i^ 11 ill Mn. date SOUTHERN BRANCH iJNIVEHSTf y OF CAtJFORNf, LIBRARY, <-OS ANGELES. CALIF. ^^ RURAL STATE AND PROVINCE SERIES EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY RURAL NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NHW YORK • BOSTON ■ CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MBLBOURNK THE MACMILLAN CO OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO RURAL STATE AND PROVINCE SERIES RURAL NEW YORK BY ELMER O. PIPPIN, B.Sc. (Agr.) Extension Professor of Soil Technology in the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University Jl3etD gork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 19?1 . All rights reserved ' ' " -» ~» * ■> r, , miM^ Copyright, 1921, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published March, igai. « « • « « • <0 (Q EDITOK'S PEEFACE Hereby is projected a new line of books to be known as the Rural State and Province Series. These books are to present the rural phase of the development of the commonwealths, with so much \ Nw of the physical setting and history as will make plain the reasons for the present state of the agriculture and country life. The volumes are not guides to ag- ricultural practice, nor books of advice; they are •^f plainly descriptive. They are to be books of \- pleasant reading. At present some half dozen vol- umes are under contract. Should the public desire books of this character, it is the intention to include eventually all the States of the Union and all the \ Provinces of Canada. S The sources of information on the agriculture of ^ New York, in its larger aspects, are not extensive in /C book form. The reader who desires to go farther than this little volume takes him will of course con- sult the reports and other publications of State de- partments and of the institutions, and the proceed- ings of societies. If he is interested in the history of the subject, he will profit by the four parts of the report of the " Society for the Promotion of Agri- culture, Arts and Manufacturers," 1792-1799; the vi EDITOR'S PREFACE throe volumes of the Board of Agriculture, 1821, 1823, 1826; and the reports of the State Agricul- tural Society 1841 to 1871, with subsequent less reg- ular reports until 1899 and tlie semi-centennial volume of 1890, as well as the journal once published by the society. Historical matter is brought to- gether in the " Cyclopedia of American Agriculture," particularly in Volume IV on education and institu- tions and very briefly in Volume I on John John- ston's work in tile-drainage; also in the editor's "York State Rural Problems," Volumes I and II, 1913, 1915 (J. B. Lyon Co., Albany). The files of the agricultural journals also afford invaluable material. Unfortunately, the personal human documents are yet largely to be written. The reader will be inter- ested in Roberts' delightful " Autobiography of a Farm Boy " (1916), published by the J. B. Lyon Co. So these books go forth, the children of a long desire. I am grateful to the skilful authors who put the faith into the substance of the written word. L. H. Bailey. Ithaca, N. Y. Sept. 1, 1920. AUTHOE'S PEEFACE The aim of the author in preparing this volume is to present a bird's-eye view of the agricultural as- pects of New York. He has endeavored not only to describe conditions as they are, but, when possible, to point out the underlying reasons for particular lines of development in agricultural production and rural affairs. On the descriptive side, the book is the outgrowth of fifteen years of intensive study of the agricultural resources and development of the State. The ap- proach has been made from the side of the soil. In the making of detailed soil surveys of different coun- ties, in the continuous supervision of the surveys in close cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture, in the giving of course of instruction in the New York State College of Agriculture on the soils and agricultural development of the State, and finally in almost continuous travel that has reached into all parts of the State, in by-paths and outlying regions as well as main paths of travel, these mat- ters in all their interrelations have been the subject of continuous observation and study. Finally, through contact with a large part of the correspon- dence that has come over the greater part of this vii viii AUTHOR'S I'KEFACE fifteen years toTicliing soils and land improvement, tlie study and correlation ol' these agricultural re- sources and ii:stitutions have been ever-present prob- lems. Thus it is that this book is the fruit of those years of travel and study and teaching. Its prepar- ation was in mind even before the specific opportu- nity for its pre})aration was offered by the Editor of this Series. The author welcomed the opportu- nity to join with the larger enterprise, and he de- sires to express to the Editor full appreciation for the many helpful suggestions that have been given as well as for the larger inspiration the author has derived from these years of official and personal con- tact. To many other friends and fellow-workers in and out of the State who have directly and indirectly contributed to the making of this book, he also de- sires to make full acknowledgment. If this book contributes in some small measure to a l)etter understanding and appreciation of the agri- cultural resources and institutions of N"ew York in the larger sense, and the direction for their best development, it will have justified its preparation. E. 0. FiPPiN. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGES The Physical and Climatic Setting of New York 1-55 General surface features 4-13 The structural geology • 14- 29 Drainage systems and lines of communication 29- 36 Physiography and industry 37- 41 Climate of New York State 41-55 CHAPTER II HiSTOBY OF Agriculture in New York Agriculture of the Indians . Early settlement by the white men Early routes and means of travel . Territorial development .... Crop development Development of under-drainage . The rise of agricultural institutions J CHAPTER III 56- 89 57- 60 60- 64 65- 69 69- 75 75- 78 79- 81 81- 89 Soils of New York 90-117 Southern plateau 94- 97 The Great Lakes plain and the Mohawk Valley 97-104 The St. Lawrence and Champlain valleys . . 104-108 The Hudson Valley region 108-110 Adirondack Mountains 110-111 Long Island 111-114 Special soils 114-117 ix X CONTENTS CHAPTER IV PAGES Other Resources of New York State . . 11S-1;?7 Fish and game 128-131 Mines and quarries 131-135 Water supply 135-137 CHAPTER V aoricultural industries, plants and crops of New York 138-199 Hay and forage 142-150 Pasture 150-152 Grain crops 152-161 Vegetables 161-172 Fruit 172-192 Nurseries and flowers 192-195 Special crops 195-199 CHAPTER VI Animal Industries of New York 200-244 Animal husbandry and soil fertility . . . 209-212 Cattle and dairying 212-221 Horses 222-227 Mules 227-228 Sheep 228-235 Goats 235 Swine 236-238 Poultry 238-243 Bees and honey 243-244 CHAPTER VII Markets and Marketing 245-270 Transportation and markets 248-257 Special marketing agencies 257-270 CHAPTER VIII Rural Manufactures of New Yotk .... 271-292 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER IX PAGES The Administrative and Regulatory Organiza- tions OF New York 293-313 Political divisions and system of taxation . 294-297 Rural credit facilities 297-299 The Council of Farms and Markets . . . 299-309 The Conservation Commission 309-313 The Weather Service 313 CHAPTER X The Educational and Research Organization OF New York 314-354 Experiment stations 335-339 Extension work 339-346 Other educational orgunizations .... 346^354 CHAPTER XI Outlook 355-369 The approach to constructive policies . . . 359-369 Index 371 ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 1. Geological map of New York showing the distribu- tion of the different rock formations based on their chronological relations. (After Tarr) .... 15 2. Geological map of the State showing the distribu- tion of the different types of rock formations. (After Von Engeln) 21 3. Geological map of the State showing the general direction of movement of glacial ice as indicated by striations and the distribution of certain types of glacial formations. (After Von Engeln) ... 28 4. Graphs showing by decades the total area im farms, the improved area in farms and the num- ber of farms in New York 37 5. Diagram showing the proportions of urban and rural population and the distribution of the latter between the village and the coimtry in 1910 . . 38 6. Number and distribution of population in the State by place of residence 39 7. Proportion of land area in farms by counties in 1910 41 8. Value of farm real estate and buildings and the amount of expenditures specified 42 9. Distribution of farms by size in 1910 .... 43 10. Showing the climatological districts in the State 44 11. Showing the average number of days between kill- ing frosts in spring and fall which corresponds to the average length of the growing season ... 48 xiii ^^y ILLUSTRATIONS no. PAGE 12; Average annual precipitation in difTerent parts of the State 51 13. Average amount of precipitation in inches in the three summer months of June, July, and August in different parts of the State 52 14. Numbers and distribution of rural population of foreign stock by nationalities in 1910 .... 64 15. Graphs showing by decades the total and the rural population of United States, the rural population, and the populatixsn engaged in agriculture in New York 73 16. Changes in rural population from 1900 to 1910 . 76 17. Showing the distribution of the main series and groups of soil 92 18. Total value and distribution of all crops and the amount and distribution of the specified crops in 1909 139 19. Amount and distribution of the specified crops in 1909 143 20. Graphs showing by decades the total area in crops and the area in hay and forage, in clover and in alfalfa 145 21. Graphs showing by five-year periods the area in corn for grain, total wheat, spring wheat, winter wheat, and oats 153 22. Graphs sliowing by five-year periods the area in buckwheat, barley, rye, apples, and tobacco . . .154 23. Maps of the acreage and distribution of the speci- fied vegetable crops in 1909 162 24. Graphs showing by five-year periods the area in potatoes, hops, dry beans, and cabbage .... 164 25. Maps of the amounts and distribution of specified fruits and crops in 1909 173 26. Amount and distribution of specified fruits in 1910 175 ILLUSTRATIONS XV FIG. PAGE 27. Maps of the acreage and distribution of the speci- fied fruits according to age in 1909 except for ap- ples which are for 1910 177 28. Graphs showing by five-year periods the number of all cattle, dairy cows, work oxen, horses and mules and the production of butter and cheese . . . 206 29. Maps of the value, numbers, and distribution of the specified types of domestic animals in 1910 . 208 30. Graphs showing by five-year periods the numbers of swine, sheep, and chickens and the production of wool and eggs 229 31. Maps showing number and distribution of sheep and swine in 1910 231 32. Number and distribution of poultry in 1910 . . 239 33. General map of New York State showing drainage svstems, counties, and chief cities. Between pages 245 and 246 34. Diagram showing the organization of the Council of Farms and Markets into divisions and bureaus 300 35. Diagram showing the organization of the Conserva- tion Commission into divisions and bureaus . 310 36. Diagram showing the organization of the Univer- sity of the State of New York and the numbers of units included in some of the main groups and divisions in 1915 316 37. Diagram showing the amounts and distribution of federal and state expenditures for agriculture in New York State 329 LIST OF PLATES I Relief map of New York .... Frontispiece (From model in New York State Museum) TACINO PAGE II Model of Iroquois Indian house, stockade and family settlement 58 (From model in National Museum) m Lettuce growing on muck soil 114 IV A grain field in the Genesee Valley .... 156 V Intensive fruit culture in Western New York . 190 VI Representative fruit plantations in New York . 224 VII Typical view in the hill country of Southern New York 284 VIII View in the Mohawk Valley region .... 346 RURAL NEW YORK CHAPTER I THE PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING OF NEW YORK The State of New York forms the connecting link between New England and the remainder of the United States. It is the central one of the north- eastern group of states. It is the only state that touches the open water of both the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. In position, diversity and vol- ume of resources, agricultural as well as industrial, in transportation facilities and population. New York is truly the Empire State. Its outlook for develop- ment in all these directions justifies the progressive spirit expressed in the motto on the great seal — Ex- celsior!— which may be translated roughly: "We aspire to higher and greater things." New York stands at the northern extremity of that broad wrinkled ridge made up of mountains and plateaus popularly known as the Appalachian moun- tain system, that reaches up across the eastern United States from near the Gulf of Mexico. The lowest divide between the Atlantic Ocean on the east and the 1 2 RURAL NEW YORK Great Lakes and tlie upper Mississippi Valley of the Central West lies through the center of the State. At the eastern terminus of this lowest divide, between the east and the west, which is the chief thoroughfare for transcontinental travel, stands New York City, the metropolis of the American continent and the leading American port. At the entrance to the magnificent harbor of the city, on Bedloe's Island, is the Statue of Liberty, which was a gift from the people of France to the peo- ple of America. It is at once the symbol of friend- ship, of equality, of opportunity, and a token of as- piration. It may well be called the symbol of Amer- ican institutions and of the spokesmanship relation of New York State and City to the remainder of the nation. Situated at the western extremity of this low divide on the eastern shore of Lake Erie and a short distance from the tremendous falls of Niagara, is the City of Buffalo, the second in size in the State. It guards the western gateway to this artery of travel and its devel- opment is based primarily on the industries and ex- change that have grown out of the shifts in transport that naturally arise at this point, from the junction of lakes, canal and railroad conveyances. The median latitude of the State is the forty-third parallel north, which is the same as Milwaukee in Wisconsin, Boise in Idaho, Vladivostok in Siberia, and Madrid in Spain. The median longitude is the seventy-sixth meridian west, about the same as that of Philadelphia and Cape Hatteras. PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTIXG 3 In outline the State is roughly an equilateral tri- angle, with the apex to the west. More accurately, the shape is that of a great shoe with the heel resting on the shore of the Atlantic at New York City, and trailed by Loug Island. The toe rests against Lake Erie. Lake Ontario forms the instep and the St. Lawrence river reaches up the front. It has also been likened to a ship sailing westward. Long Island being the rudder. The length of the State from east to west is ap- proximately 335 miles, to which should be added the extension of Long Island beyond the main east line for seventy-five miles further, and lying south of Connecticut, making a total extreme length of 410 miles. The extreme breadth north and south is 315 miles. Within these dimensions, New York State has a total area of 49,170 square miles, of which 1550 square miles are water surface. The net land surface is, therefore, 47,G20 square miles or 30,476,800 acres. This is equal to the area of Ohio plus that of Massa- chusetts. It is four-fifths the area of all New Eng- land ; about equal to that of North Carolina or Louisi- ana; a little less than the area of Iowa or Wisconsin, and one-third that of California. It is two-fifths the area of the British Isles, one fourth that of France, and three-tenths that of Japan, and considerably larger than the Island of Cuba with its depending islands. The boundary is exceedingly irregular. In part it follows water courses but long stretches strike across- 4 RURAL NEW YORK country on arbitrary lines having only an historical significance. GENERAL SURFACE FEATURES The surface features of New York State are very diverse, both in general and in detailed form. In their variety and form they make up some of the most beautiful scenery in the country. It does not reach the extreme of boldness found in the mountains of the West or of some other continental areas, but in pic- turesque outline, in variety of detail, and in cultural development, it charms the observer at many points. Mountain domes, broad valleys, undulating hills, lakes, waterfalls, fields, forest and stream, contribute to those elements that make up beauty and grandeur in the different parts of the State. This results from the long and complex geological history of the region which has developed a wide variety of rock strata and subjected these to severe denudation with unequal wearing and filling. A three-armed system of main valleys centering at Albany and Troy divides the State into three main upland areas, a northern, a southern, and an eastern or southeastern area. These main valleys are the Hudson-Champlain across the eastern side of the State and the Mohawk- Great Lakes valley through the middle of the State east and west. These, with Long Island, form seven rather distinct physiographic regions. Beginning with the lowlands they are: (1) The Hudson-Cham- PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 5 plain; (2) the Mohawk Valley; (3) the Great Lakes Plains; (4) Long Island; (5) The Adirondack Mountains; (6) The Eastern Highlands; and (7) The Southern Plateau, which includes the Catskill Mountains at its eastern end.^ The highland and mountain areas with their rugged outlines are the more impressive in a scenic sense and they occupy the larger area. In the form of a series of great domes they reach a maximum ele- vation of 5397 feet in the peak of Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks and 4305 in the Catskill Mountains. The valley areas have a general elevation of 200 to 500 feet above sea level. The Hudson Valley-Champlain region is a long and comparatively narrow trough, fifteen to twenty miles wide, rather sharply cut off from the Catskill and Adirondack areas by steep slopes but joined to the eastern highlands by a succession of hills that grad- ually increase in height so that there is no sharp line of division. It crosses the entire eastern front of the State. In the northern third along Lake Champlain, the valley is open to the eastward, so far as New York is concerned. While called a valley, it is not one in the sense of being a regular smooth erosion 1 For a detailed view of the topography and cultural fea- tures of the State, the reader is referred to the topographic sheets that show the country on a scale of one inch equals one mile, with contours at twenty foot intervals, prepared jointly by the New York State Engineer's Office and the United States Geological Survey, and distributed by the Di- rector of the latter at a small charge. These maps cover the greater part of the State and are by far the best geographic guides available. 6 RURAL ^EW YORK valley. Rather it may be characterized as a low region but the surface is exceedingly irregular. It is a series of undulating to broken hills set apart by an irregular network of valleys more or less filled with glacial debris and in which most of the streams follow a tortuous and often sluggish course. These state- ments apply especially to the Hudson Eiver section. The Hudson Eiver itself occupies a very narrow, low- walled, mostly rock trench with almost no bottom land along its course. The Hudson gorge and valley extend out to sea in a southeast direction seventy-five miles beyond New York City. At the present time, tlie tide reaches up the river 150 miles to Troy. This situation is explained by the fact that in earlier geo- logical times the region stood at a much higher eleva- tion and the general system of valleys was then formed. Subsequently, during the glacial epoch, the region was depressed. Later, it was raised but not to its former position. Borings in connection with the development of the Ashokan water supply for New York City in the Catskills showed a trough eroded in the rock more than 1000 feet below the present sur- face of the Hudson Eiver near Newburg, where the inverted svphon of the canal crosses the channel. In the Palisades region below Newburg, the rocks rise for the most part precipitously from the water's edge. Farther north, that is half way to Albany, the rise is less abrupt and bold but still of a rugged hilly form. Beginning near the north line of Dutchess County and extending northward, a gently undulat- ing plain fringes the river but at an elevation of sixty PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 7 to one hundred feet above its surface. This is a clay plain with the exposed edge eroded into a system of steep slopes. It narrows and widens according to the position of the adjacent rock-cored hills. The plain is best developed above Troy and from there to a little above the great westerly bend of the Hudson River, in Washington and Saratoga counties, it is a broad plain, mostly capped by sand and gravel. From point to point the valley widens to receive some inflowing tributary, the largest of which on the west is the Mohawk Eiver opposite Albany and Troy. On the east the most important tributary is the Hoo- sic Eiver in northern Eensselaer County. North of the "Great Bend" at Hudson Falls the general valley region is constricted to a very nar- row pass by the east flank of the Adirondacks to unite with the Champlain Valley. For a number of miles there is only this narrow rock-walled lake, but further north near Ticonderoga the hills recede a little and place is given to a low and rather narrow lake-plain terrace of clay, with here and there sand and gravel shelves. The surface is undulating. The plain wid- ens toward the north, though at places it is con- stricted. The greater width of lowland is on the Vermont side. In Clinton County the plains region blends with low hills that successively rise to the Adirondack Mountain system. The Mohawk Valley which breaks out from the Hudson region at Troy is a V-shaped trough lying between the Adirondack and the Catskill mountains. Both masses approach the river by a succession of 8 RURAL NEW YORK rounded hills of decreasing elevation. The interior trough is narrow and steep-sided but not to the same extent as the Hudson River. As far up as Little Falls, seventy miles from its mouth, there is only a narrow ribbon of alluvial soil a half to three-quarters of a mile in width, now on one side and now on the other, or divided. On the rolling hills on either side, the surface is smooth enough easily to permit success- ful farming for many miles back; The land rises less rapidly on the south than on the north side. Above Little Falls, where a dike of intensive rock crosses the course of the river and gives rise to the falls that are the occasion for the city, the valley gradually widens out into a great amphitheater that looks out westward over Syracuse, Buffalo and the Great Lakes region. On the north the lowland swings gradually to the north around the western flank of the Adirondack Mountains, past the end of Lake Ontario where it forms a plains area ten to twenty miles in width with an imdulating to flat surface. Thence it trends northeast along the St. Lawrence River and passes out into Canada. Oppo- site the source of the St. Lawrence in Lake Ontario, where the surface is in general low in elevation, there breaks forth a multitude of low ridges and knolls of solid rock, some of which constitute the bulk of the Thousand Island group. These are the out- lyers of the Adirondacks. The Island region is a partially submerged valley. The soil is a combina- tion of lake clays and sand and gravel terraces with some glacial till, interspersed between the projecting PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 9 rock masses. The influence of the St. Lawrence Val- ley region is felt across the entire north line of the State where it joins with the Champiaiu Valley by a broad low ridge around the northern side of the mountains. On the southern side of the Mohawk Eiver the lowland area west of Little Falls continues with a slight southerly trend. The boundary past Utica is still quite abrupt but from there west it fades into a more gentle slope of decreasing elevation. West of Syracuse there is a uniform slope from the southern highlands to the shore of Lake Ontario. A little to the north of a line from Utica to Syracuse is a broad, flat plain in the midst of which lies Oneida Lake, a shallow sag in the land surface. For a hundred miles west of Syracuse, which is two-thirds of the distance to Bufl'alo, the country forms a long, gentle, but undulating to hilly slope from the southern plateau region of the State north- ward to Lake Ontario. The six hundred foot contour is situated about thirty miles back from the lake and is followed a few miles further south by the one thousand foot contour. The surfaces of a large part of this rich plains region is made up of large, rounded and elongated hills, usually not over a hundred feet in height and with their long axes in the same general northerly and southerly direction. In fact, these tadpole shaped hills, which are most numerous in Wayne County and gradually decrease in numbers as one passes outward from that general region, are arranged concentrically and focus on a point on the 10 RURAL NEW YORK northeast shore of Lake Ontario, While the slopes of tliese hills, known as " drumlins or hogsbacks," are usually steep, tillage is generally possible and they form a prosperous agricultural region. Between the hills is an intricate system of hollows often occupied by mucky swamps. To the south of the drumlin re- gion, the land surface has a more general roll. The southern margin of the plains region is notched at a half dozen places by rather narrow val- leys occupied by lakes. These are the Finger lakes, the largest being Cayuga and Seneca. The country around the northern end of these lakes blends with the general plains region. In its western part, the lake plains region breaks into two distinct levels separated by a steep slope or mountain. This escarpment is best developed in central Niagara County and crosses the Niagara Eiver in the grand cascade of that river in its northward course between lakes Erie and Ontario. The maxi- mum difference in elevation between the two plains is two hundred feet, at the Niagara Eiver. The height of the main slope between these plains grad- ually decreases toward the east and disappears alto- gether a little west of Rochester. The lower or On- tario plain is distinctly flat, or slightly hollowed out near its southern margin. Its surface is relieved by a few low knolls and ridges. The upper or Erie plain is more complex. Near the shore of Lake Erie it is generally quite flat. This type of country swings south past Buffalo as a broad plain and then south- west along the lake. As it passes westward, the plain PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 11 becomes more narrow and is progressively set off from the highland region by a sharp steep slope. At the west line of the State, the plain area is only a few miles in width. The remainder of the plains region, reaching well into the second tier of counties from Lake Ontario, is made up of rolling hills easy to farm. Long Island should be associated with the up- state lowland region in the discussion of surface fea- tures. It is a long low ridge with smooth, and on the south side, low shores bordered by sand reefs and marshy tidal flats. The north sliore is for the most part a steep bluff and is indented by a number of shallow bays. In general the elevation is from sixty to 150 feet above sea level but at several points in the interior there are rough hills, one of which reaches an extreme elevation of 380 feet. For the most part, the island is made up of a series of undulating sandy plains. Considered as a whole, the three lowland regions embrace much the best agricultural and industrial parts of the State. Their total area, about 15,000 square miles, is approximately one-third that of the State. Exclusive of Long Island, which has an area of 1500 square miles, these lowlands include part or all of thirty-five counties. The high development in these regions is due to a fortunate combination of smooth topography, good soils, reasonably mild cli- mate, and good transportation and market facilities. The highland areas may be described more briefly. The boldest of these is the Adirondack Mountain dis- trict, which is made up of a succession of mountain- 12 RURAL NEW YORK ous domes, culminating near the center of the area in Mount Marcy. Most of the area is timbered. The soils are thin and very stony. Small areas are cleared and tilled in the interior valley. Around the base of the mountain area is a narrow fringe of agricultural land that includes some prosperous farming districts, such as that in northern Oneida and central Herki- mer counties. The eastern highland takes in the western foothills of the Berkshire hills that begin on the eastern edge of the State and spread over into New England. It also includes the mountainous hills lying across the lower part of the State above New York City and the Palisades district of the Hudson Eiver. The maximum elevation is not over 1500 feet but by con- trast with the adjacent lowlands, it appears high and rugged and is distinctly mountainous and pictur- esque in outline. All the southern part of this area has been appropriated as a high-grade residence district. The southern plateau is the most extensive of the three, as well as the most important agriculturally. As has been stated, it rises gradually to the south and east and in the latter direction culminates in the Catskill range. Near its middle part there is a sag of several hundred feet in maximum elevation, the western part being higher than the middle. This vast plateau which is the northern margin of the Cumberland plateau, that reaches southward into Alabama, has been deeply eroded and now appears as a system of bold hills rising by gentle or steep slopes PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 13 from the network of valleys that have been formed in its structure. While these broad valleys traverse the region in all directions, the prevailing one is north and south. They are continuous from one drainage system to the next and consequently form a system of deep passes, called Through valleys, that are the thoroughfares of modern travel. The Catskill portion being the highest, is most broken and has little agricultural importance. It occupies about a sixth of the area. The main plateau has a maximum eleva- tion of 1800 to 2500 feet and is bounded on the north by about the 1000 foot contour. The valleys, especially the north-south ones, have two main slopes : first, the interior, rather steep walled that bound the narrow valleys of alluvial and terrace land, usually of good agricultural value; second, the upper slope which forms a broad, moderately graded, U-shaped trough. Over most of these slopes, mod- ern machinery may be used readily. These distinctions in topography should be kept clearly in mind since they are essential to a correct appreciation of the agricultural and industrial de- velopment of the region later to be discussed. A large part of the southern area is tillable land, especially that associated with good valleys, bearing prosperous farms. However, it is within this as well as the other highland areas, that the margin of profitable farming is most frequent and in which the shifts of economic pressure have had their most marked effects. 14 RURAL A^L'W YORK THE STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY (See FigS. 1-3) The underlying geological structure of New York is very ancient. Its formations represent the dawn of the land areas of the American continent. Great mountain chains and plateaus have been formed and largely destroyed by erosion. New York lies on the west slope of the narrow ridge of land extending from New England to northern Georgia that formed the original backbone of the North American conti- nent. For ages nearly all of the territory of New York was beneath the ancient ocean and received the succession of sediments and deposits washed from the upland to the east. The floor of this sea oscillated up and down unequally, somewhat like the billowy waves passing over a grain field, only vast periods of time were required for the movement. Sandy shores, mud flats, deep clear water and alkaline basins suc- ceeded each other in their occupancy of the territory. The waste sediments from the upland came in from opposite directions and were, therefore, of different character. All these incidents are recorded in the great succession of rocks that now make up the struc- ture of the State. With the exception of the Adiron- dack region, practically all the surface rocks are made up of marine sediments and accumulations, and their total depth is measured in miles rather than in feet. They begin in pre-Cambrian time, which was before the dawn of rock formations distinguish- able by fossil remains of plants or animals. Vast successions of time are represented in rock strata that reach through the Lower and Upper Silurian and il ^ 15 16 RURAL NEW YORK the Devonian ages, np to the beginning of the Car- boniferous or Coal age. Of this latter age the only representatives in the I'ormatiuns in the State are a few immense conglomerate bowlders in southwestern New York, of which the Panama rocks in Chautau- qua County and at Eock City in southern Cattarau- gus County, that were formed at the very beginning of that age, are the last remnants. All through the long Coal age and to the present time, New York has been dry land with the exception of a small part above New York City which was sub- merged in the Triassic age folloAving the Coal age. For the most part, the land of the State has been well elevated and has been subjected to extreme ero- sion, although it is possible that later formations have been entirely swept away, as is suggested by the remnants of the lower coal measure rocks. In the vast ages during which the rock formations have been exposed to all the various destructive agencies, they have been eaten away and eroded by streams, the wind, and the waves, and carved into the main land forms, as they exist at the present day. The hard rocks resisted destruction more than the soft ones and form the eminences and rough slopes. The frail rocks were eaten into valleys and mild slopes. Thus the features of the State represent the scarred and weather-beaten products of ages of denudation act- ing on the succession of rocks of different degrees of resistence. Each gorge and waterfall and hill, if it could repeat its story, would give the succession of changes to which that region has submitted, and the PHYSICAL lA'Z) CLIMATIC SETTING 17 present commerce and industry would be seen to con- form to those geological changes. Of course it must be remembered that much has happened to the struc- ture of the State since the rocks were formed and carved into the present general features. The changes due to the glacial epoch must be kept in mind as the immediate occasion of many features, but they have as their baso and background the under- lying rock structures. The soils will be seen to relate closely to all these formations and processes, so that in the study of the geological changes of a region one is laying the foundation for the understanding of tlie natural and human features of the states, — land forms, industries, commerce and sociology, and with- out this relationship one's conceptions of them must at best be very superficial. The complex succession of formations and proc- esses found in New York, together with the fact that it was one of the earliest fields of careful geological study in America, make it a landmark in progress. Since many of the American rock formations were first studied here, they have often become types and given local names that have been carried with those formations wherever they are found in America. Adding to this the monumental study of the " Nat- ural History of New York," complete and published in five large volumes, and profusely illustrated, by special act of the legislature in 1841, one has some conception of the place New York occupies in the natural history annals of the country, and the basis it has for further development. 18 RURAL ^^EW YORK To consider the formations of the State in a little more detail, though briefly, one may begin with the oldest Precambrian areas. The Adirondack region is the larger of these, the southeastern highland above New York the pmaller. Both have a core of plutonic rock centered by masses of granite. The higher peaks of the Adirondacks in Essex County belong to the granite group of rocks. Around this core of acid rock is a much larger area of the basic Gabbro rock, Norite, which skirts the base of the mountains and reaches across the St. Lawrence Eiver near its source where it forms the Thousand Island group. This basic rock also extends well down to the Mohawk Valley. In the second or southeastern area, the granite is associated with gneisses and schist rocks which prob- ably represent the transformation of ancient sedi- ments by pressure and heat. Together these rocks form the mountainous portion of that section. This region does not again become prominent in geo- logical processes until in Triassic time when the bright red sandstones of lower Eockland County were formed coincident witli similar formations through the Connecticut Valley in New England, and in various pockets throughout the Piedmont Plateau. At its close the great cracks in the structure per- mitted tlie intrusion from below of the molten mate- rial that now forms tlie Palisades rock along the lower course of the Hudson. The hard rock ridges that reach under the site of New York City are an important incident in its development, for they form PHYSICAL A^'D CLIMATIC SETTING 19 the best kind of foundation for the ranks of tall buildings that distinguish Xew York City from Lon- lon with soft marsh foundation. The channels that have been carved in the surface of this rock make the incomparable harbor that is also a large factor in the upbuilding of the city. These facts should not be forgotton in a sketch of the agricultural development and status of the State since the existence of such a city and port with the market and transportation facilities it represents is a determinant factor in the agricultural development of the adjacent territory. Touching again the Adirondack region, this broad dome is the center from which the succession of sedi- mentary rocks slope away in nearly ever direction. The up-turned or cut-ofE edges of those formations are arranged successively about the base of the plu- tonic core and form the floor of the country. The old- est rocks come first and disappear under the younger rocks as one passes out from the central mountain region. They dip to the south and west at a medium to slight angle. The older ones have been most eroded. The north-facing exposure of most of these rock outcrops has been an important fact in the succeeding development of the State because of its relation to the entrance of the Continental glacier and the subsequent history of the soil materials. There is on the north side a band of the Potsdam sandstone, a rather pure quartz rock, hard and lean in the elements of plant nutriment. Next, en- circling the area is an irregular band of thick-bedded, 20 RURAL NEW YORK high-calcium limestone, the Calciferous-Trenton. It touches the Mohawk iiiver and passes under Lake Ontario. Its widest development is in central Jef- ferson County. On the soutli the next band of rock is a succession of gray to dark blue shales and sand- . stones known as the Hudson River group. They swing east over the southwest flank of the Adiron- dacks, along the Mohawk Eiver, and thence south- ward through the Hudson Valley past the east slope of the Catskill Mountains. These rocks form the greater part of the floor of the Hudson Valley. Their eastern development has been much folded and contorted by mountain-making processes, so that throughout the Hudson Valley and progressively to the east line of the State the strata stand at a high angle and sometimes on edge. By this means bands of limestone were brought to the surface in a succes- sion of pockets scattered through the valley. The metamorphosing forces of pressure and heat incident to the folding, changed the shale to slate, the sand- stone to quartzite and the limestone to marble. All of these occur in deposits of commercial importance. South of Lake Ontario the floor of the plain is formed by a quartzose sandstone and a gray or red shale interbedded with red sandstone. The sand- stone is sufficiently hard to be used for paving brick and for building. This is the Medina, and reaches up to the foot of the " Niagara Mountain." In the Ontario Lake region of western New York many of the farm houses are built of smooth rounded water- PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 21 worn bowlders or cobblestones of this rock that have been washed out of the glacial deposits and smoothed and rounded on the shore of the lake. Ci-gi^K;' n/jmdur/oN or D/mf^tNT nocK md %mm3(/ma or mrm^m LCG5ND ^L/Mf^rONa H 6/\NDST0N£S E3 Gfumimi FmYJ Fig. 2. Geological map of the State showing the distribu- tion of the different types of rock formations. Eeaching eastward across the State from the Niagara Eiver to a point south of Utica and form- ing the front of the Ontario escarpment, is a suc- cession of limestone and drab shale formations. The lower of these, chiefly shale, is the Clinton for- mation on which Oneida Lake rests. Above it is the 22 RURAL NEW YORK Niagara formation capped by a bard magnesian lime- stone tbat forms tbe floor of tbe Niagara River and over wbicb its cataract drops. Tliis cap of bard limestone, underlain by tbe soft Lockport sbale, con- stitutes tbe rock structure tbat gives rise to tbe mag- nificent Falls of tbe Niagara. In tbe period succeeding tbe formation of tbe Niagara limestone, western New York was a sbal- low arm of tbe sea witb a desert climate. In tbis sea tbere accumulated witb tbe mud tbat now makes tbe Salina sbale, great beds of salt and gypsum. It forms a band of country five to twenty miles in width as far east as Rome. At Syracuse, wbere salt springs originally occurred, salt is extensively manufactured, from which fact tbe name " Salt City " is taken. These springs were valuable to tbe Indians as well as to the early settlers and account for the begin- ning of tbe city of Syracuse. At Ithaca, Watkins and points in tbe Genesee Valley, these salt deposits are reached by wells and shafts extending through the later rock formations for commercial working. The next and one of tbe less important limestone formations. I lie Helderberg limestone, lies above and south of tbe Salina. It is blue rock high in cal- cium content witb tbick bedding. Its outcrop is not wide but it reaches from near Buffalo, eastward around tbe east base of tbe Catskill Mountains. It passes by LeRoy, Geneva, Auburn, and has an even M'ider development in southern Oneida and Herkimer counties and tbe northern part of Schoharie County. Tbe position and extent of these various limestone PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 23 formations are of special importance because of their bearing on the later introduction of lime into the soils with its attendant agricultural significances. Their position with reference to the topography of the State and the important agricultural areas is also important in the matter of supplying lime to the soils that require it. The remainder of the State upward and south- ward from the Helderberg limestone is a succes- sion of shales and sandstones with occasional thin layers of limestone. Their color varies widely, but is predominantly gray or black. The first important division of these is the Hamilton shale which is some- what calcareous. But the great mass of these forma- tions is very lean in lime content and weather down to a light brown or yellow soil material. They be- long to that part of the Devonian series usually known as the Catskill group. Some layers are hard sandstone, others soft shale. Capping the Catskills is a rather hard layer of conglomerate rock, expressed in the topography of the country as the protection of hills and the facing of steep slopes and waterfalls. Centering in Delaware County is an area of dark red shale and sandstone known as the Oneonta forma- tion which has a marked effect on the soils of the region. The topography of this southern region is the ex- pression of the resistance of these soft and hard rocks to long erosion, coupled with the factor of elevation. The Catskills are highest, have the hardest capping and have been most eroded. Hence, it is a rough 24 RURAL NEW YORK mountainous country of low agricultural possibilities. The long period of erosion to whicli the State was subjected cut the surface into a very coni])]ete net- work of valleys. While the data are incomplete, the indications are that the drainage was mostly to tlie north and west to a great channel that occupied the axis of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. The topography of the southern highland was fairly rough. Through the middle and eastern part it was lower and in general more mild in outline than in other parts. Into this long-eroded region there came the great continental glacial ice sheet. It advanced in a gener- ally southerly direction from the Labrador highlands in eastern Canada. Slowly it advanced, pushing long tongues forward through the valleys. It was de- flected by the land forms. Having tilled the valleys, the ice advanced up the slopes until it covered all the mountain areas. Southward it advanced and piled deeper, until all the State was covered except a small angle south of the Allegheny River in Cattaraugus County. The rate of movement was generally in proportion to the depth and was most rapid through the valleys and slower over the hills. The old re- sidual soil covering was swept away. Numerous emi- nences were planed off. Some valleys that crossed the course of the ice were partially or wholly filled, and those parallel to the ice movement were eroded still deeper, giving rise to "hanging valleys," which is the phenomena of side valleys high above the main valleys into which they flow. PHYf^ICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 25 The rocks in the course of the ice were ground up and carried in the direction of its movement, usually south. Material from various sources was mixed. Bowlders were mingled with finer material. Deep deposits were laid down in hollows, perhaps none on the eminences. After a long and indefinite time, the ice began to retreat. Its margin fluctuated from season to sea- son or from century to century. Where it stood for any length of time a ridge of earth was left and these terminal moraine-bands may be traced across the State in various places. Great volumes of water were formed by the melt- ing of the ice. This water accumulated in the hol- lows and valleys and flowed off to the southward as greatly flooded streams that formed broad bottoms of gravel and sand and fine loam. As the ice margin retreated to the northward, it was, in all the western part of the State, moving down the general slope of the country. Conse- quently, the drainage water accumulated as ponds and lakes between the front of ice and the land divide in the valleys. As the ice retreated further north, these lakes found new outlets at lower levels. They connected through the valleys and finally came to have a large extent. ]\rany successive levels of these are recognized in the more important valleys of the Finger Lakes region and the Genesee Valley, marked by the level of the benches of gravel and sand along their walls. At one stage this succession of lakes connected with the Lake Erie basin and 26 RURAL NEW YORK drained into the Mississippi Eiver through the Mau- mee Kiver in northwestern Ohio, These were the Warren and Newberry stages of the lake. Gravel, sand, clay and other sediments were accumulated in these lakes, of which the gravel beaches on the Erie plain southwest of Buffalo on which the " Ridge road " is located are representatives. Later, as the ice retreated further north and the Mohawk Valley was cleared, a great lake was formed on the On- tario plain with its shore at the foot of the Niagara escarpment. This had its outlet eastward into the Hudson Valley and formed a great sand and gravel delta between Schenectady and Albany. This level of the lake built up a well defined sand and gravel beach that is readily traced from Lewiston on the Niagara Eiver to Sodus on the shore of Lake On- tario. It is occupied throughout its course by an important public highway, another " Eidge road " lined by fruit-farms based in part on the materials that make up this beach. Other lake levels are rec- ognized further north. The St. Lawrence Valley was flooded to a much higher level than at present. Likewise the Champlain Valley was occupied by a lake. A subsidence of the land ih the eastern part of the State, due perhaps to the weight of the mass of ice, permitted the sea water to enter this valley at one stage. A glacial lake filled part of the Hudson Valley as far south as northern Dutchess County. In all these lakes more or less clay was deposited where the water was deep and quiet. These differ PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 27 from other clays in being more or less strewn with bowlders, probably carried in on floating masses of ice. Probably the lakes were not deep. There were islands of glacial till formed from the mass of rock debris left directly by the ice as it melted. Long Island, which has a core of Cretaceous sedi- ments, was also covered by the ice and has a rough moraine along the northern shore and another diag- onally through the central part from Brooklyn to Montauk Point. On the south side the surface was depressed below the sea during the retreat of the glacial ice and during that period broad plains of sand, sandy loam and clay were formed from the glacial outwash of New England. The net result of the glacial incursion was to de- face the preglacial surface features, rub off the sharp eminences, unevenly fill up many of the valleys and hollows with till and sediments and to carve out others perhaps a little more deeply. On the plains area south of Lake Ontario the till or rock flour from the grinding action of the ice was left in rounded bunches that in some places conform to the general rock surface and in others make tadpole shaped hills, called drumlins. These latter are widely distributed through the middle of the State but are especially abundant west of Syracuse and north of Auburn and Geneva. Wherever the general surface was moderately flat, irregular undulations were produced in which lakes and ponds were formed, many of which are now marked by swamp areas that 28 RURAL NEW YORK are made up of deposits of peat, muck and marl. Through these, streams meander sluggishly in a very winding channel. GLACIAL rEATURES Or NEW )dRK6TAT[: LCCCND {VCIV UHCKAIIIU)) WIkMoRAiN[ Bands ^^ Owmun Ocm/tcfcn LrJ drmr/ON Dimnons LiJ bcusimc m Liimc n]rni J,ctrmM,m ^''^'' ^'°'"'^' MOMINIC ACUMULAWM Fig. 3. Geological map of the State showing the general direction of movement of glacial ice as indicated by striations and the distribution of certain types of glacial formations. The course of all streams was changed more or less. Some were sent over the edge of their old val- leys and have cut deep gorges in the rock walls and frequently important waterfalls have been produced that have been the occasion for the location of more than one settlement that has grown into a second or PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 2d thiril class city. Kochester and Little Falls are the most notable examples of this effect. Agriculturally, the glacial epoch had a profound influence by its effect on the soils and on the lines of travel. Mostly, it improved by producing better soil and by smoothing the grades. A few grades it steepened and gave a certain minor unevenness. Such are the rises out of the deep north-south val- leys and the over-hill roads through the drumlin re- gions. Over the western part of the State, a general mantle of till and rock debris was left and rock ex- posures are infrequent. In the northern and east- ern parts where the rock relief is more bold and where the formations are more resistent, the earth cover- ing is not so general and rock exposures are com- mon and cut the country into irregular areas that are difficult of agricultural development, especially in this latter day when operations may be carried on with large machines. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND LINES OP COMMUNICATION New York State is well watered and well served by waterways. It has ocean frontage, an extensive shore line on two of the Great Lakes, many large and small interior lakes and navigable and important rivers, and other channels connecting the best parts of the State with the ports of the world. The gatew^ay to the ocean is at New York City where, although the effective shore-line is short, the harbor facilities are remarkably good. The long 30 RURAL JfEW YORK shore-line of Long Island is generally low and flat and does not afford good ports for large vessels. Of course ships may pass on the Sound as well as through the " Narrows " between Long and Staten islands. The partially submerged rock gorge of the Hudson River, with the inundated side channels that form the East and Harlem rivers, make a sheltered port on deep waterways having an unusual length for a single city. At the same time, the low gradient of the upper course of the river with the lack of large tributaries that are active in erosion permit the maintainence of the harbor in first class condition for the largest boats and this is accomplished with the minimum of labor. The largest ocean vessels find ready wharfage in the heart of the Greater New York district and may readily pass many miles up the Hudson River. At the same time, the land- locked harbor guarded across the Narrows by Long and Staten islands affords safe protection from the ocean storms. On the Great Lakes the State has a total frontage of approximately 275 miles, one-fourth on Lake Erie and the remainder on Lake Ontario. The elevations of the surface of these lakes above sea level are 573 feet and 247 feet respectively. The harbors on either lake are not especially good. Buffalo is the port of entry on the former, Oswego and Rochester on the latter. By means of the Welland Canal across the neck of the province of Ontario, Canada, between the two lakes, large vessels may pass between all the, Great Lakes and out to sea by the northern route PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 31 through the St. Lawrence Kiver. From the St. Lawrence Eiver, medium-sized boats may also have access to Lake Champlain and by canal to the Hudson Eiver. There are numerous interior lakes, mostly small ones, the most important group being the Finger Lakes in the deep north-south valleys in the western part of the State. These are long and narrow and usually of great depth, the bottom of Cayuga and Seneca lakes reaching below sea level. Oneida Lake a little to the northeast of the Finger Lakes is the only other important interior body of water. Most of these lakes have been useful as means of travel and transport, having been connected up with streams and canal systems to form lines of commu- nication. Their place in this service is not now as important as formerly, before railroads had been extensively developed. In the Adirondack Mountain region, there are hundreds of irregular lakes hid in the hollows and forests and utilized only for fishing and summer resorts. The drainage of Xew York State falls into three main divisions: the Atlantic through the Hudson, Delaware and Susquehanna rivers; the St. Lawrence through the Great Lakes and the Champlain; and the Mississippi which embraces only a small terri- tory in the southwest part of the State, represented by the Allegheny system. Of these streams the Hud- son is the only one that is navigable to an impor- tant extent and on this large boats may pass as iar as Albany. 32 RURAL NEW YORK • The most important ti'ibutary to the Hudson is the Mohawk River that occupies the broad valley be- tween the Adirondacks and the Catskill Mountains and whose course forms part of a very important thoroughfare of travel. Both the Hudson and Mo- hawk Eivers head in the southern foothills of the Adirondacks, and receive the drainage from the north and east sides of the Catskill Mountains and from the slopes east of the Hudson, including tlie Hoosic River as. the largest tributary. The St. Lawrence River receives the drainage of the northern third of the State, including that which flows into the Great Lakes. The drainage of the southern highland is mostly reversed from that of the general slope of the coun- try and instead of passing northward is carried to the south into the Delaware, Susquehanna and Alle- gheny systems. The exception is the Genesee River in the middle western part which cuts entirely across the State from south to north and empties into Lake Ontario above Rochester. A little drain- age also goes out in that direction through the Finger Lakes. The headwaters of the three south-flowing rivers mentioned are located on the very brink of the up- land overlooking the Great Lakes plains. The water within three or four miles of Lake Erie flows south into the Mississippi system. These main lines of drainage guided the course of early emigration and the overland paths between drainage systems are PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 33 marked by villages and cities, such as Rome and Buf- falo. The course of the streams, small and large, is ir- regular in direction and grade. The glacial influence superimposed on the general rock topography has made them a succession of sluggish winding chan- nels and plunging rapids or cataracts. Waterfalls are common and are extensively employed. There is a large development of these falls at Rochester, Little Falls, Glens Falls and Watertown, and, of course, at Niagara Falls. Numerous small falls are used and in addition there is a large horse power in waterfalls not yet utilized. Among these may be mentioned that on the larger streams flowing out from the Adi- rondack Mountains and that of the Upper Falls of the Genesee at Portage, where there is the oppor- tunity to construct a large storage dam to equalize the flow of water, and at the same time relieve the lower channel of the water that frequently causes disastrous floods. It has been proposed to develop electric power from these falls and distribute it under State superisvion to fanns as well as to city enter- prises. Further, the State abounds in springs and one of the features of its hospitality is the wayside water- ing-trough on almost every highway, perpetually supplied from these sources. Incidently, it may be mentioned that a certain amount of tax is remitted to each land owner who maintains such a conven- ience on a highway. 34 RURAL NEW YORK New York State has an extensive canal system now largely fallen into disuse, with the exception of the one great thoroughfare, the Barge Canal, successor to the Erie Canal, and its tributaries which the State is just now completing. The total mileage that has been constructed is about 800, of which about 530 miles is now in service. The greater part of this is represented by the Barge Canal which connects the Hudson Eiver at Troy with Lake Erie at Buffalo through the Mohawk Valley and across the Great Lakes plain. It utilizes the channel of rivers and lakes where possible. Extensive locks are required. Branches also connect it with Lake Ontario at Os- wego, and with Cayuga and Seneca Lakes at the up- per ends of which are terminal facilities. The Erie Canal was first finished in 1836, enlarged in 1840 to a depth of seven feet with corresponding width and has just now been entirely reconstructed and further enlarged to a twelve-foot channel to carry large barges, under the name of the Barge Canal. The other important canal is the Champlain which connects the navigable portion of the Hudson River at Troy with the foot of Lake Champlain through the pass by Fort Edward, Fort Anne and Whitehall. This also has been enlarged to Barge Canal dimen- sions. Other important canals that should be mentioned because of the part they played in the early develop- ment of the country are the Delaware and Hudson Canal, connecting the Hudson Eiver at Rondout with Honesdale, Pennsylvania, which was opened in PHTf?ICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 35 1828; the Chenango Canal, connecting the Mohawk Eiver at Utica with the Susquehanna Eiver at Bing- hamton, completed in 1837; and several shorter canals acting as feeders between the Erie Canal sys- tem and the river systems on the south boundary of the State. In the days before the advent of railroads, when the country was still new, the completion of these cheap means of travel and freighting were a strong impetus to agricultural production and development. The course of nearly all the canals is now paralleled by railroads, some of which follow the old tow-path of the canal. By their mobility, speed and the possi- bility of reaching outlying sections not practicable to be reached by water routes, the railroads have largely supplanted the canal systems and give better and more complete service for any but the most heavy and slow-moving freight, such as lumber, grain, ore and fuel. A glance at any modern map of the State will show the extent and the general position of the rail- roads. In 1915 there were 8550 miles of steam road and 5000 miles of electric road. The great part of this mileage is coordinated into a half dozen great systems of regional or transcontinental spread. Thereby, through travel is greatly facilitated. The real course and position of these roads is not so ap- parent from the ordinary map. The topography of the State has exerted a large effect on them and has given to one place and taken from another where their natural advantages were otherwise equal. 36 RURAL XEW YORK The big factor in efficient aud cheap lines of travel is the grade and the elevation to be overcome. Every pound raised and every foot it is raised re- quires a corresponding amount of power. This means the consumption of fuel as well as expense in equip- ment. Consequently, lines of travel seek the courses of least resistance. They keep to the valleys or climb the hills part way to dodge over a low divide or through it in a tunnel to the next valley. The di- rection and grade of the valleys determine their availability for transport. Eeference to the discus- sion of the topography of the State will point out the practicable lines of travel. The same topographic features that hamper travel have interfered with ag- ricultural and industrial development, and hence have put a further handicap on their expansion. All the more important valleys, as well as lines of con- nection across the plains, are occupied by railroads. The electric road with its still greater elasticity is reaching places not practicable for steam roads and the motor bus and truck are still further extending the service to remote regions. The prevailing north and south course of the valleys in the highlands makes cross country travel in the other direction circuitous and difficult. Further, the first slope from the val- leys is likely to be quite steep which greatly limits the load and the speed of travel. The development of the State and the extension of particular enter- prises, especially agriculture, must be with due regard for these physical limitations. PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 37 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND INDUSTRY (See FigS. 4-9) The distribution of the population of the State is an unconscious conformity to these natural forces. The great cities have grown up at the gateways where are the big exchanges, transfer, trade and in- dustry, at New York and Buffalo. In the valleys or ^ as — ■ i:ii3ff o^/fV/?*}? w/kooo ^i 1/^ f av£ yoo,^ S-3c/J ti r— . <.'"- 1^ "^ , II'' /f^fA 7oy£e JiSr-' .-tSiJ — . ^^^ ^•^ ^^ T07>ili. y1/r£>1 or SrAITT": 'f9./70 3yn/es ^/fif>f or yvAITr/f: /,SSO » 77 i'° II' /(5 fSO /s SO J6 TO /« ?o /a. w /9 OO /3' ii. PffofV/fTJCw or /f(//f/^i. ro ror/^i. Af/i.e-/0/VS 8 e •♦ 20 40 £0 80 w;; ~T~ -jr Fig. 5. Diagram showing the proportions of urban and rural population and the distribution of the latter between the village and the country in 1910. Eoughly stated, about 71 per cent of the land in the State is in farms. The remainder is mostly in mountains and forests. An appreciable area is oc- cupied by cities, towns, villages, roads and similar cultural features. Of the area in farms, 33 per cent is in woods. Over half of this is also used for pasture. Including the woodland, 36 per cent of the farm land is in pasture. Of the cleared land in farms, 57 per cent is in hay and pasture. About 59 per cent of the farm area is tillable. An analysis of the rural population which consti- tutes only about 20 per cent of the total population of the State shows the following distribution : • = 1.000 • B 10.000 CIRCLE PROPORUONMf TO SIZE OF CITJES • = 1.000 ♦ ~ lO.OOO SCALE: . <=■ 200 • =s 2.000 Fig. 6. Number and distribution of population in the State by place of residence: a. country; b. village; c. city; d. country population of foreign birth; e. decrease in popu- lation 1900 to 1910. 39 40 RURAL NEW YORK Table I. Distribution of Edral Population 1910 Total rural population 1,928,120 1910 Total country population 1,575,826 1917 Total farm population 830,517 1917 Total men and boys over 14 years 339,019 1917 Total women and girls over 14 years 271,333 1916 Number of hired men 104,332 1917 Number of hired men 88,310 1918 Number of hired men 47,433 1917 Percentasre of farms having hired men 21.1 1918 Number of farms 200,903 While the figures for 1910 and 1917 are not en- tirely comparable, yet they are closely related. This tabulation shows that 43 per cent of the rural population actually live on farms, and that about 40 per cent of that farm population is men and boys fourteen years of age or older. There is an average of 1.7 men and boys to a farm and as the average size of farm is 95 acres, the average amount of land handled a man is 56 acres. However, the average number of crop acres a farm is only 41 acres and the number of crop acres handled a man is 24 acres. By adding to the number of men the number of women and girls who work in the field, the crop acre- age a person would be reduced to about 20 acres. The rapid decrease in the number of hired men on farms in recent years indicates the difficulty of the labor problem on the farm. An indication of the unsettled social conditions is found in the propor- tions of males to females on farms, which in 1917 were 1.2 and 1. A relief map of the State representing the lowest elevations by the darkest color and the highest ele- PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 41 vations by successively lighter shades would to a very large extent represent the distribution of population, modified a little by the artificial means of communi- cation. I [ >JW »tM flD VW cut \\'^ to to 40*0 tan Fig. 7. Proportion of land area in farms by counties in 1910. Average percentage for the entire State 72.2. CLIMATE OF NEW YORK STATE (See Fig. 10) The climate of Xew York exhibits wide variations in all its elements. These result not only from the size of the State but also from its elevation, its varia- tion in surface features, its position with reference to large bodies of water, the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes, and finally from its position on the I DOT = 830,000 I DOT = S200.000 %^ I 0OT = t DOT = S5,000 I I Less than |10 per son. no to xa per acre. 125 to )50 per acre. liO to 175 per acre. fegga 175 to )100 per acre. 1100 to 1125 per acre. 1126 and over per acic. Fig, 8. Value of farm real estate and buildings and the amount of expenditures specified: a. value of buildings- b. expenditures for labor; c. average value of farm land an acre ; d. value of farm implements ; e. expenditures for fertilizers. 42 a JJa I DOTS 10 FARMS i DOTsilO FARMS \ DOT = 40 FARMS I DOT = 2 FARMS I DOT = 40 FARMS ^l||V3^ Fig. 9. Distribution of farms by size in 1910: a. 3 to 9 acres; b. 20 to 49 acres; c. 100 to 174 acres; d. 260 to 499 acres; e. 1000 or more acres. 43 44 RURAL NEW YORK continent with reference to the general course of the cyclonic areas that pass across the country in more or less regular succession. As a result of these con- ditions, it exhibits the three main types of climate: (a) the marine on Long Island and the southeast Fig. 10. Showing the climatological districts in the State. point of the State; (b) the continental on the south- ern New York plateau; and (c) mountainous climate, especially well developed in the Adirondacks. On the basis of the direction of wind movement and temperature and distribution of the precipitation, the State may be subdivided into ten divisions, the PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 45 limits of which are shown iu Fig. 10. The first or- ganization for local climatic observations in America was that inaugurated by the New York Board of Regents in 1826 in cooperation with numerous acad- emies under their supervision, which arrangement was continued until 1863. Shortly after that date, other agencies took up the work and continued it with some degree of completeness until 1900, when the ISTational Weather Service was inaugurated with which the State service was atHliated. The passage of the storm centers through the Great Lakes region is accompanied by shifts in the direction of the wind, but a westerly course prevails. These disturbances occur at intervals of three or four days in winter and with less frecpency and strength in ■summer. At any point in the State, the wind may on occasion come from any point of the compass. The velocity varies widely and sometimes exceeds the speed of the fastest express train, but it seldom ex- hibits the type or the violence of the tornado. The southerly winds are most common in the extreme west and in the southeast part of the State. In addition to tlie general wind movements, there are local winds, usually of moderate velocity. In the Long Island province a sea breeze is recognized in quiet weather. It is most prominent late in the day and may attain a velocity of ten to fifteen miles an hour. The land breeze is best developed in the latter part of the night. The sea breeze reaches inland about ten miles, and this may be augmented somewhat by the prevailing wind. 46 RURAL NEW YORK Adjacent to the Great Lakes a similar but less noticeable land and lake breeze is recognized. In the regions of steep topography, local breezes are de- veloped by the flow of the cooled air down the slopes. Where narrow gorges connect elevated country with deep valleys, distinct breezes are observed in the eve- ning that sometimes attain a velocity of eight or ten miles an hour in the mouth of these gorges. Such breezes are best developed in the plateau and moun- tain regions. These are drafts determined by un- equal cooling of the atmosphere as soon as the sun gets low, coupled with their guidance by the form of the land surface. There is a less perceptible move- ment down broad slopes. These local movements have been observed in the valleys of southern New York often to be opposed entirely to the general wind move- ment 800 or 300 feet above the surface.^ In the hill and mountain regions, the exposure of the crests and the higher slopes facing the prevailing storms to the vigor of the high winds, especially in the extreme temperatures of winter, makes a wide variation in conditions for living and for the growth of trees, and thereby affects agricultural development. Farms seek the sheltered positions for home sites. In ad- dition the freedom from sweeping winds in such sheltered situations permits the snow to lay on the ground to prevent the destructive action of frequent freezing and thawing and protect winter crops from low temperature. 1 Turner, E. T. " The Physical Geography of New York State," R. S. Tarr. Macmillan Co., 1902, p. 340. PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTItfO 47 The normal range in temperature that might be expected from the reach of the State across four de- grees of latitude is four degrees Fahrenheit. The normal range in temperature that might be expected due to the range in elevation from sea level to 5,379 feet at the crest of ^Mount Marcy is approximately eighteen degrees Fahrenheit, or one for each 300 feet elevation. Long-time records show that the range in average temperature may exceed that, during the cold- est months of winter when it reaches twenty degrees — ten degrees on either side of the normal. In sum- mer the range of average temperature from year to year is ten to twelve degrees. Those regions which have the coolest mean climate are likely to have the largest range of extreme temperature. A critical phase of temperature with reference to crop growth is the date of the last killing frost in spring and the first in fall, which mark the limits of the crop-growing period. The average length of the growing season determined by these limits is presented in Fig. 11. Less elevated regions have the greatest freedom from late and early frosts and, there- fore, enjoy the longest growing season. Since each crop has an average minimum season in which it can mature, these weather conditions have a determining influence in the growth of particular crops. On the southern plateau, the maturity of the ordinary varie- ties of corn is very uncertain because of the shortness and irregularity of the seasons. In the mountain re- gions, severe frosts may occur any month in the year. Proximity to large bodies of water also affects the 48 RURAL NEW YORK liability to untimely frost. Since water changes tem- perature much slower than land and the air in con- tact with the water is similarly affected, these land areas so situated as to receive the prevailing winds from over such bodies of water are correspondingly Fig. 11. Showing the average number of days between kill- ing frosts in spring and fall which corresponds to the average length of the growing season. tempered. This advantage is held by the Great Lakes plain. The water in Lake Ontario maintains an av- erage temperature of ten to fifteen degrees warmer in winter and cooler in summer than the adjacent land areas. The success of growing fruit on the lake plains is largely due to the freedom from untimely PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 49 frosts as well as the tempering influence of Lakes Erie and Ontario over which the prevailing wind comes into that region. This insures the better ma- turity of the wood and buds which increases their power of resistance. The greater uniformity of the winter weather keeps them dormant and resistant. The effect is especially noticeable on peaches. The smaller inland lakes are considered to have a similar though smaller effect on the weather in their immediate vicinity and their ameliorating effect is said to be most noticeable on the eastern shore. The weather of the Long Island and Lower Hud- son Valley provinces is similarly modified. This ha.:; favored the development of the vegetable industry around New York City. In the plateau province there may be a wide range in the length of season between the valleys and nearby hill regions. This difference is well illustrated by Ithaca and Perry City within twelve miles of each other in Tompkins County. Liability to frost is also determined by topographic position in another way. As a result of the circula- tion of air in response to differences in temperature, the cold air settles into low pockets and deep flat valleys where frosts are frequent. On the highest points they are also likely to occur, due to rapid radia- tion and cooling at night. Consequently, the regions most free from frost are the intermediate elevations having a fair slope so that there is free circulation of air. The swamp and muck lands are generally liable to unseasonable frost because of these relations. The 50 RURAL NEW YORK intermediate levels are the most desirable farm sites. Keference to the flow of water will often aid in reaching an estimate of the air circulation and lia- bility to frost of a particular section. Another element of temperature variation is the direction of slope. South and east slopes are warm- est and west and north slopes are colder in the order named. The mean annual rainfall for New York State ranges from 25 to more than 50 inches. The lowest rainfall occurs on the Great Lakes plain, in the cen- tral lakes region and in the upper part of the Cham- plain Valley. The higher amount of rainfall is also in three regions, on the southwest slope of the Adirondack Mountains, on Long Island and over the heel of the State in the lower Hudson Valley. The Cat- skill Mountains and the eastern plateau section have a relatively high rainfall. The prevailing winds as they move east over the Great Lakes strike the rising country of the Adirondacks and by passing up this slope are lowered in temperature so that a part of their moisture must be precipitated. The same thing occurs to the winds that sweep up from the Atlantic and encounter the highlands in the lower part of the Hudson Valley and Catskills. On the other hand, the low rainfall in the Central Lakes region and the Champlain Valley occurs where the wind has passed over an elevation and its capacity for moisture is increased by its rising temperature. On the Great Lakes shore the wind from the lakes encounters the PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 51 warming influence of the land with low elevation which increases its capacity for moisture and reduces the precipitation. The mean precipitation is shown in Fig. 12. The precipitation is greater in summer than in winter, in many ways a propitious fact. It insures CD Fig. 12. Average annual precipitation in different parts of the State. a better supply of moisture for crop growth, and by reducing the accumulation of snow in winter reduces the damage from floods due to melting snow, although it may sometimes expose winter crops to a little more severe climate and physical stress due to the lack of the snow covering. 52 RURAL NEW YORK The mean summer precipitation is shown in Fig. 13. The winter precipitation falls largel}' as snow. The regions of high precipitation are in the main those of low winter temperature. Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley are an exception to the rule. Fig. 13. Average amount of precipitation in inches in the three summer months of June, July, and August in dif- ferent parts of the State. Local storms and thundershowers develop most fre- quently on the western half of the southern plateau and on the western flank of the Adirondack Moun- tains. They travel eastward, a little more rapidly through the Mohawk Valley regions than over the uplands. The hour of the loudest thunder which is synonymous with the most violent electrical disturb- ance is about two or three o'clock in the afternoon PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTIJfG 53 at Buffalo and is progressively later toward the east until it occurs between twelve and one o'clock at night in the lower Hudson Valley region. The topographic hollow in the Finger Lakes region ia most subject to secondary local storms. The proportion of cloudiness which is the obverse of clear weather varies as a mean over the State from a little less than 50 per cent to over 65 per cent. The higher proportion of cloudiness is not directly associated with the precipitation. Southeastern Few York has the largest amount of clear weather since the moisture-ladened winds from the ocean tend to drift eastward. The winter is more cloudy than the summer, especially in the Great Lakes region where the range is from 80 or 85 per cent in De- cember and January to about 45 per cent in July and August. The relative humidity is another factor in the weather, of considerable importance both to crop production and personal comfort. High humidity not only makes extremes of temperature more un- pleasant but it promotes the growth of fungous organ- isms, including many disease-producing forms. The annual humidity at different points ranges from 70 to 79 per cent in the lowland areas, to 60 in the upland regions. It is highest in the vicinity of Buf- falo and New York City. In general it is higher in winter than in summer. Sleet storms are most common a little way in- land from the shore of the Great Lakes. Hail is most common in the Central Lakes region and on the 54 RURAL NEW YORK northern rim of the southern plateau where also local storms most frequently occur. Disastrous floods occur in all parts of the State on occasion and are determined somewhat by the condi- tion of the drainage system. Abnormal rainfall is most common in the Central Lakes and southern plateau region in association with the prevalence of local storms. In such cases a rainfall of several inches may fall in a few hours and constitute what is known as a " cloudburst." Such downpours are very destructive as a result of erosion and flooding. The distribution of crops in New York State is determined in considerable measure by these local differences in climate. The fruit regions have a long growing season and a stability of winter climate that protect against winter-injury. Corn, beans, cab- bage and vegetables thrive best in the lowland regions of high summer temperature and high humidity. This localizes their extensive production very largely to the central part of the Great Lakes province and the Long Island and lower Hudson divisions. Po- tatoes are grown most extensively under the cool climate of Long Island, northern New York and the west central plateau region. Different factors com- bine in these regions to produce conditions favor- able to particular crops. Grapes are grown under the influence of the dry sunny climate of the Erie Lake plain and the Central Lakes region, combined with immunity from frost, part of which is secured by elevation and the careful selection of the slope. For the forage and vegetable crops, one of the most PHYSICAL AND CLIMATIC SETTING 55 determinate factors in success is the summer rainfall and curves showing the total rainfall in the summer season and the yield of hay and corn correspond very closely. Departures from the normal weather ele- ments are large and in the case of rainfall raise the question of the practicability of irrigation. This de- pends on the actual frequency and extent of variation of the rainfall, the nature and value of the crops and the cost of applying water. In general, irrigation will be practicable only on crops of high acre value and then only on the coarser soils of low moisture ca- pacity. CHAPTEI? IT HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE IN NEW YORK The first white men came into New York in 1G09, two years after tlie settlement at Jamestown, Yir- jjinia, and eleven years before the Puritans landed at Plymoutli, Massachusetts. In July of that year Champlain entered the lake region, that now bears liis name, from the north, and Captain Hendrick Hudson discovered the Hudson Piver and spent the month of September on it. He sailed up the river to the head of tide-water at what is now Albany. With his crew he interchanged courtesies with the Indians and later bought of them fruits, maize and otlier prod- ucts of the soil. The permanent settlement of New York began in 1623. In that year Peter Minuet acquired from the Indians their claim to Manhattan ("Manna hatta") Island for twenty-four dollars. Farms, which were called boweries, were laid out on that island and on adjacent parts of Long Island. To the regiou the Dutch gave the name New Amsterdam. In succeed- ing years, under supervision of the Dutch West Indies Company, settlements of Dutch were planted along the Hudson Eiver as far north as Albany or Fort Orange and among these was a considerable number of Walloons or Belgian French. 56 HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 57 In considering the development of the settlement, it is important to keep clearly in mind the physical nature of the country and the more accessible lines of travel, which were the waterways and the low passes between the hills. The new settlement was peculiarly situated in tliat respect, a fact that was more vital to its later development than to its early expansion. The wonderful harbor, the navigable tide-water as far as Albany together with the low pass into the interior of Xew York State, and also the great middle section of the United States, through the ^lohawk Valley and the Great Lakes re- gion, have cooperated to make this route the main gateway to the middle country and to maintain an organic connection between the peoples and customs in this eastern region and those in the more westerly districts. AGRICULTURE OF THE INDIANS The territory of central New York from the east- ern part of the ]\Iohawk Valley to west of the Genesee River was the home and the stronghold of the Five and later the Six Nations of Indians to whom the French gave the name Iroquois. They called them- selves Hodenosounce and in some cases Onguie- Honwe, the latter meaning " the men or people of the Long House." This term was descriptive of the type of their dwelling-houses which were long frame structures of poles and bark, built in compartments, and in which lived several families of the same clan. (See Plate II.) 58 RURAL NEW YORK The geographic situation of this Indian confed- eracy was peculiarly strategic. It lay at the headwa- ters of great rivers that flow to all points of the com- pass. It is the setting for an empire and New York seeks to live up to that standard of outlook, as is indicated by its popular synonym " The Empire State." In view of the limited means of travel, the situation of the Iroquois gave them a distinct ad- vantage in conflict with the neighboring tribes, all of which tended to strengthen their confederacy and to build up a high state of social and industrial de- velopment. They probably acquired many useful ideas and customs from the tribes with which they had contact. In form of government, in the structure of their houses and villages, and in their agricultural prac- tices, the Iroquois had reached a high state of devel- opment. They were composed originally of five tribes — the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Caj'-ugas, and the Senecas, situated in regions of which their names are still indicative. Later, the Tuscaroras of North Carolina were conquered and adopted into the Confederacy, and occupied the region adjacent to the Niagara Eiver, The tribal councils of sachems and chiefs were assembled in inter-tribal conference at the council house or castle in the Onondaga Valley. They were bound together by recognized principles of cooperation and the rudiments of democratic gov- ernment in which female suffrage was recognized. It is said that the early colonial assemblies in New York that led ultimately to the Articles of Confedera- B w a 3 O o 5 o a* o Id O 1; HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 59 tion and the Constitution of the United States were patterned somewhat after the Indian councils. The Indian Confederacy was claimed to have existed for six generations. The total Iroquois Indian popula- tion is said never to have numbered more than fourteen thousand after the advent of the white man. In addition, there were the Erie and other tribes in the western counties. The Iroquois had numerous villages protected by stockades of poles driven into the ground and equipped with defensive platforms. Adjacent to the villages were cleared and cultivated fields sometimes reach- ing one or two hundred acres in extent, usually on low land along rivers or lakes. Notable among these were fields at Indian Castle, east of Little Falls on the flats of the Mohawk, Onondaga Castle, south of Syracuse, Seneca Castle near Geneva, at Honeoye Falls, and a very large field in the Genesee Valley between Geneseo (Big Tree) and the present site of Mt. Morris. Other important settlements were near Elmira, Binghamton and at Peach Orchard Point, now Aurora. Maize and beans, pumpkins and squash seem to have been the main crops. General Sullivan's raid in 1779, by which the strength of the Indians in cen- tral New York was broken, is reported to have de- stroyed great stores of corn and other crops at the different settlements aggregating more than 300,000 bushels. The maize included flint, sweet and pop varieties. In addition, peas, turnips and other vege- tables and tobacco were grown. Winter stores were 00 RURAL NEW YORK preserved in chests and in deep pits. Vegetables were dried and meats were smoked, but the act of preserv- ing with salt was not known. Many native fruits, in- cluding the wild grape, were used. With the? advent of the white man, the Indians were brought into touch with the European fruits, the apple, peacli, cherry and pear. They were particularly attracted by the apple and developed extensive plantings. They had an orchard on Stockbridge Hill in Madi- son County, and early observers report that in the Seneca Lake region and in the Genesee Valley there were thousands of apple trees, some of which near Geneva were still standing as late as the opening of the twentieth century. Peach Orchard Point, or Au- rora, is suggestive of the growth of peaches there and trees of that fruit were scattered through the later Indian settlement. From certain reports the Indians seem early to have adopted some live-stock, . but the abundance of wild game and fish made do- mestic animals scarcely necessary to their sustenance. EARLY SETTLEMENT BY THE WHITE MEN The spread of the early population was slow. Fifty years after the first settlement, Schenectady was the most remote organized outpost. During the eighteenth century, settlements spread up the Mohawk Valley, and as late as 1790 in all western jSTew York beyond Cayuga Lake, there were only about one thou- sand white persons. To encourage settlement and develop trade, the Dutch West Indies Company ar- ranged for grants of large tracts of land to persons HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 61 who would bring into the new country fifty adult settlers within four years. These grants were to have a frontage of sixteen miles on the Hudson River, eight on either shore, and with indefinite boundaries inland. This was the basis of the Patroon settle- ments by which the owners of these grants were known. The Patroon was obliged to divide his land into farms and to aid in their equipment, with build- ings, tools, seeds, plants and stock. Pent was in stock and produce, usually fifty bushels of wheat a farm. Tenancy was for ten years, during which the tenant was securely bound to the Patroon who was officer and court. In addition to the first right to purchase the tenant's products, he controlled the rights to establish mills and to fish and hunt. The largest and most noteworthy grant of this sort was to Killan Van Rensselaer who acquired 700,- 000 acres extending from Albany, which he founded in 1630, twenty-five miles south along the river and forty-five miles inland. In 1684 after New Amster- dam had become permanently English and changed its name to New York, Chancellor Livingston ac- quired a tract of 160,240 acres further south in the Hudson Valley in what is now lower Columbia and northern Dutchess counties. By the English these grants were made from time to time but the principle of tenancy rather than actual ownership by the op- erators of the land was firmly established and led to important agrarian movements that are still visible in the political structure of the State. In 1685 the Huguenots or French Protestants came 62 RURAL NEW YORK into Ulster County, having already a foothold in Westchester County into which Puritans from New England and Quakers from Long Island and Rhode Island had filtered. About the beginning of the eighteenth century the West German Protestants, or Palatines, were very much unsettled in their home country and through the influence of Governor Hunter of New York, 3,000 came to the colony, 3,277 of them were distributed through the settlements up the Hudson Valley. Many were located on Living- ston Manor and got out tar and resin. Within a year there was a strike and some of these settlers were induced by the Indians to go into the Mohawk Valley where they located at Stone Arabia and Pala- tine Bridge in ^lontgomery County. To a considerable extent the pioneer settlements throughout the early American colonies were a Prot- estant search for religious liberty. Puritan, Palatine, Huguenot, Quaker and Adventist, Methodist, Baptist and Episcopal with many other sects have formed strong chains of settlements that spread throughout the State from their earlier foothold in this east country. The introduction of Dutch immigrants was not active after the acquisition of New York by the Eng- lish. Then the latter, largely from New England, spread westward in nearly straight lines modified, of course, by the easier lines of travel. They dom- inated the settlement of all western New York, prob- ably in large part because much of that region was claimed by Massachusetts, which retained preemption rights even after the relinquishment of its political HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 63 claim about 1790. Welsh came into lower Oneida County, Scotch and Irish into Otsego and some Scotch into Genesee, French filtered into northern New York and the St. Lawrence Valley from lower Canada. Some Germans settled in western New York from Pennsylvania. The different nationalities came somewhat in successive waves. After the Revolu- tionary War, many German and English soldiers re- mained as settlers, and Yankees from New England took up the confiscated Tory lands, such as those of Sir William Johnson in the Mohawk country. After Sullivan's expedition into western New York in 1779, many of his soldiers returned to that region as set- tlers. After the early stocks came the Irish in the early part of the nineteenth century, many Germans in the middle, and Poles, Hungarians and Italians in the latter part. All these have been distributed widely wherever large public works have been con- structed, and they have remained in those regions to enter more permanent industries, including agricul- ture. The early settlements of different nationali- ties and religions soon became so much intermingled that there is now very little evidence of the persis- tence or domination of the peculiar agricultural cus- toms of any one group. Perhaps the inclination of the Germans to establish small farms is one such custom. (See Fig. 14.) On the whole, the various nationalities and the dif- ferent religious sects have blended their customs and have developed a general tolerance quite character- istic of the New World. Fig. 14. Numbers and distribution of rural population of foreign stock by nationalities in 1910. One dot equals 500 persons: a. English; b. German; c. Canadian (not French); d. Scotch; e. Austrian; f. French; g. Rus- sian; li. Irish; i. Norwegian; j. Italian. 64 HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 65 EARLY ROUTES AXD MEANS OF TRAVEL Of the early routes of travel, the Hudson and the Moliawk valleys have been mentioned. At the pres- ent site of Eome was the portage to Wood Creek from which Oneida Lake and the Seneca and Oswego rivers were accessible and led to the Finger Lakes and Lake Ontario. The rivers, lakes and the other parallel valleys opened the way to the middle hill region. From Utica a line of travel led up Black Eiver to the Jefferson County region. The Lake George and Lake Champlain valleys opened up the country to the north. In lower New York, low passes led through the Catskills to the headwaters of the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers on which it was possible to float down stream into the new country. The boats were also pushed up these rivers by poles. From the Susquehanna its westerly tribu- taries could be followed into the hill regions of lower western New York, past Elmira and Hornell to the headwaters of the Genesee River. In western New York, the Genesee River was followed up to the pres- ent region of Belmont or beyond, from which it was possible to push a short distance overland to the Alle- gheny River at Olean. Many of these routes were traversed later by a canal and still later by railroads. The first canal in America is said to have been constructed in Orange County in 1750. The great movement for the con- struction of canals began about 1790 and was pushed during the next twenty years both by the elder and 66 RURAL NEW YORK the younger Governors Clinton and culminated in the construction of the Erie Canal which was opened in 1825. From the main line of the Erie Canal a number of branches were constructed in the subse- quent fifteen years. Since New York State has al- ways been preeminently agricultural, the opening of these lines of travel and ready meaUs of moving heavy freight were a great stimulus to its development by affording an outlet for its products. Previously the market for farm products had been essentially local. The strength of this statement will be recognized by considering that the only other method of movement of farm products was by wagon or the movement of stock on foot. Wheat was hauled from the Finger Lakes region to Albany. In 1791, General Joshua Whitney drove cattle from Binghamton to market in Philadelphia and returned by flat (Durham) boat and wagon with merchandise. The most important period of development in New York was the first half of the nineteenth century and especially following the construction of the canals and the first railways. Shortly after the opening of the Erie Canal, the Hud- son Valley farmers complained that Genesee wheat was flooding their market. Northern New York was effectively settled about the same time as western New York and as a part of the same general move- ment. Antedating canals were the trails and wagon roads. A post road was early established along the Hudson from New York to Albany. A good road was ex- tended up to Clinton County. The Newburg and Co- HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 67 hocton turnpike led to the Delaware Eiver and cen- tral Sullivan County. A road was early developed along the Mohawk and at Utica left the river and followed a course by Wampsville and Syracuse to Auburn, and thence to Geneva and Canandaigua. It was pushed through to Buffalo with branches to Geneseo and a north fork west of the Genesee River leading to Lewiston on the Niagara. This road was opened to Auburn in 1789 and to the Genesee in 1791. At that time the western half was known as the Genesee road and as it developed sections passed under different names, such as Seneca Turnpike. From the region of Utica a northern branch swung around by Camden into Jefferson County, and as a result of a special improvement was known as the Plank road. Many of these early roads were im- proved through the swamps by means of logs placed crosswise and more or less covered with earth, known as Corduroy. These were more substantial than com- fortable to ride over, especially in the common spring- less wagon of the region. Many of these old trunk line roads have now been linked up in the state im- proved highways system over which automobiles glide with great speed where once oxen drew carts that made slow, rumbling and jolted progress. Linked with the early development of the canal was the in- troduction of Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont, which on August 7, 1807, traversed the Hudson at the " remarkable speed " of a little more than five miles an hour. The Erie Canal, which was originally forty feet G8 RURAL M'JW YORK wide and three and one-half feet deep, and carried boats of seventy-live tons' capacity, was enlarged be- tween 1847 and 1852 to a width of seventy-five feet and a depth of seven feet carrying one hundred fifty- four tons, and later was enlarged to accommodate two hundred twelve ton boats. As a result of the larger capacity, and probably also due to competi- tion with the railroads in the later periods, the freight rates were successively reduced from $1.12 in 1839 to twelve cents in 1882 for carrying a ton from Buf- falo to Albany. Between 1903 and 1920, the Erie Canal was enlarged with some.changes in course to the form of the Barge Canal. It is twelve feet deep and will accommodate boats carrying three thousand tons which will be moved by steam tugs instead of by horses. The construction of railroads followed close on the opening of tlie Erie Canal. By 1832 the railroad had reached Eochester and was operated by steam in 1837. The first line reaching across the State was the Erie through the southern part and the first train from New York reached Dunkirk in 1851. ISText came the New York Central which, because of the low elevation of its bed along the line of the Erie Canal and the Hudson River, when taken in connection with the large agricultural production along its route, has come to be one of the heaviest lines of travel on the continent. Nearly all the existing lines of railroad were con- structed by 1880. After 1895 the electric railroads were developed along the lines of the more intensive HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE G9 local travel, ofteu as branches to accommodate local traffic. jSTow the automobile truck and bus lines are cutting into the business of the electric and also of the steam lines for local business, and by reason of their elasticity are able to reach out into strictly rural districts that were formerly very much handicapped because of lack of transportation facilities. All these means of travel have stimulated agricultural produc- tion but when coupled with tlieir application to the re- mainder of the country have brought trying indus- trial problems through the wider range of competi- tion. TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT The territorial expansion and organization of the State are somewhat intricate to trace in any complete way because the boundaries of the counties were changed from time to time and several counties were often made from a single earlier one. Much of the original ownership of the land by the white men rested on large grants by European crowns, or pur- chases from the Indians, and on claims of the more eastern colonies. In the Hudson Valley the Dutch Patroons and the English Manor estates occupied large tracts and de- velojK^d an agricultural tenantry. But in a country with so much cheap land, such a system could not be very exacting as to rents. Long-time leases were given and in the end the landlord was so far separated from his land that by the end of the period, when he came to claim his due, the tenant who had in the 70 RURAL NEW YORK meantime made extensive improvement was likely to resent the intrusion of such claims by the nominal owner. This was the feudal tenure of the Patroons, the practice of which between individuals was pro- hibited by acts of the legislature of 1789. But that act did not abolish the difficulties already started. They were aggravated wherever there were large estates in the ownership of absentee landlords. Con- flicts of this sort fermented during the first part of the nineteenth century in the Hudson Valley region and later spread to the lands owned and disposed of on contract by the Holland Land Company in west- em New York. These culminated in the anti-rent wars of 1836 to 1845 during which there were armed conflicts in the east resulting in bloodshed, such as those at Grafton, Rensselaer County and at Reidsville in Albany County in 1839, and the burning of the office and records of the Holland Land Company at Mayville, Chautauqua County in 1836. In 1846, the legislature set a limit of ten years to leases and abol- ished all feudal tenures. This principle is now es- tablished in the Constitution of the State. The ownership of the farm land of the State is now almost exclusively in small areas suitable for indi- vidual farms or at most a very few farms, except in the Genesee Valley where many thousand acres are owned by the Wadsworth families, title to which has come by inheritance from the pioneer acquisition. Even these areas are divided into relatively small farms and are operated under the ordinary lease system. In this region is the nearest approach af- HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 71 forded by the State to the English manorial and social system. The Colonial assembly of 1683 established twelve counties: IVew York, Richmond, Kings, Queens, Suffolk, Westchester, Dutchess, Orange, Ulster and Albany, and these included the present area of Rock- land, Putnam and part of Columbia, and at the west of Albany all the Mohawk Valley country as far as any jurisdiction was claimed. Tryon County was set off from Albany in 1784 and embraced all central and western Xew York and out of its territory more than a score of counties were created directly and many others ultimately. Its last remnant became Montgomery County. Herkimer County, named after General Herkimer, the first chairman of the home defense committee of Tryon County, was set off from the latter, and from it Onondaga and other counties were formed in 1788. This region was largely comprised within the ]\Iassa- chusetts Military tract of 600,000 acres lying be- tween the Oswego and Chenango rivers, acquired from the Indians by the treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768. From it the counties of Onondaga (1817), Cayuga (1817), Seneca (1816), Cortland (1808) and parts of Tompkins (1817) and Oswego were carved. Madison was created in 1806 and Oneida in 1816; Broome County was formed from Tioga in 1806. In 1779 all western New York beyond Seneca Lake was included in the one county of Ontario, and at that time had a total recorded population of only 1084 persons. 72 RURAL M:W YORK The vast rich country was involved with the Mili- tary tract in the claims oi' tlie State of Massachu- setts, under grant of the King of England. Its claim was adjusted with New York on December 16, 1786, by which Massachusetts retained the preemption right to settlement while all political authority was reserved to New York. The eastern boundary of this latter territory was roughly a line north and south through Seneca Lake (due north from the 82nd milestone on the Pennsylvania line to Lake Ontario) and was thereafter known as the Preemption line. The preemption rights of Massachusetts were ac- quired by Nathaniel Gorham and Oliver Phelps in 1788 for 300,000 pounds consolidated securities and later they purchased the claims of the Indians to some tAvo and a quarter million acres scattered through the western part of the State. The main part of the tract was east of the Genesee Eiver and was known as the Genesee tract. As a result of financial stringency, the titles of Phelps and Gorham were acquired in 1790 by Eobert Morris and by him disposed of to a Dutch company made up of Sir William Poultney, William Hornby and Patrick Calquahan, and known as the Holland Land Com- pany. This concern and its successors surveyed the area and opened land offices at Canandaigua, Batavia, IMayville and other points, and gradually during the next sixty or seventy years disposed of its holdings. Prices of land in the early days in these large areas as well as in small farm tracts were, of course, low, as the supply of land was almost unlimited. Then, HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 73 as later, there was land grabbing and speculation. Individuals acquired large tracts in various ways at very small cost, both before and long after the Kevo- no 100 90 Si 80 ?70 ^ en / , / / / / / / J / N dO k' i^-Sr-. ififuR 1 ? 30 J <.f V- U'ti-^ P,o^o \ V r ,.y '"/Jv"- /OO^OQ > — ..'2 /ff/IL > ''OPi/L/^ \rio^.. ,NLf. \ — 1.^ /,ooa_ ^— leoo 1810 /8Z0 /830 /8fO /8S0 /860 /870 /S80 /890 /900 /9/0 Fig. 15. Graphs showing by decades the total and the rural population of United States, the rural population, and the population engaged in agriculture in New York. lutionary War. In 1791, 5,548,173 acres of land were sold in western New York for a total of $1,030,- 433, of which Alexander McCombs is reported to have secured 3,635,203 acres, some of it as low as eight pence an acre. It sold to settlers for one to six dol- lars an acre. 74 RURAL NEW YORK Ontario was broken up into a total of fifteen counties and one of the earlier of these was Genesee which in 1802 included nearly all the land west of the Genesee River. Nearly all of the counties in that region had acquired approximately their present boundaries by 1824. Nearly all of New York State was originally heav- ily timbered. The growth was especially heavy and diversified in the calcareous soil regions of the middle part of the State. Hardwood made up nearly all of the tree fiora. Further south on the hills were much heavy white pine and several varieties of Coniferae dominated the mountain regions. There were a few prairie tracts mostly in river bottoms. At Mt. Morris, in the Genesee Eiver flats, was a prairie of 6000 acres. Through the hardwood country were oak openings or tracts, sparsely covered by trees and brush. On Long Island around Hempstead and Ja- maica was a large prairie tract on well drained soil, a condition unusual outside of the western prairie country. New York was both a well watered and a well timbered country. To clear the land the timber was cut and burned, and in many settlements the first money was secured from the sale of ashes or from the potash and pearl ash salts derived from them. It must be remembered that in that day potassium nitrate was the basis of gunpowder, the only available explosive, and the potash secured by leaching the ashes wa!s necessary to its manufacture. In some settlements, for ex- ample Clinton County, charcoal was produced. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 75 Tanneries were common everywhere, and grist and saw mills sprang up wherever a little water power could be developed and became relatively numerous soon after settlement in every district. As soon as there was any market and a means of transportation, lumbering became the leading indus- try. The opening of the Erie Canal and its tribu- taries was a great stimulus to the business, and in 1832 Albany was the largest lumber market on the continent. At that date the lower Hudson Valley was relatively an old settled region in need of that product. The first cash crop was generally wheat, the production of which in western New York was also given a tremendous impetus by the opening of the canal. Eochester and Oswego became great flour and barrel manufacturing centers, the former being known as the Flour City. Genesee Valley wheat was the standard in the market. Later, when the pro- duction of wheat declined and Rochester ceased to be the great flour center of the North, it was happily able consistently to change its popular name to the Flower City. CROP DEVELOPMENT The relative disadvantage in character of soil and topography in some parts of New York to that in the Middle West was greatly accentuated by the coinci- dent development of modern farm machinery espe- cially adapted to broad level acres and by the rapid transportation facilities afforded by the steam train. After 1875, land values shrank rapidly and only the 76 RURAL NEW YORK best farms could be maintained in active tillage in the open competition. In each decade in the last third of tlie nineteenth century, the cultivated area in New- York was less than in the preceding one. Stock, espe- ! ! , '-ix.,-,is-^ : ■.■:■■■. .<:■■:■■:■■. ■■X-.'- I I OECRE I.CM T>**lt ft »€• «<" ) 76 PCa CCH) J a TO l5 »t" 't"t_ I &0 Pta •CNIJJtO « Fig. IG. Changes in rural population from 1900 to 1910. cially sheep and hogs and beef cattle, was reduced in numbers togetlier witli the reduction in acreage of tilled crops. Xot until the present time has the shrinkage in acreage of crops and of certain types of live-stock reached its base level from which it may now be -expected to ascend. The largest proportion of the total land area of the HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 77 state in farms was about 23,750,000 acres or 78 per cent in 1880. The area in improved land was also largest at that time and was 17,700,000 acres or 58 per cent of the land area. Figs. 15 and 16 show the rural population of the State. The largest total acreage in hay and forage was in 1870 when it was 5,600,000. The State has always had a large area in forest and timber land and be- sides the 23 per cent not accounted for in farms in 1880, or an even larger percentage in other years, a considerable proportion of the farm land has always been kept in timber so that never less than one-third of the State has been so occupied, and a further in- crease is likely to occur. Grass and pasture have al- ways occupied a large area, partly because of the land that was too rough and stony to be well adapted to other purposes, partly due to the fact that the climate of the State is well suited to these crops, to the large proportion of springy wet soil, and to the relatively profitable demand for hay and pasture. The area in cultivated crops other than hay has al- wsijs been low in proportion to the total, and since 1844 has swung very close to 4,000,000 acres, or about 13 per cent of the total. It has been from 20 to 25 per cent of the total improved area in farms and 50 to 60 per cent of the total land in specified cultivated crops. The largest total acreage in crops other than hay and fruits in this period was in 1854 when it was nearly 4,200,000. It was low during the Civil AVar period and high again between 1875 and 1880. Since 1909, it has been near 3,500,000 acres. 78 RURAL NEW YORE The area in fruits cannot accurately be determined before 1909 when it was 500,000 acres, and this had increased to 694,000 in 1917. Before 1890, the pro- portion of commercial orchards was small, most of the main area being for home use. The increase since that date has been mostly of the commercial or ship- ping type. Even yet, the proportion of the total acre- age of fruit that is actively put on the market is rela- tively small and probably does not exceed one-third of the crop in a normal season. The land area is still far from well developed. The productive capacity of the land has decreased on partif ular farms and in special regions. The prob- lem of maintaining fertility has come to the fore- ground. But from a consideration of the average yield of all crops over a period of forty-seven years, from 1866 to 1913, it is difficult to prove a decrease in yields. Taking the yield in 1866 as 100, there have been nineteen years when the average yield was equal to or greater than this figure and twenty-eight when it was less. From 1879 to 1896 inclusive, there was not a year when the yield was above the base fig- ure. This was the period of agricultural depression and readjustment in the East. In the period from 1897 to 1912, the yield has been above that base figure eleven times. In these figures is expressed the more careful adjustment to areas adapted to the cultivation of the main crops of the State in order to meet the outside com])etition. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 79 DEVELOPMENT OF UNDER-DRAINAGE In the practice of modern under-drainage by means of tile, New York was a pioneer. Drainage as an art accomplished by the use of open ditches and of stone, brush, poles, and other crude means is very old and is recorded by Cato and other ancient writers. But drainage by means of tile or short lengths of clay pipes is relatively new and probably does not date back more than 250 years to the convent gardens in Mauberg, France. In England it is not much over 150 years old. The honor of having first systematically tile- drained a farm in America rests with John Johnston, a Scotchman j who came to America in 1821 and ac- quired a farm two miles southeast of Geneva, on the east shore of Seneca Lake. His farm is in part a strong heavy calcareous loam and in part a rather heavy calcareous clay. For the first fifteen years, however, he could not grow profitable crops. Then he remembered the " pottery " he had seen buried in the land of his native country. In 1835-1837, he im- ported some of these clay pipes from England and be- gan the systematic drainage of his farm about four rods apart. He found it so profitable that he con- tinued until his entire three hundred acres were all well drained in this manner. Others followed his example and a period of active tile under-drainage began. Johnston was associated with John Delafield in importing the first machine for making tile, a Scragg pattern. In 1851, Johnston was awarded a 80 RURAL ZVEW YORK prize by the New York State Agricultural Society for an essay on his drainage operations, and in the following year a set of exquisite gold and silver pieces was presented to him in recognition of his service to agriculture in introducing tile drainage, by a group of public spirited men, among whom are a number of prominent names. Whether the Johnston farm was actually the first in America on which clay tile were used is an open question. South of the Mason- Dixon line, tile were not systematically laid until about 1875 and this was at Charleston, South Caro- lina. W. C. Hinson, a planter on James Island, then began using tile. It is reported that one of the English consuls stationed at a Virginia port used tile long before that date. In any event, Johnston's was the first work the results of which have been carried through to the present day, for those drains are still operating and in good form and the farm, under the progressive management of the present owner, con- tinues to produce yields of crops far above the aver- age of the State. The first sections of farm drain tile carried west of the Mississippi Eiver came from this same vi- cinity of Geneva. They were carried by another man who has had very large influence on agriculture in New York and also in the country at large. Isaac Phillips Roberts, first dean of agriculture in Cornell University, was born on a farm at East Varick on the west shore of Cayuga Lake. He moved to Iowa and engaged in farming. In 1865 he carried some lengths of tile back to Iowa in connection with a visit at his HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 81 old home in New York. He preached the gospel of under-drainage in the new country then and later in his capacity as a professor of agriculture in the new State College of Agriculture at Ames, Iowa. During the depression in agriculture in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, Xew York fell be- hind the Middle West in the practice of tile drainage and is Just now actively resuming the art. THE RISE OF AGRICULTURAL I^TSTITUTIONS The institutions and educational movements that have so large a part in the agricultural progress and prosperity of the State have been of slow growth. The antecedents of these were the societies for the promotion of agriculture, both local and state. In February, 1791, The New York State Society for the Promotion of Agriculture was organized, and at once became a potent force in the discussion of agri- cultural matters. The movement by which exhibits of agricultural products were held, with prizes for the best, had its rise between 1800 and 1810, in which latter year Elkanah Watson conducted a cattle show at Pittsfield, ^lassachusetts, that led to the organiza- tion of the Berkshire Agricultural Society. In 1817 an agricultural fair was held at Eed Hook, Dutchess County, and in 1818 a similar one at Auburn. In January of that same year, Governor De Witt Clinton made a notable address to the state legislature in which he set forth the need of more attention to the practical and educational needs of agriculture and recommended the formation of a Board of Agricul- 82 RURAL NEW YORK ture. In the following year, such a board was con- stituted with an appropriation of $10,000, to be dis- tributed among the several local secretaries for aid in agricultural affairs. This Board of Agriculture with the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture were merged in 1833 into the incorporated New York State Agricultural Society, which took over and con- tinued until a very recent date the functions of the Board, under which an annual volume or repository of agricultural information was published. This an- nual volume was for many years the chief source of agricultural information and inspiration. That So- ciety may be credited with the large amount of atten- tion given to soils and fundamental agricultural facts in the five-volume report on the Natural History Sur- vey of the State published in 1844. About 1849, the Society inaugurated the examination of soils, seeds, fertilizers and food stuffs, which movement became the lineal ancestor of the present division of Farms of the Council of Farms and jMarkets, which was or- ganized as the office of the Dairy Commission in 1884 and became the Department of Agriculture in 1893. The agricultural fair movement had its largest de- velopment in the period of 1850 to 1870. In 1857 there were ninety-seven agricultural societies or fair associations in the State. The early policy of state contributions to the premium list of these fairs has been continued to the present date and for many years was paid from the receipts from licensed gambling on horse races. A state fair was first held in Syracuse in 1841 and for many years it convened in different HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 83 parts of the State. In 1890 it was permanently lo- cated at Syracuse by the State Agricultural Society and one hundred acres of land on the present site were donated by that city. This area has been increased •to I45I/2 acres. At that time the development of the present commodious grounds and buildings was be- gun. In 1900 the enterprise was taken over by the State and was placed under a commission of eleven men. In 1909 this number was reduced to seven, with the Lieutenant-Governor and Commissioner of Agriculture ex-officio. From the time of the notable addresses to the legis- lature of Governor De Witt Clinton in 1818, in favor of agriculture, and the writings of his cousin Simeon De Witt, the founder of Ithaca, both nephews of the first governor of the State, Eobert Clinton, who was also a strong advocate of the promotion of agri- culture, various movements were started for the or- ganization of a school or college of agriculture. Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute, established at Troy in 1824, included agriculture among its interests. After long and persistent agitation in the Xew York State Agricultural Society, a charter for an agricul- tural college at Fayette, Seneca County, was granted in 1853, largely through the efforts of John Delafield. As a result of his death in the same year, the move- ment failed and was supplanted in 1850-1857 by the organization of an agricultural college at Ovid, in the same county, in connection with Ovid Academy, where buildings were erected and the doors opened to stu- dents in agriculture in 18G0. But this was not a 84 RURAL NEW YORK permanent start. There was in that first faculty Wil- liam H. Brewer, a native of Ithaca, who for forty years, from 1864 to 1904, was professor of agricul- ture in the Sheffield Scientific School associated with Yale University. Another man who took an impor- tant part in the launching of agricultural colleges appears in the records at this time. This was the Eev. Amos Brown who had been principal of the Ovid Academy and the School of Agriculture and was transferred to the presidency of the People's College at Montour Falls, in Schuyler County. This institution was started in that year as an outgrowth of a demand among mechanics for vocational education in the me- chanical trades, and agriculture was included among its interests. The significant fact is that Amos Brown was persona] advisor of Senator Justin Morrill, who was instrumental in securing the passage of the Morrill Act of 1862, by which public lands were given to each of the states of the Union, from the proceeds of the sale of which colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts were to be established. That act is the basis of such institutions in all the states, a number of which have grown into universities of first rank. The first assignment of the funds accruing from the land scrip credited to New York was to the institution at Montour Falls, of which Brown was president. Owing to failure of that institution to comply with the conditions of the assignment, the outgro\\i:h was the transfer of this grant and the founding of Cornell University at Ithaca. From its opening in 1868, instruction in agriculture and the E18T0RY OF AGRICULTURE 85 mechanic arts has been included, together with the old established arts subjects and the newer instruction in the sciences. The department of agriculture in that institution was taken over by the State in 1904 and chartered as the New York State College of Ag- riculture. The period between those two dates, 1868 to 1903, marks the full crystallization of the idea of collegiate instruction in agriculture based on careful scientific investigations as represented by the agri- cultural experiment stations, which were an out- growth of the colleges. In 1879, the Cornell Univer- sity Agricultural Experiment Station was organized by the faculty in agriculture, and in the same year the students of agriculture in the same university in- augurated a movement which resulted in the found- ing, in 1882, of the New York State Agricultural Ex- periment Station at Geneva, which was the second in- stitution of its kind in the country, and antedated by five years the foundation of such institutions in all the states by the federal act of 1887. As early as 1876, a private agricultural experiment station was estab- lished at Houghton Farm, in Orange County. It continued until the death of its founder, Lawson Val- entine, in 1891. Isaac P. Eoberts, the first permanent professor of agriculture in Cornell University, and for many years the dean of agricultural teachers in America, was the director of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Ithaca. His period of service, from 1874 to 1903, as head of the agricultural work at Ithaca, covered the pioneer period in agricultural education. That of 86 RURAL NEW YORK his successor, Liberty Hyde Bailey, represented the at- tainment of agricultural education to equal rank with other academic courses, and the agricultural writings and publications of the latter have been a leading force to popularize agricultural practice and rural life, and to give it a standing in the literature of the day. The Station at Geneva, which was one of the first in America that was well organized and took up a carefully considered program of experimentation and investigation, had as its first director E. L. Sturte- vant, who was succeeded in 1887 by Peter Collier, who in turn was followed by W. H. Jordan in 1895. The beginnings of the farmers' institute movement are hazy and are lost in the miscellaneous lectures on agriculture that began at a very early date. The or- ganized movement commenced with a series of meet- ings of practical farmers with the agricultural teach- ers at Ithaca in 1886. Out of this grew the scheduled series of lectures on agriculture by successful farmers and by members of the staff of the agricultural insti- tutions, under state financed subsidy. The institutes were for many years administered by the State De- partment of Agriculture. On the death of the last di- rector, Edward Van Alstyne, whose sturdy teachings reached beyond ilie bounds of technical farm prob- lems into the larger social and spiritual domains of rural life, most' of this work was transferred to the supervision of the State College of Agriculture at Ithaca. This occurred in 191T after the extension movement had been established on a national basis by the Smith-Lever Extension Bill enacted bv the Fed- HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 87 eral Congress in 1912, by the terms of which federal money is granted to the states for education directly on the farms in proportion to the agricultural popula- tion. This federal appropriation must be matched by an equal amount from the State. This extension movement, now grown to vast and intricate national proportions, seems to have had its beginnings in an appropriation by the New York State Legislature to the Department of Agriculture at Cornell University, now the New York State College of Agriculture, in 1895, to carry the teachings and inspiration of the University to the young people and the men and women on farms who could not become resident stu- dents in the University courses. This movement had its inception in the mind of John Spencer of West- field, who later was affiliated with the University, and under the familiar title of " Uncle John " was for years the inspirer of boys and girls concerning the things of the " out-of-doors." The conception of di- rect teaching by the University beyond the walls of the institution grew from this and other pioneer ef- forts into the great extension movement. Other movements worthy of special mention that have especially affected the agricultural interests of the State, and some of which have reached far beyond its bounds, are the Grange or Patrons of Husbandry. The Patrons of Husbandry, commonly known as the Grange, which was fathered by 0. H. Kelley at Wash- ington, D. C, had advisors in different parts of the country. The first local chapter. Grange Number 1, was established at Fredonia, April 16, 1868. New 88 RURAL AL'VV YORK York lias always been one of the strongest Grange states in the Union, and has stuck constantly to the movement. It now numbers 863 local granges, 50 Pomona or county granges, and has a membership of 114,000. It has been a potent force for agricultural leadership and inspiration in rural affairs. The New York State Horticultural Society was formed from the Western New York Horticultural Society and the New York State Fruit Growers As- sociation in 1918 and now has a membership of 1700 which makes it the largest as well as one of the most live associations of horticulturalists on the continent and perhaps the largest in the world. The Western New York Horticultural Society was founded in Feb- ruary, 1855, and for many years looked after the horticultural interests of the State. In 1901, there was a split in its membership, largely along the line of nursery interests and fi'uit production, and the New York State Fruit Growers Association was the outgrowth of the movement. For many years, an- nual meetings and one or more field trips have been held by each of these organizations. They included in their membership a very large proportion of the fruit-growers in the State and have been effective leaders in that field. In the State Horticultural So- ciety the membership of the two organizations is now united. The third movement has to do with the dairy inter- ests and is embodied in the Dairymen's League. Its inception was the desire and a certain degree of ne- cessity for a better price for milk if it was to continue HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE 89 to be produced in quantity at all adequate to the needs of the city population. The League began in 190T. Its financial support consisted of an assessment on each membership of twenty-five cents for each cow owned. CHAPTER III SOILS OF NEW YORK Few, if any, states have as large a variety of soils as New York. This, when coupled with the existing differences in elevation and in climate and varied nearness to market, forms the basis of a wide range of cropping scliemes and of agricultural development. The soils of almost the entire State have been formed under the influence of glacial processes. As has been stated, the glacial incursion came into the State from the north and covered all but a small angle of country south of the Allegheny River, in Catta- raugus County. The general movement of the ice was deflected by the contour of the land surface. Tongues of ice in the valleys protruded far forward of the main mass. In the Mohawk Valley the gen- eral direction of movement of the ice as shown by scratches on the bed rock was nearly east and west, due to the deflection of its movement around the Adirondack Mountains from the Hudson Valley on the east and the St. Lawrence Valley on the west. In studying the soils of New York, it is important to keep in mind three facts: First, that the ice moved in general from the north; second, that the exposure of the different rock formations lay across 90 SOILS OF NEW YORK 91 the general path of movement of the ice; third, that throughout the southwestern two-thirds of the State, the general slope of the land is to the north. As a result of this condition, ponds and finally great lakes were formed in the hollows between the front of the ice and the northward slope of the land as the ice gradually retreated northward due to melting. Xaturally, the water accumulated in the valleys and sooner or later attained a level that permitted it to drain oif to the southward in the form of great swol- len rivers. The valleys of the Delaware, Susque- hanna and Allegheny rivers bear evidences of this former ilood level in the remnants of gravel, sand and silt that form terraces along their courses. As a consequence of the three sets of facts just pointed out, there has been very extensive mixing of the rock material from different formations. In gen- eral, the material from each rock formation is most abundant to the southward of its exposure. This feature of the distribution of rock material is es- pecially important to keep in mind in considering the occurrence of limestone which has a very large in- fluence on the crop-producing capacity of the soil. In a glaciated region there is not necessarily any close relation between the underlying rock and the soil material that rests upon it. The soil has prob- ably been brought in from a greater or less distance. The unconsolidated earth above the bed rock is extremely varied in thickness, in fineness, in content of stone, in color, and content of organic matter, in content of limestone, in drainage, and as a result of 92 SO/L.S' OF XBW YORK 93 all these in crop-producing capacity. In general, the soil formation is from ten to fifty feet thick. It is deepest in hollows and protected coves and thin or even entirely absent over the higher hills and moun- tains. In the Hudson Valley and in the Adirondack Mountain region, exposures of bed rock are com- mon. Information in detail covering the soil conditions in New York may be found in the soil survey reports. The survey has covered about 28,000 square miles or about one-half of the State, mostly by counties. The reports on the areas consist of a descriptive pamph- let and a map. The maps represent the occurrence of the different kinds of soils in relation to the geographic features of the country on a scale of one mile equals one inch. The descriptive report treats of the location and general physical features of the area, its geology, climate and agricultural history. Each kind of soil is described in some detail and its relation to crop growth and to the more important soil improvement practices is pointed out. The aim of the soil survey report is to give a comprehensive account of the soils and natural agricultural features of the region. The characteristics by which the different kinds or types of soil are recognized are much the same as the farmer uses, and include the color of the material, the kinds of rock of which it is composed, tlie propor- tion of limestone and organic matter it contains, the arrangement of the material, whether unsorted or sorted and arranged in layers of different fineness, 94 RURAL NEW YORK the extent to which it is drained and the general lay of the surface, as well as the fineness of the mate- rial and the occurrence of stone. The individual kinds or types of soil fall into groups in each of which the types have many charac- teristics in common, such as color, kind of rock mate- rial and arrangement. Such a group of soils forms a soil series. The soil conditions of the State may be described by physiographic regions, as already enumerated. The distribution of the different groups and series is best represented by the map in Fig. 17. This should be studied in connection with the relief map of the State (Plate I). SOUTHERN PLATEAU This region of generally high elevation with deeply dissected valleys is mostly covered by light colored stony soils, formed directly by glacial ice. The un- derlying rocks are predominately gray to black sand- stones and shale with occasionally very thin strata of impure limestone. These are embraced in the Cats- kill group of rocks of the Devonian series. All of the soils of the region are deficient in lime and over large areas this is so pronounced as to be tlie chief limiting factor in the production of large yields of crops. All the unglaciated soils are embraced in the De- Kalb series. The stony loam type predominates. The DeKalb soils occur exclusively in the south- western part of the State. In this region the be- neficent effect of the glacial invasion is well illustrated SOILS OF NEW YORK 95 by the contrast in soil character and general agri- cultural development between the glaciated region and the unglaciated part. The contrast is especially im- pressive a little way southwest of Randolph where excellent glacial soils have been pushed up into close contact with the rough, infertile and undeveloped unglaciated soils of the DeKalb series that lie to the south. The general effect of the ice has been to deepen the soil, smooth the surface outline and to im- prove both the physical and chemical composition of the soil. The DeKalb soils are light colored, stony, and in texture border on a clay loam. Most of the "area is in timber. Further south in Pennsylvania, the DeKalb series occupies a large area and includes types of soil less steep and stony and better suited to agricultural development than those in New York. From the crest of the Catskill Mountains, westward throughout most of the southern two tiers of coun- ties in New York and reaching westward into Ohio and Pennsylvania, the hill regions are occupied by glacial soils of a uniform character. These soils are generally thinnest, most acid and least fertile on the steep slopes and over the top of the higher hills, and are deepest and most productive in the val- leys and protected coves, especially those valleys hav- ing an east-west direction. The soils are. also rela- tively thickest and best on the northern boundary of the plateau where it joins the Lakes Plains region. Five main series of soils are developed in the plateau region, and may be divided into two sub- groups — one characterized by yellow-brown and the 96 RURAL XEW YORK other by red to pink colors. The soils of yellow to liglit brown color make up three sei'ios. In two of these the soil formation is relatively thin and ranges from two feet to eight or ten feet in depth. Tliese are the Lordstown and Volusia series. The latter is' distinguished cliiefly by compact hardpan structure in the deep subsoil, resulting in poor drainage. The third series in this sub-group is the Wooster, in wliich the soils have a larger depth, more material foreign to the bed rock of the locality, and a more complex structural and textural character. The red- pink soils are the Culver series in the upper Catskills, the Lackawanna series in northern Delaware County, and parts adjoining, and the Chenango series of high terrace soils all through the western half of the State. All of this plateau region originally bore a heavy growth of timber. White pine predominated but there was a heavy admixture of broad-leaved trees that included oak, sugar maple, chestnut, elm and many other species. This section needs much, under- drainage in spite of the prevailing heavy slopes of the land. The fertility of the soil is only one factor to be con- sidered in the agricultural development of this plateau region. The topography of the country and the situation of shipping centers and markets are equally important factors that react on the social and agri- cultural development. Much popular discussion has been directed particularly at this region of so-called abandoned farms. It has much less population as a whole and especially in the country districts than it SOILS OF NEW YORE 97 had forty or fifty years ago. On the whole, this dis- trict has not been able to hold its own in the agri- cultural competition with the Middle West. THE GREAT LAKES PLAIN AND THE MOHAWK VALLEY Stretching northward from the foot of the southern plateau region, across the Great Lakes plain and the slopes of the Mohawk Valley, is a deep accumulation of glacial and glacial lake deposits. Here limestone formations are most extensively exposed, and con- tributed largely to the ice mill. The great depth of the glacial ice, coupled with its choked movement due to the highland to the south, formed deep masses of till over most of the area and imparted to it surface features favorable for tillage. Later, glacial lakes occupied large areas in the lowlands and the local ice deposits were eroded, reworked and scattered over the lake floor in sheets of clay, silt, sand and gravel. Numerous ponds and lakes were formed that were subsequently filled with mud and by the growth of plants form rich marsh soils. This is the region of the best soils and the highest general agricultural development in the State. The fertility and favorable physical condition of the soils, combined with the low elevations and beneficent climatic conditions, produce an intensity and diver- sity of crop production, and a general agricultural prosperity unsurpassed by any other state of the same size, and seldom equalled or excelleil on the American continent. The soils belong to two main divisions: 98 RURAL NEW YORK those till soils formed directly by the glacial ice and tliose subsequently formed by water arising from the melting of the glacial ice during the retreat of its front. The glacial till soils are the most extensive of the two divisions and occupy all the higher portions of the region. The glacial till sheet underlies much of the glacial lake deposits and often protrudes through the surface. In addition, they reach up the foot of the slopes to meet the soils of the highland areas into which they gradually merge. For the most part, the glacial till soils are moder- ately stony. They contain occasional foreign bowl- ders of igneous rock brought from the north. Bowlders of the local rocks of the region are more common than the foreign ones, and while the removal of these rocks facilitates tillage, that operation is not often necessary in order to utilize the land. The type and proportion of stone vary widely in some sections. Usually in close association with the un- derlying limestone formations, blocks of massive limestone constitute the predominate field stone. These are most abundant on the southern rim of the Mohawk Valley and of the Ontario plain. In the Mohawk Valley and on the southern flank of the Adirondack Mountains, the hard granite type of rock is more common. Across the northern flank of the Adirondacks and again on the Ontario plain, sandstone is most common. The deeper subsoil of these till formations is usually very compact and may have properties akin to hardpan. SOILS OF NEW YORK 99 The predominence of different kinds of rock give rise to several series of glacial soil. The most ex- tensive of these is the Ontario which prevails all through the western plains region and eastward be- yond Utica. The Medina shales and sandstones, the Salina and part of the Hamilton shales have en- tered most largely into the formation of this series, together with rather large quantities of limestone from the outcrops of the region. The lime content is fairly ample, as might be ex- pected from its association with limestone forma- tions. The deeper subsoil is always heavily charged with limestone fragments but in the surface two-to- four-feet this is not so abundant, and that part of the section will seldom show the presence of free lime carbonates. However, it is sufficiently well supplied so that acid sensitive crops such as clover grow very well. On this series the production of alfalfa is most largely developed. The fruit industry of western New York is largely associated with this series of soils, and it is one of the best for mixed farming. Cabbage and beans are largely grown on the same soils. Teasel and hops are special crops developed at Auburn and south of Utica respectively. This same soil covers much of the best live-stock pro- ducing sections of the State including the region to the south of Syracuse and extending east and west for many miles. The widest development of the series is through the upper part of the Finger Lakes region, and thence northward to Lake Ontario. It spreads well south- 100 RURAL NEW YORK ward around the foot and along the shores of the Finger Lakes. Its relation to the heavier move- ment of the glacial ice is indicated by its furthest southward reach in the Cayuga-Seneca lakes section, which is the center of the Finger Lakes trough. Lower Seneca County has a larger development of this series than any other county of the same lati- tude, except perhaps Livingston, where the broad valley of the Genesee Eiver similarly favored the southern development of the series. Around the east- ern end and on the south shore of Lake Erie, the series is not much developed, partly because of the abrupt slope to the highlands. To the eastward its development is modified by the material from the A.dirondacks. Its most northern occurrence is at the east end of Lake Ontario in southeastern Jefferson County, and in Central St. Lawrence County where it is associated with the Trenton limestone. Standing close to the Ontario series, in character but not in extent, is the Honeoye. This is closely associated with the exposures of the limestone for- mations in the same district in which the Ontario series occurs. It represents that part of the till region where limestone was most largely introduced into the soil and where there is sufficient lime car- bonate, even in the soil, to effervesce freely with acid. The field stone are nearly all limestone. The subsoil is filled with limestone fragments. The till mantle that forms the Honeoye series is relatively thin and in the stony type limestone ledges protrude in many places. Three types are common SOILS OF NEW YORK 101 in the series, the stony loam, the loam and the fine sandy loam. Tlie two latter are excellent soils. They are sometimes a little shallow, which property interferes with their moisture supply. Their higli lime content makes them especially favorable to the growth of alfalfa and clover. Blue-grass thrives, as it also does on the Ontario series. The hop industry, formerly more prominent than at present, and de- veloped from northeastern Madison to northern Schoharie counties, is largely associated with these series. East and northeast of the Ontario-Honeoye occur- rence, through the middle of the Mohawk Valley, the glacial till from the Trenton limestone and from the black calcareous Utica shale is mingled with the igneous material, brought down from the Adirondack region. The Hudson Eiver sandstone and shale on the north side of that valley contribute some material. The result is a rather compact material that ranges from a clay loam, through the silt loam to the loam in texture, and is called the Mohawk series. The limestone and the black Utica shale have contributed a considerable amount of calcareous material. The black shale gives a dark to black color, especially when wet. Finally, the granite and other igneous bowlders from the Adirondacks that make up much of the field stone and in finer form enter into the soil, distinguish this series from the calcareous soils described above. In crop-producing capacity, the Mohawk series closely resembles the Ontario. Especially is this 102 RURAL NEW YORK true of the black loam. It grades off to the adjacent series on the plateau to the south and to the moun- tain soils on the north. It is preeminently a grain, hay and dairy region, largely because of the character of the climate under which it occurs. The glacial lake soils exhibit a greater diversity in the character of the types, but a greater uniformity in series characteristics than the glacial till soils. All tlie glacial formations and all the rock formations of the region were drawn on by the waters of these lakes and by the streams flowing into them for the material that was strewn over the bottom of the lakes. This general uniformity of the soil material is most notice- able in the former beds of larger lakes. Those are adjacent to the present shores of the Great Lakes. The soils formed in the higrh-level lakes that occu- pied the first hollows at the south front of the ice exhibit somewhat more diversity since the material brought in by the streams was more local. However, this is rather a fading out of the typical character of the larger lake deposits than a definite change in character. The most widely developed lake formed series is the Dunkirk and is made up of light brown or yel- low to chocolate brown material that ranges from heavy clay to light sand and gravel. The sand, in small areas, is so clean as to be blown about freely by the wind. As has been indicated, the material represents the assorted wash of all the adjacent higher formations. South of Lake Ontario, the soil has a decided pinkish tinge, probably due to the in- SOILS OF NEW YORK 103 fluence of material from the red part of the Medina and the Salina formations that give rise to the Lock- port series. With the dark or black shale, this pro- duces the rich chocolate brown color of the heavier types that characterizes the series. The boundaries of the glacial lakes were very ir- regular. The earlier levels to the southward were the higher and reached up to a thousand feet or more. The more gentle slopes and level areas further north are devoted to mixed farming. Fine sandy loam, loam and silty loam types predominate and as is usually the case with these classes of soils, they are about equally valuable for the production of a variety of crops. The agricultural experiment stations both at Ge- neva and Ithaca are situated, one partially and the other entirely, on the Dunkirk series, the clay loam predominating. At Geneva the station also includes some of the Ontario fine sandy loam soil. With the Ontario series, the Dunkirk occupies the bulk of the fruit-producing region. Both are made up chiefly of strong types of soil. Of course, cli- mate, produced by the low elevation and the influence from the Great Lakes, is a factor in the development of fruit. Good farming conditions prevail on most of the Dunkirk series. Closely associated with the Dunkirk series of soils is the Clyde, which represents that part of the lake deposit that, because of its low position and flat topography, has been in a pronounced swampy con- dition. Consequently, it has received much rich 104 RURAL NEW YORK wash from the adjacent land and has accumulated enough organic matter from the remains of plants to have a very dark or black color to the depth of at least a foot. It differs from muck and peat soil in that it is not predominately organic. Sandy loam, loam and clay loam predomiiiate and make first-class soil for grain, hay, and vegetables. The Clyde soils are most extensively develo})ed on the western part of the Ontario plain in Niagara County. THE ST. LAWRENCE AND CHAMPLAIN VALLEYS This region is made up of a relatively narrow rim of tillable land that reaches around the base of the Adirondack Mountains. Its width along Lake Champlain is narrow and ranges from less than two or three miles to ten or twelve miles in the northern part. The tillable land in the lower valley is ex- ceedingly narrow or entirely absent. In the St. Law- rence Valley the width ranges from ten to about thirty miles, and the inner or mountain border is irregular. The topography and soils naturally subdivide into two divisions: the undulating to flat portion at the lower levels that have been covered by glacial lakes ; the higher, rolling to hilly portions covered by glacial till soils. The lake soils are generally quite free from stone and range from heavy clay to light colored sand and gravel. The glacial till soils are moder- ately to prevailingly stony. The till soils are subdivided into three main series, based on the predominant character of the rock mate- SOILS OF ^'EW YORK 105 rials with their attendant physical properties. These are : the Dover series derived from the inlluence of igneous rocks and sandstone on calcareous till from the Trenton limestone; the Coloma series from the predominant influence of the Potsdam sandstone*, and the Worth series from the predominant influence of the Hudson Eiver shales and sandstone in their western development where they are horizontally bedded and but slightly metamorphosed but are coupled with the slight influence of igneous material from the Adirondacks and of some materials from the pink Medina sandstone. Tlie Dover series is the most important agricultu- rally of the three derived from till in this region. In general character and crop-producing power, it resembles the Ontario series. It usually has a more decided light brown color and a more open, friable structure. The soils of the Dover series need more or less drainage. They are also benefited by applications of lime for acid sensitive crops, although the soils are generally strong and durable. The deep subsoil is heavily stocked with limestone fragments and the field stone are largely of that rock. Hay and forage crops are the predominant products. In Franklin County hops were formerly grown mostly on these soils and in northeastern Clinton County apples are produced somewhat extensively. In the production of these two crops, the series shows its relation to the Ontario and Honeoye. In northern Lewis County and the adjacent portions of Jefferson 106 RURAL 7^'EW YORK County, and in fact wherever the series is developed, the possibility for the production of grass, hay and forage crops has led to the extensive use of the land for dairying. The Coloma series is distributed around the north- ern flank of the Adirondack Mountain area in asso- ciation with the Potsdam sandstone. The hard character and resistant arrangement of that massive formation has resulted in a relatively thin stony soil. The tillable areas are small and irregular and occupy protected hollows and slopes in the rock structure. Large and small bowlders are thickly strewn over the surface. The soil and subsoil are a light rusty brown color. Loam and sandy loam types predominate. Drainage is generally good and the lime content is low. The content of organic matter is also relatively low. Consequently, the general agricultural development is low and without special characteristics. Grass and grain do poorly on the soil. The one crop to which it has been found to be preeminently adapted is po- tatoes, of which good yields and excellent quality are secured. The physical properties of the soil, coupled with the cool even climate produced by the latitude and the elevation, combine to give it this favorable relation to the potato crop. The region is developing a reputation for seed potatoes for southern planting and bids fair to compete successfully, though on a smaller scale, with the famous Aroostook district in Maine. The Worth series is recognized on the southwest SOILS OF NEW YORK 107 flank of the Adirondack Mountain region in lower Lewis, northwestern Oneida and eastern Oswego counties where the Hudson Eiver and Medina shales and sandstone furnish the bulk of the material. In general, the soils are quite stony. The resistant sandstone contributes bowlders that strew the fields and in the cleared areas have been built into fences. The elevation ranges from 1800 feet in the Lewis County portion down to 600 or 700 feet at the lower limit in Oneida and Oswego counties. A large part of the series is in timber and bears a heavy native growth of hemlock, spruce and a few hardwood trees of maple, beach and elm. In the more accessible parts, the timber has been removed and the land remains in birch slashes with a mixture of more useful species. Farm conditions are rather back- ward and decadent. None of the common crops makes an especially good gro^\d:h. A rather quiet lake at some time covered large areas in the St. Lawrence and Champlain valleys. The low rock structure, especially in the former re- gion, was covered by an extensive glacial lake and the sediment laid down over the surface formed a thin covering on the high points and deep deposits in the hollows. In western Jefferson and St. Law- rence counties, innumerable masses of igneous rock and a few limestone ridges protrude through the lake deposits, which condition is well illustrated by the Thousand Island region. These lake deposits form the Vergennes series and closely associated with them on the mountain side 108 * RURAL NEW YORK arc large areas of the Merrimac series. In the Cham- phiin Valley they reach up to the foot of the steep slopes that rise to the mountains. The deep water deposits which predominate through the region, ex- cept near the shore, are silt and clay of a light brown color. They give rise to the clay loam and silt loam types. These form a broad, fiat to gently undulating surface, and coupled with the compact character of the subsoil this surface feature produces large areas of wet land in need of under-drainage. The common practice is to use shallow surface ditches for drain- age, which are very inefficient. Many of these are formed by plowing the land in narrow beds a rod or two in width with a broad " dead furrow " be- tween. The utilization of the soils and the general agri- cultural development of this region is handicapped by the short season and by the limited transportation facilities. The seasons are further shortened, es- pecially on the flat heavy soils, by the poor drainage. Better under-drainage, coupled with the development of special money crops such as potatoes, in addition to dairying, and the adjustment of the systems of farming more effectively to those practices will pro- duce better results from the land. THE HUDSON VALLEY REGION Both the soil conditions and the agricultural de- velopment of the Hudson Valley region may be de- fined by the word " piecemeal," and so they must continue in view of the predominance of those SOILS OF NEW YORK 109 " small-scale " practices that go with small opera- tions. The rough topography that generally pre- vails, together with the dissection of the tillable areas of soil by the numerous rock exposures will continue to interfere with the development, except in limited regions, of large, well arranged progressively managed farm units. Its proximity to large centers of population, together with the beautiful roll and outlook of the coimtry, strongly stimulates the " summer boarder crop." This indeed is spreading in ever increasing numbers up the valley and over the Catskills, and is breaking up enterprises of a strictly agricultural character. The glacial till soils fall into three series, one of which, the Dutchess, is far the most extensive. It is the result of the glaciation of the Hudson River formation of sandstones and shales. Occupying pockets through the region, the limestone and mar- ble have given rise to the calcareous Dover series, which has a small total development. The igneous and highly metamorphosed gneiss rocks in the heel of the State, gave rise when glaciated to the Glouces- ter series, the typical hiU lands of much of New England. The three most extensive soil types in the Dutchess series represent differences in general depth and char- acter and amount of stone content. The silt loam is the deepest, the most generally tillable, and by far the best agricultural soil for extensive farming. Hay pas- ture and timber are its most natural products. When well handled, it gives good yields of grain, corn. 110 RURAL NEW YORK wheat, oats, rye and buckwheat. The last three are prominent crops. These crops, with the pastures and corn for silage, are combined with dairy farming which, is perhaps the most common industry. In the middle part of the valley, fruit-growing has attained some prominence and most of the fruit is produced on this type and certainly on this series of soils. Tree- and small-fruits are extensively devel- oped. A further factor in their development appears to be the long growing seasons that prevail here, due to the influence of the drift of air up the Atlantic Coast into the lowland area. The glacial drainage over the irregular surface of this region formed gravel and sand terraces in all the main channels, remnants of which remain to give rise to soils similar to the Chenango series in the plateau region and of similar crop and agricultural value. There is the same range from loose coarse gravel and sand to sandy loam and silt material. ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS The Adirondack Mountains scarcely require men- tion as to soils, as the region has small agricultural value outside of forest purposes. This elevated area was traversed by the glacial ice and large areas of the rock raked bare. Their resistant character and the sluggish movement of the ice produced a small amount of material. -The drainage water incident to the retreat of the ice further reduced this, and left, in addition to a partial and irregular sandy covering over the slopes, deep sandy fills in the val- SOILS OF NEW TORE 111 leys that are crowded with howlders. The irregular filling of the valleys produced innumerable lakes and through these and down the slopes the streams meander, forming numerous and extensive falls that have large potential water power. In its way the soil covering of the region will produce a large amount of timber, but active farming is justified only under very unusual conditions. LOXG ISLAND The last physiographic division of the State to be considered, and the lowest in general elevation, is that comprised in Long Island and small areas on Staten Island, together with the adjacent parts of the mainland, considering Manhattan as such. Nearly all of this belongs to the Atlantic coastal plain division of the country, and the soils have been largely formed under the ocean. The great ter- minal moraine of the glacier cuts eastward from Xew Jersey and lies across Long Island. But even that has been largely overtopped and cut away by the ocean waves so that most of the area is a gently sloping sandy plain. Heavy glacial till is exposed in scattered areas on the northwest shore of the island in the northern suburbs of the city of Brook- lyn. Reaching east from this heavy till is a much more sandy and gravelly till that forms two lines of irregular hills. These cross the island, eastward, one in a diagonal direction to Montauk Point, and the other is situated on the north shore of the island and known as the Harbor moraine. They rise to a 113 RURAL NEW YORK maximum elevation of 400 to 600 feet at different points. The rough surface of these interfere with their utilization for agricultural purposes. The north shore is generally quite precipitous and is in- dented by many shallow bays. The sand plains that in many places cut through the glacial formations spread out to the south to seashore beyond which are mud flats guarded by an irregular outlying line of sand bars. Much of the material of this plain was derived from the adjacent glacial formations which in turn were brought down from New England by the ice. Thousands of acres of land all through the middle of the island are in a state of near-wilderness. It is covered by scrubby timber, is unsettled and un- fenced except as limited areas have been developed for suburban residences, and the roads are poor except a few main highways. It is open to the wild birds, the rabbit and the deer, in spite of its proximity to the greatest center of population on the continent. The western end of the island within twenty-five miles of New York City has a good loam to sandy or silty loam. It has the depth and body that make most of it suited to the large development of the market-garden industry of that region. The marine plain has been largely formed from the destruction and distribution of the glacial moraine. A peculiar development is the Hempstead plains soils in the town of Hempstead, reaching in several irregular areas from w^est of Mineola to near Farmingdale. The soil has a dark to black color SOILS OF NEW YORK 113 and a moderately productive quality. The central portion of this area, which is a slightly sandy to silty loam two to five feet deep over the gravel, is one of the few examples of a native prairie area east of the x\ppalachians. This is known as the Hemp- stead plains. Its original vegetation was a rank growth of sedge grass and was early used as the common pasture. Many kinds of vegetable crops groAV well on this soil. Potatoes give particularly good yields. The transition to the adjacent poorer sand plains is through a gravelly loam of lighter color and lower crop value than the Hempstead loam. The cause for the dark color and treeless condition of the area has not been explained. On the eastern end of the island, the soil and con- sequently the agricultural conditions are again much better than in the middle of the island. The soil has a finer texture and a better body. The sandy glacial material that forms the core of these two eastern prongs of the island is mixed with considerable silt and clay and reworked into a fairly smooth sur- face so that it makes good farm land. This soil has proved suited to the production of early pota- toes. Cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and Lima beans are also prominent crops, their production centering rouglily in Riverhead. Considerable corn is pro- duced and on the southern prong of the island dairy- ing is still practiced. Tlie island is dominated by its availability for residence purposes and its value for home-making has often misled individuals as to its agricultural pos- 114 RURAL NEW YORK sibilities. For le^mes, practically all the soils need lime. Lime is beneficial to many oilier crops. On these soils the chief objection to its larger use is the possibility of favoring the disease known as scab on potatoes. Shore swamps and the limited areas of heavy soil need drainage. Humus is generally de- ficient in the soils. Because of the physical nature of the soil, and its poor relation to moisture for crop growth, and also because of its proximity to so large a population, irrigating with sewage should be con- sidered wherever conditions are favorable. SPECIAL SOILS The stream bottoms and the marsh and swamp lands of the State constitute a division of land that is essentially distinct because the character of the soils is much alike through the different areas. Along nearly every stream, small or large, is the ribbon of first bottom alluvial soil, traversed by the stream either in a meandering sluggish channel or with a direct rush. The width and quality of the bottom land is generally proportional to the former condition — sluggishness. This means frequent overflow as a result of which the sediment is de- posited. The nature of these bottom lands is much afFected by the character of the adjacent lands from which the wash is derived. However, this quality is considerably masked by the mixing of the material, together with the large and deep incorporation of organic matter. Usually, the presence of organic matter is evident to the depth of three feet or more. SOILS OF NEW YORK 115 A dark gray to brown color prevails. The larger part of the first bottom soils is placed in four main series that are distinguislied chiefly by their color. The lightest colored of these is the Caneadea series. That of medium dark color is the Genesee series which is the most extensive. The red series is called the Barber and is associated with the Lackawanna soils. The dark or black alluvial soils form the Papakating series. The prevailing class in all these series is the silt loam. Along small streams the loam, sandy loam and gravelly loam are more common. The surface is likely to be mildly cut up by old abandoned cliannels and overflow courses as most of the land is subject to annual overflow, by which addi- tions of sediment are formed. The bank of the stream is usually highest and coarsest in texture. The foot of the slope to the upland is lowest and most poorly drained. These soils make first-class corn, hay and vegetable lands. Small grains are liable to lodge and to injury by overflow. Summer crops are safer than winter ones. Swampy soils luive been formed in many blind hollows and pockets in the surface of the country. The glacial incursion has given rise not only to hundreds of lakes of all sizes and shapes, but to an even larger number and variety of swampy areas and mud flats. The low south shore of Long Island and a little of Staten Island represent the marine type of tidal flat which must be reclaimed if at all by diking, and perhaps pumping the drainage water. 116 RURAL NEW YORK This has been done only to a very slight extent. Such land is saline and usually bears a dense growth of grass. However, a few seasons of protection from the tide, coupled with leaching by the rains would make the tillable land suitable for crop production. The inland fresh water swamps, native and re- claimed, have an aggregate area of about 2000 square miles. A number of tliese, including one of the largest, are situated in the Hudson Valley. There are a number of important areas in the Champlain and St. Lawrence valleys and in the southern plateau region, but the greater part in number and area are in the Great Lakes plain. From Oneida and Oswego counties west to Buffalo and south into the Finger Lakes region, large and small areas of swamp and marsh land dot the surface. The intervals be- tween the drumlins are a common position. The small areas are usually deep and are kept quite wet by springs on the border. The large areas are shal- low sheets wbere border springs are not so well able to maintain the water level. The larger areas of muck soil are in the Wallkill marshes in southern Orange County; the Cicero and Eome areas near Oneida Lake ; the Montezuma marshes on Seneca River; the Oak Orchard area on the north line of Genesee County and the Pope Mills area east of Black Lake in St. Lawrence County. A large number of small areas lie among the drumlins ■" in Wayne ounty and in the hollows in the surface of Oswego County. A large part of this land is still undeveloped, ex- SOILS OF NEW YORK 117 cept for pasture. Much of it is in timber. Favor- ably situated areas are under cultivation. The black swamp soil, Clyde, and tlie muck are excellent for the growth of vegetables, as celery, lettuce, onions, spinach and cabbage, for forage crops, corn, and for hay, timothy. Large yields are derived. These lands constitute one of the important potential resources of the State, but since they are special and not gen- eral crop soils, and their development is an expensive process, it should be undertaken with caution. Special fertilization is necessary, particularly on the muck, and special knowledge and training go with success on such soil. CHAPTER IV OTHER RESOURCES OF NEW YORK STATE Trees grow naturally throughout New York as they do also in New England. They spring up freely in every neglected field and fence corner, as grass does on the western prairie or moss in the cool forest shade. The farmer contends with brush — the young trees — as he does with common weeds. Given a chance they will make every fence-row a dense hedge of vegetation, overgrown with vines. To the person accustomed to the difficulty of growing trees in the middle and western states, this ease with which trees spring up in New York is a matter of wonder. Their cool shade reaches into the villages and many of the larger cities and gives them a cool and comfortable aspect. Practically every part of the State was originally covered by forest, much of it very dense. About the only exception was the prairie area of Hempstead soils on western Long Island. Great forests of pine and hemlock mixed more or less with hardwood species covered all the lower and better lands and reached well up into the mountain regions. In the latter, spruce and hemlock were more common. The quality and variety of timber reflected the qual- 118 OTHER RESOURCES 119 ity of the soil and the nature of the climate, as is the case with the cultivated crops that succeeded the forest. Indeed the original settlers were guided more or less in the choice of their land by the timber growth it bore. But to the pioneer farmer bent on producing things to eat and wear and sell, wheat and flax and wool, the trees were mostly an encumbrance to be got rid of — branch and stump and root — as rapidly as possible. The market for timber was small, especially as com- pared with the supply. Hence, one of the earliest sources of cash to the pioneer was the sale of " black ash salts," potash salts, presumably for the arts and for the manufacture of gun powder. The timber was burned on the ground and the potash salt extracted by leaching the aslies. A little later New York became the leading state in the production of timber. In 18G0 Albany was the most important timber market in the country. In 1914 Xew York State stood twenty-third and is going down, although still leading in farm forest products. The forest resources of an old settled state have a direct relation to the soil conditions. The hand of the farmer crowds back their border from the better to the poorer or less accessible land. Forest land is thin, steep, rough, poor, or swampy, and does not lend itself to the plow. In New York the zealous pioneers who came largely from an even rougher country, New England, reached over the border of the arable land, encouraged by a different set of 120 RURAL yi'AV YORK prices and market conditions than now prevail, and actually brought much of this natural forest land under the plow. Fortunately, their successors have. to a considerable extent, perceived their mistake and are letting such land go back to a timber covering. The forest and timbered area of the State divides into two parts: (a) The general forest largely owned by the State by original title or reversion or i)ur- ciiase. This covers the greater part of the two moun- tain areas, the Adirondacks and the Catskills. These are the State forest reserves and are bounded by the fire patrol line. Within these areas the State by a system of look-outs and systems for fire fighting aims to protect the timber from fire, (b) The farm wood- lot areas made u]) of the small or large patches of timl)er on the lands included in farms and asso- ciated witli tillage. For the most part this repre- sents the rougher, poorer or more remote lots on the farm and is a compromise with the native in- stincts of every man to have a bit of forest to draw on for timber and fire-wood. The mountain forest areas comprise 7,500,000 acres, of which the State owns about 5,000,000, and private interests own 2,500,000. In the Ad- irondack region comprising 1,800,000 acres, the ownership is distributed as folllows: State 48 per cent ; lumber and pulp companies 23 per cent ; private parks 15 per cent; improved land 6 per cent; private forests 6 per cent; mineral land 2 per cent. The farm woodlots have an area of 4,500,000 OTHER RESOURCES 121 acres. There are 300,000 acres of virgin timber, about 400,000 of bare land, probably rock outcrops, and about 5,000,000 acres of cut and burned over land. The remaining area of 6,300,000 acres is in various grades of timber in State and private forests. The average stand is estimated at 4000 board feet to the acre, making a total of 25,000,000,000 board feet, to which is added the equivalent of 30,000.- 000,000 board feet in the form' of round timber and fire-wood. The forests of the State now produce about 25 board feet to the acre a year, or a total pro- duction of 300,000,000 board feet. The annual cut of lumber in 1913 was 1,000,000,000 board feet, a reduction of about one-third in the five-year period from 1908. In 1917 it had decreased to 360,541,000 board fee.t, and 913,169 cords (128 cubic feet) of round wood, making a total equivalent to 861,870,- 781 board feet. The annual report of the State Superintendent of Forests under the Conservation Commission records the annual cut of timber for 1912 to be distributed as shown in Table II which gives a good idea of the species of timber that prevail, arranged in the order of volume: Table II. — Distribution of Timber Cut BY Species 1. Hemlock ...128,440,828 4. Spruce ■'52,061,700 2. Pine 78,221,480 .5. Beech 41,478,.5.50 3. Maple 78,103,985 G. Basswood . . 29,703,865 123 RURAL NEW YORK 7. Birch 31,906,350 8. Oak 25,790,650 9. Chestnut . . • 18,139,275 10. Elm 14,766,535 11. Ash 11,130,065 12. Cherry 3,585,555 13. Poplar 1,567,910 14. Hickory 1,386.180 15. Balsam 237,100 Total lumber 517,205,872 feet board measure Pulp wood in cords equal to 279,265, .320 feet board measure Round wood in cords equal to 146,174,077 feet board measure 16. Gum 179,630 17. Cucumber . . 124,800 18. Butternut . . 121,785 19. Cedar 77,950 20. Willow 57.984 21. Locust 30.700 22. Tamarack . . 20,000 23. Black ^^•alnut 9.525 24. Svcamore . . 2,050 Grand total 942,645,269 feet board measure As a result of the various soil, climate and timber successions, twenty-five types of forest are recognized in the State by the professional forester. These turn on the species of trees that predominate, and those that are present as accessories in the mixture. Such a variety of timber species and types afford opportu- nity for a broad and excellent study of plant ecology. The relation of crop to soil is of course very direct, but the crop, whether timber or tilled, represents the results of so many forces and conditions that the in- dividual is often misled in his conclusion as to the controlling factors in the environment. From the figures, it is evident that the consumption of timber in the State, whether gauged by the present rate of cutting or by the actual consumption, far ex- ceeds the present rate of production. When it is remembered that about 40 per cent of the area of the State is probably" better suited to tlie production of timber trees than any other crop, it is evident that OTHER RESOURCES 123 the forestry problem in New York is one of large importance. The annual production of about 25 cubic feet to the acre is relatively low as compared with the results achieved under modern methods of forestry management in European countries. In Germ'any, for example, as much as 100 cubic feet is produced in some of tlic best forests and the average production to the acre has increased under good management from 25 cubic feet to 67 cubic feet. A cubic foot is equivalent to about 12 board feet. As compared with most other states, Xew York has taken an advanced stand on the preservation and extension of the forest area. Much as has been ac- complished in tlie last ten years, much more remains to be done to make the forest area produce up to its limit and to bring its management up to the high standard that is possible. The prevailing attitude toward forests and timber is not surprising when it is remembered that within the lifetime of persons now living such a large part of the country was cov- ered by timber that the supply seemed almost inex- haustible. It was not a crop to be planted and matured but an enemy to be contended with. Like all other phases of agriculture, the destruction of the forest crop is now followed by the pinch in the supply and it is not unreasonable to expect that in a few years every commonwealth and its subdivisions, as well as individual farmers, and especially com- panies interested in forest products, will look on timber as a regular domesticated crop to be planted, cared for and harvested in approved fashion when 124 RURAL NEW YORK it is mature. At tliis present stage the country is passing out of the usual period of extravagant waste of a vast natural resource into one of intelligent economy. The State is gradually promulgating three or per- haps four lines of policy for the benefit of forest development. The first of these is the ownership and reforestation of cheap land; second, the protec- tion of forest areas, especially the State forest areas from damage by fire; third, encouragement and aid to individuals to extend and develop their forest areas ; and, fourth, the provision of educational facil- ities relative to forest management and forest prod- ucts. As has been indicated, the State owns about 5,000,- 000 acres of land mostly in the two larger mountain parks, the Adirondacks and the Catskills. It is continually acquiring title by tax default or other- wise to small areas of land over the State but mostly in the main forest regions. Through the State Con- servation Commission it is the aim to manage this forest area in the most approved manner and there should be derived therefrom a regular crop of tim- ber. This policy is not in working order and is prevented from operating by the provision in the constitution of the State against the sale of timber from State land. This " save-the-talent-in-a-nap- kin " policy has been discarded in the federal policy in managing national forests. Progressive and ef- ficient management insures substantial returns to the government at the same time that the forests are OTHER RESOURCES 125 maintained as a regular crop and it puts into effect a sane polic}^ that exemplifies true conservation instead of putting a premium on inexcusable waste. In order to protect large forest areas against fire, the State has marked off the boundary of two large areas, one in the Adirondacks and the other in the Catskills, within which special provisions are made for detecting and extinguishing fires. The town- ships within this area are called State fire protection towns. The areas are subdivided into districts and forest rangers with fire wardens and observation sta- tions equipped with an observer, telescopes and other instruments, and with which telephone connections are maintained. Of course fires are more likely to occur at some seasons than at others. Records show that most fires start in May and August. In the bad season, from sixty-three to seventy fire rangers are maintained. In the best season this number is reduced to twenty-five or thirty. There are forty mountain observation stations. These have had a material effect in reducing damage by fires. State regulations backed by laws have been enacted requir- ing precautions on the part of individuals who may be in forest areas against letting fires get a free range. Railroad locomotives must have equipment against setting fires by means of sparks or ashes and a system of inspection is maintained. A top-lopping law is designed to hasten the removal of brush by requiring that it be lopped down in close contact with the ground so that it will decay rapidly. It must also be piled so as to hinder the spread of fire. 126 RURAL IVEW YORK Campers, sportsmen and otliers are required to ob- serve certain precautions in making fires and are sub- ject to penalty of fine or imprisonment, or both, for carelessness with cigars or others dangerous mate- rials. Camp fires must have a cleared space ten feet in radius beyond their limit and must be com- pletely extinguished before being left. All these pre- cautions and provisions have resulted in reducing the number of fires started. Most of the provisions for detecting and stopping forest fires are of recent pro- mulgation. In 1918, there were 398 fires reported. Of these 100 were started by smokers, 47 by fisher- men, 111 by locomotives and 24 by campers. Ninety per cent are classed as preventable. The efficiency of the fire-fighting arrangements is indicated by the figures showing the number of acres traversed by fires as follows : 1903 464,189 acres 1908 368,072 acres 1913 54,792 acres 1918 7,354 acres Assuming that this land had the average stand and that all the timber on the burned area was lost, the timber lost by fire has * decreased in the ten-year period equal to one and a half times the annual cut in the last named year, and assuming a value on the stump of five dollars a thousand, the saving would be $5,000,000. The cost is less than $100,000. The exemption or reduction in tax on timber lands OTHER RESOURCES 127 falls into two classes : small woodlot areas of less than fifty or one hundred acres where both land and tim- ber are exempt from tax for thirty-five years, which land must be a stated distance from cities or villages ; poor lands assessed at five dollars or less an acre and of any area above five acres. The assessed value of the land not to exceed ten dollars may not be in- creased for the period of thirty-five years. The stand of trees must be brought up to 899 to the acre and must be subject to the inspection and direction for maintenance of the proper officers of the State Conservation Commission. By these provisions, the owner is protected against burdensome taxes until the time when the crop has come to a fair maturity. The State maintains a number of nurseries from which trees are supplied for planting the State land, and are also sold to individuals at cost. These plantings are now beginning to assume some consid- erable proportions and will undoubtedly increase more rapidly as the public becomes acquainted with the tax exemptions, the aid furnished by the State and the value of the first crop. The State maintains three institutions that give instruction in the principles of modern forestry. The division of forests of the State Conservation Commission publishes bulletins on modern forest management and gives public instruction through popular lectures. The more systematic instruction of university grade is given in two State colleges. These are the Department of Forestry of the State 128 RURAL XEW YORK College of Agriculture at Ithaca, and the State School of Forestry at Syracuse, both of which have forest tracts for practical instruction. PISH AND GAME Nearly all the species of game animals and birds in the State are reported to be on the increase thanks to fairly comprehensive laws dealing with open shooting seasons and restrictions as to the number of individuals that may be taken by any one person. From time to time certain species may be protected from molestation for a period of years to permit their increase. Of course, game laws are effective in the present stage of society only in so far as they are backed up by a system of wardens and inspectors for their enforcement, since public sentiment is not sufficiently well developed for that purpose. The State is divided into thirteen districts with a chief game warden and a half dozen or more assistants and the restrictions limiting fishing in particular are fairly effective. Some varieties of game — the deer for example — have increased in such numbers in the more heavily forested sections as to be something of a nuisance to farmers because of their injury to crops. The diversity in timber and stream-cover and in climatic conditions favors a large variety of animals, birds and fishes. The bird life of the region is espe- cially rich, particularly the migrating species that to a considerable extent follow the cover of the Alle- OTHER RESOURCES 139 gheny Mountains in their annual movements from north to south. The timber and swamp covering in the bottoms and on the sides of the main north-south valleys form natural roadways of migration. The numerous lakes afford a consfenial home for water and shore birds and within recent years certain species of duck that normally nest and rear their yoimg far to the north, are now found to spend the entire year and to propagate on the waters of the State. The extensive arrangements for the preservation of bird life and the dissemination of interest in and study of outdoor life, by means of Audubon societies and especially as a result of the introduction of na- ture-study in the schools, have resulted in much in- crease in the number of birds due to their better pro- tection. The Weeks-McLain law which became effec- tive March 4, 1913, gives federal supervision over the taking or killing of all birds of migratory habits and has supplemented many of the State regulations relative to them, at the same time making the pro- visions more effective through the local support the measure receives. The State has instituted four game farms, the oldest being at Sherburne. These are used for the propagation and dissemination of important species of game birds and mammals. The pheasant has been most extensively distributed in this way. Other farms are at Brownsville in the Adirondacks, and on eastern Long Island. In connection with the New York State College of Agriculture at Ithaca a game loU RURAL NEW YORK farm was established in 1916 with particular refer- ence to the investigation of problems connected with the propagation and care of such animals. The utilization of the waters of the State for the production of food and game fish as a definite phase of agriculture is just beginning to receive attention. J. G. Needham, who occupies the chair of Limnology and Biology in the State College of Agriculture at Ithaca, points out that there is quite as much, if not more possibility, for the production of animal food in water forms as in land forms and that this type of agriculture is now essentially neglected. The numerous and fairly continuous streams and the many lakes and swampy areas in the State afford ex- cellent facilities for this type of industry. In the institution just mentioned the study of the habits and methods of propagation of these forms of animals and of the organisms and materials used for food by them, and instruction in such matters, is now a regu- lar part of the curriculum. The state maintains twelve fish hatcheries dis- tributed as follows: 1. Adirondack, Saranac, Hamilton County. 2. Bath, Steuben County. 3. Caledonia, Livingston County. 4. Cold Spring Harbor, Suffolk County. 5. Delaware County. 6. Linlithgo, Columbia County. 7. Warrensburg, Warren County. 8. Chautauqua, Chautauqua County. 9. Dunkirk, Chautauqua County. OTEER RESOURCES 131 10. Fulton Chain, Herkimer County, 11. Oneida, Oneida County. 12. Ogdensburg, St. Lawrence County. These stations hatch and distribute a large num- ber of species of fish and other water animals suitable for food. In 1913, the total number of fish dis- tributed was 1,287,255,120. In 1918 the number was reduced to 396,319,251. Most of these were put into the streams and lakes. ISTew York is said to lead other states two to one. In 1913 thirty-nine varieties of fish were distributed. The leading varieties were several forms of trout, black bass, river herring, lake and tuUibee fry and pike perch. The state owns and leases 31,665 acres of shell fisheries, mostly oysters. These are located on Long Island Sound, Earitan Bay, on the south shore of Long Island and in the mouth of the Hudson Eiver. MINES AND QUARRIES New York is not a leader in the product of mines and quarries, and yet it occupies a place of consider- able importance. A large variety of materials is pro- duced and in some of these the State is preeminent. In point of value, the most important ore product is iron. The last available figures are for the census year of 1909. At that time the iron ores were valued at $3,095,023, nearly all of which came from the magnetite ores of the Adirondack region. New York is the only state besides Pennsylvania that produces all four kinds of iron ore, magnetite, hematite, limo- nite and carbonate. The last three, however, are of 132 RURAL A/:TV YORK small commercial importance. The Clinton ores from the Clinton formation are the most important of this latter group and are related in geological age to the famous ore deposits at Birmingham, Alabama. No other metal assumes importance, although speci- mens are found. Next to iron ore in value stands limestone, derived from several formations in diiferent parts of the State. Their total value is a little more than $2,500,000. Blue stones for flagging and building, sandstones for building and especially for abrasives are produced in the southern and the western Catskill regions respec- tively. Marble of several grades and colors is quarried at Gouverneur and in the central Hudson Valley. Slate for roofing occurs in Washington County where it has been formed under the influence of metamor- phism of shale in the same way as marble in that and other regions was formed from limestone as a result of great pressure and heat. Granite quarries are op- erated in the eastern Adirondacks and trap rock quarries in the Palisades district. Talc and soapstone of high quality are secured at Gouverneur. The Adirondack region also produces feldspar, a little vein quartz, garnet and graphite. The production of graphite by the mines in the Ticonderoga district makes New York the leader in that product. The garnets from Essex and Warren counties are used as an abrasive. Peekskill, in Putnam County, is an important center for the production of emery. Standing next to limestone in value is salt, which may be regarded as a manufactured product. The OTHER RESOURCES 133 Salina formation has a series of heavy salt beds in its lower part that are drawn on mostly by wells in the counties from Onondaga through the Finger Lakes region to the Genesee Valley. In the latter region at Eetzoff, rock salt is mined by means of shafts about 1200 feet deep. 'New York has long been a leader in this product, recently outstripping Michigan which formerly stood at the top of the list. Close to salt in value is petroleum. It comes from wells that reach the Devonian sandstones in the Olean district. Gas is found in a series of pocket-like areas in the western third of the State. The gas-producing areas have been estimated to have a total area of 550 square miles. Gas comes from a variety of forma- tions. As early as 1821 a well was drilled at Fre- donia and the product used for lighting. In 181:1, natural gas was used in the manufacture of salt for evaporating the liquid. These items are of interest since they antedate the general use of this fuel in the states to the west and south that have so far out- stripped Xew York in later years. Another impor- tant product in which New York has been promi- nent, and in which the manufacturing operations have a large place, is cement. In the production of the water-lime or natural cement rock that preceded the use of Portland cement, j^ew York was pre- eminent and has four centers, Rosendale in Ulster County, Akron in Erie County, Fayetteville and Man- lius in Onondaga County, and Howes Cave in Scho- harie County. The Portland cement which is usually a more 134 RURAL NEW YORK satisfactory product because of the control that may be exercised over the material used, has now largely supplanted the natural cement rock and in some places the same formation is used in the new process. Limestone and either shales or pleistocene clays of several ages are used and New York still has a prom- inent place in the cement industry. Gypsum is available from the top of the Salina formation over a band of country extending from Utica to the Niagara River and is extensively mined west of Eochester, where it was formerly much used as a fertilizer. Other products are molding and glass sand and clay for the manufacture of brick and tile. The molding sand and the glass sand are pleistocene — recent deposits. The former is most abundant west of Albany and in southeastern Saratoga County. Glass sand which occurs as a surface deposit north of Oneida Lake is now unused. In the main, the clays are superficial deposits and are suited only to the manufacture of the coarser grades of building ma- terial. There are some shale deposits suitable for this purpose, for example, at Alfred in Allegheny County where the State School of Ceramics is located. In these and particularly the manufacture of brick and tile the State takes a high rank, namely fifth in total value. The lower Hudson Valley is by far the most prominent district. None of the higher grades of fire or pottery clay or shales is available. The total value of these several products in recent years is as follows : OTHER RESOURCES 135 rx^ Table III. Value of Mining Products in New York Clay products .$11,871,949 Iron 3,095,023 Salt 2,897,000 Petroleum and natural gas 2,688,996 Cement 2,409,000 Limestone 2,656,142 Bluestone 910,054 Slate 99,827 Traprock 755,128 Granite 444,435 Marble 344,981 Feldspar 47,166 Gypsum 1,048,403 Talc and soapstone 314,724 Garnet 101,920 Emerv lfi,389 Graphite 138,905 Other products 184,294 WATER SUPPLY The numerous streams, springs and lakes in the State, coupled with the fairly generous rainfall, af- ford a good general supply of potable water. The runoff of about 50 per cent of the rainfall ranges from less than twenty inches in the Great Lakes region to a little more than twenty over the plateau and the Hudson Valley sections, and thirty inches or more in the Adirondacks. Limited investigation indi- cates that with the extension of the tilled area and the reduction in the area of forest land and forest covering, there has been an appreciable drop ill the general level of the ground water-table. As fi^presented by the level of water in wells at different 136 RURAL M:\\ YORK periods, the extent of the drop varies in diiferent re- gions of the State. That the consequence of this drop is as serious to agriculture as is sometimes believed is questionable, since the moisture used by crops is held in the upper soil by capillarity and is not drawn directly from the body of ground water. The range in elevation of the land which reaches up to four and live thousand feet in the mountain regions affords a large quantity of water power, as this drainage water passes over the succession of falls and rapids to sea level. Nearly all the larger streams develop some potential water power on their course. The flow fluctuates widely at diffierent seasons in the year. A comprehensive study has been made of the possibilities of storing tlie flood flow to develop water supplies and hydro-electric power. It has been de- termined that there are thirty-nine suitable reservoir sites distributed as follows: thirteen on the Upper Hudson ; three on the Sacandaga ; nine on the west branch of the Hudson ; eleven on the Eaquette, and three on the Genesee Eiver. One of the facts that is often overlooked is that water supply is one of the important limiting factors in the multiplication of poiHihition. It comes even before food and is more critical. Several of the reservoir sites have an im- mense capacity. Tlie reservoir on Aesopus Creek in the Catskills, which is being developed by ^Tew York City, has a maximum capacity of 124,000,000,000 gallons, which would make a body of water fifty feet deep over an area of 5000 acres. That on the Sacandaga at Conklingville has a potential capa- OTHER REf^OVRCES 137 city of 32,000,000,000 cubic feet, equivalent to 1150 acre feet. By a dam on the Genesee River at Portageville, 18,000,000,000 cubic feet, equivalent to nearly 700 acre feet may be stored. In one mile a pressure head of 200 feet is available. Many of the reservoir sites are in the State forest parks, and it is now provided that 3 per cent of the area of such state land may be utilized for reservoir purposes. The liydro-electric power that may be developed in the State is estimated at a million and a half horse power. Of this amount, a little over a half million horse power is in use within the State, to which should be added two hundred thousand horse power developed on the international stream, the Niagara River. It is interesting to note that the total water liorse power now in use in the State is about the same as it was in 1824. The development of water power comes under the supervision of the Conservation Commission. Very little has been done to make this power available to the public and thereby conserve the supply of coal and oil. That it ought to yield a considerable revenue to the public treasurer is generally accepted. At the same time the investment in existing power plants should be reasonably protected perhaps by State ac- quisition. The most extensive region for power de- velopment is around the base of the Adirondack Mountains on the several streams radiating out of that center of high elevation and large rainfall. CHAPTER V AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES, PLANTS AND CROPS OF NEW YORK The crops produced by New York are exceedingly varied. The variety in soils, in climate and in market conditions encourage diversity in crop as well as animal products. The State is exceeded in this variety of crops only by California, which is much larger in area, in climatic reach and in range of ele- vation and topography. The range in these three primary factors produces an exceedingly complex pattern to which farm practice is continually adjust- ing itself and the process will doubtless continue for many years to come. In value of all farm crops, the State ranks eighth. New York produces 3.8 per cent of the total value of all crops grown in the United States, while her pro- portion of the total acreage in crops is 2.7. From this it appears that the intensity of her production is above the average. This amounts to an average value of $25 an acre of crops to be compared with slightly less than $18 for the entire country as valued in 1909. The rank in acre value of crops is thirteenth. In value of crops to a farm New York is sixteenth with the sum of $950, the average for the country being $860, or nearly $100 less. (See Figs. 18, 19.) 138 I DOT = $100,000 I 00T= 2,000 TONS I DOT = 60,000 BUSHELS , I DOT = "\' 100,000 BUSHELS I DOT = -v. / ^^ 100,000 BUSHELS^^j^-;;;^ I DOT = 2,000 TONS Yis 18. Total value and distribution of all crops and the amount and distribution of the specified crops in 1909. a. value of all crops; b. wheat; c. oats; d. hay and forage; e. corn; f. alfalfa. 139 140 RURAL NEW YORK 'New York ranks first, in the thirteenth census re- turns, in the production of hay and forage, potatoes, vegetables, buckwheat, flowers and phmts, nursery products, small-fruits, willows and teasel ; second in orchard fruits and grapes, hops, maple sugar and sirup and ginseng, and until very recently it was third in dry beans. In the production of the grains and cereals it ranks low, having long since given way to the central states. In the last census period, the chief change in its position has been a further de- pression in rank in the production of cereals, and com- plete loss of standing in the growing of sugar-beets, while in the production of buckwheat it advanced from second to first place. Acreage is a better mea- sure of the relative production of crops than is yield, particularly in making comparisons between differ- ent regions and periods. Nearly 8,500,000 acres or 28 per cent of the entire area and 56.5 per cent of tlie improved area are devoted to cultivated crops. Tliree-fifths of this crop area or about 5,000,000 acres is occupied by hay and forage crops, a little less than one-third, 2,800,000 acres, by grains, cereals and seed crops, one-twentieth or about 400,000 acres by po- tatoes and vegetables, and one-fourteenth or about 000,000 acres by fruit and nursery crops. The total value of all crops including fruits and flowers in 1909 was $209,000,000. In rank accord- ing to value New York stood somewhat different from the acreage relations. The value of farm crops alone in 1909 was approximately $132,000,000. In 1918 it amounted to $281,000,000, though the acreage AGRICULTURAL IXDUSTRIE8 141 was then very little larger than in 1909. Fruit moved up from fourth to third place between 1899 and 1909, changing with vegetables. In addition to the major crops, the production of several minor crops has developed in localized areas. The most intensively cropped portions of the State are, first, a broad region lying south of the Great Lakes, second a narrower section along the axis of the ]\Iohawk Eiver and third the lower point of the State in the Hudson Valley from Albany southAvard to Newburg. The remaining regions of important agricultural development are fourth, the southern tier of counties ; fifth, a fringe of country ten to twenty miles wide around the eastern end of Lake Ontario and along the St. Lawrence Eiver and the Canadian line; sixth, together with a still narrower fringe along the west side of Lake Champlain and tlirough the Hudson Valley above Albany. The region south of Lake Ontario centei ing around Rochester and reaching to the Niagara Eiver is the most highly developed and the most thoroughly tilled. It loops southward into the Genesee Valley and fol- lows the general sag in elevation along Seneca and Cayuga lakes. This as a whole is the " flower of the State " in agricultural development. Other re- gions are as intensively developed over a small area, for example, the grape belt south of Lake Erie, por- tions of the Mohawk Valley, some of the territory between Albany and Newburg in the Hudson Valley and the east and west ends of Long Island. But when both area and intensity are taken into account, 142 RURAL NEW YORK few districts anywhere in the entire country surpass this south of Lake Ontario for a widtli of forty miles in general intensity of agricultural development. Hay and forage crops are widely distributed in the tilled area. Pushed aside to a considerable extent by the development of the other groups of crops, they have still maintained the major development, and in conjunction with the market facilities, support the hirge live-stock and dairy interests of the State. Tlu' cereals, except buckwheat, are most concentrated in the Genesee Valley region. Buckwheat is largely a poor-land crop and has the largest area but not the largest yields in the rougher and more remote regions. Vegetables, including potatoes, have several centers of production that in part coincide with particular crops. Potatoes, however, are most largely grown in three centers: west central New York from Lake Ontario southward into the northern half of the southern tier of counties ; on eastern Long Island, and in northern New York around the north flank of the Adirondack Mountains in Franklin and Clinton counties. The more detailed distribution and rela- tions of individual crops will appear as the discus- sion proceeds. In Table IV is a summary of the changes in crop area in acres in New York State since 1844. HAY AND FORAGE (See Figs. 18, 20) In the production of hay and forage, New York should be compared witli southern Wisconsin, south- ern Minnesota and eastern Iowa. Two factors unite I DOT = 100.000 SUSHELS I DOT = 60.000 BUSHELS I DOT = 60.000 BUSHELS I DOT = 50.000 BUSHELS I DOT = 10.000 BUSHELS ' DOT« 60,000 POUNDS ^i- Fig. 19. Amount and distribution of the specified crops in 1909. a. potatoes; b. barley; c. dry peas and beans; d. buckwheat; e. rye; f. hops. 143 144 RURAL -NEW YORK to cause the large yield of these crops. As a cash crop, they are bulky and therefore expensive to ship long distances. New York City and other large cities adjacent to this territory require large quantities of forage and the sale of the crop has been one of the most profitable enterprises on the mixed-crops farm. This fact is shown by farm management figures. Consequently, many farmers make a business of sell- ing hay and if it were not for the limiting factor of soil fertility as commonly handled, many more would follow the same practice. Then, too, there are large areas where the soil, climate and labor conditions make hay the most satisfactory crop, even if only small yields are secured. Timothy and clover constitute nearly three-fourths of the hay area, timothy occupying the second larg- est area, somewhat less than one-fourth of the total, or 1,07'8,358 acres. Timothy grows best on clay loams and clay soils in the Great Lakes plain, the St. Lawrence and Champlain valleys and through the Hudson Valley. In 1909 clover alone occupied 87,267 acres or onlv 8 per cent of that of timothy. Clover has declined on soils of all southern and eastern sections of the State. Clover succeeds best on a loam to heavy loam soil, moderately supplied with lime, with good drain- age, such as in the counties of Genesee, Livingston, Oneida, Seneca and southern Cayuga, Onondaga, cen- tral Madison and northern Schoharie. The yield averages a little over a ton to the acre. Alfalfa was introduced as early as 1790 under the AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 145 French name of lucerne. Eobert Livingston, in 1793, had fifteen acres in Jefferson County. It was tried in the central part of the State in 1812 and while not eminently successful, some plants from that parentage are believed to have persisted for many years. The successful culture of the crop began in Onondaga County in 1867, with the introduction of /»f9 ms* /gSV m* /8S9 /874^ /STS /38f 1889 /$»t /89^ /»>* I909 /»■* 1919 Fig. 20. Graphs showing by decades the total area in crops and the area in hay and forage, in clover and in alfalfa. seed in chaff from the Pacific Coast. Doubtless, the early development of the crop was handicapped by its exacting requirements of a lime-rich soil and by the successful growth ever}'where of red clover, and the greater ease with which clover can be handled in the rotation. The average yield of alfalfa is more than 146 RURAL NEW YORK Table IV. Summary of the Area in Crops in Acres in New York Since 1844 * YEAR harvested 1 Corn 2 Corn for silo 3 Corn or sorghum grown for feed or for fodder only.. 4 Oats 5 Barley 6 Buckwheat 7 Winter wheat. . ) 8 Spring wheat. . J 9 Rye 10 Flax 11 Field beans 12 Alfalfa 1 13 Other hay . . . . j 14 Cabbage 15 Potatoes IC Hops 17 Tobacco 18 Nursery stock and flowers 19 Root crops raised for stock food... 20 Peas 21 Canning factory crops 22 Other vegetables and garden 23 Misc. crops 24 Apples 25 Peacnes 26 Pears 27 Plums 28 Cherries 29 Quinces 30 Vineyards 31 Small-fruit 32 Total except hay and fruit 33 Total except fruit 34 Total 1844 595,134 1,026,915 192,503 255,495 1,013,665 317,099 46,089 16,231 255,762 §15,322 117,379 1854 3,851,594 917,601 1,349,384 212,608 293,233 ) 601,142 } 194,346 281,715 11,764 16,918 3,384,441 220,576 9,482 786 §7,578 48,155 112,591 4 1864 4,177,883 7,562,324 632,213 tl4,579 1,109,910 189,030 240,302 399,919 113,115 234,670 23,874 61,821 4,237,085 235,058 24,339 12,981 §8,124 46,401 1110,837 102 1865 3,357,275 7,594,360 721,600 tl2,430 1.163,545 243,125 184,717 406,577 104,992 233,214 18,242 24,208 4,296,721 254,403 25,870 4,614 §5,632 40,725 fI10,110 58 1874 3,454,062 7,750,783 627,749 t^8,712 1,327,975 211,560 263,781 558,069 96,027 257,736 ' '8i,321 4,796,739 ' 358,433 28,278 2,593 22,384 3,894,618 8,691,357 This table is adopted from the Census of Agricultural Resources of New York State for 1917. * Statistics for 1879, 1889, 1899, 1909, are from the U. S. Census. All other figures are from the State census. From 1844 to 1875, inclusive, for all crops except hay, the figures are acreage sown or planted. After 1875, for all crops except fruit the figures are acres harvested. For 1874 and all later years, the hay fig- ures are acres harvested. In 1875 the number of apple trees of all ages was reported. This number was divided by forty-five to get the approximate number of acres. The trees were then planted closer than is now the case. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES ur 1875 1879 188S 1899 1909 1916 1917 1 673.28i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 149,929 1.438,166 282,393 201,894 564.221 69,836 229,070 "78,641 4,783,857 405,800 37,004 2,516 18 19 20 23,645 21 22 23 24 406,192 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 4,056,399 33 8,840,256 34 779,272 1,261,171 356,629 291,228 I 736,611 244,923 4,644,452 '346,'536 39,072 4,937 4,054,379 8,698,831 493,320 1,417,371 349,311 280,029 462,561 236.874 2,922 5,243,010 ' 357,'464 36,670 8,629 1,188 3,646,339 8,889,349 658,652 tl89,601 1,329,753 111,658 289,862 557,736 177,416 159 129,298 5,582 4,959,782 25,261 395,640 27,532 11,307 9,734 25,051 4,050,871 9,016,235 512,442 t259,119 1,302,508 79,956 286,270 j 285,823 i 3,266 130,540 58 115,698 35,343 4,748,249 35,269 394,319 12,023 4,109 11,659 663 4,007 140,246 3,763 351,918 29,213 22,777 7,796 6,356 1,936 59,340 22,496 3,581,743 8,365,335 8,867,167 341,931 365,990 1,120,565 95,189 263,667 351,225 12,536 118.176 "igs.Viog 163,150 4,140,489 41,668 309,213 44,661 L 64,858 30.678 342,243 50,050 37,187 8,733 12,959 '"54,020 28,841 3,358,666 7,662,305 8,196,338 327,509 321,926 112,511 1,083,646 102,297 269.138 351.594 26,821 111,458 218,742 146,221 3,970,379 47,244 348,269 4,516 2.095 6,258 18.032 "43,668 84,624 385,737 53,470 41,031 10,249 12.989 3,277 56,126 32,893 3,480,188 7,596,788 8,192,560 In 1910 the census gave numbers of trees, but not acres. To get acres, apples are divided by 40, peaches, pears, plums, and cherries by 160, and grapes by 600. In the case of apples the fiarure used is an average found by orchard surveys in four counties. Since the census enumerated trees, it is probable that many were listed that were not reported by acres. The increase in the eight years 1910-1917 was therefore more than the figures indicate. t " Coarse forage," mostly corn for the silo. t Corn for fodder. § Turnips. U Market gardens. 148 RURAL NEW YORK twice that of the other hay plants, 21/^ tons to the acre, but 4 to G tons in three cuttings in a season is not uncommon. Millet, or Hungarian grass, occupies a minor place as a home forage plant. It is a summer crop often put in where spring crops have failed. Its largest acreage is in the dairy counties of Delaware, Che- nango, Cortland and Madison. The average yield is nearly a ton and a half to the acre. Orchard-grass is the most common and the most widely distributed run-wild grass in the State. In June, its vigorous upstanding stems may be seen coming into bloom. Almost everywhere conditions seem favorable to it. Seldom is it planted in the regular grass mixture. Its tussock roots are vigorous and long-lived. It grows well with alfalfa and some- times is used in seeding that crop, to fill in wet places unfavorable to the alfalfa. Cut at the same time as alfalfa, the stems are soft and palatable and make a good hay, but if left standing it soon becomes woody and makes poor hay. In 1909 nearly 50,000 acres of grains were cut green for forage. Doubtless it was mostly used for soiling dairy cattle as there is an increasing tendency to use this system, together with the summer silo, and thereby reduce dependence on pasture. Pasture is a poor means of producing forage economically and out- side of the use of waste land, many farmers are elim- inating it. Eye, wheat, barley and oats form a good succession from early spring until corn is available. Eoots to the extent of 663 acres, probably beets, AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 149 were grown for forage. The chief objection to this crop is the hand labor required to grow it. The crop is rather exacting both in soil and culture. The soil must be rich and calcareous to give best results. The dry nutrients of beets have been shown to be equal in feeding value to grain concentrates. Beets are prized in feeding dairy cows for record milk yields because of the variety it gives the ration as well as its large feeding value. Corn for silage is the preeminent green forage crop. jS'early 260,000 acres of coarse forage is pro- duced and gives an average yield of seven and a half tons of green forage to the acre, equivalent to about two tons of dry matter to the acre. Thus corn stands next to alfalfa in its ability to produce nu- trients. Corn, however, makes a good growth over a much larger area than does alfalfa. The area of corn for coarse forage is equal to half that devoted to corn for grain. New York is far from being a corn- producing state because of the cool summer climate, but for succulent forage, corn has no equal. A dairy farm without a silo is now regarded as unprogressive and relatively few of them exist. A silo of smaller diameter for summer use is now coming to take its place together with the larger winter silo in the adoption of the system of summer feeding. Higli summer rainfall, warm temperature, and a moder- ately calcareous soil combine to produce the largest yield of green-corn forage. The best yields are se- cured in the counties of Jefferson, Herkimer, Madi- son, Chenango, Delaware, Montgomery and Living- 150 RURAL NEW YORK ston, where the average is ahout nine tons. In other parts of the State it falls to six or seven tons. PASTURE Pastures occupy a large area, about one-fourth of the total farm land. This does not include woodlot pasture. Much land too rough and stony to cultivate has been cleared and retained in permanent pasture. In different parts of the State the proportion of pasture land varies in inverse ratio to the general de- velopment of the region. It is lowest in the counties directly south of Lake Ontario, medium in the south- ern tier of counties and high in eastern and northern New York. Naturally the mountainous regions have the most pasture as well as the most timber. It embraces steep mountainous country, wet areas and other rough stony land. It is not standardized as to vegetation, condition, or yield of forage. Receiving little care, it returns usually a small amount of crop. The stony pasture is often the earliest land to green up in spring because the soil is thin and easily warmed. In the wet areas, red-top is probably the most com- mon grass. Legumes do not thrive generally. The small white or Dutch clover comes in naturally on many sweet soils. It is closely associated with Kentucky blue-grass. Wild swamp grasses play a small part in the herbage. In all the regions of bet- ter soils, where lime rock is prevalent and the soil calcareous, Kentucky blue-grass prevails. All through central and western New York this is the AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 151 common grass that not only overspreads the perma- nent pasture land but encroaches into the alfalfa and mixed hay meadows. Its presence and growth is a good index to the native character of the soil. In Wayne, Cayuga, Onondaga and Madison -counties, and the southern slope of the Mohawk, there is much steep land that is otherwise good soil, being the cal- careous glacial till laid into drumlin ridges or eroded into narrow deep valleys. These make admirable blue-grass pasture land. A little further south the limestone outcrops of the Niagara and particularly the Helderberg formations that have a thin pocketed soil covering, the Honeoye stony loam soil, are left in pasture. Up the St. Lawrence and in the Hudson Valley are smaller areas of calcareous pasture-soil associated with the Trenton-Calciferous limestones. The light sandy areas of the lake plains are often oc- cupied by a poor quality of pasture but more often are in timber. The higher hills of southern and eastern New York are largely devoted to pasture, the cultivated crops occupying only about 10 per cent and all tame crops not over half of the area. In that region is much pasture of poor quality. Over large areas the soil is so depleted that Kentucky blue-grass does not occur and its place is taken in part by the smaller-growing Canada blue-grass (Poa compressa) which makes good feed but " small picking." In the last stage even the Canada blue-grass is crowded out and fails to maintain itself against the advances of wild strawberry, devil's paint brush, white daisy, red sorrel, and ferns that make up the bulk of the 153 RURAL ^'EW YORK herbage. This transition in vegetation is closely identilied with the increase in the acid condition of the soil and the general reduction in the content of organic matter. In the main, the higher the eleva- tion the poorer the condition of pastures. These poor pastures are not confined to a single soil type, but follow certain gioups as the Volusia-Lordstown, the Dutchess soils and the Gloucester and Culver series. Since most of this land is difficult to plow, it is a problem how to keep the pasture in condition to produce even a little forage. The favorable condi- tions for the growth of bushes and trees cause a large variety to spring up and compete with the grass. Often the pastures are over-grazed in hot dry weather and no materials, either seed or fertilizer, are ap- plied. The droppings of cattle are poorly distributed, and if the growth of desirable vegetation is stimulated it is poorly utilized by stock. That it is possible with some attention markedly to improve poor pastures has been demonstrated. GRAIN CROPS (See Figs. 18, 19, 21, 23) Com for grain is most extensively grown in the region lying south of Lake Ontario. It is also a prominent crop in the valleys of southern and east- ern New York on both the bench soils and on the first bottom land. Before settlement by white men, corn was extensively grown by the Indians in these latter positions. On the hill land above an elevation of 1000 to AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 153 1200 feet, corn does not mature with regularity. This keeps it largely off the hills of southern N"ew York. In New York, as in other parts of the country, com is the safest tilled crop on overflow lands and the surest of the grains on very rich swamp lands, such as the /»•«* /19*9 I8S* IBS9 1864 /SS9 /a74- 1879 /ff84 /a89 /a9* /e99 /904 t909 J3/* 1319 Fig. 21. Graphs showing by five-year periods the area in corn for grain, all wheat, spring wheat, winter wheat, and oats. Clyde series and muck soils. Of the upland soils, tlie Ontario series is most widely used for the crop. Because of the seasonal limitations, flint varieties are extensively grown on tlie liills and dent varieties prevail at the lower levels. The State produces about a half million acres of corn, with a ten-year average yield of 36.2 bushels. The two tiers of counties south of Lake Ontario 154 RURAL NEW YORK have three-fourths of this area. The average yield is also largest iu that region. The three counties of Wyoming, Genesee and Monroe each have an average yield of 40 bushels or more to the acre. The northern and eastern counties fall considerably below the av- erage yield. There has been a continual decrease in the area /*** /9t» I8H- 1^ /*»♦ /«» If 7* lan lai* ias» i9»* iisa /to* i9e» /s/* /»/» Fig. 22. Graphs showing by five-year periods the area in buckwheat, barley, rye, apples, and tobacco. devoted to corn for grain in the last thirty years. In the census of 1880, 780,000 acres of corn were reported. The decrease has been most pronounced in those counties outside of the corn-belt of the State but has occurred in all parts. When combined with the area devoted to silage corn, the total is about the same as the maximum acreage the State grew in 1880. Oats occupy nearly three times the acreage of corn and four times that of any other cereal. They are largely produced in all sections of the State. The acreage amounts to 1,300,000 and the ten-year aver- age yield is 32.2 bushels or about half as much sub- AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 155 stance as an acre of corn. It is produced on all grades of soil and under a much wider range of climate than is corn. Its successful growth reaches further up on the hills and further north in the State than does corn. One reason why oats have a large place is that the seasons are a little short to start a fall crop such as wheat or rye after a summer tilled one. Oats may be put on early in the following spring. Another reason is its value as feed and when ground with corn it is a standard constituent of ra- tions for horses, poultry, and to a considerable ex- tent for cattle. Oats grow best in a cool moist climate which is common in Xew York. They respond to the better soils and the best average yields, 30 bushels or more to the acre, occurred in 1909 in the same region in which the best yields of corn are secured. Monroe Cbunty produces 35, Ontario and Genesee 33, Living- ston 31, Wyoming and Seneca 30 bushels. However, Chenango County, in the center of the State, produces 33 bushels and Franklin in the extreme north 30 bushels. The southern tier of counties have yields around 20 bushels or below, doubtless reflecting the less productive soils of the hills where it is one of the common grain crops. Oats are widely used as a nurse crop for seeding grass. The acreage of oats has held its own or slightly increased over that of 1880. Wheat occupies about half the acreage of corn, around 300,000 acres. Its production is almost en- tirely confined to the two tiers of counties directly south of Lake Ontario. It is pushed back from the 156 RURAL NEW YORK lake somewhat by the development of fruit-growing. The eastern half of the State produces less than 50,- 000 bushels a county and many of them only a few hundred bushels. The counties of Ontario, Living- ston and Genesee normally have an average yield of nearly 35 bushels. The largest total production of wheat was in 1850 w^hen it attained 13,100,000 bush- els. The acreage was then about 750,000. Soon after that time, the " wheat weevil " appeared and caused such damage to the crop during the succeed- ing fifteen years as to force a change in the rota- tion and a considerable abandonment of wheat-grow- ing. The acreage was as low as 289,000 acres in 1910, but increased again during the World War to 435,000 acres. The ten-year average yield has in- creased regularly from 14.1 bushels in 1879 to 19.3 in the seven-year period from 1906 to 1913. Spring wheat was early grown in the higher hill regions, then abandoned and recently has again been grown to the extent of nearly 30,000 acres. Wheat production fits in with that of beans and canning-factory peas. The former crop in particu- lar, which occupies a large acreage in this same region, is harvested and out of the way in good season for planting wheat. Beans leave a clean, firm seed-bed favorable for wheat and the residual fertilizer and the legume residue combine to make the succession a good one. In that same region, clover seeded with timothy is the most common hay mixture, and wheat makes a good nurse crop for these. Further, or per- haps basic to all these facts, is the prevalence of clay Ol "3 2 fl "5 3d -ri -4-> AGRICULTURAL INDUf^TRIES 157 and heavy loam soils of calcareous nature and fairly smooth topography that permits the use of modern harvesting machinery. Fertilizer is generally used on wheat and, in fact, in seeding all the small grains, but not often on corn. There was a time when New York was the granary of the country, the period immediately following the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825. From the earliest settlement it was the commonest cash crop because of the ease of its storage and transportation. It con- tinued to be the leading grain crop until the substan- tial opening of the Central West when its produc- tion shrank to the present acreage and to the region where it is now most successfully produced. Here it fits into the prevailing system of farming by which wheat is able to hold its own against further western competition. If not in itself profitable, it is worth while because of the aid it gives to the conduct of the prevailing system of farming. Both barley and rye are secondary grain crops of limited area and emergency use. Barley is pro- duced in the same region as wheat, south of Lake Ontario. Its growth swings a little further east and north than wheat, being used in the dairy region east of Lake Ontario and in the northeastern part of the State. It is a short-season crop and often finds place on wet, " late " land where oats or other spring grains eould not be planted. It also reaches south well up on the hill land of the Genesee Valley, doubtless be- cause of its ability to grow in a cool climate. It is almost entirely used as feed. The acreage of barley 158 RURAL NEW YORK is from 80,000 to 90,000 and the ten-year average yield is 26.6 bushels. There has been a tremendous decrease in the acreage of barley in the last thirty years. Together with wheat it once had a large place on the hill lands, reaching its highest point in acreage in 1860. In 1879 it occupied approximately 360,000 acres. Northwestern states' competition forced its decadence. Eye occupies more acreage than barley and instead of one has two centers of production. It is grown extensively in the Finger Lakes and Genesee Valley regions, and again in the central section of the Hud- son Valley. In the former region it takes its place with wheat in the rotation, perhaps on rather poorer soils. In the latter, it is the preferred grain on thin soil, is used extensively as a nurse crop for grass seeding and, in addition, the straw has a high market value in the city for packing and certain manufac- turing purposes. It is carefully harvested and threshed to preserve the straw without breaking. Much of it is cut with a dropper and bound by hand and some is even cut with a cradle in the old-fash- ioned way. The acreage is about 150,000 and fluctu- ates considerably from year to year. The ten-year average yield for the period ending in 1915 was 17.3 bushels, three bushels more than the ten-year average for any period since 1865. Eye is widely planted as a cover- and green-manure crop. It makes a fair growth on rather poor soil. It grows late in the fall and reaches good size early in spring. The fall growth may be pastured and AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 159 the spring growth turned under for manure. In the dairy region where the soiling system is used, rye is the first crop available in spring. It is now much recommended for seeding with hairy vetch as a green- manure crop. They grow together very well, the rye serving to hold up the trailing vetch, and the sup- port promotes the growth of the latter. They are ready to be plowed under about the same time in spring and usually in season for planting a regular crop. While New York stands at the head of the list in the production of buckwheat, the acreage of that crop is fourth among the cereals. Wheat and also oats and corn stand above. The competition for third place is fairly close with wheat, in some years, exceeding buckwheat. The acreage now approaches 280,000 but may fluctuate widely in difi'erent years. This is probably because it is an emergency crop and is put in where the land is wet, or where for other reasons the regular crop has failed. As a general average, the acreage has not clianged materially in the last forty years. It has dropped a few thousand acres. Pennsylvania is a close second in acreage and in a few years has exceeded New York. The high tide of production in the country was in the sixties, but the statistics do not show that New York pro- duced much more than at present. In several years through the intervening period, it has exceeded 300,000 acres. The production is nearly all in the lower half of the State. The two main centers are the southwest- 160 RURAL NEW YORK ern [)art and the cultivated territory centeriii>i; on Albany. In the former, the most extensive area is throug'h the Finger Lakes and particularly on the higher land on the Pennsylvania line, centering in Tioga County. However, the production is heavy all through western iSTew York back from the lake shores. Its heavy production reaches well north along Cay- uga Lake. Buckwheat is considerably grown in northern New York. ^ The soils with which the growth of buckwheat are most associated are those of the southern plateau, the Wooster, Lordstown and the Volusia. The high elevation and moist character of this soil coupled with the fine fibrous root system give buckwheat the ad- vantage over other cereals. The ten-year average yield of buckwheat for the period ending in 1915 was 20.4 busliels, being 2 to 7 bushels more than in any preceding ten-year period since 1870. The yield varies in different counties from 12 or 14 to 28 bushels, the last being in Cajoiga County. Evidently it is very susceptible to differ- ences in season. Madison yielded 26 bushels in 1909, Chautauqua 25.6, Steuben 14, Tioga 21, Albany 19.5, Eensselaer 21 and Clinton 19 bushels. Buckwheat is perhaps most widely used as a cover- and green-manure crop, particularly in orchards where tillage is practiced. Planted in early summer, it will make a good carpet by apple harvesting time. If a hardy legume is added, this will fiU-in the fall and following spring. In the hill country, the crop is often used as a nurse in seeding grass. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 161 The large acreage of buckwheat is reflected in the heavy production of buckwheat flour that is ground in the smaller country mills. The crop is very prac- tical for the State, the gross returns to the acre comparing very well with those from other cereals. It responds to good soil and on calcareous loams, such as the Ontario, the yield is much increased over the average. VEGETABLES (See Figs. 18, 19, 23, 24) Potatoes constitute the one staple crop in which there has been a consistent increase in acreage in the State for the last sixty-five years, as recorded in the decade census reports. Since 1850 the acreage has approximately doubled. It now ranges from 350,000 to 400,000 acres. While N'ew York has been in the lead in the production of potatoes, Michigan is rap- idly approaching in acreage, and in one recent year equaled New York, the yield, however, not being so high. Potatoes are used for human food more than any other staple crop. The yields look large but it is an interesting fact that both corn and wheat produce more total nutriment and more protein to the acre. In starch production the potato exceeds wheat but still yields a third less than corn. The relative production, taking the average yields for the State, are given in the following table: Fig. 23. Maps of the acreage and distribution of the speci- fied vegetable crops in 1909. One dot equals 50 acres ex- cept for the total area of vegetables when one dot equals 500 acres, a. total vegetables; b. green peas; c. celery; d. cabbage ; e. sweet corn ; f . tomatoes ; g. onions. 102 AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 163 Table V. Production of Potatoes, Corn, Wheat and Buckwheat in New York Yield of drv matter, lbs. Yield of Ijroteiu, lbs. Nitrogen free extract, lbs. Potatoes, 100 bu. Corn, 36 bu Wheat, 20 bu. . . Buckwheat, 20 bu. 1260 1950 1080 845 126 220 142 96 1030 1500 870 625 New York has about 10 per cent of the acreage of potatoes and produces from 8 to 12 per cent of the crop grown in the United States. By far the most important region of production of potatoes is .the middle western part of the State from Lake Ontario at Rochester southward to the State line, and from Syracuse to the western divide of the Genesee Eiver. The acreage thins out on either side of this region. Eastern Long Island is second in importance, a third and growing section being northern New York on the northeast flank of the Adirondacks. The upper part of the eastern Hudson Valley still retains a considerable acreage but it has fallen from its former large acreage. The most marked change in the last fifty years has been the large increase in acreage in the western New York potato belt. In all the counties there has been an expansion of one-third to an entire doubling of the area. However, since 1905, there appears to be some diminution of the acreage in this territory and therefore in the State. The eastern counties 1G4 liUIiAL NEW YORK had their largest production hetvveen 1800 and 1880. The soils on wliieh potatoes are gi'own vary con- siderahly as to series hut agree (juite closely as to texture. They are all a sandy to silty loam. None is heavy clay or light sand. In the southern part of western New York, potatoes are grown on the hill lands on the Lordstown and Wooster loam and silt loam. The Volusia series in the same region is very much less suitable for the crop, probably because of its poor drainage. Both the former series are fairly t** /9*9 /ss* /an /96^ tee9 ie7* /ff^j /se* /at9 /99* tns /904 /909 /9/* /9/9 Fig. 24. Graphs showing by five-year periods the area in potatoes, hops, dry beans, and cabbage. well drained, deep and well oxidized. Near the On- tario Lake shore, the Dunkirk and the Ontario fine sandy loams are most utilized. In western New York, late potatoes are a staple general farm crop in rotation and receive from four to eight hundred pounds of a complete fertilizer to the acre. The third center of production is in Clinton and Franklin counties, largely in the siliceous sandy and stony mountain soils of the Coloma series. Their best yield is on rather open fine sandy loam at an eleva- tion of 1200 to 1800 feet. Often potatoes are the AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 165 first crop on new land. Very little fertilizer is used. While grown in rotation, modern machinery is not employed. The ten-year average yield of potatoes for the State for the period ending in 1915 was 97.5 bushels. It has ranged from 145 bushels in 1914 to 62 bushels in 1915. The northern counties have the best yields and run from 150 to 200 bushels. Xext to these stands Long Island, then the western potato belt. The Hudson Valley counties have the smallest yield. Both dry beans and green peas are important crops and are grown in the Finger Lakes region of western New York. In the production of beans New York is third, with an acreage of 116,000. Michigan and California lead with three-fourths of the total for tlie country, New York being the only other state with more than 100,000 acres. New York's acreage has been going down for forty years, the fall being heav- iest in the counties of the Mohawk and the middle Hudson Valley where the crop was formerly of only minor importance. In recent years the growing of beans has been much hindered by a diseased condi- tion of the roots that carries over in the soil and has caused a heavy reduction in acreage in the centers of bean-growing. In green peas the State leads with a fifth of the total acreage, about 17,000 acres or one-seventh of that of beans. Wisconsin is a poor second. Like beans, green peas have suffered a heavy decrease in acreage that has been continuous for several decades and has been quite heavy in recent years. 166 RURAL NEW YORK These two legumes are associated with the calcar- eous soils. The Ontario and IToneoye series are their natural habitat. They run over onto the sandy loam and clay loam members of the associated Dunkirk soils. They are also grown to advantage on tlie allu- vial soils in the region where they are dominant. A fairly sweet condition in the soil is a prerequisite to their successful growth. Beans occupy the more restricted region and are grown from the west shore of Cayuga Lake nearly to the Niagara Eiver. The Genesee Eiver represents the central axi'S of the region. It spreads along Lake Ontario but does not reach the Pennsylvania line. The plateau region is not favorable to the crop, although it runs up on the Lordstown and Wooster soils along the southern boundary. Livingston and Monroe counties have the most extensive acreage. Eainfall is a large factor in determining the growth of beans. In the region in question the har- vesting period, September, is rather dry which aids in the field curing process. Eed kidney, yellow eye, common white and pea beans are grown. The aver- age yield of all varieties for the State is 15 bushels. The yields increase toward the dry region to the west, rather than toward the moist sections to the east and south. Beans are grown in rotation, preferably on a clover sod. They are usually followed by wheat, as the requirements of the two crops dovetail very well. This rotation of beans, wheat and clover is one of the most effective in use in the State to build up a AGRICULTURAL IISIDUSTRIES 167 soil if the second growth of clover is turned under. Sheep are largely kept in the bean-growing region and are used to consume the bean straw. Green beans have a small development near the larger cities of Utica, Syracuse, Eochester and Buf- falo. Green peas have a wider spread than dry beans and reach well down the Mohawk Valley and west along the south shore of Lake Erie. They are even more sensitive to the acid soils of the southern tier counties than are beans. However, they are less sensitive to summer rainfall, since they are cut and shelled green. They, therefore, reach east into the region of high rainfall between Syracuse and Utica. This is also an important dairy and stock-raising country, and the green pea vines are ensilaged at the canning fac- tories and sold back to the farmers as feed. Statis- tics on yield are not available, but observation indi- cates it to be 18 to 20 bushels to the acre. Green peas are grown in the rotation similar to beans but have a wider crop association. Peas are an excellent forerunner of fall grains and to precede alfalfa seed- ing. Dry peas are grown in the same region as the green peas and occupy about the same acreage as green beans, about 4,000. Cabbage production reaches from Syracuse to Buf- falo and from Lake Ontario to the break of the higher hill land in the southern part of the State. It also reaches well into the valleys along the northern mar- gin of the hill country, for example, in Cortland 168 RURAL NEW YORK County. Like beans and peas, it follows the calcar- eous soils Init is rather less sensitive to a deficiency in lime. IMoist climate and a nitrogen rich soil favor its growth as they do all vegetables. For largest yield it inclines toward the swampy soils such as the Clyde and muck but the greater part of the acreage is on upland soils of the Ontario series. The crop is stored and widely shipped. Near Syracuse a con- siderable amount of kraut is made. The area occu- pied by cabbage is about 35,000 acres which puts the State in the lead by far, with a fourth of the total crop in the country. The yield is from 8 to 13 tons but some farms exceed 20. Cabbage is a good cleaning crop for the land by reason of thorough tillage, and by many farmers is used to combat quack-grass. Sweet corn for direct sale and for canning occu- pies about 24,000 acres in the canning-crops region south of the Great Lakes, and also in the Hudson Valley from which latter section it is shipped to New York as green corn. Its distribution is much the same as green peas. Tomatoes are largely associated with sweet corn and green peas. They thrive on strong fertile soils and seem to succeed best in the region of low summer rainfall, closely fringing the edge of Lake Ontario and the south shore of Lake Erie. It is possible that the larger amount of sunshine and the dry atmosphere that prevails in this region promotes ripening and reduces susceptibility to disease of the fruit. The AGRICLLTLliAL ISDL^TRIEU 169 acreage is approximately 8,500 or about equal to the combined acreage of cabbage and onions. Onions constitute a prominent crop and are most largely grown on muck soil, for that reason following the primary development of such soils through west- ern jSTew York from the Niagara River eastward to Rome in Oneida County. Wayne County leads al- though the South Lima area in Livingston Count\' and the sections around Rome receive rather more popular advertising. In the lower part of the State in south central Orange County, large areas of muck soil are almost exclusively given over to the produc- tion of onions, so much so that " Orange County reds " have a standard market quotation as a recog- nized grade. Heavy fertilization strong in potash is required for all crops on muck soil. The area of onions is about 5,500 acres and Xew York ranks a close second to Ohio, several other states following closely. The yield averages 300 to 400 bushels to the acre, though two or three times this amount are se- cured on some farms. Celery ranks with lettuce and onions as a muck- land crop. iSTew York led in area of these in 1909 with about 3,000 acres or a fifth of the total in the United States. Muck areas in the Genesee Valley re- gion are most largely devoted to celery, and the crop extends into the southern tier of counties much more than does onions. While the yield is larger on muck than on upland soils, and perhaps the quality a little better, it is recognized that the keeping properties in 170 RURAL NEW YORK storage are better for the crop from the rich silty min- eral soils, particularly dark alluvial soils, such as the Genesee and the Papakating series. Other crops having a localized development are cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, Lima beans. and cucum- bers. On the medium sandy loam and in conjunc- tion with the peculiar climatic conditions of the north shore of Long Island east of Wading Eiver, these vegetables attain peculiar perfection and are most largely grown. The chief center of production of sprouts is at Orient, while that for cauliflower is a little to the west. The production of Lima beans is associated with cauliflower. While cucumbers are grown to a considerable extent near Orient, the larger area is near the western end of Long Island in west- ern Sufl^olk County and nearest the south shore. The acreage is between 2500 and 3000 used both for im- mediate consumption and for pickling. Yields run as higli as 150 barrels to the acre, but less than 100 is common. The yield of Brussels sprouts is about 2000 quarts and the area occupied is about 150 to 200 acres. Mushrooms are grown by the acre in abandoned natural cement rock mines and in a smaller way in special cellars. Akron, in Erie County, is the larg- est center of the industry in the country. Here mines of large area a little below the surface of the ground have been abandoned for purposes of making natural cement. The beds are laid on the floor and the height of the ceiling permits the free use of wagons AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 171 and teams. The total area of the mine is about twenty acres, of which six to eight are used for the crop. The total area in vegetables exclusive of potatoes is about 175,000 acres. The crops listed above oc- cupy about 100,000 acres, leaving 75,000 acres for minor crops and minor areas. An important center of green vegetable produc- tion is along the shore of Lake Erie southwest of Buffalo. Owing, doubtless, to the general increase in population in the northeastern part of the United States, and to the markedly perishable character of many of the vegetables, the production of these crops is on the increase in this section of the country — about equal to the increase in population in cities in that region. The sugar-beet fiasco of the late nineties and the early years of the present century is an excellent ex- ample of the futility of introducing a new crop with- out full knowledge of soil conditions adapted to its growth. Under the stimulus of state subsidies, fac- tories for making beet-sugar were erected atBing- hamton and at Lyons. The first factory was clearly headed for failure from the very start because the area of soil adapted to the culture of the crop in that region is confined to the river valley and is very limited in extent. At Lyons, similar difficulties ex- isted but not of so serious a nature. Here, too, the soils are better suited to other staple crops than to beets. Had one of these factories been located in 172 RURAL -NEW YORK the region of Buffalo, where there are large areas of soil in Niagara and Erie counties adapted to its cul- ture, it would have had some chance of success. FEUiT (See Figs. 22, 25-27) In acreage and value of fruit New York is second only to California, which has three times as large a total area. One acre in every fifteen in crops in New York is devoted to fruit-culture. The total area in all fruits is approximately 595,000 acres, equal to the total acreage of potatoes, vegetables and special crops, one-fourth that in cereals and about the same as that of corn. The value, $25,000,000, in 1909 was five-ninths that of the cereals and five-twelfths that of all the milk sold in the State. The rank of New York among the states is second in quantity and value. The value of the fruit crop in New York is as large as that of all the tropical and subtropical fruit produced in the country. The State is first in apples, fresh grapes, bush-fruits, pears and quinces, third in peaches and plums, seventh in cherries and eighth in strawberries. There is even more divers- ity in the conditions that govern the production of different fruits than for general farm crops, and they must, therefore, be considered by varieties. The apple far outstrips all other fruits in acreage and value, liaving about half the value of all fruit. There were in 1910, 11,250,000 trees of bearing age, and 2,750,000 younger trees. In 1917 the total acre- age in apples, both young and bearing trees, was nearly 386,000 acres. For decades New York has led AGRICULTURAL IXDU8TRIES 173 in apple-growing but the production and marketing has not reached the high standard that is attained in the western boxed fruit and that is now beginning to characterize the crop in this State due to State and /00T = 26.000 BUSHELS I DOT = 100.000 QUARTS I DOT = 1.000.000 POUNDS I DOT = 400,000 POUNDS Fifj. 25. Maps of the amounts and distribution of speci- fied fruits and crops in 1909. a. orchard fruits; b. grapes; c. small-fruits; d. tobacco. Federal laws requiring more systematic grading. The number of trees below bearing age, 20 per cent of the total, indicates the expansion to which the growers look. The apple tree grows well in nearly every part of the State and the production of the fruit is widely distributed, but the commercial growth of the crop is 174 RURAL NEW YORK restricted to well defined regions. Both soil and climate enter into the conditions that determine the distribution. There are three or perhaps four sections of apple production : the lakes region, including the shore of Lake Ontario and the Central Lakes, the Hudson, and the Champlain Valley. The lakes region is by far the most extensive. Five counties on the Ontario shore, Niagara, Orleans, Monroe, Wayne and Ontario in 1909 produced more apples than any state except Pennsylvania. The lakes apple region forms a broad belt south of Lake Ontario and loops south- ward in the Seneca-Cayuga Lake district and in the Genesee A'alley, to the middle of this part of the State. Ten counties stand in the following order in the number of trees to the square mile, a figure that very well represents the intensity of production : Niagara 1540, Orleans 1380, Wayne 1300, Monroe 1100, Genesee 620, Ontario 495, Yates 466, Erie 435, Seneca 370, Livingston 230. The acreage thins out to the eastward in western Oswego and Onondaga counties, and westward it follows the escarpment overlooking Lake Erie in Chautauqua County. There are very few important orchards above an elevation of 1,000 feet and the more intensive pro- duction is at an elevation of 300 to 800 feet. The Hudson Valley belt lies on either side of that river within ten miles, and centers about the north line of Dutchess County. It spreads north to Kin- derhook and south to Newburg. It attains some im- portance in Saratoga County south of Ballston AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 175 Springs. The elevation here is below 500 feet. The Champlain region is in the upper part of the valley back of Plattsburg in Clinton County at an elevation of 300 to 600 feet. There is also a smaller area of apple orchards along that lake in southern Essex County. A growing period between killing frosts of one hun- dred and sixty days includes three-fourths of the Fig. 26. Amount and distribution of specified fruits in 1910. One dot equals 500 acres, a. plums and prunes; b. grape vines. commercial apple territory as it does of all fruits, and one hundred and fifty days marks the limit be- yond which there are scarcely any large commercial orchards. This does not get outside of the ranges of elevation stated above, but neither does it include all of the territory within those limits. The Indians in western Xew York had large plant- ings of apples when their strength was broken by General Sullivan in 1779. Apples were not grown for market in a commercial way much before 1825. The early plantings were based on the production of cider as well as fruit for culinary purposes. Beach 176 RURAL ?fEW YORK states in "Apples of New York," that before 1840 probably not much over 15 per cent of the fruit was budded or grafted. New York has contributed largely to the creation of new varieties. In a list of 804 given by Hedrick and his associates in Bulletin 361 of the Geneva Station, New York is credited with originating 144 varieties of those whose origin is known. Of these, eleven are adapted to growth widely in the State. Four are well-known commercial sorts, the Northern Spy, Jonathan, Newtown Pippin and Wagener. Four others belong to the Spy group. While tlie number of varieties is large, those of real commer- cial importance are small. Most of these appeared in mixed plantings of seeds carried into the new settle- ment by pioneers from the East. Probably at the head of these varieties is the Northern Spy. It ap- peared in a lot of seedlings grown by Mr. Chapin at East Bloomfield, where the site of the original tree has been marked. Early Joe and Norton's Melon ap- peared in the same lot of seedlings. Two varieties of Spitzenburg are in this list. The Wagener apple ap- peared at Penn Yan. The Yellow Newtown origin- ated on Long Island, near Prince's nursery at Flush- ing. This is notable in another way because it was probably the first variety shipped abroad. In 1758 a package of this fruit was sent to Benjamin Franklin in London. In ITGT, Robert Livingston sent a barrel of this fruit abroad. As late as 1825, apples were packed in straw-headed barrels. The Swaar apple appeared at Esopus in the Hudson Valley. The ^5=^ Fig. 27. Maps of the acreage and distribution of the spe- cified fruits according to age in 1909 except for apples which are for 1910. One dot equals 500 acres, a. apples (bearing) ; b. apples (below bearing) ; c. peaches and nectarines (bearing) ; d. peaches and nectarines (not bearing). One dot equals 100 acres, e. strawberries; f. bush-fruits. 177 178 RURAL NEW YORK Tompkins King originated in New Jersey but has been developed at Jacksonville in Tompkins County. The first white man's apple orchard west of the Gen- esee Eiver was that of Schaffer on Indian Allen's farm at Scottsville, planted in 1799, Beach in " Apples of New York " says that the Baldwin ranks preeminent above any other in import- ance in commercial orchards in the State. Rhode Island Greening ranks next in importance. Doubt- less, these two varieties supply at least two-thirds of the apples grown for market. Neither of these varie- ties is a New York production. The Baldwin, named after Colonel Baldwin who recognized the mer- its of the fruit, originated in eastern Massachusetts. It is said by Wilson probably to have done more to give apple-growing a large commercial standing than any other variety. The Greening originated in Rhode Island in the vicinity of Newport. Next in import- ance is the Northern Spy. The relative rank of other varieties is not so easily determined. The quality of New York apples is concededly high although the average color is not as strong as on western-grown fruit. The system of packing and marketing is improving rapidly under the influence of a set of State-established grades for apples and a system of bonding commission dealers. These laws are backed by the large membership of the New York State Horticultural Society. Marketing facilities, in- cluding grading and packing are improving and several central packing-houses have been established, notably in Niagara County. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 179 In the apple districts, storage and manufacture fa- cilities have developed to a very large extent to hold the crop to a longer marketing season and to utilize the low-grade fruit. Seventy-five per cent of the evaporated apples produced in the country are con- tributed by New York, mostly from the western dis- trict. To only a small extent the storage facilities are controlled by growers. The cold storage plants were formerly located in the larger market centers but the development of organization among produc- ers is pressing home the suggestion that storage fa- cilities near home that give a more broad and in- dependent market outlook are to be preferred. Peaches are a poor second to apples in value of fruit and number of trees. In 1909 their value was $3,000,000 or one-seventh that of the apple. There were 5,000,000 trees or about one-third as many as of apples. In 1917 there was reported 53,500 acres devoted to peaches of all ages. New York was elev- enth in number of bearing trees, sixth in young trees, and third in value of peaches by the 1909 fed- eral census. The crop is much less cosmopolitan than apples and is confined to two districts, both of which are within the apple zones. The first is along the im- mediate shore of Lake Ontario from the Niagara Eiver eastward and extending south but keeping rather close to the shores of Seneca and Cayuga lakes. The section adjacent to the Niagara Eiver enjoys almost annual crops. The second district is in the Hudson Valley from Albany southward on 180 RURAL AEW YORK either side of the river witliin five miles. The west shore opposite Poughkeepsie is most heavily planted. The acreage has increased rapidly in the last ten years but had been nearly stationary for the preced- ing twenty years. The increase is shown by the pro- portion of trees below bearing age. In 1909 there were nearly as many trees below bearing age as were producing crops. Since the trees should live for twelve to fifteen years, this indicates a large increase. However, the very cold winter of 1917-18 killed many trees and correspondingly reduced the imme- diate prospects for large crops of peaches. The El- berta and the Early Crawford are the most satisfac- tory varieties for market, the former for the late season, the latter for the early season. In western New York, says Anderson, over half the plantings are of Elberta. The peach crop experiences extremes in yield and market returns. No-crop years have been succeeded by seasons of over-production with slaughter prices. The acreage and value of pears approaches that of peaches and in 1917 was reported at 41,000 acres. The regions of commercial production are the same as for peaches but pears reach out further from the influence of bodies of water, and as a rule are put on much heavier soils. The loam and clay loam types of the corresponding series used for peaches are em- ployed for pears, and while important, lack of drain- age is less critical than for peaches. The statistics appear to indicate a marked increase in acreage in AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 181 very recent years. In 1!)09, the trees below bearing were equal to three-fourths those in bearing. The preeminent variety for the State in acreage, value and successful production is the Bartlett. The Seckel and Bosc stand next in the list of commercial sorts. New York ranks first in the production of pears. Plums and prunes are minor tree-fruits with less than a quarter the number of trees of pears and peaches. They also show a less proportion of young trees and the indications are that a decrease in acre- age is imminent. Plums are closely associated with pears in distribution, climate and soil relations. They belong M^ith the hardy fruits. The cherry, unlike the plum, shows a strong ten- dency to increase in acreage. The acreage was some- what larger than that of plums in 1917 and amounted to 13,000 acres and is increasing. While the State ranked ninth in number of bearing trees in 1910, it was second in number of trees below bearing age and fifth in value. The cherry compares with the apple in the breadth of its adaptation to New York conditions. Cherry trees of native fruit of the cultivated sorts are common in a wild state and are found in every neglected fence corner and wayside spot. The cherry is the most common home-garden fruit throughout the State, the type being the pie or sour cherry which is more hardy and less exacting of soil and climate than are the sweet varieties. 182 RURAL NEW YORK The commercial development of cherry-growing clings ratlier closely to the main i'ruit belt in the Hudson Valley and the western lakes region. It has much the same spread as the pear and the plum. The sour cherries, according to Hedrick, make up 9U per cent of the plantings, the Montmorency, Early Richmond and English Morella leading in tlie order named. They are grown in the Hudson Valley on either bank of the river, but especially on the eastern shore in southern Columbia County, which has the largest number of trees of any county in the State. In this district the fruit is shipped to market as fresh fruit and the industry has not reached a high development. In western New York there has been a very large increase in the acreage of sour cherries in recent years. The region of largest production is in the Seneca Lake district, but it is an important fruit through the Lake Ontario counties and has gained a considerable foothold on the Lake Erie shore in the grap,e district. The leading counties of the terri- tory in the order of the number of trees to the square mile of area are Seneca, Monroe, Wayne, Ontario, Niagara, Orleans and Onondaga. Cherries, therefore, seem to show a preference for the eastern portion of this fruit belt. The development in the industry of canning cher- ries has been chiefly responsible for the large in- crease in acreage. Geneva is an important center in this industry. The sweet cherry, which is very fastidious of soil AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 183 and climate, is grown in only a small way and finds its best conditions on the lighter silty and fine sandy loam and gravelly loam soils, especially of the Dunkirk series from Rochester westward fairly near the Ontario shore, that is, within eight to ten miles. In the production of quinces. New York leads in total value with Ohio and Pennsylvania carrying a similar acreage. There were nearly as many trees below bearing age as of producing age in 1909, a feature in which the State stood alone and indicating the increase in planting. At that time the total acreage was approximately 3000. The quince is un- common outside the fruit belts but in the lakes region and Hudson Valley it is grown with peculiar success on the rich loam and fine sandy loam soils. The prominence of ISTew York in small-fruit pro- duction is due to raspberries which equal in acreage that of all other small-fruits. The first commercial planting was in Yates County in 1885. Easpberries grow best in the cooler regions, and among the north- erly states New York leads in its production. The growing of bush-fruits is restricted to the area adja- cent to the larger cities or to localities easily acces- sible to market. The raspberry is an exception and is most extensively grown rather remote from large cities, in a belt extending along the west side of Seneca Lake and thence northward into Wayne County. The three counties of Yates, Ontario and Wayne have half the acreage. Here the fruit is bat- ted off the bushes into large baskets and it is then 184 liUKAL MJW yORK evaporated in dry houses. Tlie soils of interme- diate texture are adapted for its production and in this region the types are rather calcareous and he- long to the Ontario and Dunkirk series. Whether the climatic conditions are peculiarly suited to the production of the fruit is not evident from the data at hand. Deficiency in soil moisture is particularly disastrous at the time of fruiting and there may be a connection between this fact and the moist summer climate that prevails in the Seneca Lake belt. In the production of the other kinds of bush- fruits, jSTew York has no especial rank. Their pro- duction has attained no large commercial importance. Currants, blackberries and gooseberries are grown with reasonable success and in amounts adequate to meet the market demands. With the possible excep- tion of currants, the center of best production would appear to be in the states to the south of New York so that the increase in the acreage for consumption in the fresh condition beyond the normal growth of regional population does not seem to be advisable. In the Hudson Valley opposite Poughkeepsie and from thence south to Newburg, small-fruits are in- tensively grown and are largely shipped to New York by boat. Small-fruits are an important group in the lower Hudson region. Strawberries rank next to raspberries in impor- tance among the small-fruits but have only about half the acreage. Their distribution is fairly cosmopoli- tan in tlie valley and lake plain regions of the State. They are best grown on the silt and fine sandy loam AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 185 types of series that are usually water laid, moist silt loam of the Dunkirk and Hudson series being per- haps preeminent. The cominon belief that the strawberry prefers an acid soil is hardly borne out by the distribution of its acreage. However, it is evident that a content of lime beyond what will in- sure ready decay of organic matter and, therefore, a high state of fertility is not essential. The commer- cial production of strawberries in Oswego County be- gan about 1883. It is interesting to note that 277 acres of cran- berries on eighty-eight farms were reported in 1909. This was only about one one-hundredth of the total acreage. These gave a yield of 327,370 quarts worth $20,743. The acreage was double that of ten years before. This is all on Long Island, mostly on the eastern end. The production of the crop requires a rather high degree of skill. It is the only fruit that thrives in low wet soils and during the winter the crop is usually protected from low temperature by flooding the area with water so that the plants are submerged. The coast region of New Jersey sup- ports half the total acreage of cranberries in the country which was about 30,000 acres. Over 1200 farms report the production of nuts to the total amount of 2,750,000 pounds. The greater part were from black walnut, butternut, chestnut and hickory nuts presumably from trees growing wild. Eighty-one farms reported 456 English walnut trees in bearing that produced nearly 10,000 pounds of nuts. This tree is attracting considerable attention 186 RURAL NEW YORK and orchards have been started in the lakes fruit belt. Scattered trees of bearing age occur at a num- ber of points in the western part of the State. These give a fairly consistent yield of nuts. As yet, the propagation of trees from cuttings has been difficult and the bearing trees, which are seedlings, are of variable quality. From almost the first settlement by the Dutch, attempts were made to grow grapes and make wine. The early efforts were with foreign varieties and these were all failures in the New World. All the grapes now grown commercially, except those used for rais- ins, have been developments from the native Ameri- can sorts. The American varieties do not contain enough sugar and solids for making raisins. Rich- ards of Manhattan Island had vineyards there and on Long Island and as early as 1G64 enjoyed a monopoly in wine-making in that region. Robert Underbill at Croton Point on the Hudson, acting under the sugges- tion of Mr. Parmenter of Brooklyn who had given much study to grape-growing, developed the first important vineyard in the Hudson Valley. He be- gan in 1827 with the varieties Catawba and Isabella, and expanded his vineyard to seventy-five acres. These same varieties also constituted the first plant- ings in western New York. The variety Isabella ap- peared as a mutant in the garden of Mrs. Isabella Gibbs in Brooklyn. In 1818 Deacon Elijah Fay planted the first grapes in Chautauqua County, near Brocton, which led to the foundation of the indus- AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 187 try in what is now the Grape Belt. As late as 1859 there was not over 100 acres of vineyards in that region. In the Keuka Lake district the first plant- ings were in 1830 in a garden at Hammondsport by Eev. William Bostwick. The origination of the Con- cord variety by Bull in Massachusetts before 1850, which variety now occupies upwards of 90 per cent of the entire commercial grape area, was the real foundation of the development of the vine in west- ern New York. Two well-known varieties, besides many minor ones, have appeared in the State. The Worden was originated Jjy Schuyler \Yorden, of Minetto, Oswego County, in 1863, from seed of Concord. The Niagara grape, the leading American green variety, was originated at Lockport by Hoag and Clark in 1868, also from seed of Concord fer- tilized by Cassaday. The making of wine was the first outlet for the larger vineyards. In 1880 the first carload of table grapes from western New York was sent to Philadelphia by Jonas Martin, of Brocton. The commercial production of unfer- mented grape juice began in Westfield about 1900 and has had a rapid rise. California leads in grape-growing, her product being most largely the raisin grapes of European varieties. New York, which ranks second in total production, leads all other states in American varieties used for table and for making wine and unfermented juice. In 1910, New York was growing nearly 36,000,000 vines, cov- ering about 53,000 acres. All but one-ninth of this 188 RURAL NEW YORK number was of bearing age. The total number of vines was a little more than one-third of all the vines in the country outside of California. The region bordering Lake Erie on the south, through the states of Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York, is the most prominent eastern grape-growing district. A large part of the acreage is in New York and forms the most important center of production in the State. This is the Chautauqua district. Three other districts of grape production are of less im- portance, in the order of acreage, being the Central Lakes, the Hudson Valley and the ISTiagara. The Chautauqua district had its rise to commercial importance with the introduction of the Concord about 18G0. It is located on the low and rather flat Lake Erie plain which is marked off from the southern New York highlands by a high steep slope. Grape-growing extends well up this slope toward the crest but has its best development on the old gravelly bars and beaches that stretch east and west near the foot. This area was formerly covered by lake waters. They are often calcareous in the subsoil. They are mostly of the Dunkirk series. Along the face of the slope the Lordstown and Wooster soils are dominant. The grape region is from three to four miles in width and extends westward from just within the Erie County line through all northern Chautauqua County and thence westward into Pennsylvania and Ohio, with ever decreasing intensity from the center of production around Brocton. The Central Lakes region is made up of several AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 189 centers of production, the largest of which is the Keuka district. Next in importance is the territory extending southward from the lower end of Canan- daigua Lake. The third section is more scattered and lies on either side of the middle part of Seneca Lake, reaching over to Komulus. These several dis- tricts are not connected by grape plantings. The land consists of the steep slopes along the deep val- leys, the slopes being most pronounced in the first two districts. Topography and elevation appear to bring about the conditions favorable for the grape in this region. The Keuka-Canandaigua districts have a longer and warmer season than the Chautauqua and fruit matures two weeks earlier and is largely out of the way before the latter crop comes into market. The rainfall is higher and the air more moist, as a result of which the vines are more subject to mildew than in the Chautauqua region. The soils of the Seneca district are much tlie same in series as in the Chautauqua belt, Dunkirk, but the crop is grown more on heavy soils of the Ontario series. In the other two regions the soils are of the Lordstown and Wooster series, probably mostly of the former of silt loam texture and very stony. These latter forma- tions are relatively thin and friable, which, together with tlie lay of the slopes, doubtless combines to give the large supply of heat favorable to the crop. The best parts of the Central Lakes districts are planted solid to grapes to the exclusion of other crops. The Hudson district has been designated as the birthplace of American viticulture. Here are the 190 RURAL NEW YORK oldest winery, the oldest vineyard, the first distribu- ting point and the greatest number of varieties. Many of these have been originated the^'e and some of them have been the basis of the best American sorts. Finally, there has been centered there a corps of viticulturalists whose names will long be perpet- uated by horticulturists because of their many and varied contributions to the industry, chief among whom were the several generations of the family of Downings whose nurseries were at Newburg. Like other fruits grown in this region, the grape follows closely the shores of the river from Newburg northward. It is a narrow irregular tract of stony mountainous country, with pockets of stony, sandy and silty soils of the Hudson and Dutchess series. Above Poughkeepsie and reaching across the river into lower Columbia County, steep but tillable slopes are commonly planted to grapes. The east slope is usually the warmer and on account of the direction of the prevailing westerly winds most protected from the wind. The fourth or Niagara district lies in the angle between the Niagara Eiver and the steep bluff over- looking Lake Ontario. It does not reach much east of Lockport and follows rather closely the foot and lower slope of this mountainous escarpment, on the stony and gravelly soils of the old lake beach. In these respects it is similar to the Chautauqua region. This district is far less prominent than the other three in extent of grape production. The number of bearing vines in the several dis- ;2; 5 > a> V AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 191 tricts in 1910 were : Chautauqua 17,100,000, Central Lakes 11,000,000, Hudson Valley 2,500,000 and Niagara 500,000. With the exception of the Chau- tauqua district, there has been a decrease in num- ber of vines; here there has been a substantial in- crease but not in yield of grapes to correspond. It has been suggested by Morrison tliat the increased planting on unfavorable soils is responsible for this decrease in average yield. In the Chautauqua district, the distribution of other varieties of grape than Concord is reported by Hedrick to be : Niagara 3 per cent, Wordens 2 per cent, Moors Early and Catawba each 1 per cent, other varieties, chiefly Delawares, 3 per cent. The only marked variation is in the Niagara district where the variety of the same name is grown almost ex- clusively. The ufilization of the grape has changed consid- erably and varies with the different districts. In the pioneer days nearly all the fruit was used for making wine. Table use of grapes increased until in 1890 it is stated that four-fifths of the product of New York and Pennsylvania were so consumed. Nearly all the Hudson and Niagara crops are still so utilized. The production of wine has never been an especially large factor in the grape-growing industry. How- ever, the manufacture of sparkling wine or cham- pagne has been important in the Keuka Lake sec- tion where 75 per cent of the product is made. This has been called the American champagne dis- trict and is on the same isothermal line as the 193 RURAL NEW YORK fiunous Champagne region of France. L. J. Vance, editor of the American Wine Press, concludes that in recent years one-fourth of the grapes in the State were used for the production of wine and juice. However, wine has been produced commercially in all of the grape-growing centers. The production of unfermented juice is increasing. In the Chautauqua region it is made entirely from the blue Concord variety. More than 3,000,000 gallons of juice are manufactured annually there, and pro- duction is increasing. NURSERIES AND FLOWERS In association with the large production of fruit in the State, there has been from early years a corre- spondingly large development of the nursery busi- ness. The oldest and most famous of these was the Prince Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, estab- lished in 1725. Four men of as many generations of the Prince family were proprietors of this nursery in succession, and were for many years lead- ing authorities on important groups of American fruits and flowers, and authors of noteworthy cata- logues and treatises, including one on the vine. Their nursery is said to represent the beginning of commercial fruit-culture in America. In 1793, their nursery and large collection of varieties became the Linnean Botanical Garden. It has now been long disbanded. The Downing Nurseries, established at Newburg and supervised by several members of the Downing AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 193 family, have occupied an important place in horti- cultural annals similar to those of the Princes on Long Island. In 1841, Andrew Jackson Downing, who is said to have been the first great American landscape-gardener, published his book on " The Theory of Landscape Gardening and Cottage Resi- dences." Three generations of the Downing family of Newburg were notably prominent in the nursery business and in the development of fruit-culture. The Eochester-Geneva-Dansville nursery district in western Xew York, probably the largest in the coun- try, had its primary beginning when Patrick Barry went from the Prince Nursery on Long Island to Rochester in 1840. Of course, there were nurseries in that western district before the coming of Barry. Lincoln Fay, second son of Elijah Fay, had the first grape nursery in the present grape belt at Fredonia, another important nursery center, espe- cially for vines and small-fruits. Monroe County is now the leading center of the nursery industry in acreage. Rochester is the center of production. In that region occur large areas of fine sandy and silt loam soil favorable for the busi- ness, which naturally joins with the large fruit inter- est, of which that city is also the center. There are outlying centers eastward in southern Wayne County and in Onondaga County, westward as far as Lock- port, southeast at Geneva and prominent areas at Dansville and Batavia. Dansville in the Canaseraga Valley in southern Livingston County is the largest shipping center. The Dansville nurseries were es- 194 RURAL NEW YORK tablished by persons from Wyoming County, Penn- sylvania, who began planting apple seeds about 1796. The Dunkirk sandy and fine sandy, and especially the silt loam and the Ontario fine sandy loam are used for nursery purposes, except at Dansville where the alluvial Genesee silt loam is employed. At this point, tremendous storage and shipping facilities have been developed. Flowers and plants are grown more intensively than any other crop. In New York the average acre value for the main groups of farm products is as follows: Farm forests $3.50, cereals $16.50, fruits $35.00, vegetables $51.00, nursery $320.00, flowers and plants $1725.00. These average figures appear disproportionate. It must be remembered that in most lines of production the average is far below what a progressive grower would call fair returns. This is due to the large number of farms that are unsuited to the crop or are poorly managed. The lower the acre value of the crop and the more exten- sive the nature of its production, the more does this disproportion between average and good returns ap- pear. Doubtless, some such law is responsible for the remarkably good showing of flowers and plants, a large part of which are grown in glass houses. The production of flowers and plants lies close to the larger cities. It represents a heavy capitaliza- tion in equipment and labor. As the center of large cities, New York has the greatest acreage which totaled 2,979 acres and was valued at $2,750,000. The acreage doubled in the ten years preceding 1909. AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 195 The glass-house farms for flowers are supplemented by open field areas for the propagation of certain types of plants. The industry is subdivided along the lines of types of flowers produced as the other forms of crop production are subdivided. Eoses, carnations, gladiolas, peonies, violets, orchids, and others become the particular sphere of individual growers. SPECIAL CROPS Hops were once widely grown and important. For the last twenty years the production has been decreasing, due to the development of disease, espe- cially mildew, and to competition from other parts of the country, particularly the Pacific Coast states. From the beginning of the growth of hops in Madison County in 1816, when James D. Cooledge marketed a bale in New York City, the area expanded until in 1880 it amounted to nearly 40,000 acres. Since that date it has been decreasing, first slowly but in the last fifteen years at a rapid rate until now it is less than a fifth of what it was formerly. In 1909, 12,000 acres were reported. In the height of their production hops were grown throughout the middle of the State and in the extreme northern part. The chief area of production has always been along the southern side of the Mohawk Valley. Here the hop dry houses, frame structures with a wind-vein ventilating hood on the roof, most of them now abandoned, are a conspicuous feature of the farm building group. The other important center of pro- 196 RURAL NEW YORK duction was in the northern part of Franklin County, around Malone. A small amount has been grown in Livingston and northern Steuben counties. (See Figs. 19, 34.) The distribution of hops and particularly their successful growth has been restricted to calcareous soils and a moderately high summer rainfall. The Ontario and Honeoye series, and to some extent the Mohawk soils have carried its chief development. The yield is from 800 to 1500 pounds, the average being near the lower figure. In Oregon, the leading state in the production of hops, the yield averages 1000 pounds or more and in California it is over 1400 pounds. Teasel is better known as a common roadside weed in the noTtheastern quarter of the country. By transfer from England by William Snook a different variety became a farm crop in western Onondaga County in 1840. The town of Skaneateles is the center of its production and it is distributed over an area of perhaps a hundred square miles. The cal- careous Ontario and Dunkirk soils of that region are used for teasel production. The crop is grown for the seed cones, the delicate hooked ends of the scales of which are used to raise the nap on cloth. A good yield is 100,000 cones to the acre. Like other special crops, this one is decreasing in acreage. A mechani- cal appliance for raising the knap on cloth has been devised with which the teasel cones must compete. Tobacco is a commercial crop in two regions, — first a territory twenty-five miles in diameter centering AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 197 in northwestern Onondaga County, and second in tlie Susquehanna-Chemung Kiver valleys from Binghamton to west of Elmira. These regions had a total acreage in 1909 of 4,109 acres. Since that date the production has decreased considerably especially in the southern district. This is merely part of a decrease in the acreage of the crop that has been go- ing on for forty years. It was formerly grown much more widely than at present and many counties through the lower elevations in the State reported an appreciable acreage in earlier years. Dutchess County still produced thirty-one acres in 1909. Tobacco seems to have been gro\m by the Indians. It became a commercial crop northwest of Syracuse about 1845. (See Figs. 22, 25.) The soils upon which tobacco is produced are the gravelly, sandy, fine sandy loam and silt types of the Dunkirk series in the Syracuse district, and on the corresponding textures of the Chenango series in the Elmira section. The yield is from 800 to 1200 pounds to the acre. The production of the crop in New York State has never reached the high state of development that has been attained in other tobacco- producing centers, such as the Sumatra wrapper region near Quincey, Florida, and in the middle Connecticut Valley, or the cigar binder regions of Miami County, Ohio, and Janesville, Wisconsin. Ginseng is grown in small areas in several regions, particularly through the middle of the State south of Syracuse. The most important localities are at Eose Hill and Scott, between Skaneateles and 198 RURAL NEW YORK Covtland. Its production is a very intensive busi- ness since an acre of mature roots well developed may be worth $10,000. The dried roots sell at $8 to $12 a pound. It is a medicinal root used by Orientals and ro(|nires three to five years for the roots to reach marketable size. A silty to fine sandy loam, moist and cool and moderately fertile, gives best results. An excess of lime carbonate promotes destructive diseases. While the soil must be moist, good drain- age is essential for rapid vegetative growth. The Lordstown and Chenango silt loams are excellent types of soil for the crop. New York leads in its production. Willows of the osier type for basket-making are a farm crop at several points in the western part of the State. The most important center is in south- ern Wayne County, where it was brought in by Dutch settlers. The crop is grown on moist, rich and mod- erately heavy soils. Lake and alluvial soils of the series common to that region are used. Peppermint for its oil was formerly cultivated on the muck and swamp soils of Wayne County where onions and cabbage now find a large place. At one time that region was the center of the world's pro- duction, but it has now been transferred to the Clyde marshes of Allegan County, Michigan. The sugar bush or hard maple orchard is still an important factor in the receipts of many New York farms. The tree is one of the most representative and cosmopolitan in the State, being common in every county outside the heart of the Adirondack AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES 199 Mountains and the thickly settled and thoroughly cultivated districts. It does not thrive on thin, light or very sour soils, but eliminating these ex- tremes it seems to be very tolerant of variations in soil. It is considered to indicate strong durable soil. Over twenty-five thousand farms, or nearly 13 per cent of the total number, reported a total of nearly 5,000,000 maple trees in 1909. Vermont has for some time led in the production of maple sugar and Ohio in sirup, but in the total of both, New York ranks first. The largest producing counties are those of the southern plateau region. It appears to be a mar- ginal industry that stands midway between intensive farm practice and abandonment to straight forest purposes. The sugar grove is most common where the farm woodlot is a large factor on the farm, where there is a considerable amount of waste land, not steep and rough, but stony and difficult to till or remote from the homestead. CHAPTER VI ANIMAL INDUSTRIES OF NEW YORK The first Dutch settlers brought over many kinds of live-stock. In 1623, Peter Earstin Heft intro- duced the first cattle into New York, and in 1625 three boat-loads of stock were imported to New Amsterdam and included horses, cattle, sheep, swine, also seeds and plows. The presumption is that the cattle carried the Friesian blood. In those early- days, cattle were irhportant for draft purposes, as well as for meat and milk. As late as 1850 there was nearly half as many oxen on farms as horses. Horses were very much of a luxury among the pioneers when the ox could plow the field, draw the wagon, furnish meat, and finally provide leather for the shoes and boots for the household. Sheep were important to supply the wool that was carded and spun in the home into yam, from which the winter clothing was largely made. The animal industries have for many years held a leading place among the agricultural activities of the State. In the last sixty-five years, there has been very little change in the total intensity of animal production. Excluding poultry, in which there has been a large increase, the number of mature animal units is very little larger now than it was in 1850. 200 ANIMAL IXDISTRIES 301 The ratio of animal units to the total number of acres in farms and to the total area of improved land has been remarkably constant. This ratio was 6.7 acres to the animal in 1850 and 6.55 acres to the ani- mal in 1915. In 1880 it was 7.3 acres and in 1900, 6.3 acres. The total number of animal units for suc- cessive periods, excluding poultry, is shown in the following table: Table VI. — Number of Animal Units Exclu- sive OF Poultry on Farms from 1850 to 1915 Number of Acres Number of Year live-stock in acres per units farms animal unit 1850 2,840,000 19,115,000 6.7 1860 2,910,000 20,975,000 7.2 1870 2,933,000 22,191,000 7.5 1880 3,305,000 23,781,000 7.2 1890 3,194,000 21,961,000 6.9 1900 3,607,000 22,648,000 6.3 1910 3,280,000 22,030,000 6.7 191.5 3,368,000 22,000,000 6.5 In these figures, seven sheep and five hogs are es- timated to be equal to one mature cow or horse. Xo allowance is made for young horses and cattle which are assumed to maintain a constant ratio to the total number in that class. Some fluctuation is observable in the total num- ber of animal units. The census year of 1900, for example, is a high point and at that time the num- ber of acres to an animal, 6.3, was the lowest it has been at any time in the period under consideration. 202 RURAIj new YORK This fact when studied in connection with the gen- eral supply and price of crops illustrates a general law to which the production of live-stock roughly conforms. Live-stock constitutes a reserve food supply, being a means of storing food and of con- verting it into new forms that increase the total consumption. Consequently, when the supply of food crops is large and the price relatively low, the total number of animals is increased and more crops are fed. More persons can be maintained by the direct con- sumption of crops than on the animal products from the same amount of crops. In other words, live- stock are destructive of food values whenever those foods could be consumed by man. It has been found by investigation that 100 pounds of nutriment when fed to animals yields 15.6 pounds of nutriment in pork, 2.8 pounds in beef, and 2.6 pounds in mutton, while in milk it will yield 18 pounds, cheese 9.4, butter 5.4, and in eggs 5.1 pounds. On the other hand, when the crops are of such a nature that they are un- suited to human consumption but can be eaten by animals, they are thereby converted into food and other products suitable for human consumption. The persistence with which live-stock is kept on the farms of New York indicates that there is some fundamental reason underlying the practice. It has already been pointed out in the chapter on crops that New York is not eminent in the production of grain crops that are used as food for animals. Compared with the middle western states, fruits and vegetables ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 303 have a much larger place in the census figures of New York than corn and oats and wheat. It might be expected that the number of live-stock would re- spond more closely, especially since the region of large grain production in the United States is the great Mississijipi Valley which is remote from the large eastern cities to which animals are more easily shipped than the crops on which they are fed. The live-stock intensity is higher in New York than in the United States as a whole. It is 6.7 acres to an animal unit compared with 8.2 acres in the United States in 1910 and this is only slightly be- low the intensity in such an eminent producing state as Illinois, and is above that in the great corn-grow- ing state of Kansas. The number of acres in farms to an animal unit in several of the middle western states is as follows : Ohio, 6.1, Wisconsin, 5.5, Kan- sas, 8.7, Illinois, 6.4, Iowa, 4.4, and Montana, 6.0 The crops on which the rather large number of live-stock in New York are chiefly dependent are hay and pasture. Nearly one-half or 9,800.000 acres of the area in farms is devoted to those crops. Nearly one-half of that area or 4,100,000 acres is in hay and the remainder or nearly 5,700,000 in pas- ture. "Woodland pasture is here estimated at one- half value. Five-eighths of the pasture area or 60 per cent is of a sort that cannot be tilled. New York has a large area of land that is best suited to the pro- duction of a low grade of forage that can be utilized )by live-stock and that would otherwise be unsuited for human use. The adaptation of the State to the pro- 204 RURAL NEW YORK duction of hay, the capacity to grow corn for silage for winter feeding, and enough grain to make at least a beginning on the concentrate problem, together with the heavy demand for dairy products by the adjacent large cities, give the key to the prominence of live- stock. The pastures are notably good, due to the high summer rainfall. This is reflected in the cost of pasture an animal. G. F. Warren has collected figures showing that N"ew York has the cheapest pas- ture land of the United States with the exception of the South. In all those regions where pasture land is abundant, the middle and southern parts of the State, the cost for pasture ranges from fifty cents to one dollar a month to an animal unit. The com- parative figures as collected by Warren in 1910 are as follows: Table VII. — Cost of Pasture Cost of pasture a month New York $0.50 North Atlantic States 0.90 Corn Belt 1.35 Middle West outside of the Corn Belt 1.05 Blue Grass region 1.55 Southern States 0.30 Arid region 0.50 Western irrigated or moist land 0.65 Of the concentrated feeds used, a large part is purchased from outside the State. In the exclu- sively dairy region of Delaware County, a careful record on one hundred and fifty-seven representative ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 205 farms for two years indicated that as high as 98 per cent of the grain is purchased. This is undoubtedly considerably higher than the average. The general effort on the part of farmers is to grow more protein in the form of leguminous hays, and to some ex- tent roots, thereby reducing the amount of grain that must be purchased. While the total number of animal units has been fairly constant, there has been a large shift in the relative number of the different types of live-stock. Cows have regularly increased in number throughout the last sixty-seven years. Other cattle have fluctu- ated considerably. Horses reached a maximum in 1890 and have been decreasing since that time with the exception of the last two or three years when there seems to have been some return of interest in their production. This may be due, however, to the increase in the acreage of tilled crops which require more horse power. Sheep reached their maximum in 1845 with a secondary maximum in 1900 since which date they have rapidly decreased until in 1917 their number, about 600,000, was only 10 per cent of that in 1845 and 35 per cent of that in 1900. Swine have decreased irregularly from their high point in numbers in 1840. At that date there was nearly 2,000,000 swine of all ages in the State. They had fallen off somewhat by 1860 and heavily by 1870, the post war period, after which they increased to 1890 when the number was 843,000. Since that year they have undergone a general decrease. In 1910 there were 660,000 swine, while in 1917 there were ■Se 7 OOO 'OOO '0/.:/0 SU/A//7 A'/ ^SSS//'S> <7/v»' ^JLiJ./7e ajuko/er/v/ sy su/a^o a// svyw/Afi^ i^/^bi/Jo i/3ei^/?A/ ryjicu. 206 tJXJ ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 307 less than 500,000. The decrease in the number of hogs is largely if not quite offset by the increase in poultry, the number of which has been growing reg- ularly since 1880. (See Figs. 28, 29.) It is to be expected that both the numbers and the prevailing types of live-stock in New York, located in the midst of the largest population on the Ameri- can continent, should very accurately reflect the ad- justment between such elements as the demand for perishable animal products, the use of waste foods of the farm and city, the relative supply of animal foods in the country, and the crops New York can produce to advantage. This adjustment, together with the relative efficiency of the different animals in utilizing foods, especially rough and waste foods, must constantly be kept in mind in studying the live-stock industries. Stock of all kinds are to a large extent scavengers, using the crops and waste material that man could not consume. This is the economic basis on which they must be handled, not only as to food but also as to labor. In one class of animals only does New York stand first in numbers. This is in dairy cows, of which in 1910 there were 1,509,594; in 1915 there were 1,539,000. Wisconsin and Iowa are in second and third places respectively. In the total value of all live-stock. New York ranks eighth. The State is also eighth in the value of all cattle but ninth in total number. New York is fourteenth in the number of horses. In number of sheep and swine, the rank is so low as 208 RURAL NEW YORK to merit very little consideration in the total pro- duct of the country. In number of poultry, the State ranked tenth, and in eggs produced, eighth, indicating that more attention is devoted to egg f riv' ;■" =- I DOT= SlOO.OOO^i;^^ fe^ I DOT = 1.00 0 "^rt^^v Fig. 29. Maps of the value, numbers, and distribvition of the specified types of domestic animals in 1910. a. value of all domestic animals on farms; b. neat cattle; c. dairy cows; d. horses and mules. production than to fowls for meat. In this latter industry, the middle western states have the advan- tage. In the number of colonies of bees, the rank is eighth. Corresponding to the large number of dairy cows, the State ranks first in the amount of milk produced and in its total value. On the other hand, in the products made from milk, butter and cheese. ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 309 New York has no particular prominence. It is twenty-second in the production of butter and fifth in cheese. This illustrates the demand b}- the large cities for raw milk which prevents its use for man- ufacturing purposes. (See chapter on manufac- tures.) ANIMAL HUSBAXDEY AND SOIL FERTILITY In addition to the value of animals and animal products as human food and equipment and their use as conservators of otherwise waste human food ma- terial, still another viewpoint is frequently advanced in favor of live-stock husbandry. Animals produce manure as a bv-product and in every intensively farmed region this is assigned high value to maintain and improve the productive capacity of the soil. The three and a quarter million animal units in the State will produce manure at tlie rate of approxi- mately 38,000,000 gross tons, or 7,500,000 tons of dry matter in manure a year. The distribution of this material among the different animals is about as given in the following table : Table VIII . — Manure Produced BY Farm Animals Number N'^-ber To- ^^^^ animal manure fresh units ^° ^^ manure '^""^ animal Tons dry Tons of matter dry animals to an manure animal Horse 900,000 850,000 10 8,500,000 2.5 2,125,000 Cattle .... 2,500,000 2,100,000 13 27,300,000 2.2 4,620,000 Sheep .... 900,000 135,000 6.5 877,000 2.2 297,000 Swine .... 660,000 100,000 7.5 750,000 2.2 220.000 Poultry . .10,700,000 107,000 5. 535,000 2.2 235,000 3,292,000 37,962,000 7,497,000 210 RURAL NEW YORK This production would be sufficient for an appli- cation of four and a half tons of fresh manure or nearly one ton of dry matter in manure to each acre of specified crops grown in the State. It is suf- ficient for an application of one-half that amount for each acre of improved land. This should be a large factor in maintaining the soil. It is worth on the average at least $2.50 a ton on the land and for some crops it is worth much more. It, therefore, has a value greater than the annual budget of the State. But that value is not realized for there is a tremendous loss in handling. It is safe to figure on a loss of one-half the material under the ordinary methods of handling and it may run to two-thirds or three-fourths so that the actual supply of manure to the acre of cropped land is very low, or about one ton a year, or five tons gross or one ton of dry mat- ter, once in five years. While this is a help it is not sufficient, standing alone, to maintain the soil. It is important for the public at large to recognize that while animal husbandry is an aid in maintain- ing the soil, it is far from adequate even under the best methods of management. For each ton of dry matter in manure, the animal must have consumed about two and a haif to three tons of dry matter. If one-half of the dry matter in the manure is lost in handling, for each ton in manure returned to the soil the animal must have consumed from five to six tons. From these facts it must be apparent how inade- quate is animal husbandry to maintain all the soil ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 211 that is cropped. It should also appear that crop as well as live-stock farming can be made to build up the soil, providing care is taken to return to the soil part of the crop that might be fed to stock. It is just as feasible to maintain the land by straight crop husbandry as when it is combined with animal husbandry. It may be cheaper to grow crops on one acre and haul them to another acre for manurial purposes than to feed low grade or unproductive stock and return only the manure. These facts give added importance to the use of green crops for manure and to the conservation of the crop residues, the stu1)ble, roots and waste found on every farm. It is not infrequently true that a poorly managed live-stock farm is losing productive capac- ity faster than a well managed cash crop farm. If animals are kept, they should be of such high pro- ducing capacity that they make a profit on the food consumed and the labor and facilities bestowed on them. When one must rely for profit on the manure produced, it is likely to be better to sell cash crops. These facts and the relative price of crop and animal products are some of the things that must be taken into account in a long-range view of the business of agricultural organization, animal husbandry and soil maintenance in any state. The more varied the products of a state such as New York, the more complicated is the business of farming successfully. The live-stock adjustment in New York is a very complicated and difficult one if 212 RURAL NEW YORK the largest present profit and the longest practicable degree of permanence of the productive capacity of the soil are both to be attained. CATTLE AND DAIRYING (See Figs. 28, 29) The dairy cow from her numbers and the value of her products commands first place among all farm products in New York. It has already been pointed out that the trend in live-stock has been for many years toward tlie dairy cow because she is very well suited to utilize the large amount of roughage on the farm and to improve the use of farm labor dur- ing the rather long winter period. The confinement to regular hours and continuous daily care involved in dairying has without doubt hampered the atten- tion given to all forms of community activities and doubtless could be traced in their effect on the school, the church and the drift of young people from the farm. There has not been the same state- wide interest on the part of dairymen in gathering in public meetings for their improvement that is man- ifested among the growers of fruit, for example. The million and a half dairy cows are mostly concentrated in three main regions : first, in a broad band through the State from north to south reaching from the St. Lawrence Valley; second, around the eastern end of Lake Ontario, and southward be- tween Syracuse and Utica, through the Chenango and Susquehanna Valley regions to the southern boundary; third, in the extreme southwestern three or four counties of the State. The most intense con- AyiMAL nOLSTRIES 213 centration of dairy cattle is between and a little south of Syracuse and Utica. This is the region in which alfalfa is most successfully grown, where the rainfall and snowfall are high and where there are excellent pastures. From these three main centers of dairying, the number of cows to a square mile decreases very ap- preciably. Dairying is the dominant industry all through the ^lobawk Valley and outside of the fruit- producing district of the Hudson Valley. The gen- eral decrease in the intensity of dairying in the Hudson Valley region is due to the small pro- portion of tillable land and the thin, stony and unproductive character of much of the remaining area. Orange County in the lower part of the State has for many years been a prominent center of milk production. It was into that region that the city of New York first reached for market milk when it had exhausted the territory tributary by short haul. The first special milk train was run from Orange County over the Erie Eailroad in 1847. The keeping of cows is the dominant business along the Canadian line, through the Champlain Valley, and over all the rough hilly sections of the eastern Hudson Valley region. On Long Island, where the population is rapidly increasing, the price of milk is always abnormally high. A fair number of cows has been kept there in the past but is now rapidly decreasing. Dairying is now very largely confined to the southern prong of the eastern end of the island in the region of Freehold and South •il4 RURAL NEW YORK KixmpUm. Most of the island is iiiisiiited to produc- ing t'orao;e economically and its geographical situation plai'cs a heavy embargo on the importation of con- centrated feed because it must pass through the heav- ily congested traffic region of New York City. In the centers of most intensive fruit-production, the south shore of Lake Ontario, the grape-belt, the Seneca-Keuka Lakes region and in the Hudson Val- ley fruit area, the cow has a secondary place. The aggregate area of these regions is relatively small. In the Genesee Valley, dairying is about coordinate with cash crops and with sheep. But even here the cow maintains a place of very considerable im- portance. The year-round demand for market milk with the consequent higher price, the opportunity to use the stored roughage of the farm and the possibility of better utilizing labor, liavc combined to make winter dairying the general practice. The silo has been no small factor in the transition from almost exclusive summer dairying. By winter dairying is meant the practice of arranging for the cows to freshen in fall in- stead of in the spring. In summer dairying the cows received very little concentrated feed. A very large flow of milk was -ecured in spring and a fair supply during the summer and fall months, produced by the pasture alone. The cows were wintered almost ex- clusively on roughage and consequently they gave very little milk in that period. Under this system the cost of producing milk was the lowest possible for the labor and feed employed. By the winter ANIMAL INDii^TRlElS 215 dairying method much of the labor is shifted from summer to winter and a large flow of milk is main- tained throughout the winter. This flow is revived when pasture comes on in the spring, so that a much more continuous flow of milk is maintained than under the old " cheese-factory " system. A few farmers, especially those making the highest grade of milk and cream on tillable land, are inclined to reduce the pasture area and to depend almost ex- clusively on summer silos and soiling crops. There is no question but that on tillable land a larger amount of nutriment may be secured by this method than by the use of pasture. It should be noticed that tliis system departs from the chief foundation on which dairying rests, the use by means of the cow of the cheap pasture that is not tillable. It, there- fore, entails a higher cost of production. There is an increasing tendency to supplement the late summer and fall pasture that is frequently short, by the use of silage. The silo has come to be very generally regarded as essential to economical winter dairying and the larger part of commercial dairy farms are now equipped with that structure. In 1917, 40 per cent or 63,000 farms had silos. Corn produces more nutriment to the acre than any other tilled crop grown on the farm, a large part of which is in the stalk, which is difficult to masticate when the fodder is matured and dried. Not only is there loss thereby but tbe storage of tlie material in shocks in the field or in bays in the barn entails the probability of further loss. When the crop is pre- 216 RURAL NEW YORK served in the silo, however, not only is its feeding value nearly all preserved, but it pives tlie effect of " succulence " in the ration which is so essential to the largest flow of milk. Another outgrowth of the dairy industry is the equipment of a larger proportion of the dairy farms with commodious and warm barns where the cows are comfortable in winter and where the feeding and milking can be carried on conveniently. Some of these barns, particularly on the farms devoted to the production of certified milk, have been developed to a very high grade of sanitation and labor-saving efficiency. This influence of the dairy toward better buildings is aided by the general custom in the State of storing a large part of the season's crops under cover in the barn, due to the moist summer climate. The first type of cattle to attain prominence was the Shorthorn, first imported in 1791 to 1796, by Mr. Heaton. In 1817, two bulls, Marquis and Mos- cow, were brought into the Genesee Valley and were the first animals carrying pedigrees. This strain in- creased in favor and in 1873 was the occasion of one of the most notable sales of pure blooded cattle ever held. In that year Messrs. Wolcott and Campbell, at New York Mills, near Utica, sold 109 head of cat- tle that brought an average price of $3,504, and among them was the Eighth Duchess of Geneva, which sold for $40,600, the highest price ever paid for a cow or bull until very recently when as high as $125,000 has been given for animals of the Hol- stein breed also developed in New York State. As ANIMAL IXDU8TRTES 217 the large eastern cities grew and butter, cheese and milk came into larger demand and the opening up of the Middle West transferred the production of meat animals to that region, the type of cattle m New York changed from tlie beef to the milk strain. The dom- inant dairy breed, the Holstein, first brought in by the early Dutch, began to attract popular attention about 1867 to 1875 when there were large importa- tions from Holland. In the earlier days the Devon cattle were introduced into Westchester County and met with much fa\'or. Dutch belted cattle were first imported to America by D. H. Haight, of Goshen, in 1838. The last available detailed summary of the rela- tive numbers of pure blooded animals of the different breeds was in 1910. At that time, so far as the recorded lierds go, 2.9 per cent of all dairy animals were of pure breeding. Undoubtedly, many pure blooded animals were not recorded. In 1918 a rough census of dairy cows showed that approximately 6 per cent were of pure breeding. The total is un- (piestionably still much below 10 per cent. The total number of pure blooded animals reported in 1910 was 44,423. Of this number, the Holstein formed 72.2 per cent, the Jerseys 14.5, the Guernseys 6.5, and the Ayrsliires 4.6, thereby leaving only 2.2 per cent to be distributed among the other breeds. The average number of pure blooded cattle to an owner was 12.1, being largest for the Jersey owners, 18 animals; for the Guernseys owners, it was 12.2 animals and for the Holstein 11.4. On the other hand, observation in- 218 RURAL NEW YORK dicated that the large herds of the State are dom- inantly made iip of tlie blood of the " black and white " cows. The comriiercial size of dairy herds is commonly from twelve to forty cows. There are, of course, many who keep a smaller number to which they look as an important source of income. A few dairies maintain as many as one hundred head of cows and several as liigh as two hundred head as one unit. The center for pure breeding of the Holstein is in Madison County. Around this is grouped a half dozen counties of similar prominence in the industry. Solomon Hoxie, a pioneer importer of Holstein, who established the first advance registry record in any breed in 1894, resided at Peterboro in Madison County. This region, with Syracuse as the chief market center, has become widely known among breeders as a source of Holstein stock and many not- able auctions of this breed have been held there. There is also a large number of Holstein breeders in the counties of Jefferson and St. Lawrence in the St. Lawrence Valley. The Jersey breed is not so much concentrated. Several counties, Westchester, Suffolk, Otsego, Dela- ware and Allegany, have about equal prominence. The Guernsey is best developed in Cayuga, Saratoga and Washington counties. The Ayrshire is coming into prominence in the rougher portions of the State where rustling for pasture is essential. Allegany has the largest number of pure animals of this breed, with 'St. Lawrence County second. The other three ANIMAL IXDUSTRIES 319 breeds, being more delicate in constitution and habits, are better suited to easier grazing conditions. The Holstein cow has doubtless attained the pres- ent large numbers due to the practice of paying a flat price for milk. She is a large animal and a tremendous milk-producing machine. Holsteins hold most of the world's records both for the total amount of milk and of butter produced in a year, and a large proportion of those records have been made in New York State. The milk, although low in fat, is high in other solids, which is probably the basis of the designation of the breed as the cheese cows. The butter is very mild in flavor and of ex- cellent keeping quality although, like the milk, of an unpopular pale natural color, due to the lack of the rich golden tint that characterizes the product of the Channel breeds. Perhaps another significant fact is the vigor of the animals of this breed, both young and old, and, therefore, the ease with which they may be reared and maintained. The Channel breeds have been relatively more popular than the Holstein with the wealthy man and the cow fancier. The average production of milk to the cow for all cows in the State is approximately 4500 pounds or a little over 400 gallons. When it is remembered that over 30,000 pounds of milk have been pro- duced by a cow in a year and that many animals in commercial herds yield from 12,000 to 18,000 pounds of milk, it is apparent how low is this average. Further, since abundant figures show that it requires a production of 4500 to 5000 pounds to pay for the 220 RURAL NEW YORK cost of keeping a cow for a year, it is evident that many animals are being kept at a loss if a fair charge were made for all items of expense. One-fourth of all cows in tlie State are kept at a loss ; one-half Just pay their way and one-fourth return a profit. The shifts in the numbers of dairy cattle follow the demands of the large urban populations for milk and its products. The milk is used for four main purposes. The proportion required in each group is: raw or market milk and cream for direct human consumption, 40. G per cent; for the manufacture of hutter, 34.2 per cent ; for the manufacture of cheese, 20.8 per cent; and for condensed and evaporated milk, 4.4 per cent. These figures are for 1910. The most important change in these proportions is toward an increase in market and condensed milk, and corresponding reductions in the production of butter and cheese. In the ten years preceding 1910, the production of butter decreased 40.0 per cent and that of cheese 18.7 per cent. The heaviest reduction was in the farm-made products. The large urban population in and near the State, especially concen- trated in New York City, accounts for this shift in the utilization of milk and tlie tendency to increase the number of cows. Milk has long been the cheap- est animal nutriment and that most economically produced. There is, therefore, a sound basis behind the trend toward cows among farm animals as com- pared with beef cattle, pork and mutton. Cattle other than the dairy type are kept in small ANIMAL lyOUSTRIES 221 numbers. Very few animals are now fed specifically for beef purposes and little attention is given to breeding animals of the beef type. Such feeding of cattle for beef as is practiced is associated with the cash crop systems of farming and, therefore, is best developed in the grain and hay regions of western 'Mew York below 1000 feet elevation. Probably the Genesee Valley has much the larger part of the total number. Such animals belong in the region farther west in the United States. Even those few farmers who make a practice of feeding beef animals usually go either to the Buffalo stock-yards or to market centers furtJier west to purchase western range ani- mals in the rough, to be finished on New York pas- ture and roughage. In the last register of pure- bred stock, 1910, only eighty breeders are recorded who owned a total of 892 pure blooded beef animals. Five breeds are reported in this number, nearly seven-eighths being of the Shorthorn type. The slow-moving picturesque work oxen so inti- mately associated with pioneer history and whose numbers were formerly an important item in the list of cattle, disappeared from the census returns in 1900. In 1850, there were reported 178,809 work cattle, and in 1890 only 37.293. Their disappearance from the census returns does not mean that work oxen have entirely disappeared from the State. Draft animals of tliis type are not uneoiinnonly seen and may be found in nearly every section of the more remote farming districts. 232 RURAL NEW YORK HORSES (See Figs. 28, 29) The light harness type of horse is the only one m the production of which the State has attained much prominence, and here the record is notable. New York was one of the earliest metropolitan cities of the country and produced the wealth and the leis- ure in those pre-motor days that were utilized in the fancy coach turnout and the " four-in-hand." It is also expressed in the thoroughbred and finally in the standard bred or trotter which has been so popu- lar in America. The foundation stock of the light harness horse was imported Arabian blood. On the roads on Long Island, some of the earliest races were held. The old Jamaica road or Jericho Turnpike is perhaps the most notable in these annals. The orig- inal home of the trotter is Orange County at Goshen where Hambletonian 10, a grandson of the imported Arabian stallion Bellfounder (Messenger) was foaled in 1849 and died in 1876. His monument stands at Chester. He was by far the greatest sire of famous trotting stock the country has produced. Other notable horses have been originated. At Stony Ford in the same county is a monument to Green Mountain Maid, known as the Greatest Mother of Trotters. Membrino Chief was foaled across the Hudson Eiver in Dutchess County in 1844, and Ethan Allen, a notable sire in the Morgan strain and son of Justin Morgan, was also foaled in the Hudson Valley. Goshen, in Orange County, was known as the " Lexington of the North." The Puritan atti- ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 223 tude toward horse racing is reflected in the fact that as early as 1802 horse racing and trotting was pro- hibited by law. In 1821 this law was amended to permit trotting and running races in Queens County. Most of New York has a rough topography, the roads as well as the fields often being steep. Light active animals of endurance are considered by many farmers to succeed better in general farm use than do heavy horses. The heavy horse, adapted to deep pastures, rich feed, and slow movement, is better suited to relatively level tlian to broken hilly coun- try. The earlier glamor of the speed horse led to the extensive use of sires of the roadster rather than the draft type, on the ordinary light mares of the rural districts. Consequently, the prevailing type of horse in New York is a rather light animal showing much of the blood of the speedway, of the coach and the chase. It has been estimated that 75 per cent of the horses in the country are of a size between 1000 and 1400 pounds. They are a medium sized dual-purpose animal that can do a fair day's work on the farm, and that can keep up a fair gait over the road with a small load or attached to a light *o wagon. The New York farm, perhaps largely because of its hills, and also its history, is still in the era of small fields and small implements. The single bot- tom plow and the light binder and mower predomi- nate rather than the big broad-cutting tools. Whether the automobile and the improved roads will effect a larger trend toward the heavier draft type 224 RURAL AEW YORK of horses remains to be seen. It seems likely that there will be an increase in the proportion of the heavier horse that is preeminently adapted to heavy draft purposes. It is clear that the heavier horses are increasing in favor. But in those parts of the State composed of steep fields and roads, a fairly light type of horse is likely to continue in favor. On the other hand, the farm tractor of which there were 3000 in 1917, and rapidly increasing, is likely further to cut into the demand for heavy horses. New York is a horse-consuming rather than a horse-producing state. In 1910 there were on farms in the State 591,008 horses of which 562,310 were mature animals. There were approximately 303,000 horses not on farms, that is, in use in towns and cities. This makes a rough total of about 900,000 horses. The number of horses on farms decreased in each of the last two ten-year periods from a maximum num- ber in 1890, when there were 713,384. It is esti- mated that the average horse in the city is good for five to six years, while the average horse in the coun- try will give twelve to thirteen years of service. These figures mean an annual consumption of about 60,000 horses in each group or a total of 120,000 that are used up each year. The annual production of horses in New York in 1910 was only 25,083 animals, or less than half enough to supply the rural needs. Dealers have esti- mated that as high as 95,000 horses are imported an- nually. The business of dealing in horses is, there- fore, large and some very large concerns have been CO a* "^ "^ 2^ 55 5 •:: bo r^ i ^ -r 5 o a; £ • 5 = i I ,;• > .---s^ AyiMAL IXDUSTRIES 225 developed in Xew York and Buffalo, which are the chief centers of exchange. It is stated that one con- cern in Xew York City has handled from 35,000 to 40,000 horses annually. That the production of horses has decreased is indicated by the fact that in 1890, the year of the largest number of horses, the production was nearly twice that of 1910, while the total number of horses on farms was only 17 per cent greater. The distribution of horses follows closely the im- proved land and averages fifteen acres of land in specified crops for each mature horse. The propor- tion varies with the intensity of the farm practices. In all those regions primarily devoted to dairv-ing, there is one horse for each twenty-six to thirty-five acres of improved land. In the counties near large cities, it is one horse for eighteen to twenty-five acres and in Xassau County, largely devoted to market- gardening, there is one horse for each 11.3 acres of improved land, or 5.8 acres of land in specified crops. The increase in the number of horses on farms since the census of 1910 is doubtless traceable to the tendency to increase the intensity of farm operations. The draft breed of horses in most favor is the Percheron. His clean limbs, intelligent and alert, active movements in many ways adapt him to condi- tions as they exist in the better farming sections of the State. In 1910, an incomplete register of pure- blood stock showed forty-eight breeders of draft horses. They were distributed among 281 owners. The largest number of breeders was in Allegany and 226 RURAL -NEW YORK Steuben counties. The largest single lot of pure- blood animals was in Ontario County. Syracuse has for many years been a center to which Percheron horses were imported from France. Next to the Percheron in prominence is the Belgian horse. The Clydesdale is increasing in favor be- cause of his long pastern and his consequent better performance and durability on the road. All the other heavy breeds have some fanciers. Among light horses, the persistence of interest in speed and fancy-driving is shown by the fact that out of 198 breeders who owned 1505 pure-blood ani- mals in 1910, there were 21 owners and 284 horses of the thoroughbred class, 28 owners and 188 ani- mals of the American Trotter, and 13 owners and 65 animals of the Morgan strain. Among coach horses, the Hackney has been the most popular breed, with the French Coach and the German Coach in a poor second and third position as regards pure breeding on the farm. However, in the metropolitan cities, the Coach horses, the Saddle Horse and the Hunter have claimed most attention. The great horse shows that were held annually in New York for many years in Madison Square Garden were the Mecca to which horse fanciers the country over made annual pilgrimage and these shows have also been social events of no small proportions. While the light harness classes have claimed most attention before audiences free to indulge their whims, the heavy harness horses and heavy draft turn-outs have long received the attention of con- ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 237 cerns in the city using man}- heavy horses for truck- ing and other heavy hauling. For these reasons also, the shows were of interest to highly specialized breed- ers and importers in all lines of the horse industry. With the advent of the automobile and the annual automobile show in N"ew York, the attention given to horse shows has been much displaced. As a result of the large introduction of motor cars, it appears from general observation that there has been a very considerable decline in interest in horses of all classes since the last census of pure-blood animals was taken. The popular opinion that the automobile truck and tractor will replace the horse, however, is erroneous. Certain work will be performed by the gas engine, relieving the horse from these particular lines; but the increase of acreage and yield following the employment of mechanical power will make more work of other kinds for horses. There is no way yet foreseen whereby the farm horse can be displaced. He may be taken off the road, but he is still the most available power for much of the work of agriculture. MULES (See Figs. 28, 29) Mules have never been very popular in ISTew York. In 1880 there were a thousand more individuals on farms than in 1910. In the last federal census year, there were 3,490 mules on farms and 4,052 in other employment, both of which figures represent an in- crease from the preceding census. The increase on farms, 88 per cent, was four times that in cities. Farmers who have had experience with mules are 228 RURAL SIKW YORK very partial to them as they are safer than horses in the hands of poor horsemen who are common among present day farm laborers. The production of mules is small. This is indicated by the fact tliat there were only 193 yearlings on farms in 1910. These figures should be noted in connection with the num- ber of asses and burrows kept in the State. This was 284, probably nearly all of tlie former type, the num- ber of burrows being almost negligible. SHEEP (See Figs. 30, 31) There has been a nearly continuous and regular decrease in the number of sheep on the farms of the State since 1840. Only in the census year of 1900 was there an increase in number over the preceding ten-year period, probaldy in response to the general de- mand for wool and the low cost of feed. The follow- ing table gives the number of sheep kept and the amount of wool produced by periods since 1840. About two-thirds of tliese are mature animals, and the remainder are lambs. Table IX. Number of Sheep and Amount of Wool Produced Since 1840 Number of sheep Wool pounds Number of sheep Wool pounds 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 5,118,777 3,453,241 2,617,855 2,181,587 1,715,180 10,071,000 9,454, OCO 10,599,000 8,827,000 1890 1900 1910 1917 1,528,979 1,747,062 933,775 587,132 6,715.000 6,674,000 4,235,000 The production of wool to an animal, estimating two-thirds of the total number as mature animals \ /.' \ /' V V \ / 1 i \ \ .'' J 1 • 1 \ \ K { 1 • •5 o\ \ 1 ^ 1 • 1 I I i y / y \ \ 0 1 i 4' y \ / • v^ J / ^^ ^"^ i J ( \ ^ • 1 1 1 1 / 7 ^ 1 ■ 1 1 1 J &• ^ i/ ,<-'^ c^) > V / N, / >v \ • \ \ \ \ 1 • \ • 1 fooo'ooo'o/ rsssj'J oco'aoo'/ ^O SU/A//7 229 Ti a 03 <0 « $ S ^ c> o <^ rd V 1 Ti § ^ ci ^ 0) A s Hi o, ^ 1 fe ^ 05 SO ^ 0) i5 3 cs v, C^ ^ oa «4-i 13 O O 1 o , ^> >>-^ ^ J 60 1^ C <) % ■S o 1 to ^ ^ iR C3 <»> b ^ O «» ^ d CI s ^ be 230 RURAL NEW YORK producing a fleece, varied considerably during that period. In 1850, it was 4.4 pounds. It increased regularly to 7.7 pounds in 1880 and then decreased to 5.7 pounds in 1900, but in 1910 it was only 6.8 pounds an animal on the same basis of calculation. Based on the actual number of fleeces reported which was 573,611, the average weight was 7.4 pounds in 1910 and 6.4 in 1900. The most notable point about these figures is the large increase in average size of fleece over that in 1850. It has been suggested that the decrease in the size of the fleece about 1900 may be due to a considerable change in the type of sheep kept. In the earlier years, they were dominantly the fine wool breeds having much oil in the fleece. In later years the coarser wooled sheep prevail. The dominant cause of the heavy decline in the number of sheep has undoubtedly been their large in- crease in the middle states and on the western ranges, the so-called short grass region. Another cause has been the development of the sheep industry in such new countries as Australia and Argentina. As a re- sult, the price of mutton and wool was very low. A mature sheep sold in 1893 for as low as 75 cents. The price of mutton in 1895 was 3.1 cents a pound. Dairying has paid in New York relatively better than sheep, due to the excellent local market for milk. Added to this combination of conditions has been the serious menace from dogs that for many years have been permitted to multiply and run free with scarcely any restraint or regulation and which have cost the sheep industry millions of dollars in ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 231 actual animals destroyed and injured. Figures col- lected from county and town records in 1913 indi- cated that at least 1500 sheep had been killed by dogs and paid for by the towns in that year. It is more accurately estimated at six times that number of animals, counting the animals unreported and the ultimate loss in vigor, from attacks, so that the true figures should be 9000 sheep, not to mention the far V- n IOOT = 2.600\ I DOT = 2.600 ^v^^;;^ (£:>^ Fig. 31. Maps bhowing a. nirmber and distribution of sheep; b. swine in 1910. greater damage to the flock from fatigue and fright. Provision is now made in the State law for compensa- tion covering this latter type of damage to the flock. The larger demand for mutton and wool, and the failure of competing regions to develop in proportion to that demand, have led to an increase in the price both of mutton and wool that is rapidly changing conditions in favor of sheep-raising in New York, wherever the cow does not fit the system of farm management or the markets. So far as farm conditions alone are concerned, New York has much land that is especially suited to the 232 RLRAL NEW YORK production of sheep. They are adapted to the rough and more or less waste land over which they may graze and collect the low-grade herbage. They are useful to clean up weeds and much brush. They will also utilize much by-product material not so well adapted to consumption by cattle. They re- quire less shelter than dairy cows. Many farms in the more remote districts near the border line of abandonment will provide ample buildings suitable for sheep-raising with very little change. Elimina- tion of fences and the opening up of larger ranges in those regions are both desirable and practicable. Wben these grazing areas are combined with those of better soil on the level part of the upland and in the valleys to provide winter feed, an excellent situa- tion is afforded for the development of the sheep in- dustry with a minimum requirement of labor. Sheep and cows are not raised in large numbers in the same region. Sheep are seldom found on commercial dairy farms. The two main regions of sheep-raising are: the Genesee Valley and Ontario Lake Shore section, the bean-growing area; and the eastern Hudson and the Champlain Valley districts. The Hudson Valley is somewhat extended westward into the lower Mohawk Valley. In the Genesee Valley region, in addition to the general roughage and pasture, the bean straw is espe- cially well adapted for consumption by sheep. Sheep also fit better than cows into the organization of the fruit and cash crop farm. Nearly 40 per cent of all sheep in the State in 1910 were in the eight ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 233 counties comprised in this district with the main val- ley of the Genesee Eiver as the center of production. The former large development of the industry of sheep-raising in New York was not confined to these districts. Sheep were kept in large numbers -in every county. One may surmise that this wide distribu- tion had some relation to the fact that the spinning and weaving of woolen garments were then a home art and that the wool came from the farm flock. The introduction of pure-breed sheep began about the same time as that of Shorthorn cattle, 1790-1795. The first Merino sheep were two ewes and a ram im- ported to Boston by William Foster in 1793 and by him presented to a friend in the Pawling Valley, Dutchess County. Not knowing their value, they were killed for meat. Eobert Livingston introduced four head of pure blood Merino sheep into the Hudson Valley in 1801 that had a very large influence on the sheep in that locality. The Southdown was brought into Fayette, Lewis County, by Dr. Rose in 1803. Other first American introductions were the Cots- wold, by C. Dunn near xVlbany in 1823, and the Cheviots at Delhi by Robert Young in 1838. In the first part of that century, New York offered a pre- mium of $50 to any person bringing a Merino ram into a county. About the same time the State agreed to loan $5000 to any person who would establish a woolen factory, and a premium of $150 was offered for the best two yards of woolen cloth. In 1828, tariff protection on wool was demanded. An incomplete register of sheep in New York 234 RURAL NEW YORK records fifteen breeds with two or more owners of each breed. Out of 42U breeders of pure blooded sheep who owned 13,893 animals in IDIU, the Shrop- shire leads with 13? owners and 5725 animals. The State is- regarded as peculiarly suited to the Shroj)- shire. The three Downs breeds were represented by 111 owners and 28TG animals, of which 1421 were Hampshires, 709 Oxfords, and 746 Southdowns. The Merinos stand next in importance with 35 owners and 2470 animals, while the Dorsets had 41 owners but only 1034 animals. Such authorities on sheep husbandry as the late Joseph E. Wing recommend for New York the keeping of sheep, by which he means the production of wool rather than of mutton. At the same time, other authorities have emphasized the market facili- ties of the State for mutton and especially for lamb. The commodious warm barns available on many farms, together with the need for animals to consume roughage and to provide winter employment where dairying is not practiced, favor a moderate develop- ment of the industry of winter or hot-house lamb production. H. A. Hopper says that " the maximum returns under eastern conditions will be secured from sheep giving as heavy a fleece of good staple wool as is consistent with the economical production of the mutton type demanded by the market. In other words, the dual typo of sheep that is able to produce a fair sized fleece and at the same time develop a good quality of meat at a fair cost, is the one best suited to conditions in New York." ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 235 Flocks of grade animals rather than pure bloods seem best for the average farmer. They need to be hardy and good rustlers. For this purpose, a founda- tion of Merino crossed on Down or Dorset breed is suggested by those experienced in sheep husbandry. GOATS Goats, the number of which was 3475 in 1910, are widely and rather uniformly distributed throughout the State. There are a few milch goats. For several years a herd of fifteen was kept by the State Experi- ment Station at Geneva and a study made of the cost of production of goat's milk and of its food proper- ties. The average yearly production of ten animals during three years was 800 pounds of milk. The range was from 307 to 1845 pounds. The average food cost of the milk was four cents a quart which should be compared with 0.93 cent a quart in a herd of twenty-five Jerseys during the same period. This was in the years 1910-1912 inclusive. The total solids during the summer months was about 11.5 per cent. The percentage of fat was about 3.6, but in both respects a large variation was noticed for indi- vidual animals. No appreciable difference from cow's milk in composition was found. As a food for infants it has one advantage due to the finer curd it forms which makes it more easily digested than cow's milk. On this showing of efficiency there is no prom- ise that goats will be a substitute for cows except in the few circumstances where the latter can not be kept. 236 RURAL NEW YORK SWINE (See Figs. 30, 31) There has been much less fluctuation in the number of swine kept in the State than in sheep. In 1850 there was one swine for every 3.5 sheep ; in 1910 there was one for each 1.4 sheep. There has been a marked decline in the number of swine as shown by the fol- lowing table, which gives the numbers by census periods from 1850 forward : Table X. Number of Swine from 1850 to 1917 1850 1,018,252 1890 843,342 1860 910,178 1900 670,639 1870 518,251 1910 660,179 1880 751,907 1917 435,908* • Fifty-six counties only reported. Of the total number in 1910, a little more than half, or 55 per cent, were mature animals, while for sheep the proportion of mature animals was 65 per cent. Hogs in New York are preeminently the scavenger animals. As has been pointed out, they make gain in weight more efficiently than any other type of live- stock. The average distribution is one animal for each three rural inhabitants, and ranged from one for each 1.3 persons in Nassau and 1.4 persons in Cayuga county to one for each 3.5 persons in Madi- son and one for each 3.6 persons in Chenango County. Hogs are not kept in New York to consume crops that could be sold for cash as is the custom in the corn-belt. In Illinois, tliere is an average of eight- ANIMAL IXDU8TRIES 237 een swine to a farm, and in Iowa thirty-five. In New York the average is less than two to a farm. It is interesting to note that swine are least numerous in the leading dairy sections, especially the market milk regions. It is evident that in New York hogs are kept pri- marily to provide pork for the home larder. Their nearest competitor as a scavenger has long been poultry. Up to the census of 1910, the actual in- tensity of swine-raising was greater than that of poultry. About that year, the number of poultry became equal to or slightly larger than that of swine. The intensity was then approximately one-half ani- mal unit to a farm. With the average number of swine at two to a farm, the average number of ani- mals one year old or over is only about one. There is much less than one brood sow to a farm and conse- quently the litter of each sow is likely to be a distribu- tion among several farms. The region of largest swine-production is along the south shore of the Great Lakes and eastward through the Mohawk Valley. There seems to be no reason to expect any large increase in the number of swine. They are urged by some fanciers for produc- tion on green forage and pasture. But other animals, such as the dairy cow, can use this material more efficiently. Warren has shown by calculations from the relative price of crops and of pork that there is an effective price tariff in favor of hog-production in the corn-growing states amounting to one-third to one-fourth of the market value of the animal. 338 RURAL NEW YORK Breeds of swine, unlike sheep, have been largely developed in America. Three breeds have been originated here, one of which has taken a leading place. The Duroc-Jersey was developed by Colonel F. D. Curtis, of Kirby Homestead, in Saratoga County, about 1823, and he also originated the Curtis strain of the Victoria breed in 1850. The Cheshire pig was developed in Jefferson County in 1835. Tlie leading breed in the State has generally been the Berkshire, an English stock of which there was an important introduction near Albany by Sidney Howes in 1832. Thirteen breeds of swine are represented in the State. Of these, seven have considerable numbers. However, the Berkshires distance all others in popu- larity. Out of a partial register in 1910 of 431 breeders and 5102 animals, 225 breeders and 2903 animals were of the Berkshire breed. The Chester Whites, Cheshires, .Yorksliires, Poland-Chinas, and Duroc-Jerseys ranked in numbers in the order named. The activity, vigor, prolificacy, early maturity and fine quality of the meat of the Berkshires admirably adapt them to the average farm of the State. POULTRY (See Figs. 30, 32) The hen vies with the pig as the preferred farm gleaner and scavenger. In the census of 1910, for the first time, the animal unit strength of hens ex- ceeded that of hogs. In this calculation, one hundred cbickens and five mature hogs are rated as one animal unit. Each animal is found on the average farm to ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 239 the extent of about one-half animal unit, the pig now falling considerably under that figure. In former years the pig has run up to a strength of six- tenths of a unit to a farm and in that same year. I DOT = 10.000 Fig. 32. Number and distribution of poultry in 1910. 1890, the hen had a strength of only three-tenths of a unit to a farm. The number of poultry has been increasing regu- larly and rather rapidly. The figures for the last three census periods are given in the following table : Table XI. JSTumber of Poultry, 1880 to 1917 1880 6,448,886 1910 10,265,934 1890 8,421,067 1917 11,252,000 1900 8,964,736 The rank of the State in poultry production for meat, is not high, being tenth in 1910. In egg pro- duction, however, the rank was eighth. This is well shown by the numl)er of eggs produced by a hen : in N"ew York it was seven dozen, in Illinois 4.7 dozen, Iowa 5.3, in Missouri 5.8 dozen and in Ohio 5,5. 240 RURAL NEW YORK These are the leading poultry-producing states. Iowa, the leader, and Illinois in second j)lace each have more than twice as many chickens as New York and a larger number to a farm. The 50 to a farm in New York: must be compared with 45 in the United States as a whole, 108 in Iowa, 81 in Illinois, 75 in Missouri, and 64 in Ohio. Poultry, like pigs, follow cheap feed in their main distribution ; therefore, the largest numbers have been in the corn-growing region. It is evident that the farm flock is the big factor in the poultry business in New York. Every farm has a few hens just as nearly every farm has a pig or two. The hen is a side line on the farm usually left to be cared for by the women and children who frequently derive their " pin money " from a little extra atten- tion to the flock. The number of small commercial plants is multiplying and it is a favorite business of the " back-to-the-lander " and the " commuter." This is illustrated by the distribution of chickens in the State. In general, like that of pigs, it is in about the same proportion as the rural population. They are most numerous along the Great Lakes and through the Mohawk and Hudson valleys, thinning out in the more sparsely settled sections of hilly or rough country. However, there is a disproportionate increase in the number of chickens in the southeast- ern part of the State. It is the only type of food- producing live-stock in considerable numbers on Long Island. Many persons have come out from the cities and started a small poultry business. It has been said that there are more failures in poultry produc- ANIMAL IXDUSTRIE8 241 tion than in any other line of agriculture, probably- due to the number of novices that have enframed in the business. It is also a complicated business, many persons who have successfully kept a few hens hav- ing failed in larger enterprises of the same sort. A few hens kept on the farm as a side line very well care for themselves with little attention. I^atural forces protect them and provide their feed. In larger flocks, however, this is not the case. On the other hand, many farmers who have begun to record the cost of keeping different farm animals and have counted the returns, have found that the hens were the only type of stock that were paying. Xew York City in particular, and in fact all the cities in the region to a large extent, demand white eggs. They pay a premium for " chalk white " eggs, that ranges from two or three cents in April to twelve or fifteen cents in Xovember over brown eggs. Boston is the market for brown eggs. Conse- quently, hens that lay white eggs are far the most common in ISTew York State. This means the Med- iterranean breeds with the White Leghorns far in the lead. This is particularly true wherever attention is given to the commercial aspects of poultry-keeping. Available data indicate that over two-thirds of all birds are of the White Leghorn strain. On the other hand, on many farms where both eggs and meat for borne use are desired, one of the heavier breeds that lay brown eggs is kept. Much attention is given in the schools of the State both of secondary and college grade to improving 243 RURAL NEW YORK farm poultry, and especially its egg-laying capacity. At the State College of Agriculture at Ithaca, a White Leghorn hen has laid as many as 327 eggs in a year and as many as 1229 in a lifetime of six years. These records are not equal to the best that have been made in other states where the record is 329 in one year. It is evident that there is still much opportunity for improvement by breeding, selection and care. The latest development in the poultry business is the introduction of artificial light for a period in the morning and evening which result quite uniformly in a larger production of eggs, especially in the winter months. Turkeys, ducks, geese and guinea fowls are of minor importance. A farm in Niagara County de- voted to duck-raising produces more than 50,000 ma- ture birds in a year and there are several large duck farms in the lower southeastern part of the State and especially on eastern Long Island. In the vicinity of Eastport, single ranches fatten as many as 100,000 ducks in a year. Turkeys, once a common part of the poultry on every farm, are now very scarce. They are found only on the farms in the more remote districts where they can have a free range. In 1910 the total number of turkeys, ducks and geese was only 300,^ 55 and the State ranked fifteenth. This was much less than half the number in the leading states. Being essentially meat birds and re- quiring even more special attention than chickens, ANIMAL INDUSTRIES 243 they have been dropping away in numbers in New York and have followed the meat end of the chicken business into the middle western states. BEES AND HONEY Wheeler Dennison Wright in a bulletin of the State Department of Agriculture published in 1913 says: " Beekeeping on a commercial scale is far from being a royal road to wealth as pictured by some, but re- quires as much labor, diligence and attention to de- tails as many other lines of business. ... In a small way, beekeeping is quite popular as a recreation for persons of sedentar}' ha])its. also as a light employ- ment for invalids. The Empire State ranks high in the production of surplus honey, and numbers its beekeeping specialists by the hundreds. Its honey yielding flora is extensive and diversified." A considerable number of beekeepers have colonies of forty to one hundred stands scattered about the region of their operations at intervals of three to four miles or more. According to the census of 1910, there were 156,360 colonies in the State. The rank of New York was sixth, having advanced from eighth place in 1900. In spite of this advance in rank, there were not as many colonies in the State by 30,000 as in 1900, so that other states must have, experienced a heavy decline in number. The production of honey was 3,191,733 pounds and of wax 43,198. In the former the State held second rank, being exceeded only by California which is re- ported to produce three times the amount made in 244 RURAL ^EW YORK New York, Apparently, the general standard of honey production in New York as well as in the United States at large, is low as compared with Calirornia where the yield of honey was 50 pounds to a colony a year, while it was 20 pounds in New York and 16 pounds as tlie average for the country. A woman beekeeper in the State who luid 170 colonics reports the production of 11,500 pounds of comb honey and 2,200 pounds of extracted honey in one season. This is at the rate of 80 pounds a colony. Bees are very widely and quite evenly distriljuted through the populated sections of the State. Like pigs and poultr}^, they follow the distribution of rural population. They are the supreme gleaners, re- trieving himian nutriment in an amount and by in- dustry that cannot fail to be the marvel of the aver- age person. Contrary to the former two types of animals, there appears to be a greater concentration in the more remote farming districts rather than in the suburban sections. Bees are fostered by State and County beekeepers' associations and have the protection of the State laws. One is not permitted under the State law to keep colonies infected with the disease known as foul- or black-brood. Further, fruit-growers are pro- hibited from spraying with poisonous or otherwise injurious sprays when the fruit is in full bloom be- cause of the injury done to bees. CHAPTER VII MARKETS AND MARKETING The disposition of a commodity, whether it be ap- ples or automobiles, manual labor or mental product, depends on two fundamental elements : there must be a place of need, and a means of putting the com- modity in touch with the need. These underlying facts are not to be confused with the large mass of details that may affect the character or the volume of the need, or with the means for bringing the sup- ply of a particular thing to the place where it is to be used. In the discussion of marketing problems in New York, it will be well to keep in mind these general distinctions as a means of separation between the underlying facts and the numerous details of greater or less importance that may need to be adjusted to secure satisfactory market conditions. The underly- ing factors are natural and are not much affected by individual effort. The details of use, of grade, of market customs, of methods of transport and hand- ling may readily be changed and adjusted. The fundamental facts are the nature of the products and the manner of their use. The commodities of agriculture are tbings to eat, to wear and to use, mostly in an elemental way. 245 246 . RURAL NEW YORK Therefore, they touch the whole people and in a study of market facilities, account may first be taken of the adjacent population to be served. In this respect, New York farmers stand in a peculiar, in fact in a specially advantageous, position. They are close to the largest population of any similar area on the western hemisphere. The states and provinces touching New York and including its own area have an aggregate population of thirty million. A circle described around Syra- cuse as a center and with a radius of five hundred miles would include not only this population but would add most of tliat of the states of Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, Rhode Is- land, New Hampshire and Maine, with a total popu- lation of about fifty million or nearly one-half of that on the North American continent. Syracuse has been aptly termed the hub city, and New York is truly a hub State to the population and industry of the northeast country. Of this population, the largest proportion of any division of the continent is engaged in other than agricultural pursuits. The region is essentially an urban one. It also has the largest proportion of the population engaged in man- ufacturing of any division. Adjacent on the south is the great mining region of Pennsylvania. Within this eastern district there are twenty cities with a population of one hundred thousand or more. All these facts go to make up the consuming capacity of that division of the country for the things of the farm. Of this population, approximately 70 per cent is NEW YORK STATE 0 20 30 40 ^O Fig. 33. General map of New York State shovg f drainage systems, counties, and chief cities. MARKETS AND MARKETING 247 strictly urban according to the method of distinction of the census, and to that proportion may be added fairly a further 10 per cent to cover persons living in towns and village under two thousand five hundred population. This reveals about 80 per cent or four- fifths of the population as urban and therefore en- gaged in other than agricultural pursuits and entirely dependent on the products of the farms. The population of New York State as a whole is wealthy. The region is the center of wealth of the continent. Added to this is the tremendous transient population of business and pleasure, and of whose presence the immense hotel capacity of the larger cities is evidence. These are the big facts with ref- erence to the consumption capacity of the population within convenient reach of the farmer located in New York, and this proximity should constitute a natural subsidy to him in marketing farm produce. In addition to the population that may be said to be at the door of the New York farmer, there is the further large mass that may more readily l)e reached by him than by the farmers of any other part of the country, — the foreign centers of population reached directly by ships that clear from the large maritime cities within this five hundred mile zone. All Eu- rope is at his door as a result of modern mean-i of transportation and the preservation of perishable farm products. New York, the chief American port and one of the three largest shipping ports in the world, is a little over thirty-five hundred miles from Liverpool 248 RURAL MJW YORK and London. Added to tliis are the ports of Boston and Philadelphia that are among- tlie first five in the country. In 1910 the freight tonnage that cleared from jVew York for foreign ports was approximately (;52,O()0,000 and the imports amounted to 9;)(;,000,- 000 tons. From one-third to one-half of all the for- eign trade of the United States passes through the port of New York. The cost of freight a gross ton of staple commodities from New York to Liverpool before the war was from two to four dollars, which was equivalent to the average railway freight for a distance of three to four hundred miles, say from New York to Buffalo. There are, of course, many differences in the make-up of transportation charges by ocean freight and by rail, but these figures will serve as a general basis of comparison and indicate the way in which local, in the sense of home, markets are expanded by facilities for foreign shipment. The consuming capacity of this territory is im- mense and it only remains properly to direct it and provide the means for efficiently and economically reaching the market. This involves among other things the means of transportation and communica- tion. TRANSPORTATION AND MARKETS The transportation facilities may be divided into three groups: highways, railroads, and waterways. The first determines the access to the local shipping point. The latter two are the means of reaching the more remote centers. These different agencies co- MARKETS AND MARKETING 249 operate with each other in facilitating transportation. New York State has SoSO miles of steam railroad and about 5000 miles of electric railroad, a large part of which, of course, is in cities. The proportion of this latter that may be assigned to rural districts may be placed roughly at one-fiftli or 1000 miles. Assuming that 550 miles of the steam road is in cit- ies, the net mileage of railroads in the country dis- tricts of the State is 8000 or about one for eacli five square miles of area or one mile for each 1000 acres of specified crops. Unfortunately, this mileage is not uniformly dis- tributed and in several places there are double and triple lines approximately parallel and near each otlier, which correspondingly reduces the railway service to other communities. The greatest thor- oughfare of rail traffic in the country is the course up the Hudson Valley and west through the Mohawk Valley, over the Ontario plain to Buffalo and thence to Cleveland and the west. Another important line of travel lies across the southern part of the State leading up from New York througli the Delaware and Susquehanna Eiver valleys and thence up the Chemung Valley and over the divide into the Allegheny Valley on a course to the Middle West. The hilly topography, together with the peculiar deep through-valleys that have been developed in all the more elevated parts of the State, have been re- sponsible for this concentration of the main lines of transportation in the valleys. The cross valleys that 250 RURAL A^EW YORK interlace with these main ones are also occupied by railroads in many cases. A network of lines s])reads over the productive parts of the Stale in a fairly uni- form system within the limits of these valleys. A consequence of this general arrangement of the railroads in the valleys is the remoteness of those areas that lie on the hills whose practical distance from shipping stations is frequently made much greater Ijy the steepness of the grades that must be overcome in reaching the station. The course the railroads are obliged to follow also influences the routes of travel and transport and may make them roundabout. Tliis interferes with the free exchange of shipments between rail- roads to secure direct transit. The deflection of lines of travel due to topography is not as large as in Pennsylvania but it is far larger than in states like Ohio or Illinois. All this is reflected in the taritfs which, until recently readjusted under federal super- vision, were widely different in various parts of the State. Examination of any good map of New York will show the location of the railroads. The electric roads, which are a recent development, are being pieced together to form important through systems of transportation. With the exception of a short gap of thirty miles, it is now possible to travel by electric road from the western boundary of the State over the Erie plain to Buffalo, then to Rochester by way of a succession of important towns on the edge of the Ontario plain, thence to Syracuse, Utica and Albany. MARKETS AND MARKETING 251 The gap occurs from Little Falls to Fonda in the Mohawk Valley. At Albany one may travel north- ward to Glens Falls by two routes, and southward as far as Hudson. Several important spurs of electric road lead off north and south from this general line, for example at Syracuse to Oswego and Auburn, and at Herkimer to Oneonta. All this line is broken into a series of pieces by separate ownership without joint traffic arrangements, so that it is serviceable only for local rather than long distance shipment. It is used primarily to get from the rural districts to the near- est large cities. Hence the name inter-urban. This electric service is frequently affiliated with city lines or with steam roads. In the southern part of tlie State, there are several pieces of inter-urban electric railroad. The more ex- tensive of these center at Goshen, Elmira, Olean and Jamestown. Inland water transportation is provided on the Hudson Eiver as far north as Albany and a large amount of local produce is shipped by this means to New York. The Barge Canal system, represented by the Erie Canal with 339 miles, the Champlain Canal 61 miles, the Oswego Canal 23 miles and tbe Cayuga- Seneca Canal 23 miles, with a total length of 446 miles, is in such a state of incompleteness that its service as a means of shipping agricultural produce can only be guessed. In its length will be some of the largest canal structures in the world including the highest single lift lock, namely 401/^ feet, at Little 252 RURAL l^'EW YORK Falls. The most notable series of locks is at Water- ford near Troy where the five locks have a combined lift of 1G9 feet. Another unique feature is the mov- able dams to regulate the level of water in the Mo- hawk Eiver, The total cost of this system of canals is $150,000,000, borne by the State ^f New York. If the Hudson Kiver below Troy is included with the canal system, a strij) of country within two miles of the waterway on either side includes 731/2 per cent of the population of the State and within twenty miles is 87 per cent of the population. Naturally, the slower transit makes the canal suited to only the less perishable staple crops that may move slowly to market. The hundred and fifty million dollars that will ultimately be expended on these canals and their terminals to enlarge tliem to power barge capacity with a depth of twelve feet and a width of seventy- five feet, will make a system of waterways that will be especially serviceable in the transfer of heavy products from the West through the Great Ijakes. But its value for the movement of farm produce is problematic. The big disadvantage of transportation througl) the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence Eiver by way of the Welland Canal between Erie and On- tario lakes is the fact that the upper course of the river is closed by ice from October to May. The rates and operation of railroads within the State come under the supervision of the Public Serv- ice Commission, which exercises a potent influence to secure reasonable service. By investigation of de- lays and improper practices, this Commission has ad- MARKETS AND MARKETING 253 justed many complaints of shippers of agricultural produce, although, of course, it cannot make regula- tions or provide facilities that are not reasonably warranted by the freight to be handled. Less than a quarter of tlie products of the farm are ever carried by railroad or other long-distance method of transport. They are hauled to the adja- cent towns and cities and are used locally. They are liauled on the highways. The first movement from the farm is over the country roads and the cost of transportation from tlie farm to the station or to the local point of consumption may easily be as much as the freight cost to a remote market because of the small load that can bo carried. The character of the rural highways plays a large part in the marketing of produce, and also in returning supplies to the farm. The average haul of farm products to market l)y wagon was found by a special investigation by the United States Department of Agriculture to be seven and three-tenths miles. The average cost a ton to get to market for eleven important crops was one dollar and ninety cents. The cost a ton for a mile of transportation was twenty-six cents. The cost of railroad freight a ton mile was at tlie same time from one to two cents. Both figures would be much higher at this date. These facts emphasize the importance of rural highways in the problem of getting produce to market. The length of haul, the cost a ton and the cost to the ton-mile in N"ew York as determined by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1907 were as follows : 354 Table XII. RURAL NEW YORK Cost of Hauling Farm Products TO Market Commoditj- Average distance to market Average cost per ton Average cost per ton-mile Value per ton Apples 7.4 .3.9 9.2 8.6 6.0 6.6 10.6 7.8 7.1 7.0 5.9 $1.80 1.60 2.20 2 40 1.60 1.60 2.80 1.60 1.80 1.40 1.80 24.3 41. 24. 28. 27. 24. 26. 20. 2.5. 20. 30. $34 Beans 66 Buckwheat Corn 40 25 Fruits Hay Hops Oats 75 15 240 25 Potatoes Vegetables Wheat 20 30 33 From these figures it is evident that the cost of moving farm produce on the average country road in New York is about twelve to fifteen times as great as on railroad. The mileage of public roads in the State is 80,000 or one and six-tenths miles to a square mile of total area and one mile for each 100 acres of specified crops. About a third of the State can be set aside as rough wooded country with very poor road service and needing very little, so that the mileage of road a square mile of improved area is two and a half miles. Of the total mileage, 50,000 or 62 per cent is rated as improved and about 17,000 miles is macad- amized. In 1898, New York adopted a system of highway improvement under an arrangement by which the MARKETS AND MARKETING 255 State pays 50 per cent of the cost of such improve- ment, the county 35 per cent and the town or village the remainder. The roads that receive this improve- ment are laid out in state, county and town systems, the first heing designed as trunk highways for through travel, the second division constitute the main local highwaj's, while the third comprises the local highways of secondary importance. The State has authorized a hond issue of one hundred million dollars to pay its portion of the cost of this improve- ment and tlie expenditure of the second half of the appropriation is well progressed. The construction is accomplished in sections from year to year by designation of the local authorities, the county boards of supervisors, in conference with the state highway department, the apportionment being divided in pro- portion to the total mileage of highway. A resi- dent highway engineer is maintained in each county to supervise and inspect the construction which is done under contract. The local maintenance of country roads is under the money rather than the old service system which latter method has proved very inefficient. The automobile has been a large factor in promot- ing the improvement of highways in New York, as in all other parts of the country. It is having a large influence on the rural community because of the en- larged range of travel it confers on its owner. The rural population is rapidly making use of the auto- mobile as a means of freight transport, as well as for personal travel and trade. The automobile may 256 RURAL NEW YORK be considered at least to double the favored zone around a shipping or market center. Motor trucks have been installed by some of the larger and more progressive farmers, and freight, express and passen- ger routes have been established between local centers over a circuit of thirty to one hundred miles, at many places in the State. This means of transport af- fords an efficient and economical method of extend- ing the range of established transportation service to rural communities. Such a line is elastic and need not pass each day over the same route but may cover various routes on different days. Companies are now establislied to operate these rural automobile lines at different centers as tbe traffic may warrant. These lines should be encouraged as serving the convenience of rural districts just as the bus and carting lines serve the city dweller and are one of the factors that will aid in making rural life more acceptable. The teleplione has found a large place in rural life and has relieved niueh of the isolation. In every part of the State, every progressive farmer is supplied with telephone service either by the larger companies or by local cooperative concerns that have a working relation with the large exchanges. In 1914 there were reported to be 2,790,060 miles of telephone wire and 970,449 telephones. This is at the rate of one mile of wire for each three persons and 102 tele- phones to a thousand of population. The propor- tion in Pennsylvania was 79, in Illinois 139, and in California 168. Of course, a large proportion of these telephones were in cities but the rural popula- MARKETS AND MARKETING 257 tion is fully awake to their advantages and are mak- ing an even larger relative use of them than the city resident. SPECIAL MARKETING AGENCIES One of the governmental aids to marketing is the requirement that all commission merchants and milk dealers be licensed by the State Department of Farms and Markets in order that their reliability may be assured somewhat. To this provision has been added, in the case of commission dealers in farm products, a fidelity bond of $3000 to guarantee proper remittance for produce sold. There is also provision that the books of a dealer must be kept so as clearly to show the produce received and the disposition made of it, with prices, so that the owner may be assured of honest dealing and the dishonest agent weeded from the great mass of honest ones. There is provision for prompt report of sales on consignment, within forty-eight hours of the con- summation of sale. In 1915 there were 253 licensed milk dealers and licensed and bonded commission dealers distributed in the larger cities as follows : New York, Buffalo, Eocliester, Syracuse, Albany, Bingham- ton, Elmira and Olean. The State has established standards of weight, measure and purity, and in some cases of packages to insure fair dealing and correct understanding be- tween the different agencies that handle farm prod- ucts. Vinegar must contain 4 per cent acid and 2 per cent of solids. Milk must have 3 per cent 258 RURAL 2V£W YORK fat and III/2 of other solids; butter must not contain more than 10 per cent of water. Standard measures of volume are established and provision is made that products may be bought by weight if so required. Closed packages must be marked correctly with the net weight. Milk bottles are regulated to show the name of the owner and the grade of milk on the cap. Grades are defined for milk and for apples. The standard apple barrel is defined to have a capacity of 100 quarts. The form for labeling many com- modities is specified. All these things are in the direction of standardization and honest dealing, and aid in the rapid and direct movement of products at a more stable price. In 1914 a further step was taken by the State in the establishment of a department or office of foods and markets, later made a division of the Depart- ment of Farms and Markets, which is charged with the investigation of market conditions and the dis- semination of market information, and is authorized to establish public auction markets in the several cen- ters of distribution and to aid in the organization of farm producers. The idea is that a public auction market under the supervision of the State would be an open court to which producers and buyers may come and at which a fair, open and direct sale price may be established. Not only is this for the mutual benefit of the parties involved but the prices so estab- lished when taken with the established grades set a standard by which sales by private agencies may be measured. This auction market under State super- MARKETS AND MARKETING 259 vision was first opened in ISTew York City in the fall of 1915. Preliminary to this, the first sales, which dealt with apples, were held in orchards in several parts of the State where the frnit in several adjacent orchards was catalogued in one list for the guidance of buyers. By the extension of these auction mar- kets, by means of a thorough system of bulletins on market conditions, distribution of products and prices from day to day, and with perhaps additional storage facilities to supplement that in private hands, it may be hoped to stal)ilize prices, make them more satisfactory to producer and consumer and insure a better distril)ution of tbe products of the farm. To bring the producer and consumer nearer together, some progress has been made in establishing munici- pal markets in the larger cities. Extensive investi- gations have been made of the model municipal market quarters and storage facilities provided by a number of European cities. As a result, there has been strong advocacy of the further extension of this system of municipal aid in the larger cities of the State. The universal interest of the population in the supply, quantity and price of agricultural prod- ucts is the justification for such public aid and cooperation. In New York City there are public markets where all kinds of produce are sold from the wagon or stall of the producer to the dealer and to the consumer. These markets are poorly equipped and managed and are inadequate to the problem in hand. A municipal committee has been studying the situa- tion and has brought in recommendations looking to 260 RURAL XEW YORK the construction of more adequate buildings with storage, at the expense of the city and under its super- vision. The cost of such plant would largely be met by charge for selling space in the market. The city of Kochester has expended $400,000 on an agricultural market building and provides addi- tional space for producer-consumer trade from the wagon. In the building, space is largely occupied by the small dealer or huckster who purchases part or all of his supplies and maintains a regular stand. The market serves as a general exchange for the sale of produce at wholesale, as well as retail. In Buffalo there are three public retail markets where the producer and huckster have stalls or stands and regularly meet the consumers on the three or more market days of each week. The markets are for both retail and wholesale business. Some of the smaller cities have established producer- consumer markets. Curb markets are most common, being merely a section of street set aside for this purpose. Others have private stalls. In the latter, both open and closed booths are provided and are rented at a small sum a day or a fixed period de- pending in part on the size of the stock to be handled. Cities having the former type of market are Olean, Jamestown, Elmira, Auburn, Ithaca and Troy. These public markets form a link in the system of distribution but can not be relied on to solve market- ing problems. They serve as a clearing-house for local produce where the consumers and some buyers may meet the producers. By means of this central MARKETS AND MARKETING 261 meeting place and by the elimination of some deliv- ery charges, prices may be reduced. In practice the operation of these markets is still crude, since the business is a day to day one. There is no adequate information service and no provision for storage ex- cept as it may be secured through intermediate dealers. The system of business is rather crude and extremes of supply and demand are not uncommon. The producer's end is a trying one and frequently the volume is so small that the actual cost a unit may be high. The seasonal variation in the products of a single producer, except in vegetables, makes it dif- ficult to maintain continuity of attendance by the farmer which is further increased by the pressure of other lines of work at home at some seasons. The range from which producers are drawn is relatively small and the public market of this sort can not serve more than a small part of the needs of the larger cities. The public market touches only one or two of the elements of a sound marketing system, personal contact between producer and consumer and a sort of local clearing-house arrangement. The nature of the business is such as to be particularly serviceable to the poorer classes who are free to attend and who find grades of produce adapted to their pocket-book that would not be available in such quantity if they had to go througli the hands of a series of dealers. The principle of concentration and volume has not been applied directly to much of the farm produce bus- iness by which means the cost of handling is most 2&Z RURAL NEW YORK readily reduced and by whicli the other elements, such as continuity, advertising and general market knowl- edge, arc best secured. These liave not been touched by state or municipal provisions except as some begin- nings have been made to encourage cooperation in marketing. The second means of securing higher marketing eflficiency, that of private organization of the pro- ducers of a line or group of commodities, may next be considered. These have been slow to develop and liave not reached any very large or widespread pro- portions, but significant beginnings have been made. In all lines the larger and more aggressive pro- ducers have sought to establish direct relations with consumers and efficient distributors in the centers of population. Sometimes, stores have been established, such as milk stores. This has been most practicable for, the special or higher grades of product such as certified milk. The best known example in recent years of the efforts of the producers of a single com- modity to organize adequately to handle and to se- cure a fair price for their product is represented by the Dairymen's League. Stimulated by the success of the so-called milk strike for better prices in Chicago in the spring of 1916, and backed by abundant figures collected by a variety of State in- stitutions and investigating committees, the League organization developed to a condition of strength in the fall of 1916, whereby terms of contract could be dictated to the milk dealers of New York City. By subsequent action the principle of collective bar- MARKETS AND il ARRETING 263 gaining between the producer and distributor of milk has l)een established. The dairymen of many counties were led to withdraw their supply of raw milk and divert it into other channels such as the manufacture of butter and cheese for a sufficient time to show that they meant business. More recently the League has l)een forced to take steps to care for the surplus of milk at certain seasons and to equalize the price to ])i'oducers. These two movements, the Chicago and the Xew York milk strikes, are un- doubtedly epoch making in the example they afford of the benefit of united action among farmers when backed by a just cause. The quantity of milk and other dairy products consumed by ^Tew York City is so large that it must be drawn from a region reaching out hundreds of miles into the country. Eaw and prepared milk is brought from nearly every part of the State by special milk express trains. They run regularly from the middle of the State and give service as far north as the Canadiail line in the St. Lawrence and Champlain valleys. All along the route are milk gathering stations where the product is assembled and prepared for shipment. Some is put in bottles but the greater part goes in forty-quart cans. The manufactured products of milk, butter and cheese, are made up either in privately or cooperatively owned factories. These cooperative organizations have sel- dom extended beyond a single plant but there are instances in which a series of such plants is operated under a cooperative or corporate arrangement. 264 RURAL NEW YORK A large outlet for milk in many sections of the State where dairying prevails is the milk conden- saries and the evaporated milk plants. The former have many large and prosperous plants, but they represent no particular advantage to the individual farmer in determining the price of his product based on cost of production. These manufacturing lines are closely linked with the sale of raw milk for direct consumption. In some of the smaller cities, the retail milk trade is being concentrated and in Ithaca a considerable section of it has been linked with ice and ice-cream manufacture, a modern bot- tling plant and also a condensing plant. From here the product of a number of dairies is distributed by wagons, each of which is assigned a full, compact and well balanced route. The manufacturing end serves to care for the surplus of raw milk. The busi- ness is managed on a corporate basis and is owned and controlled largely by the farmers supplying milk. Another pliase of cooperative marketing is repre- sented by joint sales of pure-bred live-stock. The Liverpool sales near Syracuse have been famous for the amount and high grade of stock handled. By this concentration the owners are able to secure the attendance of a lai'ger number of buyers and to secure more extensive advertising, together with the general advantages of such sales. Other communities hold joint stock sales at a convenient farm with similar advantages. In one instance, Tompkins County, a county breeders' association has been organized that publishes an informational and sales paper to pro- MARKETS AND MARKETISG 265 mote the sale of the stock of the breeders in the county and a secretary is paid to pilot buyers to the different farms having stock to sell and to arrange joint sales. Produce-handling companies comprised of growers have been organized at several places to concentrate, grade and pack their produce, and. find a suitable mar- ket for the same by means of a paid manager and packing force. The South Shore Growers and Ship- pers Association, southwest of Buffalo with head- quarters at Silver Creek, is an example of this sort of combination of farmers for selling vegetables and small-fruits. Another is the Tompkins County Farmers Company at Ithaca. Still another impor- tant concern is the Eastern Fruit and Produce Ex- change of Kochester, which was organized primarily to handle fruit in western New York. This corpor- ation, which is owned and officered by producers, is affiliated with a national sales agency with represen- tatives in different cities and doing a business in a large variety of agricultural products. Produce is handled only for affiliated members, which privilege is secured by the ownership of stock. Local ex- changes are established in the various centers of pro- duction. In an increasing number of places, the local exchanges are establishing central grading and packing-houses to put the produce in a more satis- factory market condition. For example, there were organized in Niagara County in 1918 four central packing-houses for fruit. These selling agencies 266 RURAL A'ETF y07?7v keep in closer touch with marketing produce condi- tions than is possible to the average individual; the large volume and variety of produce permit a regular trade to be established and the organization brings the producer and consumer nearer together and on a more equitable economic footing than is possible to individuals working alone. With similar begin- nings, the fruit-growers of Nova Scotia and Onta- rio, Canada, have made large progress. There, the central packing-house has become established and sales agencies have been developed made up of more than forty of these local concerns and handling as much as 460,000 barrels of fruit under a single label. Still another phase of the distribution is the county farm bureaus. These institutions, financed primarily at public expense and supervised by State agencies, do not and should not take a direct part in the sale of products or the purchase of supplies. But being locally established and in touch with the producers of a county, they serve as the clearing- house for information about farm produce and enable different regions conveniently and directly to get in touch for business purposes. For example, the northern counties of the State produce an excellent quality of potato that is especially suitable for seed for the early crop on Long Island, and by means of the farm bureau officers these two interests have been brought into touch with each other. As it be- comes better known, the farm bureau is increasingly being made a means of information touching farm MARKETS AND MARKETING 267 produce and exchange. They also furnish leadership in organization movements as was well illustrated in the New York milk strike. The other side of the rural trade is represented by the purchase of supplies for the farmer. Of these he is a heavy user and the annual volume of business in these lines is tremendous. Feeds, fertilizer, machinery, twine, household supplies, seeds, lumber, hardware, and a 'great many other things are used by the farmer. Normally he is a small business man, and, therefore, buys in relatively small lots, often on credit and at a high price. The concentra- tion of his buying, as well as of his selling, brings profitable results. Farmers have been inclined to combine to purchase supplies and there are several buying organizations of farmers where there is one for selling. Perhaps the steps to action appear more simple and the profits more immediate and direct. The agency that has done the largest business in this line is the Grange. The function of purchasing supplies for its members has from the inception of the organization been a prominent one. This has been effective only in the local centers and was without other help. Sometimes stores are operated and in a large number of the local granges supplies have long been purchased on collective order handled by a member. Frequently this was handled by a member without compensation which entailed an unfair bur- den, and is conducive of a general looseness in doing business, and may result in its early discontinuance. 2G8 RURAL NEW YORK Cash trade has been the rule. Many enterprises of this sort have perished from want of efficient manage- ment and lack of any overhead support. As a type of another group of purchasing agencies may be mentioned the Bedford Farmers' Cooperative Association of Mt. Kisco in Westchester County. This is incorporated under the provisions of the general corporation law of the State and has a capital stock of $25,000, It maintains a paid manager and its business is divided into six lines or departments. The development of the several functions of this as- sociation very well illustrates the general progress of purchase, marketing and self-help agencies. The expansion of the marketing facilities is one of the last things usually taken up by farmers, yet it is the most vital part of their problem. The purchase of supplies is very much secondary in importance to the effective marketing of products. Another notable cooperative organization is the Jewish Farmers Association whose activities for its members are not confined to New York State. The latest and most ambitious enterprise for handling farm produce and supplies is an organization known as the Cooperative Grange League Federation Ex- change, Incorporated. This is purely a business or- ganization on a state-wide basis. It is an outgrowth of interest in commercial enterprises on behalf of the farmer in three distinct state organizations, namely, the Grange, the Federation of Farm Bureaus, and the Dairymen's League. In addition to an overhead state exchange, it is endeavoring to develop local com- MARKETS AND MARKETING 269 munity organizations with warehousing facilities, in order best to serve the farmers' interests. A little farther removed from the farm but still directly related to it is the organization of coopera- tive consumers associations for the purchase of foods and other supplies for the home and household. These organizations form convenient units for deal- ing directly with farmers' marketing exchanges in the purchase of farm products and are a promising de- velopment in the marketing situation. They, with the produce exchanges, form efficient centers on the two sides of the producing and consuming business on the basis of which the intermediate machinery for more efficient interchange may be built. Two other factors in marketing are storage facilities and credit. In 1911, there is reported to have been condemned in the markets in New York City 73,785 pounds of eggs, 35,755 pounds of fish and 200,000 pounds of poultry. Storage develops at two places primarily, at the centers of production and at the centers of consumption. In New York the various products are cared for by local, usually private, storages, warehouses and elevator cold storage plants at the local shipping stations. In the fruit region in western New York, there are large refriger- ation and common storage plants at the main fruit- producing stations, mostly on the New York Central lines. Most of this is said to be owned or controlled by dealers. The storage facilities in the larger cities are gauged to meet the requirements of the mini- mum amount of produce and the highest practicable 270 RURAL NEW YORK price. Adequate storage facilities of a kind adapted to the product are a fundamental essential of effi- cient marketing in this day of year-long consumption of the staple products of the farm. The credit factor is closely allied and the storage and marketing conditions reflect the credit status of the average farmer. Having a short margin of cash funds on which to produce his products, they are in most instances marketed as soon as they are matured. The wave of market-movement follows strongly that of production in all the staple prod- ucts. This ni lis tlie farmer is selling his crop to cover labor and supply bills that have been con- tracted, also on a poor credit basis and, therefore, at a high cost. One of the irritating outgrowths of this system is the car shortage in rail transportation that frequently takes an added toll from the farmers' returns and which would be reduced by a longer sea- son for movement. CHAPTER VIII RURAL MANUFACTURES OF NEW YORK Rural manufacture includes all those manufactur- ing operations conducted under distinctly farm condi- tions. In the pioneer days in America, a large part of the manufacturing was thus undertaken on the farm and in the home. Not only simple food products and preserves were made there, but the cloth for the family wardrobe was manufactured from the wool and flax grown on the farm which was carded, spun into yarn and woven, colored and made up in the home. The corn and wheat were ground in the farm mill, which was frequently a custom mill. Lumber was taken from the farm woodlot and sawed in the neighborhood mill for the buildings. The rural fam- ily, and especially the rural community, was largely self-sufficient in the manufacture of the things needed by its members. With the progress of society, including the devel- opment of machines and power and the possibility of the concentration of labor in large establishments, there has come about the vast changes in manufactur- ing processes ar, they touch the farm and the farm home. A large part of these operations have been transferred from the farm to the city and drawn to- gether in larger and still larger units. This change 271 272 RURAL ^'EW YORK is strikingly illustrated in the slaughtering and meat- packing industry. In early times, meat was almost exclusively prepared and preserved on the farm, and the social " bee " was a common adjunct. Now the business is mainly concentrated in a few large pack- ing centers, such as Chicago, Kansas City and Buffalo. Butter, instead of being made on the farm, is now largely manufactured in creameries or butter factories that handle milk by the thousands instead of by the tens of pounds. As a result of these changes, it is not possible to draw a sharp line of distinction between urban and rural manufactures. The distinction is one of size rather than character. Some industries are still in the transitional stage and have both a distinctly rural and an urban aspect. Vinegar-making is one of these. It is still made on the farm from cider ex- tracted at the local custom mill, but it is also manu- factured in city factories far from the rounds of the farm. Even in New York City vinegar is made, whether from apples does not appear. Indeed most forms of manufacture began on the farm and cer- tainly in close contact with tlie home, and grew be- yond its limits with the changed facilities of new times. The history of these manufactures is a fascinating chapter in human development and there is strong temptation to trace some of the features of it. The history is not peculiar to New York, however, and space will not allow the digression. The reader will know in a general way what the changes are like. RURAL MANUFACTURES 273 The " drying " of fruit is an illustration. In the early days the fruits were dried about the kitchen stove on sieves and wooden lattice-shelves. The trays Vvere set out-of-doors in sunny weather. Often the halves and quarters of apples were run on strings by means of a darning-needle, and the strings were hung about the stove and ceiling; the sanitary results are left to the imagination of the reader. In regions of long absence of rain, as in California, the sun- drying of fruit soon came to be a common and good commercial practice. Later came the " evaporated " fruit, when the prepared product was placed in a tower or specially constructed building (an "evap- orator") in which the moisture was driven off by furnace-heat or steam-heat. Vegetables and many other products are now preserved by " dessicating " and " dehydrating," in which the mechanical processes are still further perfected. All these classes of industries have developed strongly in New York, The days of " home-spun " are past, and the farmer now buys most of his supplies where other persons buy them. The traveling craftsman has gone. The farmer raises his products for sale rather than merely to supply his own needs, and he is a heavy buyer as well as a producer. Something of the picturesque- ness of country life has left it with the passing of the local tannery, grist-mill, wagon-shop, broom- shop, barrel-factory, hand-loom, shoemaker's-shop and cabinet-shop, but the rural people may the better concentrate themselves on production. Attention in this chapter will not be confined to 274 RURAL NEW YORK purely rural manufactures but will survey briefly those forms of manufacture, whether rural or urban, that directly use the products of the farm and put it into some new or more convenient form to use. It will be noted so far as possible the extent to which these industries have been transferred from the rural district to the larger centers. It should be noted that New York is the leading manufacturing state and is situated near the center of the main industrial region of the country. This follows naturally from the concentration of popula- tion. In 1909 about one-sixth of the total value of manufactured products in the United States was supplied by New York with a total value of $3,300,- 000,000. The figures that follow are generally for the last census year of 1909. The value added to the product by manufacturing operations in New York was about $1,500,000,000 or $1,350 for each worker. Of this amount, the workers receive $625 ; $125 may be assigned for interest, leaving $500 to a worker, distributed to other interests. Herein lies one of the problems of distribution which will re- ceive increasing attention in the ensuing years. There should, of course, be a legitimate margin for the agencies of manufacture Imt it is questionable whether an adequate basis for gauging that margin has been applied. Clothing, food-stuffs and timber products are the largest items in manufacturing en- terprises. This is of significance in its relation to agriculture since it constitutes an expansion of the local market as represented by population and local RURAL MA^^VFACTURES 275 and seasonal consumption. With the exception of Pennsylvania, New York State has the largest diver- sity of manufacturers. Out of 264 classifications used in the thirteenth census, 243 were represented in New York. The materials of manufacture are the products of the farm, the forest, the stream, the mine and the quarry and somewhat of the sea. The development of manufacture in the region represents largely the per- sistence of early established industries, together with the transfer of others as a result of changed natural advantages. Tobacco manufacture exemplifies the former. Now widely disseminated, it shows rela- tion ,to the former large production of tobacco in cer- tain parts of the State. In the case of meats and the meat-packing industry, there is recognizable the tendency to transfer towards the centers of popula- tion from the districts of production. Dairy manufactures were once a conspicuous feature of the farm operations. Butter and cheese were made on the farm and certain regions became widely known for their product, especially western New York and the district around the eastern end of Lake Ontario. The total production of milk in the State in 1909 was 2,400,000,000 quarts or 60,- 000,000 forty-quart cans. This number of cans would fill 240,000 forty-foot cars, enough to reach from New York to Chicago in a solid line. They would make 12,000 trains of twenty cars each or an average of thirty-three a day to move the milk daily produced in the State. Seven-eighths of the milk 276 RURAL NEW YORK was sold as such. However, a considerable part of the total milk goes into manufactured products. Dairy manufacture is still distinctly rural but it is undertaken in central factories rather than on the farm. A little more than one-third of this amount is manufactured in butter, cheese and condensed milk in factories off the farm. There is relatively little butter made on the farm. The manufacture of cheese especially has been transferred from the farm to the factory. In addition, other forms of dairy manufacture have been introduced, such as condensed and evaporated milk and casein. In 1909 there were 1,553 factories handling milk. Of these, 426 were engaged primarily in the manufacture of butter, 1,090 in cheese and 36 in the manufacture of con- densed and evaporated milk. Their products repre- sented the following proportions of the total dairy manufacturing industry : butter 41, cheese 36.6, and condensed milk 23.4 per cent. The distribution of the factories making these products follows closely that of dairy cows, but in the main it is pushed off to the more remote districts where market milk is not sold. The sale of raw milk for direct consumption has been rapidly in- creasing for twenty-five years. New York City now consumes about 22,000,000 cans (forty quarts) of milk annually, equivalent to about 180 to an in- habitant. To meet this tremendous demand, the milk-handling facilities have reached out in all di- rections hundreds of miles along the railroads until milk is now shipped to New York City from the RURAL MANUFACTVKES 377 remotest corners of the State, from far into western ISTew York, from the St. Lawrence Valley, from the upper Champlain and even from over the Canadian boundary. Milk express trains run into the city daily on all the important railroads. Naturally this drift to New York City is deflected around the smaller towns and cities which in their turn are reaching further and further for their supply of raw milk and contribute to the general trend away from the manufacture of milk products. Coincident witli this large development of the business in raw milk and cream, there has been a tightening of the sanitary standards under which milk may be made and handled. Such regulations now cover inspection of the barns and cattle, tests of the cattle for tuberculosis, grading of milk, provi- sions for cooling and pasteurization, for types of containers and regulations regarding cleanliness. This is reflected in the market grade of milk. A further development in the dairy business is the production of certified milk, particularly for infants and invalids. The regulations are particularly strict and the price must be correspondingly higher than for ordinary milk. The beginning of the cer- tified milk business was about 1900, In 1910, twenty-nine farms produced certified milk to the amount of 16,500 quarts a day. The total production of milk has decreased about 33 per cent in the ten years from 1899. Since' 1910 it has increased slightly. While the sale of market milk has increased 18 per cent, the production of 278 RURAL NEW YORK butter has decreased nearly 40 per cent which is part of a continuous decrease for thirty-five years from 1880 when the maximum ])roduction occurred. The manufacture of clieese has decreased 60 per cent in ten years which is part of a continuous decrease for sixty-five years from 1850. This antedated the development of machines and equipment for the man- ufacture of butter in factories, chief of which was the milk separator that was inveaited in 1879 and came into general use in the eighties. Butter and cheese are less perishable than raw milk and cream and their production is relatively more economical in regions remote from market, where stock feed is cheapest. Market milk must be produced as close as possible to the center of consumption. The total production of butter in 1909 was 69,- 358,918 pounds, valued at $13,500,000. The rank of New York was eighth, Wisconsin leading as also in the production of cheese. Of this amount, 66 per cent was made in factories and 34 per cent in farm dairies. The first creamery or butter factory in America was operated at Campbell Hall, Orange County, in 1856. That county was the first important dairy center and " Goslien butter " was a standard mar- ket grade in the middle of the last century. In 1914 there were 576 creameries in the State, Minne- sota leading in the United States with 848 factories and Wisconsin second with 812. Among tlie very earliest American factories of milk separators and other dairy supplies was one at RURAL MANUFACTURES 279 Little Falls. The Babcock milk test, named after its inventor, had an early connection with New York through the fact that Dr. Babcock, its inventor, was born and trained in tlie State and later worked at the Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva. The production of cheese has gone much further than that of butter in the transfer from the farm to the factory. Over 99 per cent of the cheese in 1910 was made in factories. The total production was 105,584,947 pounds, valued at $14,250,000 in 1909. The making of cheese is likely to continue to decline. The distribution of cheese factories is much more bunched than is the creameries. In 1914 there were 995 factories, placing the State second in rank in number. New York is also second in total produc- tion of cheese. Wisconsin is first with 1720 fac- tories. The two centers of cheese production, of nearly equal size, are the five southwest counties and a broad belt reaching southward from the Canadian line in the St. Lawrence Valley to near the southern bound- ary of the State by way of the Chenango and the TJnadilla valleys. There are very few cheese fac- tories outside of those regions. The two largest mar- ket centers for cheese are W-atertown, in Jefferson County, and Cuba in Allegany County. To the uninformed, the word cheese usually means the common American Cheddar or hard cheese. The history of the development of this product is very thoroughly wrapped up with the history of dairy- ing in New York. The rise of the industry was based 280 RURAL NEW YORK on the difficulty of making butter in the hot weather of summer and is coupled with the practice of sum- mer dairying. Tlie development of the industry reaches back to 1804 when Colonel Jared Thayer, of the town of Norway, Herkimer County, made cheese from the milk of a herd of twenty cows. Many de- tails of manufacture and curing had to be overcome, as suitable rennet, proper heating, cutting and grind- ing the curd, size of cheese, the relation of butter- fat to yield, and finally of factory as compared with farm manufacture. The need for a larger and more uniform cheese made it necessary to handle a larger quantity of milk in one lot than the average herd provides. This gave rise to cooperation among farmers to increase the bulk of milk. About 1851, Jesse Williams, of Oneida County, combined the milk from his sons' farms with his own. This was the germ of the coop- erative factory system destined to have so large a rise. In 1879, New York produced 56.5 per cent of all the cheese in the United States and 33 per cent in 1910. While the bulk of the cheese is of the American Cheddar type, it is surprising how many kinds of cheese are made. With many of these forms the ordinary person has no acquaintance since they are not staple market products. The last available sum- mary of these was in 1908 when nineteen different kinds are reported and the production of several others is indicated. In Table XIII is given a list of these and the amount of each kind produced: RURAL MANUFACTURES 281 Table XII I. — Kinds and Amount of Cheese Pro- duced IN New York in 1908 1. American Cheddar 77,821,109 pounds 2. Skim 10,725,699 pounds 3. Pineapple 255,778 pounds 4. Limburger 6,187,801 pounds 5. Domestic Swiss 968,952 pounds 6. Kosher 213,959 pounds 7. D'Isigny 978,454 pounds 8. Neufchatel 1,905,263 pounds 9. Framage de Brie 172,660 pounds 10. Squore Cream 1,147,442 pounds 11. Imitation English Dairy 337,310 pounds 12. Weiner ". 4,800 pounds 13. Sage 180,589 pounds 14. Munster 671,881 pounds 15. Pot 7,639,364 pounds 16. Italian 1,459,144 pounds 17. Pressed 439,092 pounds 18. Casciocavalio 354,421 pounds 19. Various other kinds 782,686 pounds In the manufacture of cheese of the special or fancy grades in particular, there seems to be an op- portunity to supply a most desirable food product and to expand the demand and correspondingly im- prove the price of all milk. A taste for these special brands of cheese can be very readily cultivated. Of condensed milk New York produced 130,500,- 000 pounds worth $9,500,000, and ranked first. Of casein the State manufactured over 6,500,000 pounds, worth nearly $500,000 and again had first rank. The production of condensed milk was equivalent to about 12 per cent of the total milk in the State, and nearly 30 per cent of the total amount in the country. The factories are widely distributed in 282 RURAL ^'EW YORK the dairy regions, particularly in those parts remote from the larger cities, and usually in connection with plants that make a business of sliipping raw milk. Nearly three-fourths was sweetened and one-fourth unsweetened. The plants recpiire rather expensive equipments and are generally established in fairly large units. For the production of milk powder there were in 1918 eight plants in the State which increased in 1919 to twenty. In 1918 they produced 2,398,849 pounds of whole milk, 524,873 pounds cream and 11,531,487 pounds of skimmed-milk. Farmers still butcher some animals and sell the carcasses. In 1909 this constituted only 8 per cent of the total value of animals slaughtered in the State. There is also a little butchering of animals purchased by retail dealers in their region, but the aggregate of this business is relatively small. The preparation of cured meat has largely moved from the farm to the city factory. The value of animals slaughtered on farms amounted to $9,927,- 000 in 1909, which was $50 a farm or approxi- mately the value of two fat pigs, or a small beef. It is evident that this would be consumed largely on the farm, leaving very little for sale in the cities. The total value of meat slaughtered and packed in the State was $127,130,000, not including that killed on farms or by retail butchers. This figure places New York third in the list of states, with Illinois and Kansas, first and second. The former handles con- siderably more than the sum of the other two states. These figures illustrate very well the concentration of RURAL MAlfVFACTVRES 283 finished animals in the larger centers of population for slaughter. The value of animal products exclu- sive of the dairy is out of all proportion to the num- ber of meat animals in the State. Undoubtedly, the figures represent the marketing of farm products in this convenient form because of the advantages of shipment. In Xew York the bulk of the slaughter- ing and meat-packing industry is in Buffalo and New York City which had in 1909 an aggregate value of $121,290,000, which is 95 per cent of the total. Over 80 per cent of the persons engaged in the indus- try were in those two cities. Curiously enough nearly four-fifths of this industry in the two cities is re- ported from New York City. In both cities this production represents a material increase in the last ten-year period in spite of the general decrease in meat cattle in the State. The three minor cities of Eochester, Utica and Albany together had an aggre- gate value of only $591,000. The distribution of the values of the main products of the slaughtering industry is as follows : Table XIV. — Values of Meats Fresh beef $41,428,480 Fresh veal 4,310,483 Fresh mutton 9,539,554 Fresh pork 12,665,175 Salted pork 2,086,225 Hams 7,053,027 Shoulders and sides 8,064,812 Lard 5,814,101 Hides 7,105,591 Sheep pelts 1,389,471 $100,062,919 284 RURAL NEW YORK This represents the production of 238 plants that employed 6,110 persons and added about $16,962,- 000 to the total. The economy in large centralized plants is especially well exemplified in the meat-pack- ing industry. The possibility for the utilization of by-products has been realized. A large branch of tlie fertilizer industry has grown out of it. The manufacture of soap, glue and oils, the utilization of hides, bones, horns, hair and every conceivable part of the animal is made possible in these large estab- lishments. Formerly they were wasted or poorly utilized in the small packing-house. The local tannery used to be a feature of every considerable community, but now it is often difficult to find a local buyer of hides. New York stands fifty in the leather and tanning industry with a value of $27,642,000. This is an increase of 16 per cent for the preceding ten-year period in compari- son with an increase of 56 per cent in the slaughter- ing and meat-packing industry. The value of the untreated hides produced in the State was $8,500,- 000. The production of hides doubled in the ten- year period preceding 1909, probably representing considerable importation of foreign hides. New York produces nearly 23 per cent of the soap of the country, nearly all in New York City and Buffalo in alliance with the meat-packing industry. Sixty per cent of the value of gloves in the United States is produced in New York, largely localized in a small region in the Mohawk Valley where the town of Gloversville marks its center. This industry S-i 'S o e*— p— o 'S. !> 5 RURAL MAyUFACTURES 285 has a distinctly lural aspect since a considerable part is piece work done at home in farming districts. Of boots and slioes, the ^tate produces about 10 per cent of the country's product with the region of Binghamton and the city of Rochester preeminent in the business. There are fifteen fertilizer plants in the State, most of which are based on the utilization of animal wastes and they are closely allied with the meat-packing and rendering estal)lishments. To these waste products are added the phosphate and potash materials to make a complete fertilizer. The larger plants are equipped to treat the raw phosphate rock with acid. These fifteen plants with a capital of a little over $3,500,000 produced goods to tlie value of $4,250,- 000 in 1909. Tbe concentration in this business, as in others, is illustrated by the fact that in 1899 there were thirty-two plants with a capital of over $1,500,- 000, but with a product worth only $3,100,100 with- out any decided change in the value of materials. The bulk of the plants is in Buffalo and New York but small ones are at Xewburg, Albany, Fulton, Utica, Syracuse and Rochester, with minor plants at other points concerned with special materials, such as wood- ashes and wool waste. The prominence of New York in the lumber industry has already been noted in the discussion of forest re- sources. For several decades tlie State has been de- creasing in the production of lumber. Tliis decrease amounted to T2.4 per cent in the last ton-year census period. At the same time, the leading varieties of 286 RURAL NEW YORK lumber cut have changed and the poorer qualities have attained relatively greater importance. Hemlock leads, with spruce and white pine next in order. In spite of the large decrease in timber products, the planing mills contribute 65.9 per cent of the product in the countr}^ from 674 plants. New York furnished 20.7 per cent of the product of saw-mill and logging plants with 1,389 establishments and 200 packing-box factories contributed 13.4 per cent of the business of that industr3^ The customs and portable saw-mill adapted to cut-up farm tracts of timber is still a common sight, there being 211 establishments. They employ only 452 persons and have a capital of less than $500,000, their product being valued at less than $250,000. The cooperage business still has a distinctly rural aspect, there being many small plants in the' apple- producing region. Many of them operate only in the fruit season. Here, also, the tendency is to trans- fer the industry to the larger concerns and machine- made barrels are taking the place of the hand-made ones. The bulk of the cooperage product is made in the larger cities, New York with thirty-five plants contributing 45 per cent, Rochester 9 and Buffalo 8 per cent. The total value of the product, including some secondary forms of wood work, was $7,500,000. Doubtless a large part of these packages was required for the products of manufacture such as sugar in New York and flour in Rochester. There were 364 cooperage and other wood-working plants in the State employing an average of nine persons each. RURAL MANUFACTURES 387 Elm and ash were the local woods used for fruit and flour barrels, while the gums for tlie heads must be imported from the South. Oak for casks may still be secured locally. Xew York produced only 15 per cent of the wood pulp made in the United States. This came almost entirely from spruce. The twenty-one plants engaged exclusively in this industry and the fifty- one factories that made paper in addition, produced 314,000 tons, valued at a little less than $10,000,- 000. The State uses great quantities of paper of all grades, about one-fifth of which is- made up locally but largely from imported materials. The mills are mostly around the base of the Adirondack Mountains where water power is available for reducing the wood to pulp. Every important city in that territory con- tributes to this industry and plants are located on the most important waterways leading from the mountains. In baskets, rattan and willow ware, New York, with 30 per cent of the workers and 37 per cent of the plants, produces 60 per cent of the value of the products in the country. There were 169 establish- ments for this purpose. The statistics do not per- mit an estimate of the use of loca?l materials, particu- larly hickory, ash and willow. The preeminence of the State in growing willows in the Wayne County district undoubtedly contributes something to this line of manufacturing and gives it a local rural aspect. One of the most distinctly rural manufactured prod- 288 RURAL NEW YORK / ucts is maple sirup and sugar. The sugar-house, with its ventilating cupola, is usually a small frame struc- ture where the sap is collected and evaporated to sirup or sugar. It is interesting to note that there was a substantial increti-se in the production of maple sirup and sugar in the United States in 1909 over that in 1899. The same statement applies to New York, which also prodiiced more maple sugar and sinip in 1918 than in 1910. In 1918, the produc- tion was 3,732 pounds of sugar and 1,755,000 gal- lons of sirup. New York leads in the production with Vermont a close second, and the two states pro- duce 75 per cent of that made in the United States. Sirup and sugar-making is the first activity on the farm in the spring, beginning when clear warm days and sharp frosty nights set the sap running and the buds begin to spring. Cider and vinegar are largely rural manufactures of which the State produced $2,250,000 worth, or over 60 per cent of the total of the country. Vine- gar is becoming more and more a centralized in- stead of a secondary farm product, as was once the case. Cider remains essentially local, made in cus- tom mills scattered wherever apples are grown. As cider for direct consumption, it is not suited to dis.tant transportation. Nearly 5,250,000 gallons of cider are reported from farms in 1909, an increase of nearly 1,000,000 over the preceding decade. Twenty- five per cent of all farms reported cider as a product. Much of the custom-made cider returns to the fann and passes' on into vinegar under the simplest possi- RURAL MANUFACTURES 289 ble manipulation. While some of this is sold, it is available in such small quantities and of such vari- able quality that dealers and grocers prefer the fac- tory-made, standardized product, the grade of which comes under the inspection of the State. To extend the use of apples the United States Department of Agri-culture has devised a product known as apple juice suitable as an unfermented beverage, which is rapidly attaining a place of prominence. The incep- tion of prohibition has given a strong impetus to the m'anufacture of pasteurized cider. In 1909, 277 plants were engaged in the manufacture of vinegar and cider. Of these four were in ISTew York City but their product represented only 6 per cent of the total value. The fermented product of the grape, wine and its derivations, has been decreasing in production for a period of years" but the unfermented product, grape- juice, has offset this decrease. The Westfield fac- tory, which was the pioneer in this business, has been followed by many others, including factories in the grape-producing section of the Hudson Valley oppo- site Poughkeepsie. The development of the unfer- mented juice industry began in Chautauqua County about fifteen years ago and over 3,000,000 gallons are now produced annually in that district and repre- sent a substantial outlet for fresh grapes. Spark- ling wine, commonly known as champagne, has con- tinued until very recently to be produced in all the important grape-growing centers. Seventy-five per cent of the champagne in the country has been pro- 21)0 RURAL NEW YORK duced in New York and with grapo-juicc has been estimated to consume a quarter of the gross tonnage of fruit. Dried and canned fruits are also an important ex- tension of the fruit industry. Including vegetahles, New York is the ranking state in these products. Seven hundred and ninety plants produced $19,000,- 000 worth or 23 per cent of the total. The mate- rials used for this purpose and valued at $11,500,000 represented nearly one-third of the value of such fruits in the State. California leads in the produc- tion of dried fruits. Of preserves and pickles the State yields $7,000,000 in value, equivalent to ISi/o per cent of the total for the country. Vegetables are canned in plants of medium to large size distributed for the most part in rural districts in the vegetable-producing region of central New York, particularly the territory from south of Utica to near Batavia. Peas, corn and beans in this order of value make up the bulk of the product. In the same region, where cabbage is most largely produced, the manufacture of krout is also centered, particularly from near Syracuse to Batavia. An even wider range of fruits is canned, embrac- ing in the order of value, apples, berries, cherries, pears, peaches and plums. Apples make up more than a third of the total. These plants are gen- erally in close proximity to the producing centers for those fruits. In dried fruits, apples constitute 90 per cent of the value and represent the chief means outside of RURAL MANUFACTURES 291 eider and vinegar of utilizing the poorer grades of fruit. The plants are closely identified with tlie apple orchards and are generally located in the smaller towns. The remaining percentage is made up of small-fruits, chiefly raspberries, which centers in Yates County on the west side of Seneca Lake. The preserving industry, on the other hand, is de- veloped in larger cities, particularly in New York City. New York State ranks first in the quantity of corn, buckwheat and oats ground, third in that of wheat and rye, and sixth in barley. TJiere were 983 mills in 1909 of which 270 were engaged in milling wheat, and of these 105 produced less than 1000 barrels during the year ; 86 produced from 1000 to 5000 bar- rels; 49 from 5000 to 20,000 barrels; 19 from 20,- 000 to 100,000 barrels; and 11 plants produced over 100,000 barrels. These figures give some idea of the concentration of milling in extensive plants in large cities, particularly Bufi:alo and Eochester. Milling illustrates the relation of manufacturing to production and special industries. New York leads all others in buckwheat and this grain is ground to flour in a larger number of small mills than is possessi?d by any otber state. Tbese often use small water power, particularly in the southern tier counties. Corn and oats from tlie Mississippi Val- ley region are purchased to serve" as feed for the large dairy and live-stock industry of New York for which purpose, tlicy are extensively ground together in these smaller mills. New York was once the leading 293 RURAL NEW YORK wheat-producing state and Eochester the chief wheat market and milling center. With the change in the producing center, Buffalo has gained the position as a shipping terminal. With tlie saw-mill, the grist-mill was among tlie earliest rural factories, the abundant water power of the State being favorable for both. Both the first grist-mill and the first saw-mill operated in America were established in the new settlement of Xew Am- sterdam on Manhattan Island soon after it was founded by the Dutch in 1623. The smaller mills have more and more felt the shift in conditions and the competition of the larger mills, and many of them have been abandoned. Any summary of the possibilities of agriculture in New York, assuming the basis of soils and climate, must take account of the development of manufac- tures based on the products of the farm. While the tendency will always be to prefer sale for imme- diate consumption, the manufacturing processes con- tinually expand the range and period of consumption and, together with improved storage facilities, tend more and more to expand the season so that the products of the farm are conveniently available the year round and at a more uniform and stable price both to producer and consumer than would otherwise be possible. CHAPTER IX THE ADMINISTRATIVE AND REGULATORY ORGAN- IZATIONS OF NEW YORK Government increasingly touches the individual as the development of the State progresses. While in some respects it places restrictions on his actions and movements, at the same time it gives him a larger measure of freedom and a higher degree of efficiency. The true function of the State, using this term in a broad way to represent all govern- mental organizations, is sometimes lost sight of, and it is conceived to be a sort of impersonal overlord to be exploited by some and evaded by others, according to their individual situation. The one breeds the mere political heeler and the privileged interests. The other develops the poacher, the short weighers, the profiteers, and the intriguers of all sorts. Government is a combination of institutions to do for individuals singly and collectively what they alone can not accomplish so well. This is the real governmental function to be kept steadily in mind as the ideal and is the principle that should guide in testing each new idea in legislation. Strictly speaking, there is no sharp distinction of interests between city and country. They are only a little different in qualitv, and the best interest of 293 291 RURAL XEW YORK one is in the end for the welfare of tlie other. Every example of cooperation and of friendly under- standing between city and country is, therefore, wel- comed. There is no reason why the farmer, as well as the merchant and the manufacturer, should not be a member of chambers of commerce and other com- mercial organizations centering in the city and be chosen to public positions of trust and honor if he has the ability to hold them. The principle of responsible representative gov- ernment should give to State or other large units the administration of the affairs that concern all the in- dividuals alike, and should reserve to the subdi- visions those that involve only smaller groups of indi- viduals. Trouble always arises when either attempts to override the other. POLITICAL DIVISIONS AND SYSTEM OF TAXATION New York State is subdivided into sixty-one counties, nine hundred thirty-two toM'nships and something over twelve thousand school districts (12,135). These are the main legislative and ad- ministrative units of the State and are combined in various ways for special purposes. For example, the counties are grouped into fort^^-three Congressional districts, and into fifty-one State Senatorial districts. In addition there are village and city units that fre- quently are set off from the minor divisions or over- spread and supplant them. Government touches the farmer in establishing ADMIMHTRATIVE ORGAMZATIONS 395 standards for the measurement of his products, in regulating the conditions of their production and sale, in the administration of protective measures against the enemies of plant and animal life, in the provision of roads and other transportable facilities, in the regulation and conservation of the natural re- sources of the country and in the dissemination of standard and current information about all these ques- tions. Thus, a great body of governmental organi- zations and institutions dealing with agricultural matters has grown up. All must have funds and must be supported out of the means of the people of the State. Taxes are the support thus required and the methods of raising revenues is of prime con- cern to all. The total assessed value of the real property in New York heads the list of states and amounted in 1912 to about $12,000,000,000. Approximately $2,000,000,000 is assigned to rural property and in- cludes with the open country all cities and villages having a population of less than 2500. In 1912, the total wealth of the State in all forms of prop- erty was estimated at about $25,000,000,000, which was a little more than one-eighth of the total value of all property in the United States. The revenues of the State are derived less from a general property tax than from other and less direct sources of income. In fact, in 1912 only about one-sixth of the total rev- enues were derived from a direct tax. The largest single item in the State's revenues is the inheritance tax. Other important sources of revenue have been 396 RURAL NEW YORK liquor licenses, the series of general and special cor- poration taxes and a number of miscellaneous items, largest among which are the stock transfer tax, mort- gage tax and motor vehicle tax. There is no per- sonal property tax. There is but one assessment roll for property. For revenue purposes the assessment is supposed to be at the full value, by which is meant the amount of money the property would sell for at a fair, free and well advertised sale. As a matter of fact, this is not the case, and in 1912 the assessed value of all real property was estimated to be approximately two- thirds of the true value. With respect to farm lands, the rule generally holds that the better the land the lower is the assessment relative to the actual selling value of the land, and the poorer the land the higher is the assessed value. Probably, this condition is due to the general lag of one value in following the other. Farmers in the more remote and poorer regions where sales are slow often report that land is as- sessed for more than it would bring at a public sale. The average value of farm land including buildings as determined by the census of 1909 ranged from less than $10 in thirty-four counties, embracing all the higher and poorer parts of the State, to more than $125 near New York City, and $60 to $100 for the land adjacent to the larger cities and embracing, in the main, the lower lying valley and plains lands, the average being made by counties. From a study of the assessed value of townships that are known to ADMIMSTRATITE ORGAMZATIOyS 297 be strictly rural, it has been determined that the poorer farm lands that are on the border of profitable utility are assessed at a value of $G to $15 an acre on the average. The bulk of good farm land reason- ably well situated is assessed at a value of $30 to $80, while laud assessed at a higher value is more favor- ably located or devoted to special purposes. The to- tal tax rate ranges from $1 to $8 a thousand. The great bulk of the land is assessed at a rate ranging from $1.50 to $2.25 a thousand. EUEAL CREDIT FACILITIES A state law enacted in 1914, that may have con- siderable value to the farmer, is the arrangement by which the united credit of a group of individuals may be pooled for the benefit of persons in the group that may need financial aid. It has sometimes ap- peared that the farmer was at a disadvantage in securing funds and credit to carry on his affairs, and that these facilities were not available to him with the same freedom that they may be had by the busi- ness man in the city. Unqnestionably this condition has prevailed to a degree, not because there was any desire to discriminate against the farmer but because his business has often not been conducted in such a was as to insure stability in the values back of his credit. As a matter of fact, the reason for much of this uncertainty and even the loss that has resulted has been in the general downward shift in rural values that has prevailed in eastern states during tlie last forty years. When to this is added the com- 298 RURAL NEW YORK plexity of the factors that make up rural vahies and the lack of standardized and often of an organized system of business management, the city bankers, un- familiar witli such conditions, were often warranted in their anti])athy toward rural loans on anything ex- ■ept the very best farm real estate. The farmers on clie poorer lands have always experienced these finan- cial difficulties most acutely. It is a phenomenon as- sociated with depressing rather than with expanding values. Credit unions may now be formed by a group of individuals under the supervision of the State Super- intendent of Banks with shares of stock of a par value not to exceed $25, to liquify and make available the rural credit facilities. Loans to exceed $50 must be secured in a manner to meet the approval of the loan committee. Such a group is in a better position to deal with the larger banking institutions than is the average individual. The farmer with his income often available only at long intervals, and with the necessity of making long-time investments in equip- ment and improvement, is especially in need of the best sort of credit facilities. Tlie Federal Farm' Loan Bank is now more vitilized for the provision of cooperative rural credit than is the Credit Union system. This law was passed in 1916, and Xew York State is administered from the regional bank at Springfield, Massachusetts. Under this plan, a group of farmers may form a fed- eral farm loan asst)ciation and liecome stockholders in the stock of the Federal Farm Loan Bank. The min- ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATIONS 299 imum aggregate amount of loans with which such a local association may start is $20,000 and this sum must be divided among at least ten applicants. Loans may not be placed in an amount exceeding 50 per cent of the appraised value of the property by which these loans are secured. A loan once placed is regularly amortized on a basis of 1 per cent a year out of the gross 6.0 or 6I/2 per cent a year which the borrower now pays on his loan. Up to March 1, 1920, the total amount of loans in this form in New York State was $5,048,440. THE COUNCIL OF FARMS AND MAR^KETS (See Fig. 34) The Council of Farms and Markets is administered broadly by a council of eleven men, of whom ten are appointed by the Legislature, one to represent each of the nine judicial districts and one by the Governor at large. The Commissioner of Markets of the City of New Yor"k is ex-officio a member of the Council. This Council came into existence in 1917 as the successor to the two independent Departments of Ag- riculture and Foods and Markets which now consti- tute tlie two divisions under tlie Council. In addi- tion, there is a Bureau of Accounts and a Legal Bureau, each of which functions for both divisions of the Council in matters touching the interpretation of agricultural laws and regulations, and in the prose- cution of violations of these requirements. It works in close cooperation with the office of the Attorney- General. Each division is administered by a commis- 300 RURAL NEW YORK sioner chosen by the Council who acts within its general policies and directions. COUA/C/L. CO/VS/STT/VS O^ //Af^MBr/K /♦/w/A^Tzv? BY rue /.es/Si-Zfrv/fE I COAf/^/SS/OAfS/i' I C T/OA/S B - -c- T" ■a II "'it r 1^ J ti^ « Is ^ ! 11 II n It O lO ■^' c o 03 (/J ■a u Td /r6//.7zy/pjr ^7- r /iS/P//^ss7Pfrscxf7/ar ■S7>^r£- \ 3 I Tef^ i Fig. 37. Diasrram showin<;r the nmounts and distrihulion of federal and state expenditures for agriculture in New York State. must have had farm experience. As the facilities for training in agriculture in the secondary schools de- velop, the need and the call for such courses in the 330 RURAL XFW YORK State College may be expected to decrease. The in- struction given is usually ahove the standard of the secondary schools because of the maturity and wider experience of the students. It is notable that home economics as a branch of study and as a professional art has generally been affiliated with training in agriculture and has de- veloped hand in hand with the recognition of the nat- ural humanitarian aspects of the rural work. It is, of course, obvious that home economics is not more closely related to the home of the farm than to the home of the merchant or the manufacturer in the city or to that of the mine worker. The recognition of the needs of the home-keeper has been a little more easy and direct on the farm and thus tlie rural situa- tion is making a contribution to tlie urban. The demand for intermediate instruction in agri- culture and home economics has given rise in New York, as in other states, to a series of hybrid schools, already referred to, that stand in a sense between the high-schools and the State College but nearer to the farmer in operation and function. These are the six State schools of agriculture distributed over the State in various affiliations and distinct from the regular system of education. The first of these to be cieatcd was the State School of Agriculture af- filiated with St. Lawrence University, and adminis- tered by it, at Canton in St. Lawrence County. Persons prepared to enter high-school are received here as at all other state scliools and given a course of training of three years while students having some EDUCATIOyAL ORGA^lZATIOHi 331 high-school training may finish the course in two years. In many ways, the instruction resembles that given in the college as well as that in tlie high-schools. The work is done in laboratories and on the farm. The Scliool of Agriculture of Alfred University at Alfred in Allegany County is very similar in or- ganization and operation. The other four State schools differ from those men- tioned in not being affiliated with any other educa- tional work, and are special vocational schools. In the order of their creation, they are located at Morris- ville in Madison County, Cobleskill in Schoharie County, Farmingdale on Long Island, and Delhi in Delaware County. All have farm lands and stock, in addition to buildings and laboratories for in- struction. All are authorized to carry on tests and do educational work beyond Iheir walls in the adja- cent territory. With the exception of the School at Canton, there has been some provision in the or- ganization of the board of control for the coordina- tion of the work of the school witli the other institu- tions in the State giving agricultural instruction, by the ex-oflficio appointment of the Dean of the State College of Agriculture and the Commissioner of Agriculture. In 1918 all these schools were put un- der the immediate supervision of the State Depart- ment of Education as a part of the secondary school system of tlic State. If such special schools are to be estalilished to deal with regional problems, they should be located with due regard to the particular agricul- tural interests they ought to serve, with the view to 332 RURAL .Y£W YORK keeping the number to the lowest practical terms be- cause of tlic relatively large expenditure required for their equipment and maintenance. The teaciiing of domestic science is an integral part of tlie work of all these schools. No degrees are conferred by them. They are entirely supported at State expense and their work is carried on by a di- rector and the faculty asscml)led by him, except that in the schools at Canton and Alfred the president of the University is given some prerogatives. A State College of Forestry was established at Syracuse University in 1911, to give instruction in forestry and forest management and allied branches. It is administered liy a board of control made up, as ex-officio members, of the chairman of the Conserva- tion Commission, the Commissioner of Education and the Chancellor of Syracuse University, together with three persons appointed by the Governor and six appointed l)y the trustees of Syracuse University. It is, therefore, only indirectly affiliated with the system of agricultural education in the State. It offers a five-year professional course leading to a degree of ]\Iaster in Forestry, and a two- or three-year ranger course, the latter on the one thousand acres of forest land controlled at Wanakena on Upper Saranac Lake in the Adirondacks. Other agencies of college training in agriculture are a department in Columbia University in New York City and the David Slocum College of Agri- culture in Syracuse University. They are designed EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION 333 to offer agriculture as a part of the curriculum, pri- marily as a brauch of applied science along with other subjects of university instruction. Both schools are privately supported and have farm lands and equipment, but the latter is not affiliated with the College of Forestry at Syracuse. The work in these colleges leads to a recognized degree at the end of the prescribed course of study. Their tuition is that usually charged by such private institutions. Two other institutions not strictly agricultural in their work but closely affiliated with it in their prac- tical aspects are the state schools of veterinary medi- cine. The first of these is the New York State Veterinary College at Cornell University established in 1894 and located in Ithaca. It is one of the co- ordinate colleges of that institution on a footing with the College of Agriculture. Its objects are stated in its organic law to be " to conduct investigations into the nature, prevention and cure of all diseases of animals, including such as are communicable to man and such as cause epizootics among live-stock; to in- vestigate the economic questions, which will contrib- ute to the more profitable breeding, rearing and utilization of animals; to produce reliable standard preparations of toxins, antitoxins and other prod- ucts to be used in the diagnosis, prevention and cure of diseases and in the conduct of sanitary work by approved modern methods ; and to give instruction in the normal structure and function of the animal body, in the pathology, prevention and treatment of 334 RURAL NEW YORK animal diseases, and in all matters pertaining to sanitary science as applied to live-stock and correla- tive to the human family." Veterinary medicine bears? the same relation to animal husl)andry as do plant patholo