It is, however, quite probable that the association of the remains of the 
rabbit with those of extinct mammals may be due to its burrowing habits. 

The rabbit has been introduced by human agency into several 
countries beyond Europe, where it has flourished and multiplied to 
a degree beyond conception ;—so much so, indeed, that in Australia and New 
Zealand these animals have become a perfect pest and a serious hindrance to 
agriculture. Rabbits were first introduced at the period of the highest prosperity 
of Australia and New South Wales by a patriotic gentleman who thought it would be 
a good thing to import a few rabbits into the colony, as they would serve for food 


Distribution. 


In Australasia. 


and for sport. He accordingly imported three couple of rabbits, and they were 
turned loose. It was not long before it was found that the district in question had 
been transformed into a gigantic rabbit warren. Indeed it was discovered that a 
single pair of rabbits, under favourable circumstances, would in three years have a 
progeny numbering 13,718,000. The inhabitants of the colony soon found that 
the rabbits were a plague, for they devoured the grass, which was needed for 
the sheep, the bark of trees, and every kind of fruit and vegetables, until the 
prospect of the colony became a very serious matter, and ruin seemed inevitable. 
In New South Wales upwards of fifteen million rabbit skins have been exported 
in a single year; while in the thirteen years ending with 1889 no less than thirty- 
nine millions were accounted for in Victoria alone. To prevent the increase of 
these rodents, the introduction of weasels, stoats, mungooses, etc., has been tried ; 
but it has been found that these carnivores neglected the rabbits and took to 
feeding on poultry, and thus became as great a nuisance as the animals they were 
intended to destroy. The attempt to kill them off by the introduction of an 
epidemic disease has also failed. In order to protect such portions of the country 
as are still free from rabbits fences of wire-netting have been erected; one of these 
fences erected by the Government of Victoria extending for a distance of upwards 
of one hundred and fifty geographical miles. In New Zealand, where the rabbit 
has been introduced little more than twenty years, its increase has been so 


200 RODENTS. 


enormous, and the destruction it inflicts so great, that in some districts it has 
actually been a question whether the colonists sient not vacate the country rather 
than attempt to fight against the plague. The average number of rabbit skins 
exported from New Zealand is now twelve millions. 

In other Tame rabbits were introduced into the island of Porto Santo, 

Countries. year Madeira, in the year 1418 or 1419, and their descendants have 
now formed a breed distinguished by their small size, the reddish colour of the fur 
of the upper-parts, and the grey tints of that below. So different, indeed, are these 
rabbits from the ordinary kind, that the two kinds will not even breed together ; 
and if the history of the Porto Santo race were not known, it would undoubtedly 
be regarded as a distinct species. Tame rabbits which have run wild in Jamaica 
and the Falkland Islands have not reverted to the ordinary wild form, but still 
exhibit distinct traces of their origin. Introduced rabbits are also numerous in 
Teneriffe and the Crozet Islands. In Teneriffe, where the breed is small, they do 
not burrow, but live in crannies among the rocks. 

Domesticated The rabbit has long been kept in a domesticated state, in which 

Rabbits. it varies not only in colour but likewise in size, in the length of the 
fur, in the form and direction of the ears, and also to some extent in the conforma- 
tion of the skull. The usual colours are brown, fawn, reddish brown, or black, more 
or less mingled with white; and there is also an albino race with pink eyes. 


Lop-Eared Among the most remarkable changes produced by domestication 
Breeds. js the assumption of a pendent position by one or both ears, which 


become greatly enlarged, accompanied by a modification in the skull. Whereas in 


(i lh i tl 


the ordinary wild rabbit the length of the 
ears from tip to tip when extended is 
‘ather less than 8 inches, and the breadth 
of aM not more than 2 inches; a “ lop- 
sar” has been exhibited in ace these 
dimensions were respectively 28 and 5% 
inches. The weight of these rabbits is, 
moreover, frequently from 8 to 10 Ibs.; 
while, according to Mr. Darwin, it has been 
known to reach 18 lbs. When only one 


sar hangs down the rabbit is called a “half- 
—=- = 


ee lop” ; and in some eases this pendent ear is 
LOP-EARED RABBIT, larger than the upright one. Many lop- 


saved rabbits have large dewlaps, or folds 
of skin beneath the throat. Neither whole nor half-lops breed at all truly ; and in 
all lop-eared rabbits the skull is proportionately longer than in the wild race. 

The Angora breed is readily distinguished by the length and 
fineness of its fur, which is even of considerable length on the soles 
of the feet. Mr. Darwin states that these rabbits are more sociable in disposition 
than the other domestic breeds; and that the males do not exhibit that tendency 
to destroy their offspring which is so characteristic of the rest. 

The hare-coloured or Belgian rabbit differs mainly from other 
Jarge breeds by its colour; while other strains which breed true to 


Angora. 


Other Breeds, 


PICAS AND HARES. 201 


colour are the so-called silver-greys and chinchillas, which are born black, and 
assume their characteristic colours later on. Silver-greys generally have black 
heads and legs, and the fine grey fur of the body is intermingled with a number of 
long black and white hairs. These rabbits have long been kept in warrens; and 
when crossed with the wild breed, one- 
half of the progeny, or thereabouts, takes 
after the one parent, and the second half 
after the other. On the other hand, 
chinchillas, or tame silver-greys, have 
short, paler, mouse-coloured, or slaty fur, 
among which are long, black, slate- 
eoloured, and white hairs. Darwin 
remarks that silver-greys may be re- 
garded as black rabbits, which become 
grey at an early period of life. By 
crossing silver-greys with chinchillas a 
certain number of the resulting offspring 
belong to what is known as the Hima- 
layan breed. When first born these rabbits are generally true albinos, having pure 
white fur and pink eyes; but in the course of a few months they gradually become 
blackish brown on the ears, nose, feet, and the upper surface of the tail. In spite 
of their sudden production, Himalayan rabbits generally breed true; and Darwin 
suggests that their remarkable change in coloration may be due to both chinchillas 
and silver-greys having descended from a cross between black and albino parents. 
Lastly, we have the Nicard or Dutch rabbit, distinguished by its very small size ; 
some examples not weighing more than a pound and a quarter. 


CHAPTER XXXW- 


THE EDENTATES,—Order EDENTATA. 


THe Mammals described in this chapter, which include the sloths, ant-eaters, and 
armadillos of South America, together with two Old World groups, are collectively 
characterised by the total absence of front teeth, while in a few instances their 
jaws are entirely toothless. Strictly speaking, therefore, the title of the group 
applies only to those of its representatives as present the latter feature; but if we 


= ALZY LVI CAS 
SELEZ 


MARS 
{EAN 


\ 


THE GREAT ANT-EATER. 


regard the term as indicating the absence of front teeth alone, it will be applicable 
to the whole group, so far as existing forms are concerned. 

In addition to this absence of front or incisor teeth, the Edentates are also 
characterised by the simple structure of their cheek-teeth, which are composed 
solely of ivory and cement, without any trace of enamel. Moreover, these teeth 
never form distinct roots, but grow continuously throughout life, and have their 
pulp-cavities open inferiorly. Then, again, these animals usually lack a functional 
series of milk-teeth ; although in two instances such teeth are developed, which in 
one case cut the gums and come into use. 


GENERAL CHARACTERS: 203 


The foregoing are almost the only characters common to the whole of the 
Edentates. It may be added, however, that all these animals are of a comparatively 
low degree of organisation, although many of them are specialised for particular 
modes of life. In general their brains are relatively small, with the hemispheres, 
or anterior portion, devoid of convolutions, and not extending backwards to overlap 
and conceal the hinder portion or cerebellum. In some cases, however, the hemi- 
spheres of the brain are distinctly convoluted. Very frequently the shoulder-blade, 
or scapula, is characterised by the great development of the anterior portion of its 
lower extremity ; this so-called coracoidal portion (of which we shall have to speak 
more fully when we come to the Egg-laying Mammals), being sometimes, as shown 
in our figure of the skeleton of the sloth, marked off from the remainder of the 
bone by a perforation, and suturally united with it. Certain members of the order, 
such as the armadillos and their extinct allies, are peculiar among Mammals in 
possessing a bony cuirass in the skin; while the pangolins are equally remarkable 
for the coat of overlapping horny scales with which the entire body is invested. 

From the absence of enamel in their teeth, and the presence of rudimental 
milk-teeth in some of their representatives, it is probable that the Edentates should 
be regarded as somewhat degenerate types, descended from ancestors provided 
with a double set of enamel-coated teeth. There are, however, no indications of 
any close relationship between the Edentates and any other of the Mammalian 
orders ; and it is accordingly pretty evident that they are descended from extinct 
primitive Mammals quite independently of all other members of the class. 

As already mentioned, the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, are 
entirely confined to the New World; and since it is these alone which 
form the typical Edentates, the order is essentially an American one. Indeed, 
there is a considerable degree of doubt whether the Old World pangolins and 
aard-varks, which form its only other representatives, are rightly included within 
the order; their organisation being very different from that of the typical forms. 
Be this as it may, the typical Edentates appear to have been always confined 
to the New World, in the southern half of which they attained their greatest 
development ; for while fossil forms are abundant in America, they are unknown 
elsewhere.1 Some of these extinct types are of the greatest importance to the 
zoologist, since they serve to connect together most intimately such widely different 
forms as the arboreal sloths and the terrestrial armadillos. 

Although varying greatly in their mode of life, the whole of the 
Edentates—both living and extinet—are either arboreal or terrestrial, 
none of them being modified either for flight in the air or for swimming in the 
water. While the purely arboreal sloths are entirely vegetable feeders, all the 
other members of the order, of which a few are likewise more or less arboreal in 
their habits, subsist on flesh or insects. Moreover, several of these carnivorous 
forms are burrowing animals; and it is remarkable that the members of three 


Distribution. 


Mode of Life. 


distinct groups, namely, the ant-eaters, the pangolins, and the aard-varks, subsist 
mainly, or exclusively, on white ants or termites; the only other purely ant-eating 
members of the class belonging respectively to the Pouched Mammals and the Egg- 


1 Certain remains from the Tertiary rocks of France have been considered to belong to armadillos, but this 
determination is exceedingly doubtful, 


Bon EDENTATES. 


laying Mammals. It is further noteworthy that while among the ant-eating 
Edentates the true ant-eaters and the pangolins have entirely lost their teeth, those 
organs are retained in a comparatively high state of development among the aard- 
varks. At the present day the Edentates are evidently a waning group, the whole 
of the larger members of the order having died out; while those which remain 
have sought protection by the acquisition of either arboreal or burrowing habits, 
or by the development of a protective coat of mail to their bodies. 


THE SLOTHS. 
Family BRADYPODID. 


Although by the older zoologists the sloths were regarded as ill-formed 
creatures destined to lead a miserable life on account of their misshapen limbs, 
no animals are in reality better adapted to their peculiar mode of existence. We 


( ((( ((Cragreis 
ws Sore at} Kees 


By, 


SKELETON OF THREE-TOED SLOTH. 


see this not only in their elongated limbs, which have been modified into hook-like 
organs of suspension, with the removal of all superfluous digits and the great 
development of the claws of those which remain; but likewise in the extraordinary 
resemblance of their coarse coat of hair to the shaggy lichens clothing the gnarled 
and knotted boughs of their native forests. It is noteworthy that while the monkeys 
of the same regions have mostly acquired a fifth limb by the development of the 
prehensile power in their tails, the sloths have almost dispensed with tails 
altogether. 

The sloths are characterised externally by their short and 
rounded heads, in which the ears are very small and buried among 
the fur, their rudimentary tails, and the excessive elongation of their fore-limbs, of 


Characteristics. 


AO TEELS: 205 


which the length far surpasses that of the hinder-pair. Both pairs of limbs are 
furnished with long and slender feet, in which there are never more than three 
toes; while the toes themselves are invested for nearly their whole length in a 
common skin, and terminate in long curved claws of great strength. The thick 
coat of long, coarse, and somewhat brittle hair with which the whole of the body 
and limbs is invested, is generally of a brownish or dull ashy-grey colour, mingled 
with a greenish tint; each individual hair having a fluted or roughened external 
surface. The most remarkable feature connected with the pelage is, however, the 
growth of a vegetable—a kind of alga—on the hairs themselves; the alga attach- 
ing itself to the aforesaid flutings, and growing luxuriantly in the moist atmosphere 
of the South American forests, although quickly withering when the animals are 
brought to Europe. It is this extraneous vegetable growth which communicates 
the greenish tinge to the hair during life; and its object is doubtless to render the 
coloration of these creatures in still closer harmony with their inanimate surround- 
ings than would have been otherwise possible. It may be mentioned here that it 
is almost impossible to conceive that any sort of so-called natural selection could 
have given rise to this peculiar and unique kind of protective resemblance. In 
the region of the back between the shoulders many sloths exhibit a patch of fine 
woolly under-fur marked by longitudinal stripes of rich brown and orange; the ex- 
posure of such patches being due, according to Brehm, to the animals having abraded 
the long hair by rubbing or resting their backs against trees. The coloration of 
this patch of under-fur approximates to that obtaining in the coat of the ant-eaters, 
from which it may be inferred that both these groups of animals originally had 
bright-coloured fur, and that the long external dull-hued coat of the sloths has 
been a special development suited to the needs of their environment. 

The sloths have five pairs of teeth in the upper, and four in the lower jaw; 
the individual teeth, with the exception of the first pair in one of the two genera, 
being nearly cylindrical in form, and in all cases consisting of a core of ivory 
invested with a thick coating of cement. The skeleton is characterised by the 
presence of complete collar-bones ; while in the fore-arm the two bones are completely 
separate, and allow the hand to be supinated like that of man. The claws are, 
however, permanently fixed parallel to one another, so that the hand, like the foot, 
can be used merely as a claw. In the hind-limb the foot is articulated obliquely 
to the bones of the leg; so that when on the ground the animal can walk only on 
the outer sides of its feet. Of the soft parts, it will suffice to mention that the 
tongue is short and soft; while the large stomach, as in so many leaf-eaters and 
erass-feeders, is divided into several compartments. The windpipe is peculiar 
in being folded before reaching the lungs,—a feature found elsewhere only in 
certain birds. Finally, the female sloth has but a single pair of teats on the breast. 

Three-Toed The typical members of the family are commonly known as 

Sloths. three-toed sloths, or, from their native title, ais, and constitute the 
genus Bradypus, readily characterised by the presence of three toes on both the 
fore and the hind-feet. The teeth are all of nearly the same height, with their 
grinding surfaces deeply cupped ; the first tooth in the upper jaw being considerably 
smaller than either of the others, while the corresponding lower tooth is broad and 
compressed. The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the genus is, how- 


206 EDENTATES. 


ever, the presence of nine, instead of the usual seven, vertebree in the neck; that 
is to say, it is the tenth vertebra from the head which first carries ribs articulating 
with the breast-bone, although the ninth, and occasionally the eighth vertebra, is 
furnished with a pair of free floating ribs, which stop short of the breast-bone. 
There are several species of the genus characterised by differences in coloration, or 
by the relative length of the hair on the face; but the precise number of species is 


THE COMMON THREE-TOED SLOTH (4 nat. size). 


not yet definitely ascertained. In some kinds the coloration is uniform, while in 
others there is a dark stripe across the shoulders; the presence of the above- 
mentioned bright-coloured patch on the back cannot, however, as was once thought, 
be regarded as a specific character. The typical B. tridactylus inhabits the drier 
regions of the forests, while others, as noticed below, frequent the permanently 
flooded districts. As a rule, these animals appear to be silent; but it is recorded 
that a captive specimen, when dragged from the branch to which it was clinging, 
uttered a shrill scream. 


SLOTHS. 207 


The two-tced sloths, or unaus, of which there are two well- 
‘defined species, constitute the genus Cholapus, characterised by 
having only two functional toes on the fore-foot ; these two digits representing the 
index and middle finger of the human hand. The hind-foot has, however, three 
toes, as in Bradypus. The unaus are further distinguished by the characters 
of their teeth; the first pair in each jaw being longer and stouter than the 
others, from which they are separated by a considerable interval. These anterior 
teeth assume, indeed, the characters of tusks, and have their summits obliquely 
worn away by mutual attrition. That they do not correspond to the true tusks, or 
canines, of other mammals is shown, however, by the circumstance that the lower 
ones bite behind, instead of in front of those of the upper jaw. In the common 
unau (C. didactylus) the number of vertebrae in the neck is the usual seven, 
but in Hoffmann’s sloth (C. hoffmanin7) it is reduced to six. Of these two species 
the former is restricted to Brazil; while the latter extends from Ecuador to Costa 
Rica. Hoffmann’s sloth utters at rare intervals a cry like the bleating of a sheep, 
while when suddenly seized it gives vent to a loud snort. 

The haunts of the sloths are the primeval forests of South and 
Central America, where vegetation attains its highest development, 
and the warm air is heavily laden with moisture. The darker and denser the 
forest, the more thickly is it tenanted by these creatures, which are as thoroughly 
arboreal as the squirrels and spider-monkeys, and seldom or never descend of their 
own accord to the ground. Indeed, on the ground the sloth is but a helpless 
creature, walking uneasily on the edges of its in-turned feet, and seeking as soon 
as possible to regain its native trees. Writing of the habits of the common three- 
toed sloth (B. tridactylus), Bates observes that the Indians call it ai ybyreté, or sloth 
of the mainland, to distinguish it from the B. infuscatus, which has a long black 
and tawny stripe between the shoulders, and is called ai ygapo, or sloth of the 
flooded lands. Some travellers in South America have described the sloth as very 
nimble in its native woods, and have disputed the justness of the name which has 
been bestowed upon it. “The inhabitants of the Amazon regions, however, both 
Indians and descendants of the Portuguese, hold to the common opinion, and 
consider the sloth as the type of laziness. . . It is a strange sight to watch the 
uncouth creature, fit production of these silent shades, lazily moving from branch 
to branch. Every movement betrays, not indolence exactly, but extreme caution. 
He never loosens his hold from one branch without first securing himself to the 
next, and when he does not find a bough to immediately grasp with the rigid 
hooks into which his paws are so curiously transformed, he raises his body, 
supported on his hind-legs, and claws around in search of a fresh foothold.” Bates 
goes on to say that after watching its movements for some time, he shot the 
specimen under observation ; its body remained, however, firmly suspended to the 
bough to which it was clinging, and it was not till the muscles became relaxed 
that it fell. He adds that on another occasion he saw a three-toed sloth swimming 
a river, about five hundred yards wide. 

Sloths are mainly nocturnal; and in their usual attitude they hang suspended 
back downwards. When sleeping, they roll themselves into a ball, with the 
head tucked between the arms; in this position they somewhat resemble the 


Two-Toed Sloths 


Habits. 


208 EDENTATES. 


pottos among the lemurs, and it is then that they present the most striking 
resemblance to a lichen-clad knot. They are found usually either in pairs or in 
small family parties; and are harmless and inoffensive in disposition. They are 
most active in the dusk and at night; and will then wander slowly for consider- 
able distances through the forest. Their food consists exclusively of leaves, 
young shoots, and fruits, the moisture contained in which renders drinking 
unnecessary. Their favourite food is afforded by the large-leaved and milky 
cecropia trees, which are so abundant in the South American forests; and it 
is said that they seldom desert a cecropia so long as it affords them nutriment. 

The sense of hearing in these animals seems but imperfectly developed; and 
their small, dull and reddish eyes do not appear capable of very acute vision. 
Indeed, on first observing a sloth its eyes look so devoid of brightness as to give 
the impression that the creature must be blind. But a single young is pro- 
duced at a birth. When it first comes into the world the young sloth is fully 
developed, having the body thickly clothed with hair, and the claws on the toes 
of the same proportionate length as in the adult. With these claws it clings 
fast to the long hair of its mother, clasping its arms around her neck. 

Sloths are capable of enduring deprivation from food for protracted periods, 
and they are also remarkable for the severe bodily injuries they are capable of 
sustaining, while they appear to be unaffected by doses of poison which would 
immediately prove fatal to other animals of larger size. It is related that on one 
occasion a three-toed sloth kept in captivity at Turin took no food for upwards of 
a month, and appeared none the worse at the end of its long fast. All these 
circumstances clearly point to the low organisation of these animals; it being a 
well-known fact that reptiles exhibit a far greater tenacity of life than the higher 
mammals. Indeed, as a rule, the lower we descend in the animal kingdom, the 
greater becomes the power of sustaining injury. 


THE EXxtTINcT GROUND-SLOTHS. 
Family M&GATHERIIDZ. 


No account of the Edentates would be complete without some reference to the 
gigantic ground-sloths which were formerly so abundant in South America, as it 
is by their aid alone that we are able to comprehend the relationship of the true 
sloths to the ant-eaters. The best known of these creatures is the megathere, 
which rivalled the elephant in bulk; while the mylodon and scelidothere were 
somewhat smaller forms. They may be described as possessing the skulls and 
teeth of sloths, and the back-bones, limbs, and tails of ant-eaters. The megathere 
differs from most of the others in having the crowns of the teeth square and 
divided into wedge-shaped transverse ridges, owing to the variation in the hardness 
of their constituents ; but in most cases the teeth were subcylindrical, with depressed 
centres. They agreed with the sloths in having large and complete collar-bones ; 
but, as we infer from the conformation of the lower jaw, they approximated to the 
ant-eaters in the elongation of their tongues. The majority of the ground-sloths 
were South American; but one species of megathere ranged into North America, 
while an allied genus, Megalonyx, was apparently exclusively North American. 


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ANT-RATLELRS: 209 


That the ground-sloths were herbivorous is evident from the structure of their 
teeth; while it is obvious that creatures which must have weighed several tons 
when in the flesh could not have been climbers. Their bodies were probably 
clothed with coarse hair some- 
what like that of the ant-eater ; 
but there is evidence that the 
mylodon had also a number of 
small bony plates embedded in 
its skin. From the enormous 
width and massiveness of the 
pelvis of the ground-sloths, | 
coupled with the extraordinary 
size of the bones of the tail, it 
is probable that these creatures 
were in the habit of procuring 

5 ° PALATAL VIEW OF SKULL OF EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTH 
their food by supporting them- (acyLoDon).—A ter Owen. 
selves on the tripod formed by 
their hind-limbs and tail, and rearing their bodies against the trunks of trees, from 
which the boughs were then dragged down by the powerful arms. Possibly, how- 
ever, the megathere, as suggested by the late Prof. Parker, may in some cases have 
bodily uprooted trees, by first digging a hole at their roots with its powerful front 
claws, and then grasping the trunk with its arms, and swaying it to and fro till ic 
fell with a crash. It may be added that the ground-sloths resembled the ant-eaters 
and sloths in walking on the outer sides of their enormous fore-feet; but they 
differed from the latter in also applying only the outer side of the hind-feet to the 
ground. All these gigantic forms lived during the Pleistocene period; but in the 
lower Tertiaries of Patagonia they are represented by the much smaller Hucholwops, 
in which the skull was only some 5 inches in length; the teeth resembling those of 
the megathere. 


THE ANT-EATERS. 
Family MYRMECOPHAGID. 


The ant-eaters, or, as they are often called, ant-bears, differ so widely in 
appearance and structure from the sloths that it is difficult to believe at first sight 
in their close relationship; indeed, had it not been for the fortunate preservation 
of the remains of the ground-sloths, it may be questioned whether even zoologists 
would have fully understood the alliance of the two. As it is, we have an excellent 
example of the effects of adaptation to widely different modes of life in modifying 
the organisation of nearly allied animals. In the present instance the extinct 
ground-sloths are probably the least removed from the original common type. 
In the sloths the needs of a purely arboreal life have led to a great elongation of the 
fore-limbs, coupled with the reduction of the digits to a few hook-like claws, and 
the functional loss of the tail. In the other group, the ant-eating habit has led 
to an extraordinary elongation of the skull, with the loss of all traces of teeth. 

VOL. III.—14. 


210 EDENTATES. 


All the ant-eaters are characterised by the body being clothed with hair, and 
by the more or less marked elongation of the head, in which the mouth is tubular, 
and provided with a long worm-like tongue, while teeth are wanting. The mouth 
has only a small aperture at its extremity, through which, when feeding, the long 
extensile tongue, coated with viscid saliva, is rapidly protruded and as instantane- 
ously withdrawn. The tail is always long, and in two species is prehensile. In 
the fore-feet the middle toe is enlarged and furnished with an enormous curved 
claw, while the other digits are reduced in size, and some of them may be rudi- 
mentary. The hind-limbs are as long as the front pair; and their feet terminate 
in four or five equal-sized and clawed toes. In the skeleton the collar-bones are 
generally rudimentary, although in one genus well-developed; and the ribs are 
remarkable for their breadth. In the soft parts the stomach is comparatively 
simple, the brain much more convoluted than in the sloths. The heart is very 
small. As their name implies, aut-eaters are purely insectivorous. 


SKELETON OF GREAT ANT-EATER. 


The great, or maned ant-eater (Myrmecophaga jubata)—known 

Great Ant-Eater. . . : : : 
in Paraguay as the yurumi, and in Surinam as tamanoa—is the 
largest member of the family. Externally it is characterised by the extreme elon- 
gation of its narrow head, and the enormous mass of long hair clothing the tail. 
The anterior portion of the head forms a kind of cylindrical beak, which is of 
far greater length than the hinder half, and carries the small nostrils at its tip. 
The eyes are minute; and the oval ears small and erect. The body is somewhat 
compressed laterally, and is about equal in length to the tail, which is not 
prehensile. In the fore-feet claws are present upon all the toes except the 
fifth; that of the third being far larger than either of the others; when walking 
the toes are bent back, and the weight of the body supported on the upper 
surfaces of the third and fourth, aided by a hard pad at the extremity of the fifth. 
The hind-feet, in which the toes are of nearly equal length, are comparatively 
short,! and have the soles applied to the ground in walking. The hair is stiff and 
bristly ; although short on the head it is of considerable, though varying, length on 
the body. On the neck and back it forms an upright mane; while on the fore- 


1 They are somewhat too long in the figure. 


ANT EATERS. 2a 


limbs and flanks it becomes still more elongated and pendent, but attains its 
maximum development on the tail, where it may measure as much as 16 inches in 
length. The general colour of the hair over a large part of the body is ashy grey 
mingled with black, this tint prevailing on the head, neck, back, flanks and hind- 
quarters, fore-legs and tail. The throat, chest, under-parts, hind-feet, and under- 
surface of the tail are blackish brown; while a broad black band, margined with 
white, extends obliquely upwards and backwards to terminate in a point on the 
loins. The length of the head and body is about 4 feet, the height at the shoulder 
being about two. 


THE GREAT ANT-EATER, WITH THE TAIL ELEVATED (4; nat. size). 


In addition to these external features, there are certain points in the internal 
anatomy of this ant-eater which demand some attention. In the first place, the 
exceedingly elongated skull is characterised by the zygomatic or cheek-arch being 
incomplete; and also by the circumstance that the passage above the bony palate, 
through which the creature breathes, instead of stopping short near the middle of 
the skull, is prolonged nearly to its hinder extremity. This is brought about by 
the union in the middle line of descending plates from the bones known as 
pterygoids; this feature occurring elsewhere among mammals only in certain 
dolphins and one genus of armadillo. In consequence of this arrangement the 
posterior or inner nostrils of the great ant-eater open at the back of the skull, 


212 EDENTALES, 


instead of near its middle. Another peculiarity of the skull is the absence of any 
postorbital process defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye, which is 
consequently continuous with the temporal fossa, or large open space at the side of 
the hinder portion of the skull. Then, again, the lower jaw is very long and 
slender, with an extremely short union in front between its two lateral branches, 
and without the process which usually ascends behind the socket of the eye for the 
attachment of the muscles of mastication. Like the sloths, the females of the great 
ant-eater have but a single pair of teats on the breast. 

Distribution and Although distributed over the whole of the tropical portions of 

Habits. South and Central America, the great ant-eater is nowhere common ; 
and from its nocturnal habits but seldom seen. It frequents either the low, wet 
lands bordering the rivers, or swampy forests; and is strictly terrestrial in its 
habits. Its strong claws might lead to the supposition that the creature was a 
burrower, but this is not the case. It has, however, usually a regular lair, or at 
least an habitual place of resort, generally situated among tall grass, where it 
spends the day in slumber, lying on one side, with its head buried in the long fur 
of the chest, the legs folded together, and the huge tail curled round the exposed 
side of the body. Except in the case of females with young, the ant-eater is, as a 
rule, a solitary creature. Its usual pace is a kind of trot, but when pursued it 
breaks into an awkward, shuffling, slow gallop. The food of the great ant-eater 
consists exclusively of termites and ants, together with their larve. In order to 
obtain these insects, the ant-eater tears open their nests or hillocks with the power- 
ful claws of its fore-feet. As soon us the light of day is let into their domicile, the 
ants or termites rush to the surface in order to investigate the cause of the dis- 
turbance, and are forthwith swept up by hundreds adhering to the viscid tongue 
of the ant-eater, which is protruded and withdrawn with lightning-like rapidity. 

The breeding-habits of the animal are still very imperfectly known. A 
single young is, however, produced by the female in spring, which is carried about 
on the back of its parent for a considerable time. The period of suckling lasts for 
several months; and even when the young ant-eater has taken to feeding on 
insects, it does not leave its parent until she is again pregnant. 

Usually the ant-eater is a harmless, inoffensive creature, which may be driven 
in almost any direction so long as it is not pressed too hard. If, however, driven 
to close quarters, it turns furiously on its assailants, whom it attacks by hugging 
with its immensely muscular arms. It has been asserted, on the authority of the 
natives, that the ant-eater will even face and attack the jaguar; and although the 
truth of this statement was denied by the traveller Azara, a later explorer believes 
that it may be founded on fact. Like the sloths, ant-eaters are exceedingly difficult 
to kill, their skin being so tough that an ordinary small hunting-knife will make 
no impression on it, while their skulls may be battered with a heavy stone without 
producing any other effect than temporarily stunning the creatures. 

These ant-eaters thrive fairly well in captivity in Europe; but spend most of 
their time in sleep, with the head, limbs, and tail folded up in the manner already 
mentioned, On awakening, the animal generally unfolds itself with considerable 
deliberation, usually sitting up at first on its hind-quarters, with its legs stretched 
out rigidly in front, and its bird-like head swaying slowly from side to side. “In 


ANT-EATERS. 213 


its slow and measured walk,” writes Sclater, “the tail is stretched out in a 
straight line with the back (as in the illustration on p. 211), and the animal then 
presents a length of between 6 and 7 feet, of which the head occupies 1 foot, and 
the tail 3.°. The small mouth and face are cleaned from any of the viscid saliva 
which may have adhered to them by being rubbed from time to time against 
the slightly bent knee. The flesh of the great ant-eater, although black in 
colour, and musky in odour, is largely eaten by the natives and negroes of South 
America. 

The lesser ant-eater, or tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) is 
an animal of scarcely half the size of the preceding, from which it is 
distinguished by its much shorter head, longer ears, uniformly short bristly hair, 


Tamandua. 


| 
~~ LL . 


NG —. 
=a 


Jt 


! 


THE TAMANDUA (1 nat. size). 


and the prehensile tail, of which the extremity, together with the whole length 
of the inferior surface, is naked and scaly. The three middle toes of the fore- 
foot have well-developed claws, of which that on the third is much larger than 
either of the others; while the first toe has only a minute claw, and the fifth is 
clawless, and concealed within the skin. The hind-foot is very similar to that of 
the great ant-eater, and has five subequal clawed toes. The structure of the skull 
is essentially the same; and the collar-bones are likewise rudimentary. The whole 
length of the head and body is about 2 feet, and that of the tail 6 inches less. 
As regards coloration, there is a great amount of individual variation. The 
general hue of the fur is, however, yellowish white, with a more or less marked 
rusty tinge; but a broad black band extends from the sides of the neck along the 
flanks, and becomes so deep on the hind-quarters as to appear the predominating 
colour. The tip of the snout, together with the lips, eyelids, and the soles of the 
feet, are naked and black: and the ears are but sparsely haired. 


214 EDENTATES. 


Distribution and The tamandua (which, by the way, is the Portuguese term for 
Habits. the creature, the native name being caguari) ranges through the 


tropical forests of South and Central America. It is mainly an arboreal animal; 
its climbing powers being largely aided by the prehensile tail. Generally nocturnal, 
it may be sometimes seen abroad during the day. ‘Its movements are more rapid 
than those of the great ant-eater; and when asleep it lies on its belly, with the 
head bent under the chest and covered with the fore-feet, while the tail is curled 
along the side. Its food apparently consists mainly of ants, and termites—probably 
belonging to arboreal species; but it has been suggested that honey may hkewise 
form a portion of its diet. Like the great ant-eater, it produces only a single 
young one at a birth. It is a much commoner animal than the tamanoa, and is 
said to be generally found on the borders of the forests. Frequently it ascends 


TWO-TOED ANT-EATER (4 nat. size). 


to the top of the tallest trees. When pursued, it endeavours to escape by flight ; 
but if hard pressed it turns on men or dogs in the same manner as its larger 
cousin, sitting up on its hind-quarters, and trying to hug its foes in its arms. 
Two-Toed The third and last representative of the family (Cyclotwrus 
Ant-Eater. = (/idlactylus) is no larger than a rat. Its skull is only slightly 
elongated. The length of the head and body is only 6 inches, and that of the 
highly prehensile tail a little over 7 inches. The fore-feet have four toes, of which 
those corresponding to the index and third fingers of man alone have claws; the 
claw of the third toe being very much larger than that of the second. In the 
hind-feet there are four nearly equal-sized toes, which are placed close together so 
as to form a hook-like organ somewhat after the fashion of the foot of a sloth. 
The fur is soft, thick, and silky; its colour being generally foxy red above and 
grey beneath, with the individual hairs greyish brown or black at the base, and 
yellowish brown at the tips. The skull differs from that of the other ant-eaters 


ARMADILILOS. 215 


by its shorter muzzle, and by the absence of the backward prolongation of the 
nasal passage on the palate, to which allusion has been already made. The lower 
jaw is less widely removed from the ordinary type. Another peculiarity in the 
skeleton is the presence of well-developed collar-bones; and it may also be noted 
that the ribs are so extraordinarily wide as to come nearly in contact with one 
another, and thus render the bony casing of the body well-nigh continuous. 
Distribution and The two-toed ant-eater is an exclusively arboreal animal, with a 

Habits. somewhat restricted geographical range. It inhabits Northern Brazil, 
Guiana, and Peru, between the 10th parallel of south and the 6th parallel of north 
latitude, and it also extends into Central America; its range thus including the 
very hottest portions of the continent. In the mountains it ascends to an elevation 
of some two thousand feet above the sea. It is either a rare creature, or one but 
seldom seen, even by the natives; frequenting the thickest portions of the forests, 
and escaping observation through its arboreal habits and diminutive size. Like 
its larger relatives, it leads, except during the pairing-season, a solitary existence ; 
and it is lkewise nocturnal, sleeping during the day among the boughs. Its 
movements are generally slow and deliberate; but when so disposed, it can climb 
quickly, always with the aid of the tail. Ants, termites, bees, wasps, and their 
larvee, are its food. When it has captured a large insect, it sits up on its haunches 
like a squirrel, and conveys the prey to its mouth with its paws. Bates had one 
of these ant-eaters brought to him which had been captured while slumbering 
in a hollow tree. He kept it in the house for twenty-four hours, where “it 
remained nearly all the time without motion, except when irritated, in which case 
it reared itself on its hind-legs from the back of a chair to which it clung, and 
clawed out with its fore-paws like a cat. Its manner of clinging with its claws, 
and the sluggishness of its motions, gave it a great resemblance to a sloth. It 
uttered no sound, and remained all night on the spot where I had placed it in 
the morning. The next day I put it on a tree in the open air, and at night it 
escaped.” 


THE ARMADILLOS. 
Family DAs YPODID. 


The armadillos, together with their near ally the pichiciago, constitute a well- 
defined South American family distinguished from other living mammals by the 
development of a number of bony plates in the skin, so as to form a more or less 
complete shield enveloping the body ; and it is from the presence of this bony cuirass 
that the members of the family derive their distinctive Spanish title of armadillos. 
In general the bony shield of the back is formed by the union of quadrangular 
or many-sided plates, and is divided into an anterior and posterior solid portion, 
separated by a series of movable transverse bands, varying in number from three 
to thirteen. The anterior shield, into which the head and fore-limbs may be more 
or less completely withdrawn, is termed the scapular shield; while the posterior 
portion, which is notched for the tail, is known as the lumbar, or pelvic shield. 
The movable bands are composed of parallel rows of similar plates connected 
together by flexible skin; and in some cases the degree of flexibility in this region 


216 EDENTATES. 


is so great as to allow of the animal rolling itself into a complete ball. One 
peculiar genus of extinct armadillo differs from all living forms in that the whole 
body-shield was composed of these movable plates. Usually a certain number of 
hairs protrude between the bony plates of the armour; and in some cases these are 
so numerous as almost to conceal the armour, and give the appearance of a furry 
animal. Each bony plate is sculptured, varying in pattern in the different 
genera; and it 1s overlain by a horny shield, developed in the cuticle or epidermis ; 
the bones themselves belonging to the true skin. The upper surface of the head 
is also protected by an armour of similar structure; and the tail is usually en- 
circled by a series of bony rings. The limbs are likewise protected externally by 
a number of bony plates embedded in the skin, which do not, however, articulate 
together by their edges. The fore-feet are provided with very powerful curved 
claws adapted for dig- 
ging, and varying in 
number from five to 
three ; while in the hind- 
feet the claws are of 
smaller size, and invari- 
ably five in number. 
The numerous teeth are 
small and simple, looking 
like small pegs fixed in the jaws; and in one genus the anterior teeth are preceded 
by a deciduous milk series. The tongue is considerably elongated, although to a 
less extent than in the ant-eaters. 

The elongated skull is characterised by the full development of the zygomatic 
or cheek arch; and the collar-bones are complete. In the hind-lmbs the 
bones of the second segment—tibia and fibula—differ from those of the other 
existing members of the order by being united together at their lower extremities. 
Another peculiarity is that a variable number of the vertebra in the middle of the 
neck are likewise immovably welded together. In the development of additional 
facets for mutual articulation, the vertebrae of the loins of the armadillos resemble 
those of the ant-eaters. The ribs are of considerable width; and the upper lateral 
processes of the back are specially developed for the support of the carapace. 
Most of the species are of comparatively small size; the largest living one not 
exceeding 3 feet in length, exclusive of the tail; but in the Pleistocene of Argentina 
there occurs the gigantic Dasypotheriwm, with a skull about a foot in length. In 
the Argentine pampas the armadillos are as a rule diurnal, in other districts many 
appear to be crepuscular or nocturnal. The majority are mainly or exclusively 
insectivorous, but one species consumes not only flesh, but vegetable substances. 
In disposition these Edentates are mostly harmless and inoffensive little creatures ; 
a Gaucho remarking to Mr. Darwin, as he sharpened his knife on the back of one, 
“they are so quiet (son tan mansos”). All of them burrow in the ground ; and so 
rapid is the act of burrowing, that, as the writer has witnessed, if a horseman sees 
one of these animals, it is almost necessary for him to tumble off his horse in order 
to capture it before it disappears in the soft soil of the pampas. They run with 
considerable speed, some of the species merely touching the ground with the tips of 


SKELETON OF ARMADILLO. 


ARMADILLOS. 217 


their claws, and carrying the body elevated high on the limbs. They are found 
both on the open pampas and in the forests; and, with the exception of a single 
species which ranges as far north as Texas, they are restricted to the warmer 
parts of South and Central America. Their burrows are frequently found in the 
neighbourhood of the mounds erected by ants and termites; and although most of 
the species wander abroad in search of food, a few lead an almost exclusively 
subterranean and mole-like life. Except in the pairing-season, armadillos are 
solitary creatures; and they nearly always prefer flat, open country for their 
habitations. Although generally found in dry districts, they are said to be able to 
swim well and swiftly. In spite of the nature of their food (which in addition to 
ants and other insects includes snails and worms), the flesh of most armadillos is 
free from unpleasant flavour. 

The smallest, and at the same time the most curious repre- 
sentative of the whole group, is the tiny creature known as the 
pichiciago, or pink fairy armadillo (Chlamydophorus truncatus), which differs so 
remarkably from the true armadillos as to constitute a subfamily by itself. This 
Edentate was discovered by the American naturalist Harlan, at Mendoza in 1824, 
much to the astonishment of the natives, who had no knowledge of its existence. 
For many years it was known only by two examples—the one preserved in 
London and the other at Philadelphia; but of recent years a considerable number 
of specimens have been obtained; and it has been kept alive in the Zoological 
Gardens at Buenos Aires. 

The pichiciago is only about 5 inches in length; and, while the shield or 
mantle covering the head and body is pink, the fur is of a snowy white. The 
head is short, widest behind, and gradually tapering to the muzzle, where it 
terminates in a short and abruptly truncated snout, with small and rounded nostrils. 
The small and almost rudimentary eyes are nearly concealed among the long hair; 1 
and the ears are quite invisible, having scarcely any external conchs. The mouth 
is very small, with the lips hard and stiff; and the rather long and fleshy tongue 
is conical, and covered above with warty protuberances. The teeth, of which there 
are eight in the upper and eight or nine in the lower jaw, are small and nearly 
cylindrical; those in the middle of the series being larger than at the two 
extremities. The neck is short and thick; and the body long and depressed, 
becoming gradually wider from the shoulders to the abruptly truncated hinder 
extremity. The limbs are short, and the front pair much more powerfully made 
than the hinder ones. Both are provided with five toes; but whereas in the fore- 
limbs these are connected nearly to the bases of the claws, in the hind-pair they 
are entirely free. The second claw in the fore-foot is the largest, and the fifth the 
smallest ; while the claws of all the hind-toes are comparatively small. The tail, 
which protrudes through a notch in the lower border of the bony shield on the 
hind-quarters, is short and inflexible, terminating in a flattened and pointed paddle- 
like expansion, and covered with a leather skin, dotted over with small horny 
plates. The whole of the upper surface of the body is covered with a continuous 
shield, or mantle, of quadrangular horny scales, underlain by very thin, bony 
plates. This mantle commences in a point a short distance above the muzzle, and 


Pichiciago. 


1 They are made too conspicuous in our figure. 


218 EDENTATES. 


gradually increases in width to the hinder extremity of the body, where it is 
abruptly truncated. Instead of being firmly attached to the body throughout its 
extent, the mantle is only affixed along the line of the backbone, and consequently 
lies quite loosely on the hairy sides of the body; on the head it is, however, firnly 
joined to the bones. There are usually about twenty transverse rows of plates in 
the mantle; and while the number of plates in each row at the hinder extremity of 
the head varies from seven to eight, on the loins there may be as many as twenty- 
four ina row. The abruptly truncated hinder extremity of the body is protected 
by a solid shield, composed of firmly welded plates of bone, overlain by thin scales 
of horn. This shield is slightly convex, and forms a segment of a circle, the centre 
of which would be the notch in its inferior border through which protrudes the 
tail. It is firmly welded to certain bony processes arising from the pelvis, and 


THE PICHICIAGO (3 nat. size). 


comprises five or six concentric rows of plates; the number in the uppermost row 
being about twenty, and that in the lowest only six. The entire shield is placed 
in a nearly vertical plane. Both externally and internally the mantle is smooth 
and devoid of hair. With the exception of the tail, the soles of the feet, the snout, 
and the chin, which are nearly naked, the whole of the skin is covered with a coat 
of long, silky hair, forming a fringe along the edges of the mantle. This hair is 
longest on the flanks and limbs, and shortest on the upper surface of the feet, where 
it is intermingled with wart-like masses of horn. The female pichiciago has a single 
pair of teats situated on the breast, as in the armadillos. 
Distribution and The pichiciago is a rare animal, confined to the western part of 
Mode of Life. Argentina, and is least uncommon in the neighbourhood of Mendoza ; 
where, as elsewhere, it frequents open, sandy dunes, or their proximity, the 
vegetation in such spots consisting of thorny brushwood and cacti. The best 
account of the habits of this creature is given by Mr. E. W. White, who writes that, 
when walking, the pichiciago “plants both the fore and hind-feet on the soles, and 


ARMADILILOS. 219 


not on the contracted claws, carrying its inflexible tail, which it has no power to 
raise, trailing along the ground, and much inclined downwards from the body. 
As it commences to excavate, the fore-feet are first employed; and, iminediately 
afterwards, supporting its body on the tripod formed of these and the extremity of 
the tail, both hind-feet are set to work simultaneously, discharging the sand with 
incredible swiftness. The burrows, which are never left open, usually have but 
slight, if any, inclination to the horizon. Sluggish in all its movements, except as 
a fodient, in which capacity it perhaps excels all other burrowing animals, the 
Chlamydophorus performs the operation of excavation with such celerity that a 
man has scarcely time to dismount from his horse before the creature has buried 
itself to the depth of its own body.” Mr. White believes that the use of the bony 
shield at the hinder extremity of the body is to act as a rammer in closing up the 
entrance to its burrow; and he is further of opinion that when the creature desires 
to come above ground, it emerges by digging a new exit. When in search of a 
spot in which to burrow, the pichiciago utters a sniffing sound, but is otherwise 
silent. “So extremely sensitive is this delicate little burrower to cold,” writes Mr. 
White, “that my living example, after passing a night in a box of earth covered 
with flannels, was found the following morning in a very exhausted condition. 
Wrapped in warm clothing, and placed near a fire, it soon revived. On taking it 
in my hand under a Mendozan midday sun it shivered violently; but whether 
through fear or chill it is impossible to say. Its normal paradise seems to be when 
the temperature of its residence is such as is produced by sand so hot as almost to 
scorch the hand; and yet, if cold be unfriendly, no less so is wet, for although its 
winter is spent beneath the earth, a fall of rain quickly drives it from its retreat. 
During summer it leaves its burrow at dusk to search for food; and being truly 
nocturnal, moonlight nights are very favourable for discovering it.” A second, 
and rather larger species of pichiciago (C. retusus) inhabits Bolivia, and is dis- 
tinguished from the typical form by the mantle being attached to the skin of the 
back throughout its whole extent. 

The remaining members of the family, with the exception of the 
peba armadillo and its allies, are included in a single subfamily, 
characterised by the division of the bony carapace on the back into scapular and 
lumbar shields, separated from one another by a variable number of movable 
bands. They all have moderate-sized ears, set at a considerable distance apart ; 
and the first and second claws of the fore-feet are, when present, slender; while 
the females have but a single pair of teats on the breast. 

Six-Banded The weasel-headed, or six-banded armadillo (Dasypus sexcinctus) 

Armadillos. ig the type of a genus characterised by having usually six or seven, 
but occasionally eight, movable bands in the carapace; each bony plate of which is 
marked by an elliptical row of punctures. The head is broad and flattened, with 
an obtusely pointed muzzle, and rather small or moderate-sized ears; and the 
body is broad and much depressed. In length the tail is less than the head and 
body ; and the plates on its basal portion form well-defined rings. Of the five toes 
in the fore-feet, the first is the most slender, the second is the longest, while the 
three outer ones are the stoutest, and gradually diminish in size from the third to 
the fifth. They have a rounded inner border, and a sharp outer and lower edge. 


True Armadillos. 


220 RD TEIN EATEES: 


The teeth may be either nine in the upper and ten in the lower jaw, or one less in 
each; they are of large size, and the first upper pair are generally implanted in 
the premaxillary bones. The figured species, which attains a length of about 16 
inches, exclusive of the tail, inhabits Brazil and Paraguay; but is replaced in 
Argentina by the closely allied peludo, or hairy armadillo (D. villosus), The 
fleecy armadillo (D. vellerosus), from Argentina and the north of Patagonia, and 
the pichi, or pigmy armadillo (D. minutus) of Argentina, are much smaller 
forms; of which the second is distinguished by the absence of any teeth in the 
premaxillary bones. 

The different species of the genus vary somewhat in habits; the 
pichi being mainly diurnal, while in the cultivated districts of 
Argentina the peludo has become nocturnal. The pichi, according to Mr. Darwin, 


Habits. 


THE WEASEL-HEADED ARMADILLO (4 nat. size). 


prefers a very dry soil; and the sand-dunes near the coast, where for many 
months it can never taste water, are its favourite resort; it often tries to escape 
notice by squatting close to the ground. All of the species live in burrows, where 
in winter or spring the young are born; the number in a litter varying from two 
to four, although the female has but a single pair of teats with which to afford 
them nourishment. The young are born blind, but with their armour fully formed, 
although soft and flexible. They grow with great rapidity, and remain for several 
weeks in the burrows; it is believed, however, that they are not suckled for any 
very lengthened period, and that they soon learn to shift for themselves. The 
armadillos of this genus are usually found alone; and most of them feed chiefly on 
ants and other insects, although they will also attack and devour small snakes. 
On the other hand, the peludo is omnivorous. Dr. E. Peard writes that this species 
“comes forth for a short time only by day; on a moonlight night he may be met 


ARMADILLOS. 221 


with at any hour. I have very often made a peludo post-mortem examination, 
and several times found his last meal consisted of putrid flesh, as well as insects 
and vegetable fibre. I do not mean to assert that he cannot live on vegetables 
alone; but he evidently does not prefer them, and looks on a dead lamb or other 
animal as a bonne bowche by no means to be despised. A fresh peludo-burrow may 
almost invariably be found by or underneath a stinking carcase. This is not 
merely that the occupant may avail himself of the maggots bred in the carrion, 
for pieces of the flesh may frequently be seen drawn partly into the burrow, 
and the softer parts chewed and eaten.” These flesh-eating propensities of the 
peludo frequently lead to its destruction, since these animals often devour the 
poisoned meat spread for wandering dogs and foxes. It is also stated that in some 
districts, where peludoes are so numerous as to render riding dangerous, on account 
of their burrows, flesh poisoned with strychnine is exposed for their destruction. 
The foregoing observations are confirmed by Mr. W. H. Hudson, who writes 
that the peludo, like its fast-disappearing congeners, “is an insect-eater still, but 
does not like them seek its food on the surface and on the ant-hill only; all kinds 
of insects are preyed on, and by means of its keen scent it discovers worms and 
larvee several inches below the surface. Its method of taking worms and larve 
resembles that of probing birds, for it throws up no earth, but forces its sharp 
snout and wedge-shaped head down to the required depth; and probably while 
working it moves round in a circle, for the hole is conical, though the head of the 
animal is flat. Where it has found a rich hunting-ground, the earth is seen pitted 
with hundreds of these neat symmetrical bores. It is also an enemy to ground- 
nesting birds, being fond of eggs and fledglings ; and when unable to capture prey 
it will feed on carrion as readily as a wild dog or vulture, returning night after 
night to the carcase of a horse or cow as long as the flesh lasts.” Mr. Hudson adds 
that this armadillo resorts to a vegetable diet only when animal food fails; and 
states that on such occasions it will eat not only clover, but likewise grains of 
maize, which are swallowed whole. The peludo also displays marked intelligence 
in capturing some of the animals on which it preys. Mr. Hudson had a tame one 
which was an adept at catching mice in a most ingenious manner. After stating 
that the creature had a most keen sense of smell, and was in the habit of trotting 
along with its nose to the ground like a beagle, Mr. Hudson writes that “when near 
his prey he became agitated, and quickened his motions, pausing frequently to 
sniff the earth, till, discovering the exact spot where the mouse lurked, he would 
stop and creep cautiously to it; then, after slowly raising himself to a sitting 
posture, spring suddenly forwards, throwing his body like a trap over the mouse 
or nest of mice concealed in the grass.” Still more remarkable is the manner 
in which a peludo has been observed to kill a snake, by rushing upon it and 
proceeding to saw the unfortunate reptile in pieces by pressing upon it closely 
with the jagged edges of its armour, and at the same time moving its body 
backwards and forwards. The struggles of the snake were all in vain, as its 
fangs could make no impression upon the panoply of its assailant; and eventually 
the reptile slowly dropped and died, to be soon after devoured by the armadillo, 
which commenced the meal by seizing the snake’s tail in its mouth, and gradually 
eating forwards. 


222 EDENIATES: 


Both the peludo and the weasel-headed armadillo are hunted for 
the sake of their flesh, with dogs specially trained for the purpose. 
A moonlight night is generally selected for the pursuit; and the hunter arms 
himself with a stout cudgel, pointed at one end. As soon as the armadillo perceives 
the dog, it either makes straight for its burrow, or endeavours to bury itself by 
digging a hole where it stands. If the dog come up with the creature before it 
gain its retreat, its fate is sealed. As the carapace affords no hold, the dog generally 
seizes the armadillo by the head, or a paw, and holds it till the arrival of his 
master, by whom it is despatched with a blow on the head from his stick. A 
specially clever dog will, however, endeavour to overthrow the armadillo as it 
runs by thrusting his nose under the edge of the carapace. The creature is then 
promptly seized by the soft under-parts, and soon killed; the teeth of the dog 
crunching up the edges of the carapace as readily as an egg-shell is crushed 


Hunting. 


in the hand. 
Broad-Banded The tatouay, or broad-banded armadillo (Lysiurus wnicinctus), 
Armadillo. of Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay, is the best known representative of 
a small genus distinguished from the last by the presence of twelve or thirteen 
movable bands in the carapace, and likewise by the teeth. The latter are either 
eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, and are of 
moderate size; while in the upper jaw the last of the series is placed considerably 
in advance of the hinder extremity of the bony palate, instead of close to it, as in 
the preceding group. The head has the same general form as in the six-banded 
armadillos, with rather widely separated, large, and rounded ears; and by the 
presence of from twenty to twenty-five teeth on each side of the jaws. The slender 
tail, which is considerably shorter than the body, is nearly naked, except for a few 
bony plates on its under-surface and near the tip. In the fore-foot the third toe 
has a huge curved claw, much larger than that on either of the others; the claws 
of the first and second toes being slender. The hind-feet have short triangular nails, 
of which the first is the shortest and the third the longest. The bones of the 
armour are ornamented with an indistinct granular sculpture. Next to the under- 
mentioned giant armadillo, the present species is the largest of the group. Its 
habits are probably very similar to those of the six-banded armadillo, although 
our information is somewhat scant on this point. 

By far the largest living member of the family is the giant 
armadillo (Priodon gigas), from the forests of Surinam and Brazil, 
which attains a length of nearly a yard from the tip of the snout to the root of the 
tail, and is the sole representative of its genus. While agreeing with the broad- 
banded armadillo in the number of five bands in the carapace, and the general 
structure of its feet, this species is distinguished by the still greater relative 
development of the third toe, and the small size of the claw of the fifth. It is 
further characterised by the small size and elongated form of the head, on which 
the ears are oval and rather small; and by the tail, which is nearly equal in length 
to the body, being covered with large scales arranged in spiral rows. There are ten 
rows of plates in the scapular, and sixteen or seventeen in the pelvic shield. With 
the exception of the head, tail,and a band on the sides, which are whitish, the 
colour is blackish brown. The immensely powerful front claws of this armadillo 


Giant Armadillo. 


ARMADILLOS. 223 


clearly proclaim its fossorial habits; and it is said to feed chiefly on ants and 
termites, although not averse to carrion. 

Three-Banded The common three-banded armadillo, or apar, (Jolypeutes 

Armadillos. tricinctus), is the typical representative of a genus comprising three 
rather small species, distinguished by the great development and solidarity of the 
scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace, and the reduction of the movable 
bands to three. The teeth, of which there are nine on each side of the lower jaw, 
and either nine or eight in the upper jaw, are relatively small, and extend back 


= 
SS 
Sante 


THE GIANT ARMADILLO (} nat. size). 


nearly to the end of the palate. The head is long and narrow, with the elongated 
and oval ears placed rather low down on its sides. The third claw in the fore-feet 
is even more developed than in the giant armadillo; the first and fifth claws being 
very minute or wanting. In the hind-foot the three middle toes have short hoof- 
like nails; while those of the first and fifth digits are smaller and compressed. 
The plates of the carapace are small and polygonal, with a strongly-marked 
granular sculpture. Both the scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace are 
very large, and much produced on the sides of the neck and tail, thus forming 
large chambers into which the limbs, tail, and head, can be withdrawn. The 
conical tail is less than a third the length of the body, and is covered with 
bony tubercles. The total length of the head and body is about 15 inches; and 


224 EDENTATES. 


the general colour is dark grey, with a more or less marked brown tinge; the 
skin between the movable bands being whitish, while that on the under-surface 
of the body is dusky. 

The apar is found throughout the Argentine pampas; and, in common with 
the other two members of the genus, differs from the rest of the armadillos in 
being able to roll itself up into a complete ball, with the shield of the head and 
the bony upper-surface of the tail packed away side by side, and thus completely 
filling up the notches in 
the scapular and lumbar 
shields. In this state the 
creature is perfectly safe 
from nearly all foes save 
man. For instance, when 
a dog attempts to seize 
one of these armadillos, it 
is compelled, from the size 
of its mouth, to make a 
bite upon one side, upon 
which, as Mr. Darwin tells 
us, the ball immediately 
rolls away from its grasp. 
The apar is mainly diurnal 
in its habits; and trusts for defence to its power of rolling itself into a ball, not 
dwelling in burrows like the members of the other genera. When running, these 
armadillos tread only on the tips of the claws of the fore-feet, and consequently have 
the edges of the carapace raised high above the ground. Our figure represents a 
specimen with the fore-legs stretched out in front preparatory to digging up an 
ant’s nest. In captivity these armadillos will eat fruit and green vegetables ; 
although, on account of the small size of their mouths, it is necessary that all the 
food with which they are supplied should be chopped up into small pieces. Fossil 
remains of armadillos of this species, together with others belonging to all the 
genera except Priodon, are met with in the cavern-deposits of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil ; 
and are mostly referable to species still existing in the country. 

The Peba armadillo (Tatusia novemcincta), ranging from Texas 
o Paraguay, together with the mulita—‘ little mule ”—(7. hybrida), 
of Argentina and other parts of South America, and certain allied species, differ from 
all the members of the family yet noticed by the elongated ears being closely 
approximated at their roots, by the female having a pair of teats on the abdomen, in 
addition to the two on the breast, and by the circumstance that the permanent teeth, 
with the exception of the last pair in each jaw, are preceded by deciduous milk-teeth, 
each furnished with two roots. The permanent teeth, which are either seven or eight 
in number in each side of both the upper and lower jaws, are very small in 
proportion to the size of the skull, and do not come into use until the animal has 
well-nigh attained its full dimensions. The head is narrow, and produced into a 
nearly cylindrical snout, obliquely truncated at the extremity; and the bony 
palate of the skull has a backward prolongation formed in the same manner as 


THE THREE-BANDED ARMADILLO, 


Peba Armadillo. 


GLYPTODONTS. 225 


that of the great ant-eater. The body is long and narrow, with from seven to 
nine movable bands between the scapular and lumbar shields; the former being 
produced on either side of the shoulders, and having a deep notch at the neck. 
Kach bony plate is ornamented with a series of pits arranged in the shape of a V. 
The tail is nearly or quite as long as the body, and surrounded for the greater part 
of its length with complete bony rings. The fore-feet have four long claws, of 
which the inner pair are considerably larger than the others; while the hind-feet 
carry five claws, of which the third is the longest, and the fourth and fifth the 
shortest. The length of the body of the peba armadillo is about 16 inches, and 
that of its tail some 2 inches less. In producing from six to twelve young ata 
birth the peba armadillo differs from all the species hitherto noticed. It inhabits 


CARAPACE AND SKELETON OF GLYPTODON, WITH THE TAIL-SHEATH IMPERFECT 
(x5 nat. size).—After Zittel. 


burrows in the open plains, and feeds largely on carrion, which is said to be stored 
up in the burrows for future consumption. In spite of this unsavoury diet, the 
peba is much hunted for its flesh, which is stated to be of delicate flavour. 

The above-mentioned mulita is a smaller species, with a relatively 
shorter tail. A very remarkable form is the rare shaggy armadillo 
(7. pilosa) from Peru, in which the cheeks and the whole of the carapace, except 
the front margin, as well as the upper parts of the limbs and the under surface of 
the body, are covered with a thick coat of light brown hair, of about an inch and 
a half in length. So dense is this hairy covering that the carapace is completely 
concealed, giving to the creature, save for its mail-clad head, the appearance of an 
ordinary hairy mammal. 


Other Species. 


THE EXTINCT GLYPTODONTS. 
Family GLYPTODONTID. 


As we have seen, the carapace cf the largest existing armadillo scarcely 
exceeds a yard in length; but during the Pleistocene, or latest, geological period, 
there existed in South America a number of gigantic armadillo-like animals, in 
some of which the carapace attained a length of between 6 and 7 feet. All these 
Kdentates differed from the living armadillos in having complex teeth (eight in 

VOL. III.—15 


226 EDENTATES. 


number on each side of the jaws), which were divided into three prisms by a pair 
of deep vertical grooves on each side. In all of them the carapace consists of a 
single solid shield, formed of a number of polygonal bony plates, which are 
firmly united together by suture. A peculiar form from Brazil known as the 
chlamydothere serves in some respects to connect the glyptodonts with the arma- 
dillos, having the carapace of the latter, and the teeth approximating to those of 
the former. The typical species was about the size of a rhinoceros; but others 
were smaller. 

In all the glyptodonts the skull was short, the feet were short and massive, 
generally with five toes in front and four behind; and the limbs were likewise 
short and massive. In the larger forms the bony plates of the carapace were fully 
an inch in thickness; and in all the species the head 
was protected by a bony shield, somewhat similar in 
structure to the carapace. In the larger types, constitut- 
ing the genus Glyptodon, the carapace was much vaulted, 
and its margins ornamented with a number of large 
projecting tubercles; while the tail was protected by a 
series of bony rings, also ornamented with bosses, 
gradually diminishing in size from root to tip. In one 
species the total length, along the curve of the back, 
from the nose to the end of the tail was 114 feet, while 
the carapace measured 7 feet in length and 9 in width, 
inclusive of the curves. On the other hand, in the 
mostly smaller forms known as Lomaphorus, the carapace was less vaulted, and 
devoid of bosses on the margin; while the tail had several movable smooth rings 
at the root, and terminated in a long bony tube of more than a yard in length. 
The extremity of such a tube, showing the large bony plates with which its 
surface is covered, is shown in the accompanying cut. 

Another gigantic kind from the pampas, distinguished by the tail terminating 
in a huge flattened club, armed during life with horns, is known as Dadicwrus. 
In the Miocene beds of Patagonia all the glyptodonts were of smaller size. 


END OF SHEATH OF TAIL OF A 
GLYPTODONT, MUCH REDUCED, 


THE PANGOLINS. 
Family JL4NIDz, 


Stranger even than the armadillos are the Edentates commonly known as 
pangolins, or scaly ant-eaters, which may be compared in appearance to an animated 
spruce-fir cone furnished with a head and legs. These creatures constitute a family 
by themselves, in which there is but a single genus—Manis, and, like the remaining 
representatives of the order, they are confined to the Old World. As already 
mentioned, the relationship of the pangolins to the typical New World Edentates, 
is remote; and it may be even questioned whether the group is rightly included 
in the same order. Their internal anatomy is of a different type; and the joints 
of the backbone lack the additional articular processes characterising most of the 
American Edentates. 


PANGOLINS. 227 


The pangolins may be briefly characterised as a family by the total want of 
teeth, and by the upper surface and sides of the body and the whole tail being 
covered with a number of large, overlapping horny scales. Their limbs are short, 
with five toes on each foot; and the long, worm-like tongue is capable of being 
protruded a great distance from the small mouth. The head is small, long, and 
pointed, with the eyes small, and the external conchs of the ears minute or rudi- 
mentary. The scales of the body extend on to the outer sides of the limbs; but 
they are absent from the inner surfaces of the latter, as well as from the sides of 
the head and the inferior aspect of the body, all of which are sparsely covered 
with hair. There are often a few coarse, bristly hairs arising from between the 
scales. All the toes have slightly curved claws, which are much longer in the 
front than in the hind-feet, and of which the third is larger than either of the 
others. In walking, the front toes are bent under the feet, and the weight of the 
body supported mainly on the upper and outer sides of the fourth and fifth toes. 
On the other hand, the hind-feet are of the ordinary plantigrade type, and have 


SKELETON OF PANGOLIN. 


the whole sole applied to the ground in walking. The female has a pair of teats 
situated on the breast. In the skeleton the skull is remarkable for its smooth and 
solid structure, and almost conical form. The zygomatic, or cheek-arch, is incom- 
plete, and there is no distinction between the sockets of the eyes and the fossz at 
the hinder extremity of the skull; while the palate is much produced backwards. 
The lower jaw is extremely slight and slender, without any ascending or descending 
processes. In many of these respects the skulls of the pangolins approach those 
of the true ant-eaters; but it must be remembered that such resemblances are 
purely adaptive, and are brought about by the identical modes of life of the two 
groups. ‘Two other points may be noticed in the skeleton;—firstly, that collar- 
bones are wanting; and, secondly, that the terminal joints of the claws are 
deeply cleft. 
Distribution and The pangolins, of which the largest species attains a length of 
Mode of Life. about 6 feet, are exclusively confined to Africa south of the 
Sahara, and South-Eastern Asia. Africa possesses the largest species, and the 
greater number of forms. The pangolins are essentially burrowing and nocturnal 
animals, feeding exclusively on ants and termites, which are captured on the long 
extensile tongue. They have the power of rolling themselves into a ball as a 


228 EDENTATES. 


protection against foes ; and when thus coiled up their muscular strength is such 
as to set at defiance any attempt to unroll them. 
Asiatic Asia is inhabited by three species of the family, namely, the 
Pangolins. Jndian pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), confined to India and 
Ceylon, and represented in the accompanying figure; the Chinese pangolin 
(M. aurita), ranging from Nipal and Assam to China; and the Malayan pangolin 
(M. javanica), inhabiting the regions to the westward of the Bay of Bengal as far 
as Celebes, and also occurring in North-Eastern India. All these species agree 
with one another in having the whole of the outer surfaces of the limbs covered 
with scales, and in their tapering tails, on which the middle upper rows of scales is 
continued uninterruptedly to the extremity. In the first two species the front 


SS 
—SSs 


THE INDIAN PANGOLIN ($ nat. size), 


claws are about twice the length of the hinder ones; the Indian pangolin being 
distinguished by having from eleven to thirteen rows of scales round the body, 
against from fifteen to eighteen in the Chinese species. On the other hand, the 
more slenderly-built and longer-tailed Malayan pangolin differs from both the 
others in having the claws on the fore-feet only slightly exceeding in length those 
of the hind-feet. In the Indian pangolin the length of the head and body is just 
over 2 feet, and that of the tail a foot and a half. 

The habits of all the three kinds are believed to be similar, 
although the Malayan species is probably less of a burrower than the 
others. The Indian pangolin dwells either among the crevices and clefts of rocks, 
or in burrows of its own construction ; such burrows extending to a depth of from 
eight to twelve feet below the surface, and terminating in a large chamber, which 
may be as much as six feet in diameter. Here a pair of these animals take up 
their abode, and in the winter or early spring give birth to their young. The 


Habits. 


PANG OLINS. 229 


young, which are one or two in number, are covered with soft scales at birth, but 
it does not appear to be ascertained whether they are born blind. When inhabited, 
the entrance to the burrow is stopped with earth; and it is rarely that its 
occupants are seen abroad after sunrise. The food consists chiefly of termites; the 
pangolin tearing open the nests of these insects with its powerful front claws, and 
thrusting its long glutinous tongue into their runs. The tongue is rapidly with- 
drawn with a swarm of the white ants clinging to it. In captivity pangolins will 
readily eat finely-chopped raw meat, hard-boiled eggs, and rice. Their stomachs 
have a somewhat gizzard-like structure; and frequently contain a few small 
pebbles, probably introduced to aid in triturating the food. In eaptivity pangolins 
drink freely by rapidly extending and withdrawing the tongue; but Mr. Blanford 


THE SHORT-TAILED PANGOLIN (4 nat. size). 


doubts whether this habit is natural to them, as they are often found in places 
where there is no water. When irritated, pangolins will give vent to a hissing 
sound ; but at other times they are believed to be silent. 

African There are four African species of pangolin, all of which are 

Pangolins. characterised by the middle row of scales on the upper surface of the 
tail bifureating at a short distance from the tip. They are also distinguished by 
the absence of any external conch to the ear, and the lack of any hairs growing 
between the scales; while in some of them the scales do not extend all the way 
down the outer surfaces of the limbs. Of the four species, the long-tailed pangolin 
(M. macrura) is easily recognised by the great length of its tail, which is nearly 
twice as long as the body, and also by the absence of scales at the lower part of 
the outer surface of the fore-limbs. A nearly allied form is the white-bellied 
pangolin (M. tricuspis), distinguished by its larger and tricuspidate scales, and 


230 EDENTATES. 


the white under-parts. The short-tailed pangolin (ML. temmincki) is readily 
distinguished by its short and blunt tail, in which the under surface of the tip 
lacks the bare patch found in all the other species except the next. The outer 
surfaces of the limbs are also fully scaled. The giant pangolin (I. gigantea) is 
sufficiently distinguished from the last by its superior size. It is remarkable that 
the remains of a closely-allied species have been found in a cavern in Madras. The 
whole of the four African species inhabit the West Coast; but the short-tailed 
species also extends to South Africa and ranges across the Continent to Zanzibar 
and Southern Somaliland. 

The general habits of the African pangolins appear to be very 
similar to those of their Asiatic cousins. While, however, the long- 
tailed and the white-bellied pangolins are partially arboreal, the other two are purely 
terrestrial. Most of the observations as to their habits have, however, been made 


Habits. 


WHITE-BELLIED PANGOLIN. (From Guide to British Museum. } 


from captive specimens. In 1878, Mr. F. Holwood, in sending a young example of 
the short-tailed pangolin to the London Zoological Gardens, wrote as follows to the 
secretary. These pangolins “ always appeared to burrow in hard or stony ground, 
and I saw them always in the daytime. The mother of the specimen I sent you 
lived three months in Zanzibar. She only fed at night, and remained curled up in 
a ball all day. She regularly retired to the dark corner of my harness-room at 
daylight, and left for the garden at sunset. There were very few ants, but she 
seemed to get plenty of insects. She burrowed at intervals all round the garden 
walls, but this was evidently only trying to escape, as she never made a hole large 
enough to give cover.” Although the scales of this young pangolin were quite 
soft at birth, they had completely hardened by the second day. Mr. L. Fraser 
relates how his pangolins would climb the somewhat roughly-hewn square posts, 
which supported a building, and sometimes roll up into a ball and throw themselves 
down, apparently without suffering any inconvenience from the fall. 


Mi Wif! 
HG 


WPF: 
Wy 


mill 
f 


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ii) 


VY 
4 YY) 
Mi UW; 


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ma f 
i H 


NM 


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—SS 


—— 


-VARKS AT HOME. 


CAPE AAR 


AARD-VARKS. 233 


THE AARD-VARKS. 
Family OR YCTEROPODIDE. 


The name aard-vark, or earth-pig, has been applied by the Dutch Boers of the 
Cape to the southern representative of the second group of Oid-World Edentates, 
of which there are two living species exclusively confined to Africa. To the 
English colonists of South Africa the Cape species is known as the ant-bear; while 
by the zoologist the aard-varks are termed Orycteropus, and collectively constitute 
a very distinct family group. In addition to the two living forms, the remains of 


: \ 


? Hi 


| 
‘} i \ 
, " i 


THE ETHIOPIAN AARD-VARK. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.) 


an extinct species have been discovered in the Pliocene deposits of the island of 
Samos; while those of another have been recorded from the Oligocene beds of 
France. 

In appearance both species of aard-vark are singularly ungraceful, not to say 
ugly. Thus the body, which may be either almost naked or sparsely clad with 
bristly hairs, is heavy and ungainly; the head greatly elongated, with a small 
tubular mouth, and somewhat pig-like snout; the ears of enormous length, and the 
tail thick, cylindrical, and tapering, and nearly equal in length to the body. The 
neck is very short; the fore-quarters are short compared with the hinder part 
of the body; and the back is much arched. The tongue is long and extensile, 
although not so completely worm-like as that of the pangolins; and the round 
nostrils are situated at the extremity of the truncated muzzle. The fore-limbs 
are rather short, but very powerful; they have four toes, with moderate-sized, 
strong nails; and, in walking, the entire sole of the foot is applied to the ground. 
The hind-feet have five toes of nearly equal size, each carrying a nail. The skin 


234 EDENTATES. 


is of remarkable thickness ; its general colour being yellowish brown, with a tinge 
of red on the back and sides, while the head and under-parts are light reddish 
yellow; and the hind-quarters, the root of the tail, and the limbs brown. A full- 
grown aard-vark measures a little over 6 feet in total length. 

The jaws are furnished with a considerable number of well-developed teeth, of 
which all but the last three in each jaw have milk-predecessors, which do not, 
however, cut the gum. In full-grown specimens there are usually five teeth on 
each side of both upper and lower jaws; but the total number of teeth developed is 
from eight to ten in the upper, and eight in the lower jaw; the anterior ones 
falling out as the animal attains maturity. When unworn, these teeth, which are 
of considerable size, have rounded summits. They are composed of a number of 
closely-packed denticles, which by mutual pressure assume a polygonal form, and 
are traversed by a series of radiating tubes; such a structure being unknown 
elsewhere in the whole mammalian class. The skull has a complete cheek-arch ; 
and the lower jaw is far less slender than in the pangolins. It has been considered 
that the aard-varks are nearly-allied to the pangolins, but the result of more 
recent observations has been to disprove this view; and it is even doubtful 
whether they should be included in the Edentate order, with the typical forms 
of which these animals have but little in common, except so far as regards 
the want of front teeth, and the absence of cement in the teeth of the cheek- 
series. 

The typical Cape aard-vark (Orycteropus afra) inhabits South 
and South-Eastern Africa; it is replaced in North-Eastern Africa 
by the Ethiopian aard-vark (0. ethiopicus); the former being distinguished by 
the thicker coating of hair, more especially on the back and flanks, as well as by 
the thicker and less elongated tail, and the longer head and ears. 

The aard-varks are essentially nocturnal and burrowing in their 
habits; and feed exclusively on termites and ants. In South Africa 
their deep burrows are generally constructed in the neighbourhood of the tall 
conical mounds formed by the termites; and, in the old days, before these animals 
were hunted for their skins, it used to be said that wherever termite-hills were 
numerous, there an aard-vark might confidently be expected. Wherever these 
animals are abundant, a number of half-formed holes are seen in the ground and 
on the sides of the ant-hills, which have been commenced and abandoned. Aard- 
varks usually spend the whole of the day asleep in their burrows, but may 
occasionally be seen abroad in the early morning. Their powers of digging are so 
great, that in a few minutes they can bury their large bodies, even when the 
ground is hard and sun-baked. In digging, they work with their fore-feet, and 
throw out huge clods of earth between their hind-legs. Aard-varks are quick of 
hearing, and very shy, making off at the slightest sound to their burrows with 
considerable speed. But little definitely is known as to their breeding-habits ; 
although it has been ascertained that the Ethiopian species gives birth during 
May or June to a single offspring. At birth’the young is naked and flesh- 
coloured ; and is suckled by its parent for a long period. 


Distribution. 


Habits. 


BENNETT'S WALLABY. 


CHAPTER XXXVI. 
THE PoucHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS. 
Order MARSUPIALIA. 


Distinctive THE whole of the Mammals treated of in the preceding chapters 
Characters. are collectively characterised by certain peculiarities connected with 
the development of their young. In all of them the young are brought into the 
world in a more or less high state of development; this high grade of development 
being due to the circumstance that during the greater portion of intra-uterine life the 
circulatory system of the foetus is connected with that of the maternal parent by a 
special vascular organ termed the placenta; this placental connection between 
the blood-vessels of the parent and offspring allowing the blood of the latter to be 
oxygenated almost as completely as by breathing. On account of the development 
of this placenta, the whole of the foregoing orders of Mammals are brigaded 
together into a single large group, or subclass, and are collectively termed either 
Placental, or Eutherian Mammals; the latter term referring to their general high 
degree of development, as compared with those remaining for consideration. 
On the other hand, in the Mammals of which we have to treat in the present 
chapter, the young are born at a very early stage of development, and in an 
exceedingly imperfect and helpless condition,—being, in fact, little more than 


236 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


animated lumps. Previous to birth there is no placental communication between 
the blood-vessels of the foetus and the parent; and at birth the rudimental young 
are transferred to the teats of the female, to which they adhere tightly for a long 
period, their lips being specially modified into a cylindrical sucking-organ. In 
most cases the young thus suspended are protected by a fold of skin on the 
abdomen of the female, which forms a pouch in which the teats are contained. 
From the universal absence of a placenta, these Mammals are regarded as forming 
a subclass of equal rank with the Placentals or Kutherians, and are spoken of as 
Implacentals or Metatherians; the latter term indicating their lower position, as 
compared with the Eutherian, or highest Mammals. 

The Placental, or Eutherian Mammals are, as we have seen, divided into 
numerous orders; and it may be thought that similar divisions could be instituted 
among the Implacentals or Metatherians. It happens, however,—so far at least 
as existing forms are concerned,—that this is not the case; but so as to render 
our classification symmetrical, it 1s necessary to have a name for the one order of 
Implacentals, the term Pouched Mammals, or Marsupials, has been selected, and we 
shall speak of these Mammals under either of these terms; it must, however, be 
constantly borne in mind that they also have the higher designation of Implacentals, 
or Metatherians, ranking with the term Placentals, or Eutherians. 

In addition to the primary distinction of the absence of a placenta, the 
Pouched Mammals present certain other more or less distinctive peculiarities. 
Mention has already been made of the general presence of a pouch, or marsupium, 
in which the abdominally-placed teats of the female are concealed; and to this it 
may be added that, with the single exception of the thylacine, the front brim of 
the pelvis always has a pair of divergent splint-like bones projecting forwards in 
the form of the letter V. These so-called marsupial bones—shown in all our 
figures of the skeletons of this group—were originally considered to be for the 
purpose of affording support to the pouch; but this view is discredited by their 
presence in both sexes. A peculiarity of the skull of all Pouched Mammals save 
one, is that the so-called angle, or lower posterior projection of the lower jaw, is 
more or less bent inwards, or inflected, as seen in the figure of the skull of Gray’s 
rat-kangaroo, given in the sequel. This peculiarity is not, however, distinctive of 
the order, since it also occurs in some of the Insectivores. The skull of every 
marsupial is further characterised by the presence of larger or smaller vacuities, or 
unossified spaces, in the bony palate. As regards their brains, it may be observed 
that all the Pouched Mammals display a low grade of organisation; the whole 
brain being small in proportion to the size of the body, while the foldings on the 
surface of its hemispheres are never of a very complex nature, and only developed 
at all in the largest members of the order. The reproductive organs of the female 
are likewise constructed after a lowly fashion; the oviducts always remaining 
perfectly separate from one another, and never uniting, as they do in so many of 
the Eutherian Mammals, to form a common chamber, or womb. 

Certain peculiarities connected with the number and mode of 
replacement of the teeth also aid in distinguishing marsupials from 
other Mammals. In the first place, as shown in the figure of the skull of the 
Tasmanian devil given later on, there may be more than three pairs of front or 


Teeth. 


GENERAL CHARACTERS. 237 


incisor teeth in the upper jaw; and in such cases the number of pairs of these 
teeth in the upper jaw always exceeds those in the lower by one. More 
important is the circumstance that but a single tooth on each side of both 
the upper and lower jaw ever has a milk 
predecessor. This tooth, marked pm in the 
accompanying figure, corresponds to the 
fourth or last premolar of the dog (Vol. I. 
p- 10); and consequently all the four teeth 
behind it are molars. Now, as we have 
already seen, it is but very rarely that there 
are more than three of these molars in 
Placental Mammals, whereas in the present 
order there are nearly always at least four. JAWS AND TEETH OF THE RUFOUS 

On the other hand, there are never more than RAT-KANGAROO. 

three premolar teeth, which in the adult of The letters 7 indicate the front or incisor teeth ; 
some forms, as in the figure, may be reduced eae Fer eaye ene een ene Dre 
to one. It may be added that, according to 

recent researches, all the teeth in advance of the last premolar appear to represent 
the milk-series of the higher Mammals, which are here permanently retained. 

Mode of ' The fact that the new-born young of the Pouched Mammals, when 
Suckling Young: first transferred to the teats of the mother, are little more than mere 
animated lumps of flesh, renders it imperative that some special arrangement 
should be made for their nutrition, as they are quite incapable of sucking by 
themselves. For this purpose the mammary gland of the female is overlain by 
certain specially-developed muscles, the periodical contraction of which injects a 
supply of milk into the stomachs of the helpless young. In order to prevent the 
young marsupials from being choked during this injecting process, their throats 
are provided with an arrangement similar to that obtaining permanently in the 
Cetaceans. That is to say, the larynx, or upper terminal expansion of the wind- 
pipe, is prolonged upwards so as to extend into the hinder aperture of the nostrils 
at the back of the palate; and consequently there is a closed tube from the nostrils 
to the lungs, on either side of which the milk can flow without danger of choking 
the young animal. When there is no longer any necessity for this special arrange- 
ment, the larynx is shortened, and respiration and swallowing are carried on after 
the usual manner. It may be added, that in the Pouched Mammals the teats are 
confined to the region of the abdomen, and that the number of teats is frequently 
greater than that of the young. Such teats as have been in use may always be 
recognised by their great elongation, owing to the weight of the young suspended 
from them. 

Geographical With the exception of the opossums, which are confined to 

Distribution. America, and are most numerously represented in the southern half 
of that continent, the living representatives of the order are restricted to 
Australia, New Guinea, and the adjacent islands as far west as Celebes and 
Lombok. Exclusive of the Egg-laying Mammals, the Marsupials form almost the 
whole Mammalian fauna of Australia, where the chief other types are certain 
Rodents and Bats. In the more western islands they are, however, mingled with 


238 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


Placental Mammals, thus showing that these islands have had some connection 
with those of the Malayan region. The channel separating Lombok and Celebes 
from Java and Borneo is, however, of much greater depth than those dividing the 
other islands; and it may accordingly be inferred that any land-connection which 
formerly existed between the two groups must have been remote. 

In the Tertiary period opossums were distributed over a large portion of 
Kurope; and recent discoveries indicate the existence during the same epoch of 
marsupials allied to the Australian thylacine in South America. In the preceding 
Secondary period, as we shall show later on, Pouched Marsupials appear to have 
ranged over the whole world, and were then, together with Egg-laying Mammals, 
the chief, if not the sole representatives of the class. 


THE KANGAROOS AND THEIR ALLIES. 
Family J/4CROPODID.Z. 


We commence our survey of the Pouched Mammals with their most aberrant 
and specialised representatives, or those commonly known as kangaroos, wallabies, 
rat-kangaroos, etc. And it may 
be mentioned here, that whereas 
kangaroos are very frequently 
spoken of as typical Marsupials, 
this is really very far from being 
the case. It is true that they con- 
form in all essential characteristics 
to the Marsupial type of structure ; 
but they have been specially 
modified for a particular kind 
of progression — namely, leaping. 
This has profoundly modified their 
whole organisation, and rendered 
them some of the most specialised 
of all Mammals; and they retain 
accordingly but little resemblance 
to what may be termed a typical, 
or generalised marsupial, such as 
a bandicoot, or thylacine. 

The kangaroos belong to a 
group or suborder of Marsupials 
characterised by the adaptation of 
their teeth to a vegetable diet. 
Thus the front, or incisor teeth, 
as shown in the figure on p. 239, 
are never more than three in 
number on each side of the jaws, and are usually three in the upper and one in 
the lower jaw; while in all cases the innermost pair in each jaw are of large size, 


SKELETON OF KANGAROO, 


KANGAROOS. 239 


and adapted for cutting. Asa rule their upper canine teeth, or tusks, are small, 
or wanting; and this invariably holds good for those of the lower jaw. As 
regards their molar teeth, these are invariably characterised by having broad, 
flattened crowns, surmounted either by tubercles or transverse ridges, and adapted 
for the trituration of vegetable substances. 

The members of the kangaroo family vary greatly in size, and in the relative 
length of the hind-limbs, but they are collectively characterised as follows. In the 
upper jaw there are three pairs of incisor teeth, with sharp and cutting edges; 
while the lower jaw is furnished with a large single pair inclining forwards, and 
sometimes biting against one another 
with a scissor-like action. The upper 
canine, or tusk, if present at all, is of 
small size, as in the accompanying 
figure ; while there is no corresponding 
lower tooth. In the adult the cheek- 
teeth are five in number on each side, 
of which the first is a premolar; this 
condition obtaining in the figured skull. 
In young animals there are, however, 
two milk-molars in place of this 
premolar; the number of cheek-teeth 
then being six on each side. The molar teeth themselves may carry either a 
pair of transverse ridges, or four blunt tubercles. A characteristic feature of 
the family is to be found in the lower jaw, which has a deep pocket in the outer 
side of the hinder portion, communicating at its base by a large perforation with 
the canal on the inner side. The pocket is shown in the accompanying figure, 
but the communicating aperture is concealed by its outer wall. In all the 
members of the family the fore-limbs are short and feebly developed, with five 
complete digits. The hind-limbs, on the contrary, are very powerful, and more 
or less elongated. Usually they have but four toes, of which the one corre- 
sponding to the fourth in the typical series of five is much larger than either of 
the others, and terminates in a huge claw. The outermost toe is considerably 
smaller, but still stout. The two toes on the inner side of the large one, corre- 
sponding to the second and third of the typical series, are, however, reduced to 
small slender rods, lying parallel to one another, and enclosed in a common 
skin. These rudimental digits are of course useless in progression, and their 
aborted condition is technically known as syndactylism. The head, especially 
in the larger forms, is small in proportion to the body, and tapers towards the 
muzzle. Generally the tail is long, cylindrical, and tapering; while it frequently 
aids in supporting the body, and may be prehensile. The female is provided with 


SKULL OF LESUEUR’S RAT-KANGAROO. 


c, tusk, or canine tooth. 


a large pouch, of which the aperture looks forwards. 

All the members of the kangaroo family are purely vegetable feeders, and are 
mainly confined to Australia and Tasmania, where, before the introduction of 
sheep and cattle, they took the place of the ruminants of other regions. They are 
divided into numerous genera, of which the first includes the true kangaroos 
and wallabies. 


240 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


THe TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES. 
Genus Macropus. 


In the summer of the year 1770, when Captain Cook was refitting his vessel 
at the mouth of the Endeavour River in New South Wales, a party of his crew 
who had landed to procure food brought back reports of a strange animal of large 
size, which sat upright on its hind-limbs and tail, and progressed by a series of 
enormous leaps. Excitement among those on board was naturally raised to the 
highest pitch by this account—especially as a naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was a 
member of the ex- 
pedition ;—and_ soon 
after a specimen of 
the animal in ques- 
tion was killed. This 
creature was the one 
we now know by the 
name of the great 
erey kangaroo (Mac- 
ropus  giganteus) ; 
and was the first 
member of the family 
which came _ fully 
under European 
notice, although one 
of the smaller forms 
from the Aru Islands 
had been partially 
made known as early 
as the year 1711. 

THE GREAT GREY KANGAROO, WITH YOUNG IN POUCH. The name kangaroo, 

it may be observed, 

is said to be of Australian origin, although it appears to be now unknown to the 
natives. The kangaroos and wallabies, which include the largest members of the 
family, are characterised by the great length and powerful development of the 
hind-limbs as compared with the front pair; and the enormous size of the tail, 
which is regularly tapering, and evenly covered with fur from end to end. In the 
hind-foot the claw of the fourth toe is enormously developed, and the first toe 
is wanting. The head is small, with an elongated and usually completely naked 
muzzle, and large upright ears. The females have four teats. The skull is 
characterised by its smooth and rounded contours, and the absence of any 
inflation in the bulla of the internal ear. The tusk in the upper jaw is minute, 
and shed at an early period; and the upper incisor teeth are of nearly equal 
length, and form a regular open curve. The lower incisor teeth have sharp inner 
edges capable of cutting against one another in a scissor-like manner; and the 
crowns of the molar teeth carry a pair of transverse ridges, which are nearly 


KANGAROOS. 241 


always connected by a longitudinal bridge. The true kangaroos and wallabies 
comprise twenty-three living species, as well as several which are extinct; and 
they are found not only in Australia and New Guinea, but also in some of the 
islands to the eastward. While the larger species are as tall as a man, the smallest 
do not exceed the dimensions of a rabbit. They may be divided into three groups, 
distinguished by size, and partly also by coloration. 

Under the common title of true kangaroos may be included all 
the larger forms, characterised by their generally uniform and sombre 
coloration, and their large and massive skulls, in which the hinder portion of the 
skull is well ossitied. The best known of all the species is the great grey kangaroo 
(ML. giganteuws)—the “boomer,” “old man,” or “ forester” of the colonists, to which 
allusion has been already made, and which is represented in the figure on p. 240. 
A full-grown male will measure 63 inches from the tip of the nose to the root 
of the tail, the length of the tail being 52 inches; while the entire animal 
will weigh some 200 lbs. This species is of rather slender and graceful 
build, with soft woolly hair, which is greyish brown above, and nearly white 
beneath on the under-parts and limbs, without any white markings on the face. 
It is further characterised by the middle of the muzzle being hairy between the 
nostrils, and also by the shortness from back to front of the permanent premolar 
tooth. It is an inhabitant of open plains, and is found over the great part of 
Australia and Tasmania. 

On the other hand, the red kangaroo (MI. rufus), represented in our coloured 
Plate, and the antelopine kangaroo (WV. antilopinus), together with certain allied 
species, are inhabitants of rocky districts, and have their muzzles completely naked, 
and the permanent premolar tooth of greater length from back to front. Their 
colours also may be more brilliant. The great red kangaroo is of slender build, 
with reddish coloured and very soft woolly fur, which corresponds to the under-fur 
of other species; the face having light markings and a black streak. This species 
inhabits South and Eastern Australia. The antelopine kangaroo, from North 
Australia, is distinguished by its massive build, and heavy, clumsy head, as well as 
by its short, coarse, straight, reddish hair, without any under-fur, and the absence 
of face-markings. It is stated to attain a weight of from 120 to upwards of 
1701bs. Another well-known species is the wallaroo (J/. robustus), from Queensland, 
New South Wales, and South Australia, in which the fur is long and thick, and of 
smoky grey colour; the build being also stout and heavy. 

Under the designation of large wallabies, or brush-kangaroos, 
may be included a group of smaller and brighter coloured species, 
distinguished by the more incomplete ossification of the hinder part of the bony 
palate, and by the third incisor tooth of the upper jaw having a single distinct 
notch near the middle of the crown. All these species frequent dense scrub-jungle, 
known in Australia as “brush”; and their leaping powers are nearly as great 
as those of the true kangaroos. One of the largest species is the red-necked 
wallaby (Mf. rujicollis), in which the length of the head and body may be as much 
as 41 inches, and that of the tail 31 inches. It occurs in New South Wales and 
Victoria, and is represented in Tasmania by a smaller variety known as Bennett's 
wallaby. Other well-known species are the black-tailed wallaby (MZ. walabatus), 

VOL. I1I.—16 


True Kangaroos. 


Large Wallabies. 


242 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


from New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland; Parry’s wallaby (JI. parry‘), 
from mountain districts in Queensland and the north of New South Wales; and 
the agile wallaby (JZ. agilis) of New Guinea, Queensland, and part of South 
Australia, distinguished from all the others by the uniform sandy colour of the 
short fur of the back, and the presence of a distinct white stripe on the hips. 

The “padamelon” wallaby of the colonists (MI. theditis), which is 
very common in New South Wales and Victoria, and measures 26 
inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail, is one of the best known representa- 
tives of the group of small wallabies, several of which are not larger than a rabbit. 
All the species are lightly built, with perfectly naked muzzles, and the outer incisor 
tooth smaller than in the last group. Their hind-feet are also relatively shorter ; 


Small Wallabies. 


THE PADAMELON WALLABY (jg nat. size). 


and their jumping powers, therefore, probably proportionately less. This group 
has a wider distribution than either of the others, the Aru Island wallaby 
(M. brunii)—the earliest known member of the family—occurring in the islands 
from which it takes its name. Other well-known species are the rufous-bellied 
rallaby (M. billardieri), from South Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania; and the 
small short-tailed wallaby (MM. brachywrus), from Western Australia; the latter 
being remarkable for the shortness of its tail, and the small size of its ears. 

As already mentioned, all the kangaroos are exclusively vegetable 
feeders, the larger kinds browsing solely on grass and other herbage, 
while many of the smaller wallabies also eat roots. Although, when feeding, 
kangaroos occasionally move about in an awkward manner on four feet, their 
habitual position is the upright one, when they are supported by the hind-limbs 
aided by the tail: and the whole structure of their skeleton is modified to suit 


Habits. 


KANGAROOS. 243 


this position. Thus, as shown in the figure of the skeleton on p. 238, the bones of 
the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are immensely elongated, while the thigh-bone 
(femur) is comparatively short, and the narrow pelvis set very obliquely to the 
axis of the back-bone. Consequently, when the animal is resting in the usual 
position, with the whole of the foot applied to the ground, the knee-joimt forms 
the summit of a solid support from which the whole body is suspended, as it were 
on pivots. The kangaroo can, however, raise itself so as to be supported only by 
the tips of the toes and the tail; and when in this position is enabled to take a 
wide survey of the country, and thus to obtain early warning of approaching 
danger. “When running,” says the Old Bushman, “it springs from the ground in 
an erect position, propelled by its powerful hind-legs and balanced by its tail, 
holding its short fore-arms well into the chest, after the manner of a professional 
runner. Thus it bounds lightly and easily along, clearing any obstacles, such as 
fallen trees, and even low fences, in its stride. I never fairly measured one of 
these strides or springs, but I am certain, when hard pressed, an ‘old man,’ or 
‘flying doe, will clear nearly ten yards at a spring. The long tail materially 
assists them in running, and its measured thumps may be heard on the ground long 
before the kangaroo itself appears in sight in the thick forest. It is a curious fact, 
that a wounded kangaroo very often breaks the hind-leg in struggling; and I once 
knew an ‘old man’ snap the bone just above the hock, as short as a carrot, in 
taking a spring.” In general habits, the writer continues, kangaroos much re- 
semble sheep and deer. “Timid and shy, their senses of sight, hearing, and smell 
are most acute. Like the hare, they appear to be unable to see an object directly 
in front of them when running ;—at least I have often stood still and shot one down 
as it came running up to me in the open forest. They are very gregarious, and are 
always to be met with in smaller or larger droves. I have often seen as many as 
one hundred and fifty in a drove, and our general ‘mobs’ used to average fifty or 
sixty. After the rutting-season, the ‘old men’ will often draw away from the 
‘mobs, and retire by themselves to the thickest scrub. Each drove frequents a 
certain district, and has its own particular camping and feeding-grounds. ‘The 
‘mobs’ do not appear to mix, and when the shooter once obtains a knowledge of 
the country, he has no difficulty in planting himself for a shot. Their camping- 
grounds are generally on some open timbered rise, and they have well-trodden 
runs from one ground to another. They feed early in the morning and at twilight, 
and I think also much at night. The kangaroo lies up by day, during the hot 
summer weather, in damp, thickly-scrubbed gullies; in the winter, on dry, sandy 
rises. Here, unless disturbed, they will remain quiet for hours; and it is a pretty 
sight to watch a ‘mob’ camped up, some of them playing with each other, some 
quietly nibbling the young shrubs and grass, or basking in the sun half asleep on 
their sides. About Christmas the young ones appear to leave their mothers’ sides, 
and congregate in ‘mobs’ by themselves; I have seen as many as fifty running 
together, and very pretty they looked.” When on the move, kangaroos invariably 
follow a leader; and when once started, it is impossible to divert a drove from the 
direction they have taken. Except during the pairing-season, when the males 
engage in fierce contests, these animals are as peaceful and harmless as sheep. 
When hard pressed, a kangaroo will take readily to the water: and there is an 


244 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


instance on record of one swimming across an arm of the sea two miles in width, — 
half of the distance being against a strong wind and current. 

The writer just quoted states that the principal food of kangaroos “appears to 
be the tender sprouts of small shrubs and heather, quite as much as grass; but 
there is a small kind of spike-grass, brown on the under-side, called the kangaroo- 
grass, to which they are very partial. They will also come at night into the small 
bush-enclosures, and nibble off the young blades of wheat, oats, ete.” When 
feeding off the ground, they do not always use the fore-paws as a support, but 
often merely crouch down. Occasionally they may be seen in the upright position, 
browsing from trees. As regards breeding-habits, it appears that in the great grey 
kangaroo the pairing-season is either in January or February, although there 1s 
some irregularity in this respect. Only a single young is produced at a birth, after 
an exceedingly short period of gestation; and when first transferred to the pouch 
of its mother, the length of the offspring is scarcely more than an inch. When the 
young kangaroo is sufficiently developed to move freely by itself, it becomes 
detached from the teat to which it at first adhered; but it remains chiefly in the 
pouch till able to run by the side of its parent. “Even then, when danger is near, 
it tumbles head-over-heels into the pouch for protection; and it is wonderful how 
quickly the old doe can pick up the ‘joey’ when running at full speed, and shove 
it into the pouch, its pretty little face always outside. There she carries it till 
hard pressed, when the love of life overcomes the love of the mother, and she then 
casts it away to save herself.” The “joeys” become strong runners; and by 
Christmas, leave their parents and learn to shift for themselves. 

The half-dozen medium-sized species collectively known as rock- 
wallabies, one of which is represented in the accompanying illustra- 
tion have the extremity of the muzzle completely naked, and differ from the true 
wallabies by the shortness of the claw of the fourth hind-toe, and also by the long 
cylindrical tail being thinner and more or less distinctly tufted at its extremity. 
None of them have any trace of a tusk in the upper jaw. The yellow-footed 
rock-wallaby (Petrogale wanthopus)—that given in our figure—is the largest 
species, and is distinguished from the rest by its brilliant coloration, more 
especially the alternate brown and pale yellow rings on the tail. The general 
colour of the long and silky fur is grey on the back, with a well-defined black 
streak running from between the long ears to the middle of the trunk. The 
cheeks are marked by an oblique white stripe below the eye, and by a yellow spot 
above the same. The ears are yellow externally, with their inner sides edged 
with white, except at the tips; and the sides of the body are marked by a pure 
white stripe from the elbow to the hip. The chin and under-parts are also pure 
white; and there is likewise a patch of the same colour on the outer side of the 
knee; while the lower portions of the limbs, including the feet, are yellow. On 
the tail the rings occupy only the upper surface, the inferior aspect being uniformly 
yellowish. This species is restricted to South Australia. The common brush- 
tailed rock-wallaby (P. penicillata), from the coast districts of the eastern side of 
the continent, is more soberly coloured; the general tint of the coarse hair being 
dull brown, tending to rufous on the hind-quarters. In the male, the length of 
the head and body reachés 28} inches; and that of the tail, exclusive of the hair 


. 
“ 


Rock-Wallabies. 


WALLABIES. 245 


at the tip, 24 inches. The remaining four species are all smaller; the north- 
western short-eared rock-wallaby (P. brachyotis) being distinguished by the 
character from which it takes its name. The whole of the rock-wallabies are 
confined to continental Australia, and, as their name implies, frequent rocky 
districts, whereas the true wallabies are plain-dwelling animals. Their tails lack 
the stiffness of those of the latter, and appear to be used rather in balancing the 
body when leaping, than as a third support. The brush-tailed rock-wallaby, 


YELLOW-FOOTED ROCK-WALLABY (5 nat. size). 


according to Gould, collects in large flocks, and forms regular well-beaten tracks 
on the mountain-sides. 

Spur-tailed Three species of wallaby differ from all other mammals, with 

Wallabies. the single exception of the lion, in having the extreme tip of the tail 
furnished with a horny spur or nail, the use of which is at present unknown. 
They are further distinguished by the hairy muzzle, by the length and narrowness 
of the fourth toe of the hind-foot, and by the length of the tapering tail, on which 
the hair is short. The upper incisor teeth are relatively small, and decrease in size 
from the first to the third. They are all of moderate or small size, with short hair, 
and are some of the most graceful members of the family. The nail-tailed wallaby 
(Onychogale wnguifera) is of a general fawn-colour, and distinguished by the great 
length of the tail, and the large size of its terminal nail; the length of the head 
and body being 26 inches, and that of the tail an inch more. It is a rare species 


246 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


from North-Western and North-Central Australia. The bridled wallaby 
(O. frenata) and the crescent wallaby (0. lwnata) are smaller species, with relatively 
shorter tails; the former inhabiting Eastern, and the latter, which is not larger 
than a rabbit, West and South Australia. All the species appear to frequent rocky 
and arid districts. 

The hare-wallabies, so called from their resemblance in size, 
and in some respects appearance, to the common hare, likewise form 
a group of three species exclusively confined to Australia. They are characterised 
by the muzzle being partially or completely covered with hair, by the claw of 
the fourth toe of the hind-foot bemg long and not concealed by hair, while the 
tail is rather short and evenly furred, without either a brush of hair or a spur 


Hare-Wallabies. 


THE COMMON HARE-WALLABY (} nat. size). 


at the tip. Their skulls are characterised by the shortness of the interval between 
the incisor and cheek-teeth; and by the inflation of the auditory bulla on the 
inferior surface—the latter feature at once distinguishing these animals from the 
true wallabies. The upper tusk is always present; and the incisor teeth in the 
same jaw are small. 

Our illustration represents the common hare-wallaby (Lagorchestes leporoides), 
from South Australia and New South Wales, which measures 19% inches to the 
root of the tail; and is clad in fur closely resembling that of the common hare 
in general colour. This species is fairly abundant in the open country of the 
interior, more especially near the Murray River. Its habits are in many respects 
very similar to those of the hare. 

The West Australian rufous hare-wallaby (Z. hirsutus), distinguished by the 
ruddy tinge of the hair on the rump, and the absence of a black patch on the 


TREE-KANGAROOS. 247 


elbow, appears to be very similar in its habits. In the north of the continent, and 
on some of the small adjacent islands, the genus is represented by the spectacled 
hare-wallaby (Z. conspicillatus), distinguished by its broader and heavier muzzle, 
shorter ears, the rufous tinge round the eyes; and the presence of two light bands 
on the flanks. 

Miiller’s kangaroo (Dorcopsis mueller’) is one of a group of 
three Papuan species connecting the true kangaroos with the under- 
mentioned tree-kangaroos. They are medium-sized animals, the length of the 
head and body in Miiller’s kangaroo being about four inches greater than in the 
brush-tailed rock-wallaby ; while in D. luctuosa it is about as much less. These 
kangaroos differ from the forms hitherto noticed in that the hair on the nape of 
the neck is either completely or partially directed forwards ; while the dispro- 
portion between the fore and hind-limbs is very much less marked. The large 
and broad muzzle is devoid of hairs, the ears are small, the tail has an almost 
naked tip, and the claws of the hind-feet are not concealed by hair. The teeth 
are distinguished by the great length, from front to back, of the permanent 
premolar in each jaw, which has a development similar to that which obtains in 
the potoroos. There is a well-developed upper tusk; and the molar teeth have 
low, rounded crowns, in which there is scarcely any trace of a longitudinal bridge 
connecting the two transverse ridges. Moreover, instead of converging at their 
extremities, the two series of cheek-teeth run nearly, or quite parallel. Miiller’s 
kangaroo has short, close, and glossy fur, of a general uniform chocolate-brown ; 
but with a white stripe on the front of the hips, and the fore-arms and feet 
whitish. Externally this animal presents a remarkable resemblance to the Aru 
Island Wallaby (Macropus bruit). 

In the dense tropical forests of New Guinea and the north of 
Queensland are found tree-kangaroos; and it is evident that these are 
specially modified types which have taken to this mode of life, and are in no 
way connected with the ancestral forms of the family. The tree-kangaroos are 
easily recognised by the general proportions of the two pairs of limbs to the body 
being normal: the length of the front pair being only slightly less than that of the 
hinder. The broad muzzle is only partially naked; and the hair of the nape, and 
in one species that of the back also, is directed forwards. In the hind feet the 
claws of the united second and third toes are nearly as large as those of the others ; 
the latter being curved. The tail is very long, and thickly furred. In the teeth, 
the permanent premolar is less elongated from front to back than in the last 
genus. Of the four well-defined representatives of the genus, the figured black 
tree-kangaroo of New Guinea (Dendrolagus wrsinus) is characterised by its general 
black colour and whitish face; the length of the head and body of the female being 
203 inches, and that of the tail 23 inches. On the other hand, the brown tree- 
kangaroo (D. inustus) of New Guinea, and the Queensland tree-kangaroo (D. 
lumholtzi), have the back greyish, and the face (and in the Queensland species the 
paws) black. Finally, Doria’s tree-kangaroo (D. dorianus), of south-eastern New 
Guinea, differs from all the others in having the fur of the back directed forwards. 

Comparatively little is known of any of the species in their native haunts; 
although it appears that they spend most of their time in the trees. Dr. 


Dorca Kangaroos. 


Tree-Kangaroos. 


248 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


Guillemard, who had two of these animals alive on board ship, which he had 
captured in New Guinea, writes that the tree-kangaroo “is as yet a tyro in the 
art of climbing, performing this operation in the slowest and most awkward 
manner. Our pets, for instance, would take a full minute or more in ascending the 
back of a chair, but their hold is most secure; and if we wished to pull them off, 
we had considerable difficulty in doing so, so tightly do they cling.” It is added 
that the tail, although not actually prehensile, is pressed against the branches in 
climbing, and appears to be of considerable assistance. Of the Queensland species, 


yi 
WS 


ant 
SS 


WHY 


W/L Z 
Ne 9 UM TT 
Wei” ng i \ 


sil 
K( AN wr 


THE BLACK TREE-KANGAROO (1 nat. size). 


locally known as the bungari, Dr. Lumholtz, its discoverer, writes that it frequents 
the densest and most inaccessible portions of the highest mountainous scrubs, where 
even the aborigines are scarcely able to penetrate. From the marks of its claws on 
the trees of the more open districts, the animal appeared to have been once common 
there, but is now nearly exterminated by the blacks. When disturbed, these 
kangaroos are stated to travel considerable distances; and they are also reported 
by the blacks to be most commonly seen abroad on moonlight nights. Two or 
three are often found sleeping in the same tree; and it is stated that they affect 
only one particular kind of tree, which grows to a considerable height. In rainy 
weather, lower trees are selected. 


RAT-KANGAROOS. 249 


The little banded wallaby (Lagostrophus fasciatus), of Western 
Australia, which is about the size of a hare, and is easily recognised 
by the dark transverse bands crossing the hind-quarters, forms the single re- 
presentative of a genus. It is specially characterised by the presence of long 
bristly hairs on the hind-feet, which completely conceal the claws. The muzzle 
is naked; and the ears are small and rounded. The skull is characterised by 
its narrow muzzle, and inflated auditory bulla; while there is no tusk, the two 
series of upper incisor teeth meet in an angle, and the two halves of the lower 
jaw are welded together at their union. These pretty little wallabies inhabit the 
serub-jungle and the margins of swamps on the west coast of Australia and the 
small adjacent islands. On the islands they form tunnels beneath the dense bushes 
by gnawing off the lower branches on certain lines; and they can only be beaten 
out from their cover by the aid of dogs. On the mainland they are said to skulk 
in the open like hares. 

The whole of the members of the family hitherto considered 
form a single subfamily primarily characterised by the circumstance 
that the three incisor teeth of the upper jaw are of nearly equal height, while the 
tusk, or canine tooth, if present at all, is very minute. We now come to a second 
group or subfamily, including a number of small forms known as rat-kangaroos 
or potoroos, which differ in many important respects from the preceding. These 
creatures, none of which are larger than an ordinary rabbit, are characterised by 
having the first incisor tooth on each side of the upper jaw (as shown in the figures 
on pp. 237 and 239) considerably taller than either of the others, and narrow and 
eurved in form; while there is always a rather large and blunted upper tusk. 
Then, again, whereas in the preceding subfamily, with the exception of Miiller’s 
kangaroo and its allies, the permanent premolar tooth is comparatively short from 
front to back, in the group under consideration the same tooth, as shown in the 
aforesaid figures, is much elongated in this direction, and has a straight cutting- 
edge, and its two surfaces generally marked by vertical grooves and ridges. 
Sometimes, moreover, the same tooth may be bent slightly outwards, instead of 
forming a continuation of the line of the molars. The latter have blunt tubercles 
at their four angles, instead of complete transverse ridges; and the last of the 
series is, instead of being larger, always smaller than the one in front of it. The 
rat-kangaroos are further distinguished by their narrow fore-feet, in which the 
three middle toes are much longer than the other two, with long, narrow, and 
slightly-curved claws; whereas in the broader front paws of the preceding group, 
the whole five toes are nearly equal in length, and have highly-curved claws. All 
the rat-kangaroos have small rounded ears, and long furry tails, of which the 
extremities are partially prehensile in some of the species. Externally, the rat- 
kangaroos cannot well be distinguished in general appearance from some of the 
smaller short-eared representatives of the preceding group; and it is accordingly 
of prime importance that the foregoing distinctive characteristics should be 
thoroughly understood. The group comprises nine species, which are confined to 
Australia and Tasmania, and are divided into four genera. 

Common Rat- The common rat-kangaroo (Potorous tridactylus), that figured in 
Kangaroo. the illustration on the following page, may be taken as our representa- 


Banded Wallaby. 


Rat-Kangaroos. 


250 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


tive of the first of the four genera. The distinctive characters of the genus being 
the long and slender form of the head, the few (three or four) perpendicular ridges 
on the permanent premolar tooth in both jaws, the shortness of the foot, the naked 
muzzle, and the rather large ears. In the skull the auditory bulla is somewhat 
swollen, and the unossified spaces in the palate are large. The figured species. 
which is the largest of its genus, is confined to Eastern Australia and Tasmania, 
and is variable both in size and colour; the length is, however, frequently about 
15 inches, exclusive of the tail. It is specially characterised by the great elonga- 
tion of the muzzle; the general colour of the coarse, long, and straight hair being 
dark grizzled greyish brown, with a more or less marked tinge of rufous. The 


v- 
yl! 
j pce reLodige Ve 


COMMON RAT-KANGAROO (4 nat. size). 


West Australian P. gilberti is a smaller allied form; while P. platyops, from the 
same side of the continent, is still smaller, and has a broader and shorter muzzle. 
Brush-tailed The brush-tailed rat-kangaroo (Bettongia penicillata), repre- 
Rat-Kangaroo. sented in the figure on p. 251, appears to be the commonest and 
most widely spread of the group, and is one of four species having the following 
characteristics in common. The head is comparatively short and wide, with very 
small and rounded ears, and a naked muzzle; the foot is elongated; and the 
permanent premolar tooth (figure on p. 237) is characterised by its numerous 
(fourteen or fifteen) and slightly oblique ridges. The tail is thickly furred, with 
the hairs longer on the upper than on the lower surface, and somewhat prehensile. 
In the skull the auditory bulla is generally much swollen; and the unossified 
spaces in the palate are large. The figured species is a somewhat smaller animal 
than the common rat-kangaroo; and is characterised by the great development of 
the tuft of hair on the upper surface of the end of the tail, of which the under 
surface is brown. It inhabits nearly all Australia, but is replaced in Tasmania by 
the much larger jerboa-kangaroo (B. cuniculus), in which the tail-tuft is scarcely 
developed. Lesueur’s rat-kangaroo (B. leswewr?), of which the skull is figured on 
p. 239, is a South and West Australian species distinguished from the one here 
figured by the small size of the tail-tuft, which is almost always white at the tip. 


RAT-KANGAROOS. 251 


The plain rat-kangaroo (Calopryminus campestris) of South Australia, differs from 
the foregoing by the naked portion of the muzzle extending somewhat less back- 
wardly on the nose, and the absence of any crest or tuft of hair on the tail; and 
on these and other grounds it is made the type of a distinct genus. 

Rufous Rat- The largest member of the group is the rufous rat-kangaroo 

Kangaroo. (Hpyprymnus rufescens), of New South Wales, distinguished from 
all the others by the partially hairy muzzle, and the unusually broad and short 
head; the tail being evenly furred. The permanent premolar tooth in each jaw 
has a medium number (seven to eight) of vertical ridges; and the skull is 
characterised by the absence of any unossified spaces on the palate, and the 


BRUSH-TAILED RAT-KANGAROO (2 nat. size). 


unswollen auditory bulla. The head and body of this species may measure as 
much as 20 inches, and the tail about 4 inches less. The general colour of the long 
and soft fur is bright rusty red on the upper-parts, more or less pencilled with 
white; while the under-parts are dirty white, and the ears black. 

wei Although the different groups of rat-kangaroos vary to a certain 
extent in habits, the whole of them agree in being nocturnal, and in 
feeding not only on leaves, grass, ete., but likewise on roots and bulbs, which are 
grubbed up with the fore-paws. They generally frequent scrub-jungle, and get up 
before the sportsman after the manner of rabbits. Usually but a single young is 
produced at a birth; and, as appears to be the case with all Marsupials, there is 
not more than one birth during the year. In accordance with the reduced size of 
their hind-feet, the leaping powers of the common rat-kangaroo are less developed 
than those of the other genera. It is stated, indeed, that although these species 
habitually stand on their hind-limbs alone, when running they employ both pairs 


252 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


of limbs in a kind of gallop. Moreover, they never kick out with their hind-legs 
after the manner of kangaroos and wallabies. The brush-tailed rat-kangaroo and 
its kindred employ their prehensile tails carrying grass and other substances for 
the construction of their nests; the extremity of the tail bemg curled downwards 
below the bundle. The nest, according to Mr. Gould, is made in a hollow specially 
dug in the ground for its reception; and as its upper surface thus becomes level 
with the herbage, only the practised eyes of the blacks are able to detect its 
presence. During the day either one or two of these animals occupy a nest, in 
which they completely conceal themselves by dragging herbage over the entrance. 
Here they remain till evening, when they sally forth in quest of food. The rufous 
rat-kangaroo may either form a somewhat similar nest beneath a fallen tree-trunk, 
or under the shelter of some low bush, or may repose during the day in a seat 
among the herbage like the “form” of a hare. On being pursued, this species 
runs for a short distance with great speed, but as it always takes shelter in 
hollow trunks it falls a prey to the blacks, by whom it is relished as food. 

Five-toed The rat-like little animal, scientifically known as Hypsiprym- 

Kangaroo. = jodon moschatus, and which may be termed in popular language 
the five-toed kangaroo, is one of those connecting lnks so interesting to the 
evolutionist, but so extremely inconvenient to the systematic zoologist. This 
creature stands, indeed, almost exactly midway between the common rat-kangaroo 
and the phalangers, to be immediately mentioned; although the kangaroo-like 
structure of its lower jaw has led to its being placed in the present family. 

The five-toed kangaroo is confined to Queensland, and is very nearly the size 
of a large rat, to which it also presents a general external resemblance. The body 
is clothed with close, crisp, velvety fur, of a grizzled rusty orange-grey colour; the 
orange tinge being strongest on the back, and almost disappearing on the lighter 
under-parts. The head is sharply pointed, with rather large and nearly naked 
ears; and the tapering cylindrical black tail is likewise naked, and also sealy. 
The relative proportions of the fore and hind-limbs are not far removed from the 
ordinary mammalian type. The fore-paws are small, with five toes, each provided 
with a delicate claw; and the hind-feet ditfer from those of all the other members 
of the family in having a first or “great” toe, in addition to the usual four. This 
first toe is clawless and opposable to the others, and is placed high up on the foot, 
near the heel; the second and third toes, as in all the other members of the family, 
are slender and united in a common skin. The teeth generally resemble those of 
the rat-kangaroos, but the permanent premolar in each jaw is short from front to 
back, and is bent outwards from the line of the other teeth in the manner char- 
acteristic of the phalangers. 

The best description of the habits of the animal is the one given by Mr. P. 
Ramsay, who writes that the five-toed kangaroo “inhabits the dense and damp 
portions of the scrubs which fringe the rivers and clothe the sides of the coast- 
range in certain districts. The animal is by no means rare, yet, from its retiring 
habits, and the dense nature of the parts frequented by it, it is at all times 
difficult to obtain. Its habits are chiefly diurnal, and its actions when not dis- 
turbed by no means ungraceful; it progresses in much the same way as_ the 
rat-kangaroos, but procures its food by turning over the débris in the scrubs in 


PHALANGERS. 253 


search of insects, worms, and tuberose roots, frequently eating the palm-berries, 
which it holds in its fore-paws after the manner of the phalangers, sitting up on 
its haunches, or sometimes digging the bandicoots. Seldom more than one or two 
are found together, unless accompanied by the young.” It is added that, at least 
in some instances, there are two young at a birth; and that the breeding-season 
is during the rains, which last from February to May. 


EXTINCT KANGAROO-LIKE MARSUPIALS. 


In addition to those of several of the existing species of kangaroos, wallabies, 
and rat-kangaroos, the caverns and superficial deposits of Australia contain 
numerous remains of kangaroos, or kangaroo-like types, some of which attained 
gigantic dimensions. 
One of these (Mac- 
ropus titan) was 
allied to the great 
grey kangaroo, but 
of larger size; while 
others, as MW. brehus, 
appear to have been 
gigantic — wallabies, 
with skulls of as 
much as a foot in 
length. Other species, 
distinguished by the 
characters of their 


permanent premolar SKULL OF AN EXTINCT KANGAROO-LIKE ANIMAL (THE DIPROTODON).— 
After Sir R. Owen. 


teeth, or by the bony 
union of the lower jaw, constitute extinct genera, which have been named 
Sthenwrus, Procoptodon, and the Palorchestes ; the skull of the single representa- 
tive of the latter measuring upwards of 16 inches in length. 

All the above-mentioned types may be included in the Kangaroo family, but 
there were other forms which cannot be included in any existing group. Largest 
of these is the gigantic diprotodon, with a skull of about a yard in length, huge 
chisel-like first upper incisor teeth, and no perforation in the side of the lower jaw. 
This creature, which must have been fully as large as the largest rhinoceros, 
evidently walked on all four limbs in the ordinary manner. Another allied but 
somewhat smaller animal was the notothere, characterised by its extremely short 
skull; it appears to have been to some extent intermediate between the kangaroos 
and the wombats. 


THE PHALANGER TRIBE. 
Family PHALANGERID. 


Under the general term of phalangers—a name referring to the union of the 
second and third toes of the hind-foot—may be included a large number of small 


254 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


or medium-sized Australasian marsupials of arboreal habits, which are so closely 
connected with the kangaroo tribe through the five-toed kangaroo as to render the 
distinction between the two families a matter of some difficulty. 

The whole of these animals are characterised by their thick, woolly coats; 
and, with the single exception of the koala, they have long tails, which are 
frequently endowed with the power of prehension. The fore and hind-limbs 
instead of presenting the disproportionate relative lengths characterising most of 
the kangaroos, are of the normal proportions; and the front paws are provided 
with five nearly equal-sized and clawed toes. The structure of the hind-feet is 
essentially the same as in the five-toed kangaroo; that is to say, there is a nailless 
first toe which can be opposed to the others, while the second and third are slender 
and enclosed in a common skin. Whereas, however, in the five-toed kangaroos the 
fourth toe is much longer and more powerful than all the others, in the phalangers 
it is not much larger than the fifth. The whole group differs from the kangaroos 
in the absence of any pit on the outer sides of the hinder portion of the lower jaw, 
as shown in the accompanying 
figure of the skeleton; while if 
there is any perforation in this 
portion of the jaw, it is extremely 
minute. As regards the dentition, 
there are always three pairs of 
upper incisor teeth, of which the 
first is elongated, and likewise a 
well-developed tusk or canine; 
while in the lower jaw the single 
functional pair of incisors are large and pointed, although they lack the scissor-like 
action characterising those of the kangaroos. In the adults there are usually five 
functional cheek -teeth, of which the last four are molars, and the other the 
permanent premolar. The premolar in each jaw has a tall cutting crown, set 
obliquely to the line of the molars; while the latter, of which the fourth may be 
absent, have usually blunt tubercles on their crowns, although they may be of a 
cutting type. In young animals there are two milk-molars in advance of the first 
molar in each jaw; and between the first of these and the functional front teeth 
there occur several minute teeth mm each jaw, very variable in number and quite 
useless, which it is impossible to name correctly, several of these rudimentary 
teeth usually persisting throughout life. While some of the phalangers are mainly 
or exclusively herbivorous, others are more or less omnivorous; and it is in this 
family alone among Marsupials that we meet with species endowed with the power 
of spurious flight. 

Long-snouted The elegant little creature known as the long-snouted phalanger 

Phalanger. (Tarsipes rostratus), may be compared in form and size to the com- 
mon shrew ; and is the sole representative of a special subfamily of the phalangers. 
In spite, however, of this superficial resemblance to a shrew, the creature is a true 
marsupial, the female having a well-developed pouch for the young. Externally, 
the most characteristic feature of this animal is the extremely long and pointed 
muzzle, im which the opening of the mouth is very small. From this tiny mouth 


SKELETON AND JAWS OF PHALANGER. 


PHALANGERS. 255 


can be protruded at will a long, slender, and highly extensile tongue, sharply 
pointed at its extremity. The rather small ears are rounded and clothed with 
very short hairs; and the beady black eyes are small and prominent. The feet 
are of the same general type as in the typical phalangers; but from the small 
size of their nails, which are mostly embedded in fleshy parts, they appear more 
adapted for grasping small twigs than for ascending tree-trunks. The tail shghtly 


THE LONG-SNOUTED PHALANGER (% nat. size),—After Gould. 


exceeds the length of the head and body, and is cylindrical and tapering, with 
but a scanty clothing of extremely short hairs, and endowed with prehensile 
power. The fur is short, close, and somewhat coarse. The colour is subject to 
considerable individual variation, but its general tint is grey, more or less suffused 
with rusty red above and yellow beneath. A black line runs from the head along 
the middle of the back to the root of the tail; and on either side of this line are 
two greyish bands, each bordered by a rusty brown stripe passing imperceptibly 
into the rufous of the flanks. The upper part of the head is brown, passing into 


256 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


rufous on the sides of the face. Although the central pair of lower incisors are 
relatively large and well- developed, all the other teeth, of which the number is 
very variable, are simply conical, and placed at considerable intervals apart. This 
rudimentary condition of the teeth, together with the peculiar characters of the 
tongue and mouth, clearly indicate that the creature is a very specialised member 
of the family. 

The long-snouted phalanger is an inhabitant of Western Australia, 
where it is known to the natives as the tait. Although in some 
districts stated to be very rare, in others it appears to be far from uncommon ; its 
favourite resorts being low scrubby bushes. It is strictly nocturnal; and 
constructs its nests in the taller plants and shrubs, among the branches of which 
it climbs in search of its favourite food, honey. This food is procured by thrusting 
the long extensile tongue into the cups of the flowers; and as nearly all the 
Australian flowering plants are honey-yielders, it is obtainable at all seasons. 

With the beautiful animals commonly known by the name of 
cuscus, one of which (Phalanger maculatus) is represented in the 
accompanying figure, we come to the first generic group of the typical phalangers, 
which present the general characteristics noticed under the heading of the family. 
The members of the present genus are relatively large or medium-sized animals, 
with thick woolly coats and long prehensile tails, of which the terminal portion 
is completely naked. Their ears are short or of medium length, invariably covered 
with hair externally, and sometimes also on their inner surface. In the fore-feet 
the toes are of nearly equal length, and furnished with long, stout, and curved 
claws; while the soles of both fore and hind-feet are naked and striated, with 
several large and ill-defined fleshy pads. The crowns of the molar teeth have 
four cusps; of which the outer pair in those of the upper jaw are somewhat com- 
pressed from side to side. 

Altogether there are five different species of cuscus, mostly of about the size 
of a large cat; and among these the spotted cuscus herewith figured is by far the 
handsomest. In the male of this-species the ground-colour of the fur of the back 
is usually a dirty yellowish white, marked with numerous irregular blotchings of 
reddish brown and black; the chin and under-parts being white, often tinged with 
yellow or red, and the head or limbs grey or reddish. There is, however, great 
individual variation, some specimens being almost uniformly grey or red. The 
smaller female (as shown on the right side of our figure) is generally of a uniform 
grey and black above, and white beneath, although sometimes red. A much more 
sober-hued animal is the black cuscus (P. wrsinus), of Celebes, in which the fur is 
of a uniform black or dark brown colour, with the exception of that on the inside 
of the ears, which is white. 

With the exception of the spotted species, which ranges to North Australia, 
the cuscuses are mainly confined to the islands of the Indo-Malayan region, as far 
westwards as Celebes. Only the spotted cuscus and one other species are even 
found in New Guinea; and they are the sole Old World Marsupials occurring to 
the westward of that island. The grey cuscus (P. orientalis), of Amboyna, Timor, 
and some of the smaller islands, was the first Australasian mammal known in 
Kurope, having been discovered and described as far back as the year 1611. 


Habits. 


The Cuscuses. 


CUSCUSES. 257 


All the species of cuscus are dull and sleepy creatures by day, but become 
more active at night, which is their chief feeding-time ; the comparatively large 
size of their eyes being in accordance with nocturnal habits. Mr. Wallace writes 
that these animals “live in trees, feeding upon the leaves, of which they devour 
large quantities. They move about slowly, and are difficult to kill, owing to the 
thickness of their fur, and their tenacity of life. A heavy charge of shot will 


THE SPOTTED CUSCUS (4 nat. size). 


often lodge in the skin and do them no harm, and even breaking the spine or 
piercing the brain will not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere eat 
their flesh, and as their motions are so slow, easily catch them by climbing, so that 
it is wonderful they have not been exterminated. It may be, however, that their 
dense woolly fur protects them from birds of prey, and the islands they live in are 
too thinly inhabited for man to be able to exterminate them.” These animals 
appear to be nowhere common, and in most parts of their habitat are very rare. 
In addition to leaves and fruit, they will catch and eat birds and other small 
VOL. I11.—17 


258 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


animals, and are indeed reported to be nore carnivorously inclined than any of the 
other members of the family. They frequent only forests containing large trees, 
and pass from the boughs of one tree to another after the manner of squirrels, 
sometimes swinging themselves by the tail in order to reach a branch which would 
otherwise be inaccessible. There are four teats in the pouch of the female, which 
usually contains from two to four young; and it is said that a female is never 
killed without at least one being in the pouch. So tightly do the young adhere 
to the nipples, that they cannot be torn away without causing blood to flow. 

The True The true phalangers (Z’richosurus), of which there are two 

Phalangers. species, from Australia and Tasmania, where, in common with the 
members of the next genus, they are called opossums, are reacily distinguished from 
the cuscuses by the character of their tails. Thus, instead of being tapering and 
naked for about half its length, this appendage is thickly covered with bushy hair 
up to its very tip, which, together with a narrow line on the lower surface extending 
about a third of the length, is alone naked. The ears are more or less hairy behind ; 
and there is also hair on the hind-feet behind the heel. The relative lengths 
of the toes of the fore-feet are somewhat different from those obtaining in the 
cuscuses; and there is also a gland on the chest not found in the latter. The 
common phalanger (Z’richoswrus vulpecula) is one of the most abundant animals 
in Australia, where it is found everywhere in forest-regions, with the excep- 
tion of the Cape York peninsula; it is represented by a variety in Tasmania. 
Deriving its specific name from its general resemblance in size and form to a 
small fox, it is especially characterised by its comparatively long and narrow 
ears, in which the length considerably exceeds the width. In the ordinary form 
the general colour of the soft and close fur is grey above and yellowish white 
beneath; the ears being white, and the tail black. In the larger and stouter-built 
Tasmanian variety the fur is longer, and of a more decided brown or rufous colour, 
with little or no white on the ears. The short-eared phalanger (7. caninus), of 
Queensland and New South Wales, comes very close to the latter variety, from 
which it differs by its short and rounded ears. 

While the common phalanger inhabits forests, the short-eared species 
frequents scrub-jungle; but in other respects the habits of the two are prob- 
ably very similar, both being purely nocturnal creatures. During the daytime 
the common species lies securely curled up in some hole in a giant gum-tree, but 
soon after sundown issues forth to prowl in search of food, and remains abroad 
until the laughing jackass commences its morning notes. Leaves—especially 
those of the peppermint-gum—constitute their chief food; but their diet is 
occasionally varied with the flesh of a bird. In their movements among the 
forest trees they are very nimble; and they are much aided in their evolutions 
by their highly prehensile tails. They utter, especially during the pairing- 
season, a loud, chattering ery, which echoes far through the forest. stillness. 
The female phalanger gives birth to one or two young, which are retained for a 
long period in the pouch, but afterwards cling to the back of their parent till able 
to shift for themselves, 

Crescent-Toothed Very similar in external appearance to the true phalangers are a 
Fhalangers. group of ten species, which, from the peculiar structure of their 


PHALANGERS. 259 


molars may be termed crescent-toothed phalangers. Externally they differ from 
the preceding group by the tail being tapering, and having shorter hair on its 
terminal third and under surface than elsewhere, with the lower surface of the 
tip naked for a short distance. There is, moreover, no gland on the chest ; and 
the two inner toes of the front paw are very markedly opposable to the other 
three. In addition to certain features in the skull, these phalangers are readily 
distinguished from the last by having the whole four cusps on their upper molar 
teeth distinctly crescent-shaped; thus simulating those of the ancestors of the 
Ruminant Ungulates. 

These phalangers inhabit Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea; and are 
divided into two groups each containing five species. In the first group, as represented 


Ailey 


Sos 


COMMON PHALANGER. 


by the Herbert River phalanger (Pseudochirus herbertensis), and the widely spread 
ring-tailed phalanger (P. peregrinus), first discovered by Captain Cook, the ears 
are of medium length, and longer than broad, while the tail is tipped with white. 
This group is confined to Australia and Tasmania. In the second group, on the 
other hand, the ears are very short, and wider than long; while, with one exception, 
the tail is not white at the tip. The exceptional species is Archer’s phalanger 
(P. archeri), of Queensland, which is the only representative of the group found 
of New Guinea. Consequently, all the Australian crescent-toothed phalangers are 
distinguished from those of Papua by their white tail-tips. 
Great Flying- The flying representatives of this family belong to three groups, 
Phalanger. severally allied to as many non-volant types. The largest of these 
forms is the great or taguan flying-phalanger (Petawroides volans), of Queensland 
and Victoria, which is the sole representative of its genus, and appears indeed to 
be nothing more than a crescent-toothed phalanger which has acquired a flying- 


260 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


membrane ; being like it in skull and teeth, while the tail, which is prehensile, is 
similarly naked on the under surface of the tip. The flying-membrane extends 
from the wrist to the ankle, but is reduced to a narrow strip on the fore-arm and 
lower leg. In size this species may measure as much as 20 inches to the root 
of the tail. It is characterised by its large and thickly-haired ears and long silky 
coat; its general colour being blackish brown with white beneath. 
Striped The striped phalanger (Dactylopsila trivirgata), ranging from 

Phalanger. New Guinea to Queensland, together with a second Papuan species 
(D. palpator), represent a non-flying genus, agreeing with the two last in having 
the under surface of the tip of the tail naked, but distinguished by having the 
fourth toe of the fore-foot much longer than either of the others. These 
phalangers, which are of medium size, are, moreover, easily distinguished from 
their kindred by the back being ornamented with broad longitudinal stripes of 
black and white. Although nothing definite is known as to their habits, it is 
probable that the elongated fourth digit of the fore-paw is for the purpose of 
extracting insects and grubs from beneath the bark, or out of holes in trees. 

True Flying- The true flying-phalangers (Petawrus), of which there are two 

Phalangers. exclusively Australian species, and one common to Australia and New 
Guinea, are small or medium-sized forms, closely allied to Leadbeater’s phalanger, 
noticed below. They are readily distinguished from the preceding groups by the 
tail being evenly bushy to its extreme tip, without any naked portion, and not 
prehensile. The flying-membrane is broad, and extends from the outermost toe 
of the fore-foot to the ankle. The best known species is the squirrel flying- 
phalanger (Petawrus sciureus)—the sugar-squirrel of the colonists—which is the 
one represented in our illustration. It is confined to Eastern Australia. The 
length of the head and body in this pretty little animal is about 9 inches, and 
that of the tail rather more. The ears are of medium length, the tail extremely 
bushy, especially near its root, and the fur very soft. The general colour is a 
delicate ashy grey; but a longitudinal black band commencing near the nose runs 
down the back, to stop short of the root of the tail. The eyes are ringed with 
black ; the ears are black at the base externally but white at the hinder angle; 
the cheeks are white, save for a black patch immediately below the ear; while 
the chin, under-parts, and edges of the flying-membrane are also white. The tip 
of the tail is black, and there is a black line on each side of the flying-membrane 
internally to the white margin. 

The following excellent account of the habits of the yellow flying-phalanger 

(P. australis), from mountain districts in New South Wales and Victoria, is 
given by Gould, who says that “this animal is common in all the bushes of 
New South Wales, particularly in those which stretch along the coast from 
Port Phillip to Moreton Bay. In these vast forests trees of one kind or 
another are perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the 
blossoms upon which it feeds; the flowers of the various kinds of gums (eucalyptus), 
some of which are of great magnitude, being the principal favourites. Like the 
rest of its genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes and in the sprouts of 
the larger branches during the day, and displaying the greatest activity at night 
while running over the small leafy branches, frequently even to their very 


PHALANGERS. 261 


extremities, in search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its 
structure being ill-adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends to the ground 
except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be reached by flight. 
When chased or forced to flight, it ascends to the highest branch and performs the 
most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address; a slight 
ascent gives its body an impetus which, with the expansion of its membrane, 
enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always ascending a little at the 
extremity of the leap; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the 
shock it would otherwise sustain.” 


SQUIRREL FLYING-PHALANGER (3 nat. size) 


Leadbeater’s The little Leadbeater’s phalanger (Gymmnobelideus leadbeaterv), 
Phalanger. which is rather smaller than the lesser flying squirrel, is of interest 
as being apparently a representative of the parent form from which the true 
flying squirrels were derived. This animal may, indeed, be concisely described 
as a flying squirrel, minus the flying-membrane. It is an inhabitant of Victoria. 
Dormouse- The dormouse-phalangers, of which there are four species from 
Phalangers. Western Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, are small creatures 
somewhat resembling dormice in general appearance, and readily distinguished 
by their cylindrical mouse-like tails, which are covered with fur at the base, then 
scaly for the greater part of their length, but naked and prehensile at the tip. In 
the smallest species (Dromicia concinna) the length of the head and body may be 


262 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


less than 2} inches, while the tail is slightly longer. They are all nocturnal and 
arboreal in their habits; one of the species being stated to conceal itself during 
the day beneath the loose bark of large gum-trees. They feed upon honey and 
young shoots of grass, and probably also insects. 
Pigmy Flying- One of the smallest and at the same time the most elegant of 
Phalanger. ynammals is the exquisite little creature commonly known as the 
pigmy flying-phalanger (Acrobates pygmea), in which the length of the head and 
body only slightly exceeds 24 inches; that of the tail being somewhat more. This 
phalanger is readily distinguished from those yet noticed by the long hairs on the 
tail being arranged in two opposite fringes like the vanes of a feather. The general 
build of the animal is extremely light and delicate; the flying-membrane is very 
narrow, extending from the elbow to the flank, where it-almost disappears, and 
thence to the knee; while the toes are furnished with expanded pads at their tips. 


PIGMY FLYING-PHALANGER (nat. size), 


The fur is long, soft, and silky : its general colour on the upper-parts being brownish 
grey ; while on the margins of the flying-membrane and beneath, together with the 
inner sides of the limbs, it is white. The teeth are sharp, and apparently adapted 
for an insectivorous diet. In spite of its diminutive proportions, the female has 
a well-developed pouch containing four nipples; but it is difficult to imagine the 
minuteness which must necessarily characterise the newly-born young. 

The pigmy flying-phalanger is confined to Queensland, New South Wales, 
and Victoria; and is reported to be very abundant in the neighbourhood of Port 
Jackson. Its food consists of honey and insects; and its agility in leaping from 
branch to branch is described as little short of marvellous. 

Pen-Tailed The little pen-tailed phalanger (Distechurus pennatus), of New 
Phalanger. (juinea, has precisely the same relation to the preceding animal as is 


KOALA. 263 


presented by Leadbeater’s phalanger to the members of the genus Petawrus, being 
in fact a pigmy flying-phalanger without the parachute. The foot-pads are. 
however, wanting. The general appearance of the animal is very dormouse-lke , 
the head being ornamented with stripes of white and dark brown, while the fur of 
the body is uniformly buff. 
This curious and somewhat bear-like creature is an aberrant 
member of the family, constituting not only a distinct genus 
but likewise a separate subfamily by itself. To the natives it is known by 
the name of koala, while by the colonists it is generally termed the native 
bear; its scientific title being Phascolarctus cinereus. The koala has been 
compared in size to a large poodle dog, the length of the head and body being 
about 24 inches. It is a heavily-built animal, differmg from all the other members 
of the family in the absence of any external tail, and also readily recognised by its 
large, squared, and thickly-fringed ears. The fur is extremely thick, woolly, and 


Koala. 


THE KOALA (% nat. size). 


moderately soft; its general colour on the upper-parts being ashy grey, with a 
tinge of brown, but becoming yellowish white on the hind-quarters, while the 
under-parts are whitish. All the feet are provided with long claws, and the two 
innermost toes of the fore-feet are completely opposable to the remaining three. 
A peculiarity of the koala is the possession of pouches in the cheeks for storing 
food ; while the dentition differs from that of the typical phalangers in the absence 
of the minute rudimentary teeth referred to above. The upper molar teeth have 
very short and broad crowns, somewhat resembling, in the structure of their 
tubercles, those of the crescent-toothed phalangers. In its internal organisation 
the koala approximates to the wombats. 

The koala is confined to Eastern Australia, where it ranges from 


Habits. = : 3 = ae 
Queensland to Victoria. Like the other members of the family it is 


264 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


chiefly arboreal, moving awkwardly when on the ground, and when pursued 
always endeavouring to gain a tree with all possible speed. Its movements are 
usually comparatively slow and sluggish, and, although mainly nocturnal, it may not 
unfrequently be seen abroad in the daytime. Koalas are generally found in pairs: 
and spend the day either high up on the tree-tops or in hollow logs. They are 
purely herbivorous, and subsist chiefly on the leaves of the blue gum-tree, although 
at night they descend to the ground in order to dig for roots. In the evenings 
these animals slowly creep along the boughs of the giant gums, the females often 
having a solitary cub perched on their backs. When irritated or disturbed, the 
koala utters a loud ery, variously described as a hoarse groan, and a shrill yell. 

Giant Extinct The superficial deposits of Australia have yielded evidence of 

Phalanger. the former existence in that country of a phalanger (Zhylacoleo 
carnifex) far exceeding any of the living forms in point of size, and remarkable 
for the exceedingly specialised character of its dentition. The functional teeth, as 
shown in the accompanying figure of the 
skull, were, indeed, reduced to a pair of 
large incisors, and a single elongated cut- 
ting premolar on each side of both the 
upper and lower jaws; the latter tooth 
evidently corresponding to the permanent 
premolar of the rat- kangaroos (see the 
figure on p. 237). Such other teeth as 
remain were small, and of no functional 
importance. The skull is unique among 
Marsupials in that the sockets of the eyes 
are completely surrounded by bone. 

This huge phalanger received its 
technical names on the supposition that it was of purely carnivorous habits; but 
from the resemblance of its dentition to that of the existing members of the 
family, it seems more probable that its diet was mainly of a vegetable nature. 


SKULL OF THE GIANT EXTINCT 
PHALANGER (34 nat. size). 


THE WOMBATS. 
Family PHASCOLOMYID. 


The wombats of Australia and Tasmania, where they are represented by three 
existing species all referable to the one genus Phascolomys, constitute the last 
family of the herbivorous Marsupials. These animals are of considerable size, and 
characterised externally by their massive build, short and flattened heads, broad flat 
backs, and extremely short and thick legs; their hind-feet being plantigrade. 
Their ears are small or of moderate size, and more or less pointed; the eyes are 
small, and the tail is reduced to a mere stump. The fore-feet have five toes, of 
which the first and fifth are considerably shorter than the remaining three, all being 
furnished with powerful and somewhat curved nails. In the hind-feet the inner 
or “great” toe resembles that of the phalangers in being unprovided with a nail, 
although it cannot be opposed to the rest; the others have strong curved nails and 


WOMBATS. 265 


are of nearly equal length, but the second and third are relatively slender and 
partially united by skin, thus foreshadowing the “syndactylism” of the two fore- 
going families. The most distinctive feature of the wombats is, however, their 
dentition. The teeth, twenty-four in number, all grow uninterruptedly throughout 
life, and thus never develop roots. The incisors are reduced to a single pair in 
each jaw, these being exceed- 
ingly powerful chisel - shaped 
teeth, with enamel only on their 
front surfaces, thus resembling 
the incisors of Rodents. The 
cheek - teeth are five on each 
side, of which the first is a 
premolar, and separated by a 
long interval from the incisor. 
Each molar is much curved, and SKELETON OF WOMBAT. 
consists of two triangular prisms; 
but the premolar comprises but one such prism. It will thus be evident that, so far 
as their teeth are concerned, the wombats simulate the Rodents, to many of which 
they also approximate in habits. In general appearance these Marsupials are 
however, curiously like diminutive bears, as shown in the illustration on p. 266. 

Of the three species of the genus, the smallest is the Tasmanian wombat 
(P. ursinus), inhabiting Tasmania and the islands in Bass Strait. It is characterised 
by its small and somewhat rounded ears, the naked extremity of the muzzle, and the 
coarse and rough hair; the colour being uniform dark grizzled greyish brown. About 
one-fourth larger than this species is the common wombat (P. mitchellz), from New 
South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, in which the length of the head and body 
is about 30 inches, while the colour may vary from yellow, through yellow mingled 
with black, to nearly pure black. The third species is the hairy-nosed wombat (P. 
latifrons), from South Australia, intermediate in size between the other two, from 
which it differs by its longer and more pointed ears, hairy muzzle, and soft silky hair. 

All the three species seem to agree in their habits, and are 
exclusively herbivorous, living either in burrows excavated by them- 
selves, or in clefts and crannies of rocks. Like most Marsupials, they are 
exclusively nocturnal; and their food consists of grass, other herbage, and roots. 
They walk with a peculiar shuffling gait; and utter either a hissing sound or a 
short grunt when irritated. In disposition they are shy and gentle; although their 
powerful incisor teeth are capable of inflicting severe bites. On the rare occasions 
that these animals are seen abroad in the daytime, they suffer themselves to be 
caught with ease, and often make no resistance after their capture. 


Habits. 


THE BANDICOOTS. 
Family PERAMELIDZ. 


All the members of the preceding families are characterised by the presence of 
not more than three pairs of upper incisor teeth, and also by those of the lower jaw 


266 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


being reduced to a single functional pair of large size, which are invariably inclined 
forwards. On account of this single pair of functional lower incisor teeth, they are 
collectively termed Diprotodonts. The upper canine or tusk is small in all the 
group, and the corresponding lower tooth absent or represented by a rudiment. 
On the other hand, in the remaining families of the order the incisor teeth, as 
shown in the woodcut on p. 268, are of a more normal type; that is to say, 
they are numerous, and the innermost pair is not greatly developed at the expense 
of the others. The tusks are large and prominent; and whereas in the 
Diprotodonts the molar teeth have broad and often squared crowns, surmounted 


TASMANIAN WOMBAT (ON THE LEFT) AND HAIRY-NOSED WOMBAT (ON THE RIGHT). (J nat. size.) 


by transverse ridges or blunt tubercles, those of the present group have sharp 
cusps, and are generally more or less triangular in form, thus indicating a partially 
or wholly carnivorous diet. On account of the number of their lower incisor teeth, 
the name of Polyprotodonts has been suggested for this second great group of the 
Marsupials, which occupy the place in the order held by the Carnivores and 
Insectivores among the Placental Mammals. Instead of being restricted to the 
Australasian region, the Polyprotodonts are represented in America by the 
opossums ; while in former epochs they had apparently a world-wide distribution, 
and included some of the oldest mammals known. 

The bandicoots are small or medium-sized animals of fossorial habits, 
living either on insects or a mixed diet, and are readily characterised by the 
structure of their hind-feet. They have long and sharply pointed noses; and the 


BANDICOOTS. 267 


pouch is complete, with its opening directed towards the hinder end of the body. In 
the fore-feet the three middle toes, or two of them, are of nearly equal size and 
furnished with well-developed and somewhat curved claws, while the first and fifth 
toes are rudimentary or absent. The hind-feet are constructed on the same type 
as in the kangaroos; the fourth toe being much larger than the others, while the 
second and third are small, slender, and united by skin, the first being rudimental or 
wanting. The terminal bones of the larger toes in both feet are peculiar among 
Marsupials in having their extremities cleft by a longitudinal slit, in the same manner 
as are those of the pangolins. As regards their dentition, the bandicoots are char- 
acterised by having either four or five pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and 
three in the lower; while their upper molars are more squared than in the other 
families, with their cusps arranged in the form of the letter W. The similarity 
between the hind-feet of the bandicoots and the kangaroos is a very remarkable 
feature ;—more especially if, as is now generally considered to be the case, this 
structure has been independently acquired in the two groups. 

The true bandicoots (Perameles), of which there are eleven 
species, are characterised by having the three middle toes of the 
fore-foot large and functional, and the first and fifth present, although small and 
nailless; while on the hind-foot there is also a rudiment of the first toe. The 
ears, although variable, are never of enormous length, and the tapering cylindrical 
tail is devoid of a crest of hairs near its extremity. In all, the build is stout 
and clumsy, and there is no great disproportion between the fore and hind-limbs. 
The various species of bandicoots inhabit Australia and Papua; one of the 
best known being Gunn’s bandicoot (P. guinz), from Tasmania. The length of the 
head and body in this creature is about 16 inches, and that of the tail 4 inches. 
It belongs to a group characterised by the ears being long and pointed, reaching 
as far as the eyes when turned forwards; and also by the hinder-half of the sole 
of the foot being covered with hairs. The fur is soft, and of a general grizzled 
yellowish brown colour above, with four or more pale vertical bands, separated by 
dark brown intervals on the rump; the chin and under-parts being white or 
yellowish white. The smaller short-nosed bandicoot (P. obesula), which is common 
to Australia and Tasmania, represents a second group, in which the ears are very 
short and rounded at the tip, the soles of the hind-feet completely naked, and the 
fur intermingled with short spines. These two groups are closely connected by the 
Papuan representatives of the genus. 

Bandicoots are the commonest of the Australian carnivorous Marsupials ; 
and are cordially detested by the colonists on account of the damage they do to 
gardens and cultivated fields. Omnivorous in their diet, consuming, with 
equal gusto, roots, bulbs, berries, fallen fruits, or other vegetable substances, 
as well as insects and worms, they are chiefly nocturnal, and pass the day 
either in holes or hollows or logs; to which retreat they at once fly when pursued. 
In addition to their burrows, some of the species at least construct nests. 

Rabbit- The rabbit-bandicoot (Peragale lagotis), together with a closely 

Bandicoot. allied species, constitutes a genus readily distinguished by the 
enormous length of the ears, by the terminal half of the tail having a erest of long 
hairs on its upper surface, and by the great relative length of the hind-limbs, in 


True Bandicoots. 


268 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


which all trace of the inner toe is wanting. The molar teeth are, moreover, 
curved; and in the type species have longer roots and shorter crowns than 
in the true bandicoots. The rabbit-bandicoot is about the size of an ordinary 
rabbit, and is clothed with fine silky hair of considerable length. The general 
colour of the upper-parts is pale grey, passing into rufous on the flanks, and 
becoming white beneath ; the feet, as well as the end of the tail, being white. 

Pig-Footed The pig-footed bandicoot (Cheropus castanotis) is a delicately- 

Bandicoot. built and rather small animal, measuring from 10 to 11 inches in 
length, exclusive of the short tail. It has long ears; and a rather short but sharp 
muzzle, naked at the extreme tip ; but its most characteristic features are to be found 
in its feet. In the fore-limbs, which are much shorter than the hinder-pair, the 
functional toes are reduced to the second and third, these being furnished with 
short, symmetrical, and slightly curved claws; while the first and fifth toes are absent, 
and the fourth represented merely by a small rudiment. In the long and slender 
hind-limbs the whole strength is concentrated in the long and stout fourth toe, 
the united second and third toes being very small, and the fourth altogether 
rudimentary. The fur is coarse and straight; its general colour on the head 
and body being a uniform grizzled grey, with a tinge of fawn; while the chin, 
chest, and under-parts are white, and the feet pale grey or white, with a yellowish 
tinge. This anima! inhabits the greater part of Australia, with the exception of 
the extreme north, north-east, and east; its favourite haunts being open grassy 
plains, where it constructs nests like those of the ordinary bandicoots. 


THE DASYURE TRIBE. 
Family DAS YURIDZ. 


Dasyures are distinguished from the members of the preceding family by 
having the second and third toes of the hind-foot perfectly separate from one 
another, and as well developed as 
the fourth and fifth; the first toe, 
if present at all, being small and 
without a claw. The dentition 
differs from that of most of the 
bandicoots in that there are four 
in place of five incisor teeth on 
each side of the upper jaw; both 
groups having three pairs of these 
teeth in the lower jaw. 

In all the members of the 
family the fore and_ hind - limbs 
are of approximately equal length; 
and the fore-feet have five well- 


developed tacsallea cede eneleee FRONT VIEW OF SKULL OF THE TASMANIAN DEVIL. 
eveloped toes, all armed W1th ClaWS. (From Sir W. H. Flower, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv.) ‘ 


The tail, which may be either 
medium or long, is hairy, and without the power of prehension; and the pouch, 


DASVURES. 269 


when present, opens downwards and forwards. In the more typical forms the 
incisor teeth are small, and the tusks large, as shown in the figure on p. 268; the 
number of cheek-teeth being either six or seven on each side of both jaws. At 
the present day the family is confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, 
although in the Tertiary period it was represented in South America, where some 
of the extinct forms appear to have been very closely allied to the existing thylacine. 
While the larger species are purely carnivorous, catching and killing their own prey, 
the smaller representatives of the family are mainly insect-eaters. In structure 
these animals are the most generalised of all Marsupials, and come nearest to the 
extinct forms from the Secondary rocks. 

The largest of the carnivorous Marsupials is the animal com- 
monly known in Australia as the Tasmanian wolf, but better desig- 
nated the thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus). In appearance this creature is 
extraordinarily wolf-like; and the unscientific observer would probably at. first 


Thylacine. 


—— 


SKELETON OF THYLACINE. 


sight regard it as a member of the canine family. Nevertheless, the female has 
a well-developed pouch; although the marsupial bones are wanting, being repre- 
sented merely by cartilages, of which the position is indicated by the * in the 
figure of the skeleton. In size the thylacine is rather smaller than the European 
wolf; from which it is readily distinguished externally by the tapering and 
thinly haired tail, as well as by the dark transverse stripes on the hinder part of 
the back and loins, and the shortness and closeness of the fur. The ground-colour of 
the fur is greyish brown, while the transverse bands are black. In the hind-foot 
the first toe is wanting; and there are seven cheek-teeth on each side of the jaws. 
Tasmania is now the only habitat of the thylacine ; although remains of a species 
near akin to the living one are met with in the superficial deposits of the mainland. 
Like most Marsupials, the. thylacine is mainly nocturnal. Its favourite haunts 
are caverns and clefts of rocks among the deep glens of the mountains in the more 
remote districts of Tasmania; the settlers having nearly exterminated the animal 
from the more populated regions on account of the damage it inflicts on their flocks. 


270 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


The animal rejoicing in the name of the Tasmanian devil 
(Sarcophilus wrsinus) is the sole living representative of its genus. 
Like the thylacine, it has, however, an extinct cousin on the Australian mainland. 
The Tasmanian devil is an ugly and powerfully-built animal, with an exces- 
sively large head, terminating in a short and broad muzzle; its size being 
approximately that of the common badger. The ears are large and rounded on 
the outer side; and the tail is of moderate length, and thickly, although evenly 
haired. As in the thylacine, the hind-foot has no trace of the first toe; but, instead 
of being digitigrade, both fore and hind-feet are markedly plantigrade. The fur 


Tasmanian Devil. 


THE THYLACINE, OR TASMANIAN WOLF (,\, nat. size). 


of the head and body is thick and close, with a large quantity of under-fur, which 
is nearly equal in length to the straight fur. In colour the fur is mainly black or 
blackish brown, but there is a white collar or patch on the throat, and a variable 
number of white spots on the neck, shoulders, and rump. The incisor teeth (as 
shown in the figure on p. 268) differ from those of the thylacine in that the outer- 
most pair are not markedly larger than the others; while the cheek-teeth are six 
instead of seven in number, on each side, and are closely packed together, in place 
of being separated from one another by intervals. It is an even more exclusively 
nocturnal animal than the thylacine, being almost blinded if exposed to the rays of 
the sun, and passing the day coiled up in some dark and secluded lair, which may 
be either a natural cave or cleft among the rocks, or a burrow excavated by 


DASVURES. 271 


the animal's powerful claws at the root of a tree. In its gait and movements 
it presents a considerable resemblance to a badger or small bear. Except those 
which are too large to be attacked, living creatures of all kinds—whether vertebrate 
or invertebrate — form the prey of the Tasmanian devil; even sheep being 
destroyed in large numbers by these comparatively small marauders. 

On the mainland of Australia the carnivorous Marsupials are 
represented by the civet-like dasyures, or native cats (Dasywrus), 
the largest of which are about equal in size to an ordinary cat. They have the 
same number of teeth as in the Tasmanian devil, but the cheek-teeth are less 
massive and powerful. The general form of the body is also much longer 
and more slender, and the tail more elongated; while in all cases the body is 
profusely spotted with white, upon a grey or brown ground-colour. The muzzle 


Dasyures. 


THE TASMANIAN DEVIL (y5 nat. size). 


is sharp, the ears long, narrow, and pointed; and the long tail evenly and thickly 
furred. In some of the species there is a rudiment of the first toe of the hind-foot. 
The dasyures, of which there are five species, are common to Australia, Tasmania, 
and New Guinea. The largest is the spotted-tailed dasyure (D. maculatus), from 
Eastern and South-Eastern Australia, distinguished from the others by the tail 
being spotted as well as the body; but the best known species is the common 
dasyure (D. viverrinus), inhabiting both Australia and Tasmania. The dasyures 
are arboreal animals, and in habits resemble the martens, of which they appear to 
take the place in Australasia. They feed on small mammals, birds and their eggs, 
and probably also lizards and insects, and are especially destructive to poultry. 

Far more numerous than the dasyures are the smaller phascolo- 
gales (Phascologale), the largest of which is not bigger than a good- 
sized rat. They are distinguishable from the dasyures by the absence of white spots 


Phascologales. 


272 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


on the fur, and by the presence of an additional premolar in each jaw, thus bringing 
up the number of cheek-teeth to seven on each side. The crowns of these teeth are 
more minutely cusped, and the canines relatively smaller than in the dasyures. The 
muzzle is rather long and pointed, the ears moderately rounded and nearly naked, 
and the feet short and broad; the hind-foot always having a distinct, although nailless, 
first toe. The long tail is subject to considerable variation in the different species, 
being in some cases bushy, in others furnished with a crest of hair, and in others 
nearly naked. The pouch is rudimentary, being represented merely by a few loose 
folds of skin. Probably these animals produce a larger number of young at a birth 
than any other Australasian Marsupials, seeing that in some species the number of 
teats may be as many as ten. There are altogether thirteen distinct species of the 
genus, distributed over Australia and New Guinea, and also ranging into the Aru 
Islands. Of these thirteen, nine are distinguished by the absence of any stripe down 
the back,and are mainly confined to Australia. This stripe is present in the remaining 


COMMON DASYURE ({ nat. size). 


four, which are exclusively Papuan. Of the two species figured here, the yellow- 
footed pouched-mouse (P. flavipes) is a small form, liable to considerable variation 
in point of size and colour, and inhabiting a large portion of Australia, although 
unknown in Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the first group, characterised by 
the tail being evenly covered with short hair. In general appearance it is a mouse- 
like creature, with close and rather crisp fur, of which the prevailing colour is 
clear grey more or less suffused with yellow or rufous. The under-parts, together 
with the feet, in the typical East Australian variety, are yellow; this colour 
sometimes deepening to rufous and spreading over the whole body. The variety 
inhabiting Western and Northern Australia differs in that the whole of the under- 
parts and limbs are more or less nearly pure white instead of yellow. 

The brush-tailed phascologale (P. penicillata) is a larger species, inhabiting 
the whole of Australia except the extreme north, although likewise unknown in 
Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the unstriped group, characterised by the 
extremity of the tail being evenly tufted on all sides. It is a more stoutly-built 


POUCHED MICE. 273 


animal than the last,-with short and coarse fur. The general colour of the upper-parts 
is pale grizzled grey, while the chin is white, and the lower surface of the body 
pale grey or white. The head is characterised by the large size of the ears, and the 
presence of a more or less indistinct black streak down the nose. These pretty little 
animals are arboreal and insectivorous in their habits; and appear to fill the place in 
Australia occupied in the Oriental region by the placental tree-shrews, which they 
much resemble in general habits. All seek their insect-prey by climbing the boughs 
of trees; and at least some make nests in the hollows of the trunks and branches. 
Common The tiny creature, known as the common pouched-mouse (Smin- 
Pouched-Mouse. ¢thopsis murina), constitutes, with three other nearly-allied species, a 
distinct genus, ditfering from the last by the extreme narrowness of the hind-foot, 
and also by the circumstance that the soles of the feet are covered with hair or 
granulated. This species measures 3} inches in length to the root of the tail; the 


SS 


YELLOW-FOOTED POUCHED-MOUSE (nat. size). 


length of the tail being a little less than 3 inches. The pouched-mice of this genus 
are confined to Australia and Tasmania; and since they are terrestrial and insectiv- 
orous, they may be compared to the shrews among placental mammals. In all 
the pouch is well-developed ; and the number of teats varies from eight to ten. 
Jerboa The last and apparently the rarest of the typical section of the 
Pouched-Mouse. family is the jerboa pouched-mouse (Antechinomys laniger), from 
South Queensland and New South Wales, which constitutes a genus by itself. 
This little creature, which has much the appearance of a sharp-nosed jerboa, with 
very large oval ears, and a long tail, becoming bushy at the end, is distinguished 
from the members of the preceding genus by the great elongation of the hind- 
limbs, and the total absence of the first toe from the hind-foot. Its form is very 
slender and graceful; and the soft and fine fur composed almost entirely of under- 
fur. The general colour is pale grizzled grey, with the chin and feet pure white, 
and the hairs of the under-parts grey at the base and white at the tips. The tail, 
of which the length considerably exceeds that of the head and body, is fawn- 
VOL. 111.—18 


274 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


coloured. This pouched-mouse inhabits open sandy districts, and is mainly if not 
exclusively terrestrial. It progresses by leaps like a jerboa, and is accompanied in 
its haunts by the placental jumping mice of the genus Hapalotis. 

One of the most curious and interesting of all the Australian 
Marsupials, is the little banded anteater (Myrmecobius fasciatus) ; 
which derives its special interest from the circumstance that it comes closer to 
some of the extinct Marsupials of the Secondary rocks of Europe than does any 
other living type. This animal, which may be compared in size to a squirrel, differs 
from the other members of the family in that there are more than seven cheek-teeth 
on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, and also in the tongue being elongated 


Banded Anteater. 


SS 


S 


Ow 


SW 
SS 


BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOLOGALE (3 nat. size). 


Ss 


and cylindrical, and thus capable of being protruded a long distance from the mouth. 
The banded anteater takes its name from the broad transverse bars of white on 
the dark ground-colour of the hinder-half of the back and loins; the general hue 
of the fur of the upper-parts being dark chestnut-red, with the under surface of 
the body white, and a dark line running from the ear through the eye towards the 
nose. The fur itself is of a somewhat coarse and bristly nature. In form the 
animal is characterised by its long but broad head, and narrow, elongated muzzle, 
moderate-sized and somewhat pointed ears, elongated body, short limbs, and long 
bushy tail. In the fore-feet the first and fifth claws are considerably shorter than 
the others; while in the hind-foot there is no external trace of the first toe. The 
banded anteater is one of the few Marsupials in which the female has no pouch; 
the young, when first born, being merely concealed by the long hair of the belly as 


BANDED ANTEATER. 275 


they cling to the teats (four in number). The teeth are all small, and are mostly 
separated from one another by distinct intervals; those of the cheek-series are 


JERBOA POUCHED-MOUSE (2 nat. size). 


either eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, thus 
making a total of either fifty-two or fifty-six teeth—a greater number than in 


THE BANDED ANTEATER (} nat. size). 


any other existing members of the order. In many of the above-mentioned points 
this creature differs widely from all the other Dasyurida, and there is considerable 
justification for the view that 1t ought to constitute a family by itself. The banded 


276 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


anteater inhabits Western and Southern Australia, and lives mainly on the ground, 
although it will sometimes ascend trees. Its nutriment consists entirely of insects, 
and chiefly of ants and termites, which are collected by the long extensile tongue. 
Its favourite haunts are sandy regions, where there are numerous hollow tree-stems 
and ant-hills. 


THE POUCHED-MOLE. 
Family NOTORYCTIDE. 


In general bodily conformation the pouched-mole (Votoryctes typhlops) is a 
mole-like creature, measuring about 5 inches in total length, and covered with long, 
soft and silky hair of a 
light fawn colour, deepen- 
ing in parts to golden. 
There are no external 
ears, and the eyes are 
represented merely by 
small black dots buried 
in the skin. The nose 
and upper lip are pro- 
tected by a peculiar 
quadrangular leathery shield, the use of which to a burrowing animal is sufficiently 
obvious. The short limbs, which are covered with hair down to the claws, are very 
remarkable in structure. Both pairs are 
of nearly equal length, powerfully made, 
and furnished with five toes. In the 
fore-paws the third and fourth toes are 
enormously enlarged and furnished with 
huge triangular claws of great power; 
while in the hinder-pair the first toe is 
small and furnished with a small claw, and 
the others decrease in size from the second 
to the fifth. The short, cylindrical, and 
stumpy tail is hard and leathery, and 
marked by a series of distinct rings. The 
pouch opens backwards, and contains two 
very small teats. The teeth are small and 
weak,and appear to be forty in number. Of 
these three pairs in each jaw are incisors, and 
seven are cheek-teeth; the molars having FEET OF THE POUCHED-MOLE (about § nat. size). 


triangular three-cusped crowns, and much 1. Outer aspect of left fore-foot. 2. Profile view of 


"Ag j c same. 38. Inner aspect of same. 4. Upper surface of 
Teen ANES9 O8 ate golden Ole ee left hind-foot. 5, Palmar surface of same.—After 


mole appears to be a very rare and locally stirling. 

distributed animal, restricted to the deserts 

of Northern South Australia, lying to the north-east of Lake Eyre. Here it inhabits 
flats and hills of red sand, upon which grow poreupine-grass(7riodia)and acacias. Dr. 


UNDER SURFACE OF THE POUCHED-MOLE (2 nat. size).—After Stirling. 


OPOSSUMS. 307 


Stirling, by whom the marsupial mole was first made known to science, states that 
most of the specimens he obtained were “captured by the aboriginals, who, with their 
phenomenal powers of tracking, follow up their traces until they are caught. For 
this reason they can only be found with certainty after rain, which sets the surface 
of the sand and enables it to retain 
tracks that would be immediately 
obliterated where it is dry and loose. 
Nor are they found except during 
warm weather, so that the short period 
of semitropical summer rains appears | 
to be the favourable time for their 
capture.” Perpetual burrowing seems 
to be the characteristic trait of this 
animal. On “emerging from the sand, 
it travels on the surface for a few 
feet, at a slowish pace, with a peculiar 
sinuous motion, the belly much. flat- 
tened against the ground, while it 
rests on the outsides of its fore-paws, 
which are thus doubled in under it. 
It leaves behind it a peculiar sinuous SKULL (1 and 2) AND SKELETON OF THE HIND (3) AND 
¢ : : FORE (4) FEET OF THE POUCHED-MOLE (about 3 nat. 
triple track, the outer impressions, size). —After Stirling. 
more or less interrupted, being caused 
by the feet, and the central continuous line by the tail, which seems to be pressed 
down in the rear. It enters the sand obliquely, and travels underground either for 
a few feet or for many yards, not apparently reaching a depth of more than 
two or three inches, for whilst underground its progress can often be detected by 
a slight cracking or moving of the surface over its position.” 


aM 
sy 


Zz 
a= 


23 
“eB 
= 


THE OPOSSUMS. 
Family DIDELPHYIDZ. 


The last family of the existing Marsupials is constituted by the well-known 
opossums, which are now confined to America, although during the early portion 
of the Tertiary period they also ranged over Europe. Closely allied to the 
Australian Dasywride, the opossums are mainly distinguished by the hind-foot 
having a well-developed inner toe, which, although nailless, is capable of being 
opposed to the other digits. They are further distinguished by the number of their 
incisor teeth, of which there are five pairs in the upper and three in the lower jaw. 
The tail is generally of considerable length, partially naked and prehensile at the 
extremity; and the feet are likewise devoid cf any hairy covering. Although com- 
plete in a few of the species, the pouch is generally either wanting altogether, or 
represented merely by a couple of longitudinal folds in the skin of the abdomen, which 
partially conceal the numerous teats. As a rule, opossums may be compared in 
general outward appearance to rats, although they have longer snouts terminating 


278 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


in a perfectly naked muzzle; while in the larger species the body becomes 
proportionately stouter. 

As regards habits, all the opossums, with the exception of the water-opossum, 
are arboreal, and omnivorous or insectivorous in their diet. They are nocturnal, 
and spend the day concealed either among the foliage of trees or in hollows in 
their trunks or boughs. The opossums take the place in America of the 
Insectivores of the Old World. They are naturally forest-loving animals; but 
a few are found on the pampas of Argentina, where they have adapted themselves 
to a terrestrial life. In those species in which the pouch is rudimental or wanting, 
the young after leaving the teats are carried upon the back of their female parent, 
where they maintain their position by curling their tails round that of their mother, 


COMMON OPOSSUM (t nat, size), 


which is bent forwards for the purpose. Opossums are essentially characteristic 
of Central and South America, only one out of some twenty-four species ranging 
into North America, where it extends as far north as the United States. 

The true opossums, of which there are about twenty-four living 
species, are characterised by the absence of webbing between the 
toes, and by their arboreal habits. The common or Virginian opossum (Didelphys 
marsupralis) is the sole representative of the first group, and likewise the only 
species found in the northern half of America. It is from three to five times 
the size of any other species, and characterised by its long, sealy, prehensile 
tail, and by the fur consisting of a mixture of long bristle-like hairs and a fine 
under-fur. It may be compared in size to a cat, the length of the head and 
body reaching 22 inches in large specimens, and that of the tail 15 inches. 
It is, however, subject to great variation both in size and colour, and on this 
account has received a number of distinct names, the common South American 


True Opossums. 


OPOSSUMS. 279 


form being generally known as the crab-eating opossum. The general colour of 
the fur may, indeed, vary through all the intermediate shades from black to white, 
while the hair on the face shows an almost equal amount of variation, the northern 
forms being almost wholly white in this region, while those from the south are 
darker, and often nearly black. In all cases the pouch is complete; but the 
number of teats may vary from five to thirteen. 

The range of this widely-spread species includes the whole of temperate 
North America, and extends southwards through the tropical regions of the other 


PHILANDER OPOSSUM ($ nat. size). 


half of the continent. In many parts it is one of the commonest animals, and may 
be met with even in towns, where it lies concealed during the day in drains and 
other lurking-places. Its diet is a mixed one, comprising fruits, roots, birds, 
and other small animals, eggs, and carrion; and it is reported to be very destructive 
to poultry. With the aid of its prehensile tail, this opossum is one of the most 
expert of climbing mammals; and when caught, it has, in common with some of 
the other members of its genus, the habit of feigning death. Like so many 
marsupials, it is extremely tenacious of life. The young are born in the spring, 
and comprise from six to sixteen in a litter. They remain in the pouch till they 


280 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


are about the size of a mouse, after which they venture abroad, although return- 
ing to its shelter for the purpose of being suckled or sheltering for a considerable 
time. The female exhibits the most marked attachment to her offspring, and 
endeavours by every means in her power to prevent her pouch from being opened. 
Rat-Tailed The rat-tailed opossum (D. nudicaudata) is a well-known 
Opossum. yepresentative of the second group of the genus, which includes 
three medium-sized species, characterised by their short, close fur being of one 
kind only, and their long tails, which in two of the species are naked, although in 
the thick-tailed opossum (D. crassicaudata) the tail is hairy nearly to its tip. 
Although in the two species above-named the pouch is rudimental or absent, it is 
well-developed in the Quica opossum (D. oposswm). 
Philander The philander (D. philander) and the woolly opossum 
Opossum. (J). lanigera) are easily distinguished from the members of the 
preceding group by the presence of a distinct brown streak running down the 
middle of the face. The pouch is represented merely by two longitudinal folds of 
skin. The philander attains a length of from 9} to 11} inches to the root of the 
tail; the tail itself varying from 12} to 15 inches. The fur is thick, soft, and 
woolly, and of a dull yellowish or rufous grey colour, with the face pale grey, save 
for the dark brown streak down the forehead, and similar dark areas round the 
eyes; the under-parts being some shade of yellow. This species is restricted to 
Guiana and Brazil, but is replaced in most other parts of tropical South America 
by the somewhat larger woolly opossum. In both species, the young, which may 
be a dozen in number, are carried on the back of the mother, and it is marvellous 
with what rapidity the females when thus loaded manage to climb trees. 

The murine opossum (D. murina), ranging from Central Mexico 
to Brazil, may be taken as an example of the fourth group of the 
genus, in which all the species are smail, with short, close hair, very long tails, and 
no dark streak down the middle of the face. The pouch is absent in all the group. 
In size the murine opossum may be compared to a common mouse; the general 
colour of its fur being bright red. From their small size it may be inferred that 
all the opossums of this group live exclusively upon insects. 

Three-Striped The last group of the genus includes its smallest representatives, 
Opossum. among which the three-striped opossum (D. americana) of Brazil is 
conspicuous for its coloration. The whole ten species which constitute this group 
are shrew-like little creatures, easily recognised by their short and generally non- 
prehensile tails, which are less than half the length of the head and body. The 
three-striped species, which is by no means the smallest, measures from 43 to 54 
inches to the root of the tail; while the length of the tail is rather less than 
2% inches. Its general colour is reddish grey, with three black bands running 
down the back. Another species (D. wnistriata) has a single dark line down the 
back; but in nearly all the others the colour is uniform. The smallest of all is 
the shrew-opossum (D. sorex), from Rio Grande do Sul, in which the length of the 
head and body is less than 3 inches. 

The water-opossum or yapock (Chironectes minima) differs from 
all the other members of the family in having the hind-toes webbed, 
and the presence of a large tubercle on the outer side of each fore-foot, giving the 


Murine Opossum. 


Water-Opossum. 


OPOSSUMS. 281 


appearance of a sixth digit. This animal ranges from Guatemala to Brazil, and 
is distinguished by its peculiar coloration and aquatic habits. The fur is short and 
close, and the long tail naked and scaly for the greater part of its length. The head 
and body measure about 14 inches in length, and the tail about 154 inches. The 
ground-colour of the fur is light grey, upon which there is a blackish brown stripe 
running down the middle of the back, and expanding into large blotches on the 
shoulders, the middle of the back, the loins, and rump. The face has also blackish 


markings, with an imperfect whitish crescent above the eyes; while there is a 


=! = ——— = : = == = Sj + & = = 
| = SSS = 


WATER-OPOSSUM (2 nat. size). 


certain amount of the dark tint on the outer surfaces of the limbs, the under-parts 
being pure white. The female possesses a complete pouch. In habits the yapock 
closely resembles an otter, to which group of animals it was indeed referred by the 
earlier naturalists. Its food consists of crustaceans, small fish, and other aquatic 
animals. 


EXTINCT MARSUPIALS. 
From their low degree of organisation it would be expected that Marsupials 


are some of the oldest of mammals; and this expectation is borne out by the 
facts. So far as can be determined, no placental mammals are known to have 


282 POUCHED MAMMALS. 


existed before the Tertiary period, that is to say, in the rocks lying below 
the London clay. The cretaceous rocks of North America, and the under- 
lying Jurassic or Oolitic rocks both of that continent and of Europe have, 
however, yielded a number of remains of small mammals which may be pretty 
confidently assigned to the 
Polyprotodont section of the 
present order. In one form, 
known as JT'riconodon, the 
molar teeth, of which there 
were four in the fully adult 
state, although only three are 
shown in the lower jaw here 
figured, are characterised by 
carrying three compressed 
cones arranged in a line one before the other; while the premolars, three in 
number, were simpler. The groove (g) seen on the inner side of the lower jaw, 
corresponds to one found in the banded = 
anteater and a few other living Marsupials, 
but unknown in any other mammals. In 
a second type, as represented by Amphi- 
lestes from the Stonesfield beds near Oxford, 
the cheek-teeth were much more numerous, = ; 

: LOWER JAW OF A MARSUPIAL (Amphilestes) FROM 
and the molars less unlike the premolars. THE STONESFIELD ‘SLATE (twice nat. size). 
In the molar teeth the front and hind- 
cones were relatively smaller in proportion to the middle one than is the case in 
Triconodon; and in the number and form of these teeth this early mammal comes 
exceedingly close to the living 
Australian banded anteater. A 
third type is represented by 
jaws from the Purbeck rocks of 
Dorsetshire, known as Amblo- 
theriwm, closely allied to which 
is the jaw from America repre- 
sented in our third figure. Here 
the front and hind-cones have 
become twisted round to the 
inner side of the main cone, so 
that the crown of each molar forms a triangle, as in the living bandicoots and 
opossums. The number of the cheek-teeth is, however, much greater than in the 
latter, and thus indicates relationship with the banded anteater. 


LOWER JAW OF TRICONODON (3 times nat. size).—After Marsh. 


LOWER JAW OF AN AMERICAN JURASSIC MAMMAL 
(twice nat. size).—After Marsh. 


ECHIDNA WALKING, 


CHAE TE Rie XX VT 
Ecc-Layinc MAmmMaAts, orn MonotremMEs,—Order MoNOTREMATA. 


THe Australasian mammals, known as the duckbill and the echidnas, differ from 
the other members of the class not only in certain important structural points, but 
also by their young being hatched from eggs laid by the female parent. In their 
structural differences, and in their mode of reproduction, they resemble reptiles, 
although they agree with other mammals in that the young, when hatched, are 
suckled by milk secreted by the mother. Owing to these great differences, the 
Egg-laying Mammals, or Monotremes, as they are technically termed, constitute not 
only a distinct order (Monotremata) in the class, but form a separate subclass 
known as Prototherians (Prototheria). Consequently we find that Mammals are 
divided into three primary groups or subclasses, viz. : 


1. EUTHERIANS, or PLACENTALS, containing the first nine orders. 
2. METATHERIANS, or IMPLACENTALS, including the Pouched Mammals. 
3. PROTOTHERIANS, represented only by the Egg-laying Mammals. 


These Egg-laying Mammals have no immediate relationship to Birds, but are 
closely allied to certain extinct orders of Reptiles and Amphibians; and the 
present representatives of the group are highly specialised creatures, and thus 
widely different from the original ancestral types of the Mammalian class, 
which we may fairly presume to have once existed as members of the Prototheria. 
Such ancestral types were doubtless furnished with a full series of teeth of a 


284 EGG-LA YING MAMMALS. 


simple type of structure, and it is possible that certain imperfectly known 
mammals from the earliest Secondary rocks may turn out to be such missing links. 

In regard to the distinctive features of the Egg-laying Mammals as a subclass, 
it may be mentioned that they differ from all other members of the class in having 
but a single excretory aperture to the body; whence their name of Monotremes is 
derived. Then, again, in their skeleton the shoulder-blade (scapula), instead of 
forming the sole support for the arm, is connected with the breast-bone (sternum) by 
another plate-like bone termed the metacoracoid, in advance of which is a third 
element known as the coracoid; the metacoracoid being always present in the 
lower Vertebrates. Another resemblance to Reptiles is found in the presence of a 
T-shaped bone overlying the breast-bone, and collar-bones (clavicles), and known 


SKELETON OF DUCKBILL. 


as the interclavicle; such interclavicle being similar to that of lizards and certain 
other reptiles, and unknown among higher mammals. Another feature of these 
animals is connected with the milk-glands, which instead of opening by nipples or 
teats, communicate with the exterior by a number of small pores situated in a cup- 
like depression in the skin of the abdomen. Although there are many other 
peculiarities in the structure of these animals, if we add to the above that their 
brains are of an exceedingly low and simple type, and that their young are pro- 
duced from eggs, we shall not have much difficulty in understanding why they are 
referred by naturalists to a distinct subclass. It may be added that their skeletons 
possess “marsupial” bones similar to those of the Pouched Mammals. 


THE DUCKBILL. 
Family ORNITHORHYNCHIDZ. 


The duckbill, or duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), derives 
its name from the duck-like bill forming the extremity of the head. In length the 
adult male duckbill measures from 18 to 20 inches from the tip of the beak to the 
extremity of the rather short tail. The muzzle is expanded and flattened, and has 
both the upper and lower jaws invested with a blackish naked beak not unlike that 
of a duck. This beak is bordered by a naked sensitive skin, forming a lappet-like 
fold at the base of the snout ; the nostrils being situated near its anterior extremity. 
The depressed and oval-shaped body is covered with short, close, and somewhat 
mole-like fur, comprising both longer hairs and a woolly under-fur; its usual 
colour being deep brown, becoming paler underneath. There are no external conchs 
to the ears; and the eyes are small, and in the living state inconspicuous. The tail 


DUCKBILL. 285 


is broad and somewhat flattened, with a coat of coarse hairs, which on the under 
surface become more or less worn off in old individuals. The short limbs have 
their feet—more especially the front pair—expanded and webbed for the purpose 
of swimming. Each foot has five complete toes furnished with strong nails; but 
while in the fore-feet the web extends considerably beyond the extremities of the 
nails, in the hind-pair it reaches only to their bases. The extension of the web of 
the fore-feet might appear to be a hindrance in burrowing; but this difficulty is 
avoided by the web being then folded back on the palm of the paw. The nails of 
the fore-foot are somewhat flattened and expanded, while those of the hind-foot are 
longer, narrower, and much curved. To the heel of the male is affixed a long, 


THE DUCKBILL (} nat. size). 


horny spur, curving upwards and backwards, and nearly an inch in length. A 
canal traversing this spur, and opening near its summit, is connected with a gland 
on the leg, which appears to secrete a poisonous fluid. 

The tongue is small and non-extensile; while the cheeks are provided with 
pouches of considerable size, doubtless used for storing food. If it be a fully adult 
specimen that we examine, it will be found that in lieu of teeth each jaw carries 
two pairs of horny plates, of which the more anterior are sharp and narrow, while 
those behind are broad and flattened. Between these plates the palate is thrown 
into a number of transverse wrinkles, like those ina duck. In young specimens, 
however, two or three pairs of cheek-teeth may be observed in the upper, and two 
pairs in the lower jaw; most of these teeth being broadly quadrangular in form, 
with two cusps on one side, separated by a hollow from a longitudinal crenulated 
ridge on the other. As these teeth are gradually worn away by the sand taken 
into the mouth with the food, the horny plates grow up beneath and around them, 


286 EGG-LAVING MAMMALS. 


till they are eventually shed. That the ancestors of the duckbill were provided 
with a full series of persistent teeth is thus evident. 

Distribution. The duckbill is restricted to Southern and Eastern Australia and 

and Habits. Tasmania, where it is fairly common in places suited to its habits. 
Thoroughly aquatic in their habits, and exclusively frequenting fresh waters, 
duckbills are remarkably shy creatures, and rarely seen, except at evening, when 
they come up to the top of the water, and look like so many black bottles floating 
on the surface,—sinking down immediately if alarmed. By quietly watching the 
stream in the evening they may be easily shot, and they will readily take a bait 
ona hook. Although gregarious when in the water, these animals live in pairs 
in the burrows constructed in the banks; their favourite haunts being where the 
streams expand into wide, still pools. In the banks of such sequestered spots 
are constructed their burrows; each of which usually has one entrance opening 
beneath the water, and another above the water-level, hidden among the herbage 
growing on the bank. The burrow runs obliquely upwards from the water to 
a great distance—sometimes as much as fifty feet—into the bank; and ends in a 
chamber, lined with grass and other substances, where the young are produced. 
Two eggs are laid at a time, enclosed in a strong, flexible, white shell, measuring 
about three-quarters of an inch in length, and two-thirds of that in diameter. 
They resemble the eggs of birds in the large size of their yolk, of which 
only a small portion goes to the formation of the embryo, while the remainder 
serves for its food. When first hatched, the young are blind and naked, with 
the beak very short, and its margins smooth and fleshy, thus forming a nearly 
circular mouth, well fitted to receive the milk ejected from the glands of the 
mother. The duckbill feeds on various small aquatic animals, such as insects, 
crustaceans, and worms, which it obtains by probing with its beak in the mud 
and sand near the banks; the food being first stored in the capacious cheek- 
pouches, and afterwards devoured at leisure. The large front paws are the 
chief agents in swimming and diving. On land these creatures move somewhat 
awkwardly, in a shuffling manner; and when reposing in their nests curl them- 
selves up in a ball-like fashion. The aborigines capture the duckbill, by digging 
holes with sticks into the burrow from the ground above at distances from one 
another, until they light upon the terminal chamber. 


THE ECHIDNAS. 
Family EcHIDNIDZ. 


The echidnas, or spiny anteaters, of which there are two species, representing 
as many genera, are widely different in appearance and structure from the duckbill, 
and have a more extensive distribution. Instead of mole-like fur, the echidnas 
have the upper surface of the head and body covered with a mixture of stiff 
hairs and short thick spines. The head is rather small and rounded, and has a 
long, slender, beak-like snout, covered with skin, at the extremity of which are 
situated the small nostrils. There are no external conchs to the ears; but the eyes 
are of fair size. The opening of the mouth is very small; and the extensile tongue 


ECHIDNAS. 287 


has the elongated cylindrical form characterising anteaters of all kinds. The skull 
is devoid of all traces of teeth, and remarkable for the slenderness of its 
lower jaw, and its generally bird-hke form. Although there is nothing corre- 
sponding to the horny plates of the mouth of the duckbill, both the palate and the 
tongue are thickly beset with small spines. The body of the echidnas is remark- 
ably broad and depressed, with a sharp line of division between the spine-covered 
area of the back and the hairy under-parts. The tail is a mere stump ; and the 
short and sturdy limbs are armed with enormously powerful claws, varying in 
number from three to five on each foot. Although the front-feet are applied to 
the ground in the usual way, the hind-feet, in walking, have the claws turned 
outwards and backwards. The males resemble those of the duckbill in having a 
hollow spur at the back of the hind-foot, which is probably employed as a weapon 
in the contests between rival males during the breeding-season. The brain of 
the echidnas differs from that of the duckbill in that the surface is extensively 
convoluted. 

The common echidna (Hchidna aculeata), is a variable species, found in 
Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea; and characterised by having five toes 


SKELETON OF ECHIDNA. 


on each foot, all provided with claws; those on the fore-feet being broad, while 
the others are narrow and more curved. In length the beak is about equal to 
that of the remainder of the head; and it is either straight or slightly turned 
upwards. The smallest variety inhabits Port Moresby, in New Guinea, and 
attains a length of about 14 inches; its distinctive feature being the shortness 
of the spines on the back. The toon from the Australian mainland is 
Jarger, and the spines are of great length. Larger than either is the Tasmanian 
variety, in which the length may be 19 inches ; the very short spines on the back 
being partially or eel hidden by the fur, the dark brown hue of which 
is frequently relieved by a white spot on the chest; while the beak is unusually 
short. 

The three-toed Echidna (Proéchidna bruijni), of North-Western New 
Guinea, is larger than any of these. Usually it has but three claws to each foot, 
but there is considerable variation in this respect, one specimen having five 
claws on the front, and four on the hind-feet. The beak is bent downwards, 
and attains a length equal to about double that of the rest of the head. The 
short spines are generally white, and the colour of the fur is dark brown or black, 
although the head may be almost white. 

Echidnas are fossorial and mainly nocturnal animals frequenting rocky 


288 EGG-LAVING MAMMALS. 


districts, and subsisting almost exclusively on ants. They are generally found 
in the mountains, and the three-toed species has been taken at an elevation of 
between three and four thousand feet. Although it is definitely ascertained that 
they lay eggs, much less is known of their breeding- 
habits than is the case with the duckbill; according, 
however, to native reports, the young, which are 
probably two in number, are born during the Aus- 
tralian winter, generally in the month of May, 
Remains of a large extinct echidna have been obtained 
from the superficial deposits of New South Wales. 


ALLIED EXTINCT MAMMALS. 


Certain forms from the Secondary and early 
Tertiary rocks of Europe, Africa, and North America 
are believed to belong to the Prototherian subclass, of 
which they probably indicate a distinct order. Their 

molar teeth have a distant resemblance to the teeth 
Saat Sean We RON Reset a oes of the duckbill, while the bones of the shoulder seem 

MAL (3 nat, size), to have comprised the two elements characterising 

the Egg-laying Mammals. The peculiarity in the 
teeth of these mammals is that the molars are traversed by one or two longitudinal 
grooves, on either side of which are ridges carrying a number of small tubercles ; 
and from this feature the name of Multituberculata has been proposed for the 
group. The number of ridges in the upper 
molars is always one more than in those 
of the lower jaw. In some species, as in 
Tritylodon, represented in our first figure, \ 
the premolar teeth are similar to the molars; ; 
but in others, as in our second figure, the 
molars are small, while the premolars are 
large and have sharp cutting edges. When %., 
unworn, such cutting premolar teeth gener- ae ; 

. k LOWER JAW OF PLAGIAULAX (nat. size and 

ally have a series of oblique grooves on the enlarged).—After Marsh. 
sides, and as the incisor teeth (a) are large 
and often reduced to one pair, the jaw resembles that of the rat-kangaroos. The 
molar teeth, however, are different, and if these Secondary Mammals are really 
Prototherians, the character of their teeth indicates that they cannot be the 
ancestral types of the higher groups of the class. 


Aard-Varks, 233. 
Acomys, 146. 
Aconxomys, 156, 
Acrobates, 260. 
Epyprymnus, 251, 
Aguchi, 177. 
Agutis, 175. 
Ais, 205. 
Alagdaga, 112. 
Alactaga, 112. 
decumana, 112. 
indica, 112. 
Amblotherium, 282. 
Amplilestes, 282. 
Anomaluridx, 68. 
Anomalurus, 69. 
Julgens, 69. 
pusillus, 69. 
Ant-Eaters, 209. 
Banded, 274. 
Great, 210. 
Lesser, 213. 
Spiny, 286. 
Two-Toed, 214. 
Antechinomys, 273. 
Apar, 223. 
Aperea, 180. 
Arctomys, 83. 
aureus, 87. 
bobac, 84. 
caudatus, 84. 
dichrous, 87. 
flaviventer, 88. . 
himalayanus, 84. 
marmotta, 84. 
nonax, 88. 
pruinosus, 88. 
Argyrodelphis, 40. 
Armadillos, 215. 


Broad-Banded, 222. 


Fairy, 217. 

Fleecy, 220. 

Giant, 222. 

Hairy, 220. 

Peba, 224. 

Pigmy, 220. 
Six-Banded, 219. 
Shaggy, 225. 
Three-Banded, 223. 


Weasel-Headed, 219. 


Arnux’s Whale, 35. 
Arvicola, 129. 
Atherura, 169. 
africana, 169. 
macrura, 169. 
SECTION V. 


INDEX. 


SECT. V. 


Aulacodus, 161. 


Balena, 8. 
australis, 12. 
mysticetus, 9. 

Balenidex, 6. 

Balenoptera, 17. 
borealis, 19. 
edeni, 18. 
musculus, 20, 
rostrata, 18. 
sibbaldi, 21. 

Bandicoots, 265. 

Bathyergus, 149. 

Beavers, 95. 

Berardius, 35. 

Bettongia, 250. 

Blackfish, 53. 

Bobac, 84. 

Bouto, 39. 

Bradypodidx, 204. 

Bradypus, 205. 

Brush-Kangaroos, 241 

Bungari, 247. 


Cachalot, 24. 
Capivara, 185. 
Capromys, 159. 
brachyurus, 160. 
ingrahami, 160. 
pilorides, 159. 
prehensilis, 159. 
Carpincho, 185. 
Carterodon, 162. 
Castor, 95. 
canadensis, 96. 
Jiber, 96. 
Castoridx, 95. 
Cavia, 179. 
boliviensis, 182. 
cutleri, 180. 
porcellus, 180. 
rupestris, 182. 
Cavies, 179. 
Caviidx, 179. 
Cephalorhynchus, 49. 
Cetacea, 1. 
Cetotherium, 22. 
Chetomys, 167. 
Chalicomys, 103. 
Chinchilla, 169. 
brevicaudata, 170. 
lanigera, 169. 
Chinchillas, 169. 
Chipmunks, 76. 


Chironectes, 281. 
Chlamydophorus, 217. 
retusus, 219. 
truncatus, 217. 
Chlamydothere, 226. 

Cheropus, 268. 

Cholepus, 207. 
didactylus, 207. 
hoffinanni, 207. 

Celogenys, 177. 
paca, 177. 
taczanowsktt, 177. 

Cogia, 30. 

Coypu, 158. 

Cricetus, 123. 
Srumentarius, 124. 
leucopus, 126. 
palustris, 127. 

Ctenodactylus, 155. 

Ctenomys, 157. 

Cuniculus, 136. 

Cuscuses, 256. 

Cururo, 158. 

Cycloturus, 214. 

Cynomys, 81. 
columbianus, 82. 
ludovicianus, 81. 
mexicanus, $2. 


Dactylopsila, 260. 
palpator, 260. 
trivirgata, 260. 

Dasypodidx, 215. 

Dasyprocta, 175. 
agutt, 175. 
cristata, 177. 

Dasyproctidx, 175. 

Dasypus, 219. 
minutus, 220. 
sexctnctus, 219. 
vellerosus, 220. 
villosus, 220. 

Dasyures, 268. 

Dasyuridex, 268. 

Dasyurus, 271. 
maculatus, 27 
viverrinus, 271. 

Degu, 155. 

Delphinapterus, 43. 

Delphinide, 41, 

Delphinus, 58. 
attenuatus, 60. 
capensis, 59. 
delphis, 58. 
dussumieri, 59. 


il 


Delphinus—continued. 
malayanus, 60. 
roseiventris, 59. 

Dendrolagus, 247. 
dorianus, 247. 
inustus, 247. 
Zumholtzi, 247. 
ursinus, 247. 

Didelphyidx, 277. 

Didelphys, 278. 
americana, 281. 
lanigera, 280. 
marsupialis, 278. 
murina, 281. 
nudicaudata, 280. 
opossum, 281. 
philander, 280. 
quica, 280. 
sorex, 281. 
unistriata, 281. 

Dinomys, 179. 

Dipodidx, 109. 

Dipodomys, 152. 

Diprotodon, 253. 

Dipus, 114. 

Distechurus, 262. 

Dolichotis, 182. 

Dolphins, 36, 48, 59. 
Amazonian, 39, 62. 
Bottle-Nosed, 60. 
Brazilian, 62. 
Camerun, 63. 
Cape, 59. 

Shinese, 63. 
Common, 58. 
Dussumier’s, 59. 
Fresh- Water, 36. 
Gangetic, 37. 
Heaviside’s, 49. 
Irawadi, 49. 
Killer, 51. 

La Plata, 40. 
Long-Beaked, 62. 
Malayan, 60. 
Narwhal, 41. 
Pale, 62. 
Plumbeous, 62. 
Red-Bellied, 59. 
Risso’s, 55. 
Rough-Toothed, 61. 
Short-Beaked, 56. 
Slender, 60. 
Speckled, 61. 
True, 68. 

Tucuxi, 62. 

W hite-Beaked, 57. 
White-Sided, 57. 

Dorcopsis, 247. — 
luctuosa, 247. 
muelleri, 247. 

Dormice, 104. 
African, 109. 
Common, 105. 
Extinct, 109. 
Garden, 108. 
Squirrel-Tailed, 107. 
Tree, 108. 

Dromicia, 261. 

Duckbill, 284. 


Echidna, 287. 
Echidnas, 286. 


INDEX. 


Kchinomys, 162. 
Edentata, 202... 
Egg-Laying Mammals, 283. 
Ellobius, 139. 
Erethizon, 163. 
Eschrichtius, 13. 
Eucholeops, 209. 
Eucetus, 29. 
Euchoretes, 113. 
Eupetaurus, 89, 93. 
Eutherians, 283. 


Fiber, 137. 


reomytdex, 150. 
Geomys, 150. 
Georychus, 149. 
Gerbillus, 119. 
Globiocephalus, 53. 
melas, 53. 
scammont, 54. 
Glyptodontide, 225, 
Golunda, 146. 
Gophers, 79. 
Grampus, 51. 
Granupus, 55. 
Guinea-Pig, 180. 
Gundi, 155. 
Gymnobelideus, 261. 


Habrocoma, 156. 
Hamsters, 123. 
Hapatotis, 147. 
Haplodon, 94. 
major, 94. 
rufus, 94. 
Haplodontidx, 94. 
Hares, 192. 
Ieterocephalus, 149. 
Heteromys, 153. 
Hutias, 159. 
Hydrocherus, 185. 
Hydromys, 118. 
Hyperoodon, 30. 
Hypogeonys, 128. 
Hypsiprymnodon, 252. 
Hystricidx, 162. 
Hystriz, 166. 
afre-australis, 167. 
bengalensis, 167. 
cristata, 166. 
leucura, 167. 


Ichthyomys, 126. 
Implacentals, 283. 
Inia, 39. 

Iniopsis, 41. 


Jerboas, 109, 114. 
Jumping Hare, 116. 
Jumping Mice, 109, 110. 


Kangaroos, 240. 
Kangaroo-Rats, 152. 
Killers, 51. 

Koala, 263. 


Lagenorhynehus, 56. 
acutus, 57. 
albirostris, 57. 
crucigera, 57. 


Lagidiwm, 170. 
Lagomyide, 190. 
Lagomys, 190. 
alpinus, 190. 
ladacensis, 191. 
roylet, 191. 
Lagorchestes, 246. 
conspiciilatus, 247. 
hirsutus, 246. 
leporoides, 246. 
Lagostomus, 171. 
Lagostrophus, 249. 
Lemmings, 134. 
Leporidx, 189, 192. 
Lepus, 192. 
zxgyptius, 197. 
americanus, 196. 
brasiliensis, 193, 196. 
campestris, 196. 
capensis, 197. 
crassicaudatus, 197. 
cuniculus, 197. 
europxeus, 193. 
hispidus, 197. 
hypsibius, 197. 
nigricollis, 196. 
nitschert, 197. 
ovostolus, 197. 
ruficaudatus, 196. 
saxatilis, 197. 
sylvaticus, 196. 
tibetanus, 197. 
timidus, 195. 
Loncheves, 162. 
Lophionys, 128. 
Lysiurus, 222. 


Macropodidx, 238. 
Macropus, 240. 
antilopinus, 241. ° 
billardieri, 242. 
brachyurus, 242. 
brunti, 242. 
giganteus, 241. 
parryi, 242. 
robustus, 241. 
ruficollis, 241. 
rufus, 241. 
theditis, 242. 
walabutus, 241. 
Manidex, 226. 
Manis, 226. 
aurita, 228. 
gigantea, 230. 
javanica, 228. 
macrura, 229. 
pentadactyla, 
teminincki, 23 
tricuspis, 229. 
Mara, 182. 
Marmots, 83. 
Marsupials, 235. 
Mastacomys, 147. 
Megalonyx, 208. 
Megamys, 175. 
Megaptera, 14. 
Megatheriidx, 208. 
Mesoplodon, 33. 
bidens, 34. 
layardi, 35. 
Metatherians, 283. 
Mice, 139. 


28. 


2 
U 


e° 


Mice—continued. 
Barbary, 146. 
Field, 144. 
Grooved-Toothed, 127. 
Harvest, 144. 
House, 143. 
Jumping, 110. 
Malabar Spiny, 119. 
Pocket, 153. 
Pouched, 272. 
Spiny, 119, 146. 
White-Footed, 123, 126. 

Microtus, 129 
agrestis, 131. 
amphibius, 129. 
arvalis, 131. 
gappert, 133. 
glareolus, 132. 
nivalis, 133. 
economus, 135. 
riparius, 134. 
roylet, 135. 
rutilus, 133. 

Mole-Rats, 147. 

Monodon, 41. 
monoceros, 41. 

Monotremes, 283. 

Multa, 224. 

Multituberculata, 288. 

Muridex, 117. 

Mus, 139. 
barbarus, 146.+ 
decumanus, 140. 
Suscipes, 146. 
minutus, 144. 
musculus, 143. 
rattus, 142. 
sylvaticus, 144. 

Muscardinus, 105. 

Musk-Rat, 137. 

Musquash, 137. 

Mylodon, 209. 

Myodes, 134. 

Myopoiamus, 158. 

Myoscalops, 149. 

Myoxide, 104. 

Myoxus, 107. 
dryas, 108. 
glis, 107. 
nitela, 108. 
pictus, 108. 

Myrmecobius, 274. 

Myrmecophaga, 210. 


Nannosciurus, 93. 
minutus, 93. 
whiteheadi, 94. 

Narwhal, 41. 

Neobalena, 12. 

Neotoma, 128. 
cinerea, 128. 
floridana, 128. 

Nesocia, 146. 

Notoryctes, 276. 

Nutria, 159. 


Octodon, 155. 
Octodontidx, 155. 
Odontoceti, 22. 
Onuchogale, 245. 
Srenata, 246. 
lunata, 246. 


INDEX. 


j Onychogale—continued. 
unguifera, 246. 

Opossums, 277. 
Common, 278. 
Murine, 281. 
Philander, 280. 
Quica, 280. 
Rat-Tailed, 280. 
Shrew, 281. 
Three-Striped, 281. 
True, 278. 
Virginian, 278. 
Water, 281. 

Orca, ble 

Orcella, 49. 
brevirostris, 49. 
Huminalis, 49. 

Ornithorhynchus, 284. 

Orycteropodidx, 233. 

Orycteropus, 233. 
xthiopius, 234. 
afra, 234. 


BacaseliDal sie 

Palorchestes, 253. 

| Pangolins, 226. 
Chinese, 228. 
Giant, 230. 
Indian, 228. 
Long-Tailed, 229, 
Malayan, 228. 
Short-Tailed, 230. 
White-Bellied, 229. 

Peba, 224. 

Pectinator, 155. 

Pedetes, 116. 

Peludo, 220. 

Peragale, 267. 

Perameles, 267. 
guint, 267. 
obesula, 267. 

| Peramelidx, 265. 

| Perognathus, 153. 

| Petauroides, 259. 

| Petawrus, 260. 
australis, 260. 
sciureus, 260. 

Petrogale, 244. 
brachyotis, 245. 
penicillata, 244. 
xanthopus, 244. 

Petromys, 158. 

Phalanger, 256. 
maculatus, 256. 
orientalis, 256. 
ursinus, 256. 

Phalangeridx, 252. 

Phalangers, 252. 
Archer’s, 259. 
Common, 258. 


Dormouse, 261. 
Extinct Giant, 264. 
Flying, 260. 

Great Flying, 259. 
Herbert River, 259. 
Leadbeater’s, 261. 
Long-Snouted, 254. 
Pen-Tailed, 262. 
Pigmy Flying, 262. 
Ring-Tailed, 259. 
Short-Eared, 258. 


Crescent-Toothed, 258. 


Phalangers—continued. 
Striped, 260. 
True, 258. 

Phascolarctus, 263. 

Phascologale, 271. 
Jlavipes, 272. 
penicillata, 272. 

Phascolomys, 264. 
latifrons, 265. 
mitchelli, 265. 
ursinus, 265. 

Phixomys, 120. 

Phocena, 45. 
communis, 45. 
phocenoides, 48. 

Physeter, 24. ‘ 

Physeteridx, 23. 

Physodontidx, 36. 

Picas, 190. 

Pichi, 220. 

Pichiciago, 217. 

Plagiodon, 161. 

Platacanthomys, 119. 

Platanista, 37. 

Platanistidx, 36. 

Plesiarctomys, 89. 

Plesispermophilus, 89. 

Polatouche, 92. 

Pontistes, 40. 

Poreupines, 162. 
African, 167. 
Bengal, 167. 
Brazilian, 165. 
Brush-Tailed, 169. 
Canadian, 163. 
Common, 167. 
Giinther’s, 169. 
Hairy-Nosed, 167. 
Hodgson’s, 167. 
Mexican, 165. 
Thin-Spined, 167. 
Tree, 264. 

True, 167. 
Porpoises, 41, 45. 
Potorous, 249. 

gilberti, 250. 

platyops, 250. 

tridactylus, 249. 
Pouched Mammals, 235. 
Pouched Mole, 276. 
Prairie-Marmots, 81. 
Priodon, 222. 
Procoptodon, 253. 
Proéchidna, 287. 
Prototherians,, 283. 
Pseudochirus, 259. 

archeri, 259: 

herbertensis, 259. 

peregrinus, 259. 
Pseudorea, 53. 
Pteronys, 89, 92. 

tnornatus, 92. 

magnificus, 92. 

oral, 92. 

petaurista, 92. 

punctatus, 93. 


Rabbit, 197. 

Rat-Kangaroos, 249. 

Rats, 139. 
Australian, 118. 
Bamboo, 148. 


iV 


Rats—continued. 
Bandicoot, 146. 
Black, 142. 
Brown, 140. 


Brown-Footed, 146. 


Bush, 146. 

Cane, 161. 
Crested, 128. 
Fish-Eating, 127. 
Florida, 128. 
Jerboa, 147. 
Kangaroo, 152. 


Lichtenstein’s, 147. 


Mole, 147. 
Musk, 137. 
Philippine, 120. 
Pouched, 150. 
Sand, 149. 
Water, 129. 
Wood, 128. 
Rhachianectes, 13. 
Rhithrodon, 127. 
Rhithrodontomys, 127. 
Rhithrosciurus, 70. 
Rhizomys, 148. 
badius, 148. 
sumatrensis, 149. 
Rodentia, 64. 
Rorquals, 17. 


Sarcophilus, 270. 
Saurodelphis, 40. 
Scaldicetus, 29. 
Sciuridx, 70. 
Sciuropterus, 89. 
finbriatus, 90. 
spadiceus, 92. 
volans, 92. 
volucella, 90. 
Scturus, 72. 
bicolor, 75. 
caniceps, 75. 
carolinensis, 74. 
hudsonianus, 64. 
indicus, 75. 
palmarun, 75. 
pygerythrus, 75. 
vulgaris, 72. 
Sewellels, 94. 
Siphneus, 139. 
Sisel, 79. 
Sloths, 204. 
Sminthopsis, 273. 
Sminthus, 117. 
concolor, 117. 
leathami, 117. 
* subtilis, 117. 
Sotalia, 62. 
brasiliensis, 62. 
Jluviatilis, 62. 
guianensis, 62. 
pallida, 62. 
sinensis, 62. 
tewzst, 63. 
tucuxt, 62. 
Spalacidx, 147. 
Spalacopus, 158. 
Spalax, 147. 
Spermophilus, 79. 
citillus, 79. 
eversmanni, 79. 


empetra, 81. 


vm 


. , 
INDEX. 


Sphermophilus—continued. 


grammurus, 80. 
richardsont, 81. 
tridecemlineatus, 79. 
Springhaas, 116. 
Squalodontide, 63. 
Squirrels, 70. ~ 
Abyssinian, 71. 
European, 72. 
Extinct, 76. 
Flying, 68, 89. 
Golden- Backed, 75. 
Grey, 74. 
Groove-Toothed, 70. 
Ground, 76. 
Indian, 75. 
Irawadi, 75. 
Malayan, 75. 
North American, 74. 
Oriental, 75. 
Palm, 75. 
Pigmy, 93. 
Red, 74. 
Spiny, 71. 
True 72. 
Whitehead’s, 94. 
Steno, 60. 
Srontatus, 61. 
lentiginosus, 62. 
plumbeus, 62. 
Stenodelphis, 40. 
Sthenurus, 253. 
Susliks, 79. 
Susu, 37. 
Synetheres, 164. 
nove-hispanix, 165. 
prehensilis, 165. 


Taguan, 92. 
Tamandua, 213. 
Tamias, 77, 
asiaticus, 77. 
macrotus, 77. 
striatus, 77. 
Tarsipes, 254. 


| Tasmanian Devil, 270. 


Tatusia, 224. 
hybrida, 224. 
novemcincta, 224, 
pilosa, 225. 

Thomomys, 150. 

Thylacine, 269. 

Thylacinus, 269. 

Thylacoleo, 264. 

Tolypeutes, 223. 

Tree-Kangaroos, 247. 

Trichosurus, 258. 
caninus, 258. 
vulpecula, 258. 

Trichys, 169. | 

Triconodon, 282. 

Tritylodon, 288. 

Trogontherium, 103. 

Tucotuco, 159. 

Tursiops, 60. 


Viseachas, 169, 171. 
Voles, 129. 
Arctic, 133. 
Bank, 1382. 
Field, 131. 
Meadow, 134. 


Voles—continued. 


Mole-Like, 139. 
Quetta, 139. 
Red-Backed, 133. 
Root, 134. 
Royle’s, 134. 
Short-Tailed, 131. 
Water, 129. 


Wallabies, 240. 


Agile, 242. 

Aru Island, 242. 
Banded, 249. 
Bennett's, 241. 
Black-Tailed, 241. 
Bridled, 246. 
Crescent, 246. 
Hare, 246. 

Large, 241. 
Nail-Tailed, 245. 
Padamelon, 242. 
Parry’s, 242. 
Red-Necked, 241. 
Rock, 244. 
Rufous-Bellied, 242. 
Short-Tailed, 242. 
Small, 242. 
Spur-Tailed, 245. — 


Whales, 1. 


Arnux’s, 35. 
Beaked, 33. 
Blackfish, 53. 
Bottlenose, 30. 
Bowhead, 9. 
Cachalot, 24. 
Cuvier’s, 33. 
Eden’s, 18. 
Mini 72 
Fossil, 12. 
Greenland, 9. 
Grey, 13. 
Humpback, 14. 
Killer, 51. 
Lesser Sperm, 30. 
Layard’s, 35. 
Pigmy, 12. 
Right, 8. 
Rorquals, 17. 
Rudolphi’s, 19. 
Sibbald’s, 21. 
Southern, 11. 
Sowerby’s, 34. 
Sperm, 23. 
Sulphur-Bottom, 21. 
Toothed, 23. 
Whalebone, 6. 


White, 43. ,& 
Wombats, 264. 

Woodchuek, 84. 
Wood-Rats, 128. 


Xeromys, 118. 
Xerus, 71. 


getulus, 72. 
leucoumbrinus, 72. 
rutilus, 71. 
setosus, 72. 


Yapock, 281. 


Zapus, 110. 
Zeuglodon, 64. 
Ziphiius, 33. 


3 9088 01506 5782