BH ~ ew a | ios aay ees iia: ! Poe ig. | (Mita sne Seas : rm Hin | 7 va by wit - 2D . ~ ak a. 'g 22 eae. Dy ays nh se a i. eer an 1) : : ye ce rs ‘ 7 a 1 I) natn Me ee ia ine , ‘ i 4 i; a, i erie Aa i (a ee 4) ie 7 oe fie oP ee an aa Phen © ap ; : 4 or els ae Ab : ron a b a ae a a nee a I nae on a os 7 7 OS ee o, ®) er | eae : : q ea ae ‘ a 0 jr. ye my Ue. Ps, oe ite) ey ene f 's a f Pelee OY AG Peer RA TES POR Y wa > > ee = a 7 a - 7 - e iD ; . w 7 7 a 7 : ay : = - a) oT e 7 jr i's ae : 7 - ze ‘ on) 7 i O 7 ; ‘ — 7 7 7 i a 7 7 7 a y - -_ 1 9 = : a * w) : f > 7 4 ! § , ‘ = a g - an) ae , an — - val i qi ata Se Nal ao ISS Sn NOUN Sle SS Wee Ke OY AL Vhs Hrs TORY EDITED EN RICHARD: LE YDERKER,,B:A., F:-R.S ETC. WIth RRERACES Big Re obey, SCEATER, MA Prt: BRS: JETC: SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON ILLUSTRATED WITH Seventy-two Colowred Plates and Siateen Hundred Engravings BY W. KUHNERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF, GAMBIER BOLTON, F.Z.8.; AND MANY OTHERS NO" TLE SECTION VI. LONDON BREDE RICK WARKNE & CO AND NEW YORK 1895 [All Rights Reserved] o MORRISON AND SS ISSN) SSS ena IBS: CHAPTER I.—GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. PAGE Distinctive Characters of Birds—Skeleton—Skull—External Characters—Plumage—Change of Plumage—Egegs—Migration—Distribution—Classification, . : : ; 289 CHAPTER II.—Prrcuine-Birps,—Order Passeres. CHARACTERS OF THE ORDER.—The Crow Tribe (Corvide)—Ravens and Crows (Corvus)— Rook— Jackdaw—Nutcrackers (Nucifraga)—Magpies (Pica)—Azure-Winged Magpies (Cyano- pica)—Blue Magpies (Urocissa)—Indian Tree-Pies (Dendrocitta)—Jays (Garrulus) Siberian Jay (Perisore us)—Long-Crested Jay (Cyanocitta)—Urraca Jay—(Cyanocorax) —Struthidea—Piping Crows (Gymnorhina)—Choughs (Graculus)—Chough - Thrushes (Podoces)—Huia- Bird (Heteralocha)—Birds of Paradise (Paradiseide)—Twelve-Wired Bird of Paradise (Selewcides)—Allied Genera—Gorget Bird of Paradise (Astrapia)— Wattled Bird of Paradise (Paradigalla)—Typical Group (Paradisea)—King Paradise- Bird (Cincinnurus)—Wilson’s Bird of Paradise (Diphyllodes)—Six-Plumed Bird of Paradise (Parotia)—Standard-Wing (Semioptera)—Superb Bird of Paradise (Lophorhina) —Bower-Birds (Ptilonorhynchide)—Satin Bower - Bird (Ptilonorhynchus)—Spotted Bower-Bird (Chlamydodera)—Gardener Bower-Bird (A mblyornis)—Starlings (Sturnide) Typical Group (Sturnus)—Rose-Coloured Starling (Pastor)—Other Genera—Ox- vi CONTENTS PAGE Peckers (Buphaga)— Glossy Starlings and Grackles (Hulabetide)— African Glossy Starlings (Lamprotornis and Lamprocolius)—Grackles or Hill Mynas (Hulabes)—Asiatic Glossy Starlings (Calornis)—Drongos (Dicruride)—Orioles (Oriolide)—Cassiques and Hangnests (Icteridw)—Cassiques (Ostinops and Cassicus)—True Hangnests (Icterus)— Rice-Birds (Dolichonyx)—Cow-Birds (Molothrus)—Red-Shouldered Starling (Ageleus) —Troupials (Quiscalus)—Weaver-Birds (Ploceide)—Ox-Birds (Textor)—White-Headed Weaver (Dinemellia)—True Weaver-Birds (Ploceus)—Masked Weaver (Hyphantornis)— Paradise Whydah Birds (Vidua)—Bishop-Birds (Pyromelana)—Sociable Weavers (Phileterus) —Cut-Throat Weaver-Finches (Amadina)—Munias (Munia)— Blood Weaver-Finches (Hstrilda)—Tanagers (Tanagride)—Violet Tanager (Huphonia)— Scarlet Tanagers (Pyranga)— White-Capped Tanager (Stephanophorus)— Honey- Creeper (Carebide)—West Indian Honey-Creepers (Certhiola)—Banana-Quit, . . 305 CHAPTER III.—Prrcuine-Birps,—continued. Frycues (Fringillide)—Grosbeak Group (Coccothraustine)—Greenfinches (Ligurinus)—Haw- finches (Coccothraustes)—Rose-Breasted Grosbeak (Hedymeles)—Red Cardinals (Cardin- alis)—True Finches (fringillinw)—Chafinches (Fringilla)—Siskins (Chrysomitris)— Linnets (Linaria)—Snow-Finches (Montifringilla)—Desert Finches (Hrythrospiza)— Rock-Sparrows (Petronia)—True Sparrows (Passer)—Serin Finches (Serinus)—Canary Rose-Finches (Carpodacus) — Bullfinches (Pyrrhula) — Pine-Grosbeak (Pinicola)— Crossbills (Loxia)—Laysan Finch (Telespiza)—The Buntings (Lmberizine)—Snow- Bunting (Plectrophenax)—Lapland Bunting (Calcarius)—Typical Group (Emberiza)— Reed Bunting—Common Bunting—Black-Headed Bunting—Yellow-Breasted Bunting —Yellow Bunting—Cirl Bunting—Ortolan Bunting—Meadow Bunting— Allied Genera, . : : ‘ : : 3 : ; . 2 She CHAPTER IV.—PeErcuina-Brrps,—continued. THE Larks (Alaudidew)—Skylarks (Alauda)—Woodlark (Lullula)—Crested Larks (Galerita)— Desert- Lark (Alemon)—Short-Toed Larks (Calandrella)—Calandra Larks (Melano- corypha)—Horned Larks (Utocorys)—The Wagtails and Pipits (Motacillidw)—Wagtails (Motacilla)—White Wagtail—Yellow-Headed, Grey, Blue-Headed, and Cape Wagtails— Pipits (Anthus)—True Pipit—Meadow Pipit—Richard’s Pipit—Tawny Pipit—The Creepers (Certhtide)—-Wall Creeper (Tichodroma)—Australian Straight-Claws (Or- thonyx)—The Nuthatches (Scttidw)—The Honey-Eaters (Meliphagidw)—Parson-Bird (Prosthemadera)—Stitch-Bird (Pogonornis)—White-Eyes (Zosterops)—The Sun-Birds (Nectariniide)—Typical Group (Nectarinia)—The Honey-Peckers (Dicwide)—The Tits (Paride)—True Tits (Parus)—Crested Tits (Lophophanes)—Long-Tailed Tits (Acredula) —Bearded Tits (Panwrus)—New Zealand Creepers (Certhiparus)—Allied Types—The Shrikes (Laniide)—Shrike Tits (Falcwnculus)—True Shrikes (Lanius)—Great Grey, Lesser Grey, Red-Backed, Woodchat, Masked and Hooded Shrikes—Minivets (Peri- crocotus)—Other Genera—The Waxwings (Ampelide)—Cedar Bird, . : ee Ae. CHAPTER V.—Percurine-Brrps,—continued. THE THRUSHES AND Warpiers (Turdidw)—True Thrushes (Turdus)—Missel-Thrush—Song- Thrush--Redwing—Fieldfare--Blackbirds(Merula)—Rock-Thrushes(M onticola)— Blue- Birds (Sialia)—Chats (Saicola) —Wheatear—Blackchat—Whinchat—Stonechat— Fork- Tails (Henicwrus)—Redstarts (Ruticilla)—Black Redstart—Blue-Throated Warbler (Erythacus)—Redbreast—Rubythroat—-Nightingales—New Zealand Robins (Miro)— Dhyal Birds (Copsychus)—Shamas (Cittocincla)—Grey Warbler (Gerygone)—True Warblers (Sylvia)—Whitethroats—Subalpine, Spectacled, Sardinian, Orphean, and THe AmerIcAN FrycatcHers (Tyrannide) CONTENTS Vil PAGE Garden Warblers—Blackcap—Barred, Dartford, and Willow Warblers—Icterine Warbler (ypolais)—Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus)—Grasshopper Warbler (Locustella) —River-Warbler—Savi’s Warbler-——Pheasant-Tailed Warbler (Stipiturus malacurus)— Cetti’s Warbler (Bradypterus)—Fan-Tailed Warblers (Cisticola)—Accentors (Accentor)— Hedge-Sparrow—Golderest (hegulus)— Firecrest—Rubycrest—The Wood Warblers (Mniotiltide)—The Dippers (Cinclide)—The Wrens (Troglodytide)—True Wrens (Tro- glodytes)—Cactus- Wrens (Campylorhynchus)—The Mocking - Birds (Mimide)—The Babblers (Crateropodide)—Typical Babblers (Crateropus)—Green Bulbuls (Chloropsis)— True Bulbuls (Pycnonotus)—Liothrix-——_The Flycatchers (Muscicapide)—True Fly- catchers (Muscicapa)—Spotted, Pied, White-Collared, and Red-Breasted Flycatchers— Paradise Flycatchers (Terpsiphone)—Fantail-Flycatchers (Rhipidura)—The Swallows (Hirundinide)—True Swallows (Hirundo)—Chimney and Red-Rumped Swallows— Martins (Chelidon)—Sand-Martins (Cotile)—Purple Martins (Progne), . : . 468 CHAPTER VI.—PErcurine-Birps,—concluded. Tyrant Flycatchers (T7yrannus)—Bienteveo Tyrant—Ant-Birds (Formicivora)— The Chatterers (Cotingide)—Umbrella-Bird (Ceph- alopterus)—Bell - Birds (Chasmorhynchus)—Cotingas (Cotinga)—Manakins (Pipra)— Cocks of the Rock (Rupicola)—The Plant-Cutters (Phytotomide)—The Broadbills (Eurylemide)—The Pittas (Pittidw)—The Wood-Hewers (Dendrocolaptide)—Oven- Birds (Furnarius)—Spine-Tails (Synallaxis)—The Lyre-Birds (Menuride), ‘ ey” ~] CHAPTER VII.—TuHe Picartan Birps,—Order Picarie. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE ORDER—The Jacamars (Galbulide)— True Jacamars INDEX, : : , F ‘ ; : : ‘ ‘ . Se PAGE 343. 350. 351. 363. 364. 376. (Galbula)—Broad-Billed Jacamars (Jacamerops)—The Puff-Birds (Bucconide)—The Woodpeckers (Picidw) — Ground Woodpecker (Geocolaptes) — Bright - Shafted Wood- peckers (Colaptes)—Golden-Winged, and Pampas Woodpeckers—-Green Woodpeckers (Gecinus) — Grey - Headed Woodpecker — African Green Woodpeckers (Chloron- erpes) — Red - Headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes) — Sap - Suckers (Sphyropicus) — Pied Woodpeckers (Dendrocopus)—Three-Toed Woodpeckers (Picotdes)—Crimson-Headed Bay Woodpecker (Lepocestes)—Rufous Woodpeckers (Micropternus)—Ivory - Billed Woodpeckers (Hemilophus)—Great Black Woodpecker (Picus)—Piculets (Picumnus)— Rufous Piculets (Sasia)—The Wrynecks (Iyngidw)—The Honey-Guides (Indicatoride) —The Barbets (Capitonide)—Tooth-Billed Barbets (Pogonorhynchus)—Tinker Barbets (Barbatula)\—Brown Barbets (Colorhamphus)—Great Barbets (Megalema)—Crimson- Headed Barbet (Xantholema)—The Toucans (Rhamphastide)—Toco Toucan (Rham- phastus)—Aracari Toucans (Pteroglossus), : : ; : : . 545 ERRATA Line 7 from foot, for “five” read “nine.” The superb glossy starling (Lamprocolius superbus), figured on this page, is a native of East Africa, and is easily recognised by the white band across the chest ; the mantle being steely green, and the upper part of the head and neck black. Line 11 from foot, for “later on” read “p. 347”; line 4 from foot, for “ Eulabetes” read “ Hulabes.” Line 10 from foot, for “ D. leucocephala” read “ Dinemellia leucocephala.” First line, after “the” add “typical representative of a.” Transpose numbers 4 and 5 in Plate. its OF WeEUis Rae INS COLOURED EALES Desert FincH AND DESERT Lark, GLOSSY STARLINGS, WEAVER- BIRDS, BUNTINGS, . WHEATEAR, Sorta, AND Wine Dipper, Prep-WactatL, AND YELLOW-WAGTAIL, BAGE PEAT ES GROUP OF CROWS, Group OF FINCHES, Group OF TITs, Group oF THRUSHES, GREAT BLAcK WOODPECKERS EXPLORING, TEXT ENGRAVINGS A Rookery, Pelvis of Kiwi, Skeleton of Vulture, Skeleton of Parrot and Skull of Gackateo, Skull of Teal, Vertebra of Moa, Shoulder and Breast- Bone of ene lees Bird, : Metacoracoid of Flying Bird Humerus of Gull, Leg-Bones of ee Tibia of Crane and Os ‘euch’ ; Skulls of Capercaillie, Duck, and Raven, . Diagram of a Bird’s Plumage, Thick-Billed Raven, White-Bellied Crow, Rook, Nuteracker and Siheran J Ly, Magpies, Azure- Winged ne agple, Red-Billed Blue Mz agpie, Indian Tree-Pie, PAGE 289 290 Common Jay, Mexican Long-Crested Jay, Urraca Jay, Grey Struthidea, : Black-Backed Piping Crow, Red-Billed and Alpine Chough, Pander’s Chough-Thrush, . Huia Birds, Twelve-Wired Bird of panadiee Gorget Bird of Paradise, Great Bird of Paradise, Red Bird of Paradise, Wilson’s Bird of Paradise, Head of Six-Plumed Bird of Paradies: Satin Bower-Birds, Spotted Bower-Birds at Home, Common Starling, . Common and Black Starling, Rose-Coloured Starling, Red-Billed Ox-Pecker, Superb Glossy Starling, Southern Grackle, . Frontispiece Facing page 349 362 » 408 480 DON LISL OF ILECSTRATIONS. Black Indian Drongo, Golden Oriole, Crested Cassique, Common Cow-Bird, Red-Shouldered Starling, . Purple Troupial, ; Nest of Sociable Weavers, . Common and White-Headed Ox- pede: Abyssinian and Masked Weav er-Birds, Sociable Weaver-Bird, Java Sparrow, Violet Tanager, West Indian Honey- Gleeson Red Cardinal and Rose-Breasted Gr sae Brambhng, Citril Finch, Snow- Finch, arial Lesser Redpoll, . Desert-Finch, Group of Sparrows, : Serin and Red-Fronted Finelien : The Canary, ‘ Scarlet and Siberian Grkeke The Bullfinch, Lapland Bunting, . Ortolan and Black- Bexded Renan. Cirl Bunting and Meadow-Bunting, The Sparrow-Bunting, Yellow Bunting, Skylark, Woodlark, and oral Tae Finch-Lark and Desert-Lark, Black, White-Winged,° and Short- Toed Larks, Calandra Lark, Horned Lark, The White Wagtail, Yellow-Headed and Blue- Headed Wag- tails, and Meadow-Pipit, Group of Pipits, The Tree-Creeper, . The Wall-Creeper, Nuthatch, Honey-Eater or Parson Bind: Metallic Sun-Bird, Long-Tailed Tit, Shrike-Tit, ‘ Great Grey and Red- Eeeied Shrikes, Lesser Grey Shrike, : Woodchat, Masked, and Hooded Shr ikes, Indian Scarlet Minivet, Bohemian Waxwing, A Flock of Waxwings, A Pair of Rock-Thrushes, . Song-Thrush and Ring-Ouzel, The Fieldfare, PAGE 353 354 356 359 360 361 362 364 365 367 369 370 373 380 384 386 389 391 395 396 398 400 407 410 413 415 416 418 422 Blackbird and Sparrow-Hawk, Rock-Thrush, Wheatear, Whinchat, and Stonechat. Redbreust and Redstart, Blue - Throated and Ruby - Throated Warblers, The Redbreast, The Nightingale, Malacca Dhyal Bird, Lesser and Common TWikitetaronts Rufous and Orphean Warblers, Barred and Garden Warblers and Blick. cap, Icterine Warbler, Reed Warbler, : Grasshopper, Rives and Seat s Warhlere Sedge, Cetti’s, and Fan-Tail Warblers, Pheasant-Tailed Warbler, . Hedge-Sparrow and Alpine Accentor, Yellow-Browed Warbler, Firecrest, and Goldcrest, : Black-Throated Green W aeniee Wrens and their Nest, Mocking- Bird, Abyssinian Babbler, Gold - Fronted Green Bulbul and Red- Billed Liothrix, . Palestine and White- Meviced Bulbuls, Spotted and Pied Flycatchers, White-Collared and Red-Breasted Fly- catchers, . Chimney-Swallow and Benes Memtin, Red-Rumped Swallow and Crag-Martin, . Sand-Martin and Purple Martin, . E King- Bird and Bienteveo Tyrant Fly- catcher, The Fire-Eye, Umbrella-Bird, Naked-Throated Bell- Bird, Banded Cotinga, Common Manakin, Cock of the Rock, . Javan Broadbill, Indian Pitta, The Blue Pitta, Brown-Fronted Spine- Tail and Red Gyan! 3ird, Lyre Bird, . : Great Black Woodpecker, . Green Jacamar, Common Green Wondpecker Grey-Headed and White- peckers, Jacked W oat. | Red-Headed een an We 00c (pecan x LIST - OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE PAGE Spotted Woodpeckers, : . 561 | White-Eared Honey-Guide, : . 669 The Three-Toed Woodpecker, .. - 563 | Crimson-Breasted Barbet, . : peor Ivory-Billed Woodpecker, : . 564 | Toco Toucan, 5 4 : a! “ATA The Brazilian Piculet, ‘ : . 566 | Black-Throated Aracari Toucan, . 5 HD Wryneck, . : : . 568 ! Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, : . 576 CHEAP Th Hi, 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS,—Class Aves. A TRAVELLER may in many parts of the world journey from one week’s end to another without coming across a single Mammal or Reptile, but few indeed are the regions where bird-life, in some form, will not present itself more or less abundantly to his gaze; and in no country is this exuberance of bird-life, as contrasted with the apparent scarcity of Mammals and Reptiles, more remarkable than in the British Islands. This abundance is largely due to the great majority of Birds being diurnal in their habits, whereas most Mammals are nocturnal, but it is chiefly owing to the Birds being more numerous in most parts of the world, both as regards individuals and species. On this account alone Birds have always aroused a widespread interest even among those who pay no particular attention to Natural History; and in addition to it we have the beauty of their form, the gorgeous hues with which their plumage is so frequently adorned, and the power of melodious song with which so many members of the class are endowed. Then, again, the many interesting points connected with their habits, and more especially their conjugal affection and the care they bestow on their helpless young, have combined to aid in producing the universal enthusiasm for what have been most VOL. III.— 19 290 BIRDS. appropriately designated “our feathered friends.” As the result of this widespread popularity, the literature devoted to Birds is far more extensive than that relating to any other group of animals of equal size. And it may, perhaps, be questioned whether, in spite of their many undoubted claims to special interest, Birds have not attracted rather more than their fair share of attention; for, after all, the whole of the members of the class are wonderfully alike in general structure, even its most divergent representatives presenting no approach to the differences dis- tinguishing nearly allied mammalian orders. It is to a great extent owing to this remarkable structural uniformity that such different views still exist as to the classification of Birds. Distinctive Char- Birds form a class in the Vertebrates ranking on the same level acters of Birds. as the Mammalia, and technically known as Aves; and from the aforesaid structural uniformity of all its members, there is no difficulty in defining a Bird, nor is there any possibility of mistaking any other animal for a Bird. All living Birds, and so far as we know all fossil ones likewise, are sharply distinguished from every other creature by the possession of feathers; these corresponding in essential structure to hairs, and being similarly developed from pits sunk in the superficial layer of the skin or epidermis. This is the grand and essential characteristic of Birds, most of their other peculiarities being shared by some of the other groups of Vertebrates, either living or extinct. Birds agree with Mam- LEFT SIDE OF THE PELVIS OF THE KIWI. « et ae ; mals in having a_ four- il, haunch-bone or as ih 2 ae ae a, Cup for head chambered.) shearer iain blood, and also in that the blood is carried to the body by only a single great artery or aorta; but while in Mammals this aorta passes over the left branch of the windpipe or bronchus, in Birds it crosses the right. In producing their young from eggs laid by the female parent, Birds resemble not only the Egg -laying Mammals, but likewise most of the lower Vertebrates. All living members of the class possess two pairs of limbs; of which the hinder pair are always adapted either for walk- ing or swimming, while the first pair are generally specially modified for flight, although in the flightless species they are small and more or less rudimentary. Except to a small degree in the penguins, they never subserve the purpose of walking, at least in the adult condition. The power of true flight, which is such an essential characteristic of the majority of Birds, is found elsewhere among Vertebrates only in the bats among Mammals, and the extinet pterodactyles among Reptiles. An especial peculiarity of Birds is the manner in which their whole structure is permeated by atmospheric air taken in through the windpipe. Thus, whereas in Mammals the lungs are enclosed in complete sacs (the pleuron), and Dsl GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 2g < are freely suspended in the cavity of the chest, in the present class they are moulded to the form of the back of that cavity, while some of the great air-tubes pass completely through them, and thus carry the air to all parts of the body. In most Birds even the bones, which are hollow, are thus permeated by air; and in the dried state they show a small aperture (pneumatic foramen) by which the air-tube enters. It is in consequence of this arrangement that it is impossible to kill a “ winged ” bird by compressing its windpipe, the process of respiration being carried on by means of the air entering the broken end of the bone. In addition to the hollow bones, Birds also have a number of air-sacs disposed beneath the skin. Curiously enough, there appears to be no sort of relation between the power of flight of a bird and the degree of development of pneumaticity, as the aeration of the body and bones is called. The hornbills, for instance, which are poor and heavy fliers, have the whole of the bones, including the vertebra, so hollowed that they are reduced to little more than shells, while in their not very distant cousin the rapid flying swift, the aeration is reduced to a minimum. Among swimming birds a similar difference may be observed, the gannet having a remarkably pneumatic skeleton and large air-sacs, while in the allied cormorants there are no air-sacs, and the bones are but slightly or not at all pneumatic. According to the old theory, the heated air in the sacs and hollow bones made the bird lighter than the medium in which it flew, and thus rendered flight easy ; but, as Mr. Headley well observes, the sight of an eagle flying off with a lamb ought to convince anyone that the saving of a fraction of an ounce cannot make the slightest difference to its flight. Moreover, the swallow has all the bones solid. That the air-saes aid to some extent in general respira- tion, and thus help in maintaining the high temperature of the blood in birds (reaching in some cases 112° F.) is probable, but this cannot be their sole function, and it is most _ 1, head; 2, neck; 3, back; 4, tail; 5, ribs; likely that during flight, when a bird’s breath- 2 sees pet ee ee prc Sate ing must be rapid, they are the chief agents carpus; 18, phalanges; 14, pelvis; 16, femur ; 7 16, tibia; 17, metatarsus or cannon-bone ; 18, toes. SKELETON OF VULTURE. in maintaining an equable temperature of the system. The function of the pneumaticity of the bones is not at present decided, and it would therefore be only entering on controversial matters to discuss it here. That one of the objects of the coat of feathers, which forms a most efficient insulator, is to assist in the maintenance of a uniform high temperature, cannot be doubted. An important structural difference between Mammals and Birds is to be found in the absence in the latter of the partition or diaphragm, which in the former separates the cavity of the chest containing the heart and lungs from that of the abdomen. BIRDS. tN 29 As the skeleton of Birds affords many important characters, whereby the class is distinguished from Mammals, it is advisable to enter at once upon its consideration. In the first place, the skull of a bird, as shown in the figures given later on in the chapter, differs from that of a mammal Skeleton. SKELETON OF PARROT AND SKULL OF COCKATOO, in that it is attached to the first joint of the backbone by a single knob or condyle, instead of by two such condyles. Secondly, each half of the lower jaw is composed of several pieces, instead of but one; and instead of the lower jaw articulat- ing directly with what is known as the squamosal region of the brain-case, it does so by the intervention of a separate bone, termed, from its form, the quadrate, the position of which is indicated in the accompanying figure. It may be mentioned here that in all SIDE VIEW OF SKULL OF TEAL, WITH THE LOWER JAW DISPLACED. existing Birds both jaws are The bone immediately to the left of the one marked P¢ is the sed in horn, and are devoid quadrate. (From Huxley, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867.) encased in ae ¥ 2 of teeth; while the two halves of the lower jaw are completely soldered together by bone at their junction, or symphysis. Certain extinct Birds had, however, a full series of teeth, and the two halves of the lower jaw separate. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 293 As regards the backbone, existing Birds differ from Mammals in that the bodies of the vertebre, at least in the region of the neck, are articulated to one another by saddle-shaped surfaces, instead of by a cup-and-ball joint or two nearly flat surfaces; and there is no constancy in the number of joints in the neck. A further peculiarity is that a number of the vertebrae of the back, together with some of those of the tail, are solidly united with the proper sacrum, while the whole long series of welded vertebre are themselves as firmly attached to the 15 LLL ae Yi N NX N ANTERIOR ASPECT OF THE DORSAL VERTEBRA OF A MOA (Pachyornis.) ns, upper or neural spine; 7, neural canal ; pz, prezygapophysis ; d, transverse process ; v, pedicle of arch ; ’ > N, > pr, ys ) I I Pp, facet for rib ; ac, anterior surface of body or centrum ; hy, lower or heemal spine.—After Owen. haunch-bones of the pelvis. In all living Birds the bones of the tail are very few in number, and terminate in a triangular bone (as seen in our figure of the skeleton of a parrot), termed the ploughshare-bone. It is to this region of the body that the tail-feathers of a bird, commonly called the tail, are attached ; and it will thus be apparent that the so-called tail of a bird does not correspond with the tail of a mammal. In the earliest known bird the tail was, however, long, and composed of a number of vertebra, each carrying a pair of feathers. The pelvis of a bird is remarkable for the great elongation of the haunch-bones, and also for the circumstance that the portion known as the pubis (p, p’) is 294 BIRDS. directed backward parallel with the element termed the ischium; the three elements being united together as in Mammals but differimg from them, with two exceptions, in that neither the ischium nor the pubis unites with its fellow of the opposite side in the middle line. Moreover, the cup in the pelvis for the head of the thigh-bone is always open at the base. The firm union of the haunch-bones with such a large portion of the backbone is necessary to afford a solid basis of support for the rest of the skeleton in flight. Equally essential is a solid union between the bones of the shoulder and the breast-bone. Accordingly, we find that, as in the Egg-laying Mammals the blade-bone or scapula (s) is connected with the breast- bone (st), by a metacoracoid (c); the scapula and metacoracoid thus jointly forming the cup for the articulation of the head of the arm- bone or humerus (/). Although in flightless Birds the metacoracoid is short and broad, in other species it is more or less elongated; and in LEFT SIDE OF SHOULDER AND BREAST-BONES OF A x A FLIGHTLESS BIRD. either case its lower expanded end s, blade-bone or scapula; ¢, metacoracoid; h, arm-bone 15 received in a groove on the or humerus ; f, furcula; sf, breast-bone or sternum.—After gymmit of the breast-bone. Usually Marsh. the collar- bones, or clavicles, are well-developed, and united together to form a V or U-shaped bone, now known as the “merry-thought,” or furcula (f); this fureula generally articulating with a process on the metacoracoid (a), and also with the anterior end of the breast-bone. The breast-bone in flying Birds is provided with a strong keel up the middle of its inferior surface, as shown in the figure of the skeleton of a parrot on p. 292, in order to afford support for the powerful muscles moving the wing; but in flightless Birds, as in the figure on this page, it is smooth and rounded. To the sides of the upper part of the breast-bone are attached the lower segments of the ribs; the ribs themselves being few in number, and distinguished from those of Mammals by the presence of oblique (uncinate) processes projecting from their hinder borders. With regard to the limbs, the bones of a bird’s wing correspond generally to those of the arm or fore-leg of a FRONT SURFACE OF THE mammal 7 the arm-bone or humerus having distinct condyles LEFT METACORACOID OF (a, b) for the articulation of the bones of the fore-arm (radius RERUNS and ulna); and being sometimes furnished with a projecting — @, process for articulation process above the outermost of these two condyles. The Ce rurculay (0516 Ceaaniace for junction with breast- two bones of the fore-arm always remain separate from pone. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 295 <= one another. In the wrist the numerous bones found in Mammals are, how- ever, reduced to two; and the metacarpus and hand are flattened and specially modified. Thus there are never more than three digits, which are usually without claws, although among recent birds two may be thus armed. The thumb, or first digit, is repre- sented merely by one or two joints (as shown in the skeleton on p. 292), and carries the so- called bastard-wing; while the other two digits represent the index and middle fingers of the human hand. Their respective metacarpals, as seen in the figure cited, are united at their two ends so as to form a single bone; while the index finger has two flattened joints, and the third finger (not present in the figure) but one. In the hind-limb there is a still wider departure from the Mammalian type. The uppermost bone in a bird’s leg (A of the accompanying figure) is the thigh- bone, or femur; below this comes the tibia, or larger bone of the lower leg, on the outer side of which is a small splint (not shown in the figure) representing the fibula. Below the tibia comes another long bone, terminating (except in the ostrich, where they are reduced to two) in three pulley-lke sur- faces, known as trochles, to which are articu- lated the toe-bones. Obviously, then, this third long bone corresponds to the metatarsus of a mammal, consisting in fact of the three middle metatarsals of the typical five-toed limb welded together, in the same manner as two such FRONT VIEW OF THE RIGHT HUMERUS OF A GULL. metatarsals are united in the hind-lmb of a ruminant mammal. It may, therefore, be called either the metatarsus or the cannon-bone. The reader will, however, now ask what has become "Oona mre | jj \ of the ankle or tarsus in the bird’s leg. To Yi! this it may be replied that its upper bones have united to the lower end of the tibia; while the lower row has joined the upper end of the eannon-bone. The figure on p. 296 exhibits the lower end of the tibia of an adult crane and eo HONS Oo THE RIGHT LEG OF A MOA; — of a, young ostrich; and it will be seen, that in B, CANNON-BONE OF SAME ON A ; : aahe LARGER SCALE, the latter the upper ankle-bone is still distinct, while in the former it has become completely united with the tibia. A precisely similar state of things takes place in the for- mation of the cannon-bone. It will, therefore, be apparent that the tibia of a bird corresponds to the tibia, plus the upper half of the ankle, of a mammal; while the cannon-bone represents the metatarsus, plus the lowc> half of the ankle. Hence, while the ankle-joint in a mammal occurs between the tibia and the upper row of ankle-bones, in a bird it is placed between the upper and lower rows of the ankle. The bony bridge seen at @ in the tibia of the crane is very commonly present in birds; it acts as a pulley for the tendons of the muscles of the front of the leg 296 BIRDS. which pass beneath. Such pulleys enable the fleshy portions of the muscles to be placed high up in the limb, and thus cause the centre of gravity of the body to be near the wings, an arrangement essential for flight. In addition to the three toes articulating with the lower end of the cannon-bone, most birds have another toe, corresponding to the first or great toe of the human foot, of which the metacarpal is loosely attached to a facet on the inner edge of the hinder surface of the cannon-bone—as shown in the figure of the cannon-bone of a buzzard in our fourth volume. No bird has any trace of the fifth toe. The number of joints in each toe, in place of not exceeding three as in ordinary mammals, increases regu- larly from the first to the fourth toe. As the structure of the base of the skull is of some import- eeited) 7 AOR cap ep on far oe ACE in classification, a few words are neces- CRANE (A), AND A YOUNG OSTRICH (8). sary on this point. In the first place, the skull of a bird is characterised by the great size of the sockets for the eyes, which are separated from one another merely by a thin bony partition. The aperture for the nostrils (immediately below Va in the figure on p. 292) may be either short and rounded, when the skull is said to be holorhinal (as in that figure); or they may form elongated slits, as in a pigeon, when the condition is termed schizorhinal. In all Birds most of the component bones of the skull are completely united together, without any trace of the original lines of division, in the adult state; and in ornithology it is usual to apply the terms upper and lower mandible to the two parts of the beak. With regard to the bones of the palate, the introduction of a number of technical terms is unavoidable. In the middle of the hinder part of the lower surface of a bird’s skull can be seen a pointed rod of bone, known as the sphenoidal rostrum, which may carry, as in (A) of the figure, a pair of basipterygoid facets (+). In advance of this is a single or double bone, termed the vomer (Vo). On the two sides of this central axis are two pairs. of slender benes, of which the hinder are termed pterygoids (Pt), and articulate with the basipterygoid processes when present; while the front pair are named palatines (Pl). From the sides of the upper jaw or maxille (Mz), are given off two mawilo-palatine processes (Map), projecting in the middle line towards the vomer. Now when the vomer, as in the fowl and capereaillie (A) is pointed in front, while the maxillo-palatines remain separate both from it and from one another, the skull is said to be schizognathous (cleft palate). When, on the other hand, as in the duck (B), the maxillo-palatines unite in the middle line, so as to form a bridge in front of the vomer, the construc- tion is termed desmognathous (bridged palate). In a third modification, as exemplified in the raven (B) and all other living passerine birds, the maxillo- palatines, although extending beneath the vomer, do not unite either with that bone or with one another, while the vomer itself is expanded and abruptly truncated in front; this arrangement being termed cegithognathous (passerine- Skull. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 207 palate). Various minor modifications of these three types exist, but a little practice will enable the student to determine to which of the three any given skull conforms. A fourth modification, met with only among the ostrich-like birds and the South American tinamus, need not be referred to till a later chapter. Before leaving the subject of the skull, it may be mentioned that the outer coat or “ white” of the eye of a bird contains a movable ring of overlapping bones surrounding the pupil and iris, which by their contraction or expansion are con- UNDER VIEW OF SKULL OF CAPERCAILLIE (A), DUCK (B), AND RAVEN (C). Mzep, maxillo-palatine ; Vo, vomer; Pa, palatine; Pt, pterygoid; +, basipterygoid facet. (From Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867.—After Huxley.) sidered to alter the degree of convexity of the aqueous humour and cornea, and thus to render the eye focally adapted to the constantly varying distance of objects during flight. External When clothed with its feathers, the bodily conformation of an Characters. ordinary bird is that best adapted for cleaving the air with the least possible resistance; the head being more or less sharpened, the body gradually swelling to a point some distance in advance of the middle, and then as rapidly decreasing in girth, while the feathers are all directed from the head towards the tail. In those birds in which the neck is not unduly elongated the whole contour is, indeed, spindle-shaped, and may be compared to two cones placed base to base at the thickest part of the body. It is essential to the exigencies of flight that the centre of gravity should be on the lower aspect of the body, as nearly as possible immediately below the points of suspension by the wings; and, in order to ensure a6 BIRDS. this, there is the concentration of muscles and other organs in this region, to which some allusion has been already made. Not only are the fleshy portions of the muscles of the legs mainly confined to the upper portions of these limbs, but the muscles which elevate the wings are actually placed on the under instead of on the upper surface of the body. In the breast of a flying bird the great superficial muscle, known as the pectoralis major, is for the purpose of depressing the wing; beneath this is, however, a second muscle—the pectoralis minor—of which the function is to raise the wing-bone, or humerus. This is effected by the muscle terminating in a tendon, which passes through a pulley over the head of the scapula boss Forene ad Tredian caves Breast... Secondary Soenee ee Bastard wing. . Zower back \.- Secondaries Primary “Y coverts..2- -.Primaries : \-Lepper Tuil-coverts DIAGRAM OF A BIRD, TO ILLUSTRATE THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLUMAGE, ETC.1 and metacoracoid, and then being attached on the upper surface of the humerus ; that bone being accordingly elevated when the muscle contracts. The same tendency to the concentration of structures is exhibited by the organ of voice (syrinx) of a bird being placed within the chest, where the windpipe divides into the two bronchi, instead of, as in Mammals, immediately beneath the lower jaw. An important external feature in Birds is the frequent presence of a gland termed the oil-gland, on the upper surface of the rump, the function of which is to secrete oil for the lubrication of the feathers. This gland, which is most developed in aquatic birds, may be absent, and when present may be either naked or crowned with a tuft of feathers. 1 For is a Kdi is i if | For this cut the Editor is indebted to Mr. Rowland Ward, in whose Sportsman's Handbook it originally appeared, Acknowledgments are likewise due to the same gentleman for the copyright of the head of the Musk-ox a Pp ee f Vol. II., which is taken from a photograph of a specimen shot by Lord Lonsdale and mounted by r. ara, GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 299 Ornithologists have devised a number of terms to indicate the different parts of a body of a bird, several of which are located in the accompanying diagram ; the others it will be unnecessary to mention here. It may be observed, however, that the ears of Birds are unprovided with external conchs, merely opening flat on the sides of the head, usually a little behind and below the eyes. The eyes, which are in most cases placed laterally and near the middle of the head, are provided with a third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, which can be drawn obliquely like a shutter over the eyeball, while the proper eyelids remain open; as may be observed in a captive owl or eagle, when the glistening white membrane will be seen from time to time to sweep across the eye with extreme rapidity. The beaks of birds, which, as we have said, are always encased in horn or leathery skin, have different terms applied to them, according to their relative length and form; the meaning of most of such terms, as _fissirostral, dentirostral, conirostral, ete., being self-apparent. A horny investment is also generally present on such portions of the lower part of the legs as are devoid of feathers; although in some cases, as in the ducks, this is replaced by a more or less leathery skin. The horny covering of the metatarsus may consist of small pieces, with the edges in apposition, as in the plovers, when it is said to be reticulate ; but frequently the front surface, as in the fowls, has a number of broad overlapping plates, when it 1s termed scutate. Occasionally each side is invested by a single greave-like plate, meeting its fellow in a prominent ridge at the back. The feathers of birds being all-important need a somewhat fuller notice. . orange-butf on the lower back and rump; the wings are black, the tail-feathers grey, with black ~ tips, the lores and throat blackish, and the rest of the under-parts orange-buff. Under the general title of jays may be included a group of several genera of closely allied members of the present The Jays. short, the tail being always more than three- fourths the length of the wing. In the typical genus the short and compressed beak is shorter than the head; the nostrils are placed at the family, in all of which the wings are relatively CROW .TRIBE. 319 base of the beak, and are hidden by stiff, forwardly-directed feathers; while the feathers of the crown of the head are long and erectile. The majority of the species have white upper tail-coverts, and the wings barred with light blue; the general colour of the body-plumage being fawn-red. Chiefly frequenting woods, where thei presence is revealed by their harsh, discordant cries, jays are omnivorous, living on almost every description of animal and vegetable substance, but changing their diet according to the season. COMMON JAY (1 nat size). The true jays of the genus Garrulus are principally inhabitants ees of the northern and temperate regions of the Old World, although one species is found in Burma, a second is peculiar to Algeria, and a third is confined to Japan. The common European jay (@. glandarius) ranges through- out Europe from Northern Russia and Scandinavia to Spain and Italy: but is replaced in Asia Minor by the black-headed jay (G. hynichi); while in Eastern Russia its place is taken by Brandt's jay (G. brandti), and in Syria by G. syriacus. Shunning open country, the jay frequents large woods, where it often nests at only a moderate elevation above the ground, laying usually six eggs, of a greyish white 320 PERCHING BIRDS. colour speckled with brown. Although a shy bird, never dwelling in the open country and seldom seen on the ground, the jay is thoroughly arboreal in its habits; and, as its name implies, is especially fond of acorns and other forest fruits. Nevertheless, when dwelling in woods bordering gardens, it is frequently tempted forth during the fruit-season to plunder the latter. Not content, however, with the vegetable diet, the jay rifles and destroys the nests of the smaller birds, consuming both eggs and callow young alike; while it also destroys a considerable number of pheasants’ eggs and chickens. In consequence of these thieving propen- sities, the jay is most cordially detested by the gamekeeper, who seizes every opportunity for shooting it; and in many districts of England, owing to such persecution, these handsome birds have become scarce. The jay flies with an undulating and somewhat heavy motion, accompanied by much flapping of the wings; and generally takes only short flights from tree to tree, although when on migration it can fly for long distances. Unlike the pre- ceding members of the family, when on the ground, the jay progresses by hopping instead of by walking. In its movements, when perching, it is lively and apparently self-conscious, the head being continually turned from side to side, the crest alternately raised and depressed, and the wings and tail in motion. A characteristic bird of the most northern parts of the Old World is the Siberian jay (Perisoreus infaustus), distinguished by the possession of a soft fluffy plumage, well adapted to protect its owner from the rigour of an Arctic winter. The adult bird has the crown and nape sooty-brown, gradually fading in tinge as it joins the colour of the back; the upper-parts being dull lead-grey, washed with reddish brown, and the rump and tail bright foxy red, excepting the two central tail feathers. The chin, throat, and breast are grey, while the under-parts and flanks are bright rufous. The Siberian jay breeds early in the year, building its nest close to the stem of a pine or fir tree, and forming it principally of grey lichens closely interwoven with dry fir twigs, a few of its own feathers and those of the ptarmigan being inserted here and there, as also stalks of dry grass. The eggs vary in number from three to five, and in colour are dirty white, blotched with purplish grey and brown. Professor Newton writes: “ More sprightly and cunning birds than these jays cannot well be, whether caged or not. In their own woods one hears their deep ringing kook, kook, kook, followed by a series of noises which sound like a conversation carried on by two or three people in an unknown tongue. One puts up a family-party off the ground where they have been feasting on the berries, and away they go through the trees with their wavering unsteady flight, every here and there a gleam of sunshine catching their tails, and turning them into gigantic redstarts. Or when one halts for any purpose, there comes a Siberian jay, at first stealthily ; but soon, if he sees no sign of danger to him, he displays himself openly, perching almost within arm’s length, ruffling his long, loose plumage, and calling to his neighbours.” Long-Crested A common bird in Western America, represented in Mexico by Jay. the bluer Mexican jay, is the long-crested jay (Cyanocitta macrolopha), which inhabits large pine forests. The upper-parts of this bird are sooty brown, passing on the rump and upper tail-coverts into beautiful, light, cobalt blue, which also occupies the lower parts. In habits it is cautious and cunning, displaying Siberian Jay. CROW TRIBE. 321 ina marked degree the acuteness common to most members of the crow family. It nests in trees and bushes, and lays from five to six egos, which are pale bluish green, profusely spotted with light and dark brown. The Mexican species is re- presented in our figure. The urraca jay (Cyanocorax chrysops) is a well-known Brazilian Urraca Jay. : : : ike species, found also in Paraguay and Uruguay. In colour it is black MEXICAN LONG-CRESTED JAY (# nat. size). above, glossed with purple, the feathers of the crown forming a crest; the nape is greyish blue, deepening into purple on the hind neck; above the eye there is a blue spot; while the under surface is creamy yellow. According to Azara’s account, this jay, of which we give a figure, is an abundant bird in Paraguay, where it is as familiar as is the magpie in England, not even hesitating to enter the houses of the inhabitants. Not ranging into the colder regions of Argentina, this bird seems to suffer from the cold during winter in Uruguay ; and at that season it is by no means uncommon to see a party of from ten to twenty of these VOL. III.—21 220 | PERCHING BIRDS. jays crowding together in the most sheltered part of a tree, to obtain protec- tion from the wind. If the tree or bush be small, and the best space limited, it may happen that some of the birds will perch on the back of their fellows, and thus form a regular pyramid. Like most gregarious pies and jays, when the flock is on the move, one bird flies off first, followed soon by another, and then by a third, till the whole party is on the wing. As a rule, the nest is built ina tall and thorny tree, and though it is strongly constructed, so coarsely made is it, ee yy Sa \K N \ ry < iS ANY ! }\ \y) MK Hi Hy) | A ee y WE, if = i i {\ \\ \' NS J DX \W AWN \ ieee URRACA JAY (2 nat. size). that the eggs can always be seen from below, and sometimes actually fall through the chinks. With a blue ground-colour, and a chalky incrustation, the eggs are generally six or seven in number, although upwards of fourteen have been taken from a single nest. The Grey Distinguished by the arched form of the short bill, which Struthidea. (Could regarded as specially adapted to enable the bird to feed upon the seeds extracted from the cones of a tree found only in the district which it inhabits, the grey struthidea (Struthidea cinerea) is confined to the rocky hill- ridges of Southern and Eastern Australia. The eggs are four in number, and are white in colour, blotched with reddish brown and grey; the nest is of mud, thickly lined with fine grass. The struthidea feeds principally upon insects, chiefly beetles. ‘The two sexes are so nearly identical in size and colour that they can only be distinguished by dissection. This species differs from many other GREY STRUTHIDEA (4 nat. size). Australian birds by reason of the sober colour of its dress, which is inconspicuous and little likely to attract attention. The general colour both above and below is grey, each feather being tipped with lighter grey; while the wings are brown, and the tail is glossy black, with a greenish lustre on the outer webs of its feathers. ais This small genus, Gymnorhina, mclades only three species, Piping Crows. 7 “ee : p ee Y «: popularly known as Australian magpies by reason of their black and white plumage, which is common to both sexes, and never varies. PERCHING, BIRDS. ios) tN f The best known member of this genus is the black-backed piping crow (G. tibicen), which is universally distributed over New South Wales; the white-backed piping crow (G. lewconota) being restricted to the southern and western parts of the Australian continent, and very abundant in Southern Australia. A third species (@. organica), known to the colonists as the organ-bird is peculiar to Tasmania, and will pour forth from the branch of some dead tree a succession of the strangest notes that can be imagined, much resembling the sound of a hand-organ out of tune; it is very easily tamed, and can be taught to whistle various tunes as well as to articulate words. The black -backed species, which is the one given in our illustration, is BLACK-BACKED PIPING CROW (,%; nat. size). bold and showy, enlivening and ornamenting the lawns and gardens of the colonists by its presence, and with the slightest protection from molestation becoming so tame and familiar that it approaches close to their dwellings and perches around them and the stock-yards in small families of from six to ten in number. Gould states that it prefers cleared lands, or open plains skirted by belts of timber; hence the interior of the country is more favourable to it than the neighbourhood of the coast. Its lively and intelligent habits and fine vocal powers render it a favourite cage-bird both at home and abroad. The crown, back, and under-parts are black ; and the nape, wing-coverts, and upper and under tail-coverts white. Insectivorous in their habits, the piping crows live chiefly on grasshoppers, of which they consume an enormous quantity. The breeding-season commences in August and lasts till January, during which period each pair of birds nests twice. CROW TRIBE. The round and open nest is formed of twigs and leaves, with a softer lining; the three or four eggs are of a bluish white ground-colour, which may often have a reddish tinge, upon which are large blotches of brownish red or light chestnut- brown. It is noteworthy that although these birds seem always to thrive in captivity, yet their vocal powers in that state vary considerably, some specimens pouring forth the full song, while others sing only in a subdued undertone. RED-BILLED, AND ALPINE CHOUGH (% nat. size). The two species of the genus Graculus, while resembling the The Choughs. aa 3 eee ‘ : true crows in form and coloration, differ in possessing long and pointed wings, as well as in the comparatively slender beak. Unlike other crows, they have a smooth metatarsus, and the feet and beak brightly coloured. Of the two species, the common or red-billed chough (G. erenvita)! ranges from Eastern Europe to China and Eastern Siberia, being no less at home in the deserts of Ladak than on the cliffs 1 When the generic name Graculus is adopted for these birds, the common species is cenerally termed G. graculus, but this is a combination the Editor cannot admit, and the alternative Linnean name is therefore taken. 326 PERCHING BIRDS. of the English coast. Formerly this species was a comparatively common bird on the western coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, nor was it entirely a coast-loving one, since individual pairs nested in the recesses of limestone precipices inland, such as Whitbarrow Scaur in Westmoreland. The chough has, however, latterly de- creased in numbers in most of its strongholds, partly owing to human interference ; although there is some reason to suppose that its extermination may be partially accounted for by the special predilection of the peregrine falcon for its flesh. The chough nests in the spring of the year, breeding principally among the precipices of dizzy clifts and headlands, deemed impregnable by all but professional cragsmen ; but occasionally it rears its young among the broken pinnacles of some ruined cathedral. The eggs are white in ground-colour, streaked with brown and grey. The Isle of Man was formerly a great stronghold of the species, and when Jardine visited that island in 1827, he found the “red-legved crows” most abundant. Even in Britain the chough occasionally wanders from its maritime haunts; and in Ladak it dwells in the very heart of Asia. Not the least interesting feature in the life-history of this bird is the constancy with which individual pairs endeavour to rear their young for many successive years in the same nesting-places. Choughs obtain much of their food on the grassy borders of the cliffs which they frequent, as also in the adjacent fields, feeding either gregariously or in single pairs. Amongst the Alps and other mountain-ranges of Central Europe the red-billed chough is in many cases replaced by the Alpine chough (G. alpinus) which has a yellow instead of a red beak, and is somewhat smaller in dimensions. Mr. Fowler says that the Alpine chough is the character- istic corvine of the Alps, as it also is of the Apennines; and its lively chatter, breaking suddenly on vast and silent solitudes, recalls to memory the familiar jackdaw. The Alpine chough nests amongst the crags of its native precipices; the egos being four or five in number, and in colour white, varied with dirty yellow mottlings. This chough is a recognised article of commerce, and as such is frequently imported to Europe as a cage-bird. Chough- We now come to a small but interesting group of birds, of some- Thrushes. what doubtful affinity, though probably not distantly related to the choughs, from which they are at once distinguished by the relative shortness of their wings, which fall short of the tip of the tail by more than the length of the metatarsus. They are further distinguished by the possession of a peculiar style of coloration, and also by their inferior size. Comparatively little is known of the habits of the chough-thrushes, these birds being found only in certain parts of Central Asia, and having rarely come under the notice of field-naturalists. The whole of the four species known to science inhabit desert regions and sterile plains. Of these the first discovered was Pander’s chough- thrush (Podoces panderv), and although many years have elapsed since its existence became known, it is still very rare in collections. Nor is this surprising, since its home is the lower Oxus, and the inaccessible deserts of Turkestan. It is not a gregarious species, nor does it associate with other kinds of birds, living for the most part in couples, which presumably pair for life, and constantly associate together, sub- sisting upon the insects and other food to be found in the vicinity of their favourite sandhills. Unlike its congener, the plain-coloured chough-thrush, the present Alpine Chough. CROW TRIBE. 327 species is a handsome bird, and attractive in appearance; the upper-parts of the adult being clear grey ; the wings white, with black at the base and at the tip; while the tail is glossy purplish black; the throat whitish; a large black patch adorns the fore-neck ; and the lower-parts are vinaceous, fading into white. PANDER'S CHOUGH-THRUSH (2 nat. size). The genus Heteralocha includes a single species, variously referred to the hoopoes and crows; while Garrod considered its relations to be most intimate with the starlings, a view also adopted by Sir Walter Buller and Dr. Sharpe. The Dill of the male is rather short and straight, and acutely pointed, with the sides compressed, and the nostrils at its base; while in the female it is long, curved, and slender; the difference being so great that the two sexes were at first regarded as distinct species. The wings are long and rounded. The huia bird (H. gouldi), which is peculiar to New Zealand, has an extremely restricted habitat, being confined to certain mountain - ranges, with their divergent spurs, and the intervening wooded valleys. The natives, who prize the bird very highly for its tail-feathers, which are used as a badge of mourning, state that, unlike other species which have of late years diminished and become more confined in their range, the huia has from time immemorial been limited in its distribution to its present haunts. Sir W. Buller, who com- ments on the readiness with which the huia becomes reconciled to the loss of its liberty, so long ago as 1864 received a pair of these birds from a native in exchange for a valuable stone. They were fully adult, and had been caught in the following simple manner. Attracting the birds by an imitation of their ery to the place where he lay concealed, the native, with the aid of a long rod, sipped a running knot over the head of the female and secured her. The male, emboldened by the loss of his mate, suffered himself to be easily caught in the same manner. When liberated in a large room, writes their owner, “it was amusing to notice The Huia Bird. 328 PERCHING BIRDS. their treatment of the hu-hu. This grub, the larva of a large nocturnal beetle, which constitutes their principal food, infests all decayed timber, attaining at maturity the size of a man’s little finger. Like all grubs of its kind, it is furnished with a horned head and horny mandibles. On offerimg one of these to the huia, he would seize it in the middle, and, at once transferring it to his perch, and placing one foot firmly upon it, he would tear off the hard parts, and then, throwing the grub upwards to secure it lengthwise in his bill, would swallow it whole. For the MALE AND FEMALE HUIAS (3 nat. size). first few days these birds were comparatively quiet, remaining stationary on their perch as soon as their hunger was appeased, but they afterwards became more lively and active, indulging in play with each other, and seldom remaining more than a few moments in one position. I sent to the woods for a small branched tree, and placed it in the centre of the room, the floor of which was spread with sand and gravel. It was most interesting to watch these graceful birds hopping from branch to branch, occasionally spreading their tail into a broad fan, displaying themselves in a variety of natural attitudes, and then meeting to caress each other with their BIRDS OF PARADISE. 329 ivory bills, uttering at the same time a low affectionate twitter ... But what interested me most of all was the manner in which the birds assisted each other in their search for food, because it appeared to explain the use, in the economy of nature, of the differently-formed bills in the two sexes. To divert the birds, I introduced a log of decayed wood infested with the hu-hu grub. They at once attacked it, carefully probing the softer parts with their bills, and then vigorously assailing them, scooping out the decayed wood till the larva or pupa was visible, when it was carefully drawn from its cell, treated in the way above described, and then swallowed. The very different development of the mandibles in the two sexes enabled them to perform separate offices. The male always attacked the more decayed portions of the wood, chiselling out his prey after the manner of some woodpeckers, while the female probed with her long pliant bill the other cells, where the hardness of the surrounding parts resisted the chisel of her mate. Sometimes I observed the male remove the decayed portion without being able to reach the grub, when the female would at once come to his aid and accomplished with her long slender bill what he had failed to do. I noticed, however, that the female always appropriated to her own use the morsels thus obtained.” Buller subsequently studied the habits of the huia in the bush. The huia never leaves the shade of the forest; and moves along the ground, or from tree to tree, with remarkable celerity, by a series of bounds or jumps. In its flight it never rises like other birds above the tree-tops, except in the depths of the woods, when it happens to fly from one high tree to another. The old birds as a rule respond to the call- note in a low tremulous whistle or whimper, and almost immediately afterwards answer the summons in person, coming down noiselessly, and almost with the rapidity of an arrow.” The huia builds its nest in hollow trees, lining it with coarse grasses and bits of coarse herbaceous plants, twined into a basin-like form. A specimen of the egg brought to Buller was of a very delicate stone-grey, inclining to greyish white, without any markings except at the larger end where there are some scattered rounded spots of dark purple-grey and brown; but another specimen is described as pure white, without any trace of markings. The whole of the plumage is black, with a green metallic gloss, the tail being banded with white. Both sexes are adorned with large rounded wattles, which are of a rich orange colour in the living bird. The bill is ivory-white, darkening into blackish grey at the base. The young differ from the adults in having the entire plumage of a duller black, and the terminal bar washed with rufous. It may be added that in the superficial deposits of the North Island remains of the huia have been found in association with those of the extinct moas. * BIRDS OF PARADISE. Family PARADISEID.£. In spite of their gorgeous plumage, which seems to run riot in the way of exuberance and eccentricity, the birds of paradise, according to the system we are * Nore. See p. 374. 330 PERICULING BIEDS. following, are regarded as near allies of the crows, from which they may be distinguished by the abnormal structure of the toes. Thus, the outermost or fourth toe is inferior in length to the third, which is longer than the second; while the first is very large, and equal to or longer than the third. According to Dr. Sharpe’s arrangement, the birds of paradise may be divided into two groups, in the first of which the beak is short and more or less stout, with its culmen shorter than the metatarsus; while in the second it is long and slender, the culmen being longer than the metatarsus. These birds, which are represented by nearly fifty species, are almost wholly confined to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands (especially the Aru group), although one genus is found in the Malaccas, while three genera extend to North Australia. Although the females are at best generally plain and ordinary-looking birds, often of a uniform chocolate-colour, the adult males of all the species are characterised by an extraordinary development of plumage, quite unparalleled in any other group. “In several species,’ writes Mr. Wallace, “large tufts of delicate bright-coloured feathers spring from each side of the body beneath the wings, forming trains, or fans, or shields; and the middle feathers of the tail are often elongated into wires, twisted into fantastic shapes, or adorned with the most brilliant metallic tints. In another set of species these accessory plumes spring from the head, the back, or the shoulders; while the intensity of colour and of metallic lustre displayed by their plumage is not to be equalled by any other birds, except, perhaps, the humming-birds, and is not surpassed even by these.” Although but very little is known in regard to the habits of these lovely birds, it appears that as regards food they are generally omnivorous, feeding on fruits and insects, and showing a marked preference for figs, grasshoppers, locusts, leaf-insects, and caterpillars. Even, however, when supplied with food of this nature in captivity they almost immediately pine and die. While the long-tailed species are purely arboreal, some of the short-tailed kinds, like the six-plumed bird of paradise, are frequently seen on the ground; and in all cases the cock-birds are fond of assembling for mutual display. Tull recently their eggs have been almost unknown, but such as have been obtained recall those of some of the rails in appearance. They are two in number, and laid in a nest built high up in the tree-tops. The eggs of the Empress Augusta paradise-bird have a pale pinkish buff ground-colour, upon which are streaks and spots of reddish brown and grey. Several of the species have a very small distributional area, but in no ease is the range more restricted than in the red bird of paradise, which is entirely con- fined to the small island of Waigiou, at the north-western extremity of New Guinea, in which spot it replaces the members of the genus to which it belongs found in the other islands. Twelve-Wired Commencing with the second of the two groups referred to Bird of Paradise. above, or the one in which the beak is relatively long and slender, we may take as a first example the beautiful twelve-wired bird of paradise (Seleucides nigricans), which is the sole representative of this genus. Having a short, squared tail, much inferior in length to the body, this genus is dis- tinguished by the absence of a jugular shield of metallic plumes on the throat and fore-neck; and still more so by the feathers of the flanks, which are BILD SOF PARADISE, 331 yellowish like those of the breast, being produced and their shafts elongated into six pairs of bare wire-like bristles, which are bent forwards in a bold curve. As regards the plumage, the head is covered with short velvety feathers of a purplish bronze colour; the breast appears at first nearly black, but in different lights shows various metallic tints, especially green and purple, the Li Z Lif \\\ YA Va Y \ WN f ES : SASS SESS TWELVE-WIRED BIRD OF PARADISE (4 nat. size). outer edges of the feathers being margined with emerald-green. The whole of the back and shoulders is rich bronzy green, while the closed wings and tail are of the most brilliant violet-purple; and the whole plumage has a delicate silky gloss. Posteriorly to the fore-breast, the whole of the under-parts are of a rich buffy yellow, the same tint characterising the plumes of flank-feathers, which extend about an inch and a half beyond the tail. The total length of the bird is about a foot, of which two inches are taken up by the compressed beak. The 332 PERCHING* BLTEDS. “ female, although less sombre than in some of the group, has none of the bright plumes of her partner, being bright chestnut-red above, with the crown of the head and back of the neck brown, while the under-parts are buffy brown, irregularly barred with blackish brown. Inhabiting the island of Salwatti and the north-western parts of New Guinea, the twelve-wired bird of paradise, according to Mr. Wallace, “frequents flowering trees, especially sago-palms and pandani, sucking the flowers, round and beneath which its unusually large and powerful feet enable it to cling. Its motions are very rapid. It seldom rests more than a few moments on one tree, after which it flies off, and with great swiftness, to another. It has a loud, shrill ery, to be heard a long way off, consisting of cah, cah, repeated five or six times in a descending scale, and at the last note it generally flies away. The males are quite solitary in their habits, although, perhaps, they assemble at certain times like the true paradise-birds.” Both Mr. Wallace and Dr. Guillemard have been fortunate enough to see this splendid bird in the living state. To capture them, the natives search the forest until they discover a roosting-place, where the hunter conceals himself beneath the tree, and having marked the particular bough on which the bird is accustomed to perch, ascends the stem at night, and secures his prize by the simple expedient of stealthily putting a cloth over it. There are three other genera included in the long-beaked group, or Hpimachine, namely, Ptilorhis, Epimachus, and Drepanornis. The first of these three are inhabitants of Northern Australia and New Guinea, and are commonly known as rifle-birds. While agreeing with the twelve-wired paradise-bird in the relative proportions of the tail, they differ in having a jugular shield of metallic plumes occupying the throat and fore-neck, as well as by the absence of the “wires.” The scale-breasted bird of paradise (P. magnifica) is the Papuan representative of this genus, and is characterised by the shield of stiff metallic green feathers on the breast, and a small tuft of somewhat hairy plumes on the sides of the same; the back and wings being velvety black, faintly glossed with purple. The long-tailed bird of paradise (Hpimachus speciosus), together with an allied Papuan species, represent the second of the three genera, sufficiently distinguished by the great elongation of the gradu- ated tail, which is much longer than the body. Resembling the twelve-wired species in its dark velvety plumage, glossed with purple and bronze, this bird has the tail, which exceeds two feet in length, tinted above with a splendid opalescent blue; but its chief ornament is the group of broad feathers arising in a fan-like manner from the sides of the breast, which are dilated at their extremities, and banded with vivid blue and green; the beak being long and curved, and the feet black. In total length this bird measures between 3 and 4 feet. It is an inhabitant of the mountains of New Guinea, sometimes found near the coast. The fourth genus is represented by the Albertis bird of paradise (Drepanornis albertisi), which differs from all the others in having a long, slender, sickle-shaped beak, downy plumage, a moderately long graduated tail, and the flank-feathers developed into a brown fan-like shield. “Above the beak,” writes its discoverer, Signor Albertis, “are two tufts or horns, formed of small feathers deeply marked with green and copper-coloured reflections. The long feathers which grow from Allied Genera. BERS OR PARADISE. 2272 JIS the sides of the breast are, when closed, grey, shot with a violet tint; but when spread they form almost a semicircle round the body, and in certain lights shine WALL STR, GORGET BIRD OF PARADISE (2 nat. size). like gold, in others like fire. Long feathers of a greyish violet colour grow from the sides, their edges being of a metallic violet lustre. The upper-parts of the wing and tail-feathers are of a darkish yellow, as are those of the back, but sometimes of a still darker hue. The feathers of the throat are black, shading off into olive colour; those of the breast of a greyish purple, with an olive band; the abdomen is white. The beak is black, the eyes chestnut, and the feet dark lead-colour. When the bird raises the long feathers on his sides and breast, they form two semicircles, and he presents as extraordinary and beauti- ful a sight as one could behold.” The female of this Papuan species is chestnut above, and yellower beneath. 334 PERCHING BIRDS. 2) The Gorget Bird This species (Astrapia nigra), from the mountains of Central of Paradise. New Guinea, is the sole representative of its genus, and brings us to the short-beaked or typical group of the family. Having a long and graduated tail, of which the central plumes are not elongated into wire-like shafts, it is especially distinguished by the thick feathering of the lores and angle of the mouth, by the presence of an erect frill surrounding the head, and another frill of a golden coppery tint round the throat. In the adult male the general colour of the upper-parts is velvety black, with a purplish gloss; the two long central tail-feathers are glossed with purple; the frill round the head is golden- green; while the feathers of the throat are steely black, with the above-mentioned gorget of brilliant copper; a ruff of black plumes springs from the shield on the neck; the flanks are dusky black, and the under-parts velvety grass-green. Wattled Bird An allied genus is represented by the wattled paradise-bird of Paradise. (Paradigalla carunculata) of New Guinea, distinguished by the lores having an erect orange-yellow wattle, while another of azure blue hangs from each angle of the mouth; the tail being shorter than the body, and the head and throat devoid of frills. Typical Birds of The great bird of paradise (Paradisea apoda), which was the Paradise. first known representative of the entire family, derives its specific name from having been described by Linneeus from a skin prepared in the Papuan fashion, with the wings and feet cut off The genus, which is repre- sented by several species from Papua and _ the Aru and other islands, is characterised by the production of the cen- tral pair of tail-feathers into extremely long, horny, wire-like shafts, the absence of a shield on the back, and the elongation of the flank- plumes into two huge bunches of feathers reaching far beyond the tail. The great bird of paradise, of the Aru Islands, is the largest representative of the genus, measuring from 15 to 18 inches in total length, and is described by Mr. Wallace, as follows :—“ The body, wings, and tail are of a rich coftee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish violet or purple-brown. The whole of the top of the head and neck is of an exceedingly delicate straw- yellow, the feathers being short and close set, so as to resemble plush or velvet; the lower part of the throat up to the eye is clothed with scaly feathers of an GREAT BIRD OF PARADISE. BIRDS (OF PARADISE. 335 emerald-green colour, and with a rich metallic gloss, and velvety plumes of a still deeper green extend in a broad band across the forehead and chin as far as the eye, which is bright yellow. The beak is pale lead-blue; and the feet, which are rather large, and very strongly and well-formed, are of a pale ashy pink. The two middle feathers of the tail have no webs, except a very small one at the base and at the extreme tip, forming wire-like cirrhi, which spread out in an elegant RED BIRD OF PARADISE (} nat. size). double curve, and vary from 24 to 30 inches in length. From each side of the body, beneath the wings, springs a dense tuft of long and delicate plumes, sometimes 2 feet in length, of the most intense golden-orange colour, and very glossy, but changing towards the tips into a pale brown. This tuft of plumes can be elevated and spread out at pleasure, so as almost to conceal the body of the bird.” In the female the whole of the ornamental plumes are wanting, and the colour is a uniform coffee-brown. The lesser bird of paradise (P. minor), from New Guinea, and several of the adjacent islands, although considerably smaller, is very similar in general characteristics. Red Bird of On the other hand, the red bird of paradise (P. sanguinea), from Paradise. the islands of Waigiou, Ghemien, and Batanta, is a very distinct 330 PERCHING BIRDS. form. Measuring from 13 to 14 inches in length, it has the flank-plumes shorter, and of a rich crimson hue, while in structure they are rigid, their tips being horny, and nearly white. The forehead, sides of the head, and the whole throat are a brilliant metallic green, with the plumes of a velvety texture; the sides of the neck and entire mantle are bright golden-yellow, deepening into orange on the sides of the mantle and the middle of the back; the rump is straw- yellow, the two central feathers consisting of two long shafts, 21 inches in length, of a metallic horny structure; the wing-coverts are golden yellow; the primaries ruddy chestnut; and breast deep purplish chestnut. The female and young have the sides of the head and forehead purplish brown; the hind-part of the head, neck, and mantle straw-yellow, deepening into orange; the remainder of the upper surface, including the wings and tail, being chestnut-brown, as are the lower-parts. Thoroughly arboreal in their habits, the birds of this genus live both upon insects and fruits; and occasionally they may be seen running along the lower boughs of trees almost like woodpeckers, with the long, black filaments of the tail hanging gracefully down on each side. In motion throughout the day, they are active and vigorous; and while small flocks of females and immature males are constantly met with, the adult cocks are less commonly seen, although their presence near by is revealed by their loud and harsh cries. At certain seasons of the year the adult males flock together in a selected tree for the purpose of display, forming what the natives term dancing-parties. “On one of these trees,” says Mr. Wallace, “a dozen or twenty full-plumaged male birds assemble together, raise up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly across from branch to branch in a state of great excitement, so that the whole tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion.” When thus assembled, the birds are shot with blunt-headed arrows by the natives, who climb silently into the “play-tree,” and seat themselves in some convenient fork. From con- tinual persecution to supply the European market with skins, the great bird of para- dise, according to Dr. Guillemard, has of late years greatly diminished in numbers. King Paradise The beautiful little king bird of paradise (Cicinpurus regius), Bird. from New Guinea and the adjacent islands, forms the type of a distinct genus, distinguished by the flank-plumes not extending beyond the tail, by the presence of a large tuft of fan-like plumes on each side of the breast, and by the two central tail-feathers being long and racket-like. Measuring only about 64 inches in length, this lovely species has the head, throat, upper-parts, wings, and tail red, the fan-like plumes on the sides purplish, tipped with green, a green gorget below the red of the throat, and the rest of the under-parts white. Wilson’s Bird The remarkable species (Diphyllodes wilson?) we illustrate may be of Paradise. included in a Papuan genus, typically represented by the magnificent paradise-bird (D. magnifica), and distinguished from the preceding by the presence of a shield of feathers on the back, and the absence of elongated flank-plumes : while from an allied genus (Rhipidornis) it differs in having no fan-shaped shield of feathers springing from each side of the breast. Whereas, however, in the magnificent paradise-bird the head is thickly feathered, in the species under consideration, with the exception of a few narrow tracts of feathers, it is bare; on Habits. BIRDS OF PARADISE. 337 which account some writers refer Wilson’s bird of paradise to a distinct genus. Describing this remarkable species, Dr. Guillemard writes that “behind the head a ruff of canary-coloured feathers stands erect above the scarlet back and wings. The breast is covered by a shield of glossy green plumes, which towards the throat are marked with metallic green and violet spots of extraordinary beauty. The two central feathers of the tail, prolonged for 5 or 6 inches beyond the others, cross WILSON’S BIRD OF PARADISE. (From Guillemard’s Crwise of the Marchesa.) one another, and are curved into a complete circle of bright steely purple. But the chief peculiarity of the bird is the head, which is bald from the vertex backwards, the bare skin being of the brightest imaginable blue. The bizarre effect thus produced is still further heightened by two fine lines of feathers, which running lengthways and from side to side form a dark cross upon the brilliant azure background.” This bird is of small size, and is confined to Waigiou and Batanta Islands, where it appears to be very locally distributed, frequenting forests of no great height, at an elevation of some eight hundred feet above the sea. VOL. I1I.—22 338 PERCHING BIRDS. v Six-Plumed Bird Another strange and beautiful representative of a group in which of Paradise. al] are lovely beyond description is the six-plumed bird of paradise (Parotia sexpennis) of New Guinea, which is the only known member of its genus. In common with the remaining members of the family, this bird has a short tail, without any elongation of the central pair of feathers, while it is specially char- acterised by three pairs of very long racket-feathers springing from the sides of the head. With the exception of a vivid steely-green bar across the crown of the head, and a tuft of silvery feathers at the base of the beak, together with a green and bronze gorget on the breast, the plumage is almost entirely black; the tuft of silvery feathers on the beak being capable of erection or depression at will. For many years this splendid species was known only by skins badly prepared by the X Mh ee HEAD OF SIX-PLUMED BIRD OF PARADISE. (From Guillemard’s Cruise of the Marchesa.) natives; but eventually it was observed in the living state by Signor Albertis, who writes as follows of his first sight of it in its native haunts :—“ After standing still for some moments in the middle of the little glade, the beautiful bird peered about to see if all was safe, and then he began to move the long feathers of his head, six in number, from which his name is derived, and to raise and lower a small tuft of white feathers above his beak, which shone in the rays of the sun like burnished silver; he also raised and lowered the crest of stiff feathers, almost like scales, and glittering like bits of bright metal with which his neck was adorned. He spread and contracted the long feathers on his sides in a way that made him appear now larger and again smaller than his real size, and, jumping first on one side and then on the other, he placed himself proudly in an attitude of combat, as though he imagined himself fighting with some invisible foe. All this time he was uttering a curious note, as though calling on some one to admire his beauty, or perhaps challenging an enemy.” From this account it would appear that the species is much less arboreal in its habits than the other members of the family. The Standard- Even more remarkable than the last is the standard-wing (Sem- Wing. optera wallacez), from the islands of Batchian and Gilolo, which like- BIRDS OF PARADISE. 339 wise forms a genus by itself, and is characterised by the absence of long thread-like plumes on the head, and the presence of two long projecting feathers from each wing, which are capable of being erected at the pleasure of their owner. Its dis- coverer, Mr. Wallace, describes this bird as being generally of a delicate olive- brown colour, deepening to a kind of bronzy olive in the middle of the back, and changing to a delicate ashy violet with metallic reflections on the crown of the head 5 the feathers covering the nostrils and extending half-way down the beak being loose and upwardly curved. On the breast the scale-like feathers are margined with a rich metallic bluish green ; while the same colour embraces the throat and sides of the neck, together with the long pointed plumes arising from the sides of the breast. The two long projecting white feathers springing from near the bend of the wings are fully 6 inches in length, and are spread out, whenever the bird is excited, at right angles to the wings. The beak is horny olive, the iris deep olive, and the foot bright orange. In total length the bird measures 11 inches. The standard-wing, which resembles the rest of its tribe in being in constant motion, frequents the lower boughs of the forest trees, “flying from branch to branch, clinging to the twigs, and even to the smooth and _ vertical trunks almost as easily as a woodpecker. It continually utters a harsh, croaking note, somewhat intermediate between that of a Paradisea apoda and Cicinnuwrus regius. ‘The males at short intervals open and flutter their wings, erect the long shoulder-feathers, and spread out the elegant green breast-shields.” It is noteworthy that the examples of this species from Gilolo differ somewhat in coloration and the conformation of the plumes from those inhabiting Batchian, so that an expert is at once able to say from which of the two islands any given specimen was obtained. Superb Bird of The acme of strange plumal adornment (which in all these cases Paradise. ig in all probability developed to attract the admiration and attention of the female, since it can have no other conceivable object) seems to be attained by the superb bird of paradise (Lophorhina superba), which is chiefly characterised by the presence of an enormous erectile forked shield of velvety black feathers, arising from the nape of the neck, and when in repose lying flatly on the back. So strange and apparently incongruous is this shield that it might suggest to the beholder that the tail of some other bird had been stuck on to the skin, were it not that its feathers are of a different type. The ground-colour of the plumage is of the deepest black, but with bronze reflections on the neck, while the feathers of the head are metallic green and blue. Spreading over the breast is a shield composed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, which extends in a pointed form along each side, and is emarginate in the middle. In colour this is bluish green, with a satiny sheen; the back-shield, on the other hand, is velvety black, with reflections of bronze and purple, its outermost feathers exceeding the primaries of the wing in length. So far as Dr. Guillemard could gather from native reports, it would seem that the enormous crest, as it appears displayed during the courtship of the female, is not only raised, but spread widely out in a fan- like manner, while the chest-shield is similarly expanded. Hence the head of the bird forms the centre of an irregular circle of feathers of velvety black and emerald, completely concealing the rest of the body when viewed from the front. The remaining genera of the family, such as Phonygama of New Guinea and 340 PERCHING BIRDS. North Australia, Manuwcodia of North Australia and the adjacent Papuan Islands, and Lycocorax of the Moluccan and Papuan Islands, must here be passed without further mention. * THE BowER-BirDs. Family PTILONORHYNCHIDZ. By no means easy of definition, the bower-birds, most of which are, however, characterised by building the structures from which they take their name, have given rise to some difference of opinion among ornithologists as to their affinities, and they have been included in the preceding family, although they are now placed by Dr. Sharpe in his catalogue of the birds in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons between the birds of paradise and the starlings. While the so-called regent-bird approximates to the former group in the nature of the feathers on the head, and the gorgeous coloration of its plumage, the true bower-birds are more thrush-like in appearance. The group is mainly peculiar to Australia, although one Australian genus extends to the Papuan Islands, and another genus (Amblyornis), with a single species, inhabits New Guinea only. They all have the base of the beak fully feathered, and the foot of the normal Passerine type. In the position of the flexure of the lower mandible, immediately below the aperture of the nostrils, the skull resembles that of the birds of paradise ; but, in a slight backward projection of the hinder extremity of the mandible, they approximate to the starlings, in which it is more developed, while the flexure is further back. The satin bower-bird (Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus) is the type of a genus characterised by the short, convex, and laterally com- pressed beak, in which the nostrils are basal and concealed by the silky feathers of the forehead; the wings being pointed, the tail somewhat rounded, and the feet stout and furnished with moderately long claws. These bower- birds belong to the eastern and northern districts of Australia. The localities frequented by the satin bower-birds are the luxuriant and thickly foliaged brushes stretching along the coast of New South Wales. Their popular name owes its origin to their extraordinary habit of constructing Satin Bower-Bird. what the colonists commonly eall “runs,” which are used by the birds as a playing-house, and are constructed in avenue form, built of pieces of stick or grass and adorned with stones, bright-coloured shells, and even bleached bones, as well as the blue tail-feathers of certain parrakeets. The natives are so well acquainted with the propensity of these birds for carrying off any attractive object, that they always search the runs for any small article that may have been dropped in the bush; and in one Gould found a small neatly- worked stone tomahawk, together with some slips of blue cotton rags, which the birds had doubtless picked up at a deserted encampment of the natives. This is a stationary species, but roams from one part of the district to another in search of food. It appears to have particular times in the day for feeding, and when thus engaged may be approached within a few feet, although at other times the old males are shy and watchful. In autumn these bower-birds associate in BOWER-BIRDS. a o small flocks, and may often be seen on the ground near the sides of the rivers. The adult male is entirely of a deep, shining blue-black, closely resembling satin, with the exception of the wings and tail, which are of a deep velvety black. The female has all the upper-parts greyish green; the under surface being similar, but lighter and washed with yellow; and each feather of the under surface having a crescentic mark of dark brown near the extremity. Young males closely resemble the females. There are other species of the genus. SATIN BOWER-BIRDS AND NEST (4 nat. size). Spotted Bower- The five species of this genus differ from the preceding group ENE by having the nostrils exposed, instead of completely hidden by silky plumes; while from an allied form they are distinguished by the nostrils being oval in shape and overhung by a membrane behind, as well as by the longer and more slender beak. In colour the upper-parts of the common spotted bower- bird (Chlamydodera maculata) are deep brown, as are also the wings and tail ; each feather of the back and rump, as well as the scapularies, being tipped with a large buff patch; the under-parts are greyish white. The male is ornamented with a broad erest of rose pink, which is wanting in his partner. Much similarity exists between the habits of the satin bower-bird and those of the spotted bower-bird. The latter species is, however, extremely shy, 342 PERCHING BIRDS. and would often escape notice were it not for the harsh grating note with which it receives the intrusion of a stranger into its haunts. When disturbed it takes to the topmost branches of the loftiest trees, and frequently flies off to another neighbourhood. Gould states that he found several of the bowers or runs of this bird during his journey into the interior of New South Wales, both on the plains studded with smail trees and in the brushes clothing the lower hills; Wf, WW, Wf] Y SPOTTED BOWER-BIRDS AT HOME (3 nat. size). these were considerably longer and more avenue-like than those of the satin bower-bird, being in many instances 3 feet in length. “They are outwardly built of twigs, and beautifully lined with tall grasses, so disposed that their heads nearly meet ; the decorations are very profuse, and consist of bivalve shells, erania of small mammalia and other bones, bleached by exposure to the rays of the sun or from the camp-fires of the natives. Evident indications of high instinct are manifest throughout the whole of the bower and decorations formed by this STARLINGS. 343 species, particularly in the manner in which the stones are placed within the bower, apparently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed firmly in their places. These stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each side so as to form little paths, while the immense collections of decorative materials is placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue, the arrangement being the same at both ends. In some of the larger bowers, which had evidently been resorted to for many years, I have seen half a bushel of bones, shells, ete., at each of the entrances. I frequently found these structures at a consider- able distance from the rivers, from the borders of which they could alone have procured the shell sand small round pebbly stones; their collection and trans- portation must therefore be a task of great labour. I fully ascertained that these runs, like those of the satin bower-bird, formed the rendezvous of many individuals.” Gardener Bower- The Papuan representative of the next genus (Amblyornis Bird. inornatus) has the beak less elevated than in the other genera, and the nostrils completely concealed. It is remarkable for building a kind of hut- like structure, fronted with what may be termed a garden, which displays a striking appreciation of beauty in its mode of arrangement. The hut, which is always placed at the foot of a large tree, is some two feet in height, and is formed of the stems of orchids, radiating and sloping from a central support, and roofed with a mass of moss, while round it runs a gallery. One side of the hut is left open, and in front of this is the garden, which is decorated with the bright- coloured berries and flowers, these being removed as soon as they wither. It may be mentioned here that the “bowers” of the whole group have nothing whatever to do with nesting, and appear to be erected solely for the amusement of the birds. There are several other genera pertaining to the family, among which may be mentioned dluredus, as represented by the Australian eat-bird (42. viridis). Instead of building a bower, this species merely clears a space of ground, which may be some 8 feet in diameter, where the birds sport. THE STARLINGS. Family STURNIDZ. Following the arrangement of Dr. Sharpe, the next family on our list is that of the star- lings, although Mr. Oates, in his Birds of British India, assigns it a very different position. All these birds agree in possessing a wing with five primary quills, and twelve tail - feathers ; the beak being generally, although not invari- ably, slender and curved. The nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead; but the length of the metatarsus is variable. The characters in which the skull differs from that of the COMMON STARLING. birds of paradise are noticed under that family. fi 344 PERCHING BIRDS. Starlings are found throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, with the exception of New Zealand. In the typical genus (Sturnus) the beak is as long as the head, and blunt at the tip and depressed, its edges being quite smooth ; the wings are long and pointed, and the tail is short and squared. The members of the genus principally inhabit the temperate regions of Europe and Asia, as well as Northern Africa. Common Breeding commonly in most parts of temperate Europe, although Starling. more rarely in the north than in the central districts of the Continent, the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is one of the most adaptive of birds, in consequence of which its range is steadily increasing, In the British Islands it has increased of late years to an extraordinary extent. So long as the starling con- tented itself with nesting sporadically in the pigeon-houses of farms and in hollow trees, as, for example, in the London parks, the public naturally desired to afford protection to so charming a bird; and there can be no doubt that it merits much interest, since it works assiduously to destroy the larve of such injurious insects as the crane-fly. At the same time it is only right that we should take into account the heavy loss which fruit-growers frequently sustain from the imroads of hordes of hungry starlings; the extraordinary numbers of these birds which visit orchards of ripe fruit almost defying description. Quite recently the starling has developed an alarming fondness for ripe pears and apples; nor does he altogether disdain wild fruit; even the berries of the mountain-ash are much to his taste, and he constantly strips them with extreme pertinacity. When feeding on grass lands, in company with thrushes, the starling is apt to play the part of a bully, robbing his gentler neighbours of their fairly-earned subsistence. In addition to being a vocalist of no mean order, the starling is a first-class mimic, and delights in reproducing familiar sounds with the greatest fidelity True Starlings. to truth. We have heard individual starlings reproduce the eall-note of the skylark, goldfinch, wagtail, and other small birds; sometimes we have been startled on a winter’s day to recognise the cry of the common sandpiper or the grating call-note of a fern-owl in the middle of a crowded city, and have discovered the author of our astonishment in the person of a starling, that is pouring forth his rhapsodies from some neighbouring chimney-top. Perfection is not easily acquired; but the starling practises his performances until he acquires a high measure of proficiency. The starling does not, however, confine his attention to the reproducing the notes of other birds; any sound that strikes his fancy being rehearsed time after time, until the sharpest expert might be deceived. Not long ago, one of these birds astonished its human neighbours by reproducing the hammering of a stonemason, who had been engaged in dressing stone. The starling nests in April, and the young usually fly about the end of May; many pairs rearing two broods of young in a season. Some birds nest in the recesses of sea-caves in company with rock-doves and black guillemots ; others rear their broods in the interior of old stone walls; while others again inhabit and enlarge the burrows of sand-martins in some perpendicular cliff: by far the greater number nest, however, about human habitations. In some STARLINGS. 345 districts the fledged young gather together in dense flocks as early as July; and with the advance of autumn young and old congregate at their favourite roosts in prodigious numbers, feeding during the day in widely different localities, but flock- ing together at their favourite rendezvous before nightfall. Myriads of starlings migrate along the British coasts in spring and autumn; hence their presence at one or other of our lighthouses is frequently the subject of remark. Many individuals ij “Ma 4 COMMON AND BLACK STARLING (4 nat. size). bred in northern Britain winter in the midland counties, frequenting half-flooded meadows and other attractive haunts. The male in summer has the plumage black brilliantly shot with purple-green and steel-blue: the feathers of the nape and upper-parts generally being tipped with buff in the form of triangular spots. Professor Newton points out that after the autumnal moult the starling is profusely spotted with buff, especially on the lower-parts, but in the sprmg many of these spots become obsolete. The plumage of the young is a dull brownish grey. 346 PERCHING BALDS. In Southern Europe the spotted starling of the British Isles is replaced by the black or Sardinian starling (S. wvicolor), which is abundant in some parts of Spain and Portugal. Mr. Tait says that it is very common in the interior of Portugal, and that it is a very restless bird, often seen flying up and down in small flocks. Although some individuals reside in the Peninsula all through the year, the bulk of the black starlings, which breed in Spain, appear to pass the winter in Algeria, where they feed upon the fruit of the date-palms. This starling nests both under the eaves of outhouses and also in crevices of rocks. Its nesting habits are said to be identical with those of the Black Starling. o ROSE-COLOURED STARLING (2 nat. size). common starling, and the egg is of a similar pale blue colour. The black starling has the entire plumage black, glossed with purple, without any spots whatever ; the smaller feathers being very long and tapering. It is shown in the lower figure of the illustration on p. 345. Rose-Coloured The single representative of the genus Pastor differs from the true Starling. starlings in having the head furnished with a long and conspicuous crest, reaching to the upper part of the back. One of the most beautiful of Kuropean birds, the rose-coloured starling (P. roseus), has its winter-home in India, from which country it is, however, absent during the breeding-season. Occasionally wandering as far north as the west of Scotland, this bird is very erratic in its habits, and many years have passed since it has been seen in any STARLINGS. 347 3 considerable numbers in the British Islands. In the summer of 1875, vast numbers visited Villa Franca; a small flock making its appearance on June 3rd, and alighting on the high ruined walls within the castle, and being followed in about half an hour by another flock of about one hundred. In a short time many people assembled at the places, and soon witnessed another sight, for towards evening appeared many thousands of these starlings, which, joining with first comers, stopped there till dusk, when they dispersed in numerous troops over the open country. On the following day from twelve to fourteen thousand rose-coloured starlings arrived and took entire possession of the castle; driving away by the force of superior numbers the common starlings, pigeons, and all other birds that nested in the ruins, and proceeding to fill every available hole and fissure. The birds began to lay about the 17th of June, the eggs being of a uniform white colour with a greenish tinge. The young were hatched about the 10th July, and were fed exclusively upon locusts. The old birds foraged in the country in flights of from ten to twenty, or even forty, returning in the same united fashion to their offspring. The rose- coloured starling is one of the most sociable and cheerful of birds. “Always busy and restless,” says Signor de Betta, “it may be seen running here and there, accompanying every movement with its cries. The song of the male is a continual chatter, mixed with harsh and disagreeable sounds ; both one and the other begin in the early morning, continuing for a length of time, and renewed at intervals after feeding. The males, always at strife, may be seen pursuing one another and exchanging blows with their bills, while in the most curious attitudes and with their long black crests elevated and expanded. They exhibit great affection for the hen birds which, never leaving the nest during the period of incubation, are protected and fed by them with all assiduity.” These birds will not unfrequently associate with the common starling ; and they retain their vivacious character even in captivity, where they form some of the most charming of aviary birds, darting to and fro on rapid flights or singing from some favourite perch. The male in summer-plumage has the head, crest, wings, and tail black, with a blue or violet gloss; the back and breast being of a beautiful rose colour, which is suffused with brown in the winter plumages. The young are uniform light greyish brown above, with the wings and tail dark brown edged with buff; the throat and lower parts being dull buffish-white. There are numerous other genera of the family into the consider- ation of which the limits of our space forbid our entermg. Among these are the true mynas (Sturnia) of India, distinguished from Stwrnus by the beak being more slender, shorter than the head, and narrowing to a point; and differing from the allied Agropsar by the middle tail feathers being longer than the outer pairs. The pied starling (Stwrnopastor) of India, as well as the African wattled starling (Dilophus), likewise belong to this group. Among the most useful of South African birds, from their habit of feeding on the parasites which infest domestic and other cattle, the Other Genera. Ox-Peckers. ox-peckers are very unlike starlings in general appearance ; from which they are distinguished by the beak being stout, broad at the base, and nearly straight, with the nostrils bare. The wings are long, with the first quill very short, and 348 PERCHING BIRDS. the second nearly equal in length to the third; the tail being long, broad, and wedge-shaped ; while the feet are strong, and furnished with sharp-curved claws, by means of which the birds retain their hold on the slippery skin of buffaloes. One species of ox-pecker inhabits North-Eastern Africa, Senegambia, and the Transvaal; while the South African ox-pecker (Buphaga africana) is found in Natal, and the red-billed species (B. erythrorhyncha) in most parts of Central Africa. RED-BILLED OX-PECKER (% nat. size). These birds fly in small parties of six or eight, and have a somewhat laboured flight ; they may be observed climbing over the oxen in a team, much as a wood- pecker climbs a tree; and the cattle for the most part enjoy the operation of being freed from the ticks and other pests with which they are infested. On the first arrival of a flock of these birds, the cattle are, however, apt to be alarmed, and start GLOSSY STARLINGS. 349 off as if they had been attacked by gad-flies. It must not be supposed that these birds confine their attention to cattle, since they perform the same kind offices for rhinoceroses, elephants, antelopes, and probably almost all the larger African mammals. Although not loud, the notes of the ox-peckers are harsh and grating; and are always uttered when a flock approaches cattle to feed. Nothing appears to be ascertained as to the breeding-habits of these birds. In the figured species the general colour of the upper-parts is greyish brown; the wings being black, the tail brown, the throat grey, the under-parts pale fulvous, and the beak red. * GLOSSY STARLINGS AND GRACKLES. Family HULABETIDE. Whereas the true starlings and their allies have no trace of bristles at the rictus of the gape, and lay uniformly coloured eggs, the members of the present African and Asiatic family possess such bristles, and lay spotted eggs. Moreover, the members of the present family are mainly or entirely arboreal, instead of hunt- ing for a large portion of their food on the ground. African Glossy The most beautiful members of all the starling-lke birds are Starlings. undoubtedly the African glossy starlings, of which a group of three species is represented in our coloured illustration. All the African glossy starlings are neatly-built birds, with the beak strong, of moderate length, compressed, swollen at the base, and notched; the nostrils being situated about the middle. The wings are large, the feet long and strong, and the tail of variable length; while the plumage is remarkable for its brilliant gloss, being generally adorned with shades of bluish green, violet, purple or copper-colour. Such species as have long graduated tails may be included in Lamprotornis, while those in which the tail is short and squared are classed as Lamprocolius. The glossy starlings are gregarious birds, ranging all over Africa, and feeding on vegetable as well as animal substances. Uttering harsh clamorous notes, they are rapid in their flight and lively in their movements; and while generally dwelling high up in the branches of the forest trees, they descend at times to pick up insects and other food on the ground. From the retiring habits of most of the species, they are but seldom seen. They either build in holes of trees, or make large cup-shaped nests, in which are deposited five or six spotted eggs. Long-Tailed This species (L. wnews), which is the one represented in the upper Glossy Starling. fioure of our coloured Plate, is a denizen of West Africa, although also ranging into the southern, eastern, and central districts of that continent. Measuring about 20 inches in total length, of which two-thirds are occupied by the long, graduated tail, this bird has the head, chin, and upper part of the throat black, with a golden lustre; the upper-parts and wings being dark metallic green, and the upper wing-coverts ornamented with small black spots; the middle of the throat, as well as the upper tail-coverts, tail, and under-parts being dark purple- violet, marked with darker cross-bands; while the middle of the breast is copper- red. The upper wing-coverts have black spots. The iris of the eye is yellow; 350 PERCHING BIRDS. and the beak and feet are black. Feeding largely upon insects, these birds are more terrestrial in their habits than many others of the group. Green Glossy The green glossy starling (Lamprocolius chalybeus), which is Starling. shown in the lower figure of our Plate, is an inhabitant of North- Eastern Africa, and is selected as a good example of the second genus of the group. With the exception of a spot in the region of the ear and the under wing-coverts, the whole plumage is of a steely bluish green, the secondaries and the feathers of the upper wing-coverts being marked at the end with a round blackish spot. Such THE SUPERB GLOSSY STARLING. is the wonderful shimmer of the plumage, which is similar in both sexes, that it shows totally different tints according to the light, and indeed can scarcely be described in words. In the young only the upper-parts are metallic green, the under-parts being dark brownish grey, devoid of lustre. Although typically an inhabitant of Abyssinia, this beautiful bird ranges into Senegambia. It frequents alike the thickly-wooded river-valleys and the high mountains, ascending in Abyssinia to an elevation of some ten thousand feet ; and while generally going about in pairs, in the breeding-season congregates in small flocks. Both in flight and general habits it resembles the European starling. White-Bellied The pretty little bird (L. lewcogaster), depicted in the middle figure Glossy Starling. of the Plate, is our last representative of the group, and differs DRONGOS. 351 9 considerably in coloration from the foregoing species. The whole of the upper- parts and the throat, as far as the breast, are purplish blue, with a wonderful violet shimmer in certain lights; while the remainder of the under-parts are white, and the wings blackish brown, with a violet tinge; the whole of the darker portion of the plumage being shot with a coppery lustre. This bird is distributed over the whole of Central Africa, and extends northwards into Abyssinia and Western Arabia. A truly arboreal species, it is found both on the plains and in the SOUTHERN GRACKLE (2 nat. size). mountains, generally associating in parties of from six to twenty individuals; its general habits being very similar to those of the other members of the group. The Grackles, Not to be confounded with the true mynas, mentioned later on, or Hill-Mynas. the crackles, or hill-mynas of India and the adjacent regions, are birds of glossy black plumage, easily distinguished by the presence of fleshy yellow or orange wattles on the head. The beak is thick, high, curved, and shorter than the head; while the feathers of the crown are short and inwardly curved, with a kind of parting down the middle of the head; the wing being rather blunt, the tail short and nearly squared, and the foot strong. The southern grackle (Hulabetes religiosa), of Southern India and Ceylon may be taken as a well-known example of the genus; and is distinguished from the others by having bare skin on the sides of the neck, and two long patches on the neck. Its whole plumage is glossy black, with the exception of a patch of white 352 PERCHING BIRDS. at the base of most of the primaries; the wattles are naked, being rich yellow, the beak orange-yellow, and the legs and feet citron-yellow. The total length of the adult is about 10 inches. Young birds have a dull black plumage, and are devoid of wattles. Like its kindred, this bird is either resident in one spot throughout the year, or only locally migratory; it is chiefly confined to the large forests of Western India or Ceylon; but other species inhabit the outer Himalaya. The southern grackle breeds from March to October; generally laying only a pair of eggs, which are deposited in holes in trees. Its food consists entirely of various fruits, which it obtains among the higher branches of its native forests. All the grackles learn to whistle and talk when in captivity, and as they are excellent mimics they are much prized by the natives of India as cage-birds. Asiatic Glossy These birds differ from the grackles in having no wattles; their Starlings. plumage is highly glossy; the beak is short, with the culmen curved ; the nostrils are small and round; and the wing is long and sharp, and the tail of moderate length, and graduated. Mr. Oates remarks that he is not aware how nearly related these birds are to the African glossy starlings, although there appear to be important differences between some of them. The range of the genus extends from South-Eastern Asia to Australia; the Indian glossy starling (Calornis calybeius) being the only representative in the country from which it takes its name. The whole plumage is black, with a brilliant green gloss on most of it. * THE DRONGOS. Family DICRURIDZ. The drongos, or king-crows, of South-Eastern Asia and Africa, form an easily recognised family, which is placed here by Dr. Sharpe, although Myr. Oates considers that its affinities are rather with the creepers, while other writers place it with the shrikes. Their generally black plumage, and deeply-forked tail of ten feathers, serve at once to distinguish drongos from all other members of the order. The edges of both mandibles are smooth, with a single notch in the upper one; the wing has ten primary quills, and the nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead. Both sexes are alike; and the young differ from their parents only by their plumage being paler. Several of the species have the head crested, and there are always bristles at the base of the beak. Entirely insectivorous, the drongos are habitually upon the wing, darting from a tree to catch an insect, and returning speedily to the same or another perch; and they are likewise fairly endowed with vocal powers. Much alike in general characters, these birds present considerable difficulty in distinguishing the genera and species. In addition to the typical genus Dicrurus, as represented by the Indian black drongo, or king-crow (D. ater), ranging from Afghanistan to China, and several other species, Mr. Oates recognises no less than six genera of the family in India. Two species, which may be included in the type genus, are found in South Africa; while Australia has but a single representative (Chibia bracteata). The black drongo, which has the entire plumage deep black ORIOLES. 353 with a steely-blue gloss, but the under tail-coverts generally tipped with white, is one of the most familiar of Indian birds, both in the hills and the plains, generally selecting the most exposed and barren tree or post for its perching-place. The nest, which is generally placed in a thickly-leafed bough, is composed of fine twigs and THE BLACK INDIAN DRONGO. grass, covered externally with cobwebs. Usually four, although occasionally five in number, the eggs may be either uniformly pure white, or salmon colour with brownish spots. Not unfrequently this bird may be observed perched on the back of cattle searching for insects. THE ORIOLES. Family ORIOLID. The orioles comprise a number of birds from the temperate and _ tropical portions of the Old World, in which the bill is as long as the head, and gently curved to the tip, where it is notched ; the head is never crested ; the wings are long, with the first three quills equally graduated, and the third and fourth longest ; while the tail is moderate and rounded; and the toes are free at the base, and have long curved claws. The nostrils are bare, and placed well in front of the base of the beak, and this character, together with the presence of twelve tail-feathers, at once distinguishes them from the drongos. Brilliant yellow generally adorns the plumage of the male orioles; in others the lower-parts are variegated with rich crimson. They are birds of frugivorous habits, and frequent forest trees in VOL, III.—23 354 PERCHING BIRDS. preference to smaller cover. They are divided only into two genera, of which Oriolus has the lores feathered, while in Sphecotheres they are naked. Orioles inhabit the temperate parts of Europe, the whole of Africa, India, China, the Malayan Provinces, the Indian Islands, and Australia. Of the numerous birds visiting Northern Europe in the spring no species is better known than the golden oriole (0. galbula), at which time this bird may be observed migrating in small numbers; both sexes journeying in company. At this season the birds are silent, and seem anxious to Golden Oriole. LS=SSs LSS SS = S33 = ——=—= 4 = THE GOLDEN ORIOLE (3 nat. size). escape notice, although, as they arrive before the beech trees (which clothe the mountain-sides in the north of Spain) have unfolded their leaves, they have some difficulty in concealing their brilliant plumage among the bare twigs. The oriole on the Continent reaches its nesting-haunts about the end of April, and at once claims its own peculiar area of forest. Each pair confines itself to a certain portion of a great wood, the intrusion of a strange male into the haunts of a pair of breeding birds being certain to result in a fight. Although the golden oriole is shy and retiring in Europe, its cousin is by no means so in India, where it often perches on a tree immediately over the tent of the traveller, and there pours out its flute-like notes. In addition to these flute-like tones, both sexes have also a cat-like call. The nest is usually placed on a bough, CASSIQUES AND HANGNESTS. 355 and the young are attended with remarkable care by the parents. Although feeding mainly upon insects, which are often taken on the ground, the golden oriole during the fruit-season lays toll on the orchard. The range of the golden oriole includes the whole of Europe, except the extreme north, as well as Persia and other parts of South-Western Asia. In winter this species visits South Africa. The bright colour of the male golden oriole renders it peculiarly liable to be attacked by the sparrow-hawk; and, in such a contingency, the oriole does not trust to his thrush-like flight enabling him to elude his tormentor in the open, but on the earliest opportunity seeks refuge in the densest thickets available as cover. The oriole forms a good cage-bird; although old birds are not easily reconciled to the loss of their freedom, and are apt to pine away. Young birds, on the other hand, are easily tamed. The adult male of this species is rich golden-yellow above; the wings being black, the primary coverts broadly edged with yellow, which forms a conspicuous spot; the tail is black, tipped with yellow, the outer feathers having more yellow than black; while the entire under-surface is golden-yellow. The female differs from the male in having the back and scapulars tinged with green. Among thirty odd species of the genus, we may select for mention the green oriole (0. viridis) of New South Wales, which frequents orchards and gardens, where it fills the summer air with its melodious notes. ‘This oriole, says Prof. Ramsay, may often be seen perched on some shady tree, with its head thrown back, showing to perfection its mottled breast, singing in a low tone, and imitating the notes of many birds, such as the black magpie. While feeding, it frequently utters a harsh guttural sort of squeak; and, during the breeding-season, which commences at the end of September, and ends in January, it confines itself to a monotonous although melodious ery, the first part of which is quickly repeated, and ends in a lower note. This oriole builds a cup-shaped. nest, principally composed of shreds of the bark of a species of gum-tree, strongly woven together, and lined with leaves, or grass and hair; which is generally suspended between a fork at the extreme end of some horizontal bough, often in an exposed situation. The eggs vary in ground-colour from cream to dull white or very light brown, minutely dotted and blotched with umber and blackish brown. Green orioles feed principally on berries and wild fruits, particularly figs; although they sometimes capture insects on the wing. The adult male is dull yellowish olive above; the wings and tail being brown, washed with grey; while the throat is dull olivaceous; the fore-neck greyish, and the breast and sides of the body white, washed with olive-yellow, each feather having a dark central streak. The sexes when adult are almost identical in colour, but the male has the olive of the upper-parts of a deeper tint than the female. Green Oriole. * THE CASSIQUES AND HANGNESTS. Family JCTERIDA, To a certain extent intermediate in structure between the crows and the finches, and agreeing with the starlings in the general structure of the skull, and 356 PERCHING .BIRDS. especially the backward prolongation of the hinder extremity of the lower mandible, the large assemblage of American birds known as cassiques and hang- nests may be regarded as the New World representatives of the starlings of the Old World, although, so far as habits are concerned, it does not appear that there is any very marked structural affinity between the two families. Distinguished by the length and slenderness of the beak, which in most cases equals the head in THE CRESTED CASSIQUE (2 nat. size). length, these birds generally possess pointed wings, which have never more than nine primaries; they have strong feet, and chiefly black plumage. Among the numerous genera only a few can be selected for notice. Congregating in flocks, after the manner of starlings, many of these birds build the long, pendent, bottle- like nests, from which the name of the family is derived. The family may be divided into three groups, the first comprising the rice-birds and cow-birds, the second the true hangnests, and the third the troupials; the characters of which are pointed out below. CASSIQUES AND HANGNESTS. 357 The first subfamily (Cassicinw) is represented by several closely allied genera, among which the crested cassique (Ostinops decumanus) of South America, and the yellow cassique (Cassicus persicus), which is likewise South American, are well-known species. It will be unnecessary here to mention the characters by which these genera are severally distinguished from one another; and it will suffice to say that the subfamily to which these belong is characterised by the naked exposed nostrils, and the presence of a shield on the forehead at the base of the beak. The crested cassique is characterised by the small crest from which it takes its name; and while the general colour of the upper-parts is deep black, with the feathers of the mantle and shoulders shaded with brown, and the upper and lower tail-coverts chestnut, the five outermost pairs of tail-feathers are a brilliant citron-yellow. The elongated form of the nest characterismg the crested cassique is sufficiently indicated in our illustration. The True The true hangnests, as represented by a large number of species Hangnests. yanging from North and Central America to Southern Brazil and Bolivia, constitute (together with an allied genus containing one species) a second subfamily (Zcterine) in which the nostrils are more or less covered by a membrane, while the culmen of the beak is more or less incurved, and there is no shield on the forehead; the metatarsus being short, the feet adapted for perching, and the tail rounded. As a rule, the plumage is bright orange and yellow, relieved with black and white; the sexes being in some cases similar, and in others very dissimilar. Unlike the members of the preceding subfamily, these hangnests are thoroughly arboreal in their habits, and while the majority construct pendant nests like those of the cassiques, others appear to build open cup-shaped nests. The eggs are bluish or pinkish white, profusely spotted with purple and red. The best known species is the Baltimore hangnest (/cterus galbula), frequently termed the Baltimore oriole, of the United States. These birds build in large companies, the males generally arriving first at the breeding-places, where they are soon joined by their partners. ‘The nest is wider and less elongated than that of the crested cassique. On a single tree sometimes as many as forty nests may be observed ; and during November they will be found to contain both eggs and young birds. All the numerous species of the genus Jcterus are good songsters, the notes of the Baltimore hangnest being especially melodious. Belonging to another subfamily (A gelwine) differing from the last by the straight culmen of the beak and the elongated metatarsus, this genus, as typified by the common rice-bird or bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), is characterised by the short and conical beak, the long and pointed wings, the rigid acuminate feathers of the tail, and the stout and long-clawed feet. An inhabitant of North America, where it is especially common in the States, this well-known bird winters in Central America and the West Indies, returning northwards in vast flocks along the Atlantic coast in spring, when the males are in nearly full breeding-plumage, and are thus very conspicuous as they flock to the meadows and orchards. “Their number,” says Dr. Coues, “seems out of all proportion to that of the females, but this is probably due to the silent and more retiring ways of the latter sex. They really pass through, in the vernal migration, quite rapidly, though they do not Cassiques. Rice-Birds. 358 PERCHING BIRDS. appear to be at all in a hurry, as we see them by day. They throw themselves in a field, scatter on the ground feeding, and at the slightest alarm, or in mere wanton- ness, suddenly fly en masse to the nearest tree, fence, or bush, and begin to sing, producing an indescribable medley, hushed in an instant only to be resumed. Sometimes they sing as merrily, though with less concerted action, while they are rambling in the grass. Their daytime leisure for song and food is easily explained ; for they migrate at this season almost entirely by night. Every night in early May, as we walk the streets, we can hear the mellow metallic clinking coming down through the darkness, from birds passing high overhead, and sounding clearer in the stillness. By the middle of May they have all passed; a few, it is stated, linger to breed south of New England, but the main body passes on, spreading over that portion of the Union and the neighbouring British provinces, occupying in pairs almost every meadow. The change of plumage is completed before the return movement is made.” Millions return on their southern journey, late in the summer and during September. They are now songless, but have a comfortable, self-satisfied chink, befitting such fat and abandoned gourmands as they are, thronging in countless hordes the wild rice-tracts and the grain-fields. So they go until the first cold snap that sends them into winter-quarters at once. The bobolink nests upon the ground, making a rude and flimsy structure of dried grass, which is artfully concealed. It lays four or five eggs, bluish-white in ground- colour, blotched and spotted with dark chocolate. The male in the breeding- season has the head and lower-parts black; the hind-neck buff; the scapulars, rump, and upper tail-coverts ashy white; the interscapulars streaked with black, buff, and ashy; and the outer quills edged with yellowish. The nuptial garb just described is, however, unlike the plain plumage worn by both sexes after the breeding-season, when the general colour of the plumage is yellowish brown above, and brownish yellow below; the crown and back being conspicuously streaked with black, and the wings and tail blackish. Nearly allied to the last genus, the cow-birds possess a short, conical bill, long and pointed wings, slightly rounded tail, and strong feet. In the majority of the species black is the prevailing colour, being sometimes lustrous, with bronzed reflections. The cow-birds are mainly a South American genus, although one species is only too well known in the United States. Some of the species seize upon the nests of other birds, and having driven away the rightful possessors, proceed to rear their own young in their new home. The majority, how- ever, are more truly parasitical, depositing their eggs in other birds’ nests, and leaving the strangers to hatch and rear their own offspring. The common cow-bird (Molothrus pecoris) of the United States is a polygamous species; the sexes never mating, and their association being merely a herding together in quest of food. “In the West,” says Dr. Coues, “ every waggon-train passing over the prairies in summer is attended by flocks of these birds; every camp and stock coral, permanent or temporary, is besieged by the busy birds, eager to glean subsistence upon the wasted forage. Their familiarity under these circumstances is surprising. Per- petually wandering about the feet of the draught animals, or perching upon their backs, they become so accustomed to man’s presence that they will hardly get out of the way. I have even known a young bird to suffer itself to be taken in the Cow-Birds. COW-BIRDS. 359 hand ; and it is no uncommon thing to have the birds fluttering within a few feet of one's head. The animals appear to rather like the birds, and suffer them to perch in a row upon their backbones, doubtless finding the scratching of their feet a comfortable sensation, to say nothing of the riddance from insect parasites.” The cow-bird’s foster-parents are numerous, notably the summer yellow-bird the Maryland yellow-throat, and the red-eyed vireo. It is rare to find more fia two eggs of this cow-bird in a single nest, although as many as five have been found together. In colour the eggs are white, speckled with brown. The adult THE COMMON COW-BIRD (4 nat. size), of the common cow-bird is of a lustrous greenish black, with blue and purple reflections; the head and neck being deep wood-brown, with some purplish lustre. The female is dull coloured, of a nearly uniform greyish brown above, and paler beneath. Writing of a South American member of the genus, Mr. W. H. Hudson observes that the male of the “screaming cow-bird of La Plata, when perched, emits a hollow-sounding internal note that swells at the end into a sharp metallic ring, almost bell-like; this is uttered with wings and tail depressed, the whole plumage being puffed out as in a strutting turkey-cock, while the bird hops 360 PERCHING BIRDS. briskly up and down on its perch as if dancing. The bell-lke note of the male is followed by an impetuous scream from the female, and the dance ends. Another species, the common Argentine cow-bird (I. bonariensis) of La Plata, when courting, puffs out his rich violet plumage, and, with wings vibrating, emits a succession of deep internal notes, followed by a set song in clear, ringing tones; and then suddenly taking wing he flies straight away, close to the surface, fluttering like a moth, and at a distance of twenty to thirty yards turns and flies in a wide circle round the female, singing loudly all the time, hedging her in with melody as it were.” Red-Shouldered The bill in this genus is about as long as the head, stout at the Starling, etc. hase, and tapering rapidly to an acute point; while the wings are pointed, and the tail broad. Black associated with red or yellow is the predominat- RED-SHOULDERED STARLING (8 nat. size), ing colour of the male birds, but the females are more soberly attired. Several species are found in Central and Southern America, while others are peculiar to the United States. The type of the genus is the red-shouldered starling (Ageleus pheniceus), a bird commonly distributed throughout temperate North America, and especially abundant among the marshy tracts of the Eastern States. It nests in reeds and bushes near the ground or in a tussock of grass, building a bulky nest of coarse fibrous materials, such as strips of rushes or marsh grass. The eggs are pale blue, dotted and blotched with dark markings. In autumn this bird becomes highly gregarious, thronging in the grain-fields, where it does much mischief. The male is lustrous black, with the lesser wing-coverts scarlet, broadly bordered TKROU PLATES. 361 with brownish yellow; while the female is blackish brown above with pale streaks, and below whitish with many dusky streaks. The young male bird at first resembles the female, but is larger, and generally suffused with buff. Omitting mention of several genera of the family, we come to a genus, Quiscalus, of the third subfamily or group, rejoicing in a variety of names, such as crow-blackbirds, grackles, and boat-tails, but as the first two of these are liable to lead to confusion, it is better to adopt for them the French name of troupials, which, however, 1s often appled to the family. In Troupials. Hh My) Wy) 1) Uy ii SIN Sips? Ng THE PURPLE TROUPIAL (2 nat. size). these the beak is equal in length to the head, and somewhat crow-like in shape ; the wings are relatively short, the tail of varying length, and the feet long. The best known member of the genus is the purple troupial (Q. purpureus) of the Atlantic States, the other species being more southern im their distribution. It is a migratory gregarious bird of very general distribution, building in a tree or : . Mine acparane: canard lit cae bush, and making a large nest, usually of mud. [The eggs are generally green or blue in ground-colour, variegated with dark brown and purple markings. These birds at times inflict great injury upon the crops, much to the annoyance of the agriculturist; but they also destroy large quantities of imjurious insects. They have a propensity for destroying the eggs of other birds, especially those 362 PERCHING BIRDS. of the American robin or migratory thrush, lurking about the robin’s vicinity until the parents are away, and then pouncing on the nest, seizing an egg or young one, and hastily retreating. The adult male is black above and below, variously glossed with green, purple, blue violet and bronze; the female is similar but her tints are more subdued. * THE WEAVER-BIRDS. Family PLOCELDZ. NEST OF SOCIABLE WEAVERS. The weaver-birds, which derive their name from the extraordinary textile nests they construct, comprise a large group of birds very abundant in Africa, and represented by many genera in South-Eastern Asia and Australia. While very similar to the finches in external appearance, they differ in having ten primary quills in the wings, and likewise in some of them undergoing a partial moult in the spring. Resembling the hangnests to a certain extent in the structure of their nests. they differ both from those birds and_ the | starlings in having no backward prolongation ee" of the hinder extremity of the lower mandible. Having a strong conical beak, with the culmen projecting on to the forehead and arched at the tip, they have the nostrils pierced within the line of the forehead or close to it, while the space between the nostril and the edge of the mandible is WEAVER-BIRDS. 363 greater than that between the former and the culmen; there is never any distinet notch in the upper mandible. The wings are somewhat rounded, with the first primary quill very short, while the legs and toes are stout and strongly scaled. The family may be divided into two groups or subfamilies, namely, the typical weaver-birds, or Ploceine, in which the first primary of the wing is nearly as long as the metatarsus, and there is a spring moult; and the whydah birds and their allies, or Viduine, in which the first primary is much shorter than the metatarsus, and the only moult is autumnal. The Ox-Birds and Commencing with the first or typical subfamily, we have first their Allies. to notice the small African genus of true ox-birds, which have a rather long, conical, and laterally compressed beak, the wings somewhat rounded and reaching a little below the base of the tail, with the second primary quill only a little shorter than the third and fourth, which are the longest; the tail being of moderate length and somewhat rounded, while the claws are strong and curved. This genus is typically represented by the common ox-bird (Textor alector) of Western Africa, shown in the background of the figure on p. 364. This bird has a nearly uniform shining black plumage, with the bases of the contour feathers white, the beak being horny yellow, with its tips and edges bluish, and the feet blackish grey. The red-billed black weaver (7. niger’) is found in the Transvaal, Damaraland, and the lake regions; the possession of a red bill easily distinguishing this large finch-like and very noisy bird. It is gregarious in its habits, breeding in colonies, the members of which construct many nests in a single tree. The nests consist externally of an immense mass of dried grass, twigs, and sticks, in which are to be found from four to six separate nests or holes of an oval form, composed of grass only, but united to each other by intricate masses of sticks defying the ingress of any intruder except a small snake. In each of these separate holes are laid three or four eggs exactly resembling sparrows’ eggs, but much larger. Curiously enough, the birds roost in these nests which are used year after year, any injury to the structure being at once repaired by all the members of the community. Sir Andrew Smith found this bird frequenting herds of buffaloes, and perching on their backs in search of the parasitical insects which infest their hides. Like other birds of the family, it feeds upon berries, seeds, and insects. The general colour of the adult male is black, with the first half of each wing- feather white: but the young bird has some whitish patches on the neck and. breast. White-Headed This weaver (D. lewcocephala), which represents another genus, Weaver. is a comparatively small species found in the interior of Africa and Abyssinia. Like other members of the family, the present species is absent from dense forests, preferring to dwell upon grass-lands in the more open portions of the country. It is by choice somewhat gregarious, taking up its abode on rough meadow-lands, and seeking out the neighbourhood of cattle. Although a true weaver, it does not construct so neat a nest as most of its allies. The adult male has the head and under-parts white, the back wings and tail chocolate-brown, and the rump and tail-coverts scarlet; it is depicted in the upper figure of the illustration on the next page. 364 PERCHING BIRDS. The True The true weaver-birds form the comparatively small group, Weaver-Birds. common to East and West Africa and the Oriental region, exclusive of the Philippine Islands. While in all the preceding genera the culmen of the beak is flattened at the base and sometimes crested, in the present and allied genera it is rounded at the base; the true weaver-birds being specially distinguished by having the nostrils rounded and exposed, and the claw of the COMMON AND WHITE-HEADED OX-BIRDS (4 nat. size). first toe very strong and highly curved. The genus Ploceus is confined to the Indian and Malayan regions, and is typically represented by the common weaver- bird, or baya (P. baya) of India and Ceylon. All these birds construct long flask-shaped nests, with a tubular entrance, and lay pure white eggs. Masked Weaver- The masked weaver-bird (Hyphantornis larvata), of Abyssinia, Bind. may be taken as a well-known representative of an exclusively African genus, with over thirty species, which may be distinguished from the last by the exposed oval nostrils being partly reached by the plumes at the base, and also shut in by a horny membrane. The figured species may be WEAVER-BIRDS. 365 recognised by the scarlet iris of the eye, the black beak, and greyish black legs It is reported to lay pale bluish green eggs, with a few violet-brown spots at. the larger end. An allied species from the same district is the Abyssinian weaver-bird (H. galbula), in which the iris is orange-brown, the beak black (except in the breeding-plumage of the male, when it becomes horn-coloured) and the leg flesh-coloured. A third form is the olive weaver-bird (H. ca pane of South Africa. Generally living in flocks, the members of the last-named species are more numerous in the Transvaal than in Natal. According ABYSSINIAN AND MASKED WEAVER-BIRDS (# nat. size). to Mr. Ayres, they are fond of sucking the honey from the scarlet flowers of the Cape broom. ‘The nest is constructed of coarse grasses, and formed somewhat in the shape of a chemist’s retort, with the neck cut short and the aperture downwards; while across the entrance runs a kind of bar to prevent the eges from falling out. This nest is lined with the soft flowering heads of grass, which furnish a warm bed for the young. The eggs are of a beautiful, spotless green colour. Mr. Layard says that these weavers become very tame in confine- ment, and will readily answer to the call. If they are supplied with cotton or thread, they will weave it most industriously into the bars of the cage, forming a dense mass which it is impossible to unravel. This work they perform entirely 366 PERCHING BIRDS. with their bills, clinging the while to the sides of the cage with their powerful claws. They have a loud churring cry. The adult has the crown of the head and the sides of the neck gamboge-yellow; the nape, back, and rump are lemon-yellow; the back of the neck and shoulders greenish yellow; the wing- feathers a dark purplish brown edged with yellow; the tail olive-brown tinted with yellow; while the throat and lower-parts are saffron-yellow. Paradise Whydah With this exclusively African genus (Vidua) of long-tailed and Birds. strikingly-coloured birds we come to the second subfamily, the distinctive characters of which have been already indicated. The paradise- whydah birds, of which there are several species, may be taken to include all those in which the two central pairs of tail-feathers of the males are greatly elongated, although they are frequently subdivided mto distinct genera, according as to whether some or all of these feathers are attenuated and wire-like. The long-tailed whydah bird (Vidua paradisea), represented in the upper part of our coloured Plate, is an inhabitant of South Africa, where it frequents swampy ground and the long reeds about ponds. Its flight is feeble. In the breeding-season especially, when the male has assumed his nuptial livery and long tail-feathers, the flight is so laboured that the children constantly run them down. They are quite unable to fly against the wind, and in rainy weather can hardly be got to move out of the thick bushes in which they conceal themselves. The Kaffir children stretch bird-limed lines across the fields of millet and Kaffir corn, and take great numbers of the males by their tails becoming entangled in the lines. This bird builds its nest in long grass close to the ground, generally placing it in a tussock of herbage, to the blades and stalks of which it is roughly jomed. The nest itself is rather a rough structure, composed of fine grass lined with the seed-ends; the opening is at the side. Mr. Bowker states that the average number of females is as fifteen to one male. He adds that the long tail worn by the male in the breeding-season is not an inconvenience ; and the bird never seems to enjoy himself so much as during a high wind in which he shows off to advantage, spreading his tail out like a fan. The male in nuptial plumage is of a general glossy black; the feathers of the shoulders are fulvous and brilliant crimson, and the tail is enormously developed. The female plumage is of a pale yellowish brown, but the wing-feathers are black with pale yellowish brown edges. Nearly the whole of the remaining genera of the subfamily have the tail shorter than the wing; and among these some of the most remarkable are the gorgeously-coloured bishop-birds of Africa, a group of which is depicted in the right lower half of our coloured illustration. These birds have the tail squared, with the two central feathers not markedly produced beyond the rest ; while the feathering of the body is soft and velvety; and there is a distinct winter and summer plumage, in the latter of which a frill is developed round the neck. Among the handsomest of the group is the red bishop-bird, or red Kaffir finch (Pyromelana oryx), of the Cape Colony, Natal, and the Transvaal.